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HIMBLER I1IBB8 n|- ANIMATI I' N A U'RK:

PIAOIIOAL COMMENTS AND I I.l.r<T KATION&

SIR JOHN (il!A HAM DA I.V I.M..

KNUiHI \M» IIARO-

IN 1 WM \ nl.f.MKS.

M,:v'>..

!:or« FLAW or i IVIM. >i Bjccra, KIXF.I.T COLOI: KKD.

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LONDON:

JOHN v \\ \ ,),>K-\ I- \Ti.i 1:1: i;.,u

M.D.CCCI.I

KUINIlUliC.II :
PRINTED BY MACPHERSON A STME, 12 ST DAVID STREET.

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• • .: • . •

CONTKNT-

VOLUME FIRST.

MM

i NTI;. .ni ( TIOX, . . . . i

'•II \ITI1H I.— KCHINdDKKMATA 17

§ 1. — Hoi"Tiiti:i\ i-i M \, TEH, .... 21

$ 2. — ll"i "mi KM 1 1 - . . . . U

§ 3. — lli'i'Tin I:IA S<OTIC \. 57

5 4. — lloi.orin KIA BODOTBI >., ..... 72

§ 6. — Hoi.oriiritiA PIIVSTU 79

K II.— A> II. UI \S-TiiK .-> - 87

- M..\ I. — ASTERN*, . . . «.;;

§ 1. — ASTEUA8 <;l.\< IU.I-. . •...!

S 2. — ASTMIAS RI .... 97

§ 3. — AsTKBIA* (C-KIHKI.I.A; IN i i \r\. . . In-.'

§ 4. ASTEBIAS AKAM I.M A, . . . 1Q4

!J •"'• — AiTEWAS EKOECA, . . . . I(M»

5 6. — AHTF.RIA* (SOLAITER) PUM-OHA, . lo«

II. — OI-IIII-UA, . . . . .Ii:i

5 I. <>r|||l KA URACTEATA, .... 113

J2. Ul-HIl K\ VI -l.i.AKH, . . . .117

5 3. Ol-llll'RA PfMTATA, . . .118

V TULA BARIIATA, . . . .

K< HIM -. — TIIK SEA l'k< HIV. . .121

.ERA, ....

'' *WA, .... 130

fi *• — F- 8 i»),.. 133

§ 3. — Si'ArAM<f<« In. \vi:i" 135

Jl CONTENTS.

CHAPTER III.— CRUSTACEANS, i-.ua 139

PART I. — A. — DECAPODES, TEN-LIMRED, SHORT-TAII.KD, (.'II.MS^. —

Brachyuri, . . . . . .150

§ 1. — CANCER M^ENAS, — the Shore or Harbour' Crab, 150

§ 2. — CANCER PAOURUS, — the Common (Edible) Crab, 167
§ 3. — CANCER (PORTUNUS) LIVIDUS, — the Flying Crab, 178
§ 4. — CANCER (PORTUNUS) PUSILLUS, — the Sand Crab. 183
§ 5. — CANCER (PINNOTHERES) VETERUM, . .189

B. — DECAPODES, TEN-FOOTED BRACHYUBI, . . 191

§ (1.) — CANCER (PORCELLANA) LONGICORNIS, — the Ventila-
ting Crab, .. . . . .191

§ (2.) — CANCER (PORCELLANA) PLATYCHELES, — the Rough-
footed Crab, . . .193
C.-^CANX-ER (CORYSTES) CASSIVELAUNUS, . .193
D. — 1. CANCER (INACHUS) DOKSETTENSIS, . . 194
D. — 2. HYAS ARANEUS, ..... 195

D. — 3. CANCER (HYAS) COARCTATUS, . . . 196

§ (4.) — CANCER PIIALANGIUM, MACRAPODIA PUALANQIUM, 198
§ (5.) — CANCER HORRIDUS, MAIA LITHODES, — the Prickly

Crab, . . . . .201

PART II. — A. — DECAPODES, TEN-LIMBED, LONG-TAILED CRUSTA-
CEANS,— Macrouri, .... 202

§ 1. — CANCER BERNIIARDUS, — the Hermit Crab, or Soldier, 203
§ 2. — GALATHEA SPINIGERA, — the Thorny Bastard Lobster, 207
, B. — DECAPODES, TEN-LIMBED, LONG-TAILED CRUSTACEANS, —

Macrouri, — ASTACUS, THE LOBSTER, . . 211

§ 1. — ASTACUS NORVEGICUS, — the Norwegian Lobster. 'Jl 1
§ 2. — ASTACUS MARINUS, — the Common Lobster, . 215

§ 3. — CRANGON, — the Shrimp, . . .217

§ 4. — PANDALU« ANNULICORNIS, — the Ring-horn Shrimp, 220

CHAPTER IV.— MISCELLANEOUS CRUSTACEANS, . . . 222

§ 1. — CANCERII.LA TUBULATA, ..... 223

§ 2. — ASTARICILLA, ...... 224

§ 3. ASTACILLA LONGICORNIS, ..... 226

§ 4. ONISCUS BALTIIICU8 (IDEOTEA MARINA), . . . 228

§ 5. — ONISCUS (!DEOTEA) ENTOMON, .... 229

§ 6. — AST.LLUS MEDUS.I:, ..... 230

B. — ASELLUS Mrm-K, ..... 232

C. — CYCLOPS STAGNORUM, .... 232

D. — CYCLOPS PUNCTATUS, .... 233

E. — CYCLOPS FASCIATUS, .... 234

. ii \rn:u IV._MI-< ILLAH10I - < ui BTAd \N- •

8 1- - N'VMI'II.-S . ... . •_'.''. I

I 9. — Pv- \i*."M v MTTotAlB, — the Whult • l.ou-1 .

8 9. — ASBI.I •. KI«, ..... a37

§ 10. - LlttNOttlA TF.REBBAN8, . . . -J \ \

$11. - «'VIMII< ril.lMA, . . . . . .I'll

i-*i* FORTHI VM-. .... •_'!.",

• ii \rn.i; \ -I'M; VSITKS

51. — CAUCUS CCKTVi, ......

§ 2. — CAUOt'SSA . . . . ..'!'<

9 3. — CALIOUS, .......

BE*N( nn ..... ^51

4^-IJoTR YU.OFBH, ...... 252

5. — \'r>. v-n.i.i -i nii-.-i TI -, ..... 25S

. n\i'n:i; \i-nn iivnuv UNA. OK WATKK SPIDER, .

MM..N. .... . 266

TO THE BINDER.

The Binder will place the Plato* tbiu :—

PLATK I. Holothuria Pentactet, to front .

II. Holothuria Fentactea, .

Ill H. .lothuria Pentactea, laid open,

IV. Holothuria Pentactea, Uid open,

V. Holothuria Pentacte*, Intestinal Organ*,

VI. Holothuria PenUcte*, Respiratory Organ*, .

VII. Holothuria Pentactea, Ovarium,

VIII. Holothuria FuMi*, .

I X. Holothuria Fusus, ....

X. Holothuria Fura*, .....

XI. Holuthuria Fura*, ....

XII. Holothuria, . . . . .

XIII. Ilolothuria,

XIV. II. .lothuria Bodotrue, . . . .
\ \ Holothuria Phantapna, ....

XVI. A.teria* Glacial u, .

XVII. Acteriu Ruben*, ....

XVIII. Arteria* Ruben., .

XIX. A*teria* Ruben*, ....

\ X. Aiteriaii (CribeUa) Oculata,

\\I. Aiteriax Aranciaca, ....

\\II. Atteria. Endeca, ...

\\III. Asteriu Endeea, ....

\MV. Arteria* (Solarter) Pappoaa,

\ \ V. Aiteriaa (SoLwter) Pappon, under surface,

\\VI. Arteria. (Solarter) PappoM,

XXVII. Ophiora Hracteata, ....

\ XVIII. (>,,hiura Vutgari*,

\X1X. Ophiura Punctata, ....

\\X. Comatula Harbata,

X XXI. Fx;hinu*| .....

XXXII. Echinu*, . . . . .

XXXIII. Spatangu*,

Page 18

. SO

26

. 28
80
.V_'
36

. 40
U

. 44
52

. 68
:•_'

. 78
86

. 94
96

. 98

100

. 102

104

. 106

108

. lid

III

. 114

lib

. 118
ISO

. 122

124

. 180

134

VI

PLATE XXXIV.
XXXV.
XXXVI.
XXXVII.
XXXVIII.
XXXIX.
XL.
XLI.
XLII.
XLIII.
XLIV.
XLV.
XLVI.
XLVII.
XLVIII.
XLIX.
L.
LI.
LII.
LIII.
LIV.
LV.
LVI.
LVII.
LVIII.
LIX.
LX.
LXI.
LXII.
LXIII.
LXIV.
LXV.
LXVI.
LXVII.
LXVIII.
LXIX.
LXX.

Cancer Msenas,

Cancer Msenas, ....

Cancer Msenas,

Cancer Maenas, ....

Cancer Pagurus, Common Crab,

Cancer Pagurus, Common Crab,

Cancer Pagurus,

Cancer Pagurus, Common Crab,

Cancer (Portunus) Lividus,

Cancer (Portunus) Pusillus,

Cancer Inachus,

Cancer Porcellana,

Caiicer,

Hyas Araneus,

Hyas Araneus,

Hyas Coarctatus,

Cancer Phalangium,

Cancer Horridus, Prickly Crab,

Cancer Horridus, Prickly Crab,

Cancer Bernhardus, Hermit Crab,

Cancer Bernhardus,

Galatbea Spinigera,

Astacus Norvegicus,

Astacus Norvegicus,

Astacus Marinus,

Astacus Marinus,

Crangon, tbe Shrimp,

Pandalus Annulicornis,

Miscellaneous Crustaceans,

Astacilla Longicornis,

Nymphon Gracilis,

Asellus Vulgaris,

Caligua Cnrtus,

Parasites, .

Hydrachna, ....

Hydrachna, .

Miscellaneous Crustaceans, — Supplemental,

Page 150

152
. 160

164
. 166

168
. 721

176
. 178

182
. 186

190
. 192

194
. 196

198
. 200

202
. 204

206
. 208

210
. 212

214
. 216

218
. 220

222
. 224

230
. 234

236
. 246

248
. 254

258

264

INTRODUCTION.

BEFORE proceeding to discuss the subjects whereof these Volumes
treat in detail, let i -ur-nrily gknce at the circumstance* of this sub-
lunary sphere appointed for the abode of mankind. My remark* are
designed tor tin- literary and illiterate, alike, — for the pious, the moralist,
and the indillerent. They aspire no higher than worldly consideration*
of the weak, nor aim at judging of the previse injunctions or explicit
declanitioiui of the Divine Will. They originate only from contem-
plating the fair face of Nature.

The opinions of men unbiassed by prejudice, of those who think
jn-tly. will roll in the same channel, and arrive at nearly the same con-
clusions. Sustained on a firm basis, they will rivet truth, the final pur-
pose of all argument.

If the records of history, as delivered from remote antiquity, be not
railed in to support the evidence of the Dirine A tithnr in his trork*, it is
not from depreciating their authority, but from the facility of referring
to immediate and patent proof, afforded by the wonderful objects dis-
played every moment before n-.

In »»urve\ in.i; the vast and magnificent frame of the Universe, the
mind is absorbed by admiration. That which bears the impress of the
mL'hty seal of Omnipotent Power, by its magnitude bewilders the rea-
soning faculties devoted to our lower and humbler condition. It elevates
our retl«i-tii.ns to heaven.

The origin and the source of the smallest portion of the universe
overpowers our comprehension. How little can the acutest sense*, the

A

2 INTRODUCTION.

profoundest judgment, the widest view, embrace ? It is as nothing ; it
is as less than nothing. We are capable of doing no more than survey-
ing the edifice and adoring the Architect.

We behold the superficies only.

But all is in harmonious arrangement, evidently the offspring of a
Creative Power, exercised at an epoch which has vanished in eternity ;
yet devised for preserving perpetual order inviolate, and renewed inces-
santly in remembrance by images of the original truth.

It has pleased the Great Creator to combine the gross and brutish
matter of the world with the refined ethereal principle of animal life. By
their union, the grandeur of his plans is discovered, and by their presence
in ourselves, like a secret inspiration, they awaken the consciousness of
its excellence. Were the two elements separate, we should be incapable
of pronouncing on the power, the influence, and effect of each. Their
indefinable incorporation in our own persons renders us sentient beings,
and capable of surveying the surrounding scenes, as well as of reverting,
by retrospective conjecture, to the incidents of the Creation.

It must be, nevertheless, a most imperfect view : for, how vast a
proportion of the animated world remains concealed from the inquisitive
eyes of mankind ; something by distance, something by tenuity, some-
thing by interception, or by the mere imperfection of our personal organ*.

A multitude of questions and doubts at once obtrude themselves on
the mind, apparently reasonable as the suggestions of truth, whereof there
seem no data for solution. We, the humble tenants of the earth, may
presume to speculate on that which is known to the Omnipotent alone,
whose intelligence we see has been directed solely to beneficial purposes.

All in the beginning is hidden, — profound, — mysterious, — an abyss
unfathomable.

When did the Creator reduce to symmetry the chaotic mass, that
amidst which the earth was " without form and void," — and darkness
hung over the deep ; when was it first illuminated by the glorious orbs of
the firmament : at what part of its progress, what was its condition, at
what epoch of time was the form of man summoned into being, and in-
spirited by the breath of life ?

INTRODUCTION 3

Was tin- ethereal principle originally infused while the matter receiv-
it lay in an emhrv onic -tad-, and thereby awakened to life, or was it
tin- sulwtance of the adult that the .-pirit first animated ?

If conjivture maybe permitted — it is hut conjecture — the earth wan

not tlicn in its earliest condition : it was in some advance. Man enjoved

his fullest power- and liieultie> : the soil yielded its produce ; its fruits

-pont.-iucou>ly. Man, an adult, could discharge his functions. < -«ni-

vertim: what surroiindi-d him to sati-ly his own exigencies.

Hut. although reaping tlie means of suljsistence, he could not know
the art*. Naked and unprotected, he could only occupy hi* place among
tin- other truants of the earth, doubtless of cotemjiorary existence.

I'n less secured I iy distance, he may have had to contend with some
of those inon-ters which became exti net In-fore the opening of the record of
hi.-tory. and which have been revealed to modern generations as the
relicB of a former world.

The extirpation of the largest and most imposing of Nature's crea-
tures is thus established. Many among the whole subjects of creation
have ceased to e\i-t forages ; myriads seem to have been involved in one
common ruin, m-ver to IK- revived again ; and numbers have perished in
detail.

Neither presumption nor fact has afforded a relevant inference of
more creations than one, or that the total animal world was not framed
at once, or at least so as to be co-existent. Nothing ha.- hitherto shewn,
a* some maintain, that successive creations followed at different long
interval- after the first ; or that others arose and may yet be formed
from unknown materials down to the present day.

If it does appear that the entire host of creatures occupying the
univenenMnetci recognised as cotemporary, this may be truth : for that

• property which involves the living principle may lie dormant for
ages, but when aroused shall be ushered into the world, combined
with matter in sensible form and substance.

Thus many animals, whose existence no annalist has recorded, may
be actually brought into notice, and supposed of later creation. The ex-
tent of modern research, especially among the waters, and amidst remote

4 INTRODUCTION.

territories of the earth, has rendered some, which were previously un-
known, familiar to the moderns.

Yet we are compelled to reject the theory of successive creations as
an unsound doctrine — resulting merely from imagination — unsupported
by evidence.

The cotemporary origin of mind and matter is a question infinitely
more abstruse.

We cannot pretend to enquire whether after first conception of each
of the vast variety of the animal frame, any or all individually received
additions or improvements ; to say they did not would be to limit the
divine intelligence. Neither can we conjecture whether they were pre-
ceded by any model of their form.

Though rejecting the theory of some recent philosophers, that if
animals laboured under inconvenience from positive deficiency of mem-
bers, the plastic powers of Nature would shoot forth still one or another,
or a second pair, some modification of the creative faculty was perhaps
exercised. A multitude of similar organs might be actually augmented,
reduced, or improved in the species, as the necessities and the benefit of
the genus required.

It is true, that if an animal with numerous feet be mutilated of a
portion of them, another portion will originate to supply the loss, and
hence, from superficial views, the theory has arose. But it is alike true,
that if many animals, entirely deficient of external organs, undergo
mutilations, reproductive energies will restore the defective body though
unfurnished with limbs.

Nothing can be more vague and imperfect than our ideas of the
incidents of the creation, for all our reasoning must be bounded by the
narrowest circle ; therefore resolving into simple conjectures regarding a
subject too intricate and obscure to be compassed by the highest facul-
ties of mortals.

That Nature does undergo some temporary or permanent modifica-
tions is undoubted, though to what extent is unknown. If animals and
vegetables were from the first adapted for special climates, and if living
beings required sustentation to support life, it is beyond human compre-

I NT U<> I> ITT K >N

hension how the whole product* nf tin- universe could be brought to ma-
turity at the same season. ..r concentrated in tin- sunn- -pot.

Their nature may In- now infinitely modified.

If all the animate*! subjects of the creation were frameil a* now , \-
i-tiiiiX of perishable matter, their durability \va- mere tnr com-

pared with the lasting endurance of time. If resembling those where-
with the earth, the air, and the waters are now replete, can we presume
tin-in exempt from the ravages of disease, dt-eay. ami death. Therefore,
the whole lieim: liable to -uddeii cxt irjKition. might have left a fright-
ful yoid, to !«• replenished only by a new creation.

Hut now did the Supreme Intelligence de\ iso a marvellous expedient
to count cruet the blight, and avert desolation. Animals were empowered
to reproduce themselves, to restore their own similitude in the production
of progeny. Hy this means is generation transmitted through genera-
tion, and at the latest moment the images of what existed at the dale ..!
their . -real ion are offered to our view.

The regularity and simplicity whereby the world i> in this manner
i-arried on, forms an impressive feature of the grandeur of the whole
design, though the miiiutio.* of .-ueh reproduction I*.- still wnip|K-d in
mystei \ .

Hy the general laws goveniing the perjK-t nation of living \»
each is ordained to spring from two parents. Hut to tlii- there are wide
and extraordinary exceptions. Frequently the progeny is derived from
only one. whereby it is nurtured through a previous state of imperfec-
tion until ushered into the world. Sometimes a portion of the single
parent separates spontaneously aa a shapeless mass, which is slowK
refined into symmetrical form, with the development of all the organic
-tnicture required for ita exigencies, and neoewwy to preM-nt a perle. t
image of the parent .

The vegetable kingdom is multiplied through the medium •
and buds, or shoots, wherein appears a striking analogy to the |<:<><-eflMS
In-held in the multiplication of animals.

:iv buds germinate from the .surface of some of the humbler
creatures, either dropping off at a certain stage of their progre)-

6 INTRODUCTION.

ripening in their site to perfection, in resemblance of the parent, and
remaining as a permanent addition to the common stock.

In as far as human observation extends, almost every living being
is propagated through a principle originating in the substance of the pa-
rent, whether as incorporated with its body, or preserved in a detached
form. Herein is the germ sustained by a pabulum generated along with
it under the same integument ; and it is nurtured until adapted for sepa-
ration, by growing strength and increasing dimensions.

For the most part, both the ovum and the young are discharged
from the parent ; the former to bring its contents into existence, the
latter to reach that maturity essential for its well-being in an indepen-
dent state.

But both the internal and the external ova of certain creatures are
ripened until ready to burst the integument, when they give birth to
the young while still included in the body of the parent, or affixed to
it ; and the young hydra remains attached to the parent, while some
still younger generate from its skin, or from that of its descendants, if
early separation do not ensue.

No proper parallel can be drawn between the fertility of some
tribes, compared with the sterility of others. Thousands of ova, or a
multitude of young attain maturity, and are produced almost at the
same moment by fertile animals : in those which are less so, the progress
of the ovum is slow and gradual, occupying a long time, and if several,
only a single one is produced at once, after considerable intervals.

Where confined in a transparent integument, nothing can be more
interesting to the contemplative than the progress of the embryo. At
first invisible, next the merest speck, then the development of origi-
nating parts, the current of the vital fluid carrying vigour to the ex-
tremities, and the motion of the members, all as life is awakened.

The ovum of most of the larger animated tribes is invested by a
hard calcareous shell, sometimes capable of resisting great force and
pressure. In many of the smaller tribes it is readily crushed, and the
contents annihilated, being contained only in a flexible skin or capsule.

Among the larger and more perfect creatures, their race is carried

INTROI>rCTION.

«>n by a .-in^lc individual or few nt u birth, and the ovum contain^ l»ut
is. Among the more perfect animals also, almost every
brood of certain . •n-i.-i- »( >e\eral young. But among tin- i

tribes are many, each of whose ova contain several embryos, each of thm-
wrapped iu its o\vn integument.

If the race of some of the larger animals be perpetuated by the
production of a single individiiiil. it will appear a disproportioned multi-
plication that tin- families of some of tin- smaller tribe* amount to a
brood of perhaps twenty thousand, originating in the same litter.

It would Ix- erroneous to conclude, however, that the IUIIII|KT of
young augments in proportion to the diminished size of the parent ; such
peculiarities there are no means of explaining. We must content our
•elves with Haying, " they belong to the race," just as certain animal.--
are solitary, while others are gregarious, or dwell in society.

The distribution of life amidst tin- varied multitude of forma enjo\
mi; it, so unlike each other iu shape or dis]M>sition, and existing under
such an infinity of circumstaii' ••-. yet all concurring to the name en<i.
evinces Omnipotent Power diffused throughout the creation.

It i- not in their origin only, in their symmetry and perfection, thai
they ought to be viewed. We have also to consider of organic bodies.
when distorted and impaired of the parts once pertaining to them, how
they can be recovered.

A shapless fragment violently reft from an entire creature, or from
one about to perish irretrievably, may become perfect by subsequent de-
velopment of the deficient part*.

This, which we now prize as a reproductive faculty, is in no respect
under the control of the living U-ing capable of producing its own likeness,
or of its abstracted portion, but results from a ru insita, preserving the
existence, and promoting the growth of living matter. It is not confined
to one portion, but may extend over many ; and it may ensue
relation to the regenerated portions more than once.

• •rtheless, the faculty gradually weakens, so that in general <
successive regeneration is smaller or more imperfect than tho organiza-
tion precedini: it : and at length it is exhausted

INTRODUCTION.

Thus, it is probable, that a previous diffusion of elementary germs
promotes the successive regenerations ; that their development ensues
in perfecting the new portion, rather than in the depositation of new
matter from the old, to be modified into form.

The history of the Polypus, and the reproductions of the Actinia, to-
gether with those of some of the limacine tribes, have been long familiar.
Several, perhaps most of the purely vermicular race, may be cut in
twenty portions with impunity, and many subdivide spontaneously,
while each becomes perfect by acquiring the defective organization.
These facts are an impediment to ascertaining the real dimensions of the
parent subjects. They render them questionable.

Regeneration downwards is obviously more readily effected than
the restoration of defective parts upwards. New development speedily
follows mutilation towards the lower extremity.

In the violent or spontaneous division of animals, wherein repro-
duction is most vigorous, it ensues both downwards from the principal
portion of the original, if unequally made, and it generates from the
sundered portion upwards.

The generation of cotemporary supernumerary parts may be ob-
tained by sundering a fragment from the posterior extremity of the
Atiiphitritc i-entilabruin, A beautiful and complex branchial plume is
generated upwards, while the original branchial plume continues in full
vigour. Both fulfil their specific purposes. If it cannot be affirmed
that a germ is newly formed by new depositation of elementary matter, it
may be conjectured that all the rudiments of the regenerated portion
pre-existed separation of the original animal's body.

All animated beings seem to undergo a certain metamorphosis be-
tween the date of their early origin, and their attainment of perfection.
Some are passing through it while still connected with the parent ; in
others the changes advance long afterwards.

It is not obvious whether any kind of metamorphosis enters the
simple development of animals as they enlarge in natural growth, or
in the regeneration of their defective parts. While in progressive ad-
vances to perfection, metamorphosis, as present to the eye, consists in

INTUOIHTTION 9

the succc >luti<>n of new parts, and tlio partial or total obliteration

of the old ones. Monstrosities, or rather their semblance, must IK- t i
ton- jreiierate.1. which arc rcc tilled in svinmctry tlm.iiL'li the pin-iv- i.>
maturity

During this transition, some of a wonderful description .-mvcc.1
An animated U-inir springs from a known parent, to which it dot's not
bear the .-lightest ran-m Nance cither in form or habits. \\liile tlic latter
remains stati mmov calily affixed, or permanently adhering to the

same spot, its progeny enjoys unbounded activity ; it never rests. None
of the organs it pooocogcs are to be discovered in the parent ; its food is
(liiVeivnt. or it is not known to Cecil ; its form, its habits, its whole mode
of existence are foreiirn to those, of the author of its Ix-ing. Void of
evidence of the fact, we are prone to deny their kindred. But gradual
modification of all peculiarities begins to render them less unlike, and at
length the new animal is identified with the aspect of the old.

The form of some creatures being perfected, all the parts remain
soft and compressible. The body also undergoes great reduction of size,
more conspicuous in the different organs alternately, than as affecting
its whole structure. An incredible portion of the entire animal is occu-
pied by tubes, by pouches, and cavities, which, replenished l.y imbibition,
or absorption greatly enlarges its size. It is thus that the beautiful and
active tentuculu, and (lerhaps also the hranchi:i>. are swollen. Their con-
tents ln-ing discharged, little remains of the admirable form but an empty
skin.

It may be readily comprehended how in states, stages, and circum-
stances so very different, the organs of sense, sensation, and perception,
must be moulded to the creature's exigencies in each : and herein is the
U-ni^nity of Omnipotence displayed. The refining animal is suffering no
injury; it n-ache- pcrlection in possession of what is important for its
preservation.

Nevertlielex- we still remain profoundly ignorant of the real number,
power, and nature of the senses belonging to mast of the inferior tribes,
whether dwelling in uir or in water. Neither can we positively atlirm that

I

10 INTRODUCTION.

any one sense is common to the whole, unless it be feeling, and touch, or
taste, which is a kind of feeling. Observers have assigned a variety of
offices to the antennae where they are present. Though freely employed,
it is not evident that they discharge any known function which is fami-
liar to us. The faculty of vision, the senses of hearing and smelling are
still more vague and indefinite, we have little satisfactory means of ascer-
taining some of them. The tremor imparted to the medium of commu-
nication may readily induce erroneous conclusions. Some of the senses,
also, seem entirely wanting in a multitude of the lower animals, and in
numbers they are most obtuse and defective : they are apparently of least
avail when the greatest acuteness might have been expected.

But such deficiencies are probably compensated by instinct, or that
quality where, by a kind of natural intuition, animals without experi-
ence enjoy a reasoning faculty, enabling them to determine on utilities
to themselves or their progeny.

This singular property, lowest and latest seen in the human species,
is often demonstrated by the humbler tribes to an admirable extent. It
is always most prominent in the pursuit of food and shelter, and in pre-
paring for the benefit of the young, when its exercise both precedes their
existence and watches over their imbecility.

What is it that teaches the bee to found the original cell of the
honey-comb, or the Amphitrite to commence that tube which shall afford
it perpetual shelter ; the spider to construct its web ; or a thousand others
to prepare for necessities or for safety.

But there are some things which are unintelligible, and to us weak
mortals seemingly inconsistent with the benignity of Providence.

Myriads of the young produced never reach any stage of maturity ;
they are abandoned to their fate by the parent from the moment of birth.
Thousands of animals, some the most valuable, appear to be created
only that they may become the prey of others. A war of extermination
is incessantly raging among the living world. Legions have vanished
from the surface of the earth, leaving no type behind them, nor aught,
unless some scattered relics, which may have lain undisturbed for thou-
sands of years.

INTRODUCTION. 11

All animated matter hosa tendency and a desire for self-preservation
Hut all living beingB are liable to perish from disease or from accident

l'« -tilcnce i- Itorne on the winds and mi the waters.

.Iiid-rinu' from tin' animal- them-rlvcs, they offer no suilicient data
enabling us to conjee-tun- tin- duration of lift-.

Though denied to entire genera, longevity may be granted to indi-
viduals. A m on;: the lower orders, life in assuredly longer than tisiiallv
allotted to tin-in by mankind.

- . ml noti-d example might IK- given. Of two ArtinijD, one sur-
vived twi-nt \ -two \e.ii> in my possession, during which time it produced
ri 300 young. Tlie aspect of th<- other underwent on important
change, for the fir-t time, duriim the lifteenth and Mxtet-nth years of it«
life in captivity. Neither of them could ]>e loss than thirty years old at
the jvriod of these observations. Likewise the inluihitant of a minute
.-hell had survived nearly nine years, when it was destroyed by another
animal accidentally hmujrht to it- \ieinity.

\\ • re not decay and death essential elements in the constitution of
the universe, it would plainly be rendered inadequate for the reception of
its multiplying inhaditanta.

Thus there is a continual waste and a constant replenishment.

A suspension of the active and passive animal faculties, and of con-
scious existence, ensues in sleep, and i-spi-eially from that kind of it deno-
minated torpidity.

The sleep of plants bears some analogy to the insensibility betrayed
liy animal-.

Another kind of suspended animation, protracted even for years,
was discovered a consideraMe time ago, by a distinguished Italian natu-
ral i-t : and on eminent French physiologist has recently revived the sub-
.j«vt by a learned treat i-e on the species of an entire genus endowed with
this remarkable property. Specimens removed from their native abode,
and allowed to dry. Urome motionless and insensible, and so they may
remain without extinction of life, until revived by humectation, after
the lapse of years.

Humidity seems indispensable for demon-t nit ions of the vital prin-

12 INTRODUCTION.

ciple. It encourages the germination of plants, preserves and also revives
many vegetable products.

A species of Tremella, of a fine yellow colour, may be found vege-
tating as a parasite on the ligneous parts of common furze, towards the
middle of autumn, especially in damp seasons. Then it is beautiful,
plump, smooth, and vigorous. But, when removed from its proper
sphere, it dries and shrivels up to the smallest dimensions.

Long ago I selected many specimens. They dried and shrivelled up,
and so remained during weeks and months, until humectation restored
their vigour.

In prosecuting a course of observations, I selected and laid aside
some of the best and largest, besides the preceding, which, like them,
became equally dry and shrivelled. They were preserved with much
care untouched, until forty years had been allowed to elapse, when I
moistened them again. Although they did not acquire their pristine
size and vigour, their enlargement was such as to shew that the vital
principle belonging to the nature of vegetables, still subsisted throughout
that long interval.

Well authenticated narratives prove the preservation of the germi-
nating faculty of vegetable seeds for ages.

It appears to the learned, that the frame of the larger and more
important animals of the higher orders, has been constructed after nearly
the same model. Some of no mean attainments, have also argued that a
continuous chain connects living nature, whereby each distinct genus
passes through the slightest variation into one preceding or following it.

It may be that the discharge of the vital functions requires the pre-
sence of similar organs throughout all animals, though they cannot be
recognized independently : and if ever a chain of beings was designed at
the creation, it may be now interrupted by the links broken from the
lapse of time.

The peculiar distribution of life amidst the multiplied forms occu-
pying the universe, is a subject for profound reflection, could it be ren-
dered intelligible in words.

The disposition of the tribe, which is animated, seems to be modi-

I NTIH Mi I < -TluN 13

lied I iy its form. Hence, while inn- race of animal* n \i-l- :n I.|..<,(1
-1. lighter. another knows only peace and tranquillity

S.iue ;iiv ingenious architect* from their origin. llnvin<_' founded
.i dwelling. they iir\,-r CC:IM' enlarging it lor their own accommodation.
wherein they employ tin- numerous organs incident to their I'orin. The
architectural disposition of oth« e rowed only for behoof df their

young, when tin- employment of tin- organs peculiar to tlieir form ce.-t
it is resumed with an approaching brood in a miee^-ding year.

It i* &• appointed in n-ijiilar onler, liy tlio Power whirh di( ••
the la\v~ lor pn^tTvin.i: tlie Creation.

\ • rnal indications are prc«ented, wh iie di>po«ition of

living creatures is to be at oncu detected. Our knou le<lp* of it must be
gathered from time and exjierience.

\\'c find the natural propensities unernially bestowed, and irregu-
larly exen-isi-d. What we l>elie\e a Mrneture denoting reline<l skill.
may proceed, on investigation, from natural cause*, as when a tubular
dwelling, fashioned l>y its tenant, forms the most regular cylinder, though
result i i c_r simply from the oeoewary revolution of the animal while adding
to its dimensions.

Perhaps we incline to assign too much to the sagacity of animals.
and we are more surprised than we ought to be at some of their action*.
I '.ui if reasoning is dependent on comparison, many animals certainly
enjoy that faculty to a certain extent, not witliHtanding such a privilege be
nicK-t unwillingly admitted by mankind.

Whatever bo the condition of a living creature, whether dwelling
iu the air or in the waters, or in the flesh of others ; whether its organs
appear defective or redundant, the power of the Creator has adapted its
circumstances lor its place in the creation.

Overpassing many grand, many wonderful, many sublime arrange-
mem-, \\hich can have had no other source than the Will of Omnipo-
tence. — that which first hade the lightnings flash and the thunders roll, —
nothing from the hiirhe-t to the lowest — from the greatest to the least, —
betrays disorder, or interrupts the harmonies of the Universe.

If such conclusions be justly deduced from contemplating merely

14 INTRODUCTION.

the exterior of the animated and inanimate world, and if all must be
necessarily ascribed to manifestations of a Divine Power, how shall we
appreciate the various intricate natural processes incessantly advancing
within that secret laboratory, forming part of the internal system of
every living being.

The purity of the atmosphere would have been of no avail without
the means of reaping its benefit by respiration. What utility could the
profusion of food, or the organs for taking it, have afforded without its
preparation for nutrition by digestion ? A vast and complex apparatus,
physical, mechanical, chemical, all in active operation, has been devised
for secretion, solution, combination, and assimilation, to strengthen every
corporeal frame, and aid the preservation of life.

No human invention could either contrive or adapt the multiplicity
of organs, and assign their respective functions, as directed singly or
united, for the advantage of animated creation.

Such are the reflections on animated existence, immediately derived
from contemplating the fair face of Nature, undisguised by guile.

Let them receive a fair, just, and candid interpretation, bearing
only that weight to which they are entitled, as sustained on obvious
facts and reasonable inferences.

Beyond this I have no particular theories to entertain. I make no
pretensions to priority of observation : I advance no claim to discovery ;
nor do I urge my opinions on the various subjects treated of in these
Volumes, otherwise than with the utmost diffidence. But I could mul-
tiply and embellish the numerous facts they contain so much farther, as
perhaps to render them more impressive and satisfactory.

Sedulously interrogating Nature, we shall not be disappointed of
responses.

The following ingredients may be useful to those who propose to
prepare corrected views of the Systema Naturce.

But I wish very earnestly to guard the intelligent reader from ex-
pecting a complete history of the living subjects presented before him.
This would be an undertaking far surpassing my capacity ; indeed, I be-

INTRODUCTION. 16

••ceding the capacity of any individual, for of many it is incon-
ceivably obscure. The drawings and descriptions must compensate
numerous omi-M»n-.

Tlie former have been an object of especial solicitude. None but
living subjects, and those in the highest health and vigour are repre-
wilted, independently of the best specimens attainable having been uni-
formly selected. Whatever inlluence internal anatomy may have in fix-
ing our ultimate arrangement*, external configuration is undeniably the
primary guide, and the basis of our primary judgment. In truth, it can
admit of no substitute.

But, in accepting it, we must beware of allowing those trivial pecu-
liarities whereon less experienced naturalists repose their confidence, as
constituting the character of animals, which should be ever distinguished
l>y the strongest features. If systematic arrangements govern tin- relative
position of animals, they are framed in heaven, not on earth.

Neither should the naturalist, impatient for the disclosures of dis-
section, defeat the possibility of detecting habits from permanent oblite-
ration, by the premature destruction of his specimen, — to say nothing of
the cruelty of such an alternative.

The difficulty of preserving correct and suitable delineations w fre-
quently very great, and all artists have to undergo a certain peculiar
education in qualifying themselves for their task. Figures are of little
avail, unless they be both good and faithful representations of the origi-
nal, and token at the most propitious moment. I can truly affirm that
only the best and most satisfactory have been admitted here.

Striking inequalities must prevail in the composition of such a work
;LS this, from causes too obvious to require enumeration. Hence many
imperfections.

But, on all occasions, I have anxiously studied brevity, and. in as
far as in my power, to render the subject explicit.

H'lLOTHURIA. 17

CHAPTER I.

ECHINODERMATA.

TIIK peculiar object of the present treatise, is to render some of the
natural productions of Scotland more familar to its inhabitants, and
Mter understood than they have been hitherto.

Knthusiasm in favour of our native soil, and of our favourite pursuits,
may kindle a glow which warms us into undue partiality for certain sub-

. — above their true importance in literature and their value to man-
kind. \Ve may thus rate them too highly, and dwell on them too long.
If so, let us appeal to the liU-ral for indulgence of an innocent weakness.

But, to penetrate the history of creatures so far removed from our-
selves as the humbler tribes of the creation, is an arduous task. Until
tin- more recent investigations of science, few have adventured on it.
Such living truants of the globe have been scarcely acknowledged as the
Divine works ; many were beheld with contempt, some with abhorrence,
— all were neglected.

Vet the inquisitive student of Nature in not to be discouraged in

rdent tliirst for knowledge. What although he has to ascend rocks
and mountains, to dip into cavities of the earth, or to explore the depths
of the ocean, if he is rewarded by the fruits of research. It is the pe-
rishable condition of life he has more seriously to contend with. He
inii-t find a safe and salubrious abode for his objects ; he must ascertain
their proper sustenance, and avert their enemies. He must replace the
loflB he sustains by casualties, by accident, disease, and death ; thence
multiplvini; his observations by unwearied diligence, until the solution

c

18 ECHINODERMATA.

of all his problems is obtained. Still, do not these incidents exhaust the
perils of disappointment. Some of the most interesting objects which
have roused our curiosity prove of such rarity, that even a second speci-
men cannot be obtained after the first, to complete our observations ;
or the continuity is lost with the lapse of time. Sometimes the services
of an accomplished artist are not to be procured at the critical moment.,
when they would be most essential ; and at length, amidst numberless ob-
structions, the subject deemed so precious, perishes spite of all precaution.

Personal experience enables me to testify, that, from similar causes,
the investigation of the nature of particular objects has been more than
once interrupted for ten, nay for twenty years.

Although it be the ordinary disposition of mankind to relish a far-
ther acquaintance with what is already familiar to them in part, I shall
venture here to introduce some products of a less common kind, whereof
most of the learned, the curious, and inquisitive, are usually denied
all knowledge.

HOLOTHURIA. — A class of animals has been constituted by later
naturalists under the name of Echinodermata, which, strictly inter-
preted, is probably meant to infer Hedge-hog skins, or Rough .vAv//*.
Herein are included three different genera whereon I propose to make a
few observations — the Holothuria, Asterias and Echinus, though the name
is inapplicable to any but the last, for neither of the others have any
such corresponding characters ; and if I be right in the etymology, I
cannot comprehend how they could be associated with it.

Naturalists have been greatly embarrassed, both in determining the
real structure of the Holothuria, and in assigning to it its positive posi-
tion in the SystriiHi. Xnt.urte ; nor have they been more successful, in as
far as I am aware, in ascertaining the habits of the race. Those appa-
rently among the best qualified for settling such important points, by
the preservation of living specimens, if ever they had them in view,
have certainly contributed to their own disappointment by premature
dissection : or they have been unable to obtain specimens in healthy and
vigorous animation. Hence the uniform prevalence of the most indis-

r /

: : .

,

-

.«,«••

.

v : :

- -

HOLOTHUlfA. 19

t met description, ami the most impel t..t representation, from the days
.if (Ii-sner in the sixteenth century, down to the present era ; for, un

ii solitary examples of a few of the more learned, an uninterrupted
aerie* of errors ha- led tin- others astray. So completely has the sub-
ject IN -en overlooked, that, although the et \ mology of the name //<>/»
thurin may In- conjecture*!. 1 know not anv author \\ho treats of its ori-
gin or derivation.*

l5*->ide> the !'e\\ auxiliaries of the -..lulnu- -tudi-nt. the traii-H-nt

oU-vrver i- certainly exposed to delusion, from the utter dissimilarity of
the Holothuria in it.- active and pa— i\e state. No two animals, in ma-
turity, can be more unlike than this single creature is to itself. It is
wholly a simple l>ag. or partialU a beautiful flower, or luxuriant arbo-
rewn< >•

An intimate knowledge of only the external form of the Holothuria,
in therefore absolutely dependent on patient preservation of living spe-
eimens, and the opj>ortunities which they offer to u« to study them.

If these be favourable, the observer will not be slow in discovering
that the characteristic Eclu>i<»l<rin<ita is of the most doubtful application,
and that none of the definition- hitherto proposed or adopted will dis-
tinuui-h the race intelligibly, lie-cause there is no common resemblance
sufficiently precise among all its im-inKcrs. At least that resemblance \»
not yet explained.

In several instances also we find several different Holothurue re-
ceiving the same name from different authors, and the same Holothuria
distinguished by different names from the same author ; all tending to
aggravate the perplexities, besides unnecessarily multiplying the number
of species. Much of this, indeed, ensues from the difficulty of the sub-
ject. It is not an easy matter to satisfy each originating doubt by re-
sorting to the bottom of the sea for authority. All researches there are
liable to the most uncertain result.

Nevertheless, it is possible that, by the personal study of these re-

* GUNEBUA, /cone* Animalium, considers one specie* u motionUm, others M
little from pUoU, p. 261.'.

20 ECHINODERMATA.

markable animals, and by seeking frequent opportunities of observation,
the learned might have both avoided their own errors, and might have
corrected those of others. But doing so in their proper element was in-
dispensable.

The following discussion shall be limited to my personal observations
on a few of the tribe, which have afforded me the 'best opportunities.
Many more indeed have come into my possession ; some of them fine
specimens. Yet they did not yield matter sufficient for commentary,
or were perfect enough for delineation. The distinctions of those se-
lected are so well marked that they stand far apart.

Including the whole specimens of the various species that have been
obtained by me, they may be probably rated at one hundred and
sixty, of different size and age, within the period of thirty years. Yet
inconceivably few of that number, perhaps not a tenth or twelfth, were
entire, strong, free of mutilation, and fit for continued observation.
Among these was only one specimen of that I have named provisionally
the Scotica, one of the In/Kerens, and seven of the Phantnpus. All these
and others survived their captivity ; yet drawings were sometimes im-
practicable, and sometimes attained with the utmost difficulty of the rest.

All Holothuriae dwell in the sea ; and it may be presumed that,
under certain modifications, they attain greater size in deeper water. In
most parts of Scotland they are extremely rare.

In their native abodes these animals seem to affix themselves very
firmly below, to such substances as they can be dislodged from with great
difficulty, and very seldom with impunity. As the larger are the stronger,
it may be understood why so many are injured in recovery. It is only
some inconvenience that induces them to quit their hold, or they become
spontaneously erratic — floating away on the waters also, when they may
be safely taken.

The true nature of the Holothuria cannot be discovered in its dis-
tempered state, and most of the conditions admitting its capture renders
its subsequent preservation equally precarious. The wounds and lacera-
tions endured by forcible removal of specimens from the spot of adhesion
almost invariably occasion speedy death. Even the slightest abrasion of

^

A/ //

I

^/// f

llni.o I liriMA. •_•!

ili.- -urlace hit-* uniformly proved fatal ; and besides these accidents, which
un- in. i.l. 'in il to tin* race, the larger Holothuriaa not only lose their in-
testinal organs, but almost always nijitun- their bodies when withdrawn
frniii the sea to an artificial dwelling.

Authors ha\e generally eoiilincd their observations to tin- ai)ati>in\
of tin- Holothuria exclusively, wherein some accomplished naturalist-

irra tilled tin- curious. But very few have adventured on an accu-

•h-s4-ripti.ui of its external form ; nor have I heard of any OIK- at
tempting to illustrate it.s habits. Certainly the subject is diflh-ult. fnr the
niM-t distimiuished foreign naturalists, i-vi-n without the impetlinu-nt of
scarcity, complain of tin- rxtivine emtmramment to which tln-v \M-H- «-\-
posed in their progress; and the figuret* ih-voti-d to tin- anatomiml ftrur-
tun? are actually often unintelligible.

We must, therefore, very highly prize whatever occasions admit of
any accessions or elucidations of the history hitherto so obw-im- of this
extraordinary creature.

The first step to be adopted here alike for the purpose of ascer-
taining the nature of the animal, and to enlist the services of other ob-
-.•rvt-rs. is to li\ its form in recollection by accurate delineation.

§ 1. HOLOTUURIA PENTACTES. — Fire Ribbed Sea Cucumber — Sea
Pudding.— PLATES I., II.. III.. IV., V., VI.. VII.

Tin- H"lotlmriae are so unlike each other, it is imponsible to <nm|.i<
hend any number of species under a general ill-Unit ion. If any wen- <!«•-
vised it would be very defective, each special definition being scarcely
applicable to another species than that from whence it is derived.
Authors have been induced to attempt constituting several genera, but
most unsuccessfully ; and their labours in fact resolve int.. the enumera-
tion of species.

The exterior integument of thellolothuria, with the tough coria*'
inner layers, constitutes a capacious bag, wherein are contained the respi-
ratory, the intestinal organs, and the ovarium. The head is also re-
tracted within it when at rest : but in action it protrudes, unfolding a fine

ECHINODERMATA.

luxuriant flower or arborescence, constituting what are supposed ten-
tacula. The body of most specimens assumes the form of a horse-shoe,
crescent, or cucumber, and a stream of water, playing like a fountain,
is forcibly discharged from the posterior extremity.

These general features of external aspect will probably enable the
student to distinguish a few species of the Holothurian tribe. But of
later years the progress of comparative anatomy, from the desire of ascer-
taining the precise position, form, and functions of every portion of the
animated frame, has threatened to disturb the facilities enjoyed from
simple aspect, and has beset the study with higher obstructions.

The reader must be sensible, however, that the uniform tenor of this
treatise, so far from contemplating the destruction of life, encourages its
careful preservation, as the best, and indeed the only means, of discover-
ing the nature of animals.

The Holothuria forms a genus whose exact position is one of the
most doubtful in the Systema Natures. It is not in immediate approxi-
mation to any other, for some great chasm seems to intercept it from all.
We cannot point out any genus, sufficiently distinguished, which either
precedes or follows it.

The Holothuria pentactes is a large, strong, and vigorous creature.
But the distension of the body, the alteration of its figure, together with
the circumstances wherein it is found, and which attend its preservation,
induce considerable ambiguity respecting its utmost natural dimensions.
The unrestrained form of this animal, at ease, and in undisturbed
security, is a crescent, throughout two-thirds of its length. The ante-
rior part, which is retractile within the body, expands into ten beautiful
arborescent tentacula, bordering a broad disc, with the mouth in the
centre. An exterior smooth skin is here interposed between the head
and the shoulder, and the remainder of the body, decreasing from the
middle downwards, terminates in an orifice, discharging the continued
stream of water above alluded to. — Plate I.

Five longitudinal rows of peduncles or suckers traverse the skin of
the whole body, commencing near the root of the tentacula, and termi-
nating at the posterior orifice, through whose adhesion the animal is

HOLOTIIURIA. 23

firmly rivet tod to solid substance*. The skin l*-t w«vn the rows is

luit of quite 11 diflercnt character from that on the nock, the dine, or near

the tentacnla. That different character <it' the dilli-ivnt [Mirts in ver\

conspicuous.

AlMiut Ion Miekers occupy the length of a row in such a specimen
• •ntiil. Tin- five divisions may IK- called, for distinction. .^/-//.» «
nr/"/f" of suckeiv In -ome sj»oeimens. five, six, or seven suckers oooupv
tin- broadest part of the Itelt, tlie nuinlier decreasing towards the extre-
mities The lireadth of the stripe or Mt. and the numltor of the suckers,
depend on the -i/e and age of the subject. Small specimens have only a
double row of suckers in the stripe or belt ; nor art- all the five complete.
In one extending above thirty lines, including the head or anterior por-
tion, they stood single or somewhat zig-zag in a row. — Plate II. fig. '2.
Thus they augment with age ; and in large specimens some appear
straggling over the body.

Tin- usual asjK-et of the HiJntliuria pentn< >• * is n presented, Plate I
when in a state of quiescent security. When absolutely inactive, it re-
semld.-s I'late II. I'IL'. I. rediice<l from the original, which extended twehc
inebea by four. This I concluded a full-grown subject. But I cannot
define the largest dimensions attained, — certainly not under two feet,
with the tentacida displayed ; the body three inches thick or in

The observer is always liable to delusion, however, in this respect,
owing to the animal's susceptibility of change and extraordinary disten
-ion. Sometime after the specimen. I'late I., was taken, it resembled the
figure and dimensions of the heart of an ox, while floating : next it ex
tended a foot long by four inches in diameter, and ultimately subsided to
the ]M-rmaneiit shape and size wherein it is represented.

When the animals an- detached, they generally Hoat a.s long osoid.-.
^ then turgid with water. One in that condition weighed four
pounds, \\hereof the l>ody might he one and a half, and water th'
mainder. But. the dimensions seem very much affected by cirvum
stances, such a.s freedom, fixture, health, or disease, and perhaps also
by the temperature of the atmosphere.

The «u--kers can IK- wholly retracted and sunk in the lloh The

24 ECHINODEBMATA.

tentacula, in a quiescent state, are retracted within the body, the skin
of the upper part closing over them. Thus the animal may then appear
entirely divested of external organs. . When it is active, and the suckers
in powerful adhesion, the tentacula, rising from the disc by a stout cylin-
drical stem, are beautifully displayed in circular arrangement, each dis-
charging its external functions separately. These exercises, as we shall
see of others, are also most interesting to -the spectator.

There is much difference in the quality of the skin, as above alluded
to. That investing the body, from the shoulder upwards, bears the
strongest resemblance to the appearance of birch bark. The surface of
the disc and of the tentacula, are of this peculiar description, which adds
to the beauty and singularity of the parts. The tentacula, whose actual
structure is shewn in Plate II. figs. 3, 4, are luxuriantly arborescent.
The hollow cylindrical stem is half an inch in diameter, and all the parts
diverging from it in circular arrangement.

Each tentaculum sweeps through the water, and then curves into the
central orifice of the disc, in a contracted state, as explained more mi-
nutely of the subjects illustrating the following paragraph.

The distension of these organs is obviously from the absorption of
water, though by what channels is unknown. On this point naturalists
are not agreed. There can be no doubt, however, of copious absorption,
which is proved both by the great dimensions of the body, and by the
jet from the posterior extremity producing a vortex at the surface,
while the orifice is far below. The jet is so vigorous as sometimes to
spout eight or ten inches, and over the side of the vessel.

The colour of the Holothuria pentactes is various. On the whole
brown predominates, lighter or darker, and diverging from different
shades into mulberry or purple. Large specimens are dark as chocolate :
some are wood-brown. Two small specimens, which I concluded the
pentactes, with a double row of suckers in the stripes, were grey. About
a fifth part of the circumference of the body is frequently much paler
than the rest, which is particularly conspicuous in large specimens ; and
thence do some naturalists conjecture this the belly of the animal. One
such portion, comprehending two stripes of suckers, was yellowish-brown.

HOLOTIMIMA. 25

tin- predominant colour above was reddwh-brown. Tlic suckers
are sometimes almost white, with u central red speck in their flattened
adhering extremities Tin' contracted tentacula of some are nearly
Mack. IVrhups it could be ascertained only by dissection, whether the
•vaiue internal parts are always lowest in position where the pale under
)M>rtii>n. if it IK.- such, is applied to the Mistuining substance.

So many features enter the characters of what I would conceive the
H»l»thiirin //•«////•/«•*, as certainly nn^ht to facilitate recognition of the
- . \et it seems to me, although I say it with reserve, that certain
discrepancies, apparently slight enough.aniong individuals, have prompted
naturalists to constitute two or three species of one : Nor is this the
only example of such an error, if it be an error, for the same has occur-
red of other Holothuruu. The whole subject, I repeat, is difficult ; yet
I fear that we create ambiguities by neglecting to shun them.

No Holothuria is recovered from the sea fit for immediate study
All are disfigured or contracted ; some in one form, some in another
I'ntil relaxing into shape, adhering as a crescent, and displaying the
tentacula, nothing can be known of their nature.

The skin of this species, the pentactes, is very coriaceous, hard and
thick, tough, and difficult to be penetrated when in a contracted state.
It becomes as thin as paper when the animal is distended, which is very
sensible in a specimen extending twelve or fifteen inches ; and it is more
evident in the higher and lower parts of one laid open.

A very accomplished physiologist, Mr Henry Goadby, who had
devoted much attention to entomology, and the form of the invertebrate
animal-., visited Edinburgh in 1841, where he gave some excellent lec-
tures in illustration of the preceding subject. At that time I happened
to be occupied with the Holothuria, and as he expressed a desire to see
that animal, with which he had never had the fortune to meet pre-
viously, I had the gratification of supplying him with several fine speci-
mens of the pcntaclet.

Of these he made various preparations and dissections, far surpass-
in); any that has ever been seen, both for minuteness and beauty, in
shewing the form, the multiplicity, and the arrangement of the parts.

D

26 ECHINODERMATA.

From these I am induced to believe that the structure of this extra-
ordinary creature, which seems to have no parallel, will probably be bet-
ter understood than hitherto, for all anatomists have expressed how
much it has perplexed them ; and it is evident, indeed, how very slow
the progress of the history of the Holothuria has been, from the works
of Bohadsch, Muller, Tiedemann, Delle Chiaie, and others.

The skilful will avail themselves much more by simple inspection of
the engravings which have been executed after very fine drawings, than
of any description that I could give them.

The Holothuria pentodes is a powerful animal, capable of great
dilatation, and strong contraction. On laying open a large specimen,
and removing the intestinal organs, Mr Goadby exposed five longitudi-
nal muscular bands, connected by several strong tendons, which might
explain its strength : Plate III., representing a preparation, here reduced
by about a third under the natural size.

Some of the Holothuriae die with the tentacula withdrawn, and the
whole body closely contracted. But the Holothuriae of this species
generally die with the arborescence exposed, though not expanded. A
general view of the internal parts is obtained from Plate IV., where the
orifice of the mouth a is found in the centre of the tentacula ; and on
one side is seen a capacious transparent vessel b, the Ampulla Poliana,
as named by Delle Chiaie, to which some have assigned the functions of
a heart. The alimentary canal is disposed in various convolutions c, d,
and the long ropes of a great ovarium are stretching down e.

On divesting the body entirely of its integument, the commence-
ment of the oesophagus appears, leading to the intestinal canal : Plate V.,
a, b, c. Also the general mass of intestines below, together with the delicate
reticulated mesentery, the respiratory organs d, d, and the great cloaca e.

By a singular arrangement, not altogether unexampled, respiration
belongs chiefly to the organisation connected with the lower part of the
body of this species of the Holothuria.

A large yellow ovoidal sac or cloaca is situated near the posterior
extremity of the animal, from which a continual jet is discharged by the
terminal orifice. This peculiar organ is secured by numerous ligaments

* «% : : *";**. •'

7/^.

/,/

^/x,/

.

IKiLOTIiriUA. 27

to tlu- nei-liU.iiriiii: jw»d»,and it seems capable of great expansion and
powerful eonlrartion.

Tin- respiratory apparatus is farther displayed by two large tubular
trunks, extending nearly six inches from a common tube connected with
the cloaca, and diverging upwards into innumerable lesser channels, with
obtuse extremities : the whole also secured by tendons to the neighbour-
ing parietex. An intestinal organ, here divided and turned back, com-
municates likewise to all the common tubes.

All these parts constitute what is called the respiratory tree, whereof
very ituliMinet flaccid portions are represented in some treatises, or
nit her simple notices of tin- animal.

Thus the respiratory apparatus obviously constitutes a great portion
of the internal contents of the body, where it is distended by water,
whence the oxygen may be disengaged.

The exact powers by which both the physical and mechanical func-
tions are effected in such an i main merit the profound attention of the
skilful physiologist.

The beautiful structure of the respiratory tree is favourably repre-
sented here, from an excellent preparation by Mr Henry Goad by, the
same accomplished naturalist to whom I am indebted for the others.
Plate VL

In the living object, however, while the vital functions are ad van -
chui. this organization is more amply developed, being distended farther,
and exhibiting considerable action. The side of a specimen of the IIolo-
thuria, somewhat exceeding medium size, having ruptured, part of the
respiratory tree protruded from the wound. It now resembled a great
assemblage of cteca, if I may so speak, all anastomosing, the reciprocal
junction and communication being quite perceptible through the diapha-
nous membrane, and the transparence of its contents. The whole was

turgid, sometimes becoming a little flaccid. • \> iy portion endowed
with vitality, as demonstrated by their enrvature, especially at the ex-
tremities. On shewing this subject to a distinguished anatomist, Dr

rt Knox, lie immediately pronounced the protrusion part of the
respiratory organs. The rupture being an inch abme the terminal «>ri

28 ECHINODERMATA.

fice, the animal survived under it four or five days : Plate II., fig. 5.
Outline of the body a, a, a, a, suckers b, b, b, b, orifice c, respiratory or-
gans protruding d.

These organs are obviously distended by reception of a fluid, which
may be presumed the sea-water, amidst which the Holothuria dwells.
But the mode of their replenishment, by what channels or absorbents, is
by no means evident. Perhaps it is by alternate discharge and replenish-
ment that the respiratory functions, those so essential towards life and
salubrity, are effected. If, in passing from the tubes, there is an accu-
mulation in the great cloaca or reservoir, the powerful muscular contrac-
tion of this organ may produce a continued jet. But while this goes on
it is rational to conclude that imbibition or absorption by some other
organic structure contributes the supply.

The whole is a very admirable and extraordinary apparatus, con-
sisting of such a multitude of subordinate parts, that it is impossible to
represent above two-thirds of them.

The opinions of naturalists do not correspond regarding an impor-
tant portion of the animal frame, the nervous system.

Delle Chiaie, who seems to have had tenfold the number of speci-
mens of any other observer, says the Holothuria has no nervous system,
since the most diligent investigation could not discover any traces of it —
" that no one could be more favourably situated than himself, with
thousands of living Holothurise, whereon he was occupied constantly
during ten months in dissection." *

Professor Goodsir, of the University of Edinburgh, no less a dis-
tinguished anatomist, acquaints me, that he ascertained the nervous
system of the Holothuria to lie in a pentagonal form around the ten-
tacula, descending the body in five cords, so as to be connected with the
rows of pedicles or suckers.

The preceding author, Delle Chiaie, enters on some explanation of
the sanguiferous system.

He also speaks of the animal feeding on fragments of algae and the

* Delle Chiaie, Memorie sulla Storia e Notomia degli animali Benza Vertebrc, vol. i.
D. 100.

\

'

, x-1 ; ;/•

" : ' 5.'

IHM.nTIIURIA.

like, but 1 have never found any solid substance whatever in the intea-
ther animal or vegetable : Nor has any specimen ever teetili.il
tin- l'M-t 'Imposition to feed in my possession.

lar^e specimen of tin- [»->itin-t?s watt obtained al>out a year
ago, distended liy sou water, so as to be ten inched in length, and six in
thickness, the tentacula being contracted to three-fourths of their
diameter. Next day it hail emptied itself ; it lay motionless, extending
1»> or 17 inches. The inte>tines occupied the whole cavity of the body,
but they contained nothing except a dark thick iluid matter.

The natural form and position of the Holothuria prntaetr* iw a
crescent, so that while quiescent it does in fact bear considerable re-
semblance to a cucumber, — whence its name. The body remains affixed
by the suckers to the ride of a vessel, the head or the portion compre-
hending its tentacula remaining free for their evolutions, and the j>
rior extremity likewise disengaged for the play of the fountain.

In general habits the //<>l<>tJiuria petilactet resembles the following
subject, but here, the tentacula being formed by a prolongation and
adaptation of the integument of the shoulder, they are not immediately
connected with the intestines like the tentacula of the Holothuria fvnu.
All the former, that is those of the pcntactct, being a continuation of the
cylindrical neck, are protruded with its unfolding skin as it extends alter
having been withdrawn into the body when closed up. — Plate II.. fig. 1.
The tentacula of the/w*t« are immediately connected with the intestines
by a peculiar receptacle, wherein the whole can be retracted. Herein.
any single tentaculum, or the whole, may be retracted when the ap-
paratus constituting the receptacle sinks within the body which close*
over it.

lit appears the chief season of the enjo\nient and activity of
these creatures. Whatever be their contracted state through the <la_\
thev then expand themselves, and dinplay their U-autiful arborescent
tentacula at the utmost dimensions. Nevertheless many remain
jMinded through the day, and, whether or not it be from the momentary
stimulus, some seem to become more erect on the approach of light. —
which is certainly an exception to the general rule, for both lijrht and

30 ECHINODERMATA.

heat appear to be extremely prejudicial. Their safety depends on cool-
ness ; and, I firmly believe, that one principal difficulty opposing their
conservation is lodging them in too high a temperature. The specimen,
Plate I., survived five or six weeks. None other in the lapse of nearly
thirty years afforded a display of the tentacula equally luxuriant for de-
lineation. The Holothuria being properly a nocturnal animal, I was in-
debted for this to Mr Daniel Whyte M'Culloch, an excellent artist, whose
labours generally commenced about midnight, when his subject had
reached its finest condition.

The animals of this species are not nearly as stationary as those of
the following, which frequently remain for months in the same spot.
The small specimen, Plate II., fig. 2, was very active. It traversed its
vessel freely, and curved itself in all directions while quitting a wide
mouthed phial ; also advancing with the tentacula in front. But others
have been stationary in comparison, remaining affixed to the side of a
vessel for a considerable time, just at the surface of the water, and tes-
tifying little inclination to move.

Among the numerous obstacles obstructing all observers, and which
have much retarded our knowledge of this curious creature, is its ex-
treme tendency to rupture. Such an accident, whether external or in-
ternal, is particularly incident to larger specimens ; and, as already
noticed, slight abrasion of the skin seems to be irremediably fatal.

It does not appear that the rupture is confined to any part of the
body, though frequently ensuing in the vicinity of the terminal orifice of
the great cloaca. A prolapsus then follows, whereby the intestinal organs
are discharged in large proportion.

Its progress and effects may be seen at the protrusion of part of the
respiratory tree, Plate II., fig. 5 ; also in the escape of some of the in-
testinal canal a ; the same organs, fig. 7, b ; and of an immature ovarium
among other organs, fig 8.

Sometimes the rupture is in the side of the animal, not far from the
middle, when portions of the ovarium, almost mature, escape. An in-
testinal protrusion also sometimes ensues by the mouth, with rupture of
the body.

I /

/•/ i

1

r

IIOLOTHURIA. 31

It is ilillicult to account for such ruptures where the integuinent.-
are so strong. The cuticle of certain species is very thin, generally gray
or dark. But the substance next it, white, is so very hard and tmuzh
that an edfji-d instrument can hardly pierce it, for it equal* the oomdn-
tence of leather. The cartilaginous parts are also extremely tough and
strong.

Perhaps the ruptures are consequent on violence, seen or unseen,
suffered by the subject. It is difficult to admit that such an incident
could take place without violence. Mr Adams, a skilful naturalist, who
lately accompanied Sir Edward Belcher during his interesting voyage in
tin- Eastern seas, and promises to throw much light on the history of the
lower animals, speaks of " a Holothuria with a soft, brown, tesselaU-d
integument, which on being touched— suddenly ejects the entire contents
of its sacciform body, including the whole of the viscera and appendages —
shrivels up, and immediately dies."*

The period, the occurrence, and the degree of such ruptures in Con-
finement are uncertain. After preservation of the specimen Plate I. for
about a month or little more, prolapse commenced of the intestinal
organs, — an invariable prognostic of death. The water became turbid,
while the specimen weakened, and the tentacula swept with feeble in-
curvature towards the mouth. Its adhesive faculty was gradually ini
paired, and having been entirely lost, it died after about six weeks cap-
tivity.

As rupture of the body is a common concomitant on confinement,
prolapse of the intestinal organs is alike frequent ; and from this acci-
dental injury, the Holothuria usually perishes. If otherwise, it dwindle*
down to small dimensions, and seems to die from mere inanition.
Tin- contracted body always bears little proportion to the size of Un-
healthy living animal ; and alter death, the tentacula often remain par-
tially expanded. But the reverse is also frequent. The disparities are
striking. A specimen extending, perhaps eighteen indies while in vigo-
rous life, will lie in a saucer five or six inches wide when dead.

It is affirmed that the Holothuria penlactet lives naturally amoiu.'
• Adami Notes of Belcher's Voyage of II. M. 8. Sammrang, ml. ii. p. 495.

32

ECHINODERMATA.

beds of the Laminaria or tangle, which is not improbable, if portions of
this vegetable product are devoured. But it rather appears that a more
solid foundation is congenial to its nature, for the suckers, which consti-
tute its chief security, are not well adapted for application to such
flexible substances. Possibly the food is yet unknown. The animal's
mouth is susceptible of great dilatation, opening almost as wide as the
entire diameter of the disc.

During this remarkable expansion of the specimen, Plate I.,
I dropped various animal substances into the cavity, nothing vegetable
being then at command. But none proved acceptable. All were found
afterwards in the vessel.

With so firm a hold, and such a capacious mouth, the Holothuria,
if carnivorous, would be a dangerous enemy. Its extreme timidity,
however, most conspicuous on all occasions, prohibits our supposition of
its acting offensively against any part of the animated creation, and
hence the tentacula are probably to be chiefly protected.

Nevertheless, the nature of the food is a question of some interest.
Those genera of the Echinodermata, with which it is most immediately
classed, are highly carnivorous, the Asterias and Echinus. The true
nature of its sustenance might affect its position in the Systema.

It is vexatious to witness the subjects of observation pining away
before us, from inability to ascertain their food.

The Holothuria pentactes dwells in various parts of the Scotish
seas. It is found about the mouth of the estuary of the Forth ; and in
the course of years, some straggling specimens occur to the westward,
it is said even as high as Newhaven, where stream tides rise seventeen
or eighteen feet. If the fishermen may be credited, it is recovered
from the depth of ten or twelve fathoms. But where particularly abun-.
dant, as at Lerwick, whence many fine specimens have reached me, I
have been informed that they dwell at the depth of one or two fathoms
from the surface, and very near the shore.

The wonted colour of the Holothuria pentactes is different shades of
brown or purple. Two, which I considered varieties, were dingy white.
One of these shewed great versatility of form. This specimen lost the

/•/ I/

• • • *•

•* • • •• .

•

f t ',?,'"*',' '

' > f t

HOLOTHURIA. 33

intestines, together with a profusion of vivid red ropes of the ovarium.
Aft.-i previous discharge, a large brush or mop, confuting of at least
forty ropes, was found beside it on the first of May ; and subsequently,
much more : the sunn- .-|nvimen was so distended, thin, and pale, that
the internal <> \uriniu wa> di.-tinetly vi.-ihlc through the .-kin.

Holot huria', mi arriving from a distance, are generally contracted,
.in.) the tent.irula \\ithilrawn. There is reason to believe, howe\.-i
that, in a healthy condition. these organs remain constantly expanded.

M.uiy are found Moating like balls of various shapes, at the surface
of the water.

These, on arrival, .should be transferred to capacious vessels, and
placed in the dark, remaining undisturbed, where they will oflix them-
selves, and assume their natural curvatures.

A considerable nuniher of this particular species reached me during
several years from Shetland in safety, the distance being computed at
about 300 miles.*

Two of them survived seven months. Avoiding all violence, giv-
ing plenty of room, and fn^quently replenish in- their vessels, will
certainly contribute to their preservation. But the greatest difficulty is
detaching them with impunity from their natural site.

Those of smaller size are more convenient in all respects, both for
observation and conservation. They are more easily managed ; for large
specimens distending themselves, require very capacious vessels, and
great quantities of water.

The preceding detail has been derived from about sixty specimens
of the Holothuria penlactet.

In concluding the subject, I may remark, that, in common with
many others to which investigation is seldom devoted, we are dis-
turbed by anomalies interrupting the ordinary course of observation.
In one specimen, the Ani/m/fa Poliann, distended by a transparent fluid,

• I cannot omit thi» opportunity of cxprcwing my high obligation* to If r William
Merrilee* of Lenrick, to whom I am indebted for MOM of the moit valuable tubjocte de-
tcribed and represented in tbeM rolome*.

34 ECHINODEEMATA.

protruded about an inch and a quarter. Here the intestine was quite
yellow, and the ovarium simple white threads, or of the faintest yellow,
entirely empty.

Another, which I thought a specimen of the pentades, never exposed
the head for five months, nor did anything farther than mere tufts in-
distinctly appear. A representation of this animal was executed when
it had been eight months in my possession, Plate XII., fig. 1. It con-
tracted much during the five succeeding months, and some particles, as
if of decomposing parts, appeared in its vessel, resembling minute white
scales. At length, they lay in hundreds, none exceeding half a line in
length. Under the microscope, they proved dark, oval, convex, and
drilled with holes in considerable regularity, elliptical rows being within
each other. — Plate XII. fig. 2 ; Scales, a. — One more enlarged, b.

PLATE I. — Holothuria pentactes, the Sea Cucumber, Sea Pudding, — with
the tentacula displayed, as adhering by the suckers in its natural
position.

PLATE II.

Fio. 1. Holothwna pentactes, quiescent ; the tentacula withdrawn, and the
anterior extremity closed over them. Reduced from a specimen
twelve inches long.

2. Young specimen. Tentacula displayed, a.

3. Portion of a tentaculum, shewing the arrangement of the parts.

4. Another portion of a tentaculum.

5. A portion of the respiratory organs of a living specimen protruding

from a rupture of the lower part of the body, a, a, a, a.

6. Ova nearly mature.

7. Holothuria pentactes losing the intestinal parts, by a rupture near

the extremity of the body. Intestinal canal, a. Portion of the
respiratory organs, b. Tentacula contracted, c. Neck, d.

8. Portion of the intestinal organs escaping by a rupture. Immature

ropes of the ovarium, a.

IIOLOTHTRIA. 35

PLATE III.— Large specimen laid open, and moat of the internal organi-
sation removed — from a preparation by Mr Goadby. Reduced.

Pi.m: IV. — Internal organization of the II«l,,ihnria pentactet, as in a
preparation by Mr Goadby. Teiita.-ula contracted, a. Ampulla
J'«tiann, h. Intestinal canal, c. Portion of the ropes of the

•mm. • •.

PIATK V. — Intestinal organs exposed. Stomach everted, a. Intestinal
canal, b. M. >. nt.-i . . c. Portion of the respiratory tree, d.
Miutcular ligament* n\' the cloaca, e, — from a preparation by Mr
Goadby.

PI.ATK VI. — Respirator}' organs as dissected and prepared by Mr Goadby.
Orifice of the cloaca, a. Muscular ligaments, h, securing the cloaca
to the parietes of the body. Obtuse extremities of the tubular
organs, c. Ligaments securing the trunks to the parietes, d.

PLATE VII. — Ovarium of the Holothuria pentacte.*, from a dissection by
Mr Goadby.

PLATE XII.

Fio. 1. Small Holothuria.

2. Scale* upon the skin, a. Scale enlarged, b.

§ 2. HoLOTHURiA FUSUS. — The Spindle Sea Cucumber or Sweepvater.
— Pum* VIII.. IX., X., XL, XII.

On the I8tli of Noveintar, a specimen was recovered from the
north-eastern part of the Frith of Forth. It is of some consequence to
• late the leading incidents of natural history as done in these pages, both
because intervals of time are the grand regulators of the world, and the

36 ECHINODERMATA.

result of experiments and observations become deeply affected by the
seasons : also because the learned have been induced to credit the pe-
riodical migratory habits of various animals, which are, perhaps, alto-
gether stationary, or nearly so, on the spot where they originated.

This specimen extended somewhat as a misshapen pear two inches
in length, and nine lines through where thickest. It was universally in-
vested by a yellowish-brown shaggy coat hung loosely over it, with frag-
ments of weeds and shells also adhering to the surface. The covering,
like the coarse wool of a quadruped, relaxed into a multitude of papillae,
or, more correctly speaking, suckers, alternately stretching and contract-
ing, and ultimately affixing to the side of a glass vessel, where the speci-
men remained motionless for ten days. But the site proving unsuitable,
together with supervening vitiation of the element, rendered removal in-
dispensable,— which was effected by whirling the vessel rapidly round,
and the animal was liberated safely, by the suckers gradually losing their
adhesion. Having affixed itself again in another vessel better adapted
for such a subject, it resumed its pristine form. — Plate VIII. fig. 1.

All the Holothuriae of this and the preceding paragraph when dis-
engaged, assume a globular, ovoidal, or spherical form, under which they
float amidst the waters, or are rolled on the bottom below. They are
contracted to various dimensions, and moulded into different shapes,
gradually changing as they find themselves in positions of security, fig. 2.
But there is a difference so extraordinary between the quiescent
and the active animal, that the experienced only — those to whom no
alteration is new, are capable of declaring their identity previous to the
evolution of the parts. Who can anticipate that the purple, smooth,
and apparently lifeless mass which he leaves like an egg at twilight, shall
become a crescent, or a cylinder sometimes the length of his leg, ere the
break of dawn, unfolding a beautiful, luxuriant, arborescent apparatus
of many branches, which tranquilly sweeps through the water ? Hence
is it, perhaps, that older naturalists describe such creatures, beholding
them in the day, as motionless, and, although animated, differing but
little from plants.

But let us pass, per saltum, from the beginning of December to the

I /

.

•' : ? I-': : i

* ' * * «. V

;. ^i t V*V ; ; » l*\

' v ** ' * * •• t v i

t

.J

. 37

end of June, whereby we shall attain more intimate acquaintance witli
tin- trin- i-xt«-rnul structure of tin's singular being, which, concealing the
mo-t interesting features of its organization, has hitherto appeared only
in liisguise.

In tin- natural sound ami h«-altliy <-niiiliti»n. Mich a specimen as the
preceding adhere) in the form of a crescent to any solid MiK-iaiuc. tin-
body extending about three inches and a half. The anterior extremity
is quite obtuse. ami tin- posterior tapers almost to a point, while Imth
are somewhat raised above tin- eentrr nf the animal, whether it be
aflixed to the side or the bottom of the vend. When vigorous, the
Ilolnthuria is always a crescent, ami always in adhesion.

Tliis peculiar figure must be held a leading characteristic of many
species of Holothuriaj, and has been evidently assigned to it by the Au-
thor of the animal world, for the facility <>f discharging certain essential
functions. But the rarity of perfect specimens, and the ditliculty of
preserving them in vigour, have undoubtedly precluded the notice of
naturalists to so definite a feature. Sometimes the curvature equals a
home-shoe, therefore exceeding the proportions of a crescent .

For the most part, absolute quiescence prevails through the day.
How strange it is, that this and so many other tenants of the deep, should
thus seem to slumber, — that we might almost aftirm the sun had not been
created for a great multitude of the living world, as if light were unim-
portant to life ? But as he sinks beneath the horizon, the anterior of the
quiescent Holothuria swelling into still greater convexity, at length
opens to protrude a beautiful complex apparatus, as a substitute adapted
for the head and the hands of other creatures standing higher in tlie ani-
mal scale. Eight luxuriant, arborescent tentacular organs, each as long
as the whole body, besides two antennulse of smaller dimensions, are un-
folded in the form of a funnel stretching beyond the shoulder. AH
these organs radiate from the circumference of a short osseous and carti-
laginous cylinder or case, with an orifice denoting the month in the
centre. The whole apparatus, released from concealment. i> externally
expanded and withdrawn at will. — Plates IX., X.

n, after display of this complex apparatus, the tentacula, ex-

38 ECHINODERMATA.

panded to their utmost dimensions, are observed sweeping successively
through the water. One of them then curving its extremity inwards,
the central orifice dilates to receive it, wherein, after its size diminish-
ing, it is absorbed almost to the root. While thus occupied, one of the
antennular organs likewise curves into the orifice, and both are evidently
engaged below. Next, the arborescent tentaculum still reduced in size,
returns to expand anew, and the antennula follows it. Now, another
tentaculum contracts and curves to penetrate the orifice, left vacant by
the former, wherein it is also speedily followed by the second antennula.
Both are employed within, and their functions being discharged, both
return to resume their original figure and dimensions.

Before indulging any conjectures on the real object to be accom-
plished by such remarkable evolutions, a general view of the parts en-
gaged in them may be taken, by which means more skilful physiologists
will be aided in determining their purpose.

What I here denominate the cylinder or case, which bearing the ten-
tacula is extruded beyond the body, is in itself a compound organization
of considerable complexity.

When the tentacula are partly contracted during quiescence of the
animal, the origin of this cylinder as the whole issues from the body ap-
pears, Plate VIII., fig. 2, c. If the case or cylinder be entirely detached
from the animal, several bony or shelly receptacles are seen around its cir-
cumference, into which the tentacula, b, are retracted, and the whole
then withdrawn within the body, which is closed over it.

The lower part of this apparatus is united to the intestine, and here
also appears the transparent vessel or Ampulla Poliana.

On narrower inspection the channels seem partly osseous, and partly
cartilaginous. They are white circumferential sheaths receiving the in-
active tentacula.

The central orifice is susceptible of great dilatation ; it communicates
through the oesophagus with the intestine, towards one side of which,
connected with the cylinder, is the transparent vessel, Plate XI., fig. 7,
a. The eight arborescent tentacula issue from the higher circumference
of the case or cylinder at regular intervals, unless at one point, where

HOLOTHUUI \

two stand farthiT ajuirt to allow tin- intervention of the two antennuhe
between them, Plat.- IX. From the arrangement and multiplicity of
part* in the tentacula. l»>th in the earlie.st ami lat«-t di^.lay, and espe-
cially in maturity, tln-y seem a vegetable product. Collti -ti\« -1\ . nothing
can be more luxuriant and beautiful.

During quiescence only the shaggy coat investing the whole lx«l\ i-
seen ; but as the llolothuria rouses itself from its passive state, and tin
Cylinder U-gins to protrude, the contracted tentacula may be compared
to the head* of asparagus in early vegetation. They drvdope very slowly
ami progressively into their most ample dimensions, at last displaying
an indefinite number of sul>ordinate part*, as de|>rndi-nt <>n si/.*-, on age,
or maturity. I do not know that I have ever M-VII those of any specimen
in perfeetion ; nor can 1 present the reader with an adequate delineation
of them in lull luxuriance, or of that interesting puq>le hue which in
their peculiar character.

The rib or stem of the tentaculum is enrironed by branches gradually
shortening as they ri*e upwards to the summit, and each of these branches
b environed by twigs disposed after similar form and fashion, which
also have their own subordinate parts. An extraordinary profusion of
the whole decorates adults, wherein it may be discovered that the general
outline of all is conical.

No farther distinction between the tentacula and the antuniiula* w
to be recognised than the difference of size and proportions of the indi-
vidual parts of the latter, which divide into two principal limli.-. each
partitioning into five or six branches more bushy than those of the former
Plate XI., fig. 3, tentaculum ; fig. 4, antennula enlarged.

This llolothuria is the most timorous of creatures. It i.- only while
in conscious security, and especially during the stillness of nijit . that t he-
beautiful complex arborescent apparatus thus unfolds In-fur.- tin- .-{icctator.
Then it becomes a wide shallow funnel, the orifice in the ci-ntn- I wing
the mouth, towards which the incurving tentacula are always sucoa»n< l\
directed. The width of expansion depends on the capacity of the vessel,
and the position of the funnel un the protrusion of the cylinder, \\ln- n
assumes various degrees of inclination, and appears sometimes at right

40 ECHINODERMATA.

angles to the adhering body. Though in itself rigid, this shelly organi-
zation is flexible in relation to the other parts, from the pliancy of the
lower intestinal portion, from which it originates.

Each tentaculum is independent of its fellow, and each subordinate
member, branch, or twig, is free of all the rest. The funnel is constituted
by the common expansion of the whole, and for this the night is chiefly
chosen. But so timid is the creature, that amidst the fullest display
and the most ample exercise of its arborescent organs, while sweeping
through the water in obvious enjoyment of renovated invigoration, the
slightest shock, or an approaching taper, though there be no eyes to be-
hold it, interrupts the tentacular evolutions ; the cylinder recedes, the
branches contract, and the whole apparatus, now resembling a rich
cluster of rye grass, is quickly withdrawn. In disappearing from view,
the shaggy coat closes over it, without leaving a trace of the opening
whence it had issued.

Then will the animal remain in pertinaceous retreat, not only for
the coming night, but for several ensuing.

It may seem extraordinary that such a large and complex organiza-
tion shall be reduced so expeditiously, as to be confined within the
cavity of the body undistended by its reception ; or, speaking more cor-
rectly, that each tentaculum shall be received in its shelly sheath, not
exceeding six or seven lines in length, and scarcely one in diameter.

But all the arrangements of nature are perfect in themselves. They
are so constructed, that neither check nor embarrassment shall impede
their application and use.

We may conclude that the infinite parts of the arborescent tentacu-
lum are tubular, that they are distended by a fluid in attaining their full
dimensions, which is suddenly discharged to operate their reduction.

The fact is shewn in the detail of their formation, exposed by the
origin or root of the respective members. While displayed, the whole
quickly collapsing, are withdrawn : When returning to resume their
evolution, absorption replenishing the cavities adapts them for their
proper functions.

It is thus that the great Architect provides for his marvellous works.

I /

II. Mil

.",/ . *J

HnLOTHfKIA. 41

In investigating the precise purpose of all this apparatus, its singular
• •volutions, its periodical display and concealment, we can find no solid
bans whereon to rest any probable conjectures. We behold it again and
•gain, we admire its uniformity, yet without reaching any satisfactory

hisions. We doubt whether the discharge of such functions be for
an alimentary or a respiratory object, or for something else.

With rare exception, the funnel of this particular species of Holo-
thuria never expands through the day. Evening always comes, and the
niu'lit is often far advanced before the creature begins to sweep the water,
ami :iK-nrl> the organs so employed. Now it is aroused to action — at
that same season appointed for awakening the tenants of the deep from
their diurnal repose. Then it is that the green eye of fishes rolls keenly
in ite golden socket after tht-ir weaker prey — that the urchin, affixing its
countless cables, pierces the indurated casements protecting their tender
inmates — that the stellate hunter, in redoubled speed, glides along by its
extended suckers, to crush the yielding shells amidst its limbs, and de-
vour their contents. Then, also, do the ravenous Crustacea become
fiercer against each other, or overpower their common victims. It is
especially during night that the Sea long worm unfolds whole yards of
its unmanageable sinuosities in quest of food, or for change of shelter,
while its lesser fellows abandon their secret haunts, as if to recreate them-
selves from the tedious restraint which the presence of light has imposed
upon them. Whether it bo for obtaining sustenance — whether, if such
be their nature, to seek a mate — whether to construct some curious edi-
fice, whereof heaven has made them the innate architects— or be it
merely to sport amidst the waters, — night is alike the season for excur-
sions of enjoyment and occupation, whereas the day of the upper world
is devoted to rest. Nay, so inherent is this instinctive nature, so evi-
dent this peculiarity, that the sun has scarcely passed the meridian, when
certain tribes begin to betray their restlessness, and seem ready to put
themselves in motion.

All these facts, combined with the singular mechanical exercise of
the external arborescent organs of the Holothuria, suggest the proba-
bility of their being designed for some alimentary oflice.

f

42 ECHINODERMATA.

The nature of the food, however, without ocular demonstration,
can only give birth to infinite conjectures. We cannot forget the ex-
treme timidity of the animal, which seems entirely to exclude living
prey. Likewise, the extreme delicacy of the tentacula apparently adapted
for entrapping only the smallest and weakest creatures, if that be the
mode of capture — the most defenceless and least resisting, — presuming the
Holothuria to be carnivorous, of which there is no evidence. By a com-
mon law, with few exceptions, the vast preponderance of aquatic animals
become each other's prey. The stronger overpower the weaker ; the
boldest fall the victims of artifice. So few are sustained on vegetable
products exclusively, that all may be said to perish as alternate sacrifices.
Many are devoured alive by enemies of such contemptible appearance,
as to form but specks in relative dimensions ; and some, though not
courageous enough to attack the living, feed greedily on the dead. By
the immutable ordinances of nature, incessant deperdition and incessant
reproduction prevail, whether on the earth, or amidst the waters.

But how can the Holothuria be an animal of prey ? The presence
of a trifling insect seems to fill it with alarm, restraining evolution
of its arborescent organs ; and the contact of any extraneous, though
diminutive substance, commonly leads to their entire retraction from
view.

Neither experiment nor observation regarding the food of the Holo-
thuria has proved satisfactory. The intestine is always full of a soft
brown or yellowish matter, and dark pellets are sometimes found in its
vessel, but under great irregularities in everything.

Amidst infinite trials to preserve the life and vigour of different
specimens, I cannot affirm that any substance whatever has been accep-
table. Many particles of animal and vegetable matter were occasionally
brought in contact, or within reach, of the arborescent tentacula, which,
having rather an adhesive than a prehensile faculty, might convey them
towards the mouth. Likewise, when the weather was genial, and the
whole funnel finely displayed, I have dropped some fragments of mussel
gently on the tentacula. Their contact apparently excited a slight effort
in these organs to seize and convey them to the orifice of the mouth ;

\

"

.

I /

IIOLOTHURIA. 43

and in this way several were abeorbed suooewivcl\ . Next evening, a
larger piece was rejected, being perhaps unmanageable, for it was re-
tained a long time among the branches. Small portions of worm*
dropped over the mouth in the course of other evenings were swallowed ;
but of many attempt* to induce any specimen to feed, few were success-
ful ; so few, that 1 mu.*t rather ascribe them to accident. Fragments
fulling on the orili.v frequently rested across the roots of the tentacula,
whose evolutions, sweeping through the water, or curving into the inte-
rior, continued ; and they were sometimes suddenly retracted. These
experiments were carefully made with the specimen represented Plate IX.
in jwrticular, besides with others. But at length, from apprehensions of
injury, though perhaps groundless, such art ificial supplies were abandoned,
und that animal left to shift for itself as usual. After a considerable
time, when it began to pine, and became reduced, they were renewed,
yet not more satisfactorily ; and very seldom could it be said to have
fed. Nevertheless dark pellets, apparently fiscal, were seen in the ven-
ae!, ;LS if consequent on the supplies.

Concerning this subject, which w so important in aiding the re-
searches of the naturalist, we should remember, that the choice of many
animals, whether carnivorous or phytovorous, is most fastidious. Some
rather perish than receive that of which others are insatiable, for nature
has determined it to be unsuitable in respect to them. Perhaps the
whole carnivorous Mollusca and Vermes prefer the flesh of such aquatic
animals as have the least resemblance to themselves. Other tribes, such
as the Crustacea and Echini, devour whatever they can master. The
former are perfect cannibals — making no nice selections, and feeding
even on shelly substances. Numerous varieties of every kind, however,
were offered to the llolothuria, without my being able to ascertain that
which might be adapted for its sustenance.

It cannot be supposed that a large compact fleshy animal attain*
the ample dimensions and weight of the llolothuria, without an ade-
quate supply of food. The quantum of animal matter in a Holothuria.
may be equivalent to what is in a rat or a weasel : or, indeed, the
largest species inhabiting the >••••! i-h seas may, be compared to a small

44 ECHINODERMATA.

cat among quadrupeds. More of the tenants of the same waters are per-
haps rather under it than above it. Thus, such creatures must have suffi-
cient subsistence, of whatever kind it may be, and however obtained.

A learned author indeed, already quoted, the Professor Delle Chiaie,
to whose minute anatomy of the Holothuria science is deeply indebted,
seems to conclude, that the ah'ment of these animals is chiefly vegetable
and miscellaneous subtances, in saying, " Le Oloturie cibansi di figli, di
coralline, di alghe, di arena e di altre immondezze di mare."* But such
would be rather indigestible ingredients, whence it is not improbable that
heterogeneous matter of the kind, instead of being the subject of choice,
may be intermingled with or adhering to animal substances, and swallowed
along with them : Nor is so great an exception to general rules admis-
sible without farther evidence. No naturalists of my acquaintance,
among the few having had opportunities of dissecting this animal, found
any definite remains in its intestines ; and whatever I may have myself
observed, might be rather referred to the residue of substances purely
animal, than to vegetable or zoophytical products.

The food of the Holothuria seems still problematical.
Nevertheless, the tentacular evolutions are too remarkable — too pe-
culiar a feature — and altogether unexampled, in as far as I know, among
living beings, not to excite great curiosity regarding their specific pur-
poses. The incurvature of these organs ensues alternately, not succes-
sively, in regular order following the first in action : but the same ten-
taculum is never observed to descend twice into the orifice of the mouth ;
one or two of the circular series always intervenes. However, one of the
antennulae uniformly descends after a tentaculum is down, and the other
frequently replaces this tentaculum when withdrawn. Sometimes both
antennulae remain a short time below, after the tentaculum has returned :
and their office there evidently occupies them much longer than that
of the tentaculum, which always rises speedily to resume its full dimen-
sions from the contracted state. With this alternate or successive exer-
cise the animal continues engaged whole hours, after a manner both to
the entertainment and admiration of the spectator.

* Delle Chiaie, Descrizione Zoologica ed Anatomica de Alcuni Specie di Oloturia, § 8.

•

HOLOTHURIA j:,

Future observers may discover the genuine functions of them

which are at present very doubtful. All the authors whose word* I
have in recolle. -timi. except the NeapolitAii professor, assign a tentacular
office, or what is equivalent to feeling in the larger animals, an their
nature, while he conjoins something respiratory along with it.* To
this, however, as will afterwards appear, there are certain relevant ob-
jection.-v N'e\erthele«*, tin- Mj.imoM iif -.1 learned .-uitl iniluMrinus a na
turuli»t merits liiirli consideration.

During '|iiiescence of the Holothuria, the tentacula occupy the nar-
row circumferential channels of the cylinder, which is retracted within
the c.-i\ityof the l»ody. Their display is extremely irregular, and is

• •Hen so transient that it ma\ MM! '|iiite i-aprii-iiiii n<.r < — eiilial :

the necessities of the animal. A specimen obtained in June, flouted an
if tupjid with water. The tentacula sometimes protruded like a purple
plume, along with some part of the cylinder. But they were never seen
completely expanded until the subsequent March, that is, for nine
iii'iiiih-. This specimen afterwards displayed them occasionally during
the whole day in full vigour, — an incident which occurs very rarely.
Another specimen procured in December, was not observed to display
the tentacula before the end of March. These two specimens sometimes
assumed the form of a horse-shoe, when the two ends, from the great
curvature of the body, came almost in contact.

The destruction of any resisting prey is irreconcileable with the ex-
traordinary timidity of this creature. It is firmly rivet tod to the -put
of its selection by numerous suckers, which, in the present instance,
constitute the shaggy coat investing it. An adhesive faculty also at-
taches shells or fuci to the whole body, when coming in contact. All
tliis is spontaneous, but sooner than quit its hold by violence, the llolo
thuria will submit to the severest injuries, even to absolute destruction
Thence may be understood the difficulty of obtaining specimens entire
Were it bold and carnivorous, the same powerful adhesion mijiht enable

* Drlle Chiait'i Obeervations were made on m tpecae* different from mine. After
describing the internal respiratory organs connected with the intestinal canal, be MJI,
" the tentacula are also the medium of the respiration of these admirable being*," $ 4.

46 ECHINODERMATA.

the Holothuria to seize and retain animals larger than itself, and pos-
sibly render them its prey.

Attempting to solve the question of aliment, has led me into this
prolix detail, for the purpose of shewing of what importance it would be
to naturalists studying the properties of living beings, which, indeed,
is the best foundation of zoology. Though some creatures survive in-
credibly long without visible sustenance, perhaps secreting an invisible
pabulum from the circumambient fluid, all nature opposes the perma-
nence of life without nutrition ; thus, however gradual the decline, it
prevails at last.

The body of this species of Holothuria is totally covered by flexible,
extensile papillse, alike instrumental in adhesion, and in aiding progres-
sion. It is by their means that an artificial shelter can be framed occasion-
ally of the fragments of shells and fuci. Doubts have originated whether
others, such as the Holothuria inhcerens, do not occupy a tube with a
close extremity. But I have seen nothing to indicate that any of the
tribe are so protected. Most specimens are bare, though thefusus is al-
ways disposed to attach fragments within reach of the papillse or
suckers to the body.

During quiescence, or while floating, the skin resembles shagreen,
the suckers being scarcely, if at all, prominent. When somewhat pro-
longed, the whole body is invested by a woollen-like coat, and when, ex-
ercising their proper functions, they extend about three lines, with the
extremity applied as an enlarged disc to some solid adjacent surface,
Plate XI. fig. 2.

The number of these organs is great, but it has not been ascertained
that those of this species are distributed in any regular arrangement ;
they overspread the whole skin. In certain species of Holothurise they
are disposed in definite rows, or longitudinal bands, specifically cha-
racteristic. On gross computation the suckers of this specimen, Plate IX.,
exceeded two thousand. When disengaged they are very flexible, mov-
ing freely around, and each has an independent action. When occu-
pied in fixture, it appears, from the most accurate microscopic observa-
tion practicable, that this is a simple application of the extremity some-

BO LOT HU BI A. 47

what enlarged in trumpet shape ; and that the intermediate portion in a
inuricate or tuberculate cylinder. Possibly subordinate organization
might be discovered in the flattened disc ; but the opportunities of bring-
ing any part of the organ whatever under the microscope are so rare, as
to prove a great ol>-taele to inspection. \\ "ere there any question of
tht-ir solidity, they might l>e supposed absorbents, fojr the peculiar or-
ganization employed in this function is not obvious, — it goes on however
to a great «\ ^urn-times the flattened disc seemed reddish during

observation, and conjectures were entertained of the motion of globule.-
or a fluid in the cylindrical part. But the illusions concomitant on arti-
ficial aid are MI ready to disturb the truth, that the naturalist distrusting
himself cannot repeat his observations too carefully, or too often, before
arriving at definite conclusions. The microscope demands many pre-
cautions. Besides the numerous suckers anchoring the subject to the
•ides of its vessel, many free and disengaged stretch around in various
directions, as if in search of other objects. Several days frequently
elapse before weaker specimens affix themselves, therefore some exertion
>eems re.nii.Mte.

The animal being secured by adhesion of the suckers, it- ]x>sition it
seldom changed afterwards. Curvature of the crescent may augment or
diminish while adhering ; and adhesion ceasing, progression may ensue.
For a long time I was much perplexed as to the mode wherein this wan
accomplished. I could not form an opinion regarding the advance of
the one or the other extremity. From certain indications, and especially
from the inadequacy of the arborescent apparatus to encounter resist-
ance, I rather concluded that it must be the opposite extremity ; and
this fact was apparently corroborated by the timidity of the animal, and
ite singular care to protect the tentacula. But I was mistaken : the
Holothuria, as most natural to believe, advances head foremost, — and
with the arborescence displayed. Commencing progression, the sucker*
in front are relaxed, while those free behind are brought forward and
secured ; the former fix again, and the latter being loosened, the body is
advanced. Thus ore steps effected, and the transition of the Holothuria

48 ECHINODERMATA.

from place to place effected. The tentacula being always first rather
affords confirmation of the faculty indicated by their name.

During entire months a specimen will remain stationary and void
of all activity, unless in the evolution of these organs, and even this will
be restrained, as ahead}' said, by the presence of any other animated
being.

In common with other tenants of the deep, the Holothuria betrays
Us nocturnal habits with the decline of day. Only once in the course
of two years that the specimen of Plate IX. survived, were the tentacula
unfolded during the day ; nor did I ever see it in progression the whole
of that time. However, all are not alike timid. A small specimen
both disregarded the presence of part of an amphitrite in the same vessel,
and remained completely displayed a whole day. Originally it lay a
month dormant in an ovoidal form. After three months it evinced par-
ticular boldness, by allowing the vessel to be gently raised and swung in
the hand, without retracting its organs. A specimen of considerable size,
obtained on the sixth of June, never displayed its arborescent apparatus
completely before the tenth of March subsequent, when it formed a fine
funnel, of a crimson colour, two inches wide, and an inch and a half deep.
This animal was very pale, little darker than yellowish grey ; somewhat
larger than the specimen Plate IX., therefore the branches were hardly
full grown. It became grayer, and the tentacula coloured between lake
and crimson. At length they came to be constantly displayed, though
from the excessive timidity of the animal, the slightest shock occasioned
their disappearance.

Thus, some slight variation is seen in the habits of the Holothuria,
preserved under observation, just as betrayed among the domestic ani-
mals familiar to us. They are timid or they are bold. The common
nature of a genus is somewhat diversified in its species : and great dis-
crepancies shewn by individuals, denote the difference of temperament
gradually leading to a separation.

But there is little interest to be found in such descriptive remarks.
Naturalists have indulged in scarcely any other of the Holothuria. I say

IIOLOTIiriUA. t:»

there is little interesting here compared with some very remarkable
phv-i»lc.'.;jral anomalies presented hy tliis animal.

The aspe<-t nf tin- specimen, Plate VIII. fiic. 1, — its resemblance to
:m elongated pear, with a villous coating when first procured, will be
recollected. Between a fortnight and three weeks from its acquisition.
the tentacular apparatus imperfectly expanded, protruded for the first
time alon-r with the cylinder, from the upper part of the body. Next
•lay a large proportion of the intestine, descending from it, came
forth also ; and the animal having crawled up the side of the vessel,
allowed most of the investing shelly fragments to fall off. No external
symptoms of suffering were demonstrated ; yet it was reasonable to
apprehend that these, and some other marks of weakness, were the pre-
lude of decay : and this apprehension was aggravated by the separation
of all the organs protruded from the body, on emptying the vessel for
replenishment. Still, the Holothuria seemed no more affected now than
before. Assuming an oblique position, it rose on the side up to the very
edge of the water. Hut, instead of ascending higher, it remained atlixed
immoveaUy to the glass, for the water is never quitted by this spe<

Following the history of the detached organs : — the tentacula roue
from the extruded mass like crimson tufts, and the whole testified signs
of vitality for several days. When removed to another vessel, death
and decomposition ensued, as might have been expected.

But a premonition of no slight utility was afforded here, evincing
the liability of even the most practised naturalist to error. Muller.
whose name is justly enrolled with those of the highest order, deluded
by certain fallacies, on beholding the upper portion of such a mass, deter-
mined it to be a perfect animal, which he distinguished as the Holothuria
pcnicillus. Repeated opportunity and patient investigation can alone
discover the truth amiiNt amliiirnities. Tin- IliJuifnn-i'i /,.//;<•/////». t<>
which a place was long assigned as a distinct species, must be then-Inn'
now expunged from the Syslema Nature.

So many extraordinary instances of complete renovation of n.
tive organs had been witnessed in the course of years, and of such as
were endowed with all the faculties of those they replaced, that, after

50 ECHINODERMATA.

brief survivance of this specimen unaltered, I began to entertain expecta-
tions that Nature had something in preparation here. Such, indeed,
would be a wonderful effort : yet, during subsistence of the vital prin-
ciple, her energies are incessant and inexhaustible.

Mutilation had occurred on the fourth of December. From the
fourteenth of that month, the body remained stationary, rather lower
than the surface of the water, only extending itself on replenishment of
the vessel — a precaution never to be neglected in any circumstances.
Even then every foreign substance, on reaching the villous coating, was
retained as firmly as before.

On the twenty-fifth of February, or eleven weeks subsequent to the
date of mutilation, reproduction had made advances, — short, transparent,
regenerated tentacula were displayed ; but very bare in comparison with
their precursors and the luxuriance of maturity, for they had only a
few lateral twigs. — All were speedily withdrawn. Nevertheless, enough
was discovered to prove that the subject had not sustained any essential
injury, from the violent disruption of so large and important an organic
mass.

In the course of time some vermiculi had found harbour in the ves-
sel, and about the animal itself, which might be injured by their decay.
Their presence might also restrain the display of the regenerating parts.
By artificially vitiating the water with slight putrescence, all these noxi-
ous visitors were induced to forsake their haunts, and, rising to the sur-
face, could be readily removed.

On the 27th of the month, the new tentacula were fully exhibited,
when they consisted of eight, the proper complement, besides the two
antennulae, all rising from a short white regenerated cylinder. Each ten-
taculum extended about nine lines, or three quarters of an inch, and was
provided with 16 or 18 subordinate twigs : the whole quite colourless,
but distinctly seen while slowly withdrawn, Plate X. In another week
they exceeded an inch. During the subsequent fortnight their progress
was still more rapid, as they could not have been inscribed in a circle of
less than three inches diameter. Their structure had become more com-
plex, they were discovered waving in their element, and they were tinged

HOLOTIiriUA. 61

the faintest red. Fifteen weeks having elapsed from the date of mutila-
tion. the regenerated portion had not only recovered its most important
organ*. J>ut all these were discharging the wonted natural function-,
-wcvpin:: tin- water, then curvim: int.. tin- mouth, which dilated for their
reception, and contract iui: :»••* they withdrew.

Thus did increment gradually advance. The ramification*, aug-
menting both in size and number, were stained with lake coloured
patches, especially at the angles, and on the thirteenth of June, when.
having attained nearly tlieir ultimate dimensions, the funnel which they
formed occupied a circle of about five inches in diameter, Plate IX.

In this manner was the whole of such a singular, beautiful, and
complicated faKric reproduced from its very origin, while a fortunate
concurrence of ciivum.-tances permitted uninterrupted observation of its

Though the parts exposed externally were so conspicuous, and no
in t en-jit ing, they enlarged still farther ; hut I cannot affirm that the\
ever attained the dimensions of a full grown specimen, or the colour
proper to the subject or the species. The arborescence was neither so
luxuriant nor so dark. After eighteen months' increment the hue was
only deepening. That of the largest specimens probably tends either to
red, or to some combination wherein red is predominant.

Perhaps in its native state, in its orginal abode, and with ample
congenial sustenance, reproduction might have advanced quicker, and
with deeper colours. On the other hand, the higher temperature of
an apartment than of the sea ought to promote more speedy organic
evolution. Let it be remembered also, that nascent organization is always
paler, and that the elements of the animal creation are hidden in trans-
parency. Whatever be the colour peculiar to the embryonic stages, the
you HIT llolothuria is perfectly white some time after exclusion from the

The specimen Plate XL, fig. 1, was of the palest grey, the tentacula
quite transparent, and as long as the body. The same is seen of others,
— one much smaller, for example, which, when they were retracted,
might be compared to a large grain of corn. The tentacula of each v

52 EOHINODERMATA.

quite as long as the body, and the same evolutions exhibited by them
as in the adult. In minute specimens the cylinder is perfectly white.
Indeed, so far as I can judge, white is the colour of the nascent Holo-
thuria, and some never darken. Certainly intensity of colour is not a
definite characteristic of an infinity of marine animals, whence naturalists
must beware of denying identity from the discrepancy of specimens in
this respect. But it is undoubted that the arborescent organization mul-
tiplies with the size and age of the specimens, or in proportion to the
period of its own subsistence. Hence their true luxuriance, beauty,
and symmetry have never been hitherto disclosed by the hand of art.

The loss and regeneration of such an assemblage of important parts,
those whereon the sustenance and safety of the animal apparently de-
pend, affords an ample field for the profoundest meditation. That beings
so humble are yet so privileged ; that those inferior works of creation,
as they are designed by the ignorant arrogance of mankind, should be
enabled to bear privations with impunity which would be inevitable
death to the strongest tenants of the earth, might argue their superi-
ority among the special favourites of Nature.

The history of this individual, so prolific of interesting incidents,
received various corroborations of the genuine nature of the Holothuria,
from other examples witnessed in different specimens, which shall be
postponed for the present, that the narrative may not be interrupted.
Such corroborations will be the more valued, considering the rarity of
these products, and the extreme difficulty of obtaining them entire.

Looking back to May 15th, just about six months after the capture
of the specimen, for we had advanced above a year beyond that incident,
it had altered its form together with its position in the vessel. The ob-
tuse anterior, now close, adhered to the side, while the sharper posterior
extremity, somewhat lower, projected towards the center of the vessel.
From the shortness of the curvature below, together with the unequal
height of the two extremities, the whole bore some general resemblance
to a bird's fountain.

During the night a greenish albuminous mass, consisting of at least
5000 eggs, had been discharged by the Holothuria, and now lay under the

I /

13

• • •

* * • <

» • • •

I

10

17

•.

• f f

• •

\

n

Y

y

X'

•

HO LOTH fill A.

creature. All were splirni-.il. the fifth or sixth of a line in diameter. «.f
an olive colour, and containing a dark speck in the cvntre. — Plat*- XI
fig. 5., portion of spawn slightly enlarged ; fig. 6, more enlarged.
U hen lir-t oloerve.!. the ova seemed to be discharged from the acute or
posterior extremity of the animal, where the oviduct might have been
supposed to terminate. Hut it is not in that place, it is nearer the root
of the prutnulctl tentacula ; nor do the ova thus escape.

They then rose with such force as to reach the surface of the
water, two or three inches above that orifice ; and in falling, accumu-
lated below on the bottom of the vessel, around the curvature of the
body. Some were apparently absorbed in the orifice when they fell
down, and thence a second projection or apparent discharge ensued.

However, on weighing all the conn mutant circumstances, I with in-
duced to conclude, that the apparent absorption was only a reception —
an accidental one from the position, and the course of the organs and
the ova.

\V.- have already spoke of the stream ejected by the //olothumi
pentactes, which may be of long continuance, from the absorbing and
discharging faculty : also of the probability, that the respiratory organs
are benefited by this process. Many aquatic animals, and among them
the Holothuria, give ocular demonstration of it, by the formation of a
vortex in their element. For this some are provided with external,
some with internal organs. But the observer must beware of delusion, by
the mere revolution of buoyant particles on a considerable surface, which
often ensues, particularly in open shallow vessels, from invisible currents
of air, alternations of temperature, and the like.

A gentle vortex was sensible in the vessel of this Holothuria, on
the evening which preceded its spawning. In the next place, more
forcible resumption of the jet having disturbed the falling or the fallen
ova, conducted them upwards by its force, and then some of them fell
back accidentally into the orifice, from which the water was discharged.

Although the greater portion of the spawn formed a mass consist-
ing of ova imbedded in gelatinous matter, many floated separately
among the water. This happens frequently, either from their beinj.

54 ECHINODERMATA.

originally, or detached subsequently. Four months after the present
copious spawning, eighty or ninety ova, pure white to the naked eye,
though exposing a dark central nucleus, were found, principally on a leaf
with which the parent had invested itself. They were imbedded in a
transparent gelatinous substance, whence all were detached on changing
the water, and floated with nearly the same specific gravity.

Notwithstanding every precaution to preserve it on both occasions,
none of the spawn proved fertile, which is to be the more regretted, as
the early history of the Holothuria, and particularly the progressive evo-
lution of the original organization, is yet unexplained.

Regarding the latter, there are probably some equivalent data, indi-
cating the uniform process which may guide the first evolution of the ten-
tacula, and that attending their regeneration. All the parts are succes-
sively developed. This specimen had undergone an extraordinary
mutilation, which was not fatal. The renovating organs were much
advanced hi May of the second year of its custody, which had then con-
tinued about eighteen months : and in the course of the succeeding
months, when nearly in its greatest vigour, about twenty-four lateral
branches sprung from each stem of the tentacula, the higher being
merely twigs ; the others abbreviated in proportion to their distance
from the cylinder. The second on the stem of some was longer than
the first or lowest. Towards the latter part of June, flitting crimson
patches occasionally stained the whole arborescent apparatus ; and in
the earlier days of July, the reddish colour was more predominant than
previously.

From the first of September the size of the animal diminished.
Though displayed on the 8th, and sometimes subsequently, the branches
manifested less vigorous action. Their scope was confined. Yet distension
of the body to almost its natural size, attended renewal of the water on
the 13th ; the antennulae were in feeble operation ; also the cylinder
protruded feebly, with the tentacula reduced to a tuft, as if too weak
for evolution ; and the whole apparatus was soon withdrawn. But the
body became distended and pellucid as before, without displaying the
organs.

noun ii mi \

V \t morning, the Ixxly. much reduced, hung perpendicularly down
the .-ide ot' tin- vessel, while tin- rylindt-r protruded along with some
inte.-tiuul portion ; ami this prolapsus gradually augmented. Yet the
brunches were still partially unfolded in the feeblest exercise. — Pluto
VI 11. lig. 3.

In the evening the whole organic mass separated from the body,
and fell into a \vatdi-glass which had been introduced to receive it.

When extricated from its convolutions, the intestine proved to be
ju-t live inches loii^ by a line in diameter, nearly equal throughout, but
enlarging slightly from the cylinder. Now, the hard or shelly portion
w;is discovered to con.-i.-t of the union of a circle of hollow tlattish piece-.
The Ampulla Pttliana, Plate XI. fig. 7. hung from below. Such organs
without the ovurium, commonly appear somewhat as Plate XI. fig. 8,
which shews the intestinal parts separated from another specimen. The
separate arborescent apparatus of one is seen, Plate XII. fig. 3 : and the
shelly sheath, a, I ; Ampulla Poiiana, c ; and intestine (of another), fig. 4.
Here the dark belt denotes the lower part of the tentacula. Only a por-
tion of the cylinder, with its tentacular sheaths, was preserved.

The tufts formed by the contracted tentacula still testified a ten-
dency to their ordinary functions, spite of separation from the body.

Next day the sac or integument which had contained all the inte-
rior, adhered slightly to the side ; on the subsequent morning, it lay at
the bottom of the vessel A yellow bunch of filaments, constituting the

mated or immature ovarium, protruded from the anterior extremity.
It resembled a mass of coarse threads, some of them folded double ; and
this also separated with a brown intestinal portion. Remarkable enough
to observe, the animal, under so great a mutilation, yet shifted its place,
but weakening more, and shortening to an inch, it was transferred to
spirit of wine, wherein it scarcely contracted farther with the extinction
of life.

This specimen survived exactly twenty-two months under observa-
tion. Had it remained in its native abode, or had it been even in a
vigorous condition at the date of the latter, the second intestinal priva-
tion, there is much probability that the important organs then lost would

56 ECHINODERMATA.

have been regenerated. We know that these were the second set which
had been generated in the sac, the first having separated within a month
of the original acquisition of the animal.

New and most interesting illustrations of the reproductive process
advancing in living adult animals, are afforded by the preceding narra-
tive. They shew, not merely that a creature of considerable size, and
complex organization, may survive the loss of many important parts,
whereon exclusively the vital functions might be supposed dependent,
and that during a long interval, without perishing, but that these will be
regenerated entire. Nay, that a second loss, apparently of equal extent
and importance, may ensue, yet leaving us to presume, that it also will
be repaired.

Nevertheless, that such mutilation results from some natural pro-
cess or condition incident to the animal, is void of all probability, for it
must be rather ascribed to accidental causes, or consequent on something
beyond the course of those physiological arrangements regulating the
ordinary existence of living beings. Perhaps, like rupture of the sac of
the Holothuria pentactes, it follows exposure to a certain degree of con-
straint or violence unknown.

There are certain animals, it is true, which lose and regain impor-
tant parts, because those originally developed in their system may be of
insufficient strength or permanence to accompany them throughout life ;
or, as seen in the larger tribes, they may be lost and regained periodically,
the new serving to discharge the functions of the old. Likewise the
organs of certain creatures, few in the beginning, multiply continually by
new evolution during a long portion, if not the whole of their life. By a
singular natural process also, propagation of the race may be carried on
simply by a fragment separating from the body of the parent, wherein
the organs are for a time latent, and then visibly developed for essential
purposes, as well as proving resemblance to the animal when entire.
These, and other similar peculiarities, open to the view of the admiring
naturalist additional sources of wonder at the arrangements which may
affect individual form without affecting life. But that divulsion, rending
the very intestines with a great complex organic mass from the body of

HOLOTlirKI \

the Ilnlothuria seems of (jiiitc u dillm-nt i-lmructer, — at leut M far M
hitherto proved by obaenution.

It i> e\ident, howe\er. tlmt the reproductive energies with which
this curious animal is endowed are of the most powerful kind.

Tin- preceding facts, diligently noted on their occurrence, were con-
tiriiuil \>y other exjimples throughout a course of years. Therefore,
notwithstanding tin- detail, perhaps too prolix, already given, I shall add
a few illustrations relative to the various features distinguishing the na-
ture of this species of the Ilolothuria. They must be considered only
as detaelu-d remarks, collected from irregular opportunities of observa-
tion. not as discussion from a connected narrative.

The HiJotli iiriii fnxif* dwells in the northern seas, about Orkney
and Shetland, also in the estuury of the Forth, where it occurs occasion-
ally. though very rarely, as for up as opposite to the city of Edinburgh,
and lives in different places down to the open ocean. It is probably
more abundant in certain districts, for Nature seems to have appointed
a particular region as more congenial to each different tribe of her ani-
mated products. If so, why should a creature be rare whose progeny
may amount to 5000 in a single season ? Those reaching me, indeed,
were recovered only by chance ; but, if memory serves, I learned in
March 1838, from a skilful naturalist, Professor Goodsir, that during a
violent storm on the first of the same month, numbers were cast ashore
i1 A nst rut her Easter, in the county of Fife.

Five specimens were at that time in my possession.

The colour of the Holothuria obtained, in as far as I could discover
from deep water or the open sea, is white, and thence of every shade to
dark grey ; the arborescent apparatus then seems to be dark crimson.
The animals are besides sometimes of a straw -yellow colour.

The body in good specimens is three inches or little more in length,
and in these the tentucula in full display extend as much, being quite as
long as the body. Specimens seldom occur of larger size. But tin-
may be from the persons employed in their pursuits of the fishery fail-
ing to resort to places the most favourable for increment. Such speci-

58 ECHINODERMATA.

mens will prove the source of many entertaining, instructive, and inte-
resting observations.

There is extraordinary difficulty in determining the difference of
species of an animal appearing in such disproportion as the extension
and contraction of the tumid and empty Holothuria. The identity of
the species may be most readily mistaken : also there may be varieties
which require to be seen under the most favourable conditions.

From various circumstances, I feel little surprised that the species
of the Holothuria are multiplied infinitely beyond the truth. If I my-
self be not mistaken in regard to species, I must conjecture that the
Holothuria fusm extends a foot in length when full grown. The body
of a specimen, nearly white, extended eight inches by about fifteen lines
in diameter. It was almost cylindrical throughout, with very obtuse
extremities. It assumed a curvature at the bottom of a jar. The ten-
tacula, of a reddish colour, were never completely displayed : a gangrene
consumed the skin of the lower extremity, and the animal died in five
weeks.

Another specimen taken considerably eastward of the Isle of May,
was of dingy brown, and five inches long in its contracted state. It
survived but a short time, and died without evolution of the organs.
Many specimens are dark grey. Could the fishermen be credited, the
dimensions of specimens occurring to them, have exceeded the propor-
tions here assigned by me. But independently of their propensity to
exaggeration, farther than the Sea Pudding previously described, the
Holothuria seems utterly unknown to them, both by name and appear-
ance. I never met with one who knew the existence of such an animal,
far less the variable and perfect form which it assumes.

I was unable to determine the species of the two last named, from
not having obtained a sufficient view of either. Reflecting on the first,
however, since the date of occurrence, I think it may have possibly been
the long species described in the next paragraph.

I have been alike perplexed by others of ample dimensions, though
never unfolded so much as to shew their actual formation.

The Holothwia fusns readily covers itself with whatever flexible or

HO LOTH mi A. r,u

mtlexihle extraneous matter conies within contact, of which it cannot be
easily dive.-ted. One remained thus, BO completely clothed, during two
months, as to prevent discovery of its real shape. Nevertheless, the
wonteil evolutions, and the greater extension of the posterior extremity
en>ue<l towards evening.

I i •. -].c:tt. th:it it does not appear that the loss of the arborescent ap-
paratus, together with the ovarium and intestinal organs wholly, if that
truly takes place, or partially, which is frequent, and their regeneration
though essential to the continuance of life, are to be deemed a natural

A specimen of the same size, but lighter colour than that whose his-
tory has been given in detail, was procured on January 14. It occa-
sionally assumed such a curvature, like a horse-shoe, that the extremities
met. From the clearness of the body, and the constant concealment of
the arborescence, I conjectured that the usual mutilation had deprived
the animal of its parts. It was so, though not recently ; when the ar-
borescence was first seen, on the last of March, or eleven weeks from
the period of acquisition, it seemed to be full grown. The cylinder also,
when protruded, was observed of full size, and perfectly white. The
animal being much distended, July 29, and having lost its adhesion, was
transferred to a different vessel replenished with recent sea-water. lien-
it affixed itself next evening to the side, with the head hanging perpen-
dicularly downwards. The arborescent and intestinal organs then be-
ginning to escape, were discharged the following morning ; and portions
of an immature ovarium a day or two after, when the animal liad fallen
to the hot toin, where it died. — Plate XI. fig. 8.

A specimen obtained in April, had assumed a globular form, rolling
over the bottom of the glass, — nor was it unlike an alcyonic mass. In
a week it affixed, being somewhat elongated ; and in a fortnight, it had
assumed its proper crescent -shape, of about equal dimensions to tin-
principal figure described, Plate IX. Its position was shifted daily, yet
the precise mode of progression could not be ascertained. As usual with
this species, it attained its full size about ten in the evening. In live
weeks the arborescent apparatus, along with the ovarium, protruded like

60 ECHINODEEMATA.

a mop from the anterior, and, added to this, in a few hours the whole in-
testinal aggregate, gradually discharged, lay free on the bottom of the
vessel. Here the tentacula and antennulae, much contracted as usual
on separation from the body, continued some time imperfectly exer-
cising their ordinary functions.

Meanwhile, the shaggy sac or integumentary body itself, de-
prived of all this important organization, remained adhering to the
glass as before privation, but, for a day, comparatively quite flattened.
However, adhesion was firm ; and the partial recovery of its pristine
rotundity and natural figure, with the lapse of two more days, showed
that turgescence did not depend on the absorption of water, to be ef-
fected by means of the lost organs.

No external indications of reproduction were betrayed for seven
weeks ; nor, by illuminating the sac as much as practicable in such an
opaque substance, could any renovated interanea be discovered. To ob-
viate the injury of augmenting temperature in an apartment, the speci-
men was exposed during an hour or two to the cool nocturnal air.

Owing to my absence, and certain unavoidable circumstances for a
month preceding the middle of August, this specimen was entirely ne-
glected : it had lost its adhesive quality, was greatly contracted, and
rolled as an ovoid below. Replenishment of the vessel revived it in
six hours.

From the end of August it became whiter and whiter, and towards
the middle of September, a dark internal substance announced regenera-
tion there.

At last, in four months from the date of mutilation, recovery of
the essential organs, whereof the animal was then deprived, now ap-
peared, by the display of new tentacula and antennulae, exercising those
evolutions peculiar to their nature.

The length of the cylinder did not exceed a line in the first week of
October, while the tentacula and antennulae were scarcely more than
visible from extreme transparency. One of the former had acquired
twelve twigs on the fifteenth, some of these without subordinate parts.

BOLOTHUftlA. Cl

A fortnight Inter they had extended half an inch, and noun- had fourteen
twig*. Thus the evolution of each part is successive.

A< tin- dark internal suhstanee apparently augmented a month be-
fore this latter jx-riod, it might be from the early regeneration of the ar-
l>ores<vnee. though imperceptible to huinan oli-ervation.

Tin- treat uiv <le.-line.l from the first of November. It shrunk «-\
traordinarily, at length remaining but an inch in extent, and a quarter
• •I' an inch thick. The intestines protruded by a rupture in the side;
ami it died on the eleventh — having survived just about seven mouths.

To me it seems doubtful whether any individual of the /fn/ot/im-in
funt», young or old, large or small, is exempt from such mutilation.
which is so common as to be apparently incident to all. The lx>dy then
seems an empty sac : yet, by some elements of organization still preserved,
rather than to be ascribed to new depositation, it becomes turgid from
absorption of the circumambient fluid, the same as when entire. Per-
haps the absorbents, still unknown, may be connected with the respira-
tory organs, which are certainly retained. I have never observed them
discharged along with the interanea. The precise quantum of organiza-
tion lost on such occasions merits farther investigation. It may compre-
hend some important parts which are readily overlooked.

The position and functions of the respiratory organs art* more
favourably exposed in the subject of the preceding paragraph, the Hdo-
t/inria pento'

Professor Delle Chiaie remarks, that some of his Holothuria? sur-
vived the loss of the intestinal canal fifteen days, not a few hours only,
aa had been advanced by Bohadsch. It is uncertain whether either of
these authors had seen the/rw« ; probably not. The latter, Bohadsch,
says he was " struck dumb with astonishment ou finding the intestinal
canal full of sand, discharged from the posterior extremity of one" he
had carried home from the shore. He had concluded that the purpose
of this mutilation was for the intestine to carry out the ovarium along
with it. But he seems to have changed his opinion : and he obviously
mistakes the ovarium for intestinal caeca. Bohadsch considers it almatt

62 ECHINODERMATA.

unexampled in Nature, that " each animal of three others should have
remained several hours alive after losing the intestines."*

The fact is, that the destruction or indemnity of the specimen may
depend on the mode whereby the parts are evacuated. If this ensues by
the anterior extremity of the Holothuria fusus, regeneration commonly
replaces them ; but if by the posterior extremity, the animal invariably
perishes. Probably the respiratory organs are irrecoverably injured, for
the rupture whereby the intestines escape is truly in the vicinity of the
great cloaca, with which they are so intimately connected. Even a slight
protrusion here is always a mortal symptom.

The fact now related perhaps determines the nature of what is
called Trepan y, or Beche de Mer, so perplexing to naturalists, which is
carried from the Southern Ocean especially to China, as a delicacy for
the luxurious.

But the species must be different from that which is under our con-
sideration, and may be more akin to the Holothuria pentactcs.~\

Propagation. — The Holothuria fusus is a very prolific animal. Its
ample ovarium consists of many ropes of ova, these being discharged, as
already said, amidst an albuminous matter. The ropes terminate in ob-

* Bohadsch, De quibusdam Animalibus Marinis, § 6, pp. 88, 89, Dresdce, 1761, in 4to.

•}• " On a reef of rocks near the island Raiatea, is a huge, unshapely, black, or brown
slug, here called biche, from six to seven inches long, and five to six broad. It is caught
in vast quantities, and not only regarded as a great delicacy by the natives, but, being cured,
has become a valuable article of commerce to the China market, whither it is carried from
many insular coasts of the Pacific by American ships. One of these disgusting masses of
morbid matter, endued with sensation, was taken into our boat. Being wounded, the dying
animal protruded all its entrails by the tail end, and leaving the apparent body a mere thick
skin. We have seen a number of lads fill three canoes in two hours with these sea snails."
— Tyerman and Bennett Voyages and Travels in the South Sea Islands, 1821-29 ; vol. i.
p. 541 ; vol. ii. p. 256.

Mr Beale speaks of the Beche de Mer, or worm of the sea, found at Oahoo, one of the
Sandwich Islands, being considered a great delicacy, though " almost as tough as caout-
chouc."— Natural History of the Sperm Whale, p. 261.

The reader may also consult Mr Frederick Dobell Bennett Narrative of a Whaling
Voyage round the Globe, 1833-36, vol. i. p. 175, where he identifies the Holothuria with
the Trepang, esteemed a delicacy by the luxurious.

HOLOTHURIA. . .::

tuM extremities; some are folded double; and in a great numl-i. it
not in nil. the ova are arranged in more than a single row, Phm- XI
fig. 9 : end of a rope, enlarged, fig. 10 : extremity of rope*, enlarged,
fig. 11

When preparing to shew a naturalist of my acquaintance such
object*, he assured me that no one ha<l ever seen the ovum of a Holo-
thuria. Certainly very little is said of it.

In all instances, excepting two, the ova have been green of different
shades, or yellowish. The ovariuui u>nded to purple in one, it was red
in the other. When protruding by an accidental rupture, it resembles
a mop or brush.

Tin- specimen Plate VIII., fig. 2, lost the whole arborescent appa-
ratus within two or three days of it« capture. Nevertheless it seemed
still plump and full of spawn. In ten days a large ovarium, composed
of numerous ropes, protruded like a brush, the ova irregularly distributed
in one, two, or three rows, all of a greenish-yellow. Probably the rope*
are in reality long and folded, they have some appearance of being
tubular, which may be deceptive. In the course of extent they are of
unequal diameter. The ova are minute, spherical, or slightly ovoidal,
consisting of a nucleus within albuminous matter. A few have oc-
curred of a yellow colour ; but green, greenish, or greenish yello w. is the
common hue, Plate XL, figs. 5, 6. 12, 13, 14, 15. Their natural a
appears in fig. 12.

Spawning has ensued in February, March, April, May, and June.
when many thousand ova have been produced by single individuals.

But to my great concern, spite of the most careful treatment, none
have ever proved fertile. On no occasion having been from large speci-
mens, I was almost induced to conjecture that the Holothuria must be
of a certain age before the spawn is prolific, — a fact not likely. I ' <>nfew.
1'iit which is to be ascertained only by future observation.

It would be very interesting to behold the development of t he-
young from the ovum, and to follow the ]> Digressive evolution nf the
part*. But I have not been so favoured. It is by the merest chance
that smaller specimen- can fall into the hands «>(' the ol>scr\er. Kn.m

64 ECHINODERMATA.

these, however, we may collect, that the early external organs are very
few, which is confirmed by the slow and gradual evolution of regenerated
parts, to replace the loss of adults in a more perfect state.

A vigorous young Holothuria is represented two months after its
capture, Plate XI. fig. 1. It lost the arborescent apparatus, and died
after having been the subject of observation during six months. Eight
years previously, a minute milk-white specimen occurred, about four
lines long, by one in thickness, the tentacula extending a line at the
utmost, distinctly visible by the naked eye, — the whole resembling a
maggot, Plate XL figs. 16, 17. Of the species of that particular speci-
men, however, I speak with some diffidence, owing to the difficulty of
getting a satisfactory view. At the same time, its genus was evident.
The curvature of the body, the display of the tentacula at night, their
introduction into the mouth, where stripped and whence withdrawn,
besides the firm adhesion, were all the same as in adults.

Another specimen, little if any larger, with ten tentacula as long as
the body, exhibited the same evolutions as those of adults ; absorbing a
tentaculum in the mouth, along with one of the antennulse, as above
described. Of the identity of this specimen with the fusim I enter-
tained no doubt.

One still smaller than any of the preceeding, of such irregular shape
that I incline to think it of another species, survived some months, in
1831. It never extended above an eighth of an inch, having few suckers,
some of them unnaturally large ; the whole body perfectly white. This
also was inaccessible.

In general these smaller specimens are much bolder than the adults ;
but their early nature is conspicuously shewn by similar habits. They
endure greater intensity of light, and remain displayed while their ves-
sels are moved. The arborescence of all is pale or colourless, while that
of adults is grey or crimson, which seems entirely dependent on age.

The present, and indeed all the Scotish Holothurioe, are free of any
offensive odour, such as ascribed to the race by some authors, probably
from inspecting or dissecting decaying specimens.*

* Bute, Histoire Naturelle Des Vers, t. ii. pp. 147-151. Paris, 1827.

HoLoTliritlA.

None are converted tu use.

In that artificial condition — one so different from (In- natural
\\hetvin these animals arc piv>er\ed. f,-\\ predominant features are to be
discovered.

Such animals liavc no opportunity of shewing whether they have
any care of tln-ir voting ; nor how they may go in quest of food, or of
n u>til\iiiir their proper selection of the meagre variety presented to
them. Neither can we say how they protect t hem-el vex from those
ravenous animals, of which, like other-, they um|iiestionably become the
prvy. They are evidently dissatisfied with substances around them, as
unsuitable for tlieir |H>nnanent e-tal>li.-hment. Discrimination is clearly
exeivi-ed. lir-t . in choosing those places not liable to disturbance for an
abode ; secondly, in selecting a position adapted for the sweep of their
arl>orescence, and for the free jet of the fountain from within. Solidity
in the one case, unobstructed space in the other, must be determined for
the spot of adhesion.

IVrhap- the natural and most favourable abode of the Holothuria
mt is in deep water. Whether it may attain larp- dimensions in that
which is shallow seems doubtful, although I have heard of specimens
found in the shallowest. Few naturalists, if any, seem to have had
many of the species, nor do any appear to have preserved them perma-
nently. To judge by the figures of all Holothurise that I have ever
seen represented, the specimens must have been injured, dead, or dying,
greatly enfeebled, or verging to decay, — a more convincing illustration of
the difficulties attending the study of the animal than can be offered by
any argument. Figure and fixture are the true indications of a healthy
condition. They cannot be mistaken. Every race of the animal creation
is peculiarly distinguished by position, attitude, and motion.

In some places this species may be very abundant, in others rare, and
naturalists have certainly found it so. There can be no doubt that some
animals are actually rare, that their rarity becomes constantly greater and
greater, and that it has terminated in extirpation. Yet, a creature of
our days, from which the progeny of a single season may amount to
live thousand, should not be rare. Most animals are very unequally <1

I

66 ECHINODERMATA.

tributed. Scarcity and abundance are frequently unmeaning compara-
tives. Unpropitious circumstances, ravenous and inveterate enemies,
repress multiplication and diminish numbers. The excessive timidity of
the Holothuria indicates the liability of its external organs to injury,
while precluding all presumption of its subsistence by the capture of
living prey.

No animal will more readily escape observation amidst miscel-
laneous marine collections. When free of adhesion, it contracts infi-
nitely without regularly assuming any determinate form : and afterwards
floats as a sphere, or an ovoid, or rolls over the bottom of its vessel.
Very few fishermen seem aware of the existence of such a creature.
None of those which I have carried to them, were recognised as having
been previously seen, and when brought to me by themselves, it has been
always in ignorance of their presence among other substances. While
endeavouring to obtain specimens, by describing the subject of the pre-
ceding paragraph to some of them, one present observed that it might be
the same as a substance he had found, which " he had pierced with a
knife, to discover whether it was alive ! " At length, some of the younger
fishermen, finding it their personal interest to extricate the Holothuria
from among the rubbish brought up by nets and dredges, they have en-
abled me to conduct my enquiries with greater facility.

The difficulty and improbability of detaching this animal entire,
while unseen, from its firm adhesion at the bottom of the sea, and by the
rude apparatus employed, must be self-evident. Hence it is that natu-
ralists must be indebted chiefly to accident for perfect specimens.

PLATE VIII.

FIG. 1. Holothuria fusus. The Spindle Sea Cucumber or Sweep- Water.

2. Another specimen, with the arborescencc partially protruding.

3. The specimen, fig. I, in a dying state. The tentacular apparatus

and intestines escaping.

PLATE IX. — The specimen, Plate VIII. fig. 1, having regenerated the
tentacula. a.

HOLOI IIIIMA. 67

PLATK X .— Th.- -vanu-. in an earlier Btage of regeneration. TVnta.-ula. «.

P»M«Tinr orifice. //.

PI.ATK XI

Fi<:. 1. ^ ,>ung Holotkuriafunu.

2. Sucker enlarged.

3. TVntaoiilmn.

4. Antennula enlarged.

5. Spawn of the specimen, Plat.' IX.. slight 1\ i-nlarged.

6. The saino mure enlarged.

7 L.IW.T . vtP'inity of the cylinder or ca*e bearing the tcnUcula :
Ampulla Poliana bcl<>»

8. C\linil«T. trntacula, and intcotimil organization, after having DMA

discharged.

9. Kxtn-uiity of a rope of an ovarium.

10. The nine enlarged.

1 1 . Extremity of the rope* of an ovarium enlarged.
I'-'. Ova.

13. Ova enlarged.

1 4. Ova enlarged.

15. Ova enlarged.

16. Miimtf Holothuria.

17. The tame in iU natural and peculiar attitn

1'i.m. XII

Fie;. 3. Arborescent apparatus. Shelly sheaths receiving the tenUcula, a.

Ampulla Poliana below.

4. Intestinal organ lost along with th<> tentaculn. which latter are
not represented here. Their sheaths and l»a*o«. a, b; Ampulla
Poliano

§ 3. HOLOTIIURIA SomcA.— Plates XII XIII.

From uliat has been already said, it is indwputaMf. that tlic hut-

t-»r\ nf tin- Holothuria is very iinjMTtt-ctly understootl. that it in clouded

by ci}).«-nriti«-s cvi-n at tin- i-n-mt day : Neither can we refrain from

presuming that these havr diictly arose from mnitting to brin-_' <n«-li

uiii'iif as mi^'lit !><• jiroi-UR-d undi-r iniinctliatf

68 ECHINODERMATA.

The surprising mutilations incidental to some of the race may ut-
terly mislead one naturalist desirous of comparing his own remarks with
the narrative of another, or with the figures presented to his view by
preceding authors : Nor is it from external appearance alone that he
shall be exposed to error, for, on careful dissection, he may be disap-
pointed of finding those internal organs known to distinguish his subject
from all its fellows, — -they have been lost by one of those extraordinary
processes, natural or unnatural, above described, to be regenerated with
the lapse of time, provided the survivance of the animal should be suffi-
cient to admit of it.

Therefore it is essential that due attention be invariably paid to
perfection, vigour, and the most favourable conditions of existence, and
that nothing should be overlooked in representation.

I have repeatedly failed in my attempts to identify various species
of the Holothuria falling into my possession, with those described by
other authors, though the difference was apparently inconsiderable.
Without presuming any inaccuracy on their part, I would rather tax
myself with some oversight, and supply my deficiencies by correct deli-
neations, along with descriptions, which might be the best means of
attaining the truth. Wanting such auxiliaries, which are truly substi-
tutes for real specimens, most of the subjects of natural history of rare
occurrence, or, in fact, that may not be daily before us, must prove un-
intelligible.

There are numerous sources of embarrassment, nor do all originate
from the different views of different naturalists. I have failed to iden-
tify certain subjects of rare occurrence with those familiar to me, either
from defective organization, or supervening injuries and decay. I could
not pronounce them the same, though personally satisfied that they were
not distinct. At the same time, such subjects were dead, and disfigured
for the most part, for equal embarrassment is seldom experienced with
living specimens of sufficient dimensions.

On the 27th of February, a specimen of the Holothuria reached
me, which had been recently fished up from the sea. It was contracted
to about five inches in length, rather slender in proportion, and totally

/•/

•

HOLOTHUBIA. N

c,,vered with suckers void of evident arraiii:emcnt. The Bin:
entirely of a dingy whit.- colour, with a fr\v brown patches irregularly

interspersed.

On the whole, this subject, except in its proportions, bore consider-
able resemblance to the lliJuthiirin Jnsus. But, unable to identify it
either with that or with any of the rot which I have seen, I propose to
name it, provisionally, lltjnthurin .S'/W /,-//, as indicative, at least, of tin-
country of its nativity. — Plate XII. fig. 5.

In two days the creature had expanded ten inches in length, by
alxmt one where thickest, — the ln>dy t icing round, and tai>cring slightly
towards the extremities ; \ et it did not adhere, though feebly discharg-
ing a stream from the posterior orifice. In nine days, however, some ot
the suckers were in adhesion, afterwards they were discovered to be in
live rows, as in other nine days the animal had established itself firmly
in its vessel.

This is the usual course followed by all Holotlmrioe, on original re-
covery from the sea.

The specimen seemed to be gaining strength along with the advance
ot the season ; and it began to display some of the habits of the /«>//«.
Mich as appeared from the curvature of the body in its position, together
with greater elongation while the day declined.

After having preserved this specimen half a year, under constant
observation, without protrusion of the tentacular organs, I concluded
that they had been lost before it came into my possession.

Nevertheless, the skin now growing purer, thinner, and more dia-
phanous, which was promoted by the specimen being kept continually
in the dark, symptoms of internal reproduction were exposed within.

r the anterior extremity, an internal darkish portion, much COM

intr with the external whiteness, denoted progressive^regeneration.

It shewed that the animal had actually lost the arborescent appa-
ratus, with the appendages.

During the season of redintegrat ion. we have seen that almn-t «nn,
plete nuiescence prevails.

70 ECHINODERMATA.

I watched this creature incessantly : yet, no less than ten months
elapsed, hefore I was gratified with a sight of the renovating organs.

The Holothuria was taken in the end of February. In the end of
December it extended to dimensions I had never anticipated ; and it as-
sumed a form, position, and attitudes such as I had never seen in the
1 1 <il nth u ria fustm or in any others.

The length of this specimen equalled at least eighteen inches : and,
some time afterwards, it testified an inclination to cast a knot of the
body.— Plate XII. fig. 6.

In the month of January of the year following acquisition of the
niiinial, its tentacula remained transiently protruded while exposed to
the light.

This Holothuria was affixed like a horse shoe to the side of a capa-
cious vessel ; the lower half of the animal adopting such curvature that
one part always comprehends the posterior extremity, consequently the
orifice ; and now the specimen had been so vigorous during the night
that its jet was discharged over the side of the vessel.

Some animals are incredibly shy ; their timidity never diminishes ;
they shun the presence of light, and even the crossing of a shadow may
Ije the signal for disappearance. Although the tentacular apparatus pro-
truded several times, I could never obtain a complete view — one such
us was desirable and satisfactory of the component parts. Nor until five
weeks later could the sketch Plate XIII. be executed, which brings the
history of the subject to about seven months and a fortnight from the
date of acquisition.

The sketch was obtained under much inconvenience ; and although
1 believe it correct as to the number and quality of the tentacula, I could
have anxiously wished a drawing of them, from observation, during per-
manent expansion. But to procure anything better proved impossible.

At one time, I acknowledge, I thought the tentacula more than
(•iglit, that they amounted to ten, besides the two antennuke. However,
on endeavouring to dissect the parts, after the animal died, I was unable
to find above eight shelly receptacles, wherein they might be retracted.

HOI. ol III III \ 71

Comparing the appearance <if tliis Ilolothuria \sitli the /W>N«. it i-\
tended eighteen inch.- in length by scarce! \ an inrli in thickness, which.
from all 1 ha\e -••••n. \\onld he disproportionate in tin- other. The funnel
WBS nl>o\e two inches deep, and tin- part immediately under it contracted
to a very small diameter. Five double rows of suckers run down the
whole length of tin- body, tin- intermediate skin between one double

UK! tin- double mw adjacent being smooth, and the distance sepa-
ratini: tin- double row from that m-\t it i-xrc-eding the distance separat in j:

MMirlr row of the j»air from its fellow.

Tin- dimensions and the luxuriance of th«- tentaeula continuiMl aii^-
They acquired a deep purple colour, but remained alway-
xnmller in CDinjKiri-^on to thn.M? of the llnlnlhurin JHXIIS, pmlmbly re«iiiir-
ing lonirer time t-> L'P-U. Their functions seemed to \>e the same.

In the next place, the creature began to decline : and in sixteen
months from the tii^t, its length contracted to three inches and a halt
I thought the excessive boat of the weather at the time most pernicious

Though occasionally reviving, it never recovered its proper si/x- ami
vigour : and at last asMuminir the resemblance of a worm half a foot
long, and under half an inch thick, it died in nineteen months from
the date of its original acquisition.

The skin proved extremely tough and coriaceous ; and »• -\eral
small ropes of an immature ovarium were found in the IMM|\ on dit-
aection.

For some time I was disposed to view this animal as an overgrown
specimen of the Il<il»thnria fiuiu, especially before the parts were nifli-
ciently developed. But between the two, we find several prominent
distinctions. First, the disparity of size and proportions ; next, in lon-
gitudinal double rows of suckers down the Uidy. whereas those of the
funu are distri huted promiscuously over the whole surface, and thence
much more numerous, comparatively. The difference in the proportion*
i'-h, would render the tlevures seen in the one impracticable liy the
other.

No important dilVen-nce distinguished the habits of tin- two.

In the con I-M- of a nnmlier of year-. 1 have had three \ounger

72 ECHINODERMATA.

specimens of what I consider the same species. None were vigorous,
however, their survivance was very short, nor did any of them display
the tentacula ; those of the largest were evidently scarlet. These ani-
mals extended two, four, and five inches respectively, tapering very
gradually from near the anterior to the posterior extremity. All were
white, and each was characterized by five double rows of suckers, quite
distinct. Had they been vigorous, they would have appeared of larger
dimensions.

From inability to identify the subject of these brief observations
with any known species ; and speaking at all times with much reserve
of the characters of a single specimen, unless perfect in every respect, I
propose to name it provisionally, Holothuria Scotica : Meanwhile, await-
ing the commentaries of some more fortunate naturalist.

PLATE XII.

Fig. 5. Holothuria Scotica contracted.

6. The same extended in a remarkable flexure.

PLATE XIII. — Holothuria Scotica extended, and as adhering to the side
of a spacious glass jar. The advancing tentacula protrude, and the
suckers may be seen in double rows.

§ 4. HOLOTHURIA BODOTRI^ — HOLOTHURIA (EcNus. — Plate XIV.

The first perplexity involving the naturalist on occurrence of small
animals, is whether they are, young or adults : and this especially among
the tribes which are known to undergo important changes with advanc-
ing age. Never having seen the subject of this paragraph under any
aspect but such as represented, I cannot identify it with the species of
Holothuriae already described.*

* Since this was originally written, which is a number of years ago, I observe the
Holothuria CEcnus in the valuable work of Professor Edward Forbes on the Echinuder-
mata.

I /

/•/ I///

:•'. :..::' «.•:••.:'•

//////„

linl.ul liritlA. 73

It w of more irregular shape than tin- preceding species; rather
cylindrical on tin- whole, the largest extending two inches by about
three line*, or scarcely as much, in thickness. Numerous extensile
peduncles or suckers are scattered over the body without definite arrange-
inrnt, though sometimes up|Mirentl\ in five or six irregular rows. All
are of uniform colour, pun-, or ding)- white, and yellowish-brown. —
Plate XIV., fig. 1.

Tin- anterior extremity, closed during quiescence, opens for the pro-
trusion of an arborescent apparatus, consisting of eight tentacula, and
two antennukv, thus corresponding \s ith the same number of these organs
in tin- Iliilnllniria fiuiu, Plate XIV.. fig. 2. The office of the organs
themselves also seems to be of the same nature, figs. 3, 4, 5. But neither
tentacula nor antennulo) are equally luxuriant as those of that species ;
and the teutaculum, consisting of a stout stem, with branches propor-
tionally shortening upwards, set alternately, having few subdivisions or
subordinate parts, is inferior to that of the pentodes likewise, figs. C, 7, 8.

The tentacula of some extend towards six lines, the antennuUv
about half as much, fig. 9, enlarged ; tentacula and antennuke. The
stem of the tentaculum is peculiarly organized, being distinguished by
minute prominences disposed in spiral lines.

Little discrepancy prevails in this animal's habit*, and those of the
Holothuriae previously described. It sometimes remains long quiescent,
and at others is very active, traversing its vessel freely with the ten-
tacula displayed in front. While quiescent the whole arborescent appa-
ratus is retracted within the body. As this apparatus is formed by a
prolongation of the skin, ite structure is different from that of the cor-
responding parts of the/M*/« and pentactes.

Moderate temperature, together with frequent renovation of their
element, seems congenial to every species of the whole tribe. During
fine weather the tentacula are readily displayed, and often remain so
during much of the day. Some keep them always expanded, allowing
their vessel to be exposed to the light without contracting or retreating.

They rise to the surface to escape the impurity of the wat.

The prevailing colour is perhaps affected by their site ; I remarked

74 ECHINODEEMATA.

that specimens procured in 1833 were pure white, whereas most of those
obtained in 1841 were yellowish-brown. The animal dwells in the
sestuary of the Forth, from the island of Inchkeith down to the Mar
Bank, fifty or sixty miles farther distant.

Although this animal is distinguished by few peculiarities, perhaps
from my failing to investigate its nature sufficiently, it exhibits one of
the most remarkable kind, in the spontaneous subdivision of the body
into two or even a greater number of parts. Neither does this violent
effort, as it might appear, prove fatal to the specimen, for the defective
organs are regenerated complete in each of the portions, renovating them
to entire animals.

So singular a process being incident to all, it becomes difficult to
fix the ultimate dimensions to be acquired by individuals.

Of two specimens, one large and the other small, obtained from the
Mar Bank, one solved the problem, so long obscure, as to the mode of
progression, by traversing the inner circumference of a vessel four inches
wide within two hours, having the tentacula displayed in front as it
advanced. Both were active. While at rest they adhered by their
peduncles or suckers to the glass, near the surface of the water.

The larger exceeded the smaller by a third part. On June 28th it
ruptured asunder into nearly equal halves, as appearing figs. 10, 11, and
remaining so during an indispensable absence, until my return on August
second ; they appeared on the 29th as in figs. 12, 13. On August second
I found the smaller bad also ruptured in halves, which now appeared
as in figs. 14, 15.

After the lapse of three or four weeks I witnessed, with considerable
surprise, the regeneration of a complete arborescent funnel in each poste-
rior half of the two specimens. But the animals were now so shy that
it was difficult to obtain a view either of these or of the original tentacula
of the anterior portions. Nevertheless the regenerations were ascertained
to be very short and very white.

All four parts of the two Holothuriae moved about in the vessel.
The tentacula of the whole four were displayed on the 30th of August,
but their impatience of light had not abated.

IKiI.uTHURIA. 76

In a week, flu'. 10. the anterior portion of the Holotluiria, sundcre.1
again near the miiiille : -•> that. \\hat originally constituted one entire
animal, now consisted of three parts. Afterwards, another portion sun-

i tV.uii niii- i if the live parts at that time in the vessel ; but from
whii-li I cuiilil nut iletennine. If from the smaller Holothuria, each ani-
mal had MiMi\iilfil into three. All continued shifting their places ;
.some of tin-in occasionally displaying the tentacula, until May 27, of the
t'ollnv ar, when, on renewing the sea-water, this arborescent appa-

ratus was displayed by the whole six.

A small grey mass was detached from one of them in August. One
or other specimen luul thus snlidivided four times. But on November
19, or seventeen months after they had come into my possession, only
one port inn of the whole survived.

The subdivision of these animals does not appear to result either from
constraint or from injury. If a natural process, however, it is a very
singular mode of multiplication, — for there is no doubt that each frag-
ment becomes a perfect animal ; nay, there is nothing to shew that the
creature undergoing such a disruption, suffers very much from it.

I cannot discover that any precise rule governs the time of divi-
sion, or regulates the number of parts.

Both the animals and the parts present a singular, and sometimes
i \ cry uncouth appearance.

A specimen two inches long, recovered on July 21, divided into
two halves nearly equal on the 25th. — Plate XIV. figs. 16, 17. In the
night of the 29th, the posterior half, fig. 17, subdivided, whereby the
entire Holothuria was now in three ports. These parts, which were de-
lineated on August 5, being fig. 18, the upper half of fig. 17 ; fig. 19,
being the under half of fig. 17 ; and fig. 20 the same as fig. 16, now seen
at the later date of August 5, that period comprehending a week, and
the animal now somewhat more extended.

A specimen, fig. 4, obtained on August 3, was delineated August 5 ;
also, a fragment procured on August 3, delineated August 6, fig. 21.

Another specimen of a dark colour, obtained on August 3, though
delineation \va.s omitted, presented some peculiarities. It proved rather

76 ECHIN01JEBMATA.

slender, extending about an inch and a half, including the tentacula, and
rather under the eighth of an inch thick.

In a few days, this specimen appeared at its full stretch on the side
of the vessel. The middle became gradually smaller and smaller, and
quite smooth, so that the figure of the animal resembled a long sand-
glass. In the afternoon of the day when this was observed, it had sun-
dered into two halves of nearly equal dimensions, each about half an
inch long, and when noticed, about four lines apart. The division
seemed to be natural, not the result of constraint, nor attended with
suffering. But in respect to the fusus, there is much presumption of
mutilation following violence, though unobserved.

The fact presumed, receives confirmation by attending to the course
of the process.

Of five specimens obtained on August 11, four were dingy white,
tending to brownish, and one pure white. Next evening, two of the for-
mer were much extended cylindrically, the one two inches and a quarter,
the other exhibiting a contraction in the middle, two inches and a half.
In expectation of division, I watched it some time, but unsuccessfully,
for this did not then take place. However, it ensued in the night. An-
other had divided also, and a third was observed next morning under
the process of division.

In this third subject, the two halves were about five lines apart,
though still connected by a small greenish thread or ligament, apparently
tubular, which I conjectured might be the intestinal canal. The liga-
ment had subsisted above twelve hours. After its rupture, the parts
became somewhat approximated, just as if they had mutually strained
themselves to be free. The process is represented in its advance on
August 13, fig. 22.

The tentacula of four of the five specimens having been displayed
immediately preceding the ruptures undergone, it cannot be supposed
that the animals were then suffering, as on the slightest constraint, these
organs are instantly contracted, or entirely withdrawn.

The upper portion of a divided specimen, fig. 15, as on July 19, is
again represented as on August 5, by fig. 19. It had remained station-

iA. rr

:ir\ . much curved, four days, on September 19, with some intestinal part
protnidin-.:. fig. 23. Nt-xt inoniing it hud sundered. About a month
later our <>I it- j»ortioii9 had subdivided, so that now the entire specimen

multiplied into six or seven known portions, besides some whose
J»rogn» had not Ix-en followed.

Portions of the original animal suUlivided by a similar process, in
dependent ly of their si/e. Tlie parte recede so far from each otlu-r, and

..niM-riin- line l>ecomes so much attenuated, that it moves, on m»\
ing the vessel. Two parts of this kind, neither of them two lines in
length, were half an inch asunder, the connecting ligament RO much
.i!..>\r the surface of the glass sustaining the parts, that a small instru-
ment could be introduced under it, as it waved with any motion, fig. -I.

The portions thus separating, are sometimes exceedingly minute. —
not above half a line long. On first beholding them, I was induced to
conjecture that they might be nascent Holothuruo of a different species,
from what was truly the adult parent. — Fig. 25.

GomUniag the substance of these and other observations, it appears
that the spontaneous division above described ensues thus : — The c,
men remains stationary during some time, on the side of its vessel,
when each extremity broadens and flattens beyond ite usual dimensions.
This flattening occupies a considerable portion of the body, but dimi-
nishes, from the broadest part anterior and posterior, towards the middle
of the animal, so that by gradually augmenting to a central point, it ren-
ders the subject somewhat like a common sand-glass. In this manner each
extremity, that at one end of a cylinder, for comparison, and that at tin-
other end of the cylinder is slightly enlarged towards the broadest part,
suppose a fourth of the whole, whence it diminishes to the central
point, the narrowest part or neck of the sand-glass, where the rupture
will take place. At length a slender hair-like ligament connects the
parts, which ruptures as these mutually withdraw, and leaves the origi-
nal animal in equal halves, or consisting of a greater and lesser portion.

The duration of the process is very irregular, and apparently depen-
dent on circumstances, not only unknown, but beyond any rational con-
jecture. Neither does it seem influenced by size or season, or by any

78 ECHINODERMATA.

obvious condition. Separation frequently ensues in the night, without
previous indication. In one specimen it was observed advancing during
four days, and then accomplished.

The animal seems literally rent asunder by separation of the parts ;
and the intestinal organs, occupying a large portion of the cavity of the
body, are undoubtedly also rent asunder. The wounded portion closes
speedily over them. If this be not the case, a wonderful internal repro-
duction ensues, as the external reproduction of the arborescent apparatus
is perfected.

Whatever be the colour of the original animal, though of the dark-
est hue, the renovated tentacula are of the purest white. Thence it may
be conjectured that fig. 3 was only a fragment.

Though specimens have survived seven, nine, or even above twelve
months, in my possession, nothing has indicated any other mode of mul-
tiplication. It is very embarrassing when first observed, and until the
naturalist sees how it is accomplished. I am not aware of its extent or
its limits. It is often sudden — often unexpected. Five specimens hav-
ing been committed to a vessel, on the eleventh of August, their number
had doubled on the nineteenth, and it had augmented to fourteen on the
twenty-seventh. But it must be remembered that, at first, the accessions
are only in number, not in perfection ; for the generation or evolution of
the defective organs, depends on the lapse of time.

The food of the animal is yet undiscovered. Specimens generally
remain affixed to the side of their vessels, without shifting their place,
where they at length pine away.

The species is not rare. Many individuals have afforded the sub-
stance of the preceding observations.

PLATE XIV. — Holothuria Bodotria — Forth Holothuria. — Holothuria
(Ecnus, Professor Edward Forbes.

FIG. 1. Specimen quiescent.

2. White specimen, active.

3. Brown specimen.

I /

l-t

V

18

17

16

n tyi

IS

U

U

I

it

10

/ .

fat/4

*/•/>/,

HOLOTHUBIA. 79

PLATE XIV.

Flo. 4. White specimen.

.1. White specimen.

6. Tontaculum.

7. Tentaculum.

8. Tentaculum.

9. Trntacula and antonnulse enlarged, shewing their structure and

comparative dimension*.

10. One of two portion* produced by the spontaneous division of

fig. 2 — Juno 28.

11. The other of the two portion* of fig. 2 — June 28.

12. Fig. 10, represented two months later — August 29.

13. Fig. 11, represented two month* later — August 29.

14. Half of a divided specimen a* it appeared August 29.

15. The other half of the same specimen — August 29.

16. Upper half of a specimen, which divided July 25, a* it appeared

July 29.

1 7. Under half of the same specimen, which divided July 25, as appear-

ing July 29.

18. Upper half of fig. 1 7, after it* own subdivision, as seen on August 5.

19. Under half of fig. 17, after it* own subdivision, as seen on August 5.

20. Fig. 16, there represented as on July 29, seen here a week later, as

on August 5.

21. Fragment as seen on August 5.

22. Specimen in the fact of subdivision, where the two parts separating

are still connected by a slender ligament — August 1 3.

23. Specimen whereof an intestinal portion seemed protruding — Sep-

tember 19.

24. Specimen whereof the division was protracted during four days.

25. Minute fragment.

§ 5. HOLOTHUKIA PHANTAPUS. — Plate XV.

If the appearance of all the species of the Holothuria be singular,
t his may be truly described as the most remarkable of the whole : I know
not any familiar object to which it may be compared.

80 ECHINODERMATA.

It also exhibits a considerable difference both in the form and in
the general distribution of the parts from the rest, which, were there
others to follow, would sanction its position at the head of one subdivi-
sion of the tribe. But, in the present state of knowledge, such a mea-
sure, as before observed, would only resolve into the distribution of
species, not the institution of genera.

The peculiarity of aspect here partly ensues from the different
arrangement of the parts. The suckers of the Holothurise are usually
dispersed throughout the total extent of the body, either promiscuously
over the whole, or arranged in definite rows or sets, enabling the speci-
men to adopt a certain position, in merely stretching along any substance,
or adhering to it in the shape of a crescent or a cucumber. The suckers
of the Phantapus occupy the sides and the middle of a quadrangular
compartment on the lower surface : those of the middle extending in a
row of two lines to the ends of the quadrangle ; the others extending in
a double or triple row of suckers in a line just within the four sides of
the quadrangle. The whole compartment equals about a third of the
length of the specimen.

As the animal adheres by the five rows of suckers occupying a por-
tion of the under surface, the two extremities are much elevated above
the plane of position. Plate XV.

Thus very little resemblance will be found between the form and
position of the Holothuria Phantapus and others of its genus.

Some authors are dissatisfied with the name of suckers usually ap-
plied to the organs now referred to, desirous that they should be always
characterised as feet. No doubt they may be sometimes employed as
auxiliaries in progression, but their common and permanent office is to
secure the body of the animal by their adhesion to some solid substance.
They are occupied more as suckers than feet. I never saw the Phanta-
pus during progression, which is probably somewhat different from that
of the other species.

This animal extends about seven inches from the tip of the tenta-
cula to the posterior extremity, when completely displayed.

When contracted, and the arborescence concealed, it is considerably

HOLOTUfKlA M

shorter. Tin- anterior part is ohtu-c. convex, and upright . tin- middle
is about an inch and three quarter* thick, tapcrim: down to the extrv
inity. from whence a jet i- discharged nt will.

The rectangular compartment belongs to tin- thickest portion ; it
may occupy twn inches in length, by one and a bull' in breadth.

As the anterior open-*, the neck, of a beautiful orange, speckled witli
• lark brown point-, protrudes nearly an inch. A disc, flattened or
slightly concave, crown- it. which is bnnlered by ten luxuriant tenta
cula. with the mouth, very dilatable, in the centre. The -terns of the
tentaenla are rather short, and all the principal parts of the arlwrcucence

-iirromided by those which are subordinate. Several filament-.
also rather .-hurt and -lender, are dij-per-ed irregularly on the neck

The skin of the animal seems contracted in fine irregular corruga-
tions, with someuhat a scaly a»j>ect, thick and hard, and, when cut, re-
-istm-_'. like the bark of a tree, with exception of that of the compart-
ment which is smooth and soft. A very thin dark epidermis peels oft'
in rairs if the surtiwv be injured. The surface helow it is white.

The external aspect of the Holtrthuria 1'hnntnpu* is so peculiar — BO
unlike that of any other speciee, or of. any other creature — it cannot be
mistaken.

Alter various disappointments of a living entire specimen, repeated
tor no less than twenty years, one was obtained which had been re-
covered from the deep-sea fishing on the 14th of May. It reached me
Moating, and much contracted, in a wide-mouthed phial, admitting its
reception.

Now it exhibited few signs of life, but extending slightly on the

I ix-iii:: changed, and on transference to a VCSM-! .-ulliciently capacious.

The .- tickers were nevertheless in firm adhesion on the fourth or
fifth day following.

The whole of these organs were in action — those down the centre.
a* well as those bordering the four sides of the quadrangular compart-
ment.

The animal was still contracted, but this having taken place within
.1 week, encouraged me with the hope of its eurvivance.

I.

82 ECHINODERMATA.

In another week it extended, as I computed, six inches, following
the curves ; and at length the arborescent apparatus was protruded from
the anterior extremity in such perfection, as to admit of satisfactory de-
lineation.

Though not quite so luxuriant as that of the Holothuria pentactes,
perhaps from the specimen being weaker, considerable resemblance might
be traced between them : ten fine tentacula bordered the circular disc,
which were composed of a stem rather stout in proportion, together with
parts to be compared to numerous boughs and branches. Of these the
subordinate were set around the principal parts, and such were tufts
when imperfectly developed. The disc resembled a shallow saucer, with
the mouth expanding in the centre.

The apparatus crowned the neck of the animal, now protruding
along with it, the whole having been previously retracted into the cavity.
The colour of all the parts was speckled dark-brown or reddish-orange,
producing a very agreeable contrast with the sombre hue of the body.

Evolutions similar to those seen in the Holotlmria fums were dis-
played by the contraction of the tentacula, their insertion into the mouth,
and withdrawal from it.

But the difficulty of preserving this species is not inferior to the
obstructions opposing the safety of any of the others. The suckers lost
the power of adhesion, though the arborescence continued in display,
and the animal lay chiefly on its side. The body next rupturing under
the neck, a bunch of above fifty slender ovarian ropes, about an inch
long, protruded, together with a portion of yellow intestines.

The curving of the tentacula continued spite of their increasing
weakness, and the animal died in about three weeks after its original
acquisition. The yellow neck remained protruded, nor were the tenta-
cula entirely withdrawn.

While this specimen still survived, another of larger dimensions
reached me, which did no more than extend slightly, having suffered
some injury previous to its arrival.

One of the largest specimens occurring was about four inches
and a half long in its contracted state, and somewhat under two inches

iiA.

through where thicket. The body wan hanl t«> the touch, re.-i-
eUfttic, all except the cjuadrantrnlar oouipartiiient. which is always of a
different nature, the skin In-ini; thi<-k ;in<l soft. The ivnnin.i
cially towards tin- extremities, WM dry and corrugated, cuttim: like old
fir hark. When laid open, six -troiin muscular bands nm down the
whole length. I did not remark that any one had been divided, so aa
to reilnc.- that number. A large ovarium wo« expoccd. consisting of
nuineroiiM long rojK.*, with small distinct ova of orpiment orange oo-
Inur. apparently not tar I mm maturity. The contracted tcntocula were
re<ldi>h. A Maekish, thick, and very nllt-n>i\e fluid partly iMvupied the
i-a\ ity of tin- anterior portion.

Midler remarks the diHiculty of dis*-< timr these animalu, which pro-
bably ha* been very seldom attempted, more from want of opportunity .
perhaps, than \\ant of inclination

In the course of t \vi-nt \ one yean, I have been able to obtain <>nl\

I'et'imens. u hereof none other than that represented was in a condi-
tion lit for delineation : Nor would thia have been effect«il without the
moBt eautioiiB treatment of the animal, ami the patient service* of a
"kilful artist, Mr John Hew Johnson.

I have not l>een so fortunate as to nn-t-t with any other figure hav-
ing the arborescenoe di.»playiil. though several may be seen without it.
I miifit therefore conclude it to be an unusual incident, and that livini;
and vigorous specimens occur very rarely

I'I.VTK X\'. ll«li>thuria jilinntaput.

Besides the species of Holothuriae above described, more have occur-
red to me iii the course of researches, extending for at least thirty yean.
But the subjects were either greatly mutilated, in a feeble or dying state
— many actually dead, and in decay, so that, on the whole, neither size,
nor figure, nor the true nature of the animals could be determined, or
their real appearance delineated aatw&ctorily.

1 have been sometimes much perplexed regarding the identr
mien*. Mich as whether \\liat 1 judged the llolnlliuria J'tisv*, when of

84 ECHINODEEMATA.

large size, but dead or disfigured, was truly of the same species as my
smaller subjects, which I knew to be genuine.

One specimen, though much contracted, I was led by its yellow
colour to identify with the Holothuria elegans of Muller ; but it was
never sufficiently developed. Another I thought certainly the inheerens
of the same author.

It must be allowed that the most connected, copious, and satisfac-
tory illustrations have been afforded by the ffolol/iuriafusus.

Yet much still remains to be gained from it, as well as from all the
rest, by future observers.

Rather than embark in discussion regarding injured and imperfect
subjects, I prefer restricting myself to a smaller number and variety of
those entire. Therefore I have gone no farther than offering my re-
marks on the Holothuria Pentactes, Fusus, Bodotrice (Ocnus), and Phan-
tapus — truly very few to be compared with thirty years' research. But
their dwelling constantly under water, and chiefly in places far apart,
independently of their powerful fixture to solid substances below, aggra-
vates the difficulty of acquisition, consequently of specimens fit for use.

The Holothuria, however, proves an animal sufficiently hardy, and
with due precaution may survive years in captivity under favour-
able circumstances. There it will display many of its singular properties.
Perhaps it is the rude treatment received at the hands of the captors
that is so destructive to all the race.

This creature is evidently local, certain districts and regions favour-
ing its multiplication. Most probably in various parts of the Scotish
seas species may be in greater variety, and subjects may be more nume-
rous, than indicated here.

The Holothuria is an animal seldom converted to the use of man-
kind. Indeed, most subjects of greatest curiosity to the learned seem to
be the least prized by their fellow-men.

Some Holothurioe, being large and fleshy species, are said to serve
as food to the poorer classess of Naples ; and, if this tribe be truly the
trepang of the Eastern Seas, it is highly valued by the luxurious of some
remote territories nearer its native abode.

i \ 86

nothing definite, however, of Mich foreign product.-,
ing it enough to deal with tho-e which are nn>iv familiar.

Naturalist.- apparently entertain very vague opinion- on tin- true
nature nf the llolothuria. ami of its proper position in the Xi/*tema
\atitrtr. Hut in fact it ha* been Kvn ver\ rarely Iiy any uf tin- learned
devoting tin -niselves to the study of the lower tribe*, nor do I firmly U-
lie\e c\er in perfection. It may be questioned, whether a specimen
was before Limuvus. Muller (•••rtainly luwl several, and of these, such u>
tin -y \vcn-. lie luw preserved figiin->. Imt all must have been more or less
injured or contracted. I do not think any one could be completely de-
vi'lojHil, and displaying it- i-\t, rnal organ*. M. de Bluinvillc. whom; ob-

itions prn\f him u natunili.-t of dLstin^ui-ihi-il (juality, may have had
il Vi-t none could be in full vigour from his own account,
feasor Dt-lk- Chiaic inidonlitcHlly had these creatures in great profusion.
Had they txvn entire, and vigoroua, and treated suitably, how could
they have been considered different \\hen actually the same ; or identified
tor the same when actually different. The figures presented shew that
none were living. Among the most modem naturalists, however, 1'm-
fenor Edward Forbes had opportunities of inspecting different cpem >
while alive. 1 could specify only one or two other authors, belonging
either to the continent of Europe or to Great Britain, of whom I can my
the same

The fact* hitherto obtained in the history of the Ilolothuria, afford
but few conclusions regarding its nature, compared with the tedious de-
tail of the preceding pages. Nevertheless, some will be found of such
interest, and so well established, as to encourage the farther research of
tin- curious.

I. — The 1 l.dothuria does not appear to be allied to any other genus of
animals. It is neither preceded nor followed by any one in immediate
approximation : Nor does any relation subsist, as some naturalists ad-
vance, between the JfiJot/mri'i, Actinia, and A»cidia. Hoth the lat let
seem to be far removed, and all are distinctly separated from each other

II. — The external internment is a capacious sac, containing the
viscera, the respiratory apparatus, and the ovarium. wherein al.-o the

86 ECHINODERMATA.

part corresponding in position with the head of other animals, and all
the tentacular organization or arborescence may be withdrawn, and,
after an indefinite period of concealment, again displaj-ed at will.

III. — The arborescence is always retracted during alarm, nor ever
displayed unless under a sense of security.

IV. — The Holothuria pentodes, fu$us, and phantapus, propagate by
ova, and probably most of the others, the ovarium consisting of the ova
disposed in long ropes, single or folded double, and hi vast profusion.

V. — The Holothuria Bodotrice multiplies by spontaneous division of
the body, and subdivision of the sundered parts.

VI. — Some of the Holothuriae, as the fusm, are subject to lose the
tentacula, cylinder and ovarium, together with a large proportion of the
intestines, by spontaneous extrusion, the whole of which will be repro-
duced through time and favourable circumstances.

VII. — Most of the tribe, if not the whole, and especially the
pentactes, are liable to rupture of different parts of the body in confine-
ment, the rupture always proving fatal if near the posterior extremity.

VIII. — All the Scotish Holothuriae dwell under the surface of the
sea in the natural state, and firmly affixed for the most part to solid
substances.

IX. — The Holothuria is apparently a nocturnal animal, the full de-
velopment of its organs, and the discharge of its more important func-
tions, being chiefly during the night.

X. — Little Is known regarding the general habits of the Holothuria
in its native state. All seem of extreme timidity, disposed to shun the
light, and remain quiescent during the day. The pentactes generally
rises near the surface of the water, thefmus is content to remain below.
Both adopt a crescent shape, which is also the nature of the Holothuria
Scotica. The Holothuria Bodotrice or Ocnus does not affect any particular
position, and often remains very long affixed to the same spot.

Perusal of the first part of the Professor Delle Chiaie's Instituzioni di
Anatomiae Fisiologia Comparata, Napoli, 183G, and of Professor Edward
Forbes' Treatise on the Echinodermata, 1841, will much facilitate the
student's knowledge of these remarkable animals.

ASTKKI tfl -7

CHAPTER II.

A8TERIAS-TIIE SEA STAR.

VARIOUS authors having devoted considerable attention to tin- hi.--
tory of the trilK- comprehended under this name, or known as Stcllerides .
I propone to limit the present chapter to a few general observatioi.
'•••rinin species, which there is seldom much difficult y in obtaining.

Though the whole were included by earlier naturalists in a sinirli
ircnus, known as the A^>-i-int or Sea Star, a name sufficiently expressive,
later observers have founded several su \ «li visions, partly derived from
mere external aspect, partly from organic structure. Perhaps their ar-
rangements are susceptible of simplification, therefore of improvement .
for too little notice has been paid to vigorous living specimens kept
for permanent study, that they might be rendered authority.

To the superficial observer, a common resemblance pervades this
numerous tribe ; in several arms radiating from a central disc, in crawl-
ing backward and forward, from side to side, or around in all directions
indifferently, and in adhering to the substances whereon they rest.

All inhabit the sea ; nor docs any animal bearing the slightest re-
semblance to the Star-fish, dwell in the fresh- waters distribute! through-
out the globe.

On closer inspection of the specimens of the trite when brought
under view, so much difference, so great a variety in their organization.
together with certain peculiarities in habits,. may be discovered, as to
sanction their sulxlivision for the facility of giving inU-lliiriM"1 descrip-
tion, and for recognition.

They present a smooth and uniform surface, or they are penetrated

ECIIINODERMATA.

by innumerable tubes and orifices. Some are universally or partially-
covered with tufts, warts, scales, or spines. A kind of protecting mail
seems to prepare a number for resistance, while rugosities or asperities
yield to slightest pressure. Long and unmanageable rays, though subject
to inevitable mutilation, entangle a certain division among foreign sub-
stances, at the same time that the strong, clumsy, thick and short ap-
pendages of another appear to defy violence.

Amidst the great diversity distinguishing the external parts of the
star-fish, the use of a few may be explained ; but regarding the real pur-
pose to which the majority shall be converted, naturalists are still pro-
foundly ignorant : Nay, in some the external structure and appearance
are altogether unintelligible. It is continually changing during inspec-
tion, so that what forms the permanent, the principal, or the accessory,
can be scarcely ascertained. We behold a coriaceous, squamous, entire,
or porous integument, with innumerable shelly internal bones or joints,
besides rows of feet or suckers below.

Equally singular are the external and internal formation of the tribe.
Every comparative anatomist has found it so, as may be seen in the
works of Mo»ro, Tiedemann, Dclle Chiaie, and others.

These animals are provided with numerous extensile suckers, some-
what of a cartilaginous nature, for the most part occupying a channel in
the under surface of each of the rays, and performing the office of feet
more obviously than attaching the body to the plane of position. By
their means specimens secure themselves to solid substances, or pass
along from place to place. As the suckers in front affix, those behind
are relaxed from their hold, so as to allow progression. Though much
exceeding the specific gravity of the water, star-fish of various kinds
have a swift gliding motion, as if nearly buoyant. By means of absorp-
tion, the bulk of these creatures is considerably increased, and its specific
gravity diminished. But their hold is generally lost on privation of the
circumambient fluid, although some may be seen adhering to rocks on
recess of the tide, from inequalities retaining humidity. If the vessels
in our cabinets containing specimens be emptied, they soon fall from the
sides to the bottom. Thus, without violence, which is always attended

\>TER1AS. 89

with danger, «r products e <•!' injury, the animals are brought under the
readiest con tp>iil. merely by privation of water.

In tin- natunil Mate. Star -lish are disposed to crawl into fi-

.•tinii as tin- tide ebbs, underneath stones, or into sheik When
deprived nt' their natural element, they are helple-..

N race of the animal ereatioii is more numerously and more exten
sively distributed : they swarm throughout the Scotish seas in great
variety, and in multitude* incredible. Spite of the incessant persecution
they undergo, of the perpetual war of extermination which is waged
against them, their legions remain undimini-hed.

Where Mich myriads can obtain subsistence is unaccountable. Hut
although voracious, they are promiscuous feeders, — highly carnivorous,
and capable of enduring long abstinence. Perhaps most animal ,-ul.
stances are acceptable, and possibly some vegetable substances are also
devoured. None of the naked marine Venues are qualified for offering
any etVeetual resistance; the progress of the smaller bivalve testaeea
being easily arrested, they are involved by the arms of their rapacious
assailants, and, if fragile, crushed in the grasp ; or if larger and stronger,
they may be swallowed alive. All dead animals, if soft enough, are like-
wise rendered a prey. The mouth in the under surface dilates widely,
and, in proportion as the stomach is filled, the convexity of the back be-
comes elevated.

The fishermen of some districts entertain an inveterate antipathy to
the Star-fish, which is rooted in the belief of their being most destructive
to oysters in particular. They find them, they say, in the very fact,
actually within the shells, devouring the contents. But this seems an
unfounded prejudice, leading to indiscriminate vengeance against the
imaginary offenders. The ancients indeed have recorded the destruction,
by this feeble enemy, of the largest inhabitants of shells apparently im-
penetrable, and from them the modern opinions have likely originated.
Nevertheless their tnith is yet problematical. Nor is it e\ ident how the
alleged warfare can be carried on, or how the larger bivalves can be either
reached or extracted. Hy attending to the nature of the two races of
.in imaLi we shall perhaps deem such n fart the more and more improbable.

90 ECHINODERMATA.

Though the fishermen assert they have seen the enemy in that fact,
they are by no means either close or accurate observers. If they have
found the Star-fish in such a position, that such an attack might be pre-
sumed, probably the weakness of the inhabitant allowed the shell to
gape, whereby it became a prey. When discovered there most likely it
is from seeking shelter, for the Star-fish always courts a retreat, and
readily takes up its abode in any empty shell. During the colder season
many occur in those that have evidently long lost their tenants.

The antipathy of the fishermen, however, is inveterate, they are
always ready to slay, nor is any class of people more inured to slaughter.

I have not heard it suggested that the Star-fish possesses any kind
of solvent, compelling the bivalves to sunder. Neither can its hostility
be very deadly to the larger univalves, from the distance which they are
enabled to retreat within their portable dwellings.

It is not the rays of the Star-fish that their prey may dread so much
as seizure in the mouth.

The Star-fish sometimes shows an eversion of the stomach as it may
be concluded, or of some membrane resembling it. Whether this may
be the means of affecting their prey merits investigation.

Their general habits are to force the shells of smaller bivalves
asunder, and to devour the contents, as well as to consume the substance
of ordinary fishes entire. In as far as I am yet aware their destruction
of oysters is destitute of evidence.

I am unacquainted with their natural enemies. They are said to be
found occasionally in the stomach of some of the larger and more rapa-
cious tenants of the deep ; and, cannibal like, as we shall see, certain
species do not spare each other.

Many are very strong and vigorous in the sea, and most of them
sufficiently hardy to be objects of interest for the cabinet of the practical
naturalist. Some, perhaps a number, may be easily preserved, and with
due precaution they will survive long. If perishing speedily, it seems
rather from the injury received previously at the hands of their rude
captors.

Several species feed copiously, and grow rapidly : and they attain

\>TKRIAS. 'M

dimensions which 0eem extraordinary . A physician, whom I accounted
.1 most intelligent naturalist, assured me that he had seen one in the
northern seas of Scotland extending nearly a yard between the opposite
extremities. Admitting that conjectural measurements are delusive, this
must have I wen a MTV large specimen. I was told of another in a dif-
ferent quarter of tin- count r\ \\hidi, after two years survivance. cquall.il
th<- si/e of " a dinner plate."

The largest species I have had an opportunity of obtaining were the
Sohuter f*ij>j i-in* rabetu, Atterias g/ai-inli*, and Asterias endeca.

The niiiiilier of organs is not quite uniform in these animal*. Some
whose complement is nine rays may be seen with six, as the ••ndrca ; and
with eleven, twelve, thirteen. <>r t'onrteen, as the pappota. Among many
of the ij/nritiii* and oculaia, and multitudes of various Ophiurtr, none
have occurred to me witli an\ deiieieney of five rays, unless from acci-
dental and temporary mutilation, or with redundances. Five constitute
their complement. It seems to me that the greatest irregularities are
found in those speeies when- the rays are most numerous.

All are cold, rigid, rough, and disagreeable to the touch ; and they
themselves are very impatient of heat, whence it is necessary to keep
them cool. Fiv<|iient renovation of their element is indispensable.

In confinement, as well as in the sea, Star-fish are subject to fright-
ful mutilations. Not only are they subject to lose portions, or even en
tire rays, but the whole animal literally falls to pieces. Nay, after a day
of correct and satisfactory observation, the following morning will some-
times present nothing but a quantity of white granulations in the vessel
which had contained a jn-rfeet and Iteautiful specimen. This kind of de-
eompnsition is jH-rhaps a casualty incidental to the whole : I know of none
exempt from it.

Hut, as if in compensation. Nature has endowed these creatures with
surprising reproductive energies. All the lost organs are replaced h\
others I and alt houjrh some authors have denied that a complete speci-
men may l>c formed from a single ray. this is a fact which certainly does
ensue. Hut whether some insen.-ilile fragment of the disc must have
necessarily remained. 1 cannot presume to specify.

92 ECHINODEBMATA.

Many of the animals which have been beautifully symmetrical when
entire, appear strangely distorted on absolute privation of some of their
perfect organs, and the irregular evolution of others.

The aspect of individuals often alters very much, either superficially,
or in the distribution of the colours. Some undergo a great external
change with age. The whole tribe seems to abound in varieties, inso-
much that it is difficult to reconcile the observations and descriptions of
different naturalists. Perhaps the enumeration of species exceeds the
truth of Nature.

The surface of the Star-fish presents many interesting, curious, and
beautiful patterns for imitation in the arts, and in great variety. Some-
times a singular arrangement of points and orifices — sometimes a profu-
sion of organs in the semblance of luxuriant flowers.

As the skin is penetrated by innumerable orifices, through which
certain processes rise at the will of the animal, the surface is subject to
continual alteration. Of two specimens of the Solaster, one may be the
brightest scarlet, studded with many white spots, and the other of the
darkest crimson, wholly of uniform colour. Of another species, indi-
viduals may appear yellow, purple, or red, speckled white.

An important branch in the history of these creatures — the mode
of their perpetuation, — was long involved in mystery. The reproductive
energies of the tribe, the frequent and ready recovery of lost parts, were
well known to almost every one acquainted with the animal, or accus-
tomed to see it entire and mutilated. But the way in which they bred
could be told by none. This is a subject which seems to be involved in
greater obscurity in general, than any other in the history of living beings.

In regard to those dwelling in the waters, our ignorance may origi-
nate from two sources ; first, the produce of the female parent, whatever
it is, may float away at first and disappear ; secondly, it may be de-
veloped into forms, which, bearing no resemblance, are never recognized
as kindred.

In so far as I have observed, a quantity of roe is generated, chiefly
in spring, and advances to maturity in summer, which is differently dis-
posed in these animals, according to their different form.

AS I KICI AS. N

Thus, tin- position of tin- iiviiriiiin, or rather of tin- o\ aria, for all
have more than one. is determined by the species.

In the Aftertax «//'/••//;//* and ru/nm, they occupy a large portion
of tlio five ra\s, each ovarium of the latter growing to a great size:
those of ,l>/</-"M iirnni-iiii-ii In-long to the origin of the ra\s m-xt the

md are of unite dill'eient formation. The roe of the Solastrr jMpjx^a
is fiiiiiul in tlu- margin of the disc, • >!' different urningement from that of
the others. The n» , ,t' -ome OfUmm occupies five external sacs, each in-
terposed U-t \veeTi the roots of two rays, and shew, by their swelling.
tin- progressive advances of their c ontents.

Tin- ova of the .1 «/< i v'«.v ijlnrlnlix and rrtbfn* seem to be di»charge<l
from the end of May throughout June. On dissecting numbers of each.
in the beginning of -July, the rays of many were ent in-ly vacant of spawn.
Hut, in one large specimen of the former, a lobe of clear spawn, an inch
long, was found ; and in other-, \--ry small portions, which, early in the
season would have been considered originating lobes in both.

The rays are now di-tended by water.

The embryo animal, originally circular, is gradually moulded into
form, when liberated from the capsule : the limbs are successively de-
veloped from the margin, the whole meanwhile presenting an irregular
distorted aspect until attaining symmetry.

The young animals seldom occur at large in a very early stage. \V hen
they do so they are preserved without difficulty.

The Star-lish e\ idently live many years. Some are extremely com-
mon, others are of great rarity.

Tin- history of the Star-fish may be divided into two M-ctums —
I. The Asteria* — II. The

SECTION I. — § 1. ASTERIAS GI.ACIAUS. — Northern Sm->tar, Crou-fak. —

PLATE XVI.

This animal seems to be generally and numerously dispersed through-
out the northern regions It is abundant in the Scotish seas, inson.

that description is hardly essential, for none other i- tin
dental reference.

ECHINODERMATA.

The Aster ias gladalis is provided with long rays, which issue
from the parts around the mouth, for there is no definite central disc,
properly so called, whence they could originate, although the body
is thick and compact. The back is somewhat elevated ; the under sur-
face flattened, with the dilatable mouth in the middle. Thus, there
being no central body, as in the Ophiura, the rays may be said rather
to fork from each other than to issue from a centre. These are stout
and taper, convex above and flattened beneath, terminating by several
slender suckers at the extremity, besides which there is a channel in the
under surface, with rows of suckers, more numerous, stronger, and of
larger dimensions, serving as feet, both in progression and for fixture.

The Northern Sea-star is among the largest, the most powerful, and
ravenous of its kind, expanding completely twelve inches between the
tips of the opposite rays. But, the actual dimensions, and the wonted
appearance of such animals, are much affected by temperature of the
atmosphere, repletion with food, and especially by the presence of spawn.

The colour is extremely variable, dependent on the specimen, and
sometimes on age. It is usually purple or greyish : in an early state it
is white. I have seen cream-coloured .specimens expanding towards
three inches.

The richest purple adorns some specimens. Purple seems the natural
colour of the species. A specimen, so pale as to be almost white, having
been committed to recent sea- water, became speedily of a purple hue.

When inactive, the animal is greatly contracted, crouching closely
in some cavity, as if for concealment, or occupying an angle, apparently
quite helpless and incapable of resistance. When roused by heat or
hunger, it advances as if half-swimming, with incredible quickness, such
as could not be ascribed to its nature without ocular demonstration.
The body is much relaxed, the rays extended, and the numerous suckers
in action. It never swims, however, nor does it spontaneously quit the
water, though seen as left behind by recess of the tide.

No creature is more rapacious. Its prey is devoured alive, whenever
it can be overpowered. Let a moderate-sized mussel be presented, it is
straightway covered by the body of the Star- fish, while the rays closing
around it, the animal sustains itself on them as on feet, contracting still

• . •

AST Kill AS.

muiv !.\ invest in- ilif prev ; whieh is \vli.illy absorbed, on tlu mouth dilat-
ing for it* reception. Tin- mussel, though sometimes reje,-t,-.l for fi»h
in preference, is usually acceptable. Under protracted abstinence, even
tlu- fuci are not refused. If the portion of food be too large for tin
mouth, tin- -totimrh, or u traiisp.uvnt internal membrane, protrude* and
applies to it, apparently absorbing the juices. The testacea, wliether
univalves or bivalves, become a ready prey. The Turbo and the
1'holas fall victims alike. A specimen, not eontent with seizing a small
mussel introdm-ed into ite vessel, hastened to involve another. As tin-
prey is brought under the mouth, it is hemmed in by the limbs on all
sides, crushed asunder, or swallowed entire. If chancing to escape, it i»
only from superior strength. Small fishe*,' small Echini, and even HOIIIC
of its own genus are all among the sacrifices to the merciless voracity of
the Aster ias glaciali*.

The colour and size are variable : the adult in perfection in of u line
purple of various intensity, according to the specimen. That repre-
sented, Plate XVI., of half the natural dimensions, expanded complete! v
twelve inches between the opposite extremities of the tentacula. Hut
the young animal is white, and regenerating organs of the old are origi-
nally colourless, both in accordance with the laws usually regulating tin
aspect of early productions.

A small specimen, which might have been circumscribed by a circle
of three linen diameter in the end of September, traversed the side of it;-
vessel vivaciously, and swam supine, fig. 2. Another small specimen,
expanding eight lines, and which was a line thick, appeared perfectlv
white on February 20, and very pale grey a month later, fig. 3. At
this period, the tubercles disposed over the rays in longitudinal ro\\-
were well exposed under the microscope, fig. 4. The animal wax vigor-
ous, and fed on mussel. But I felt perplexed as to its identity with the
species. In three more weeks, I thought the slightest tinge of purple
perceptible, and the fact was decided ten days later, when its expansion
equalled fifteen lines, or an inch and a quarter. Though hardly to be
preserved, owing to the heat of the weather about June 20, ite increment
had still advanced, and the colour had become dark purple on July 11.
Being two inches in expansion, it was delineated, fig. 5.

96 ECHINODERMATA.

After surviving six or seven months, this specimen perished acci-
dentally.

During the season of propagation, the rays of the Asterias glacialis
are distended by a great ovarium. This, perhaps, may be considered as
divided into five parts, one occupying each ray ; each part, consisting
of two triangular lobes of unequal size in every ray, with subordinate
parts, also triangular, and resembling clusters of currants or grapes. To-
wards the end of May they are seen to be an accumulation of speckled
capsules, which bursting, discharge a quantity of molecules, like dust,
falling to the bottom of the vessel. — Fig. 6.

The capsules farthest advanced belong to the larger portion of the
roe, that towards the body of the animal which seems the first to origi-
nate. A solid nucleus within an integument is discovered in each of the
molecules discharged from the capsule. The spawn is long of attaining
maturity ; the lobes represented, fig. 6, being only in progress in the
end of April. A month, or perhaps two, had still to elapse before the
discharge of the ova. — Fig. 7.

This species is extremely subject to mutilation of the rays. It is
constantly found with one or more in progress of reproduction. Muti-
lation does not seem incidental to age, size, or season. But to shun re-
petition, I shall reserve a few observations on the subject for the follow-
ing paragraph.

I am ignorant whether specimens, originally white, invariably
change their colour, having witnessed its permanence in some of con-
siderable size, as previously said.

PLATE XVI.

Fio. 1. Asterias glacialis — The Northern Sea-star, adult.

2. Young specimen.

3. Young specimen, originally white.
4°. Ray of fig. 3, enlarged.

5. Fig. 3 represented four months later than previously, being now

purple.

6. Lobes of spawn.

7. Ova enlarged.

'•

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ASTERIAS. 97

§ 3. ASTERIAS RUBEXS — Reddish-yellow Sra-ttar.— Plates XVII

XVIII.. XIX

Tin-re is no race of animals wherein the difference and variety of
colour is more noted than the Star- fish, and in none greater than in tln-
iuul tin- preceding species. Hence the almost insuperable difficulty of
discrimination ; nor could I ever decide positively to which of the two
Plate XVII. li^. 1 belongs. Presuming them different, I inclined to
identify it with the Rubens. I am convinced, however, that two or
more have been concentrated as only one ; while a single species in dif-
ferent bunds is multiplied into more than one. Perhaps the colour is so
variable, that observers unable to satisfy themselves of identity, have too
readily presumed on difference : all, as already explained of other ani-
mals.— Nature seems sportive in the detail of some of her works, while
prominent leading principles, often unobserved by mankind, are left to
determine her purpose.

The difference of aspect is most conspicuously shown by the subject
mi'liT discussion.

In as far as I have been able to observe, the Asterieu rubens identi-
cally resembles the Aftertax glacialis in general formation, as well as in
the number and proportion of the organs, and in habit*. It attains the
largest size that I have seen of the Scotish Star-fish, some having been
found in the month of June expanding thirteen inches between the op-
posite extremities of the rays ; and one obtained in April, expanded no
less than fifteen inches.

The natural or converted colour, if it be not original, seems some
shade of yellow of various intensity above, and either pale yellow or
white below.

But specimens, of which I could scarcely doubt the identity, have
been very different — so different indeed, that representations after colour
are scarcely authority. Thus the specimen, Plate XVII. fig. 1, was of a
dull indefinite brownish-grey, while that of Plate XVIII. fig. 1, was a
fine vivid yellow. Plate XIX. fig. 1, seen on a reduced scale, was yellow,
but not equally fine as the preceding. I have never observed any large

v

98 ECHINODERMATA.

specimen of vivid yellow. In some of medium size, an intermixture of
brown predominates over the yellow.

The whole surface is generally spotted white, in longitudinal rows
from the centre of the body down to the extremities. By the micro-
scope, the spots are discovered to be so many tufts, composed of spinous
processes ; and being protruded at will, they cannot but greatly affect
the appearance of the animal, and the more according to its predominant
hue. Both this and the former have rows of peculiar low processes
down each margin of the five rays ; and each ray in both seems to have
four rows of suckers in full-grown specimens ; if only two, as usual in
Star-fish, their arrangement is deceptive. The extremity of the rays
have several longer and more slender tentacular organs.

A vast ovarium occupies the rays of the Asterias rubens in May and
June, composed of lobes of a triangular figure, terminating in cones of
capsules, each capsule as large as small shot. The general figure of the
subordinate parts corresponds with that of the lobe.

In April the roe is not so far advanced as to distend the lobes. It
resembles clusters of grapes. The surface of the capsules approaching
maturity, appears mottled from the internal molecules ; which fall to
the bottom of the vessel in numbers incredible, as the capsules burst.
A darker nucleus is exposed under the microscope by each. If these be
the elements of the Star-fish, our surprise at their multitudes may cease.
-Plate XVII. fig. 2.

But infinite embarrassment opposes discovery of the actual develop-
ment of the embryo. Whatever success may have attended the re-
searches of other naturalists, I have been constantly disappointed of fol-
lowing its progress uninterruptedly ; whence I am led to conjecture that
the spawn or produce is borne away from the product, and is preserved
from corruption by the abundance of the circumambient fluid.

The young Asterias rubens, as it may be presumed from form and
colour, is sometimes found in a very early stage, from which it appears
that the development of the ovum is as an irregular, expanding, central,
shapless portion, whence the rays are gradually issuing. But they are
of indefinite fonn, originating successively, and refining with time.

I /

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ASTERIAS. M

I -]H-ak with diffidence ; but possibly the progress IB beheld as re-
presented, Plate XVTL fig. 2 ; Plat. XIX. figs. 2, 3, 4, 6, 6,— the first
representing tin- molecules or ova, and the last the young of perfect
form.

All these, it will be observed, appear to be advancing to perfection.
Hut, not having seen their origin, I am ready to give them as a general
illustration of the progressive improvement, \vithuut insisting that they
were necessarily the young of the Asterins rulietu.

They occurred at different times, though the intervals were not
great compared with the irregularities constantly embarrassing the his-
tory of such marine productions.

The ova are seen Plate XVII. fig. 2. The animal, Plate XIX. fig. L'.
evidently had recently quitted the ovum. It was little above half a line
in diameter, irregularly tending to a circular form ; of variable shape, of
soft homogeneous aspect : endowed with slow progression and slight ad-
lic-inn. Some short suckers projected from the circumference, but no
indication of rays. This subject occurred on April 29, and was delinea-
ted on May 2, enlarged. The form of another specimen, under a line in
diameter, delineated May 16, was much improved, for the incipient form
could be distinctly determined ; fig. 3, upper surface ; fig. 4, under sur-
face, both enlarged. Above a dozen were found among miscellaneous
collections, on May 26, which, still in an early stage, had attained higher
perfection. They are represented as of the natural size, fig. 5 ; one en-
larged, fig. 6.

The roe had been previously discharged from several of the Atttriat
rvbens and several of the Asterias glacialis, all dissected on the llth of
July.

Many marine products are totally lost in earlier age, if separating
from the parent, and multitudes destroyed by sudden decay ; thence it
can be principally from accident, if any are preserved on quitting the
ovum.

This species, the rvbens, like the preceding, is extremely subject to
mutilation of the rays. Of the complement many have four, three, two,
and some only one. But, the reproductive energies being powerful.

100 ECHINODEEMATA.

many are disfigured by monstrosities in the irregular evolution, both in
size and number of the renovating parts.

On the tenth of June, a single ray was found, which had either
separated from an entire specimen, or was the residue of one having lost
the other parts. It shewed no symptoms of reproduction at the time ;
but, on the fifteenth, the rudiments of four additional rays were indi-
cated by four papillar prominences, projecting the sixteenth of an inch
from the broader end. Next evening, one of these had attained nearly
double the size : the others were less advanced, but a small orifice, the
mouth, was forming in the centre. The whole ray now extended about
thirteen lines.

Another specimen having fallen to pieces from the extreme heat of
the season, rendered me apprehensive that this would share the same
fate ; nevertheless it escaped. Reproduction advanced vigorously, and
in two or three days longer, it appeared as in Plate XVII. fig. 3, upper
surface ; fig. 4, under surface. Some smaller specimens were now perish-
ing by the heat.

This regenerating animal having begun to feed on June 29 and 30,
it dwelt for hours over a portion of mussel. In a month from the com-
mencement, the new organs appeared as in fig. 5. But, on the 15th of
July, the original ray fell to pieces, leaving the disc, fig. 6, surrounded by
the four generating organs. This was a singular incident, especially as
the animal became symmetrical, and fed soon afterwards. Nothing dis-
proportionate, or offensive to the eye, remained by privation of the un-
wieldy ray, and in ten days, or on July 25, the specimen, such as it re-
mained, was quite vigorous. But, while still enlarging, it perished sub-
sequent to August 15, at which time no indications promised reproduc-
tion of the fifth or defective ray.

Mutilation is not incident either to size or age. It takes place, and
is succeeded by reproduction, alike in old and in young specimens. It
may be called total or partial. Several specimens having been collected
towards the middle of July, one consisted of only two rays, each two
inches and a half in length, issuing from opposite sides of the disc.
Wishing to ascertain some facts in reproduction, I endeavoured to pre-

•

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ASTERIA8. 101

serve this specimen a* it was healthy. But in three days both rays
separated, leaving the disc entirely free of appendages. All wmi to
decay in a few da}-H longer.

A fifth ray may be added to four still subsisting to make up the
complement, or four may generate where only one remains. A single
ray, fig. 7, without incipient reproduction, appeared on July 30, as fig. 6,
when four had made considerable advance, as in the former specimen.
The fifth ray of a small specimen, defective, waa advancing in the end of
December. Fig. 9.

Many obscurities in the history of these two, the glacialii and
rubens, whether the same or different, require elucidation. At present, I
incline to conclude that the same facts apply alike to both. A specimen,
expanding twelve inches between the tips of the opposite rays, which
were of large size, being an inch and a half thick at the root, was entire-
ly of gallstone yellow. Having lain during the night hi the open air
among sea-water, this external colour seemed to be altogether removed
when the specimen was washed in fresh water next morning. The sur-
face of the rays became nearly dull red lilac purple, which might have
led the observer to identify it at once as the Asteriat ylacialit.

The peculiar organization of the skin, the various pores by which it
is penetrated, and the subsidiary parts presented to view, and withdrawn
at will, merit farther investigation, for enabling us to account for ex-
ternal appearances.

From the aversion of the fishermen, both to the larger and smaller
genera of Star-fish, they were wont to rend them asunder. But on dis-
covering their purpose to be defeated by the reproductive energies of
their victims, they are now cast ashore, and left to perish.

PLATE XVI.

Flo. 1. Atltria* qlacialii, the Northern Sea Star or Crow-fun, half MK.

2. Young specimen.

3. Young specimen, originally white.

4. Ray of fig. 3 enlarged.

102 ECHINODERMATA.

PLATE XVI. — continued.

FIG. 5. Fig. 3 four months later than the preceding delineation, now con-
verted to purple.

6. Lobes of the Ovarium in May.

7. Ova, enlarged.

PLATE XVII.

FIG. 1. Asterias rubens.

2. Ova, enlarged.

3. Ray of a mutilated specimen, upper surface, 10th June.

4. The same, under surface.

5. Fig. 3 as on July 15.

6. The same, as on July 25.

7. Ray of a mutilated specimen, upper surface as on July 12.

8. The same, as on July 30.

9. Small specimen regenerating the fifth ray.

PLATE XVIII.

FIG. 1. Asterias rubens.

2. Appearance of the skin, enlarged.

PLATE XIX.

FIG. 1. Asterias rubens.

•

2. Young in an early stage.

3. Young farther advanced, upper surface.

4. Under surface.

5. Group of young in greater perfection.

6. One of the group enlarged.
Figs. 2, 3, 4, 6, enlarged.

§ 3. ASTERIAS (CBIBELLA) OCULATA. — Plate XX.

This animal is readily recognised. It is provided with five rays,
expanding four inches or more between the opposite tips, though seldom
occurring as large. The rays are of a different character from those of
the preceding species, being stout, round, comparatively short, and taper-

V.I.

II \\

*

7

It

6riiu.

ASTEBIAS. |i.;,

ing slightly from the origin. The whole surface is of a fine purple colour
above, the extremity of tin- rays yellowish, the under surface tending to
ili.it colour also. Plate XX., fig. 1. A narrow channel here running
along each ray contains the suckers, fig. 2. The skin appears punctured
to the naked rye. I'mlrr tin- iiiirroscope it seems covered with a kind
.>!' very low tufta or knobs, hardly prominent, rather in circular arninge-
mrnt, interspersed with circular orifices, fig. 3.

A small hard substance, scarcely prominent above the skin, and gene-
rally of a whitish colour, appears towards the edge of the disc of t he
st:ir fish of many species. The use of this, called the Madreporifonn
tubercle, is yet undiscovered. In the present subject it is very small,
but the peculiarity of its structure is exposed by the microscope, fig. 4.

In many of the star-fish also a solid round speck appears at the ex-
tremity of each ray, fig. 5, which seems to be composed of several sub-
ordinate specks, fig. 6. It is red in the Asteria* oculata, and is seated
amidst a few tentacula, extruding farther. Some authors consider such
specks the eyes of the animal ; but it does not appear that satisfactory
reasons support their opinion, nor can it be shown why the speck may
not be a gland instead of an eye.

Tins animal feeds on the mussel, but not readily : Probably also on
the Lepas. Many reject food entirely.

In its earlier stages, the A*ter\a» octdata seems to be of a circular
form, followed by development of the rays. Of two minute specimens
occuring in the month of July, one was nearly circular, fig. 7 ; originat-
ing rays, with some suckers, distinguished the other, fig. 8. After a
minute deep reddish orange specimen had been two months in my po«-
session, I found it an eighth of an inch in diameter, with five short ob-
tuse rays, fig. 9. A small orange specimen, with five stout rays, fed
readily on mussel, dwelling long over its prey, fig. 10.

I advance my opinion of the identity of such small animals as be-
longing to the species with reserve, because their history was not followed
from its earliest origin.

The young of the star- fish bears no resemblance to the adult. All
its organs are successively developed into form.

104 ECHINODERMATA.

A considerable difference prevails in the intensity of colour in the
adult, though always purple. The extremities are generally reddish or
yellowish, and the under surface dingy yellow. Great diversity of ap-
pearance prevails among all the race.

This species may be sometimes found sheltering itself under rocks
and stones, on recess of the tide. Its adhesion is slight, owing to the
smallness of the suckers.

PLATE XX.

FIG. 1. Asterias (Cribella) oculata.

2. Centre of the under surface, and avenues of the suckers.

3. Portion of the skin, enlarged.

4. Madreporiform organ, enlarged.

5. Ocular specks or glands, enlarged.

6. Subordinate specks, composing the same, enlarged.

7. Young Asterias in a very early stage, enlarged.

8. Another.

9. Young Asterias, natural size.
10. Young Asterias, natural size.

§ 4. ASTERIAS ARANCIACA. — Plate XXI.

Authors doubt whether the name of this species is Aranciaca or
Aurantiaca. It is of little consequence. The difference of names often
results from ignorance of previous orthography. The variety we find in
the surnames of people is very great, because many called on to subscribe
documents of old were not so skilful either in chirography or ortho-
graphy, as to bestow the proper appellation on themselves.

The Asterias aranciaca extends six inches between the tips of the
opposite rays, which are five in number, terminating obtusely with a few
tentacular filaments. The rays are bordered by numerous setaceous spines,
thickly set, of which the largest are next the body. The upper margin
of the rays is also bordered by a row of beads, the largest being next
the body, and diminishing towards the extremities, where they are very

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ASTKR1AS. 105

small. They arc of on oval shape, and being prominent and conspicuous,

til-- fonn of the animal a finished appearance : — Plate XXI.. fig. 1.

A double row of suckers runs along the under surface of each ray.

Tin- .-kin is of peculiar formation, consisting of numerous rosettes
and riiviilar <>iifit »•>, in regular arrangement, very ornamental — Fig. 3.

The upper surface is universally of light brownish colour, with a
reddish tinge. A .-t- -Ihte arrangement of red specks occupies the centre.

I could not discover the wonted ocular or glandular speck at the
extremity of the ray by the microscrope, fig. 4. The border seems to
decompose by losing the beads, fig. 5.

In the end of April a large specimen occurred, containing a quantity
of advancing spawn, situated in the origin or root of the rays.

This is also of very peculiar formation. It consists of a number of
ovarian ropes of moniliform aspect, \\lm-h will be best understood from its
representation : — Fig. 6, portion natural size ; fig. 7, enlarged ; fig. 8,
ovarian ropes magnified.

This animal is not common.

I understand that, in the opinion of certain naturalists, its name is
derived from a mucous matter, which, they say, exudes from the body,
and overspreads the surface like a spider's web.

PLATE XXI

Fio. 1. A*tfri<u araneiaca.

2. The same, under surface.

3. Portion of the skin, enlarged.

4. Extremity of a ray, enlarged.

5. Marginal beads.

6. Ovarian rope*.

7. The nine, enlarged.

8. Portion of the sonic, magniflod

106 ECHINODERMATA.

§ 5. ASTERIAS ENDECA — Nine-rayed Star-fish. — PLATES XIX. figs. 7,
8, 9— XXII.— XXIII.

The species described in the preceding paragraphs are all provided
with five rays, which, as before said, are commonly uniform, without
deficiency or redundance. Those of the Star-fish described in the pre-
sent paragraph are not alike uniform in number, being eight in the speci-
men, Plate XIX. fig. 7 ; nine, the full complement, in fig. 9 ; and nine
in the specimens Plates XXII. and XXIII. The animal has also occurred
with ten. This is one of the larger and more beautiful of the Star-fish
inhabiting the Scotish seas, expanding eight inches between the opposite
tips of the rays. The usual complement of these, I say, is nine. They
diminish regularly from the root to the extremity. Two rows of suckers
occupy their under surface.

The texture of -the skin is rough, and its formation and appearance
are very peculiar. Not less varied is the colour, specimens being seen
from pale yellow, or brilliant orange, to fine purple. Some of the former
are speckled white, or a white line runs down the middle of the surface
of the rays. There is no uniformity of colour whatever to guide the
observer.

But the structure of the surface, whereby, perhaps, the colour is
entirely modified, is neither explicable nor intelligible. It is of remark-
able complexity.

The skin or integument being porous, and the animal having the
faculty of elevating some singular parts of its organization above the sur-
face, through the pores, as well as of withdrawing them, the appearance
must necessarily depend on the mode wherein this faculty is exercised.
I see no other means of accounting for its changeable aspect.

The specimen Plate XXIII. fig. 1, expanded seven inches, and was
of a fine delicate purple above, — the under surface of a dingy straw yel-
low. A number of projecting minute white tufts, interspersed with short
cylindrical tubes, studded the upper surface, — the skin being thin and
flexible. The colour was no less modified by the proportional projection
of the tufts. When they were depressed it was much darker, when they
were elevated much lighter. A portion enlarged is represented fig. 2.

I /

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ASTERIA> 107

I'nder the microscope the outline of the tuft- tended to cylindrical :
and each was apparently composed of fourteen or sixteen c\liudcrs, which
are not .-month. Tin- .-liort cylindrical t ubes appeared to be soft and
fleshy. In -ome places they were intcr-per-cd irregularly with tin- tuft-,
and iu other places, one tube stood regularly amidst four tufts. The
madreporiforni tulx'rcle, \v.i- rit«M MUri r»ur taftft An . ,,1. ,,•._-,, |
view of it is pr.-.-nted by fig. 4, where other tufts arc also seen ; nnd :i
portion magnified is shewn fig. 5.

Here the ocular speck nt the extremity of the ray is dork reddish-
hrown. It is neither compact nor uniform under the higher microscopi-
cal powers, hut apparently more solid towards the middle, while parts of
the ciiruiii! <>nsi>t of minute specks, fig. 3.

On March 27. I found forty or fifty ova floating near the surface of
the water of a vessel containing a specimen of between seven or eight
inehe> diameter, which had been a week in my possession. These ova
were of a fine reddish -orange colour, solid and consistent, nearly globu-
lar, but some beginning to relax in form. On transferring the specimen
to another vessel, a few more ova were produced, and here thirty or
forty others escaped on the following day : — Fig. 6, ova ; fig. 7, group
enlarged.

Some had a slight depression in the centre, like an orange, and the
figure of others tended to ovoidal. All seemed fresh, smooth, and they
were of vivid colour.

Selecting a number, I consigned them to five different vessels. But
I was disappointed of the progeny, as none proved prolific.

This animal sometimes feeds readily. When doing so mussel is con-
sumed ; however, many refuse food entirely. A fine specimen, expand-
ing just about two inches, of beautiful reddish-orange colour above, and
yellowish below, fed readily on the common leptu when detached from
ite aite. The Star-fish, involving the prey among its limbs, extracted
the contents of the shell.— Plate XIX., figs. 7, 8.

The A*teria» endeca has not been common in any place that I have
visited ; nor has it survived long in confinement.

The specimen, Plate XXII., was originally very weak, but from

108 ECHINODERMATA.

careful treatment, and particularly from being kept cool, it became suf-
ficiently vigorous, and proved a fine example of the form of its kind.
Star-fish are generally extremely impatient of heat. Many perish, appa-
rently from nothing but the temperature of our apartments exceeding
that of the sea.

These animals usually ascend the sides of the vessels devoted to
their preservation. They quit their hold, if enfeebled, lie reversed be-
low, and die.

PLATE XIX.

FIG. 7. Asterias endeca, with eight rays, upper surface.

8. Under surface.

9. Another specimen, with nine rays, reduced.

PLATE XXII.

FIG. J . Asterias endeca, expanding eight inches.
2. Compartment of the skin, enlarged.

PLATE XXIII.

FIG. 1 . Asterias endeca, purple specimen expanding above seven inches.

2. Compartment of the skin, enlarged.

3. Ocular speck, enlarged.

4. Madreporiform tubercle amidst four tufts, with two at some dis-

tance, enlarged.

5. Portion of the same, magnified.

6. Ova near the size of nature.

7. Group of the same, enlarged.

§ 6. ASTERIAS (SOLASTER) PAPPOSA.— Plates XXIV., XXV., XXVI.

THIS is one of the larger, the more singular, and, at the same time,
one of the most beautiful of the genus dwelling in the Scotish seas.
But, compared with those already described, its appearance is so remark-
able, and it is so unlike them in all its features, that many less skilful
might refuse to admit its kindred to the tribe. The formation of the

/ /

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. .

• *

>v

\STERIA- 109

animal is itul 'aordinary ; tin- number, complexity. diveiMty. and

peculiarity of its parts are «uch as to render it vain attempting t
them in detail ; neither could the form In- n ndered more explicit, nor
itfl nature be letter understood, than by tin- NpNHBtetfOM iriven here.
aided by brief description. Nothing short of actual inspection of the
living subject can satisfy the ad mi rim: and inquisitive contemplate
the man cllous works of the Creator.

Here the breadth of the disc is proportionally greater, and its form
more characteri-tic than in any of the precedini: species. Thus the rays
are shorter ; nor does the general aspect of the whole animal bear much
conformity with that of the others. Everything denotes a tendency to
transition.— Plan- XXIV., fig. 1.

Specimens are of circular shape, and provided with from eleven to
fourteen- rays. Among many obtained at diflcrent times, the majority
had thirteen, which seems about the proper complement.

Larger specimens expand from eight to ten inches between the tip*
of the opposite rays. The whole upper surface Is covered with tufts like
the short bristles of a small hair pencil, advancing in regular lines along
the sides of the rays. Another kind of pure white tufts stands across the
rays, erect, like the teeth of a comb. — Plate XXIV. fig. 2 : Portion of
the skin of a different specimen, enlarged. The whole under surface,
especially towards the centre, is of very remarkable structure. One part
is sufficiently obvious, being the wonted channel, with a double row of
suckers traversing each ray ; and eight or ten suckers, proportionally
longer, more flexible and active at the end of the rays, nit her appearing,
by their stretching and searching around, to discharge a tentacular office.
Their -tructure is also somewhat diflerent. whence stricter attention be-
stowed on them might discover whether they have truly any peculiar
province. The upper surface of the animal is wholly red ; sometimes
very fine scarlet, spotted white, from the presence of numerous subordi-
nate organs. — Plate XXFV. fig. 1. Besides a profusion of tufts, infinite
low small white prominences arise among them from the skin. In addi-
tion to all these are many whitish or yellowish tubular orifices, percep-
tible by the microscope, also on the surface of the disc.

110 ECHINODERMATA.

The tufts now alluded to, whether red or yellowish, are of singular
conformation. They consist of not fewer than fifteen blades, rising from
a common neck uniting them, which is seemingly a prolongation from
the animal's skin, fig. 4. There are specimens wherein the tufts lean
over the madreporiform tubercle, itself a small striated, indurated, flat-
tened spot, white, or of the palest yellow, fig. 5.

A common sucker is represented, fig. 6 ; and one of tentacular na-
ture, fig. 7.

The under surface of the animal is white ; it has no resemblance to
the upper surface. — Plate XXV.

The ocular or glandular speck at the extremity of the rays of the
Asterias papposa is red or brown. In a small lively specimen, sub-
jected to the microscope, what appeared single and red to the naked eye
was discovered to consist of about twenty very minute specks, vivid red,
dispersed over a pale ground. The specks are generally circular ; but
while most of them are so in one ray of a specimen, those in the rest
may be rudely triangular. Neither are the red specks disposed in regular
order. In distribution they may be compared to similar black specks,
supposed ocular, occurring in the Planaria: and Verities, fig. 8. In a
large dingy red specimen the specks, under a powerful magnifier, re-
sembled an obtuse conic frustum, of vermillion intensity of colour, with
a lighter depressed rather than elevated speckling, fig. 9. Another was
nearly of similar form ; a third projected as a spherical segment.

This subject is extremely obscure, but I do not yet see any relevant
ground for beh'eving that such specks in the extremity of the rays of the
Star-fish are the organs of vision.

Under favourable circumstances this species feeds voraciously on
mussel. But, from previous injury, perhaps, specimens have proved
always of difficult preservation, nor, unless with rare exceptions, are they
in a condition to feed. Some, however, are very active, and feed readily.
If supplied with a cleft mussel shell the everted stomach protrudes, ap-
parently to absorb the contents. Without this faculty food would be
often inaccessible.

Three specimens had been committed to the same vessel as Plate

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kSTBtflfl 111

XXIV. fig. 1. About a fortni-lit afterwards I was surprised to detect
this specimen in the fact of devouring one of its smaller companions.
J';ut <if tin- \irtim .*till hung from the mouth of its enemy. Not a frag-
ment \V;LS \i-itili' next morning, and in the evening some half digested
ni;itt«T a|i|>i-aiv.|.

Tims wan a new feature in tin- history of the species betrayed,— one
of which I had not entertained the least suspicion. Neither hud 1 frit
any apprehensions regarding the safety of various subjects in the same
venel uinli-r a course of observation. The same rapacious animal now
specified had previously consumed part of the common green fucus vege-
tating near the short', which was rejected at night ; and next day it fed
copiously on mussel.

Before the specimen above mentioned was devoured another small
one in the vessel hod disappeared, which, though improbable, I supposed
to have crawled over the side. However, a fortnight after the preceding
i:i<-t. lin.lin- tli.- same assailant attempting to satisfy its cannibal appe-
tite still on its third companion, considerably larger than the ostensible
victim, I could no longer doubt the fact. Thus it is impossible to pre-
sume on the indemnity of any specimens from the strength and voracity
of their neighbours. The fishermen believe that this animal devours
the Asterias glarialit.

The dimensions of these creatures are much affected, augmented,
and reduced by the temperature of the atmosphere. From their noc-
turnal habits also, specimens are developed more amply towards night
than through the day. Their safety demands that the temperature of
the place where they are kept shall be very moderate. To the touch
they feel cold, and rough and disagreeable like a piece of shagreen.

Adults of this species have usually thirteen rays, which, as well as
other members, are developed originally, for they receive no additions
with age. A very minute specimen, under the eighth of an inch in
diameter, had fourteen. The conformation, or rather the proportions of
the animal are slightly modified in time.

Perhaps the number of suckers in a row may be augmented with
age by new evolutions, but the rows, being two, belonging to each ray.

112 ECHINODEEMATA.

remain always the same. These rows are separated by a kind of rib
in large specimens. . The sucker bears a narrow resemblance to the pro-
boscis of an elephant, being very contractile, flexible, somewhat carti-
laginous, and of annulated appearance, besides enlarging at the extremity,
fig. 6. As above said, eight or ten long, flexible, rather muricate organs,
at the end of each ray, seem of different structure, having no enlarge-
ment, and their functions being apparently more tentacular, fig. 7.

On emptying and inverting the vessel containing these animals, the
suckers gradually relaxing their hold, allow them to drop off.

All are very tenacious of life, insomuch that the suckers of one por-
tion continued adhering while the remainder was in actual decay.

The ovarium of the Asterias papposa is unlike that of any of the
species above described. It consists of two clusters of capsules at the
root of each of the rays, thus corresponding somewhat with the ovarian
lobes of the Glacialis and Rubens. They are slightly attached to the
skin of the specimen ; and are nearly of the dimensions represented,
Plate XXVI. figs. 1, 2, 3, though scarcely as large, for one of them
might be covered by a hollow hemisphere eight or nine lines in diameter.

Portions of the cluster seem forked, fig. 4, enlarged ; and parts are
branched, which is perhaps the true character of the ovarium : — Fig. 5,
enlarged.

It may be thence understood that the ovarium is, on the whole,
composed of a number of irregular capsules, fig. 6, enlarged ; wherein
are contained an indefinite quantity of spherical and ovoidal ova, many
of which are expelled from it after each other, fig. 7. One just quitting
the capsule appears at the summit of fig. 6. This capsule was an eighth
of an inch long. The ova, generally spherical, are of a fine reddish-
orange colour, with a darker red speck or nucleus.

I set much of the roe and many of the ova apart in suitable vessels,
yet I was disappointed of their proving prolific.

The ovaria are advancing, and of a beautiful orange colour, from
April until July. But specimens have had no ovarium early in the
latter month, though in some they were fine and vivid, apparently ap-
proaching maturity.

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ASTERIAS. 113

The Astfriat, or Soltuttr pappota, is named Kelle, or Te Kelle, or

Sur-tMi. l>y the Scotish fisherim n
It is not rare.

PLATJ: XXIV

1. Attmat (Solautor) pappota, reduced. Back.

2. Portion of the skin, enlarged.

3. Portion of the akin of another specimen, enlarged.

4. Tuft enlarged.

5. Tuft overhanging the inadreporiform tubercle, enlarged.

6. Sucker enlarged.

7. Tentacular organ at the extremity of a ray, enlarged.

8. Ocular or glandular specks at the end of the ray*, enlarged.

9. Speck of the specimen referred to, fig. 3.

1'r.ATK XXV. Atteria* (Solaster) pappota, under surface.

PLATK XXVI.

Fto. 1. Atttriat (Solatter) pappota, cluster of capsule*.

2. Another.

3. Another.

4. Portion enlarged.

5. Branch of capsule* with OTA, enlarged.

6. Capsule ; ovum escaping at the summit, enlarged.

7. Ova enlarged.

8. Young Asterias, upper surface.

9. The same, under surface.

10. Another, farther advanced, under surface.

SECTION II. — § 1. OPHIURA BRACTEATA. — Plate-mail Star-fah. —
Plate XXVII.

As many of the parts and the properties of the preceding animal*
disappear in the following specimens, a new division is constituted

P

114 ECHINODERMATA.

for their reception, under the name of Ophiura. Possibly this is designed
to infer a resemblance between the curving and twining of the rays, or
of motions similar to those of the serpent.

Such a subdivision is not inconvenient ; for although we are not
to forget that the Ophiura is still a Star-fish, it is sanctioned by some
prominent distinctions from the others.

The Ophiurce are characterised by a central disc, with five long
slender rays issuing from the circumference immediately, or from the
margin of the upper or under surface, in general somewhat within the
circumference ; but in several their origin approaches the orifice of the
mouth.

The disc is circular or sub-angular, the mouth generally pentagonal
in the under surface, and very dilatable. Five serrated angular prolon-
gations of the surface below are directed inwards, as if towards the centre,
as in the bracteata. Its upper surface is nearly smooth in some, and in
others clothed with very minute scales or spines. But its chief variety
is in colour, and in the distribution of colours.

Instead of the wonted suckers specially serving for the motion and
adhesion of the Asterias, the rays of the Ophiura consist of segments,
and are provided with an infinity of singular spinous processes along
each side, together with their accessory parts, which are different in every
species of the animal.

The rays are also covered by scales, in great variety of form, arrange-
ment, and distribution, according to the species.

These organs are extremely liable to mutilation, from their length
and slenderness, and because they are so easily entangled with any foreign
substance. But the reproductive faculties seem less energetic here than
in the animals of the first section.

Probably the form of the Ophiurce undergoes a considerable modifi-
cation with age. I have had many small specimens, which I was for
some time induced to consider the type of different species ; yet after
more mature deliberation, I abandoned my intention of representing
them here, as their more prominent distinctive features might be oblite-
rated with advances to perfection.

The vigour and the dimensions of this creature depend much on the

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•

ASTERIAS 1 I',

places where it dwells, ami tin- facility of obtaining ftistenance. Some
live in deep water, multitudes on the oyster beds, and some amidst sand
nearer to the sh

On the whole, they are extremely numerous, and from the vast
multitudes continually destroyed, their race seems to be inexhaustible.

§ 1. The disc of the Ophiurn hracteatn is circular, flattened, about an
inch in diameter, and covered with varied and singular scales. Five
rays, expanding seven or eight inches between the extremities, issue from
tin- circumference above, and rather within the margin. These rays are
l":i_. clendcr, an I imbrical ' orOOfl nd ivitt lOMOgC -Li ;..•.! ndfll ddHTB
the middle alnive, and two side pieces of a difl'erent form. The ray is
further divided into segments, with three *pinous processes on the sides.
Close and attentive inspection is necessary for ascertaining the i*tmr-
ture of the parts.

II. -iv there are no rows of suckers, properly so called, serving for
adhesion, and for motion, as in the species of the preceding section.

The Ophiura bracteala feeds voraciously on mussel, which it receives
in preference to oyster, and then the disc rises like a cushion from its or-
dinary flatness, in proportion as the prey is consumed. I have not ob-
served any specimen attempt to swallow the shell, though the mouth In-
susceptible of considerable dilatation, and the capacity of the stomach
suHicient for such as were offered. But whenever a part of the flesh of
the mussel is within reach, the extremity of a ray twining around, it i.<
carried to the mouth, and greedily devoured.

Sometimes a disagreeable odour exhales from these animals after
feeding.

However ravenous at times, days occasionally intervene without the
consumption of any food.

Mutilation of the rays is particularly incident to this species, whence
many distorted, disfigured, and unshapely subjects come within cogni-
zance of the naturalist. It constantly occurs with those in confinement,
perhaps from our ignorance of .-uital.le treatment in food, or in tempera-
ture. Nevertheless specimens survive some time, proving active, feed-
ing readily ; also shewing themselves very tenacious of life.

116 ECHINODEEMATA.

Mutilation is inevitably concomitant on impurity of the water. But
without any obvious cause, we witness it continually, and to the most
destructive extent. Piece by piece falls off the rays, until nothing but
the disc remains, yet the animal still lives. After a specimen had been
preserved some time, only a very short fragment of the rays continued
entire ; }7et the subject fed greedily, nor was motion utterly extinct even
when the disc was partly decomposed.

Perpetuation of the race is carried on by ova, as with the rest.
Early in April the disc is seen remarkably full, plump, and round in the
margin ; the intermediate space between the rays being occupied by
spawn. On separating a portion of the under surface, which is ve.ry thin,
and rather slightly crustaceous, the spawn, of vivid red, is found adher-
ing to it. The colour is so bright, that the under surface of the disc
is sensibly affected, and the space between the rays which it occupies
becomes ruddy. Ovoidal capsules, confusedly huddled together, compose
the spawn : — Plate XXVII. fig. 8, where a cluster is seen as attached to
the skin, enlarged. Single capsules, more enlarged, whence some of the
ova have escaped, fig. 9. The capsular integument is so refined, that the
internal contents are exposed, the whole quite red.

Specimens expanding six inches have been replete with spawn ; and
as late as October so plump and full, that the disc resembled a cushion —
with the spawn also of beautiful orange-yellow, nearly mature. When
of such quality, they are not common.

PLATE XXVII.

FIG. 1. Ophiura bracteata. Mail Star-fish.

2. Another specimen, young.

3. Portion of a ray of fig. 5, enlarged.

4. Disc of a specimen, enlarged.

5. Under surface of a specimen.

6. Portion of a ray of fig. 5, under surface, enlarged.

7. Ova.

8. Cluster of capsules, enlarged.

9. Single capsules, more enlarged.

.

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A8TERIAS. 117

§ 2. OPHITTBA VTLOARIS.— Plate XXVI 1 1

Tins is the most common, and its varieties the most numerous, of
any that I have seen, insomuch, that it is somewhat perplexing to aay
what shall be assumed as the type of the species.

The profusion and tin- distribution of colours in every different pro-
portion, distinguishes it among the rest, for yellow, blue, green, red, may
!>•• interspersed in a single specimen : — Plate XXVTIl. fig. 1. Three linen
in length — being a portion of the five rays of one specimen, were of uni-
form yellow from their origin, when the interspereion of other colours
commenced.

Tin- finest specimens, which are found in the northern seas of Scot-
land, expand six inches between tlu- tips of the opposite m

The proportion of the disc to the whole dfanaMUM of the animal i-
Miiall ; but the form and appearance not only undergo great modification
in attaining the adult state, but during the season of propagation these
are still more conspicuous.

Early in the season ovoids begin to swell from the margin of the
disc between the rays. Advancing gradually through March and April,
they become so much enlarged in May and June, that the rays inter
posed between them seem reduced in size, and as if grown more slender.

The ovoids, when mature, are full of a number of thin brownish or
yellowish foliaoeous lobes, composed of a vast multitude of ova.

The rays of this species are particularly subject to mutilation.

They are clothed by sets of hard and soft processes, adapted to va-
rious purposes.

PLATE XXVI II

Fio. 1. Opkiura mdgarii.

2. Section of a ray, enlarged.

3. Section of a ray.

4. Cartilaginous organ of the ray.

5. Spinous organ of the ray.

6. Disc of a prolific specimen, surface.

7. The same, under surface.

8. Disc of a specimen, enlarged.

9. Foliaceous lobe, from an ovoid, enlarged.

118 ECHINODEEMATA.

§ 3. OPHITJRA PUNCTATA.— Plate XXIX.

I feel some hesitation in the application of the name of this species,
which is the largest of the Ophiurae belonging to the Scotish seas.

The finest specimens expand eight inches, or somewhat more, be-
tween the tips of the opposite rays : — Plate XXIX. fig. 1.

The disc exceeds an inch in diameter, with a waving circumference,
the whole surface resembling a cushion entirely covered by microscopic
granules. The rays long, and taper, are invested by transverse elliptical
scales, with produced extremities, denoting so many segments. Each
segment is bordered by a cluster or set of smooth obtuse spines, with a
dark centre. The cartilaginous organ is covered with prominences.

When the under surface is viewed, the form of the disc and di-
vergence of the rays are well exposed.

PLATE XXIX.

FIG. 1. Ophiura punctata?

2. Section of a ray, enlarged.

3. Disc, under surface.

4. Spinous and cartilaginous organ, enlarged, a, b.

5. Portion of the surface of another specimen, enlarged.

Miscellaneous Observations. — The preceding examples will afford a
competent general idea of the nature of the Asterias and Ophiura, in as
far as relates to the more prominent features of their structure and his-
tory. Content with this at present, I shall abstain from entering on
minutiae, in the expectation of some future opportunity of illustrating
the subject in detail.

Several facts, especially regarding the Ophiura, require much eluci-
dation. The number of these animals is excessive, both of species and
varieties ; but fallacies have certainly exaggerated them.

The form of many seems transient, and assuredly undergoes various
modifications, in advancing to perfection. Their precise changes are yet
problematical ; but while remaining so, the observer is exposed to the
hazard of introducing duplicates, or spurious species, into the genus.

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ASTEBIAS. 119

These considerations restrain me from offering a number of fine and
r-invct figures, as illustrative of the truth, so long as I am uncertain
whi'tluT just conclusions arc deduced from the originals.

Tin- doubts of early and adult age in new subjects, let me repeat, i.-
always a point of difficult solution, though the identity or not of species
is discovered from specimens in maturity.

Ascertaining the real alterations of parts and aspect, as modified by
age, exacts extraordinary attention, time, and opportunity ; also requir-
ing the permanent preservation of living sped menu.

Besides the scanty illustrations of Plate XXVII. fig. 4 ; XXVIII.
figs. 6, 7, 8, much remains to be shewn of the disc in shape and colour ;
also., ft he formation of the rays, Plate XX VTI. figs. 3,6 ; XXVIII. figs. 2,
; X X IX. figs. 2, 3 ; and of the appendages of the rays, Plate X X V 1 1 1
figs. 4, 5 ; XXIX. fig. 4.

Let the preceding remarks be viewed only as a very brief and im-
perfect sketch of what belongs to the subject, in farther prosecution of
which practical naturalists will find sources of unceasing entertain-
ment.

Regarding the propagation of the Asterias or Cribella oculata, by M.
Sara, an abstract may be seen in the Annals and Magazine of Natural
History, v. xiv. p. 233, the only part of the works of that learned author
which I have had an opportunity of consulting.

120 ECHINODERMATA.

COMATULA BARBATA. — Plate XXX.

THE animal described in this paragraph is nearly allied to the Star-
fish, especially to those of that genus last named, the Ophiura. Never-
theless some parts of its history being unintelligible as such, and its pe-
culiarities being so strong and decided, a distinct genus has been instituted
to receive it.

Individually, the Comatula, which bears a general resemblance to
the Star-fish, consists of a small circular, flattish disc, scarcely two lines in
diameter, whence issue ten disproportionately long pinnate rays, expand-
ing about five inches between the opposite extended extremities.

The whole surface is from tile-red to crimson colour : — Plate XXX.
fig. 1.

One surface of the disc is provided with ten or twelve slender or-
gans, each terminated by a claw, which, from their action and use, may
be described as claspers. They serve to affix the animal to foreign sub-
stances, as seen fig. 2, where they are represented as adhering to an
Ascidia. These organs are variegated red and white ; but their figure and
appearance are best discovered by the microscope, fig. 3. The form of
the opposite surface tends to that of a hemispherical segment, which in
one specimen was obscurely partitioned into triangular compartments.
Also there is an orifice, probably the mouth, in the centre. Farther, in
another compartment, is a nipple, with an orifice, said to be the vent,
projecting in variable shape and aspect, fig. 4. It does not appear in
every specimen.

A double row of minute suckers, visible with microscopic aid,
clothes the under surface of the ray, and that of the claspers.

The Comatula remains during whole days adhering pertinaciously to
the same spot. In swimming, it is with a singular motion — somewhat
undulatory of the rays, on which occasion the claspers are always below.

Extraordinary mutilation is incident to this creature. It is alike
liable, as the Ophiura, to fall to pieces. Indeed, this is the way wherein
all seem to perish. Part after part drops off, until only the naked disc
remains, the water being slightly tinged by the decay.

T

r

ECHINUS.

No Hpecimen lias fed on any animal substance offered to it.

I have been indebted to Dr Duguid, whose name is very familiar to
naturalists, for u number of One Comatukv from Orkney, where they are
not o|iiully rare as in most other parts of Scotland. Some of them sur-
ven weeks.

PLATE XXX

1. Comatula barbata.

2. Prehensile organization, enlarged.

3. Clamper and claw, enlarged.

4. Nipple, as rising from the disc.

ECHINTS, TOE SEA UBCHLV. — Plates XXXI., XXXII., XXXIII.

In the absence of facts sufficiently numerous and important for ex-
plaining the history of the lower animals, I shall substitute the accurate
representation of certain species not difficult to be obtained, for I con-
sider it of some consequence that the reader may himself verify the truth
of what is described. Nothing has suffered equal neglect, not so IUIK li
from inclination or oversight, perhaps, as from actual inability to accom-
plish that which was required. But, wherever practicable, this most
useful branch of illustration should never be omitted. It will serve for
the solution of many doubts, the correction of fallacies, and the reple-
tion of inconvenient chasms.

I am led to these remarks from finding the valuable observations of
reputable authors on the Echinus, either entirely void of the necessary
illustrations, or so deficient of resemblance to nature, that to recognize
them is impossible. I wish I could restrict the notice of such imper-
fections to the Echinus only. But it is to be regretted that they ex-
tend to the other subjects of the present section, especially the Holo-
thnria and the Stellerides, or Sea Stan.

If such manifest imperfections be concomitant on endeavouring to
give the external aspect, which should be the easiest attained, how shall

Q

122 ECHINODERMATA.

we confide in attempts to shew and describe what is so much more dif-
ficult, abstruse, and remote, as the internal organization ?

In our anxiety for the promotion of science, however, heightened by
zeal for the perfection of art, let us be careful of reproaching individuals
who may have laudably done all in their power for the embellishment
of both.

Every one in the pursuit of knowledge will find himself opposed by
serious if not invincible obstacles.

I know well, by experience, the general insufficiency of artists ; the
rarity of superior qualifications among them ; but the naturalist himself
is not to be content with inferior specimens, those selected ought to be
brought to their finest condition, and the most favourable position
chosen, that they may be viewed to the greatest advantage ; whence we
shall learn to prize that delineation which proves a constant and faith-
ful guide to the truth of nature.

All this confirms the great expediency of careful education in the
more delicate branches of the graphic art, whereof the most interesting
application is to reproduce in impressive images the works of the Creator.

It might blunt the edge of criticism were it calmly considered on
how many conditions the naturalist is dependent for exhibiting the true
quality of his studies. The specimen and all its parts being the best
to be obtained, equal perfection must reign in the numerous depart-
ments through which its resemblance shall pass previous to preparation
for the inspection of the public.

Dispensing meantime with farther digression, and avoiding questions
of identity, a few general observations may be offered regarding the more
ordinary species of Echinus, such as are accessible to most observers.
Whatever qualities the scientific shall discover in rarities, the same in-
terest cannot be found in their description by the inhabitants of these
kingdoms, who may never see them, as in the productions of their native
shores.

I II

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i:<HINUS. 123

j 1. Km i NTS SPHJIRA.— Plates XXXI . XXXII., figs. 1-11.

While alive this animal is at least five inches and a half in diameter,
computing from tin- opposite extremities of the spines, all the parts Ix-ini:
in vigorous, regular, ami symmetrical order.

It may be then circumscribed by about three-fourths of a sphere.

• are more nearly globular, from the greater equality of the vortical
ami transverse axis, while, from greater inequality, specimens appear dLs-

1. But, for the most part, all individuals of the race are surprisingly
symmetrical.

This creature, as IB well known, consists of on external shell, con-
fminji the intestinal parts, wholly invested by an infinity of hard, sharp,
moveable spines, resembling those of the terrestrial hedgehog, whence its
name is dcri

Numerous flexible cords or suckers protrude from among the spines,
aUmt double- their length or more, which extend until reaching sonic solid
substance. The extremity of each then flattens, broadens, and applying
firmly, they assist the- subject In traversing its prison. — Plate XXXI
fig. 1, a, a.

To understand the nature of all this, we must view the naked shell
to find a double set of organs, as above, the spines and suckers.

A multitude of low spherical segments project from its surface, of all
different dimensions. These sustain the basis of the spine's, which play
on them somewhat as a boll and socket. This part may be therefore
\ iewed as corresponding to the articulation of the bones of other animal.-.

Next, the substance of the whole shell is penetrated by a multitude
of minute pores, disposed in rows and comportments, for protrusion of the
long flexible cords, which ore so many suckers, from within. These ore
pro|M-rly the instruments of progression.

Let us suppose a specimen at rest. All the suckers are retracted

within or close on the shell, and the spines motionless. A few of the suckers

now protrude ; they search around for a solid foundation, others follow

them : at length many are employed, and the animal is fixed securely in it.-

Uut to change it, those lx.-hind ore relaxed, while the contraction

124 ECHINODERMATA.

of others in front brings forward the shell ; the hind suckers are again
affixed, after which those before relax, and thus the step is taken.

The suckers are therefore the instruments of progression, wherein
they are but feebly aided by the spines, although these may be of some
utility, being about an inch long, and, besides any other functions, afford-
ing a formidable means of defence.

The Echinus advances in its course uninterruptedly with wonderful
expedition, yet never quitting the water, and sometimes remaining long
close under the surface.

The power of the suckers seems dependent on the presence of the
circumambient fluid, a fact of some utility to be known, for on emptying
the vessel of sea-water, all the suckers detach themselves successively,
and free the specimens, adhering within, without violence.

Though discoursing familiarly of the interspersion of the numberless
organs, all are arranged in the most beautiful and symmetrical order,
which, to be duly appreciated, must be beheld not only in the living
animal, but in its remains, after life has fled.

How many examples do not we daily discover of the will of the
Great Architect of the Universe, being alone capable of such effects !
What other evidence of nameless power would mankind require than the
existence of such marvellous works, to be continually recognised by the
exercise of their own personal faculties ? It is not on one object only,
but on an endless series that their admiration can be bestowed. They
are always renewed, never exhausted, while every subject, in its won-
drous structure and use, seems to surpass that which has preceded it.

Let us contemplate the appearance and employment of the principal
organs of the Echinus. Contrary to the ordinary arrangements of nature,
the mouth is situated in the under surface, always in ready contact with
the plane of position. Here a depression of the shell marks a well
guarded orifice as its site, from which projects the acuminated union of
five strong teeth, united as a cluster, to form a sharp extremity in one
point. The intestines, within, wind up to the vertex, from which the
ovaria discharge their contents.

If a specimen fished up from the sea be cast into a vessel of water,

//'f.t

ECHINUS. 126

it generally lies motionless on the l>a.-e or tin- v.-rtez, according as it
fall* nn either. But SOUR- of the spines very soon begin to move, and
these are followed l>y the suckers. Evident exert ion is employed to gnin
:i suitable position tor the subject traversing its prison. If a portion of
food be now dropped into the vessel, the Echinus speedily becomes seu-
-iM«' of it.s presence. Should the creature be above, the suckers extend,
ami its descent commences immediately, as it hastens to the repast.

It i-i one of the most voracious and promiscuous feeders, always
ready to eat, nor is any animal better qualified for the destruction of
others with impunity to itself. The strength of the teeth is marvellous,
and, as if to prove auxiliaries, the principal power for the capture of
I 'ivy seems to reside in the suckers near the mouth.

the most singular and complicated part of the dental apparatus
i* contained within. It is scarcely to be described, and can be inspected
only by sawing off a segment of the under part of the shell, which I have

• •ailed the base. Then it is discovered to consist of so many parts,
operating by such complex movements, that I should despair of
[•laiimij: the province and effects of almost the whole. The five cut
compounded as a large inverted cone, projecting below with its vertex
as a point beyond the level of the shell, destroy the hardest substances.

-Plate XXXI. fig. 2, n. The pointed cutter, fig. 5, is lodged within

hollow prisms, figs. 3, 4, as in a case. On inspecting the inside of

the sundered segment, a vertical ring, consisting of five staples, is seen

considerably elevated above the inner surface of the shell, surrounding the

orifice of the mouth, into which staples various ligaments secure the bane

of the inverted cone, fig. 7, a, a, a. The whole apparatus is represented

along with a section around the mouth, fig. 6, a, a, a, being the upper

ends of the teeth. ,/ .%/>// within the Echinus, and as in fig. 2, l>, b, b, b.

Hut I repeat, that nothing short of actual inspection can convey an

• •\planation of the operation of the various parts, and their action. The
-t met ure of the mouth of this animal offers a remarkable instance of
natural mechanism.

These creatures often devour pure shelly matter, as appears from
the numerous pellets discharged. The fishermen U-lieve that they like

126 ECHINODEEMATA.

wise devour the Asterias glacialis. But they seem to labour under no
apprehension of their committing ravages among the oysters, or other
bivalves.

Though the office of the spines be not very prominently shewn, they
are of some use in prehension or seizure. They can convey a whole load
of provender along with the animals contained in their shells, or employ a
vegetable cloke to serve as an ample covering. — A specimen was taken in
July, when it persisted in rejecting food for some time. At length, be-
ing supplied with an entire mussel in the shell, it soon appeared bearing
this as a burden on its back. Next it was seen with a long worm which
chanced to be in the vessel, similarly secured, the long extremities hang-
ing over the sides; or it would cover itself, either wholly or partially,
with a portion of one of the littoral green fuci like a mantle. In accom-
plishing all this the spines are the active instruments.

The animal can travel on its back by means of the spines and
suckers, and then the mouth appears in front. But this is an unnatural
position, though fixture and relaxation of these organs ensues, as pre-
viously described.

It is the nature of this creature to carry every thing, whether use-
ful or useless, on its back.

The Sea Urchin just referred to fed copiously afterwards. It was
delineated when a year in my possession, and still in progress of growth.
— Plate XXXII. fig. 1, seen from below.

The spines are deciduous, which is a singular feature in the history
of the animal, because reproduction seems concomitant on their loss.
Many were now beginning to fall from the preceding specimen, and
many more followed them, so that in the first week of August very few
remained. The tubercular spherical segments whereon they are sustained
then continue bare.

The precise nature of neither, however, is sufficiently understood.
Some embarrassing i'acts accompany all the changes.

The preceding Echinus did not seem to be distempered under its
losses ; it fed readily and profusely. Numerous low tubercles were exposed
to view in the month of August. But many new spines, some of them

l.< HIM - lL'7

V«y minute, won- now issuing I'ruiii other*, and continued Mill ad
\.iii.

In -n. -h a case as the present tin- multitude of parts is so great tli.it
the observer is confounded in attempting to wateli the progress of an v
portion <>f them.

The speeimeu survived until May of the succeeding year, or twenty-
two month* in whole.

A not her speeimen, somewhat smaller, token in January, fed plenti-
fully at interval*. In a month it seemed to be casting the spines. Many
shorter than their fellows were interspersed among those remaining.
But in two months almost the whole of those originally investing the
specimen had fallen.

Meantime new ones were advancing. When totally divested of
-pines in another mouth, the subject still fed readily. There the extent
of the suckers equalled the diameter of the shell.

From many specimens perishing, the loss of the spines either induces
or indicates disease. It may be nevertheless a natu nil proceed, or eon
sequent on some external injury.

It appears, however, that a great, if not a total loss, and regenera-
tion of the spines, naturally ensues towards the end of the year, or
during the months immediately succeeding.

About that time much irregularity is seen among them. Many
are infinitely smaller than others, whether from the earlier or later origin
of one portion of them ; and many Echini are recovered from the sea
whose entire coating is both shorter and thinner than at other periods.
There are some wherein the disparity among the spines themselves is ex-
traordinary.

•It is only when divested of the whole of its superficial covering that
the shell can be distinctly seen, or that the form, proportions, and ar-
rangement of all its parts, are exposed to the view of the beholder in
much and interesting variety.

\Vhen divested of the spines the shell bears some resemblance to an
orange. The surface is divided into five larger and five smaller compart-
ments. It i- eovered liy an epidermis, either of uniform or variegated
colours, whereon much of its beauty depends. Sometimes the spines are

ECHIJOBERWATA.

pure white, and the epidermis crimson red, or a stellate figure arises
from the contrast ; so that we seem to contemplate entirely a different
animal. Also the suckers are white, grey, or reddish. But they are
commonly faint, or nearly colourless. The whole animal and its parts
are likewise found pure white, but nothing more than mere varieties
seem to be thus indicated. The animal usually darkens with age.

The bare shell exposes five larger and five smaller longitudinal com-
partments, studded with tubercles of various dimensions, whereon the
spines were borne. Interspersed between these compartments, which all
broaden in the middle, and contract towards the ends, exactly like the di-
visions of an orange, are interposed numerous lines or stripes of pores, for
transmission of the suckers. Thus a portion is solid, and a portion porous.

Now the orifice for the dental apparatus is seen below, and that
which opens above at the vertex of the shell becomes alike conspicuous.
Both are pentangular, the former being about an inch wide, and the
latter about half an inch, in a shell of three inches diameter.

The thickness of such a shell is about the sixteenth of an inch.

Like the planked hull of a vessel, the solid portions are wholly built
up as it were of smaller pieces, of peculiar form, their size regulated by
the dimensions of the shell. The length of each is about twice its breadth ;
three sides are rectilinear, the fourth angular. These are compartments
rather in appearance than reality. The principal large compartments are
composed of several smaller compartments.

It is extremely difficult to understand what takes place among the
parts as the shell is enlarged. All undergo such a change as is propor-
tioned to the dimensions of the specimen. The pieces of the compart-
ments forming the solid portion are much extended in length and breadth ;
the size of the dental apparatus increases ; the pores in the substance of
the shell, and the upper and lower orifices, are all greatly widened.

These changes are seen best by comparing several Echini, large and
small.

t Both the higher and the lower orifices form pentagonal external de-
pressions in the surface of the shell. The latter is chiefly connected
with the mouth. Above, the upper orifice is surrounded internally by
the ovariiun, which sometimes rises in five clumsy conical portions from

aiNi -

tin- shell, and sometimes l>\ t)i<- nva consolidated in a ring, us a inaany
circular wall around tin- nrilice. These parts are composed wlmlh »1
spherical ..\a. — Plate XXXI.. lL'. \> : Plate XXXII. Bg. 5, ova. Tin's
iivariiiiu i> fn-^uently far advanced in tin- month of April.

Tin' Kchinus. it' uninjured, is not of ditlicult preservation. It is a
bold, liiTiv. anil voracious animal, tin- inveterate enemy of whatever it
can overcome, ami greedily devouring all that comes in itu way, — «-\en
\\hat Mvins secure from asstult : — notliin^ lia> any chance of encttjx !

in-\« i witnessed such an in.sitiabK\ such a nnivcrxtl appftitr. l-'i^li.
flush, zoophytes, algaa, and lin-i, an- all accepted, and a hearty meal can
IM- made of jiure >hell. It ir- not to l>e doubted,, as the larger testacea art-
rvadily devoured. othoi> with their helpless in mate* become easy victims.

An Kchinus of moderate -i/e having sci/i-d a small living crab the
victim seemed to IK- paralysed by simple contact, nor did it ofler an\ i<
• . i it- ter<ici<ms foe. Another KchinuH, about fifteen line's in dia-

:. fasteiiml it- extended suckers on a small lobster, a yafal/n-n. Hut
the latter, directing "lie of its claws with suflicient dexterity, cut the
suckers asunder, and fni-d itself from the- assailant's deadly grasp.

The Kchinus M.VIIIS to have a natural propensity to destroy. Those
not a quarter of an inch in diameter will tear leaves in fragment*.

In some wanner climates, where certain species retreat occasionally
from deeper water, persons frequenting the shore are liable to severe in-
juries of their feet from the spines. Kxamples are said to be known of
limbs being thus lost.

The Echinus is reputed to have been converted to food by tin-
ancients, but this practice can be scarcely said to have descended, unless

partially, to modern times.

I have heard nevertheless that the animal was formerly brought to
the Edinburgh market for the sake of the roe, which was employed for
culinary purposes.

\\ • know that one species has been denominated Echinus «/«//>,
which indicates that it ha* been truly con-nmed as food, and some
naturalists identify it with the subject of the present paragraph. Mr
Waring, in his entertaining Letters from Malta and Sicily in 1834,

K

130 ECHINODERMATA.

speaks of " some beautiful echini or sea-eggs, with long green and purple
spines", in St Mark's bay, on the coast of the former island. " These
sea-eggs are eaten by poorer persons, but I have not courage to taste
them,"— p. 139.

OLIVI, the Natural Historian of the Adriatic Sea, says, he endeavour-
ed to persuade the Venetian fishermen that they might profit by con-
verting a species of urchin called Molo to food, being abundant, and of
large size. Some of them complied, but this fishery was soon abandoned,
from want of patronage, and from insufficient prices to reward their in-
dustry ; Oliri, Zoologia Adriatica, p. 73, Bassano 1792, in 4to.

Nothing but the roe was ever supposed to be adapted for food ;
and this possibly still continues on certain parts of the coast of Italy.

Pedicel/aria.— Plate XXXII. figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11.— The atten-
tion of naturalists has been long directed to a peculiar animated or-
ganization incorporated with the Echinus, of which no satisfactory
explanation is yet given. At first Miiller, otherwise so competent
a judge, determined this to be an independent animal product, tmi
ytwrix, established as a parasite on the Echinus, of which there might
be various species, and he constituted a new genus for its reception,
under the name Pedicellaria. But this is a very obscure and doubtful
subject, which, with all the appearance of easy solution, seems more and
more involved in difficulty, notwithstanding the study of subsequent
naturalists, so that at the present day it remains almost equally myste-
rious as originally.

Numerous short hairs, with a peculiar summit or extremity, are in-
terspersed amidst the spines of the Echinus, and apparently implanted
on the epidermis of the shell, or, it may be, immediately on the shell it-
self, for these facts are not yet ascertained. These, the Pedicellaria;, are
void of any resemblance, in form, substance, or action, to the spines or
suckers. They are of two different species, or at least of two different
aspects, but whether merely different stages in the growth of the same

r

11. \

I

.

I

BOHIHOfl 131

ol.ject may not iiii.-~l.-ad tin- n!>M-r\.-r. would n-o,,. i ,„!,.,

.HI.- view, tlu- hair is crownnl hy a globular format ion, of N,lid appear-
("iider the other, tin- summit is partitioned into three divi-ion-
• •r uicinlHjn, reBCiiililinu leave* opening and elo-ing. like so many forcejw,
t.i cla.-p and retain minute fragment u them. From tlii> Miinmit.

Bj ti-ili.l in OIK- >pecie*. it is denominated /'..//,•/•//,/>•//; /;•/»/»•//.» l.v
Tin- hair or stnlk seems cylin.lric.il. and sometimes as if oc-
rupird In a i-haiiiu'l or internal MilMainv in a vacnitv.

The K-ii-th of tli.- loniroft stalk IB about tenor t\v.-l\<- tim.- the
diameter of the expanding leaves. II. .. these leaves or amis of the
ire \arion*|y shaped, a« may IK- stvu on inspin-tinj; the tiirun- .
and they an> often \ :\-e.

\aniination of ninny, this portion in found of diU'en-nt
lonnation in various sjK-dmenH. Tims: —

1. The head i-; very >hort, aa if imperfectly developed.

•_'. The head, when closed, is larjr«», and iH-seinhlos u minute pomegran-
.ite ; hut when opening completely, the arms of tin- forceps of some xpeci
men* seem to terminate in n long ckw.

3. The head resembles that of a duck. It is very long when closed,
with three arms like the mandibles of that animal, which are apparent K

te. When employed actively, all the arms unfold with singular
motion, and .stand almost at ritrht angles to the stalk.

Pedicellarise cover the Echinus in thousands. They are of various
dimensions in large specimens, some half an inch long. If rising from
the line red epidermis when present, their motion is well exposed, as re-
-embling the intlection of the suckers, — bending from side to side, the
head describing nearly a circle by the turning of the stalk, — the whole in
great activity. But there is no essential diilerence between the figure and
the motion of the Pedicellaria) on the larger and on the smaller Echini.
The stem is certainly hollow, and it may be that the lower part affixed
to the epidermis or to the shell is rigid. The Pedicellaria) are dispersed
everywhere among the spines, also on the bare portion which surround.-
the mouth of the living animal. They are not alike numerous in all
specimens.— Plate XXXII. IL-. »;, 7, 8, 9 10, 11.

132 ECHINODERMATA,

Multitudes of Pedicellarite drop from the Echinus on vitiation of
the water, or on the animal's decay. When transferred to a suitable
situation, they have been in motion for above a fortnight. The head also
separates from the stalk, and remains in considerable action, while the
rest disappears.

On the whole, and especially from the size of the Pedicellarise being
in some respect proportioned to that of the Echinus, I feel rather dis-
posed to hold them integral parts of the creature's organization than
separate and independent parasites.

In representing the Echinus, authors have been commonly content
with shewing only the shell, and some have exhibited the entire animal
with the spines in the greatest disorder, which proves that the specimen
had been distempered or dead, for nothing can be more regular during a
healthy existence. I doubt whether the secondary spines, adverted to
in description, are anything but perhaps younger spines in progress, un-
less ordinary spines regenerating.

PLATE XXXI.

FIG. 1. Echinus sphcera (Egg urchin, Professor Forbes), in motion ; a, suckers.

2. Dental apparatus.

3. Single, tooth front.

4. Interior of the tooth.

5. Cutting bone of the single tooth.

6. Inner surface of the shell of a specimen, with the upper part of the

dental apparatus, a, a, a.

7. Inner surface of the segment of a shell without the dental apparatus.

shewing the staples to which it is secured, a, a, a.

8. Portion of the exterior surface of a shell.

9. Cone of roe.

PLATE XXXII.

FIG. 1. Echinus sphcera, young specimen, under surface.

2. Specimen with a red stellate form on the upper surface.

3. Entire shell of an adult specimen.

4. Portion of the surface of a shell.

5. Ova.

6. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11. Pedicellariac, enlarged.

BOH I NU 8

KOIIM- iSi-AT.vxous PURPUwros).— Plat. XXXII. i\&. lu. ].; 11

1C.

\ ..ther kind of Eehinus \erv dilTercnt in external conformation.
in hal>it« ami apiH.'aramx', from the preceding, IB denominated .S//<//</»/f/»

•atanytu, a name of uncertain etymology, but said to be <!«•:
from the Greek language, whereof I do not observe any satisfactory in-
teqiretntion.

It is a species, al.«o. muehless familiar to naturalists. In an It in.'
' >bn Ray the naturalist, describing a Tour in Great Britain during
tin- year 1662, he says, he found on the sea shore, near Llandwyn, " a
pretty -hell. covered with prickles or bristles, which the Welch call M»
>>"ii'f^ //•-/>."— Lankester (Dr Edwin), Memorials of John Ray, p. 169.

Tin- .sum- name is bestowed by the Scotish fishermen, who likewise
.•all it tin- MniCs face, and J/o///,v//\/,;.

This creature is not nearly as common as the preceding, but its form
has attracted the notice of so many observers, that perhaps little of gene-
ral import remains to be said on the subject. In as far as I can learn, it
IM-IOH^X to <l«-«-|.,T \\;it,T, ami often d wells iK-nnancntly buried in the
sand, from which it is for the most part dug up accidentally, in prosecut-
ing the various departments of the li-herics.

Probably it is the largest of any Scotish animal invested by a shell,
setting aside the crustaoeous race.

Among others, I received two of ample size, and very heavy, in the
month of October, a period when I expected they might be easily pre-
served.

These creatures rudely resemble a flattened heart, one side being
convex, the other a flat surface.

Each of the two measured five inches in length, by half as much in
thickness, and four inches in breadth, therefore having attain. •! tin- com-
plete dimensions of full grown animals. The mouth, a transverse open-
ing, is near the upper end of the flat side, the \eiit in the lower extre-
mity, Plate XXXII. fig. U. ivduced. But the proportions and rela-

ECHINODERMATA.

tive position of the parts, are better exposed when the shell is stripped of
the numerous spines and bristles by which, like the preceding species, it
is almost totally covered. — Convex surface, fig. 15 ; flattened surface,
fig. 16.

About fifty suckers, issuing from pores of the shell, are scattered,
without any definite arrangement, over the other parts, chiefly towards
the mouth. They are void of resemblance to those either of the Echinus,
or any other animal with which I am acquainted. Each .is a crimson
flower or flattened disc, expanding an eighth of an inch, supported by
a stem a quarter of an inch high. The margin of the flower is beset by
a border of cylindrical prolongations. — Plate XXXII. figs. 13, 14.

Both the animals thus obtained seemed to be casting their spines,
whereof the older, extending nine or ten lines, were dingy yellow ; the
new ones very short. Those of a small specimen, one under an inch in
diameter, were of the same character on the first of March.

At this time another Spatangus purpureus was invested by a thick
coating of the shortest spines.

From the occurrence of more, of similar description, the spines are
probably renovated about the commencement of the year.

As previously signified, I am no stranger to what is said al primary
and secondary spines on the same animal. But, without entering fur-
ther on the subject, the real source of the discrepance between them,
must be sought, perhaps, in the progress of age, or of reproduction.

Undoubtedly spines of different character may invest different parts
of the same specimen, as is seen of nails, horns, hair, and feathers.
Very minute tubercles, on different parts of the Spatangus, may bear,
cither peculiar spines, or those in progress.

When the shell is quite divested of its covering, a stellate figure of
five rays appears on the convex side, four of which are formed by a
double row of pores, the fifth being merely a hollow or depression. Four
apertures, said to be the ovarian pores, and sometimes a greater number,
occupy the middle of this stellate figure.

The mouth is situated amidst a less definite stellate form, in the
opposite or flattened side of the shell. The figure of a long shield, com-

I /

XXXI II

\

•f

'

• -.' • •

1:1 MINUS, i ;',

posed entirely of -pines, extend- from the mouth ilnwn to a tnuwverae
elliptical arrangement, tin- shelly portion, constituting the ellip.-e. '
• |uite Miiiintli. Tin- ti.iiisveree arrangement sometimes resembles a deep
deft in the .-hell. Kilt here then- is none.

Much diH'erence in the perfection and numl>er of the pore*, and of the
\:iriou«i superficial figures and nppcarance, distinguishes diflerent flu-Ik

The Mibtrtance of all is very hrittle, thin, and liirht, compjuxnl with
their dimensions.

This animal is usually sunk amidst the sand, of which it swallows an
extraordinary quantity, so that its weight becomes surpri*<im{ and un-
natural. Comminuted shells, of various species, are mixed with the sand,
luit their inmates do not appear to have been rendered prey. No hpr, i
men has i'e<l on any substance offered to it in captivity.

Professor h-ll,' ( I,, ,11, gives dissections of this Mil.j.

1'IVTEXXXII

Fir.. 12. Spatanpu purport**, reduoed, under nurfaoe.
13, 14. Suckers enlarged.
r Shell divested of tho tpine«, nhewing the AtollaU- fimin- <>n tin

convex or upper mde.

16. Shell divested of tho Rpinee, •hewing the site and fiMurc <>f tin-
Mi' Hi th, under surface.

§ 3. SFATAXGUS (FLAVESCENS), — XIVEUS.— Plate XXXIII. figs. 1, 2, :i, 4.

5, 6, 7, 8, 9.

This is a fine and delicate looking animal, somewhat lieart-*ha|Mil
like the preceding, hut thicker in proportion, and the partw more pro-
minent or rounded.

The largest specimens falling into my possession, extended t\\<>
1 1 H -lies and a half in length. Others were about an inch and a half,
nearly two inches broad, and one in thickness. Such dimen-iniui are to
be understood as of animals invested with the white or yellow spine*,
wherewith they are totally coven-d.

136 ECHINODERMATA.

Of these, three or four different kinds are sufficiently definite.
1. Such as are long, slender, and slightly incurved. 2. Those of broad
paddle-shape, with a short neck. 3. Spines of a narrow paddle-shape,
with a long neck.

The upper surface of the finest white specimens of this Echinus, is
distinguished by three purple rings, but not alike conspicuous in all.

The mouth, like that of the preceding animal, QieSptttanffUS pttrpurew,
opens in the under surface, amidst a purple star, consisting of forty or
fifty suckers, as obvious in the best specimens, but less distinct in others.
The vent is in the extremity.

Unlike the Spafatir/tis piirpurcux, the lower part of the animal is
thicker than the higher, and its general aspect somewhat different.

All the specimens, that is between twenty and thirty, which I have
seen, were either white or sulphur-yellow.

The suckers of this species are beautiful floriform objects. Their
flattened head or disc, composed of numerous papilla), environed by a
circular margin, is borne on a flexible stalk. — Plate XXXIII. figs. 0, 7,
enlarged ; magnified, fig. 8. The colour varies from crimson to lighter red.

The shell of the Spatangnx flavt'smu is wonderfully thin and brittle.
It seems insufficient for any resistance ; actually crumbling almost to
dust among the fingers of any one attempting to cleanse it of the spines.

This creature burroAvs in the sand at various depths, somewhat
above low water-mark ; but it seems rather a scarce production.

On one occasion, while specimens were undergoing manipulation,
:i slender cartilaginous looking organ extended about two inches from
among the spines of one. It terminated in an expanding star of about
fifteen purplish, short, slender, unequal pointed filaments, remaining in
considerable action ; but I was unable to satisfy myself in any manner
regarding its real structure or use.

l'l..\TF XXXIII.

Fic. 1. Spatangusflavegcens.

2. Unilur surface.

• 3. Shell divested of the spine?, under snit'acc, shewing the position and
form of the mouth and shield.

I:«-M llfUS 1 .;:

!' . XXXI II

Shell directed of the •pinea, upper surface.

Cnder portion of the shell divested of the spines.
6, 7. Sucker* enlarged.
8. DIK of the racker, magnified.

I" Ee*i»*t p*«liiu (EcKnocyemv), shell, back aft«r nature.

11. Front.

12. Surface of fig. 10, enlarged.

It is rattu-r from compliance with the usage of modem naturalist*,
than from conviction of its utility, that I have introduced the subject
«>f the present section under the name and character of Echinodtrmata.

Possibly, my researches being limited, I have viewed such an ar-
rangement on too confined a scale to allow its full scope and ell
there appears little reason to expect cither its general adoption, or it-
stability.

Uing could be productive of greater convenience, indeed, than
the permanent concentration in groups, or families, of the innumerable
animated beings dispersed throughout the universe.

Rut the union must be founded on features pointed out by Nature,
distrusting those the arbitrary choice of mankind.

Though Nature does not always speak in intelligible language, — in-
at least to our humble capacities, while disguised by metaphor,
redundance, or defect, — let as persevere in patient investigation, awaiting
explanations, sometimes reluctantly given.

To sanction the formation of groups or families, the relation of ani-
mals should be seen in prominent features, readily and unequivocally
exposed, even to grosser sense. Here, the majority of observers will
be better satisfied with finding sufficient external distinctions, than
remitted to a search for such mysteries as dissection may reveal.

We cannot confidently affirm that those definite conditions,
tuting a separate group, subsist in the preceding species ; that some pro-

-

138 ECHINODERMATA.

ininent common attributes pervade the whole, or that there is a common
resemblance among them.

Externally, there is scarcely enough to establish affinity.

The Holotlmria seldom shews its real form, and scarcely betrays any
portion of its genuine nature. The aspect of the Asterias does not bear
it the most remote resemblance ; and alike distant is that of the Echimix.
Did we descend to some others, usually included in the group, some
might say it was in quest of discrepancies.

Again, — where is there any correspondence in the organic struc-
ture of the others, with the beautiful arborescence of the Holothm-ia •'
where the curious tufts, or tubuli, or the madreporiform tubercles of the
Asterias or Ophiura ? Can any parallel be shewn with the extraordi-
nary reproductions of the former, so profoundly illustrative of Nature's
surprising energies to restore that perfection appointed for the works of
the Omnipotent.

Nevertheless, something may be discovered to compensate all this ;
something to prove that kindred which is slowly disclosed to the scienti-
fic student, and such as some anatomists think they have found.

Many sacrifices must be made for concentration, for order, and
brevity.

A nameless charm attends regularity ; of itself, it facilitates labour,
and leads to the easier diffusion of knowledge.

Our acquaintance with the group, we must also admit, is as yet
only in progress. Many additional and interesting facts evidently re-
main for its further embellishment.

ClU'STAt K \N> 1

CHAPTER III.

CRUSTACEANS.

li i> tin- common infirmity of Naturalists, and indeed of all q
matie authors attempting general clarification, to comprehend <-\cr\
subject within its bounds, which shall be sanctioned even by implication.
••«•. unless for judgment and discrimination, a niiscelluneouN
mass accumulates, which, along with pertinent mat tor, ^ includes much
which might be assigned to another more convenient position.

It is now that subdivision resting on analogy becomes essential. -<>
that, with the immoderate multiplication of genera, and the unreason -
.il>le separation of kindred species, those products of reciprocal resem-
blance yet exhibiting sensible distinctions, may be approximated

Kut the arrangements must be adjusted according to the fart.* "I.
tamed from repeated correct observation in tin- wide expanded field <-i
Nature.

The cultivators of science having multiplied of recent years, and
.•a«h being prone to take a different view from his fellow labourer*, it is
the principal office of the exi>erienritl practical observer to preserve an
accurate and veracious record of such facts as may have fallen under
notice in his own department.

The precise mode of study is scarcely to be prescribed ; it must be
regulated by discretion, recollect ini:. however, that the more prominent
features of animals are the U-ttei -rimless that examples should be din-
tin. -t and mum-roil-, so that illustrations may be readily found arnonj:

140 CRUSTACEANS.

them. Farther, that the closer the elements of discussion are concen-
trated, their purport will be more convincing.

The Crustaceans form an immense class among the animals invested
by a firm, resisting, integumentary covering, of a certain quality, which,
mostly dwelling in the waters, are extensively distributed throughout
the globe. They are distinguished by the greatest variety of appearance,
disparity of size, modification of form, and peculiarity of habits, whence
many doubts are entertained whether some are properly enrolled here,
or should be discarded to other places.

As yet, they are but. imperfectly known. Few have been watched
in their living state, and scarcely any preserved, as the subject of care,
for permanent observation. Thus, unless with rare exceptions, they
have seldom fallen within the sphere of the physiologist : and at thic;
moment, the most interesting points in the history of many, are as little
understood as they were in the days of Aristotle.

The Crustacea are never represented alive, in the exercise of their
natural functions, or as embellished by their natural colours ; because it
is believed that they are less exposed to alteration by death.

Of later years, the mere classification of multitudes of these crea-
tures, and recording their synonyms, seem to have been chiefly contem-
plated by modern authors, which is of considerable utility.

But this is not enough for the inquisitive, who demand information
of their nature.

With infinite deference to those naturalists of superior attainments,
who may have embarked in similar enquiries ; and with an anxious
desire to avoid interference with their peculiar pursuits, I venture to
offer a few results from personal observation.

Comprehending a multitude of living creatures, externally void of
any common resemblance, under the name of Crustacean, seems entirely
a modern contrivance, derived from the nature of their integuments.
Their flesh is very scanty ; and instead of the skin usually protecting
animals, they are invested, wholly or partially, by a shelly covering.

The nature of this covering leads to several singular physical con-
sequences. Being inflexible, it does not enlarge with the life of the

OBU8TAOBAH8. HI

>ut)j,-.-t ..i various specie*. But to admit of progressive increment, it i-
tnijiK'ntly renovated, and especialK during <-arlierage. While it subsists
in pcrftvtion. the subject does not grow, for apparently the only period
«f increment i- n-.trict.-il to preporntion for its exuviation, or cant i n-
i if the internment. Whence the importance ..f this physical alternative
i« ohvious. The precise period of the commencement and cessation ..t
its occurrence are alike unknown. I'ndoubtedly it commences soon.
and terminates when the full dimension* are attained ; for, in the lidit
that \ve consider its pur]x>se, there i- no further use for the change

shells of living Crustaceans are of various colours, pven. nil.

How. When cast, they dry, and the colour fades. The more vivid
an- consequently converted to another hue, principally reddish. The
same tendency is often exhibited by some still investing the living sub-
ject . a No white patches become green on successive exuviations.

Those young animals which are originally pure white, are darkened
by BU|»ervening patches ; and possibly the whole integuments are nlti-

ly converted to the colour usually distiiiiruishinir their sjM-ci.-^. Hut
the only Crustacean I have seen white in the early stages, is the ('>u>,;,-
vf/v, or Common Cran.

Many naturalists have viewed the animals, or most of those in-
cluded in this section, as nearly akin to insects. Some are terrestrial.
others are ac<|iiatic. Only the latter are considered here.

The shell Ls composed of numerous parts, of which one, the princi-
pal, investing the intestinal organs, is called the carapace. Naturalist*
ctnujMire the parts of the body to segments, whereof they enumerate
twenty-one composing the Common Crab. The parts are connected by
a kind of cartilage, which are liberated by its continued maceration,
wlu-n their former articulation may be examined in detail. Varim.
markable pieces will be then found among them.

Though composed of so many portions, the whole integument ge-
nerally separates entire on exuviation.

TliLs process is not confined to Crustaceans alone. The integuments
of numerous other animals, especially those belonging to the Insect, th.
ophidian and Batrachian tribes, are also cast and renovated. But the

142 CRUSTACEANS.

student can so arrange his course of observation, that the Crustaceans
are in a manner brought under such control, that its occurrence may be
anticipated within given intervals.

The Crustaceans are provided with a number of limbs, whereon their
subdivision into genera is principally founded. Two of these, in some
genera, terminate in strong claws, each with a forceps, employed as or-
gans of offence or defence, and as auxiliaries in feeding.

The Decapodes, or those with ten limbs, are, of all Crustaceans, the
most familiar to us, and on which most of our information regarding the
whole race is founded. Some are of personal use to mankind. The
characteristics of the majority of the others are not equally well known ;
nor have they received as much notice.

In general, the motions of the Crustaceans is walking or running :
few of them are framed for swimming, to which the structure of the
body, the subordinate parts, and its gravity, are adverse. Nevertheless,
some can spring with great force through the water, and a few can sus-
tain themselves permanently amidst it. They harbour chiefly among
rocks and stones, or among sand, more rarely dwelling among vegetable
matter. But the Asellus and Limnoria seem to have no other habita-
tion.

The senses of many Crustaceans are very obtuse, especially sight
and smelling. They are quite sensible of light, of shade, or obscuration.
They seem to distinguish the approach and the presence of persons to
whom they are accustomed, especially if receiving food at their hands.
But whether they have any distinct and correct vision of particular
forms, is questionable. For a long time I was inclined to rest this doubt
on believing that some integument or covering of the eyes separated on
exuviation, which I am now satisfied was erroneous.

Their sense of smelling is certainly very obtuse. It is only when
in their vicinity that they are aware of the presence of food. Even then
the search after it is wavering and indirect. The eyes are neither turned
towards its place, nor does the animal advance for its seizure. It ap-
pears to be aroused by nothing short of actual contact of foreign sub-
with the forceps, where feeling seems principally to reside.

OBU8TA01AVI I \ :

From the extraordinary natural di.-parity of size between tin- t\v..

some species, it would appear doubtful whether they disc!,
precisely the same function* as where both are more nearly of '-<iu.il
h and dimcn>

Tin- Crustaceans generally an- carnivorous — testifying the name dU-

n which distinguishes other carnivorous animals. They an- i
cruel, and rapacious, devouring alive such creatures as they can .
power, nor even sparing their own species. The voracity of manv i-
exoessive, only ceasing to feed from repletion. Their choice is almost
indifferent, provided animal matter can be obtained. This, although
liali' or entirely putrid, is not rejected. Some marine vegetable* MM
consumed in periods of famine.

These creatures are very patient of abstinence. After one copiou.-

1. an. >t her within two days is seldom relished.

A few genera confine themselves to terrestrial vegetable product* —
to macerating wood or leaves exclusively. I have not observed that
tliev wen* as fierce as the rest.

The food of many is unknown. Such as survived a conniderablc
time with me in that predicament were returned to their native abode*,
on finding that I could not ascertain what it ought to consist of.

Some of the Crustaceans are of a most contentious nature. They
ire terriNe enemies to each other, and the deadly foes of animals weak- 1
than themselves. Hunger renders them bold and ravenous ; and were
they proportionally courageous, which is far from the case, the assault
t a few of the stronger species on people accidentally sunk in the sea
illicit prevent them from ever rising again.

But they themselves have many inveterate enemies, as if to balance
i heir insatiable rapacity. Those of the sea, approaching the land, an-
exposed to a kind of universal persecution ; indeed, some particular
species might be included in the list, too large a one, of pertecuttd ani-
mals.

The most fatal ravages on the Crustaceans are connnitt<-<l by the
Actinia, which mL'ht he accounted a very insignificant enemy. Se-
curely rivetted to the same spot, while numerous stragglers are round

144 CRUSTACEANS.

1'roin their retreats by the flowing tide, its tentacula, treacherously spread
abroad, are always ready to seize the unwary victims, with irresistible
power, on simple contact. They crowd around their prey, while the wide
expanding orifice of the mouth gradually receives it yet ah've. Many of
the victims seem completely paralysed ; nor ever by the slightest struggle
attempting to free themselves, even where they seem capable of doing
so. Besides such destruction in detail, others are engulphed by fishes
in the sea, whose capacious jaws are ever prepared to swallow the largest
and most formidable.

Spite of their apparent strength and activity, the most vigorous of
the Crustacea are liable to perish from the slightest impurity of their
element. Hence, in confinement, all require unremitting care.

It is important for the naturalist to discover the perils which
menace the subjects of observation and experiment. Whether inhabi-
tants of the sea, of fountains, lakes, or streams, constant humidity is
indispensable ; though not alike essential, for the terrestrial species.
Although some inhabiting the sea may quit their abode with impunity,
on recess of the tide, they must not be far distant on its return ; they
would inevitably perish. In confinement, the rapacious kinds ought to
have the water changed soon after feeding, and not long subsequently a
second time. Digestion is very rapid among these creatures, and some-
times fragments of animal matter remaining unconsumed escape notice,
which would speedily contaminate the element. Transferring the sub-
ject to a different vessel within six or eight hours is the safest expedient,
and replenishment of this within twelve or sixteen more. Frequent
examination is indispensable.

But specimens often die suddenly without an obvious cause, whence,
if several be together, the naturalist must be careful of the survivors in
confinement.

On this head it should be observed, that, for the most part, the for-
ceps of the claws of living subjects are open, as if always ready to seize,
and the tail, or posterior portion, is closed upon the neighbouring parts,
as if kept in its position by some exertion. This is more evident among
of the MIKTOID-/, the long- tailed or Lobster class. The reverse is

ITSTACEAN- 146

ii-ually concomitant mi death ; the claws arc close, and the tail unfolded.
Thus, we may conjecture from its representation, what has been the

• if the sulijivt when delineated. There are other indication*. l>ut
unfortunately very seldom denoting animation. They almost invariably
|.ro\v it extinct. Nay. c vrtain authors of no mean repute have pointed
out the most MiituMe modes of destruction !

1 do not allinn, ho\\e\vr. that the preceding rule is infallible ; that
t here arc no exceptions. I liave even seen in two specimens of the same
species, tin- /'•.rf/imix licit/us, dying in the same vessel, the claws of one
dosed, of the other open.

Animals l>cing preserved in museums under the semblance of their
natural position, have afforded most of the figures published of the dif-
ferent species, whirh will account for the perpetuation of imperfections.
Their genuine representation, however, can be obtained only from vigo-
rous living specimens.

To prevent sudden injury from the vitiated element, if a nhcll, or
other substance Bomeu hat elevated above the water, be kept in the vessel,
an isolated specimen may find a temporary retreat on it in safety.

It is necessary, besides, to be very cautious regarding the disposition
of the dillereiit individuals, or the different Aperies associated together.
As some wage perpetual war both against each other and against stranger
species, they would defeat the issue of any experiment. If twelve or twenty
specimens of the Cancer iiurnas be committed to the some vessel, their
numbers daily diminish ; all are killed and devoured by their fellows,
until one alone remains victor. Dead or alive they arc equally accep-
table as food. Therefore, as we shall see, it is prudent, hi conducting our
-. to gorge the subjects abundantly, whereby they are dis-
armed.

But, man is the grand destroyer of all living nature. No animated
tenant of the earth or of the waters is safe from his wanton cruelt \ .
whether exerc'iMil for pleasure or profit.

:' the larger Crustacea, as crabs and lobsters, are eagerly
sought after as food, by the inhabitants of Great liritain and other coun-
tries ; and, for that purpose, a considerable traflic is carried on in both

146 CRUSTACEANS.

fisheries, as a branch of individual industry, and, for the ends of com-
merce, are conducted on a considerable scale in places where such ani-
mals are most numerous.

Great numbers are imported for the London market from the coast
of Norway ; and some of the Western Isles of Scotland are said to yield
60,000 annually. Those alone are considered marketable where the shell
extends eight inches, and they are then sold by the captors to the agents
for the fisheries or the market, at 3^d. each.

None but rocky coasts are frequented by lobsters ; which are also
the resort of all kinds of crabs, in greater numbers, but of less value. The
fishery of the latter is carried on everywhere, on a small scale, through-
out the coast, chiefly by those residing in the vicinity of their haunts. The
same may be said of the fishery of shrimps and prawns, which abound on
wet sandy beaches, wherein they burrow during the recess of the tide.

Amidst great abundance of crabs, only the claws are reserved for
food, the body being thrown away.

Some seafaring persons devote themselves entirely to this kind of
fishery during the season : and I have been assured, that a small boat at
Newhaven has taken seventy dozen in a day in May or June. The
females, full of roe, are not spared, which proves a great and needless
sacrifice of the brood ; nor are the younger crabs an object of any reserve.

Scarcity, abundance, or the hazard of exterminating the race, are
never taken into account, nor any thing but how to secure the greatest
number possible.

It would be well if all fisheries were brought under special regula-
tions, which, in such cases as the present, might be attained by prohibit-
ing the sale of subjects under certain dimensions.

None but the Cancer paaurus and the Astacus marinus — the Com-
mon Crab and Lobster, and on a smaller scale Shrimps, are subjects of
interest in Scotland. Others, such as the Cancer mamas, — the Shore or
Harbour Crab, are an ordinary article of food in some countries, but not
here. Vast numbers of these, according to Olivi, are captured in the
Adriatic, packed in barrels, and exported. They are taken when in dif-
ferent states and stages ; first, on casting the shell while the body is soft ;

IISTACEANS. 117

in-xt. when the roe is in on early stage, and then by ordinary fishery,
when attracted l>y Itait. Of the lirst kind, Olivi computes that 86,000
pounds weight are taken ; of the second, 12,320,000 pounds ; and of the
tliinl. 'J.'ii'i'i.oOO pounds. The quantity must appear incredible, but the
size of the species probably exceeds that of those of Britain. — Zoologia
. pp. .").•;-.").'). Tliis author calculates the gross quantity as worth
half a million of Venetian money.

Olivi speaks likewise of the wonderful number of other species, of
which I shall say nothing, being ignorant whether we have any of them
in Scotland.

Some genera are as peaceable, tranquil, and inactive, as others are
the reverse. They select the clefts of the rocks, or retreat under stones,
which appear to be occupied as a permanent abode until hunger calls them
from it. All prefer concealment ; they always desire cover, whence, for
smaller specimen*, it is beneficial to introduce the single valve of some
large shell into their vessels, under which they will crawl and enjoy
a long repose.

From the inactive habits of several species, many specimens are
overgrown with marine vegetables ; their surface serves as a nidus for
zoophytes, or numerous shells adhere to it. I have seen the carapace
of one totally invested by a sponge ; not a particle free.

When the profusion of parasites is great, the subjects evidently suffer
under it and perhaps they perish.

Exposed to so many sources of destruction, it is surprising how any
remain, but the excessive fecundity of the tribe, in general, contributes
to their preservation.

\\ere the progeny of a single female common crab spared but for
two seasons of maturity, their multitude would probably satisfy the de-
mands of 10,000 people.

I am not aware that any of tin- Crustaceans are androgynous, though
perhaps credited formerly. In many, especially among the Decapodes, the
difference of two sexes is well defined, and in some it may be recognized, by

-imple rules, from the formation of the shell. The breast-plate, thorax,
or apron of the female of the common cn\l>, is a brood triangular portion

148 CRUSTACEANS.

of the shell, susceptible of great elevation, and of being folded entirely
back : that of the male is very narrow, but susceptible of a similar posi-
tion. Here are displayed the admirable provisions of Nature. The
aprons of both are folded back in the mutual embrace. Under that of the
female are now seen two circular orifices, through which the roe, ripening
within, escapes to attain maturity without. As it diffuses in vast abun-
dance, the apron of the female is gradually and proportionately elevated
while covering the encreasing mass of ova. Sometimes it rises so high
as to stand vertically or at right angles to the under surface of the shell,
if reversed, and then the ova of the common crab are in tens of thousands.

Here the roe remains in permanent adhesion to the shell ; no part
of it is deposited on foreign substances to be hatched, as is the case with
many animals — insects in particular — to which crabs have been com-
pared, as if allied. The whole continues attached to the body of the
parent, until by supervening maturity, the foetus bursts the egg or cap-
sule to escape, — the tie seems to be then dissolved for ever.

Should I not be mistaken, the ova of the whole tribe of Crustacea
adhere externally to the lower part of the thorax or abdomen of the
females. In a few which naturalists include here, they are discharged
through long tubes with the advancing embryo in an envelope.

I have not been able to ascertain that the young of any species of
the Crustaceans are ushered into life under the precise form of the pa-
rent. Many undergo a great metamorphosis. In those best known, a
much farther development succeeds, as they issue forth, for indiscrimi-
nate distribution amidst their boundless element, they readily escape
the view of the naturalist.

The change of some is perhaps inconsiderable, and chiefly limited
to the acquisition of additional limbs. Several species of animals now in-
corporated with this comprehensive tribe are less distinguished by such pe-
culiarities. But the young and the adults of others could not be possibly
identified as of the same species, unless bred before the observer's eyes.

The preservation of living subjects, together with unwearied study,
can alone lead to the solution of points so embarrassing. But here we
are opposed by the erratic habits of many. Possibly a very small pro-

CRUSTACEANS. 149

portion of the brood is reserved for the adult Mate, the obstacles are 00
numerous to it- attainment. CuuUl wo preserve them, very few would
suffice for all our wants : they would elucidate all our doubts.

N.'iie luit living subjects occupy a place in these volumes. Indepen-
dently of my invincible repugnance to injure or destroy, it is self-evident
tli.it dot met ion immediately counteracts the object proposed, namely,
what animated beings shall do. If we hope to render our acquaintance
with them useful, they are to be always beheld in the most vigorous
condition. We cannot otherwise discover their form unimpaired, their
motions unembarrassed, the quality of their food, their mode of perpe-
tuation, and their peculiar habits.

It is an absolute error, believing that, with the loss of life, such
animals as are sheltered by a hard integument, undergo no alteration.

The preferable method of counterbalancing the evils inseparable
from destruction, is obtaining multiplied correct delineation of the whole
animal frame, and of many of its complicated ports. Thus may the or-
ganic structure be explained and understood.

This, however, may seem a very wide prospect ; — of distant comple-
tion, and demanding the work of various hands, as guided by various
principles.

The habits of the Crustaceans are extremely diversified, according
to the different genera, comprising such a comprehensive class of animals.
Some are all life and activity ; others can be scarcely seen to move.
Some subsist on living animals. Burying their external organs in the
flesh, it is not known that they ever abandon the position once assumed.

Perhaps as Anim*l« of prey many of the Crustaceans are solitary, for

few such are known to hunt hi concert. But several dwell in
numerous societies. Also some are said to be gregarious : and, although
not in Scotland, that they accumulate in quantities compared to hillocks
in other countries. Possibly this may be in the cold season.

Notwithstanding their delicate nature, perhaps the life of a few in-
dividuals escaping the pursuit of enemies and the war of extermination
is long.

It is one peculiarity of certain species, that they simulate death, lying

150 CRUSTACEANS.

motionless, contracted, and supine, until the dread of danger is dispelled,
their natural posture and functions are resumed. Here are recognised
decisive features of insects.

Although we characterise the Crustaceans in general as invested by
a hard shell, this is not strictly true of every species. The integument
of some is rather horny or coriaceous, capable of slight resistance in its
place, and yielding easily to pressure when separated. Perhaps it gra-
dually degenerates into an integumentary skin.

For practical illustration of the general form and nature of the
Crustacean tribes treated of in this work, the subject may be conve-
niently subdivided into three portions, comprehending —
I. Cancer, the Crab.

II. Astacus, the Lobster.

III. Miscellaneous subjects, some of them approaching both, or re-
sembling neither, nor alike familiar or sufficiently understood.

PART I.
A.— DECAPODES, TEN-LIMBED, SHORT -TAILED CRABS,— BRACHYURI.

§ 1. CANCER JLENAS — The Shore or Harbour Crab. — Plates XXXIV.,

xxxv., xxxvi., xxxvn.

A small green Crab, running actively over the rocks and sands
during recess of the tide, cannot have escaped the notice of those fre-
quenting the sea-shore.

This is the subject of the present paragraph ; and as it is one
equally convenient for experiment and observation, especially from its
size and abundance, we shall view it at greater length than many other
species require.

Though usually green, it is seen under various aspects, whether
entire or mutilated. The green is uniform, or interrupted ; of various
shades and intensity, sometimes variegated in such a manner, that the
shell seems green and black. But plain and uniform green must be
considered the usual and more natural colour.

•

'. I/I

.- 'V

c

9

7

x

//s<' .

BRACHYURI. 161

It seldom, if ever, attains any considerable dimensions, as the body,
shell, or carapace of thow apparently full grown in this country, may
!••• inscrilHxl in a broad oval outline of about three inches by two.
Hundreds are found of all inferior sizes. The shell is slightly convex,
the sides and anterior edge curving, but interrupted by notches, the
posterior margin almost in a straight line.

In front arc two eyes, on peduncles of the shell, and four tentacular
organs near the edge, two of them like stout bristles, exterior, and two
shorter, nearer the region of the mouth, which is below, forked, and in
constant motion. The eyes on peduncles rise from a socket in the edge
of the shell, outside the longer antenna), each folding down for insertion
to right and left in its respective socket. They are most prominent
during life.

Two broad, thin, maxillary organs below, exercise a horizontal
action, like scissors, or the blades of two knives, as the animal feeds.

The Cancer mernas is provided with ten limbs, being two claws and
eight legs. In all the tribe the claws are differently formed, being
larger and stronger than the legs. They have several important part?
to perform ; first, in holding the food, tearing it asunder, and carrying
it to the mouth. They are likewise the organs of defence, and the in-
struments of offence. The limbs, disposed in pairs, are adapted for run-
ning, and resemble each other, only those of the hind pair ore fringed,
and slightly flattened. Many other Crustaceans have a greater number
of limbs, besides some apparently imperfect or abortive, and a kind of
auxiliary finny organ to aid their movements.

The claws, however, are the main and most important organs,
armed with forceps, whose office may be compared to the hands of
mankind, and the paws of other animals. They possess remarkable
strength, in proportion to their dimensions.

The Crustacean class is often compared to Insects, with which it was
formerly conjoined ; and many analogies, at least in form, will be allowed
to subsist between them. But characters equally distinctive, are de-
ficient. For example, I have seen no indication, in any species, of the
same intelligence that seems to be possessed by Insects. Neither is it

152 CRUSTACEANS.

by those in their ultimate and most perfect form that this is evidenced,
for it appears in an early stage, and long preceding the ultimate state.
The common cabbage caterpillar secures itself by a cord for preservation
during the season of inactivity, there to await its proximate change to
the chrysalis, and one more remote, to the butterfly. The bee stores its
cells with provision of one kind for itself, and another for its young ;
the spider spins the web, wherein its prey is captured ; and the ant con-
structs subterranean galleries to favour its predatory habits.

Nothing to be compared to any such artifices, is found among any
of the Crustaceans that I have seen.

Like so many insects, they are distinguished by segmentine divisions
of the body, whereof Dr Milne Edwards, in his comprehensive work,
enumerates twenty-one, — that is, indications equivalent to twenty-one.

Practically viewed by the less learned, the principal divisions are
not rated at more than two in the crab, that is the main shell, back, or
carapace, and the thorax bearing the limbs, attached to it, which two
may be rent asunder, the latter separating entire.

As I do not purpose entering on the anatomical details of the struc-
ture of these animals, for which other naturalists are infinitely better
qualified, as shewn in the work just referred to, I shall confine myself
to different topics chiefly receiving very little notice, comparatively.

The ordinary external colour of the Cancer mcenas is green, which
is sometimes variegated by an intermixture of white, seldom permanent
throughout life, the latter being gradually obliterated ; and some are
entirely reddish, especially with advancing age.

The specimen, Plate XXXIV. fig. 1, was green and white, the former
greatly predominating. The specimen, Plate XXXV. fig. 1, was almost
white, with red eyes ; and the specimen, fig. 2, of the same Plate, had
the back red, patches on the claws and limbs, and the rest white.

The specimen, Plate XXXIII. figs. 1, 2, preserved its proper colour
very long ; but at length the white was obscured, and a tendency of
the whole to red ensued.

Certain interesting facts relative to the derivation of colour, in
either plain or variegated crabs, are of difficult explanation.

V I

n. v\x\

'

. -. .

BK AC ii vriM i.v;

Tin- motions of tlio Cancer mttnas are lively, quick, and active.
Hut it dues not s\\ ini. In the natural ntnte, it constantly endeavours to
retreat, shunning th<- presence of man as an inveterate enemy. None of
our native species is alike littoral. The shore is almost as much the
place of its abode as the sea. Wherever rock, and weeds, and sand
abound, it is commonly present, ever seeking shelter in the fissures, or
under the *hrlv«i, so that the body may be protected by some covering.

llr.it anil hunger are the great incentives to action throughout the
trilir. I.ik.- insects, these creatures are wonderfully susceptible of cold.
A \« rv moderate degree of refrigeration will render the Cancer meena*
almost torpid, e\vn in MUUIIHT.

But it is naturally the most restless animal imaginable, and con-
tinually prepared to escape from confinement. Specimens in captivity
must be therefore kept in vessels deeper than the stretch of their limbs,
otherwise they will contrive to crawl over the ledge. Nevertheless,
they are easily preserved ; adverting to change their element frequently,
— always a few hours after having fed.

The Cancer metnas feeds voraciously. No animal matter is rejected.
What is most convenient and acceptable to all its congenera also, is
mussel, which may be kept fresh a long time, though that seems no
great recommendation. This creature is not nice in the quality of its
sustenance. It feeds as promiscuously as any other, whether the sub-
stance be fresh or putrid ; nor, in time of scarcity, are some of the
algae and fuci refused. I have never seen any animal matter rejected,
fish or flesh, — living or dead, — and the quantity devoured is enormous.
But after a voracious meal, nothing is generally sought the succeeding
day ; and specimens can abstain entirely from food for several days,
without sensible injury ; during which time, they remain perfectly
tranquil.

Should a mussel shell, or other bivalve, be split asunder, and the
half given to a specimen of the Cancer mcentu, it holds the valve in one
claw, and with the other picks out the contents, conveying the morsel
to its mouth as people employ their hands. The shell at length emptied,

IB as clean as if cleansed artificially.

0

154 CRUSTACEANS.

The external integument is an indurated shelly covering, composed
of numerous separate pieces, connected by a kind of cartilaginous sub-
stance, and all the limbs are composed of articulations. Perhaps this
external integument is strengthened by successive invisible internal secre-
tions, for younger animals are easily crushed, whereas it is difficult to
make any impression on old ones. But it is so far inorganic that it seems
to undergo no visible alteration during the time it serves the animal in-
vested. However, this is a subject which has never undergone sufficient
scrutiny.

The Cancer mcenas occurs of all different dimensions, from young of
the smallest size to the mature adult. But I am not aware that any
single specimen has undergone sensible increment under observation of the
naturalist. If he inspects such a specimen month after month he will
probably find it no larger at the end than at the beginning, farther than
some slight relaxation of the cartilages, if that actually takes place.
Therefore, without the important event, to which we shall speedily ad-
vert, it would remain always the same.

Yet nature may not be idle in the intervals. Secretions may be
advancing, though unseen, preparatory with what is indispensable for the
concomitant subject's preservation, and for admitting with age the in-
crement of an animal whose integuments are inflexible.

At certain seasons of the year all the limbs are full of flesh, as is
most evident in the claws, such as of the Cancer pagurus, where they are
of considerable size. But there, as well as in the Cancer mcenas, while the
time approaches, that progressive increment shall render the capacity of
the subsisting shell insufficient for its contents, the limbs seem to be
deserted by the flesh. A soft integument is forming on the inner
surface of the carapace, interposing between it and the internal parts,
wherein these parts are about to be included. By a wonderful and in-
explicable operation of nature a complete new integument, ultimately
crustaceous, is generated within the subsisting shell, with the whole limbs
folded over the breast, so that the least possible portion of the internal
space, soon to become an absolute vacuity, is occupied.

Next, when all is mature, the subsisting shell opens or gapes hori-

HK.xrn vr I! I

/.int. illy. between tin- iiiinl pair of limbe, by tin- yielding of the ligament
tnnniiiL' tin- hinire «'f tin- thorax and carapace, which admits the separa-
tion of theso two portions and allows escape from within of the con
timil animal, clothed in its new inte^iiuei

Thi- irapiui; edges or lips of the opening then close by their own
elasticity, while tin* old shell, emptied of its content*, appears to tin-
spectator as entire as ever.

An absolute change has ensued, yet without any relation to thepro-
res* of mi'tainorphosis, in the proper acceptation of that character.

•:• l>eliolds a new animal before him, distinguished by all
the parts of the individual with which he was previously so familiar. It
w alike perfect, the colours fresher and more vivid, either exactly the
same in quantity and proportion as originally, or perhaps under some
variety and modification. Hut the- creature is somewhat larger in this
its new garment than in the preceding shell, — nothing can be more ad-
miralilc.

After a brief interval of tranquillity this new animal moves, and
rests, and feeds as the old one ; I should rather say as when invested by
the old integument, for it is only the corertng, not the aclitnt crmtiirr
iteelf, which is regenerat

It is not enough, however, that the change is effected once. It must
be repeated again and again, — as often as additional increment require*
additional space for the contents.

I cannot affirm at what period exuviation commences, or when it
ceases, how often the shell is generated, or whether throughout the con-
tinuance of life. At a very early age it becomes indispensable, and it is
frequent. But Inter shells .-rein to subsist very long, as is evident by the
quantity of animal and vegetable parasites investing them, doubtless the
growth of years.

To follow the course of tliis remarkable process is extremely inte-
resting, and I acknowledge, that. U-iug wholly unexpected, the !
of its occurrence I witiu^-eil it with great surprise.

I had preserved a reddish middle sized specimen for seveni I mouth-,
which IH.X-.UI. tame ami familiar. P!:i'<- XXXIV : Tlie heat

156 CRUSTACEANS.

of a sultry summer's day induced me to put it outside the window of my
study, in a capacious vessel of sea-water, where it remained during the
night, for all marine animals are benefited by the coolness of the atmo-
sphere. Next morning, when thinking little of the matter, I prepared to
replenish the vessel, a crab, lying on its back, struck my view, and beside
it one of rather larger dimensions, its very image. I hastily concluded
that a stranger had been introduced, — not at all an unlikely incident —
as here was a ready receptacle for any subject that might have arrived.

But exuviation had ensued in the night : the latter was the animal,
clothed in its new garb, and close beside it the former, now an empty
shell.

Similar exuviations have repeatedly taken place. Yet the effect is
always so singular that I never behold it without astonishment.

Specimens about to exuviate are usually dull, heavy, and inactive,
for a day or two preceding the change. I know not whether correctly,
but I have been led to conclude, that, for the most part, this incident be-
longs to the night, or early morning, whence, being very transient besides,
it is rarely witnessed.

For a long time, having constantly found the old shell quite entire,
all the accessories and the minutest parts in their places, and all the
others in correspondence, bristles, antennae, eyes, exactly similar, I con-
cluded, not unnaturally, that they must have been encased in each other.
I could not conceive how by any other means, than the new growing
within the old, the conformity could be so precise, — thence, that on exu-
viation, each was withdrawn as from a sheath or socket.

My conjectures, however, have not been verified, and, I apprehend,
that I was indulging too many fallacies.

The new animal, as I shall call it, escapes from the hind part of the
old shell, which gapes the whole length between the two hind legs, and
beyond them. — Plate XXXV. figs. 1, 2, 3, 4. Hence, the new organs
protrude, if I be not mistaken, in the same order as they stand in the old
shell, the hind legs first, and the claws being liberated the last. One
fact is indisputable, in the new shell being always larger than the old.
Many persons affirm, also, that it is soft, and that the crab, in its natural

HR ACHY fill. 167

haunts, now conceals itself until it hardens. Apprehensive of injuring
tin- new animal by procure, I have always avoided that teat, from my
desire of preserving the subject. Nor have I remarked any disposition
for concealment, farther than temporary tranquillity. No exuviation is
preceded by sensible enlargement of the animal. Therefore a change
of the shell is indispensable. If not equally indurated as the old one,
the new shell hardens speedily. Being soft would probably facilitate it*
escape, on relaxation of the cartilages of that which it quits.

There is no positive prognostic announcing approaching exuviation,
nor any rule for determining its intervals, or its frequency. These de-
pend on circumstances peculiar to the individual subject. It is evidently
concomitant on increment, therefore commencing at the earliest age.

I took a minute specimen at Blackness Castle, on September 9. 1814.
It cast its shell on the 27th of the same month, and again on the 13th
of October. This new one was replaced by another on the 29th. There-
fore the intervals were about a fortnight. The animal was found dead
on December 31st, without farther exuviation.

I took another young specimen on June 29th of a subsequent year.
Its colour was pure green, with three white patches towards the anterior
surface of the shell, Plate XXXTV. fig. 1. Similar patches are not un-
common on the Cancer mernas ; I have seen specimens half the size of
this hist marked by them.

The limbs of that just specified extended 13 lines. It was very ac-

and fed voraciously. The shell was cast on August 16th, when the
white patches of the new one were less conspicuous. Exuviation suc-
ceeded again on the 18th of October, and a third time on the !'th
of January, when the shell appeared as in fig. 2, with one patch only.
The limbs now expanded about two inches. The animal's rapacity was
undiminished ; it sprung upon its prey, but could not discover it if at
any distance. The shell became gradually more dingy, and in two
months, or ten weeks from the last exuviation, the white patch was
totally obliterated. This specimen rejected food on March 20th, and
cast its shell, for the fourth time, in the night of the 22d. Its enlarge-
ment was now very conspicuous, the limbs expanding above two

158 CRUSTACEANS,

and a half. The old shell separated was quite pale ; the new one dark
green, without any white whatever. It is represented, fig. 3, as appear-
ing on April 13, having undergone no alteration from the date of exu-
viation on March 22. The creature again seemed dull on May 31st,
which was followed by another exuviation, being the fifth, during the
night of the first of June. In the new integument it appeared very con-
siderably enlarged in all its parts, the colour of the shell dark green,
whereon were some darker specks ; after the lapse of a fortnight the cast
shell attained a lighter reddish tinge than the colour of brick.

The creature had become very tame. It continued feeding readily
on every kind of animal substance offered ; even half an Aphro-
dita, a very rough morsel, was devoured, and only some of the scales
rejected. It always came to the side of its glass prison, as if expecting
a supply from any one in the vicinity. During the day it shewed itself
desirous of reposing under any covering, and strained hard to get a large
flat shell into such a position as would afford protection. Night was
the season of greatest activity, which was succeeded by quiescence to-
wards morning. Then it would remain long crouching down in the
vessel, though always ready to be aroused by the presence of food.

From various circumstances, it is obvious, that, although the animal
undergoes an extraordinary process in changing the integument, that the
impressions, in as far as they would be received in the old integument,
shew the habits acquired are not lost, but remain permanently. Some-
thing like memory or election is demonstrated.

After the preceding specimen, which was a male, had been above
a year in my possession, another of little disparity in size, a female, was
introduced into the vessel along with it.

All the animals of this species, large and small, of whatever age or
sex, in as far as I have observed, wage the fiercest war against each other,
whether from their contentious dispositions, or to satisfy their cannibal
appetites. Therefore, to guard against accidents, I took the precaution
of gorging both these creatures with food. But here it might have been
spared, for they were completely reconciled from the first moment ;
and shewed, by unequivocal symptoms, how agreeable a companion was

BBACHYURI. 1 :,:•

to each other. From extreme restlessness the male became quite tran-
quil, and an actual embrace speedily followed.

These creatures dwelt together amicably, and fed readily, — and
this continued for some time. I wan in great hopes they would huv<*
lirv.il. whereby various obscurities regarding their progeny might have
been dispelled.

But the male, unfortunately, died soon afterwards, just fourteen
months after having been acquired.

I regretted this as an untoward incident, for several reasons. I
knew the animal's progress, its age could be nearly determined, and I
was familiar with its habits and treatment. But it is so with all living
creatures,— only intervals of observation can be enjoyed. Many must
be studied to discover the properties of one.

the periods of exuviation had been distinctly noted, proving.
as in other instances, that the interval* are irregular.

The female above referred to, a fine but peculiar specimen, was taken
on July 22. A great proportion of white being intermixed with the
predominant green of its shell, it remained to be seen whether it would
gradually disappear on successive exuviation, as that of the former ani-
mal. The body was just one inch brood, and expansion of the limbs
two inches and three quarters, when first delineated on July 27. —
Plate XXXV. fig. 1.

I hod not to wait long.

Exuviation of this specimen followed" on the night of the first of
August. Except in size, the new shell exactly resembled the old ; the
markings in every respect were similar. The animal was now very
vigorous ; but it was ravenous in proportion. Though dwelling in per-
fect harmony with its companion, the male above mentioned, it would
deprive him of his provender by forcible assault, to be carried off and
devoured at leasure.

Their union was unproductive. Its mode is in so for remarkable,
that the apron of each is folded bock on the cartilaginous hinge.

This female, oiler rejecting food during three days, cast its shell •
second time in the night of October 25, and came in so much larger

160 CRUSTACEANS.

with its new integument, that it was surprising how the body could have
been contained in the old one, which now remained quite entire. It is
represented as empty, Plate XXXV. fig. 2, back ; fig. 3, breast.

In the distribution of colours, the new shell bore an intimate re-
semblance to the shell that had been forsaken ; but the dimensions were
so much enlarged, that I scarcely recollect any other instance of such
disparity.— Plate XXXIV. fig. 4.— The shell, figs. 2, 3, had subsisted
eighty -five days. After that represented, fig. 4, had subsisted 165 days,
the under surface had acquired a reddish tinge. Ignorant of the ultimate
size which the Cancer mcenas might reach, I indulged little prospect of
farther exuviation. However, after the long interval of 210 days, this
female cast its shell again in the night of May 24, when the new subject
appeared considerably larger than before, but not so much in proportion
as on the preceding change. — Plate XXXVI. figs. 1, 2. The shell was
renovated in beautiful purity, the same variegation of white and green
being interspersed. But, within ten days, it had acquired a reddish tinge
throughout.

It is remarkable that all the cast shelLs of this species should under-
go a speedy change of colour, whatever may have been its composition
or distribution while clothing the living creature. Between nine and
ten months after the change as above, the whole under surface of the
new shell was reddish, the inner edge of the forceps blue. The white
of the upper surface became more dingy ; it was overspread by the red :
and as the alteration advanced, both were delineated in the close of
April, that is, when the shell had subsisted eleven months from the last
change. — Plate XXXVI. figs. 1, 2. Therefore, the subject was not de-
lineated until eleven months had elapsed after exuviation.

Meanwhile, the annual remained tame, and continued feeding plenti-
fully.' On one occasion, previous to its present state, as in Plate XXXVI.,
and while still clothed in the shell, Plate XXXV. figs. 2, 3, — for we
must always recollect that the change is not of the animal, but only of
its integument, — it unaccountably left its own capacious vessel, and get-
ting into another with two hermit crabs, devoured most part of one of
them.

f /

t '

;V

t •

y/-/// . '/

BRAClIVrui. 161

It had. itself. in (lu- next place, a narrow escape, h.ivini:

almost lil'ele— t'min impurity of tin- water, it could with dillieidty
1>e pn-svi

Tlu*e were tin- chief incidents occurring after acquisition of the

'.•. It was taken mi July L'L' ; and in the night of the first of
t cast its .-hell. On the tenth, the male was introduced to

• •seel. Their union ensued almost immediately. On the 17th, the
male i-'-i". :<•'! food. ami it had cast its shell on the 10th.

Next ilav 1 found it expedient to separate these uni mall).

Tli- .nice of the male was short ; it died within a fortnight.

A whole year now passed without anything of importance occurring
in respect to the surviving female. Hut in March, or about eighteen
months subsequent to the preceding dates, it Ixxwue very restless, and
fed sparingly : and, on the morning of the 14th of that month, I was
surprised to see a quantity of detached spawn, in thousands of loose
orange coloured ova, scattered throughout its vessel. Its tranquillity
was then restored.

The production of spawn, at the distance of eighteen months from
the time that the pair had been together, was certainly most unexpected ;
and apparently adverse to the course of Nature. It was highly impro-
l-ahle that ova had required so long an interval to gain maturity : so
that, if they did not, these were the produce of an unimpregnated female.
I transferred some of them to different vessels, wherein they remained
entire for several days, exposing an internal yellow nucleus, within an
albuminous looking spherule.

From July 30, the animal rejected food, and persisted in abstinence
for a fortnight, when it weakened and died, after having been about
two years and a month in my possession.

It is seen from the preceding observations, that the original colours
may be either s|>eedily altered, or obliterated, or that they may be per-
manently renewed.

It is not easy to account either for the uniformity, or for the change
of colour. There is nothing to sanction anticipation of the fact. But.

z

162 CRUSTACEANS.

after the change takes place, I have never witnessed any return to the
original colours.

The specimen, Plate XXXIV. fig. 5, had a white limb ; I kept it
carefully to discover what would ensue on exuviation, for theory here
was useless. The animal cast its shell, and the same limb came in white
a.s before.

This fact is very perplexing, — whence is the colour derived ? It
would be a strong argument for maintaining that the new shell is gene-
rated in the old, as within a sheath. Therefore we must not lose sight
of it,

Reproduction of defective parts. — The Cancer manas being so com-
mon, so easily obtained and preserved, it is peculiarly adapted for the
investigations of the inquisitive into the various processes operated by
the energies of Nature.

Herein, I believe, many vulgar errors may be corrected ; some ori-
ginating in fallacious principles ; others from precipitate conclusions,
inherited from the days of ignorance.

It is commonly admitted, that new limbs are produced to replace
those whereof such Crustaceans, as the species under consideration, have
been wholly or partially deprived by violence ; that regeneration exactly
compensates privation ; and that, whether a leg or a claw be torn off,
another will be generated from the vacant stump of the member.

No doubt the general principle is true. But Nature's modus ope-
rand i, the circumstances and the precise process of repairing the defect,
do not correspond with the vulgar sentiments, which are alike unfounded,
in ascribing the loss of the Lobster's claws to thunder.

Such errors probably arise from the casual inequality appearing
among the different members of various species of the Cancer, and in
failing to discriminate those species of the Astacus, wherein there is a
natural disparity in the size of the claws ab originc.

Perhaps it might be better to amalgamate all that can be said on
the subject with subsequent discussion, were it not that naturalists, oc-
cupied by special pursuits, commonly desire special illustrations of their
special subjects.

< ii \ rui.

Th«- L '(//•••/• m<ena* comprises a voracious, fierce, ami contention*
race, involved in perpetual warfare, whereof many mutilations of tliom?
escaping \\itli life are home as undoubted evidence of peril. Henre.
among mi-eellaneou-. collections, are found specimens variously im-
paired : ami if tin- whole are confined in the sauu1 vessel, those incessant
conflicts, ti-mliiiir to universal ndtrniination, after farther aggravation-,
will leave one only as tin- victor.

Knt ire genera would disappear, did not the energies of Nature heal
their otherwise deadly wound*.

Amid-t such energies, some an- always directed to the restoration

of perfee t ion ; whence, although the precursor be itself ilefeetive. its

successor ia perfeet, as will be diseoxered on exuviation. Hut it niu.-t

:>ser\e.l. that all subjecta are liable, to accidental imperfections of

parts, or in dimensions.

A ppeeimeii, whieh was deU-ctive of the rijrht < law. ha\inir ea-t it-
shell, it came in with the wanting claw now perfect ; but this new or^ran
wa» somewhat -mailer than its fellow. — Plate XXXVII. (L's. •'!. \. On
another exuviation, the flaws came in nearly e<pial.

A specimen, Plate XXXVII. liir. •">. which had been mutilated of
four limbs, and half the forceps of the left claw, cast this shell on Oc-
tober 8, and came in entire with tin- whole complement of limbs. \<>
gether with the wanting pineer, now white. — Fi^. C.

A small speeiinen having been left somewhat incautiously in the
vessel of one rather larger and stron. mutilated of the rijrht

claw and three limbs of the same side, and of « limb on the left side.
Notwithstanding this extraordinary prhation, it cast it- -lull, the new
animal, to my surprise, coining in with all the limbs in perfeet ion.
—Plate XXXVII. fig. 7, cast shell, back ; fig. 8, breast ; fig. 0, new
perfect animal.

As is well known, low papilla1 rising from the remaining stump an-
nounce regeneration in Ueshy reproductions. This is a fact so familiar,
and I may say of such uniform occurrence, that, without adverting to
the circumstances, I conjectured that papilla- were actually rising here,
from the rudiments of the defective organs. But let us rememl>er that

1G4 CRUSTACEANS.

the stump is shell, not flesh, unless it may be some small residuary frag-
ments,— and that, in this state, the stump may be called inorganic.
Thus the whole remains unaltered, until a perfected animal is revealed
to view by the first exuviation. — Fig. 9.

Let us quit this subject meantime, for another no less interesting
to him who is absorbed in wonder by the steady and uniform govern-
ment of the universe.

Perpetuation. — Until the latest period, nothing was known of what
merited the earliest observation, the continuance of this portion of the
animal world.

Considerable obscurity still reigns over the propagation of the
Crustaceans, or the numerous animals associated under this general
name. The species of all seem to be perpetuated by ova, whereof the
embryo of many thus escaping, has still to undergo such important
change or modification as may be compared to real metamorphosis.

But there are others wherein the interest seems comprehended in
some slight development of additional parts.

The sex of the Crab, male or female, which, in as far as I am aware,
cannot be distinguished by age, size, colour or proportions, is denoted
in this section of the race by the appearance of the thorax, breast-plate
or apron, which in both sexes is triangular. That of the male is longer
and narrower compared with the dimeasions of the specimen, while that
of the female is larger and broader.

These creatures begin to breed at a very early period, and continue
very long prolific. They multiply in extraordinary numbers, and at all
seasons of the year. I have seen the Cancer mainas laden with roe in the
depth of winter.

This roe or spawn originates within the shell or carapace, where it
may be found in a soft and immature condition. While advancing
farther it issues by one or two orifices under the apron, which is elevated
by its progressive discharge, and spreads innumerable clusters of ova to
the very edges.

When the specimen, Plate XXXIV. fig. 5. reached the end of Octo-
ber, the discharging spawn continued raising the apron during ten weeks.

I /

II \\ \ I//

>

HIIACII YURI. Id.,

When somewhat advanced, tin- roc of all the crab* that I have M6Q
of a ilrii»i- ma»> of ova, or a c. .in|.ai-t thick cake. ;.:--i).T.d!\ \ ivid

which irradually loses ita solidity along with its colour. The parts
-•I' tin- one are relaxed, the intensity of the other fades. In detail the roe
i- discovered to consist of clusters resembling hunches of grapes or cur-

. as illnst rat fil liy various examples in this volume. Ik-re it was
composed of minute spherical ova or capsules, attached by short pedicles

-talk. IL'. 'I, anil many such slalk- atlixed to one of larjrer dimensions
• --instituted a cluster. The gradual increment of the whole is so great as
to augment the mass, which protrudes from below the edges of the apron,
and raises it above the rest of the shell.

Myriads of ova were dropping from the mass on the eighth and
ninth of January, as the Cam, r niu-na.i does not deposit its spawn, like
many animals, on extraneous substances. While still adhering in its
place, the skin of the capsule grows thinner and thinner, it partial!
poses the content,1*, and finally bursts, fig. 7, to discharge the fu-tus.
figs. 8, 9, 10, 11.

Many of the young were hatched on the 12th of January ; their
farther multiplication followed for some time. At this early stage they
are extremely minute, nor bearing the slightest resemblance to the form
of the parent, neither, unless having watched their progress incessantly,
could I have credited their origin. All are of light grey colour ; the
body rather globular, with a llattened tail, somewhat resembling that of
a lobster, consisting of six or seven evident articulations, and a forked
extremity. The feet are indistinctly discernible. A long spine, wanting
in some, rises from the back of others.

Unfortunately these young animals are too delicate to remain the sub-
ject of permanent observation. Similar facts to those above specified have
been repeatedly witnessed on other occasions ; but I have been always
disappointed in the occurrence of those metamorphoses which would
have shewn their advances to perfection.

:i remarks, however, are not to discourage other naturalists,
who will ever find the Cancer mcenax a convenient and suitable subject
for elucidating the properties of its genus.

166 CRUSTACEANS.

PLATE XXXIV.

Fio. t . Cancer mcenas, the Shore or Harbour Crab. Young specimen.

2. The same, having cast its shell, now shewing only one white spot in-

stead of three patches previously there.

3. The same, having again cast its shell, which has come in uniformly

green, the white spot being obliterated, and the shell now con-
siderably larger.

4. Cancer mamas, reddish-brown specimen, with a white limb.

."). Portion of its roe or spawn, consisting of full and empty capsules,
enlarged.

6. Empty capsule detached, having discharged the foetus.

7, 8, 9, 10, 11. Young produced from the roe of fig. 5.

PLATE XXXV.

Fia. 1. Cancer mamas, female, taken on July 22 ; delineated July 27.

2. The preceding, fig. 1, cast its shell on the first of August, but the

new subject was not then delineated. Another exuviation en-
sued on 25th October, leaving the empty shell, of which this
figure represents the breast, and the next figure the back.

3. Back of fig. 2.

4. New subject produced by exuviation of figs. 2, 3, on the 2.5th of

October.

PLATE XXXVI.

FIG. 1. Exuviation of the last figure, Plate XXXV. fig. 4, having taken
place on 24th May, 210 days after that of 25th October, this
subject, fig. 1, was produced. Back.

2. Breast of the same.

These figures were not delineated until eleven months had elapsed
from the date of exuviation on May 24.

3. Ova or capsules.

4. Ova or capsules.

PLATE XXXVII.

FIG. 1. Cancer mamas. Young specimen, white, with red eyes.
2. Young specimen, body reddish-brown, limbs greenish.
.". Specimen defective of one claw, the right.

I /

II \\ \\lll

S,;,' ,,

\XVII

FK. im. . having coat the shod, now conic in with the •!• f. .-i i\ .• cl»w

• •utiiv.

5. Specimen mutilated <>f f<mr limlm, and a pinocr of the left flaw.

6. The »ame, nfU-r exu\ i.ition, all th<- • !• i'..ti\.- parts having conx- in

entire.

>l» , im< M ii.tving been mutil u I of one claw and four limlm. cast
tin- shell, whii-h i.«t represent* •! liv this figure. Hack.

8. The «une, caat shell. Bro&at.

9. The specimen affording the preceding, back and breast, figs. 7, 8,

now reproduced entire, with all the parts.

A.— § 2. CANCER PAGURUS— The Common Crab.— Plate XXXVIII.,
XXXIX., XL., XLI.,— LXX

This is an animal so well and BO universally known as scarcely to
require description. Yet MTV lew ore acquainted with its real nature,
or are conversant with any material points of its history.

The former species is most familiar in its earlier stages, the present
only in its latest growth, that is, when in maturity. The former species
also IB disregarded almost everywhere, it seldom serves for subsistence ;
but the latter is profusely consumed as food by all ranks and classes of
people, and in certain places only the more delicate parts preserved,
while the rest are thrown away, abundance rendering them of no value,
as already signified.

The common crab is one of the largest of the Scotish Crustacea ;
nor is it inferior in other parts of Britain. Its dimensions seem entirely
>i« 'pendent on age and the place it inhabits, attaining, according to re-
port, the unwieldy size of twelve inches between the limbs across the
back of the shell, and weighing a number of pounds But ht-rc if, in-
stead of twelve, specimens measure only six or seven inches, they are
deemed full size, and if eight, they may be accounted large.

The dimensions of such rapacious animals must always depend on
the profusion of subsistence. But in calculating these dimensions,

168 CRUSTACEANS.

peculiarities are involved, especially the change of the shell, whereby
they are entirely regulated.

The common crab is both the largest bodied and the strongest of its
genus pertaining to Scotland. I have heard some vague accounts of an-
other, described as exceeding its size, but, considering the prevalent ex-
aggeration of facts not to be immediately verified, and especially relative
to marine products, I do not feel much disposed to rely on such assertions.
Nevertheless the limbs of the Cancer horridus, as we shall see, certainly
expand farther.

This species, the Cancer pagurus, is more of uninterrupted oval form
in proportion than any of the others ; the claws stronger, perhaps, and
the limbs shorter ; the apron, also, is narrower than that of the rest of
its family here described, the Cancer mcenas, Cancer or Port 'tmtis liridus,
and the Cancer or Port units pusillus. Nine prominent flutings, com-
mencing with each eye in front, border the shell. The eyes are sus-
tained on peduncles considerably apart, rather low and small, and be-
tween them a pair of larger and a pair of smaller antenna?. Three of
the flutings are on the margin of the shell, opposite to these organs.
The surface of the shell, finely granulated, is of a reddish brown colour,
and the tips of both claws jet black, a strong and decisive feature. —
Plate XXXVIII. fig. 1, upper surface ; fig. 2, under surface.

When roused by hunger, the Cancer paaiirus is fierce and rapacious.
Regardless of superiority in size or in strength, it springs on whatever
it desires to render a prey ; and feeds greedily on all animal substances,
whether living or dead, fresh or putrid. Everything is seized and de-
voured, and the stomach being very capacious, considerable quantities
are consumed at a time. Nothing is rejected, and the repast is repeated
frequently. In common with its tribe, however, it is patient of absti-
nence, ceasing to feed before exuviation, and sometimes after it. I
could not ascertain that a small specimen, received through the favour
of Dr Duguid, a learned naturalist, from Kirkwall, fed for a complete
month or longer. In the course of another month it devoured a
shrimp.

But this species, apparently strong, is alike delicate as others ;

.. . , .

\^^/

'

'

\ciivriM.

:u-e. tin* vessel containing spivimens designed for permanent obwr-
vatiuii. iini-t !>•• carefully emptied and replenished \Nithin a lew hours
after feeding ; or the specimens should la- transferred todillerent rmcili,
which is sifcr. — ivpeating replenishment n«-\t morning, or sooner. Fre-
quent ins|teetion i >f all such captives is indttponMUa

Individual-; of the Common Cra!>, when alone, become very tame

and tranquil ; indeed, they seem to l«> a n«r the tamest and most tran

quil of the triU- ; — whence, for u long time, I was induced to think
them of \ery paeilie nature. But four small ones having been com-
mitted t<> the same vessel, I was then undeceived by discovering that
one of them had I*-. uvd i>y a companion, two of the four 1

larger than itself. On the same day, I found the smallest of the three
sin -\i\ors in the fangs of the largest, which was more powerful, nor
could I rescue it without the loss of several of its limbs.

Thi< mutilated subject I.ein^ shifted to another vessel, it was with
some surpri 1 saw it immediately begin to feed on portions of

mussel which I supplied.

Now, it proved to have undergone an extraordinary mutilation.
ten external organs were actually gone ; for only the two
claws and the posterior right limb remained. Nevertheless, these were
entire, and next day the animal seemed quite well, — consuming the re-
mainder of the mussel 1-iM'leit. The mutilation occurred on October
L'uth, and delineation followed on the 3d of November. — Plate XLI.
fig. 1, back ; 2, breast.

Thin incident afforded ample evidence, that notwithstanding the
pacific disposition of the species, presumed from apparent tranquillity,
weak were not to be trusted in the society of the stronger.

N four days after mutilation, the victim cast its shell. The

new animal mine in very pale, almost white, and what was more re-
markable, with the whole complement of ten limbs entire. Those cor-
responding to the seven which had been deficient, seemed to me some-
what under the natural size. The posterior limb on the left side, corres-
ponding to that mutilated, was smaller than its fellow on the right,

T

170 CRUSTACEANS.

whose original had escaped. This renovated creature was delineated
the day after exuviation. — Plate XLI. fig. 3. It died in April.

The history of the assailant of the mutilated animal, which had
committed such injuries, is afterwards given in detail.

Two small specimens having been together, I observed, on Oc-
tober 30, that the larger, which was nearly white, had mutilated its lesser
companion, not only of both claws, but of six limbs in addition, leaving
only the first on the right side, and the second on the left, Plate XLI.
fig. 1. Thus, eight of the ten external organs were deficient, while the
remaining two seemed to be injured. Nevertheless, the animal fed
when offered a fragment of mussel, though incapable of turning itself if
supine. Three days afterwards it was quite voracious.

I preserved this mangled creature very carefully, contemplating the
solution of several points still enigmatical, should it survive exuviation.
Matters advanced propitiously enough for some time ; the animal fed
on the 23d of December, but it died during the night of the 24th.

Yet this did not seem in consequence of its wounds, from the evil
effects of which it had certainly recovered. But the period of exuvia-
tion was at hand, and the apparent immaturity of certain parts prevent-
ing their liberation, while others were completely ready, and actually
protruding for escape, — the death of the creature ensued.

What I could see on this occasion, led me to conclude that all the
limbs of the new animal, while in the original shell, lay folded across its
breast.

It was of some consequence to determine the precise fact, not only
as elucidating the truth, but as confuting the prevalent opinion of new
limbs shooting from the old in one case, and being derived from so many
sheaths in another. I have already shewn the improbability of papillae
originating from mutilated stumps to announce reproduction. In such
enquiries, however, there is scarcely any direct means of verification to
be adopted, farther than patiently following the course of Nature, and
awaiting the issue of observation.

Thus, the assailant of the preceding specimen, that had unluckily
perished, had been preserved for some time previously. It was then

ni;\ciivrKi. 171

very pale ; and five or six weeks after coming into my possession, it was

delineated white, mi November :I. — Plate XXX IX. fig. 1.

Such specimens arc nuv. I have never seen any, unless of small
dimensions. However, they M i r \ i vo aa readily aa others, and possibly
live as lonir ; but whether attaining lull size, without the wanted modi-
licit iun «.f colour, is doubtful. No one informs me of having seen a large
Common Crab trhitr. The a-pect of such specimens, in their earlier
stage, is different from that of the ordinary appearance, as may be Been
from liir. '.'. \vhicli is introduced IHTO for (lie purpose of contrast.

The specimen, fig. 1, ha 1 I urn taken on the 29th of September ; it
mutilated its companion on the 20th of October, without any symptom
of itself having suffered. Rejecting food on the 8th of November, it
cast its hhell on the !>th ; when the new animal came in, larger than be-
fore, and still paler. Ix-ing now almost white, fig. 2. Its next exuviation
was on April :idth, when the new shell coming in again somewhat larger,
was still pure white, of soft ami delicate aspect. — Jig. 3.

It is surprising to behold a creature of ample size, with which we
are familiar, presented in miniature among many of its kind of darker
hue, but by exception clear and polished, and white as the drifted snow.
The difference at first sight is unaccountable, — so great and irreconcileable,
that the spectator will pause in allowing their kindred.

The shell now subsisted from April 30, until September 12, when
exuviation produced another considerably larger than previously, of the
purest white, so clear and tranf<parent, that the place of the intcranea,
or the organs confined within, shone through its refined substance. The
old one remained quite entire, that is without gaping, or any evident
separation of the line of union between the hind pair of limbs, whence
the ne\\ shell had issued. All the different parts besides remained aa
usual in their own proper position. Delineation of this subject wa»
postponed until Xovemlier 10, or about two months ; whereon it may
be remarked, th.it although no sensible enlargement of the animal en-
sues, some slight 'natural or accidental alteration is usually perceptible.
It is generally of trilling importance. — Fiir. 4.

In regard to colour, I : the preceding facto aa satisfactory

172 CRUSTACEANS.

evidence, that the shell of the Cancer pagurus may be repeatedly gene-
rated with scarcely any deviation from its original quality.

The first drawing, it will be observed, had been executed on the
3d of November, fig. 1 ; and the last on November 10, or with the lapse
of above a year. — Fig. 4.

But the animal continued still growing, and it cast its shell for the
fourth time on the 29th of March following, in the second year of its
captivity, or above 500 days after the period of the first delineation. Yet
no colouring matter was visibly incorporated with it.

The under surface of the empty shell, cast on March 29, was ad-
mirably and faithfully delineated after the new animal had left it. —
Fig. 5.

But a singular fact was betrayed on this last exuviation. The new
specimen, as I must still call it, now produced from figs. 4, 5, was de-
fective of the whole eight limbs. It had a strange appearance without
them. Only the two claws, both tipped with black were present, the
other eight were totally deficient. The rest of the other parts, all ex-
cept the tips, were beautifully white.

I did not at first observe this extraordinary deficiency, the creature
was so very tame and tranquil ; it rested on the breast, but being acci-
dentally reversed it exposed the truth. The drawings now made, fig. 6,
back, fig. 7, breast, may be compared with those preceding.

In a few days the mutilated animal fed copiously, and continued to
do BO. It seemed quite well, and remained very tame. Its only pecu-
liarity was falling frequently on its back, from inability to balance itself,
for want of so many limbs.

I preserved this creature with uncommon care, partly from indulging
anticipations of futurity, partly from curiosity, to determine whether my
various conjectures above alluded to were sound or erroneous.

Animal life is so fleeting, external form so easily impaired, I was
continually on the watch.

Yet these animals are well adapted for experiment, being fed and
preserved with such facility.

After the defective shell investing the living creature, figs. 6, 7, had

HKACHYURI. 173

subsisted eighty-six days exuviation fulluwcd once more, on the i!3d of
Juno.

What was now disclosed ? A new animal, considerably larger than
the oM, of the purest and most delicate white, with the whole limbs en-
tin.', svminetri( al, aii'l in beautiful perfection.

1 • on the -I could not liciiolil it without renewed ad-

miration of Nat! s in producing her appointed works, in all

tht-ir predetermined harmonious perfection. — Plato XXXIX., fig. 8.

This exuviation plainly proved, in confirmation of other example*,
that no [ inonncinx the ireneration of defective organs issues

from the -tumps of the shell remaining on mutilation. Therefore re-
generations arc not by means of additions.

tin-re are some perplexing facts. If each of the new limbs be
not withdrawn from a sheath, as from an old limb, according to com-
mon belief, how are the whole arranged with the body in the subsisting
shell exuviation ? Can it be otherwise than folding over the

breast ? — In my opinion it cannot. Certainly no portion of the originat-
ing organ protrudes from the stump of the delect ive memlier. Besides,
how could the bulging shell of the new claws be drawn through the nar-
row channels, and contracted joints of the old ? On the whole, therefore,
there seems no other satisfactory explanation than by admitting the
concent nit ion of the new animal and its organs within the original
shell.

But how or from whence are the new integuments derived ; how are
they i::i ••; j oscd so as to include the flesh of the limbs, or to contain the
internal parts ? I believe that skin is allowed to be derived from fleshy
parts, and although the bulk of the stomach is such that it might afford
some leaser secretion to invest the internal organization, the substance of
the limbs seems to have wasted almost entirely away. Content with
relating obvious facts, I must leave the solution of such abstruse
questions to greater physiologists.

Whatever is the mode by which it is operated, if we admit that the
external parts of the creature nascitums, that about to be produced, are
generated, we are relieved of all embarrassment in accounting for the re-

174 CRUSTACEANS.

production of defective members. Each member is formed entire, there-
fore comprehending all subordinate parts. Thus, should a pincer of
either claw be defective, it will be generated and produced on exuvia-
tion along with the whole claw ; should the hind pair of limbs be want-
ing, they are generated in the dormant subject lying in the old shell, and
will be produced as parts of the new subject in the new integument.
But no new additions will be generated to restore the symmetry of the
original parts.

The cast shell contains nothing, it is an absolute vacuity.

Although the integument enclosing the stomach may be possibly
derived from some internal coating of the carapace, or some secretion
may originate from that source, I do not see how the like can be expected
from the old limbs, or, if it could, how it would fulfil a similar office.
Neither is it evident that the shell of the limbs is derived from their own
contents, though certainly most probable. The new animal is always
larger than the old, which rather confirms the opinion maintaining that
the original integument is soft and compressible before hardening as a
shell.

I have said much of form, but little of colour, a subject not devoid
of interest. The colour of the common crab seems to be always a shade
of reddish-brown when in perfection of the adult. That of younger
specimens is somewhat variegated, as may be seen of the different figures
in the plates. All are probably advancing progressively to the ordinary
colour. I know well that little confidence is to be reposed in colour,
and how much it is undervalued by naturalists. Nor am I aware that it
ever denotes pecuh'ar permanent properties.

It may be affirmed that, until attaining the final hue, the shell is con-
tinually undergoing some modification. Thus the specimens, Plate XLI.
figs. 5, 6, 7, all of nearly the same size, were delineated within a month of
each other. The specimen, fig. 5, was originally brownish, very faint. On
casting the shell it appeared pure white, with a purplish tinge. Its next
exuviation produced a pure white shell, which was followed by another
in five or six weeks, darkening very little until the animal died two or
three months later. The specimen, fig. 6, tended first to brownish, then

• • -

r "«

I. 1 Ti-

to purple, with lilni-h patches. The specimen, fig. 7, originally brown,
came in purplish on exuviation. The specimen, Pinto XXXI X. fig. 9,
WM different from the whole of these.

Hut it-turning to the mutilated specimen, so anxiously preserved,
which had recovered all the defective parts on June 23d, after having
been deprived of them for eijrht V-MX days. The next shell with the per-
:'« . i animal subsisted from the 23d of June to the 3d of October, or 102
days, when it was succeeded by one of the purest, and, as before, of the
most beautiful white above ; however the limbs were not equally so. —
Plato XI, f.-. 1.

Now the animal underwent no change either in appearance or
habits, further than what is always concomitant on exuviation. It was
tame, tranquil, fed readily, and proved healthy.

The shell introduced to view by the change of the 3d of October,

rt in all its parts, subsisted until the 10th of April. A new exu-
viation produced another, large in proportion, alike symmetrical and
perfect, still of a fine white, but with rather more colouring and bristling
on the limbs. The second year of ita captivity was now advancing, and
its habits continued unchanged. It was extremely tranquil, very tame
and familiar, always approaching the side of the vessel as any one came
near, and holding up its black tipped claws as if in expectation of food.
Farther, it allowed me to lift it in my hand, without the smallest resist-
ance, when shifting its dwelling became expedient. At this time it was
proved, from the successive exuviations, that the permanent symmetry
of the animal was restored from the extraordinary defects of four-fifths
of ita important organs.

About a month after the last exuviation, the vessel containing this
specimen, when standing on a table, covered by another glass vessel, was
accidentally overturned on the Boor of an apartment, and both shivered
to fragments. The animal was stunned ; yet I entertained hopes of its
impunity from real danger. It fed subsequently; nevertheless serious
injury had been sustained, for I found it dead on the 16th of May.

I could not help regretting the loss of what had been so long the
subject of so much care, and from which I had derived such information.

176 CRUSTACEANS.

It was an interesting creature, as if a little dumb companion, having
nevertheless had always something to impart.

The preceding specimen survived just about two years and eight
months. It had borne eight shells, and had undergone seven exuviations.
All while under observation. — Plate XL. figs. 2, 3.

Perpetuation. — The common crab is one of the most fertile of its
tribe. Indeed, were it otherwise, the extinction of the species might be
expected with some reason, from the incessant persecution it is exposed to.

The quantity of roe borne by the female is incredible, and the mul-
titude of the offspring far exceeds any probable computation. Did all
attain maturity, and propagate in their turn, there would not be sufficient
space unoccupied in given bounds for the existence of other animals.

The common crab begins to breed at a very early period of its life,
during the greater portion of which it probably continues. An ample
profusion of roe elevates the apron while the growing parent is yet of
very moderate dimensions, which in its origin is very pale, almost white,
or faintly yellow. — Plate XLI. fig. 8.

The season commences with the earlier months of the year, the roe
advancing in March and April, also in May or June, as well as more ir-
regularly at other times ; that just referred to appeared in October.

As the roe matures it is converted to fine vivid vermilion. That of
a specimen, seven inches broad, was in such quantity as to raise the apron
four inches in the middle of March. The ova or capsules were in millions,
still very small, and requiring some time for attaining maturity.

In this state it exhibits a solid -mass, which on extrication is
found to be composed of numerous clusters of capsules or ova, that ag-
gregated individually, that might occupy so many hollow cylinders. —
Plate XLI. fig. 9. A cluster, under the microscope, resembles a bunch of
beautiful ripe fruit, not unlike red currants. The clusters are less luxu-
riant than the roe of several other species described here, the capsules
being more dispersed, nor alike concentrated, as will be seen of the two
following species.— Plate XXXVIII. figs. 3, 4, 5.

Neither is the roe so easily obtained. The female common crab
being unmarketable while in roe, the fishermen avoid taking them ; and

I /

<

'/.<

I1KACII VI IM. 177

if specimens are causally brought ashore, they are always so maltreated,
that I cannot uiliriu I have ever witnessed tlu-ir MIIA i\;un •«• for any
length of lime, to bring the roe to maturity. Therefore, it is chielh
from younger individual- that we can look for satisfactory result*.

As tin- uvariiiiu swells, the anxiety of the parent for its preservation
from injury, becomes very evident. When elevating the apron or breast-
plate, it in kept free of external pressure, by the creature continually
standing on the limbs, and rising higher and higher to avoid contart
with other substances below.

ll« nee, it \\ill be observed, that the capsules are not deposited, but
burst like the former, while attached to the parent, for escape of the
younj:. These are of the wonted form, resemble the preceding, nor are
distin.trui.-hed by any peculiarities.

The crab-fishery seems to IK' neither a lucrative nor a favourite em-
ployment in Scotland ; and, although many are occupied in it, chiefly
on a small scale, it appears to be always deserted when other branches
of such marine pursuits occur.

1'I.VTK XXXVIII.

Flo. 1. Cancer paaurut, tbo Common Crab, back.

2. The same, breast.

3. Cluster of ova, natural size.

4. Portion of the same enlarged.

5. Portion more enlarged.

PI.XTK XXXIX. lli-tory of a white sped men.

FIG. I. Caiuxr pagunu, young, taken 29th September.

2. The same, after its first exuviation in captivity, on November 9.

3. The same, after exuviation on April 30, following November 9.

4. The same, after a third exuviation, on September 12. Back.

5. The same. Breast.

6. The same, after a fourth exuviation on March 21), following Nov. 12,

when tlu- wlnilr d^'lit legs proved deficient. Back.

7. The same. sh.-\\inj: tin- di f Breast,

8. The same, after a fifth exuviation on June 23, when all the parts

W«re restored entire. Back

z

178 CRUSTACEANS.

PLATE XL.

FIG. 1. The same, after a sixth exuviation on October 3. Back.

2. The same, after a seventh exuviation on 10th April, after October 3.

Back.

3. Breast.

PLATE XLI.

FIG. 1. Cancer pagurus, small specimen, mutilated of seven limbs on Octo-
ber 20. Back.

2. The same. Breast.

3. The same, after exuviation in 102 days, all the defective limbs

having come in entire.

4. Cancer pagwrus, which perished after mutilation.

5. 6, 7, 8. Cancer pagurus, young. The last full of spawn.

A specimen somewhat older is represented Plate XXXIX. fig. 9.
9. Cancer pagurus, roe.

PLATE LXX. Supplemental. — Miscellaneous Crustaceans.
FIG. I . Cancer pagurus, monstrous claw.

§ 3. CANCER (pORTumrs) LIVIDUS — The Flying Crab. — Plate XLIL,

LXX.

The two preceding subjects afford a mass of valuable illustrations
in the history of this section of the Crustacean race. I have united
them in the same paragraph, wherein I mean to include also the present
and the following articles, because none of the whole are distinguished
by such important peculiarities, as to render a separate place for each
essential. On the contrary, as we shall see, they are united by the
strongest ties, as exhibited in various definite features.

All that comes from the hand of the Creator is orderly, and con-
sistent with the harmonies of nature. The Supreme Intelligence has as-
signed to everything its own proper place and position in the frame of the
universe, whether it precedes, whether it follows that which is of its

W

S

x ^ / s /

> • > ' '

BR.MIIYI Kl IT''

nearest kindivd. It ta we, however, who spread confu-ion, who know
not the origin of order, or whether what we behold in designed to be
temporary or permanent.

Yet how grateful ought not we to be to the Author of gymm-
and perltvtion, those two qualities binding the world together, for tin-
faculties whereby we are enabled to discover the grand basis of universal
harmony in a common bond of union. We, who are so liable to be
overwhelmed liv sickness and sorrow, — whom personal infirmity bows to
the earth, are nevertheless permitted to contemplate the marvellous pro-
ilm-t* of Heaven, — to conjecture their ends and purposes, and thence to
determine in our own mind the boundless power of Omnipotence. How
is our gratitude for such ineffable favour to be shewn ? how shall we
bear record amidst the action, the infinity of time and space, elevating
each succeeding thought and reflection to the will of tin* Divine Author ?

Let us pray the Father of mercies to permit our swelling breast* to
heave with adoration of his indulgent favour to ourselves, and the ob-
jects of our preference. -

Nothing can be more desirable than to complete the plan we are now
following, in the classification of such animals as bear a reciprocal resem-
blance, and their Mil -division into smaller sections, when allied by common
features ; for, by this means, they may be easily recognised, and their
position adjusted.

Yet it has never been distinctly laid down where or how the com-
mencement of a genus introduces the student to its discussion. There-
fore we must still submit to considerable inconvenience, rectifying it
progressively where opportunity admits. We must summon the aid of
all auxiliaries, rejecting the fashion of some observers, in precipitately
concluding that their own comments are not only the latest, but the

The Portunus liridus is a very beautiful and symmetrical animal,
decked in lively colours ; and is to be viewed as among the finest speci-
mens of the Cancer tribe of moderate dimensions.

Recollecting the various diversity of form and arrangement belong-
ing to each different animal, there is little to restrain ite separation from

180 CRUSTACEANS.

the neighbouring genera, to which it may not be inconveniently attached
as an appendage.

The shell, when nearly full grown, rnay be circumscribed by an ellipse
of two inches by an inch and three quarters, the feet expanding seven
inches. Neai'ly the same proportions prevail universally in those of all
dimensions. The eyes and antenna) much resemble those of the preceding
Crabs. The former, sustained on stout peduncles, fold laterally from the
root into cavities on the edge of the shell, the two forked antenna?, within
two of setaceous form, are in constant motion. The exterior edge of the
shell, behind each eye, is serrated by five teeth, and three others are on the
marginal portion in front between the eyes. A large spine rises from the
second joint of each claw, besides which are some smaller spines. The
extremities of the posterior limbs are of an oval form, the external ar-
ticulation as if divided also by one of flatter shape interposed, — whereby
the animal is enabled to spring vigorously through the water, and is
thence denominated the Flying Crab by fishermen.

The flattened portion is finely and completely fringed.

The shell of this animal is stained by various colours, red, blue, and
white, modified on the back in numerous shades, forms, and intensities.
In fine and beautiful constrast, the under surface is universally of pure and
delicate white. Two crescents of minute white specks, much resembling
the form and appearance of a pair of spectacles, are always seated on the
upper surface of fine specimens. The animal is seldom seen of uniform
colour ; it is variegated. The symmetry of the whole shell, and its
various parts, are admirable. — Plate XLII. fig. 1.

This is a lively creature ; it springs suddenly on its prey, though not
so fiercely as the Cancer mcenas. A great quantity of food is devoured
at once, and the animal is ever ready to feed, crouching down in quies-
cence after a voracious repast, wherein all other animal substances are
acceptable.

Perhaps, from its conformation, the Port/am* litidus may resort to
deeper water. It remains always completely immersed in confinement,
never testifying the desire betrayed by other specimens, of quitting its
element occasionally, or indifference at continuing a short time dry.

MKACllVCItl IM

iV..ni this reason, it scarcely <M>I proves as tame a* the n»t.

Hut I ha\e nft cn remarked th.it those specimens M-ldom exposed to \ie\\
;ir«- wilder than those in-vt-r in eon.-.

This i> .mi- of the must prolific ,.f the trihe. It breeds at various
season- of the \ear. Iii April ;iinl May. in particular, the female i- laden
with me. whii-h I have also seen in profusion late in November.

No di-tin. -tion, whereof I am aware, either in form or colour, is pe-
eiiliar to either sex. unless the remarkalile dimensions of the fcm.de-
.-welling apron. S,, \\ i.-e a pro\i-ion of nature for protection of the young
is mauifotcd by the wonderful eaiv of ( )inuipotencc. Tlic apron wsome-
tiim- .-levated so much by this preparation for prcK-rvation of the
as to form n riirht angle with the under MII :

These are most beautiful and wonderful arrangements, whether from
the symmetry, colour, or position of such enormous quant itic* of roe as
are brought to maturity. Now the animal appears somewhat di>torted.
until the restoration of its form ensues by dispersion of the spawn. —
Plate XI. II. IL'. "J. 1-ark ; lig. 3, front.

The profusion of roe in one, as well as its progressive increase, «••!••

i-\tr.iordinary, insoiuueh that, although the apron was elevated pcrpendi-
eularly.and I am figuring the specimen revei-sed,I say that, although risini:
to form a ri^ht anu'le with the front on the 8th of Novemlxir, the mas.> still
continued enlarging, with the apron turned kick, nearly on a level with
the upper surface. It did not lose it- |ial"ii«w, however ; and In-ill;.: in-
vested by a thin mouldy film, the specimen died on the liTth.

This female was of a very dull colour, tending at last to brownish
of which I once saw another instance in April. — Plate XI. VI

I.

n.-idenible time before maturity the spawn up | tears a fine yellow
or orange conglomerated mass of spherical ova ; but the colour fades with
its advances, and the component parts of the mass relax, when they re-
-einMo luxuriant clusters of fruit ; portions are represented in different
stages. — Plate XI. II. figs. 4, •">. A cluster of 117 mature capsules, de-
lineated on May L'l>t. is -vn in li^'. 6. Thousands of young were dis-
charged in tlmv days from the ample ovarium allordiug this beautiful

182 CRUSTACEANS.

cluster, but in two days longer the parent died, as if unable to relieve it-
self from such an oppressive load. Some mucor, besides, was afterwards
discovered on part of the roe.

The density of the mass refines gradually with time as it relaxes in
clusters, and the capsular integument is extenuated, so as to expose the
included young. Next it bursts, to allow the escape of its mature contents.

The multitude of young discharged from a prolific parent is very
great, the spawn still adhering to the shell as in preceding examples.
Also, the contents totally void of ah1 resemblance to the features of their
kind, are very minute, not exceeding half a line in length, the anterior
part large, the rest slender. Some have a dorsal spine, like the thorn of
a briar, which, however, is for the most part wanting, but all have two
red eyes, and the body is speckled under the microscope. — Figs. 7, 8.

The young animals are extremely delicate, and very short-lived ; it
seems impossible, notwithstanding every precaution, to preserve them
during any metamorphosis that may lead to their ultimate form. One
fact, worthy of notice, common indeed to all this section of the Cancer
tribe, is exemplified here : while an excessive profusion of roe impedes
the action of the female, instinct induces her to rise higher and higher
on the limbs, as if on tiptoe, to keep it always safe from pressure ; this
is obviously the more essential, as the roe is never deposited.

But on some occasions the parent seems desirous of relieving itself
of certain portions of the spawn, whether to lessen the inconvenience of
such a burden, or from its approaching decay, and this it can easily do
by means of its pincers.

A vast quantity of loose minute white globules covered the bottom
of a vessel containing females on the 8th of March. None proved to be
prolific. Nor has it done so when occurring in the same manner on other
occasions, though carefully treated. Even where the mass of roe is pro-
lific, numerous single capsules are detached by the parent, and I appre-
hend that entire clusters are also separated.

At all times clusters of roe may be severed with scissors, for obser-
vation, without the parent suffering any injury. The whole attains
maturity particularly in May. The two groups of young represented,

\ I

IM. M.lll

»»

•

'"'••_

X' •

BHACHVIIU. lv

figs. 7, 8, were delineated on the iMth of that month. .Many thousand*
were hatched from the roe of a prolific female on September 25th, and
others continued escaping until October loth, when the remaining cap-
- ules had disappeared.

This animal seems leas contentions than some of the race, thoujrh
tin- males are always prepared for warfare. The females, however, dwell
together in peace.

The moderate dimensions, and easy preservation of specimens, adapt
them particularly for the study of the naturalist.

PLATE XI. II

FIG. 1. Cancer (portwwn) licidiu, male; back.

2. Prolific female ; back.

3. Same, under surface, shewing the spawn.

4. Cluster of full and empty capsules ; enlarged.

5. Cluster of capsule* ; enlarged.

6. Cluster of 1 1 7 capsules, nearly mature ; enlarged.

7. Young from the capsules ; enlarged.

8. Young from the capsules ; enlarged.

PLATE LXX. Supplemental. — Miscellaneous Crustaceans.
Flo. 1. Porhmtu /irtYfa, apron of the male.

2. Apron of the female, external surface.

3. Oyariiun of the female, nearly matutv. U. i .lining organs, a, b.

4. Detached ova.

§ 4. CAXCEK (POBTPNUS) PUSILLUS — The Sand Crab. — Plates XL11I.

XLJV.

According to the plan now proposed, I would rather design to hold
the Cancer pagurtis, or Common Crab, as the principal snbjeet here, ami
the subordinate paragraphs as accessories. >Y hatever inconveniemv thi-
may be attended with, it will be at least productive of .«ini].lili«ation

184 CRUSTACEANS.

In the discussion we have already treated of three species, where the
hind limbs are so fashioned as to prove auxiliaries in swimming. In
fact, the last now remaining, is a beautiful image, in miniature, of that
which precedes it. This will enable us to avail om-selves of considerable
abbreviation, though neither that, nor subdivision, may be sufficient.
Form and habits are for this the most effectual guides to assign them
their proper place in the Systema Naturae.

The Cancer pusillus is one of the smaller Crabs belonging to this
section of the Crustaceans. The body broadens about an inch between
the margins next the limbs, or across the shell, where the limbs of larger
specimens are about two inches asunder.

The form of the shell is often somewhat rudely trapezoidal, the
breadth in front being double the breadth behind, which is the distance
that the hind pair of limbs stand apart. The margin, from the eyes to
a distance on each side, is indented by five obtuse teeth, and there are
three in front ; the eyes and antennae may be compared to those of the
preceding species. But, it must be observed, that as the back of the
Common Crab is smooth, and swells regularly, here it is indented by
symmetrical depressions in various specimens. Also, the hind limbs are
broad, flattened, and finely fringed, the second articulation as if subdi-
vided, all as in the Portunus lividus, to which animal it bears an intimate
resemblance.

It would be difficult to describe the great variety of colour, its in-
teasity and distribution, prevalent among the different specimens of
these pretty little animals. They are generally either light or dark,
plain and uniform, or mottled. A broad triangular figure, a wedge-shaped
belt or stripe, frequently crosses the back from the front of the margin,
leaving the remainder of the surface light on each side of the limbs, di-
viding it as if into three compartments. Whatever predominates above,
the limbs are always marbled.

Neither intensity nor distribution of colour seem to be governed by
any obvious rule, whether uniformly dark, or beautifully variegated and
very light.

This creature feeds very voraciously on fish, which facilitates its

mi \< ii vnu. 185

preservation ; it springs on tin- pn-\ . and there is good reason for be-
licviiiL' that tin- weaker or the species are not spared in case of neoetwit \
Kxuviatinn probably succeeds here at shorter intervals than with the

• it IK-PS de-eril>ed, yet so irregularly, as to preclude all definite mnrluMniis
n-lati\i- t» its rreimeiiey. or tin- permunenee of the shell.

A brown belt ran down tin- tni<lille of a small beautiful speeiim -n.
'lividing the white portion, which spread to each side of the margin.
This it preserved a month after Itcing taken, Plate XI. 111. fig. 2 ; when

• •\iiviation introduced a new one, marked exactly as before. But this
new one subsisted no longer than seventeen days. Here the animal
came in very little larger than its precursor. It had been extremely
shy in its pivvion* shells ; it was now more familiar, and darted through
tin- \vai

Mutilated specimens, reproducing the shell, appear with all the inu-
tilatt-d parts restored on e\u\ iation. In the end of October, a specimen,
whose limbs expanded two inches, had lost its claws. It had difliudtx
in feeding without them, for the forceps prove the chief auxiliary on
such occasions. However, it subsequently contrived, by means of the
remaining limbs, to bring the food up to the mouth.

In eight weeks it cast the shell, when a new one came in, quite en-
tire, larger than previously. But I thought the claws rather under
what should have been their full dimensions. The new shell was of a
brownish colour, little variegated, and the limbs marbled, Plate XLIV.
fig. 1 ; shell delineated after having been cast by the new tenant.

These animals, like the others, seem to commence breeding at a
very early age, and the period of their multiplication occupies a consi-
derable portion of the year ; they are no less prolific, for a single parent
is the progenitor of thousands of young. 4

On June 22, a specimen striped dark brown down the middle of the
back, with lighter sides, bore immense quantities of beautiful scarlet
roe, raising the apron very hu/h. It proved extremely restless, and ap-
parently impatient of confinement, nevertheless feeding readily.

On July 1. the roe still augmenting, distorted the animal's shape,
by projecting the elevated apron backward ; but its beautiful ruddy hue

2 A

ISO CRUSTACEANS.

was gone, and paleness announcing the arrival of maturity, Plate XLIII.
fig. 1. Numerous young having burst their capsules, were at this time
seen in the vessel, and they were hourly augmenting.

These creatures appeared of light grey colour, with black eyes, a large
body, a dorsal spine, and a long tail. A yellow substance occupied the
body, perhaps some residuum ; or the shell might be stained by colouring
matter. At this early stage they sprung through the water.

A multitude of young continued escaping from the capsules, until
the whole were discharged ; and on the thirteenth of the month, the
animal had recovered its symmetrical proportion.

Thus the roe was dispersed in about a fortnight.

Within three weeks from the first appearance of the young, while
examining different living animals in the same vessel containing the
subject of these observations, I was again betrayed into such an error
as detailed in the outset of this section. Exuviation had unexpectedly
taken place, and I was once more surprised as by the sight of a stranger
animal, Plate XLIII. fig. 2 ; The new shell was much clearer and much
purer than the old ; the light portion on each side of the dark stripe
extending to the margin, more vivid than previously. This shell
was not sensibly larger than before, but the colour infinitely finer.

It will be observed that this specimen had borne an ovarium, which
was exhausted before exuviation. In as far as I have been able to dis-
cover, such an important change never takes place under other condi-
tions, but the proximity of the two incidents are unknown : they are
never cotemporary. As the whole integuments separate without the
smallest reserve, it is plain that exuviation preceding an exhausted
ovarium, might entail destruction on the brood, whereas indemnity at-
tends its postponement.

A small female mutilated of all but three of the legs, had been in
my possession two months. In the middle of November, the roe, bright
scarlet, was now approaching fast to maturity. I was anxious to pre-
serve the animal for the result of exuviation, and to ascertain whether
this event would precede dispersion of roe. Spite of so great a mu-
tilation, it seemed to feed, but it had been so severely wounded, that it

I /

HKACIIYURI. 187

died in the close of November. \\ithout exuviation, Plate XI. IV fig. 8,
back ; fig. 9, breast, i-hewing the roe.

The shell is sometimes cast very suddenly ; wherein all naturalists
Mem to be taken by .-i IP] i rise.

A small specimen, i>l)t;iim-«l on April 8, whose limbs did not expand
an inch ami a half, cast its shell unexpectedly, there being no indications
of exuviation half an hour before the event. When observed, the new
shell was scarcely free of the old.

At the same date, the quantity of spawn on another specimen was
immense ; the ova reddish, with an orange tinge, overspread half
tin- under surface, extending to the very margin of the shell above the
animal's feet, and investing all their roots. — Plate XLITI. fig. 3, upper
surface ; fig. 4, under surface.

The chief breeding season of the Portuntu ptuiUu* comprehend*
April and May. Many specimens are then laden with the vi\i<l MI
inilion roe, fig. G, which fades on advancing nearer to maturity, fig. 5.
At that time detached capsules ore also found in their vessels, fig. 7.
Some breed much later in the year, as in October and November, when
they are also full of roe. The young, figs. 8, 9, 10, were very active on
escaping from the capsule.

The specimen, Plate XL1II. figs. 1, 2, which had been freed of the
spawn on July 13th, and afterwords cast its shell on August 6th, was in-
vested by a white zoophyte in the subsequent month of February ; the
colour of the shell, whence this later product rose, had faded, yet the ani-
mal fed readily, though the zoophyte, which proved a Vorticella, with
numerous branches and bells, remained. It died in March, without any
other obvious cause, when a cluster of at least an hundred capsules was
exhausted before exuviation.

In as far as I have been able to discover, this important change never
takes place under other conditions. But, I repeat, the proximity of
the two incidents is unknown. As the whole integuments separate
without reserve, it is plain that other exuviation, preceding an exhausted
ovorium, would expose the brood to destruction, whereas experience
shews safety attends its postponement

188 CRUSTACEANS.

When observed, I say, the new shell of 8th April was scarcely free ,
indeed I had reason to doubt whether the animal had sufficient strength
for effecting the change.

The Portunus pusillus is not alike common as many others. It
seems to frequent only particular districts. It is preserved with equal
facility as any of the rest ; and the observer may be assured of always
deriving much amusement from it.

The intervals of some leading incidents being abbreviated, tends
greatly to his convenience.

PLATE XLIII.

FIG. 1 . Cancer (Portunus) pusillus, prolific female ; back.

2. The same, having discharged the roe, and then undergone exuviation,

now seen in the new shell ; back.

3. Prolific female ; back.

4. Breast of the same laden with a profusion of roe.

5. Cluster of roe approaching maturity.

6. Cluster of roe in an earlier stage.

7. Detached capsules.

8. Young from the ova of figs. 1, 2 ; enlarged.

9. Young from the roe of another specimen, dorsal spine conspicuous.

10. Another.

11. Young specimen, whose shell, on exuviation, subsisted only seventeen

days.

PLATE XLIV.

FIG. 1 . Cancer (Portunus) pusillus, produced on exuviation of Plate XLIII.
fig. 2.

2. Specimen mutilated of both claws, cast shell, producing an entire

specimen.

3. The breast of the same, cast shell.

4. Specimen of unusually dark colour.

5. Lighter specimen, finely variegated.

6. Female of uniform colour.

7. Male of uniform colour.

8. Mutilated specimen ; back.

9. The same ; breast.

$ ">. CANCEI; IHKUF.^ VITKRUM. — Plate XLV. figs. 10, 11, VJ.

A- ue h.ive .ii-tm-ui-li.'.l tip- < Yu-t.i '.MII- l>y an m<lm.it.-'l nit.-_'u
in. -at. it mi^ht !>•• inferred the quality of the covering of the whole pre-
sents mu.-h similarity. This, however, would be erroneous, for beginning
with what i- :is hard as a nut shell, we should soon arrive at what may
be compared, in softness and tl.-xil'ility. to mechanical manufactn.
Some are tenacious without hrittleneas.

But the only example occurring to me of great deviations from the
ordinary principle an- in two species; first, the female of the CH IK-IT
Horridus, on whi.-h we shall pass no further observation at present
secondly, the 1'inHntln-n-a ret, , inn, which merits a few special remarks.

The history of this latter animal has embarrassed naturalists, nm
can I hope to contribute much to its elucidation, owing to the extreme
rarity of the species.

It is one of the smaller animals inhabiting the Scotch seas, and it
seems to be most irregularly distributed in the British Islands. Dwelling
at all times apparently in society of another, the most unlikely of any
associate, the J////i/«.« ;«W/W«.v, their history is generally interwoven to-
gether. I think it is Dr Leach who says he found only three specimens
in the Mi/tilus mmliitlus, or horse mussel, whereof he o^-ned MO h-v than
one hundred specimens in que.-t of them. Mr W. Thompson, howe\
and Mr T. V. Thomson were more successful on the coast of Ireland, as the
former observes, that, on opening eighteen mussels, he found fourteen of
the Pinnotheres, all females, and he quotes the latter, Mr T. V. Thomson
in remarking, that, by the dredge, on any bank of old Afodioli or I'intur,
where the Pinnotheres has been observed, almost every shell will be found
to contain one full grown female, some two, and others three, independent
of young ones, and males occupying them in common with the females.
— W. Thornton, Ap. ; Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Vol. X.
p. 274.

Although fine specimens of the AfylUus modiolut abound in various
parts of Scotland, I cannot discover that the frequency of the Pinno-
theres corresponds in any respect, or has been thus recovered. It does

190 CRUSTACEANS.

not appear that this animal rambles at large like others of the restless
fraternity ; on the contrary, it always becomes an inmate of some of the
bivalve shells, dwelling there in peace along with the proper owner.

On one occasion, I found a specimen with the body thick, nearly
circular, half an inch in diameter, the two claws and eight limbs rather
slender, and about as long in proportion as those of the preceding species.
Two red eyes in front, considerably apart, are scarcely elevated above
the margin. Between two of them two small forked antennae also
project, resembling those of the kind referred to ; the colour of the
whole animal is reddish.

A long time elapsed before I could be sensible that the specimen
fed, though supplied with various animal substances. But I thought it
nibbled some of the green fucus. In six or seven months, however, it
fed readily upon mussel.

This specimen proved a female. On the first of July augmenting
spawn was elevating the apron, which is remarkably large, and visibly
consists of seven segments. In a fortnight it protected a quantity of fine
vermilion capsules. Some of these, detached on the 15th, were seen to
be quite spherical, and very large.

While the spawn still adhered to the parent, numerous young, now
swimming actively through the water, had escaped on the 26th. To the
eye they are very minute, and of yellowish colour. All lay motionless
in two days at the bottom of the vessel.

Red internal spawn afterwards seemed to shine through the in-
teguments of the animal early in August.

This creature was very timid, inactive, and extremely susceptible of
the influence of atmospherical changes. On the slightest shock the limbs
contracted ; it would lay supine and motionless, as if dead, or counter-
feiting death, for an extraordinary time.

Some alteration in the aspect of the animal followed liberation of a
quantity of the spawn, as shewn by the figures.

The creature survived fourteen months. When dead the integu-
ment, both back and breast, proved compact, flexible, and tough.

r /

•.- /•'•

7J

'/ ./

s

BRACIIVCRI. 191

Pun XL)

Flo. 10. Cancer (Pimurftow) rvf<r*m, prolific female.

1 1. The same, having discharged tho roe.

12. The name when dead, apron, a, unfolded.

13. Antenna:, enlarged, a.

B. The preceding Decapodes, or Ten-footed Brachyuri, — though not

.irr:in_"-<l in tin- sum- .•mitiini'-l. imiiit.-iTii|'!'-'l lin,-. — ;uv nr\ , : 1 1,, |, —
fiiuiected by many all'mities, especially the absence of angular pin-Ik
the presence of short antennae, and other features.

But there are also some Decapodc Brachyuri with long antenna?, with
all the feet complete, or tho hind pair abortive, which may be advert.-.!
to in passing.

From the abortive hind feet, however, there are naturalist* who,
with sufficient plausibility, reject the following two species from the
Decapodes, considering them as furnished with only six real limbs be-
sides the claws.

§ (1.) CANCEB (FORCELLANA) LONGICORNIS — The Ventilating Crab. —
Plate XLV. 6gs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 6, 7, 8.

This is the smallest of the Scotish Crabs that has come under my
\ i«-\v. It is of orbicular form ; the body of many is perfectly so, about
four linen, or the third of an inch in diameter : the expansion of the
limbs also, is about an inch and a half ; the hind pair of different struc-
ture from the rest, are not always visible. Nothing peculiar charac-
terises the others, unless the great size and inequality of the claws of
certain specimens. Nevertheless this, with some minor features, renders
it doubtful whether there are not actually two species to be thu« <lw-
tinguished.

A. Claws nearly equal ; Spinous ; Limbs Spinous.

B. Claws unequal, one double the size of the other.

The eyes project in front like those of the Paguriu. Nothing pe-
culiar appears in the two internal short antennae. The external antennae
are long, being equal to three diameters of the body.

192 CRUSTACEANS.

There is extraordinary development and action of the pcdipalpi ;
two projecting organs near the mouth, usually very small in other
species, from which a distinctive and most appropriate name may be de-
rived, as the Fanning or Ventilating Crab, — which will never be thought
of, however, by those studying only the form of dried specimens.

The pedipalpi, as I conclude them, prolonged in six articulations,
originate nearly in a horizontal line with the claws, and they extend
considerably beyond the margin of the shell. A fringe clothes the inner
edge of the four upper articulations with long hairs, though not very
profusely ; these organs reciprocally curve towards each other with an
alternate see-saw action, as if occupied in ventilation, which is particu-
larly evident in the afternoon.

The animals are externally plain or variegated, much diversity of
colour being prevalent among them. The body is uniformly brown,
light, or mottled, the limbs often resembling tortoise-shell.

Such creatures are very tranquil, concealing themselves wherever
they have an opportunity.

They rarely feed, but sometimes consume mussel.
The breeding season is in May and September, spawn then elevating
the apron of the female.

This apron is very large, and of remarkable formation ; the last or
internal segment resembh'ng a quincunx compounded of several pieces.

Early spawn is very compact. It afterwards relaxes in clusters.
Many of the detached capsules seemed to me larger than those of other
species. Specimens die suddenly. During my inspection of one in ap-
parent health, it fell back, and never moved again.

These animals are recovered in great numbers from deep water. I
have not observed that any were taken near the shore. Certainly they

were found in greater profusion formerly than of late.

•

PLATE XLV.

FIG. 1. Cancer (jporcellana) longicornis, male ; back.

2. Female, breast.

3. Another specimen.

4. Apron, enlarged.

5. One of the pedipalpi, or ventilators, enlarged.

/r \r.\i

UNIV.
ALiJ:'OJ:

II It A (Ml YURI.

PLATE XLV.

1'i-i. 6. Mau of roe.

7. • oapralM or ova, enlarged.

8. Detached capsules or ova, enlarged.

§ (2.) CANCER (PORCELLANA) PLATTCUELES. — Rough-footed Crab.

Mu'll nearly circular, about three quarters of an inch in diameter,
somewhat convex. Claws large and strong. These, together with tla
margin of the shell, are thickly beset with bristles. The external an-
tenna) are very long ; the internal proportionally short. Colour uni
venally reddish-brown.

None of several specimens have ever fed, though offered various
substances. They seem to be very pacific, and are evidently extremely
delicate, the slightest impurity of their element uniformly proving fatal.
Nevertheless, under suitable treatment, several specimens have survived
some months in confinement.

PLATE XLV.

Fio. 9. Cancer (portMma) platyduU.

C. — CANCER (CORTSTES) CASSIVELAUXUS. — Plate XL VI. figs. 1, 2.

The body of the preceding animal is of a circular form, the limbs
short and stout, and the antenna; very long. The antennao of the pre-
sent subject are also very long, straight, pointed, and fringed along the
interior. The body, or carapace, extends in a long oval about an inch
and a half in breadth, with five spines on each side of the shell. The
feet originate from the narrow portion of the shell, the claws are long
and slender, and the tail curves over the posterior part.

This creature dwells in deep water, but it is very rarely seen in any
of the districts that I have frequented.

In drying, the redness of the shell is converted to cream colour.

PLATE XLVI.

Fio. I. Cancer (coryiht) Cauirelaunui, back.
2. Same, breast.

194 CRUSTACEANS.

Amidst the numerous animals comprehended under the common
character of Crustaceans, the general form of so many is so different from
that of others, as by comparison to afford the best guide to their position
in the Systema Naturae, and the discrimination of their genera.

I have not been so fortunate as to obtain and preserve a sufficient
number of specimens and varieties, as to shew the essential distinctions
among them, or to determine either the transitions or analogies. Some,
indeed, I have had in profusion ; but, on the other hand, a single speci-
men has constituted my whole stock, throughout, which the research of
twenty or of thirty years or longer has not augmented.

In several instances, therefore, the only auxiliary that I can offer is
correct representation from the life. Where opportunity has granted
more, I have eagerly availed myself of it ; but, I candidly acknowledge,
that I have been always more solicitous about obtaining facts, and multi-
plying species, than founding systems, which latter are less within the
province of the practical naturalist.

Hence, perhaps, do many restrict their whole labours to the history
of a single genus, or perhaps to that of a single species.

Among the more noted forms of the body, a large section of the
Cancer tribe is exhibited as entirely triangular or sub-triangular, in
various modifications.

I know not with what justice, but it has appeared to me that these
are always somewhat more delicate than the others, a fact to be deter-
mined or confuted only by numerous subsequent observations.

The disproportionate parts certainly render the preservation of en-
tire subjects more precarious.

D. — 1. CANCER (INACHUS) DORSETTENSIS. — Plate XLVI. fig. 4.

When the general appearance and character of a subject are so pro-
minent, that to mistake it for any other is impossible, I cannot see that
enumeration of trivial peculiarities is of the slightest importance.

The form and dimensions of this species, which is scarce, are well
expressed in its representation, Plate XLVI. fig. 4.

Specimens have survived during many months. They dwell to-
gether in peace.

.... . .

» l * 1

» • , t * *

BlAOHYUftl 196

D.— I' 1 1 y.vs ARANZCS.— Plate XLY 1 1

l)r l.cach quotes from authors by whom this subject is na
Cancer mnia, Inackut, and Hi/us by himself, whereof he says there arc
two British species, Hi/as mraneus and Hyas am retains. It is to the
former tliut tin- attention of the reader is now directed.

• pting the Cancer horridus, the Lilhodes main of the ln.*t named
author, the snl>jert of the present paragraph is the largest of the trian-
gular crabs inhabiting Scotland.

Tin- Cmn-i-r or Hyas araneiu appears under much variety of a*i>e<-t.
so great, indeed, that were there varieties, I should almost doubt
whether the two represented in the following plates, shall be identified
with those of preceding authors. But such varieties may be incidental
to age, or sex, or position : and, as already signified more than once, the
ductility of matter, especially of organic matter, affords distinctions
often requiring search by a microscopic v\

Length of the body, towards three inches ; extreme breadth, under
two. Expansion of the limits, which are long, rather Blender, and
armed with nails, six or seven. Two eyes, each borne on a peduncle,
incline from the sides of a solid rostrum. — Plate XLVII. fig. 1 ; XLVIII.
fig. 1. The apron, thorax, or abdomen of both sexes is large, of an irre-
gular quadrangular form in the male, Plate XLVII. fig 2 ; and that of
the female, somewhat resembling an irregular hollow spherical segment
—Plate XLVHI. fig. 2.

Many thousand ova have elevated the apron as early as the middle
of February, and thence forward to the middle of July. At the latter
season, the animals arc full of roe, protruding from under the edges of
the apron. In far advance, this substance consists of fine luxuriant
reddish-orange clusters, each capsule attached to a principal stalk by its
own pedicle, and each of these stalks to one of still superior dimension*,
so that the aggregate forms a cluster.

This is an extremely languid and inactive animal, far from interest-
ing to view, for many hold its appearance to be very repul-;

Deep water seems the proper dwelling of full-grown specimens ;

196 CRUSTACEANS.

but many of moderate dimesions lurk in the clefts of the rocks, and con-
ceal themselves under large stones nearer the shore.

Perhaps it is chiefly owing to the inert disposition of the creature,
that its shell appears so often totally invested by marine algae, fuci,
zoophytes, and some testacea. All these crowded together in profuse
combination, completely disguise its real form. Of two specimens, like
those represented, the back of one was wholly invested by a coating
of smooth compact sponge, the sixteenth of an inch thick ; and that of
the other by at least forty serpulae.

Full-grown, clean, fine specimens of the Hyas araneus are not
common.

PLATE XLVII.

FIG. 1 . (Cancer (hyas) araneus, male.
2. Apron.

PLATE XLVIII.

FIG. 1. Cancer (hyas) araneus, female. Apron, a.
2. Cluster of roe.

D. — 3. CANCER (HYAS) COARCTATUS. — Plate XLIX.

The nature of some creatures appears to us so extraordinary, and
so different from what we might conjecture it should be, that no impro-
bable surmise might sanction credulity in their having been transferred
from the scene of their original creation, to a milder or a more rigid
climate now occupied by them.

The languor and inactivity of certain genera in this tribe of ani-
mals is most extraordinary. They seem as if born to live in torpor.
Scarcely ever in sensible motion, if accidentally roused by some artifi-
cial stimulus, it is only to relapse into more profound repose, for cer-
tainly this is their greatest enjoyment, their strongest propensity, perhaps
the immediate result of atmospherical influence. Their state now, is
probably an effect approximating torpidity. But what can be so power-
ful and irresistible as torpidity? It is the most overwhelming of all re-
pose, that which neither resolution nor inclination can impair ; that
which leads immediately from life to death without apparent suffering.

n. x nn i

x

'

ORACH Vr III. 197

Peculiar iin-iil. -nt* arc concomitant on prolonged repose: it admit*
encroachments on tin- Mate of the living animal, incompatible with vital
sensation- : and. first of all. it allows numerous parasite* to found a iinlu-
amid.-t li\ in:.' matter, ami themselves to live at the expense of life ; now
tin- wlm! IMC with tin- limb* and other accessories large and small,

becomes invested by foreign matter, completely disguising, — even dis-
t nrtiii:: tlii- true form and appearance of the spec-mien and all it* parts,
from those the most familiar with them.

Hut thin is greatly promoted by the situation of both the subject and
the par.uMte. Thus, some escape it entirely, and the shell remains as free
and clean of all parasite substances and foreign matter, and of as vivid
colour, as if carefully cleansed of accidental impurities.

Such specimens, however, are not numerous, their condition pro-
bably involving more peculiarities than we are commonly aware of.

One is represented, Plate XLV1II. fig. 1, the length of the body
about an inch and a half, its breadth about an inch. Claws rather long
and slender, as are the limbs, which, armed with nails, expand five
inches between the opposite extremities. The rostrum is cleft, and the
eyes seated on peduncles, standing at a large angle to the axis of the
body ; which is owing to contraction of the breadth : the shell of some
is more irregularly triangular than that of any of either of the preceding.
Ite colour is universally tile red.

The apron of the male tends to an irregular quadrangular form ;
that of the female, of larger dimensions, is directed to protection of the
spawn, which is a close compact mass in its earlier stages. Then it is
vivid red, but becomes pale as advancing towards maturity, for the skin
of the capsules growing thinner with age, its consistence relaxes, and in
July, when in great perfection, cluster*, like bunches of currant*, maybe
separated ; but they are intricate, nor easily divided, so as to be distinctly
seen and represented. — Plate XLIX. figs. 4.

Some years ago a fine small specimen. Plat.- XLIX. fig. 6, was washed
on board a steam vessel plying btt\\nu Orkney and Shetland, during a
storm ; on reaching me this creature fed voraciou>]\ on most animal
substances.

198 CRUSTACEANS.

A Pycnoyonum, fig. G, long enjoying indemnity in the jar to which it
was committed, still escaped, but a crab of a different kind perished. Yet
the perceptions of the stranger specimen, in regard to the presence of
food, were remarkably obtuse. Though sensible of its vicinity it expe-
rienced much difficulty of coming in contact.

The shell of the stranger specimen was quite clean on its arrival, but
the leaves of fuel having been thrown into the vessel, for protection and
shelter, the crab had rent them in fragments, and clothed itself in rags.
The latter is effected by means of the spinous processes rising from the
shell, and here the ruddy integuments appear to be invested with the
ragged fragments.

In four months, when a new and much larger shell came in on exu-
viation, the old shell was broken down, and partly devoured ; the new
one remained quite clean and symmetrical.

Some time afterwards the use of green shreds of the fucus was re-
sumed ; at length they were finally abandoned.

This specimen survived seven months from the beginning.

PLATE XLIX.

FIG. 1. Cancer (hyas) coarctatus, adult female.

2. Apron of the female.

3. Apron of the male.

4. Cluster of ova, enlarged.

5. Another.

6. Specimen washed on board of a vessel.

§ (4.) CANCER PHALANGIUM, MACROPODIA PHALANGIUM ; Leach. — The
Spider Crab. — Plate L.

Several of the genus comprehending this animal, are separated by
distinctions so slight, that their narrow resemblance readily misleads the
unwitting observer. Certain distortions, frequent about the rostrum and
antennae, perhaps tend to promote the confusion.

Probably the subject represented here is the real Spider Crab, to
which a place may be assigned in the older nomenclature of the Systema,
as the Cancer phalangium.

/ \//\

^

Hii.xni vriu.

Its form, as that of the preceding specie*, though of inferior size, is
subtrianpilar. i-\t( ntlinir seven or eight lines from the base to the ap«
• •\trciuity of tlu- ro.-trum, and somewhat leas across the base ; the claws
<>i larger specimens stretch towards two inches, and the limbs expand
about six between their opposite extremities.

A ilistim 'the character seen among the species consists in the form
of the articulation of the claw adjoining the forceps being short, and
rudflv o\oMal in one, and in another its outline or ogee convex above,
.mil concave lower down. The two hind limbs are provided with nails.
The form and position of the eyes or antennae will be understood from
simple inspection of the figures. — Plate L. figs. 1, 2.

Many specimens are totally covered by straggling short bristles,
especially scattered on the limbs, and sometimes the claws, as in fig. 2,
are quite hairy. I am not completely aware of the import of these
features. The colour oi the finest specimens is wax yellow, some are
dingy white. Here the animal receives no embellishment.

The whole parts are slender, delicate, and apparently very weak,
and incapable of resistance. In fact they are readily detached, to which
they are particularly exposed by their disproportionate length ; the
aspect of imbecility justly denotes their true character, for mutilated
specimens are extremely common. The animal, besides, advances with
a wavering and unsteady gait. At rest it sinks on the base amidst the
bended limbs, while the claws fold very awkwardly below them.

The apron of the male is nearly quadrangular, that of the female
approaches the segment of a hollow sphere. An external view of it, as
covering the roe, is offered in fig. 3 ; the roe itself is exposed by fig. 4.

This roe is in less profusion here than in any of the preceding
crabs. The capsules composing it advance in March and April, its pro-
gress being according to the season ; that of March is represented, t.
and some capsules, more enlarged, fig. C, wherein the eyes of the included
voting are visible. The number of these in some specimens did not ex-
ceed an hundred. The young, hatched from capsules in the first week
of March, resembled such as above descriKtl from other crabs.

The senses of the Spider Crab are alike obtuse, as explained of pre-

200 CRUSTACEANS.

ceding species. It feeds on fish, or on mussel, which must be brought
almost in contact with the mouth, or otherwise it may pass undiscovered.
When fed, the specimen first securing a morsel is assailed by its com-
panions in their endeavours to carry it off. Ah1 are otherwise extremely
pacific.

I know not how to interpret certain passages regarding " the
Spider Crab in a state of ecclesis or moulting," as related in the Annals
and Magazine of Natural History, Vol. VIII.

There the observer says, — " A few days since a Spider Crab was sent
to me alive, taken in the act of changing its coat. The operation was
singular. The upper and lower shell being parted, the legs were with-
drawn from their old cases, and served as a lever to detach the under
shell from the upper. Some exertion of the legs was necessary to raise
the upper shell. This had been accomplished, but it was not entirely
detached from the body when brought to me. The body was quite soft,
and the hard skin of about the consistence of parchment. In fact the
change was almost completed."

The exuviation of the specimen, Plate L. fig. 2. took place on the
18th of September, when the animal, as there represented, appeared
considerably larger than previously. It seemed to have escaped from
the hind part of the shell, which was quite entire elsewhere. This old
shell was very thin, the hairyness of the claws and bristles on the rest
alike conspicuous.

With sufficient attention to preserve the purity of the water, these
animals will survive months in confinement.

PLATE L.

Fio. 1. Cancer phalangium, the Spider Crab.

2. Another specimen.

3. Apron of the female covering immature spawn.

4. Spawn.

5. Spawn in March, enlarged.

6. Portion of spawn, more enlarged.

•

v

IIKACHVritl L'li]

§ 5. CANCER HOUMOUS, MAJA UTUODES. — Tlie Prickly Crmb. —
Plates LI., 1. 1 1

'I'll*- appearance of tin- lYirkly Crab, or at least of its important
parts, will be beet understood from its name. Dr Leach has prefixed
hulf a dozen synonyms to his description of the animal ; but as we do
not intend to overload this treatise with nomenclature, they may remain
where he has left them.

Were the size of a living creature to be computed by the space
which ita parts can actually cover, thin would be distinguished as the
largest of the cral>- In-longing to the Scot Lab seas, and its appearance is cer-
tainly the most singular. The length of the shell of the finest specimens,
from the base to the extremity of the rostrum, is about six inches, and
the extreme breadth four and a half, being wholly of a triangular shape.

The limbs expand no less than twenty-two inches between the op-
p.»ite i-Mreniili.--. tin- l<m_'.-t In-iii- ill.- -.,-(•, ,n | ],.iir. I, ut the\ .IP- ii. .t
proportionally strong.

Only six limbs are prominently visible ; the hind pair, much the
smaller, are concealed under the edge of the shell from their origin.
Great disparity subsists between the size of the two claws, the largest
• •x tending seven inches from the root. The rostrum terminates in a
solid fork, while the antennae stretch above two inches.

This species is totally covered by large and strong prickles, like
thorns, some extending above an inch, which, were not the animal of
very pacific nature, might prove it a most formidable enemy, yet it seems
quite the reverse.

Here the apron of the female is very large, and of peculiar texture,
flexible, and of consistence somewhat resembling sheepskin leather, yield
ing to pressure of the finger.

A singular cavity penetrates the shell, which is adapted for receiv ini:
the swelling spawn. This, during the month of January, is composed, in
its earlier state, of a vast congeries of slender threads. The apron of the
female resembles a portion of wood or other solid substance, curiously
sculptured in regular and irregular figures.

2c

202 CRUSTACEANS.

Colour of the whole animal, different shades of fine yellow.
A learned naturalist told me he had seen twelve of these creatures
taken from the stomach of a cod. It is not common.

PLATE LI.

FIG. 1. Cancer horridus, the Prickly Crab. Back.

2. Rostrum, natural size.

3. Antennae.

4. Apron or thorax, reduced.

5. Cavity in the shell for accommodating the growing spawn.

PLATE LII.

FIG. 1. Cancer horridus, under surface, reduced.

PART II.

A.-DECAPODES, TEN-LIMBED, LONG-TAILED, CRUSTACEANS— MACROURJ.

We have been as yet occupied only with that section of the Crustacean
animals comprehending the short-tailed crabs or Brachyuri, properly so
denominated. All are of aquatic nature ; and although there are some
terrestrial Crustaceans in this country, I do not intend to enter on their
history at present.

Such Crustaceans are composed, as we have seen, of one large shell,
vernacularly designed the carapace, and a number of slightly articulated
segments, proportionally small, and rapidly decreasing, which, compared
to lower parts in the organization of some other animals, all terminate in
a portion applied to the under surface or breast, and is denominated indif-
ferently the thorax, the plastron, or the apron.

If the whole thorax be relieved of its curvature, and extended as if
in a straight line, it appears still very short from the preceding examples.

Another numerous family of the Crustacean tribe, is denominated
Macrouri or long-tailed, comprehending the Astacus or Lobster, and its
congenera.

y- ' ', •//./ f ",*'tf

MAC HOUR I. j(l;

II ili,- whole body seems at first sight to be constructed after a
•lilV.Tont nnnli-1. mill, together with the tail, divided after a different
fashion from tli it .-hewn by the Brachyuri.

Tin- Ih-t se-ment of the body, the carapace, still constitutes a shell
of very uni-.|ii;il proportions to tin- rest of the segment*. All the part*
are distinctly divided, and usually bordered by a fringe. Antenna*, of
remarkable length, are also present.

The transition from the Cancer to the Astacus is so great that we
naturally enquire what is the medium of connexion. But I can find
none others equal to the Cancer Bernhardus or Hermit Crab, and the
Galathea or Bastard Lobster.

A brief paragraph may be devoted to each.

§ 1. CANCER BER.VHARDCS, the Hermit Crab or Soldier. — Plate LIII., UV

This is one of the creatures whose presence is most familiar to per-
sons frequenting the sea shore. Its singular habits, so unlike those of
the other tenants of the deep, never fail to attract attention, while at
the same time very much tend to perplex the spectator.

Let him take advantage of the recess of the tide, at the proper
season and situation, he will be struck with beholding a number of turbi-
nated shell* trover-ing the sand, as if of their own accord, in all direc-
tions, but after a fashion evidently different from what would be follow-
ed by the proper owners of the tenements.

The nature of motion resulting from organic structure, every animal
unrestrained is distinguished by pccularities here.

Many are of extremely small dimensions, some much larger, all
wandering about after their individual objects, though none are dis-
covered to be guided by any common impulse. Among them must be
distinguished, but most unequally distributed, shells quite entire, de-
faced, or defective. If the progress of these wandering subjects be dis-
turbed, its course is generally interrupted, and each of the shells is found
on examination to be occupied by a Hermit Crab.

To comprehend the form of this animal it is necessary to deprive it
of its habitation. Then it is seen to be formed of two distinct portions,

204 CRUSTACEANS.

neither of them strictly resembling either the Cancer or the Astacus.
The upper part is crustaceous, being invested by a shell, the under part
bare, soft, and void of segments, quite of fleshy consistence. — Plate LIII.
fig. 1 ; LIV., both as in their shell ; Plate LIII. fig. 6 ; LIV. fig. 1. two
specimens, both without the shell.

Two eyes in front are sustained on peduncles : rising within the roots
of these are two shorter forked antennae, besides two very long and slender
antennae, whose structure resembles that of a lobster, while in form
the internal antennae may be compared to those of the crab.

Nominally, there are ten limbs, which, in the first place, exhibit a
great disparity between the size of the two claws. The first and second
pair of legs are long and strong ; the third and fourth short and abor-
tive. A projection crosses the extremity of the tail.

Total length of the adult, six inches.

Among the various shades and variegations of colours of different
specimens, red predominates.

In some it is vivid almost throughout. The limbs of smaller sub-
jects are fine marbled, like tortoiseshell.

Though, to shew the form and proportions, the claws be represented
here, they are, in fact, generally folded under the animal.

This species feeds readily on animal substances. One claw holds
the shell of a bivalve, while the other picks out the contents.

It is very lively, and very voracious. Several specimens may be
kept together with indemnity, for the nature of the hermit crab is paci-
fic. With strict attention to the purity of its element, a subject may be
preserved for a considerable time.

This species is well adapted for experiment and observation.

The process of exuviation is always interesting, because a new crea-
tion seems to attend it. But it is here somewhat different from that
above described, in partaking of another nature. One-half of the inte-
guments, namely, the upper portion or crustaceous parts, are all that
separates, for there is no possible exuviation by changing the skin of the
lower or fleshy portion.

If it does separate, the change is insensible. The former comes off

I /.

y ///.

^

MACROUKI

i|iiite entire, tlu- antenna: resembling two slender needles, and the cover-
ing of the eyes perfectly transparent.

Tlu- means of the process, and the nature of the new generation,
seem more obscure and difficult to be understood or explained than in
the < '.nicer trihe.

I do not know that this incident has any dependence* on the §em>nff,
havm-: witnessel it in January, March, and November.

If the animal, unprovided, am liu-1 a vacant shell adapted for pro-
tecting the fleshy parts, its species seems indifferent ; neither does each
require such a safeguard, where secure from exposure to injury. A large
specimen of a testaceous Limax, confined in the game vessel with one of
them, having died, the crab devoured the llesh, and clothed its tail with
the empty shell.

In the natural state, this artificial covering must be changed, so as
to accommodate the growing occupant, which instinctively knows at an
early stage what is the most suitable for it« purpose. However, then N
no necessity here that, more than any other article of real apparel else-
where, should be nicely fitted.

A small specimen having occupied the empty shell of an Echinus,
seemed, while travelling along, to be provided with an immense turban.

When we view an animal which must shelter its bare and naked
parts, and whereof four deformed limbs always seem shapeless and dis-
torted, and void of any visible protection, we arc prone to conclude that
the wonted beneficence of nature is withheld.

The measures adopted for protecting all the tenants of the earth are
not indeed alike explicit to mankind ; many are totally secret, unknown,
and altogether unintelligible ; yet that there is some powerful safeguard,
cannot be denied, for without it how could the race be preserved from
generation to generation ?

The provisions of nature are all regular and effective: hence the
Hermit Crab begins to breed at a very early age, even before attaining
the size of the small prolific specimen : — Plate LIII. fig. 6. Here will U-
found some deviation from the nature of the Cancer ; for it adheres not
to the shell, but to the flesh of the left side of the parent, totally unpro-

206 CRUSTACEANS.

tected. It is true, however, that certain organs, though diminutive, and
apt to be overlooked, are always present as auxiliaries for its security.
•Yet as it does, appear that, together with the side, it is totally unpro-
tected, we may conjecture that the shell occupied by the parent is truly
designed as a substitute for an integument, within which this most impor-
tant portion of the animal substance can be withdrawn. While still im-
mature, the spawn is a dense mass of beautiful purple ova, afterwards
fading, as it relaxes and ripens towards maturity. — Plate LIII. figs. 3, 4 ;
cluster enlarged, fig. 5.

This spawn consists of several hundred ova or capsules ; but they
are not alike numerous as those of most of the preceding animals. The
numbers may partly depend on the age of the parent. Small quantities
are borne by small specimens ; those resembling fig. 6, whose limbs do
not expand an inch ; nor do the numbers of capsules belonging to many
large specimens exceed an hundred. The capsular integuments are gra-
dually refined, so as to expose the included foetus rolled up, with the
head and tail in contact. As it advances, two large black eyes, like
crescents, appear externally in front, and an internal red spot about the
middle of the body. At length, escaping their prison, the young animals
appear as in figs. 5, 7, 8.

But, in conformity with the general normal crustacean shape, these
young animals bear no resemblance to the parent, which must be gained
on passing through the various metamorphoses appointed by nature.

Now, it would seem much more like a lobster than a crab. It is at
first very light and transparent — the upper portion disproportionately
large compared with the rest of the body. Only four limbs are visible,
while a few segments indicate the lower or fleshy half, terminating in a
broadened extremity of about eleven irregular bristles.

At this time the creature swims with a jerking action. But never
surviving beyond a few days, the observer attempting to follow its pro-
gress permanently, will be disappointed.

April is the chief breeding season, when the spawn appears in per-
fection, adhering constantly to the female ; for it is never deposited on
foreign substances, whether the parent be large or small.

<r

f

I'l. III!

^ ^/

MACROURI. 207

Multitudes of the young will burst their capsules while under ob-
servation.

FLAW: LI II

1m. 1. Canetr BendarJtu, tho Hermit Crab, occupying a shell.

2. Spawn in an early stage.

3. Spawn in an advanced stage.

tun in an intiTinediate stage.

5. Young animal hatched from the spawn.

6. Young prolific fc-nmlo.

7. Young animal from the spawn of fig. 6.

8. Another.

PLATE LTV.

Fio. 1. Cancer BenMardtu, Hermit Crab, out of the shell.
2. Small specimen, with a shell.

§ 2. GALATOEA SPIKIGERA— The Thorny Bastard lobster.— Plate LV.

If the preceding animal, with four abortive limbs, be an interme-
diate link between the Cam-er and the Astacus, the subject of this para-
graph, having only two abortive limb.*, anil eight of perfect formation, in
complete development. slmuM hring us a step nearer the Lobster family,
its complement being the same in respect to numlit-r as that of the Crab.

Though some species of the (inlnlhrn dwell in the Scotish seas, suffi-
cient opportunity has not enabled me to investigate their nature HO pro-
foundly as required by the interests of science, — and this partly from
the rarity of the finest specimens, partly from the brief survivanoe of
some individuals to whii-h my attention was devoted.

A few of the Gala! In a *i>iniycra only, have therefore come under
review, but enough to shew that it is one of the most beautiful, curious,
and symmetrical of the tril

The general form of this animal bears much resemblance to that of
the Astacus mariuus or common Lobster, but the proportions and colours
are somewhat different. It extends ekrht inches from the tips of the
antenna; to a luxuriant fringe bordering the margin of the unfolded tail

208 CRUSTACEANS.

During health and strength, however, the wonted position of the organs
is never so relaxed as to expose either the true form or dimensions
of the parts. As the thorax of the Crab clasps close to the breast, so
does the curvature of the Lobster's tail affect its real appearance, by
concealing the abdominal portion. Hence the body of the animal at
rest assumes an oval shape, as represented, Plate LV. fig. 1.

The claws extend five inches ; and of equal length to them are the
external antennas ; all seated on the sides of a sharp, pointed rostrum.
Between the external and internal antennae are two prominent eyes,
sustained on short peduncles. Five fins, or flattened pieces, finely
fringed, compose the horizontal tail, one being in the middle with two
on each side. It will be observed, that while the tail of the Crab ter-
minates in a single triangular segment, that of the Lobster is composed
of five portions, fig. 2. Numerous spines are dispersed over this animal,
particularly on the claws and limbs, and on the margin of the shell.
Also the claws of some specimens are profusely invested by some small
tufts of brown hair, which are abundant on certain parts, and even reach
the sockets of the eyes. The claws of the large specimen represented
here were very hairy. Much of the hair rather resembled short bristles.
But this external feature is disguised by the colour ; for the shell on
cleansing proved to be red.

Specimens are of extremely different aspect, owing to the variety
and interspersion of colour. Red is always predominant, with irregular,
cross, vivid, blue stripes, interspersed both on back and breast. The
inner portion of the eye, or that next the head, is blue. Young speci-
mens are often variegated red, and pure white. The blue colour seems
of latest acquisition. This creature feeds on mussel and other animal
substances ; but owing no doubt to the rude treatment received at the
hands of the fishermen, it is seldom obtained in a condition so vigorous
as to feed ; and indeed as many are presented dead as alive to the col-
lector. Not being purposely the objects of research, it is only by chance
that, when entangled in fishing-nets, they can be brought ashore.

Their motion is singular and vehement, for they spring backwards
by the action of the unfolded tail.

ri.

' s s' S /

^.<. //"/ '/

MACROURI. MB

It is not easy to determine the difference* of small specimens, be-
cause such animals alter greatly, and gain accessions with agv. Sum- ..!'
tlif younger are represented in the relative plate, and among tlu-m |H»-
••il'ly figs. 5, G, shew the earlier stages of the Galathea ruansa.

This animal's breeding season commences whil<- it is v.-rv little ad-
vanced, as shewn by its dinn-n-ions. Among several smaller sin-eimciiK
<il>t:iiiif<l in the beginning of October, was one whose limbs expanded
scarcely three quarters of an inch. It died, when the tail unfolding,
exposed a cake of spawn, adhering within, of an oval form, two lim-s m
length, and half a line in breadth.

The propagation of the Galathea bears a general coiresiKimlrnce to
that of both the Crab and the Lobster.

The spawn of both these animals occupies the inner portion of tin-
tail, which, in the former, becomes the thorax or apron protecting it.
The roe of the Lobster is affixed across the upper interior of the articu-
lations ; but in none of the Lobster tribe is it disposed in such distinct,
beautiful, regular, and symmetrical fruit-like branches or cluster*, an in
some of the Grabs.

The spawn of the Galathea is not nearly in equal profusion to that
of any of the Crabs that I have seen : it is either of a rich florid red, or
a fine yellowish-orange colour. The season of its maturity comprehends
May and June ; and, in common with those already described, the youn^
escape from it while still affixed to the parent.

A small specimen,— one scarcely extending two inches from the
tips of its almost invisible antenna;, was taken about the first of May.
The curvature of the tail protected a quantity of the finest red roe.

On the morning of the eighteenth, between two and three hundred
young appeared in its vessel, without any of the capsules having Un-n
detached.

In transparency, these young animals much resemble the young of
the Crangon or Shrimp ; but the body had a reddish-yellow stain, which
I at first conjectured to be the residue of the yolk of the ovum ; ho\\ •••.
some external stains rather proved it the original colour of tin- shell.
This young animal is minute like the rest, about half a line in length.

2D

210 CRUSTACEANS.

scai'cely as much, the tail quite flat, with visible articulations, whereof
the last consists of two horizontal fans, with five hairs or bristles on the
margin of each. Only six limbs now appear, which are also provided
with hairs or bristles, and whose constant quivering produces a vortex
in the water by their rapid vibration. I could not discover the an-
tennae, perhaps from their extreme tenuity ; nor can I pretend to de-
scribe the numerous and complicated organs, whose extremity being that
of the head, forked conspicuously. Two large oval eyes, each set in a
fluted or channeled frame, somewhat like that of a picture, project from
each side. The young are void of any similitude to the parent ; and,
unfortunately for the observer desirous of following their progress, the
third day always terminates their existence.

In preceding passages, it is said that the exuviation of the Cancer
is probably more frequent among younger specimens, which rather seems
a general rule. Yet it may only indicate more rapid increment, in
proportion to the total bulk of the subject, compared with the frequency
of that process in others.

A very small mutilated specimen of the Galathea rugosa had been
some time in my possession : on the night of February 14, it cast its
shell, which separated entire in a single piece. This shell measured
only eleven-sixteenths of an inch from the tip of the claws to the ex-
tremity of the tail, shewing, at the same tune, what had been overlooked,
that the animal had been mutilated of the left claw, and a limb in its
vicinity. But the new sheh1 came in complete ; nor were any of the
members at all defective. The limbs, however, were very pale, — the
body a little darker, and speckled red. On the llth of March this
creature was delineated. Another exuviation followed on the 27th of
the same month, but I was not sensible of any enlargement, either now
or on the previous occasion. This was reserved for a third exuviation,
on the 4th of May, when the size was evidently augmented, and a yel-
low stripe ran partly down the new shell. In regard to the old shell, it
was very entire, and very transparent. Still a fourth exuviation fol-
lowed on the morning, when the transparency of the old shell now se-
parating, did not appear inferior to that of the former, but no enlarge-

* ^v

^/ / s

""/<

MAOROURI. .'11

:n. -in <>f tlu- site was sensible. I found the specimen dead un the tot
day <>f the month, without any obvious cause, though for some time tin-
colour hud faded. Here the intervals of exuviation were short, none <>i
t linn exceeding forty days. When of such transparence as exhibited in
ihtM e\.iiii|'le-.. tin- inte-im, -nt of all ^MfaMM IIMI-] I.,- ..!' in. ||o>k ll
tenuity.

Without any positive evidence of the fact, various circumstaim^
li.ue induced me to conjecture that thin specie* may be migratory.

PLATE I.v

l-'i-.. 1. Galatba tpi*i<pra, Bastard Thorny Lobster; vernacularly the

Tommy Harper.

2. Extremity of the extended tail .
S. Young specimen.

4. Young specimen.

5. Young specimen, a female, which survived five or six week*, —

Gaktiba

6. Young specimen. — Galaikta rugota f

7. Young specimen, very hairy.

8. Spawn, enlarged.

B.— DECAPODES, TEN-LIMBED, LONG-TAILED, CRUSTACEANS.-*//!' 'Huntl

ASTACUS. TIIK LOHSTKi:

THE two preceding animals will suitably illustrate the transition of
the form of the Crab to some other than previously discussed in the pre-
ceding pages. Its most immediate ally will be found in the Lobster.
The form of this genus differs considerably, as is well known, from that
of the Crab, and its properties prevent it from being confounded with the
creatures belonging to other tribes.

§ 1. ASTACUS NoBVEGicus,Z/tnn<««, Norwegian Lobster. — Nephrops, Leach.
Plates LVL, LVII, LXX. figs. 6, 7, 8.

From the Cancer we endeavour to advance by intermediate xtages,
wherein are found great modifications, to the Astacus. Perhaps, instead

212 CRUSTACEANS.

of the Astacus marinus, other genera dwell either in this or in foreign
countries, whereby the transition might be more naturally and effectually
shewn, but satisfactory illustrations wih1 be probably found in the two
we have just named, the Astactis Nwvegictts and Astacus marinm. With
the last we are most familiar, it is readily and easily obtained by man}',
who prefer beholding every object itself to confiding in the correctness of
description. Perhaps this is always the best method of acquiring know-
ledge.

No better example of human ignorance can arrest our progress than
contemplating the formation of the animal before us ; to describe its
various parts is scarcely within the power of language, and to explain
the use for which the Governor of the Universe designs them, surpasses
the narrow and contracted sphere of our widest range of learning.

This is a beautiful, lively, and active creature, common in some
places, scarce in others, and affording some room to conjecture that it
may be migratory. Certainly it is sometimes very difficult to be obtained,
nor ought the words of a distinguished Northern naturalist to be over-
looked,— " Hunc semel in mari vidi versus superficiem aquse, antennis
brachiisque longioribus mire ludificantem." — Fabricius, Fauna Groen-
landica, No. 219.

The largest specimens in this country extend thirteen inches from
the tip of the antennas to the marginal extremity of the caudal fringe,
whereof the body, as invested by its shell or carapace, occupies six
inches to the point of the rostrum. The large claws, and the long an-
tennas, are of about half the extent of the whole animal, that is, be-
tween six and seven inches.

First, the carapace or principal shell, commencing with the rostrum,
is guarded by five rows of spines ; three narrow indefinite segments, then
four strong and distinct ones, when the whole terminates with the
caudal segment, as composed of its five fringed members.

It would be difficult to frame a minute description of the animal,
for which some general observations must suffice. The two claws com-
monly exhibit disparity in length and strength ; various rows of thorns
or teeth, all tipped with white, run longitudinally along the interior sur-

I /

// /;/

- /i /','

/

MACRO t'KI Jl

face. Two pair of the limbo next them are each provided with forceps,
whi'-h are wanting in the rest. Several thin finny processes, of irregular
struct mv. auxiliary to the animal's motions, also in securing the roe,

tml for other purposes, belong to the interior of the part between the
limbn and the last segment. As two pair pertain to each segment, there

m- ton pair in all,— each consisting of an oval plate, completely fringed,
unletw at the root, where the united plates are connected with the ani-
mal. Hut the reader, to understand these obscurities, must rather resort
to inspection of the parts than endeavour to discover their strut-tun- an<l

M '\ ••\|'l.i!i;itinii.

Two long extenial antenna) originate from beneath the anterior ex-
tremity, and between them two others, shorter and forked.

All consist of numerous vivid, red, cylindrical segments, with int.T
aiiuulations. The shorter antenna) are of curious structure, and beauti-
fully anuulated ; the interior of the shorter limit of the fork is fringed
by pencils, and some straggling hairs near the upper part. No pem-il*
appear on the other limb of the fork.

A large black reniform eye, of very peculiar aspect, apparently de-
rived from a shelly plate sustaining the one side, rises on each of tin-
Hides of the rostrum.

Many parts of this creature are very finely fringed, the fringe con-
sisting of the most luxuriant and beautiful feathers, as exposed by the
microscope. The same structure pervades those of the head, those of
the abdomen, and those of the caudal extremity ; the pediments sustain-
ing the long antenna? are fringed by above sixty such feathers. None of
these ornamental borders are displayed, unless by the animal during life.

The tail itself consists of a central portion, with two moveable foli-
aceous plates on each side, thus making up the whole complement of fivt-
portions. A lateral fold or joint, with a spine on each side, distinguishes
the external plate at a third of the length of each from the fringe.

' i wing to the length of the body this appears a slender animal, and
in fact it is so. A specimen extending thirteen inches was only fourteen
lines thick. All the parts of those much smaller in size will be found in
nearly the same proportion as here specified. The body of one extended

214 CRUSTACEANS.

four inches arid three quarters from the point of the rostrum to the
caudal fringe ; its large antennae and claws were of about equal length, or
the claws somewhat shorter.

It is to be observed, that the curvature of the tail is never relaxed
during life ; and if a delineation, proposed for the extending animal, is
commenced while it lives, this must be completed after death, — a general
rule, affected only by peculiar incidents.

Females are full of spawn in April, which is exposed in the same ar-
rangement as in the common lobster ; now the tail is extended, for the
inner surface is lined with masses of spawn, adhering to the strong fleshy
bars connecting the two margins. The ovarium is of a very faint, dull,
greenish colour, sometimes appearing almost bluish. The ovum itself is
quite spherical, with a speckled shining integument ; at the period, of
which I now speak, the eyes of the included young are visible.

The Norwegian Lobster, frequenting the Scotish seas, is commonly
taken unintentionally in the nets of fishermen.

PLATE LVI.

FIG. 1. Astacus Norveyicus.

2. Spawn.

3. Portion of spawn, enlarged.

4. Three capsules, more enlarged.

PLATE LVII.

FIG. 5. Astacus Norvegicw, prolific female, under surface.

PLATE LXX.

FIG. 6. Astacus Norcegicus, upper portion, shewing the fringes ; the antennae
curtailed.

7. Another specimen, shewing the fringes ; a, a, fringe ; b, b, curtailed

antennae.

8. Caudal extremity of the same.

The Norwegian Lobster is called the Cray fish by the fishermen,
but none other is so denominated by them.

I /

///

Vy /'///•//, i '///•) .

MACBOUBI.

I am not aware that tin- Freeh water Cray-fish is naturally an in-
hahitunt of Scotland ; but a brood was introduced, thirty-five t>r f<>rt\
yean ago from England, by the proprietor of New Posso, in the count v
• it' IVdiK-s, which, togetluT with the progeny, has been extiqwted for at
least tw« -nty-five or thirty yean.

It is from the ova of the cray-fish that a learned naturalist, I (.it like,
hat h demonstrated the progreesive development of the embryo. Ami' 1- 1
many attempt* to accomplish the like from a number of the other cru»-
hWlfcn*. 1 \;.^>- l-e.-ii ni:ilMniil\ in:- .. . .--lui. It i- tni«' ili;it i!;«- L'-IM i.tl
t'orin and position 'of the subject included is sufficiently exposed, hut the
integuments are never refined enough to shew the regularity, the true
arrangement, or modification of the metamorphosing parts.

The genuine cray-fish is said to dwell chiefly in muddy streams,
whereof, from the mountainous nature of the country, we have very few
in Scotland.

§ 2. ASTACUS KARINUS — The Common Lobster. — Plate LVIII. LIX.

tnimal is more familiar than the Common Lobster: its form and
habits, together with the wounds it is prone to inflict on unguarded cu-
riosity, are sufficient to imprint its recollection on the memory. At the
same time, there is scarcely any other of its kind whose history is lew
known.

It is everywhere sought as an epicurean delicacy, and sometimes
purchased for high and unreasonable prices. Besides, from the absolute
alteration of colour under culinary operations, the animal is viewed as
a curiosity.

The Lobster attains considerable dimensions in Scotland ; and,
where it can escape the wonted persecutions of mankind it certainly
lives many years.

In the middle of December, I procured a fine specimen of a living
female, laden with a profusion of roe. It extended twenty-two inches
in length, from the tips of the antenna- to the caudal fringe. Of this,
the carapace or body-segment, which is the criterion of dimensions in a

216 CRUSTACEANS.

commercial sense, extended above six inches, the large claws nearly
eight, and the antennae towards ten.

The tail is composed of seven segments.

Another female, also laden with a profusion of roe, extended twelve
inches from the extremity of the rostrum, the length of the claws being
seven inches.

The proper colour of the Lobster is understood to be pure black,
which is converted to red by boiling. Few, however, are pure or jet
black, and many parts of the under surface especially, are mottled in
various specimens, which even appears on the inner surface of the claws.

Capsules, in thousands, invest the inner surface of the tail, often
appearing as a great mass, being affixed in five or six portions, both to
the bands by which it is crossed, or their appendages, and the margin of
the tail. These ova are minute, spherical, black, opaque, and united in
bunches like small black currants. On boiling some from a specimen in
the end of January, the colour was converted to red, exposing the black
eyes of the included embryo very conspicuously through the integument.
It is difficult to define the real dimensions of Lobsters ; great disparity
of size certainly prevails among them. Some, if not all the large, are
carried both from Scotland and other northern kingdoms, where none
are reckoned marketable, to London.

I was indebted to Mr Gillespie Graham, an eminent Scotish archi-
tect, for inspection of part of a gigantic claw found near the Isle of
Skye above thirty years ago. This, the first or exterior joint, with the
forceps of the left claw, measured nine inches in length, four across
where broadest, and two and a half through where thickest. According
to ordinary proportions, the whole organ must have been between eigh-
teen and twenty-four inches in length, consequently, the entire animal
at least three or four feet long.

The Lobster fishing is conducted on a considerable scale among
some of the Western Islands of Scotland, for the supply of the London
market.

It is said that few are taken under nine inches length of the shell,
nor will the agents for the fishery, superintending the produce, receive

M\<i;ofR1. -JIT

thoee under eight. The fishery is carried on by boat* and nets at dill.
r>'iit -t.it:<>!i-. Six or seven dozen Lobstera may be captured during the
night, by a single boat, in favourable weather; and it la said that 60,000
have been taken in the course of a year, by the boat* belonging to tin-
Islands of Lewis and Harris.

PLATE U III

1. Aitoctu Mortmu, the Common Lobctor, back.

2. Cluster of •pawn.

3. Portion of the Mine, enlarged.

PLATE L1X

Fio. 1 . Attaftu manmut. the Common Loboter, prolific female, under surface.

§ 3. CKAHGON— The Shrimp.— Plates LX., LXI.

Til'—- l.-arm-'l author- pi 'if.-— MIL' I h.'in--l\ • - tli«- ino-t -.Mlnli.ii> I..i
arranging the Syttema Naturee, have associated very few animals with the
Lobster tribe, subdividing those of analogous form and nature into other
groups, whereof the Shrimp is comprehended as one. Nice distinction
are not my special object so much as pointing out the kindred, uniting
numbers together in concentrated families, whereby I would chiefly
confine myself to the general configuration falling within the sphere of
observation. It is more convenient that naturalists should select nuch
subjects as they can command most readily, or such as they think they
can discuss most satisfactorily; but it is mortifying that, of the present
animal, like the preceding, very familiar by name, the two authors in
highest repute for their writings on Carcinology, should not have thought
it worthy a syllable : whereas it is certainly as interesting as any other
parts of their history, ami tin- more especially as their labours would
have been much more eflivtnal than fnim-.

The shrimp, in this country, is commonly of small size, and may be
compared in form and aspect to a diminutive lol»st<-r.

The largest specimens extend four inches and a half from the tipu

Si

218 CRUSTACEANS.

of the long antennoe to the caudal fringe ; these antennas are about an
inch and a. half in length: the smaller antennoe between them are forked.
Two spherical black eyes, without any sensible peduncle, are seated
on the back of the head.

The large claws are terminated by one-half of a forceps, and a hook
opposite to it : the caudal segment terminates in five members, whereof
that in the centre tapers nearly to a point ; the others are finely fringed.
The natural colour is dark grey, approaching black ; but it is ex-
tremely variable, often becoming very pale, and sometimes almost white :
the integuments are likewise so thin and transparent as to expose both
the form and the colour of the food in the stomach of the animal.

This is a very lively creature, growing quite tame on short confine-
ment, and always approaching the visitor of its vessel's side ; it is abso-
lutely carnivorous, all animal substances being acceptable to it.

The shrimp, while supine, frequently seizes fragments, and preserving
the same position, swims away with them, around and around the inte-
rior of the vessel, all the time devouring its prey.

An extraordinary change of colour is concomitant 011 feeding.
The shell is often cast ; but no definite external symptom seems
either to announce or to regulate exuviation. The true form of the
parts is to be best ascertained from the slough, which includes the long
antennjB : or, if there be a fissure in any part of the skin, it is in the
membrane of the lowest part of the carapace or body-shell, where con-
nected with the next segment. The slough is very pale grey, and
appears somewhat gelatinous when raised from the water : in a few days
it becomes as white as paper. It is not improbable that this is the season
of imbecility, enabling the stronger to devour the weaker, while so im-
perfectly protected. Specimens have fed the day before exuviation.

The occurrence of this incident is extremely irregular. A specimen,
some time in my possession, was delineated on June 17th, — Plate LX.
fig. 1 : on the morning of July 2d; it cast its shell, and this was repeated
on the 31st of the same month. The slough, now separating, is repre-
sented Plate LXI. fig. 2. A few days afterwards, the animal leapt out
of the water and perished — the ordinary fate of the species.

I /

7

MACRO UK I.

Tlu- female containB a great quantity of roe, occupying most of tin-
-iirface of the abdomen, and consisting of large grey capsules, which
reach maturity chirtly in .lune and July. On June 2d, many from
above an hundred specimens then proved prolific, Plate LX. fig. 2. On
.Inly Kith, above an hundred specimens being again obtained, many
ft • males among them also proved prolific.

Their propagation, however, is not confined to summer. The em-
bryo is long of attaining maturity ; it escapes from the capsule while still
adhering to the body of the parent.

Now, the young animal is very minute, not extending above the
third of a line, white to the eye, and grey under the microscope, quite
unlike the parent in everything. At first only two claws and six limbs
are developed. Four prongs, each bearing several bristles, issue from
the front of the head, on the sides of which the eyes are implanted.
Five segments follow the carapace ; a sixth, with the tail, terminates tin-
animal.

The young swim actively, and congregate at the aide of the vessel
exposed to the light. Their delicacy is unfortunately such that they
cannot be preserved so long as to shew the progress and completion of
metamorphosis.

The natural and favourite abode of the shrimp is smooth sandy
shallows, near the sea-shore, where it burrows among the wet sand, to
remain on recess of the tide.

It is neither difficult to be got nor to be kept.

In captivity it speedily becomes very tame and familiar, and it*
peculiar habits are sufficiently amusing to the spectator. Yet it is of
precarious preservation ; nor is it to be trusted at any time in a shallow
vessel. On the slightest alarm, it makes surprising springs, and almost
invariably perishes by leaping out of the water. Specimens have sur-
vived many months in my possession.

PLATE LX.

Fio. 1. Orunffon vdtporu, The Common Shrimp, back.
-. Prolific female, under surface.

220 CRUSTACEANS.

PLATE LX.

FIG. 3. Claw, enlarged.

4. Detached ova, enlarged.

5. Young from the capsule, enlarged.

6. Head of the same enlarged.

7. Tail of the same enlarged.

PLATE LXI.

FIG. 2. Cast shell— slough of Plate LX. fig. 1.

Note. — Many subjects, congenera of the Crangon, dwell in the Scotish
seas. I regret extremely that when some of the most curious and beauti-
ful occurred, a number of years ago, I had not then the means of pre-
serving sufficient materials for their history. It is long since I have
been deprived of suitable opportunities for resuming that branch of
zoological research. A few drawings, indeed, remain, but I would avoid
converting them to their original purpose, unless corroborated by re-
peated observations. Therefore I shall restrict myself to very little
more on the subject, as an appendix to the preceding paragraph.

§ 4. PANDALUS ANNTJLICORNIS — The King-horn Shrimp. — Leach. —
Plate LXI. figs. 1, 3, 4, 5.

Though this is not identified at present with the genus Crangon,
the difference was not acknowledged by former naturalists.

The animal extends five inches from the tips of the antennae to the
extremity of the tail.

The whole body is finely variegated red and white ; and the annu-
lations of the antennae are red and white alternately. Females have
been full of roe in small spherical white capsules, spreading over the
abdomen, in February, March, and April. The eyes of the young herein
appear very conspicuous, on approaching maturity ; some have been
produced in the middle of February.

I /

J

•

•'

y>,

At',.

MAOBOUKI _j|

\ i. in- .11 ensue* at all seasons, the shell or slough separating quite
entire. Like the 1'onner. it in perfectly transparent, and has much of u
;i.>.|M'ct wlu-ii rawed fnun tin- \vat

PLAT» I. XI

I'M;. 1. Pandahu a***licor*it — King-horn Shrimp — adult, back.

2. Cut •hell of Crangon.

3. Another specimen of I'andaluM.

4. Cant uli.-ll.

Tin- preceding remarks umut suffice for tin- iia-antiine. thuugb the
reader would find many others very interesting on a more comprehen-
-i\<- .-urvey.

One of the genus Hippolytiu*, so named by Dr Leach, i« represented
Plate LXI. fig. 6.

222 CRUSTACEANS.

CHAPTER IV.

MISCELLANEOUS CRUSTACEANS.— PLATE LXII.

THE leading features in the history of the principal member of the
Crustacean race, the Crab and the Lobster, have been sufficiently illus-
trated by the preceding discussion.

Nevertheless, many subordinate genera remain, whose nature requires
elucidation. Some of these are most obscure and ill understood, and
present a series of curious and interesting facts for explanation. There-
fore, descending but little into minutiae, I would propose to engross their
names in a miscellaneous chapter, from which any particular subject may
be selected for special commentary.

I am sensible that the whole will require acurate revision, correc-
tion, and amendment, wherein I must claim the indulgence of the
reader.

Let me remark, besides, that, in the course of protracted observations,
numerous subjects new or unintelligible, fall under notice, — that many
are mutilated or imperfect, — and many indistinctly seen, concerning the
nature and form of which only conjectures can be offered, it is very likely
that any account of them compiled from defective materials, will scarcely
convey conviction along with it ; but combining the substance obtained
by several observers, it is possible that, if not arriving at the truth, we
shall be in less hazard of deviating far from it.

We shall not attempt to follow any regular order here.

, .*/« * J !•

* •••«•• ••••"••••!

•

rKUBTAC'i Llffl 223

§ 1. CAJJCERILLA TUBITLATA. — Plate I.X1I fig*. 1-6.

Various reasons might be given, perhaps, and those sufficiently con-
\ ineing, for adding this animal to the lust of Kntomostraca, which, under
its present state, is rather indefinite.

A young Ophiura, a kind of Star- fish, as above shewn, it* slender
rays expanding about nine lines, was taken in the beginning of May,
I'latc l.XII. fig. 1. A very minute foreign object was observed affixed
ti> it a fortnight later, at the root of one of the rays, but so much inter-
cepted, and so indistinctly seen, that ite precise form could not be deter-
mined. The ray, however, having fallen to pieces on the 25th of tin-
month, as incident to these animals, left the disc entire, where the ob-
ject was exposed as a prominence, fig. 2, and, on reversing the disc, it
appeared under the microscope, as in fig. 3, a. While clinging to the
mutilated disc, more of it was discovered than previously.

This minute object proving a parasite, detached itself, when I con-
cluded it to be one of the Crustaceans, and probably allied to the Cancer
family.

The shell, rather a clumsy oval, was of dull yellow colour, bearing a
red cross on the centre of the back, and a red speck in front ; its form
rudely triangular, the margin tolerably even, with two antenna> apart from
each other, rough, with hairs or bristles. No eyes were visible, probably
from the position, nor could I find above six legs, \\hirh were armed with
claws. The animal fell on its back, and the legs were in considerable
action.

Two short cylinders, each crowned with a globular enlargement,
formed appendages to the body, when about twelve distinct vivid blue
ova could be enumerated in each of the spheres. On June 2, th«-«
were so far matured, that the form of the included foetus was perceptibly
irregular, as exposed through the integument. In two, a red speck like
an eye was observed. The whole parasite might have been inscribed
within a circle a line in diameter.

The parent was dead on the 5th of July, and the internal part*
having decayed, only the shell, with its red cross, remained.

224 CRUSTACEANS.

Fortunately, the young, which had been hatched a day or two pre-
viously, survived ; they were extremely minute, provided with six legs,
and had a red speck on the surface of the shell, towards the anterior. —
Plate LXII. fig. 5.

My convenience was neither such, nor the position of the animal so
favourable, as to admit minute and accurate inspection of all the parts,
whence the preceding must be taken only as a general view of the sub-
ject. Besides, my reluctance to advert to a single specimen is notorious.
I should avoid doing so, but from the chance that some one better in-
formed, may be able to supply what I am compelled to leave deficient.

It is extremely probable that what was exposed, will prove that this
creature may belong to the Cancer tribe, and that it may be classed as
an unknown genus, closely allied to the Entomostraca, especially as in-
dicated by the globular ovarian appendages. The red speck may be an
eye, and the feathered antennae, if they be truly such, may assist us in
assigning the animal its true position.

I have never seen any instance wherein the microscope proved so
useful an auxiliary.

No other specimen has occurred.

PLATE LXII.

FIG. 1. Young Ophiura.

2. Disc of the same. — Cancerilla, a.

3. Disc of the same. — Cancerilla, a,

4. Cancerilla detached from the Ophiura, enlarged.

5. Young Cancerilla from the ovarium of fig. 4.

§ 2. ASTARICILLA.— Plate LXII. figs. 15, 16, 17.

The subject of this paragraph being originally weak, mutilated, and
imperfect, must be considered as involving many difficulties opposing
correct observation. . I say nothing of diminutive size if all the parts be
present, though that is also an embarrassment ; but where the organs
are actually wanting, it is obvious that our endeavours to supply the defi-
ciency may lead us very far astray, unless for one individual. I have

IV

n i. MI

•

V

^^

*

"

'>" mtu

CRUSTACEANS.

never seen or heard of any specimen ; but, whether it may not lx- identi
with the ("ii/n-t-r tcorpioidet of the late Mr Montague. \\lio also
describes a mutilated specimen, I cannot presume to determine

This specimen occurred among the muddy residue from a quantity
of marine OoDtetKNML

The form bears a considerable resemblance to the irenenil appear-
ance of a lobster; yet I cannot pretend to define precisely the miniKer
ami striiet tire of the organs of which it is composed : figs. 15 and 1»; M-em
to me stillieieiitly expressive, — the former, natural size, the latter, mag-
nified, of the animal. Total length six lines. The body composed of
about six segments, the first infinitely the largest, and much rescinbliu^
a lobster shell ; the tail round, solid, and consisting of seven articulation-,
the last with a small fork. The animal lay constantly on its side ; but. i!
rising to stand, which was seldom, it carried the tail erect, at ri^ht an.irl--
to the body, or sometimes recurved and folded in, as usual with the
lobster.

When the creature was stimulated, it rose and spning up amon^ t he-
water, as if to reach the surface: otherwise it scarcely ever inclin.M
to move ; colour universally brownish or dingy white. — Plate LXII.
figs. 15, 16.

I could discover nothing more from the original, hitherto the ex-
clusive subject of reference, than above described ; but, in about three
weeks, I was induced to conjecture the presence of an advancing ovarium
in the vicinity of the abdomen, though I could not discern it distinctly.
On the 26th of March, however, my conjecture was partly confirmed by
finding a number of the young.

It is from these and the adult that we are to understand the real
structure of the animal, not forgetting that possibly it may undergo cer-
tain modifications from subsequent metamorphosis.

The young were pure white to the naked eye, not extending half a
line. When subjected to the microscope, they exhibited what was defec-
tive or imperfect in the parent. Thus, the antennae were forked un-
equally, the smaller prong being an offset at a third of the whole 1.
above the root ; a foikid oflVet also issued from enfh side of the penult

2r

226 CRUSTACEANS.

segment, and the last segment itself terminated in a fork. The resem-
blance of the young to the parent was such, that whatever metamor-
phoses succeed, they take place at an early stage. — Fig. 17, the young
Asteracilla, magnified.

The young gradually augmented in number, ultimately amounting
to about thirty.

From what could be seen, there were obviously four pair of limbs,
the first at some distance above the rest, besides some false feathered
limbs.

This creature was found on the 2d of March, among the residue of
miscellaneous collections from the sea.

PLATE LXII.

FIG. 15. Asteracilla caudatm.

16. The same, enlarged.

17. Young Asteracilla, magnified.

§ 3. ASTACILLA LONGICORNIS. — Plate LXIII. figs. 1, 2, 3, 4.

This is an animal distinguished by such singular appearance and
habits, that neither can escape the notice of the least observing. As if
confined within a long cloak, the limbs are employed to secure its sta-
bility ; two monstrous horns load the head, and in reposing, as it grasps
the slenderest twig with its six hind feet, while all the body is bent back
above the point of fixture, it actually seems broken backed.

The Astacilla, whose generic name it has been proposed to convert
to Arcturus, extends two inches from the tip of the antennas to the ex-
tremity of the tail.

The body is subcylindrical, composed of eight unequal segments,
from which four pair of jointed limbs originate, and, at a considerable
interval lower down, other three pair of plain limbs armed with claws.
These three pair spring from a segment equalling half the length of the
whole animal, which terminates in a caudal segment of foliaceous struc-
ture below, besides the two large antennae of five articulations each, and
two short feathered antennular organs under them ; there is an eye on

CRUSTACEANS. J.'T

each - 'In- head. Tin- u-u:il colour of tin- animal is diniry white

throughout.

'I'll-- tour I'.iir "T ii|.|n-r members resemble a rich furred mil', in line
-periineng ; but. in jxx>r specimens, the fringe clothing them is little
nion- than percept il>le, — it' these are to be accounted limbs, the whole
complement, including the six posterior members, is fourteen, \vhich may
have IIH! some observers to consider the Astacilla a species of Onisens.

v singular, aggravated, perhaps, ]>\ apparent < \

traordinury disproportions. The position frequently assumed, and Ion;:
retained, is adhering by tin- hind legs to any foreign substance, with tin-
head downward*. 1 have never seen any specimen attempt to swim, to
which, indeed, its general form is quite adverse.

PLATK I.XI1I

>'[r;s. 1, 2. Attacilla, natural >izc, fig. 10, enlarged.

'I'd.- exuviation of a specimen took place during the firnt week of
October, when the shell was detached in two portions, the. post < -rior com-
prehending the six hind limbs.

The season of propagation extends from March to December. The
union of two fine large specimens seemed to ensue on the 12th of this
latter month : ova appeared June 14th, on the thorax and abdomen of
another specimen. But the presence of a diminutive white 7xx>phyt*
injured the roe, which proved abortive of progeny.

As the position of the spawn is not exposed to view it certainly re-
mains attached to the parent, while the young quit the capsules, and arc
seen running about the vessel.

A full grown specimen having reached me on March 21, a suitable
vessel received it. Herein I was much surprised next day to find above
sixty young, which had been recently produced. All were pun- white
they exceeded a line in length : their black eyes were rath and

they entirely resembled the form of the parent.

Some riivumstancesare perplexing, especially regarding the numlK-r.
for it may be qi; 1 \\hether some had not Ixx-n concealed, -

tached miobsei .

228 CRUSTACEANS.

A different specimen, of ample dimensions, which had been in my
possession, though always refusing to feed, from the beginning of May,
was then breeding unobserved. On the 21st of the month its remarkable
appearance struck me while inspecting the vessel. It always stood erect
on a piece of sponge, the body at right angles to the six hind feet. The
long antennas now stretched forward as usual with the species, but each
appeared as thick or thicker than the body itself ; and on a transient
glance, I thought them invested by a coating of fur ; however, this un-
accountable fact was easily explained by the application of a lens. A
numerous brood had been produced in the night, whereof the whole,
without exception, had seated themselves on the antennae ; yet the
parent neither testified impatience of their presence, nor seemed to suffer
any uneasiness under the burden. All were very pale or dingy white,
none of them extending a line.

The young grew very rapidly. But as they continued constantly
affixing themselves, it certainly proved an annoyance, which was ulti-
mately fatal.

This animal dwells in the deep sea : fine specimens are rare.

PLATE LXIII.

FIG. 1. Astacilla (arcturus) longicornis, fringed apparatus.

2. Another specimen.

3. Anterior portion, fringed organs, a.

4. The same enlarged, fringe, a.

§ 4. ONISCUS BALTHICUS (IDEOTEA MARINA). — Plate LXIII. figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.

A genus of animals was constituted under the name of Oniscus by
the older naturalists, which perhaps engrosses the whole subjects of this
and the following paragraph ; they are both pelagic and littoral. Later
naturalists have incorporated the two together under the generic name
Ideotea.

Length of the Oniscus balthicm from the tips of the antenna) to the
posterior extremity twenty-one lines. The body is divided into nine
segments, whereof the first constitutes the head. In front are two

CRUSTACEANS. Itt

larger and two smaller antenna?, besides two eyes, aim situated in front
Tlic last segment terminates in an obtuse proje.-tiuu. and covera some
follicles at the extremity below. Of the four antenna? the two external
are half an inch lung, rather stout, and pointed, consisting of five articu
lations ; an internal pair, nearly in the middle between them, are shorter.
Tli. -iv an- fourteen limbs disposed as seven pair, each provided with a
irving claw ; fig. 8, a, limb ; fig. 8, 6. Colour dingy yellow, or
browni.-h \. llc>\\. with three or four white specks down the centre of the
back ; or it is altogether of variegated, mid some arc mottled.

Thi- creature feeds voraciously, seizing and carrying off prey in it*
fore limbs. It also devours the smaller Crustacea and mussel very readily.
It swims swiftly, and when at rest it generally clings to some substan
admitting of its position supine.

Kxuviation ensues at different seasons ; the shell has been always
cast in t \\.i portions. Perhaps tin- limbs are arranged in two divisions,
separated by a slight excess of the usual interval.

The variegated specimens are beautiful animals, especially when (lot
appearing in their new shells.

I have been induced to conclude that the number of segments is
only seven, though nine may appear from some delusion.

PLATE LXIII.

Fio. 5. Oniteut (IdtoUa) balihicut.

6. Last segment of the same, enlarged.

7. Cast shell, anterior portion, enlarged.

8. Variegated specimen ; fig. 8, o, limb ; fig. 8, 6, antenue.

9. Grccniah specimen.

§ 6. ONISCDS (!DEOTEA) ENTOMON. — Plate LXIII. fig. 10, a.

Several authors name this subject, but few seem to have had it
alive. The Boron dc Geer, who treats at large of various crustaceous
animals, observe-., that, never having seen a living specimen, he can say
nothing of its habits ; Tom. 7, p. 523.

230 CRUSTACEANS.

It is a creature very easily recognised, however, from the form of its
body, and of the larger or external antennae.

The finest specimens extend above eighteen lines from the tip of
the antennae to the lower extremity. The body subcylindrical, is com-
posed of nine segments, whereof the first and last are the head and tail,
the latter much exceeding the length of any of the others. Four an-
tennae, two larger and two smaller, are borne on the head, the larger or
exterior pair consisting of five articulations, with a large black eye seated
at the root of each. Fourteen feet, armed with claws, are disposed in
seven pair along the body, whereon some bristles are to be seen. Colour
greenish.

This is an active creature, it darts swiftly through the water, some-
times tumbling amidst it. When swimming, the larger antennae are
closed, and advanced in front.

It feeds readily and greedily on animal substances, devouring them
also as they are carried along between the fore legs.

PLATE LXIII.

Fia. 10. Oniscus (Ideotea) entomon, enlarged; fig. 10, a, relative proportion
between the body and larger antennae.

§ 6. AsELLtJS MEDUSAE. — Plate LXII. figs. 6, 7.

Two parasites, which I can describe but imperfectly, frequent the
Medusa ; though whether to prey on it, or merely for rest and pro-
tection, I have been unable to ascertain.

Their appearance is very different from any of the preceding ani-
mals ; and unless in the presence of two eyes, both bear much resem-
blance to the Cyclopean race among the Entomostraca.

Length about half an inch ; thorax large and thick, occupying
half the whole extent, the lower part of the body tapering abruptly
downwards, while small in proportion.

Two short spinous black tipt antennce, and other two are below, some-
what apart from them, of about the same length. Two large oval eyes

I /

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T

\

•

, "•

lf:OT:J.A-.-!

CRf STAC LANS

are aeated in front of the II.M.I. The caudal extremity terminates in
two large leaves, each with two triangular, flat, finny prolongations, and
;i similar prolongation with the like projections on each side of the two
;,..tv,.> p.. .,;,!,., some appendage! bel0W, iiMN aiv \<-\\ liml>- |>r.i\i.|<-<l
with claws. Colour grey; sometimes almost white.

This animal dwells as a parasite on the outside and inside of tip-
umliivlla of some of the larger Medusae : it often lies supine on its bock,
i-nrvinjr and closing up like the terrestrial Oniscus. It also swims swiftly
through the water, where a portion of its shell projects dry and glossy
above the surface.

Twelve or fifteen of these animals being removed from nine Medusae
on the 18th of September, several of them appeared to be prolific. The
spawn adhered in a cluster high on the abdomen, but specimens remain
so closely and pertinaciously in their curvatures, as scarcely to allow
distinct inspection.

A prolific specimen having been committed to a separate vessel on
September 19, about fifty young were found there. They were very
minute and lively, white to the eye, and grey by the microscope. Their
limbs amounted to ten, all of the same character, being provided with
claws. The tail folded in like that of a Lobster

The young animal, rolling itself up, remains on its back like the
parent, a striking feature in the habits of the adult, which continues in
this position on any part of the Medusa) without falling off, as might be
expected, from having no external means of adhesion.

It was impossible to obtain a view of either the eyes or the caudal
• •xtremity of the young. Probably a certain metamorphosis is under-
gone, whereby the lower organs are developed.

Another brood, of about sixty, appeared on September 29, from a
prolific specimen in a different vessel, all pure white like the preceding.

PLATE LXII

Flo. 6. AttUtu ««/«*», adult.
7. Young, e nlarged.

CRUSTACEANS.

B. — ASELLUS MEDUSAE. — Plate LXII. fig. 8.

Some years ago, I had occasion to make the following entry in my
journal, regarding another parasite on the Medusae, which no subsequent
opportunity has enabled me to repeat : — " Length, half an inch ; antennae,
four, long and slender ; two green eyes ; limbs, five pair, besides a false
pair ; tail terminating in pieces. It swims swiftly, and its habits somewhat
resemble those of the fresh-water Crustaceans. Occurs in September."

C.— CYCLOPS STAGNORUM.— Plate LXII. figs. 9, 10, 11, 12, 13.

From certain points of general resemblance between the preceding
animals, and some of the Entomostraca, they ought not to stand very
far apart perhaps. The latter are a very numerous race, both marine
and fresh-water, many of which having attracted the notice of skilful
observers, renders it unnecessary to treat of that special subject in detail.
It is chiefly of late that they have become the objects of very minute
scrutiny. This will be seen from the works of the Baron de Geer, of
Otho Frederick Muller, and particularly, from the copious and very valu-
able treatise of Mr Baird, a British naturalist, who, in addition to his
own excellent observations, concentrates all the preceding information
of others.

The animals associated as the Cyclopean race, or under the deno-
mination of Monoculus, derive their character from Nature having pro-
vided them with only a single eye, instead of two or more bestowed on
so many of the inferior tribes. Sometimes, indeed, two may be present,
so approximated, as to induce the cursory observer to believe that there
is only one.

The nature of vision, its powers, or imperfection, is extremely ob-
scure, especially among the tenants of the waters ; some exhibit a single
speck, others two, four, or more, or even a profusion which are precipi-
tately denominated eyes, without any evidence that they are truly
auxiliaries of vision. But we may safely conclude, that their power and
their functions are alike equivocal.

The subject of this paragraph having been noticed by others, I

• liUSTACEANS. Mfl

-hall hrietly remark that it i* a minute animal, under a line in length,
from tin- tips of the antenna' to t he extremity of two terminating caudal
forking hairs. The body is composed of about nine segments, the first,
with the head, the largest. Of four antenna*, two in front are much
larger than the others. A single block eye is interposed between their
root> n | Mir of limbs, and some organic ports, which aid the

animal in swimming, run along the under portion.

Prolific females bore a cluster of twenty or thirty spherical ova or
capsules, attached as an ovarinm to the thorax and abdomen of two
specimens ; with such clusters the uvarium of one appeared at a slight
interval from the body on November 24, being perhaps contained in a
sac ; that of the other was in immediate approximation. The cluster i-
of an ovoidal form, and yellowish colour.

This animal inhabits fresh-water pools : it is not common.

PLATE LX 11

FlO. 9. Cyclopt ttagnontm, enlarged, back.

10. Head magnified.

11. Prolific female; ovarium enlarged.

12. Another, enlarged.

13. Ovarium magnified.

D. — CYCLOPS PUNCTATUS. — Plate LXII. fig. 14.

The Cyclopean race might be partitioned into several sections, which
is unnecessary here, from the brevity and the nature of these incidental
observations. The monographers of the race hove amply shewn how it
is to be distributed. The varieties, which are not numerous, dwell both
in the fresh-waters and in the sea. Belonging to the latter is the
Cyclops puncfalus, a minute animal, extending only about a line and a
half. The body consists of several segments. Two very long slender
antennae, composed of numerous articulations, and bearing several
bristles, originate from the head ; and interposed between the root*

2o

234 CRUSTACEANS.

situated on the centre of the head, is a small dark eye. The tail, con-
sisting of several articulations, terminates in a fork of two pencils.

This animal moves swiftly by jerks through the water.

One specimen has occurred, whose colour, when dead, was con-
verted to white.

PLATE LXII.

Fio. 14. Cyclops punctatus.

E. — CYCLOPS FASCIATUS. — Belted Cyclops. — Plate LXX. fig. 9.
v

I speak with some hesitation of this creature, which in form is some-
what oniscoidal. It is about a line in length, and rather of flattened
figure ; springs through the water, and is orange to the eye. Towards
the posterior extremity it is distinctly begirt by three belts.

It was very common a number of years ago, but I have not seen it
of late.

PLATE LXX.

FIG. 9. Cyclops fasciatus.

§ 7. NYMPHON GRACILIS— Plate LXIV. figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

The resemblance of some animals, such as the Hyas araneus, and
Cancer phalangium, to the spider, is perhaps much less impressive than
that of the Nymphon, whence certain naturalists have explicitly distin-
guished it as the Spider Crab. Undoubtedly this must be considered a
very singular looking creature, of a strangely disproportioued form in
the reciprocal dimensions of its organs, and still more extraordinary in
the attitudes assumed, so unlike those of all other animals familiar to us.
A slender body, not half an inch long, nor half a line thick, with an or-
gan resembling fangs or forceps in front, is sustained on four pair of long,
feeble, slender limbs, expanding above two inches and a half between
their opposite extremities. On the upper surface are four eyes. Colour
universally dingy yellow, sometimes almost white. — Plate LXIV. fig. 1.

I /

/•/ / I/I

r

*

CRUSTACEANS. j;,

Thin is a languid and inactive animal, of the most tranquil dupon-
tion.

Among several specimens collected on the 21st of February, was a
prolifn- fi-niale, fig. 2. I believe that fig. 1, taken in another year, wa*
.1 frmalr aW Hut that now referred to as fig. 2 was distinguished by a
great cake of spawn, not less than towards half an inch in diameter, and
half a line thick. This bring attached to the under surface, added still
more to the singularity of the appearance. — Plate LXIV. fig. 2, Nymphon
gracilis, n, ,/, n, a, limbs ; A, b, cake of spawn.

The animal was now sustaining itself on its limbs. It rested like
wise after the fashion of the Cancer phalanyimn, with the body sunk
amidst the whole, only in the present case the cake of roe was below, and
the limbs Ix'iit bock quite upright, as if to shun some inconvenience.
Fig. 3, limbs, a, a ; cake of roe, b. It. The cake had somewhat of a
villous aspect. Forty-eight hours after assuming the strange position
now described, the creature lay supine, as if dead, with all the limbs ex-
tended.

But the new attitudes enabled me to discover that the roughish look-
ing surface of what I concluded a cake of pure roe or spawn was, in fact,
a congeries of numerous young, some separating from the parent, other*
free.

At this period they arc white, of various dimensions, and in various
states, but undergoing scarcely any sensible metamorphosis, unless in the
development of additional limbs.

Of these some had four, and some had six, according as younger
or older, for a few hours might produce the difference. The expansion
of the limbs was from about half a line to the sixteenth of an inch be-
tween their opposite tips. — Fig. 4, enlarged. In these young animal*
with six limbs, the pair of the complement still defective, appeared
merely two stumps.

The parent having lain some time supine, as above described, re-
vived, and reared itself upon its legs during the subsequent day.

The production of many young still continued, either single, or by
the separation of clusters, consisting of several entangled together.

236 CRUSTACEANS.

On March 4th, the parent still testified symptoms of animation, the
limbs partly contracted over the adhering clusters, or unfolding on the
under the surface.

Thus, in conformity with the nature of all the other Crustaceans
which we have hitherto discussed, the young of the Nymphon still ad-
heres to the parent, after exclusion from the spawn attached to its body.

Possibly the spawn is sustained in its place by auxiliary organs.

The animal dwells in the sea. It is not rare.

PLATE LXIV.

FIG. 1 . Nymphon gracilis, adult.

2. Prolific female ; limbs extended, a, a, a, a ; supposed cake of spawn.

b,b.

3. Position assumed by the specimen, fig. 2 ; limbs, a ; supposed

spawn, b, b.

4. Young Nymphon hatched from the spawn, enlarged.

5. The same, more enlarged.

§ 8. PYCNOGONTJM LTTTORALE — The Whale Louse.
Plate LXIV. figs. 6, 7, 8, 9.

The appearance of this animal is in striking contrast with that of
the former ; the one being light, weak, and slender, the other coarse,
heavy, and strong.

It consists of a body composed of four segments, the first prolonged
as a rostrum, at the base of which are seated four small black eyes in
quadrangular arrangement. The aperture of the mouth is in the extre-
mity of the rostrum, for this is one of the suctorial Crustaceans ; but no
specimen has ever fed visibly, though offered many different substances.
Four pair of articulated ungulated limbs support the body, the posterior
extremity of which is obtuse. The claws are firmly affixed, to secure
the whole, where practicable.

This is the most languid and inactive of all creatures. It is scarcely
ever seen to move, even to the bending of a limb ; nor does it betray
any propensities whatever that I have seen.

I /

J?

j

• lUSTAOIANfl

There is a L'reat disparity in tin.' size of specimens, some being t\si.c
the dimensions, and their appearance very different frtmi the aspect of

Otll-

Tli iiv specimens, none of them lar_'e, were taken ; a flat, round cake,
about a quarter of an inch in diameter, and nearly an eighth of an inch
thick, adhered to the under surface of one of them. — Plate LXIV. fig. 6 ;
of which the animal is seen enlarged, fig. 7. This, from it* appearance, I
conjectured to consist of spawn, therefore it was transferred to a differ* m
vessel, where it remained several weeks. At length, being divested of
the cake, I could not discover the presence of any portion of an ovarium.

The animal survived nine months.

PI.VTI: l.XIV.

FIG. G. PycHogon*m littorak—Tho Whale Louae.

7. The same, enlarged.

8. Another specimen.

9. Rostrum of the same, shewing the position of the black eye*. < n

.\iite. — PycnogoiniiH. — A promising young naturalist. Mr Henr\ l>
S. Goodsir, enumerated several species of this genus among his earlier
observations. Being appointed Conservator of the Museum established
by the Edinburgh Royal College of Surgeons, he availed himself of all
opportunities of investigating the history of some of the lower animal-
for several years, which he did with much success. His amiable dispo-i-
tion rendered him a universal favourite, and his talents always stvin---!
to me of the highest order. At length, being named naturalist and sur-
geon to the expedition under Sir John Franklin, to explore the Polar
seas, he accompanied it on its departure from Britain.

is VULGARIS. — Plate LXV. figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

It is surprising, in viewing the Hritish Fauna on a coinpn
scale, how few of the Crustaceans, even of very moderate dimenM-m-
are to be found in the fresh-waters, though a sufficient number in form

238 CRUSTACEANS.

and variety abound in the sea. Some species, indeed, are profusely dis-
tributed, though others are comparatively rare. The dwelling of certain
animals is sometimes such, as to induce us to involve a contradiction in
calling them common, when, in fact, they prove quite the reverse.

It is extremely doubtful whether, according to modern arrange-
ments, the proper position is assigned to this animal. Formerly the com-
mon Asellus followed the Crustaceans, in accordance with the Linngean
system ; but the object of that system, now abandoned, was to facilitate
the acquirements of the student, by the utmost order and simplicity.

Although the species about to be described is said to be common
by various authors, as its name indicates, I have found it extremely rare.

There is one place, however, in the immediate vicinity of the City
of Edinburgh, a pond at Red Braes, where it abounds in remarkable
profusion ; therefore this must be a situation most congenial to its na-
ture, which will always regulate, restrain, or promote the numbers of an
animal. Being surrounded by trees, whose decaying leaves cover the
bottom of the pond, neither food nor shelter is wanting. If I have
seen it elsewhere, it has been only in solitary specimens.

To the naked eye this is a coarse, and rather an ugly object, if any
product of the creation can be truly deemed such from the hands of the
Creator, for that is a point whereon I entertain many scruples. — Fami-
liarity, besides, reconciling us to all things.

The curious structure of the Asellus, unintelligible by our imperfect
organs, is illustrated in an admirable manner by the microscope, always
a ready auxiliary in revealing the secrets of nature. This is shewn very
impressively by Plate LXV. figs. 1, 2 ; the first the natural size, the
second an enlarged view of the animal, sufficiently descriptive of its ap-
pearance. In Scotland it is called the Slater.

Among a group of Aselli many occur under a great disparity of or-
ganic dimensions. None exceed six lines in length, by little above half
a line in breadth, then declining to those most diminutive.

This creature is of flattened form, with two eyes, four antennse,
fourteen limbs, and a forking style from each side of the last segment,
all constituting the external organs.

OBUB1 iHfi

The body is formed of .seven transverse plates, diMinctK >cparat« ,
with curving end*, as snlliciently exposed by inspection from al
besides which an- the first segment, with the eyes and tin- antenna-, ami
the last of dim-rent formation from any (if tin- rot, much larger, and
hearing the st\l,-. Numerous short bristles invest the margin and many
parts of tin- body.

The whole osjxjct of the creature is very peculiar, and very different
from any other in these volumes, though much correspondence may be
traced between the number, proportion, and distribution of the part*
anionir the whole. This animal feeds upon vegetable matter exclusiveK
and. unless the next, it is the only one of the crustacean race with which
1 am uciMiainted that does so. The leaves of the beech in decay ure pie

!. and in such parts of the pond as these are most abundant there
the Aseltiut is most numerous. The animal does not swim, it runs freeh
and expeditionsly over the decaying leaves, but the smoothness of gloss
is BO adverse to the structure of its limbs that it cannot ascend a cydindei
without the assistance of some other substance.

The breeding season extends through several months of the year.
The ovarium, in common with that of the other subjects of this section.
spreads over the lower part of the thorax and abdomen, consisting of
about forty ova, contained perhaps in a sac, or confined by a delicate
integument.

That of a specimen, being white, was far advanced on March 20th.
When mature it is yellowish. Many of the young, very minute, and
almost white, which had been recently hatched, were running about the
vessel, over and under the leaves, on the 22d of May. They hud sen-
sibly grown on July 10th, and were then darker than previously. The
young animal is about half a line long, and transparent under the micro
scope. On July 1 "ith I endeavoured to secure a specimen ascending the
side of the vessel, which bore a quantity of spawn on the breast and ab-
domen, it escaped, however, to retreat among the refuse Mow ; but. by
means of a long glass tube, it was caught next moniiiu

This animal, being prolific, was well adapted lor elucidating -
investigation regarding the ova. Two watch glasses, of unequal

240 CRUSTACEANS.

ity were therefore selected, of such dimensions as necessarily leaving
a cavity where there was sufficient room for the specimen crawling be-
t ween the convex surface of the one, and the concavity of the other.

Thus the animal being safely lodged here, the vacuity was easily
brought under the focus of the microscope, exposing the ova to view,
while the subject itself could not turn over and conceal them from the
observer. Here I found an external ovarium, consisting of about forty
yellowish ova ; besides which a very few minute in the vicinity seemed
to have been detached.

The animal was then liberated.

None of the ova were hatched during some days devoted to inspec-
tion. In a week, that is on July 22, the parent was free of the whole,
but I could not find any of the young. No opportunity has since oc-
curred of repeating the experiment.

One season each of three specimens had a cluster of white ova on
the thorax, in the middle of September.

The posterior extremity of the young is proportionately more ob-
tuse than in the parent. Further, unless it be immediately or speedily
consequent on production from the ova, they do not seem to undergo
any conspicuous metamorphosis.

Exuviation is less frequent here than of many other crustaceans.
The integument, however, separates in two portions, which are nearly
white.

This is an extremely pacific, tranquil creature, always seeking shelter.

Specimens have survived many months in confinement.

PLATE LXV.

FIG. 1. Asellua vulgaris.

2. The same, enlarged.

3. Group.

4. Ovarium, enlarged.

5. Detached ova, enlarged.

6. Young from the ovum, enlarged.

CRUSTACEANS. 241

§ 10. LIMNORIA TEREBRANS.— Plate LXV. figs. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,

13, 14, 16.

A Chain Pier, of ron-ii It-nil >k- dimensions, was erected on the
southern shore of the estuary of the Forth, about two miles from Edin-
burgh, in the year 1821. This structure proved of great puhlic utility.
The previous inconvenience of the regular ferries along the coast, the
habitual intemperance of the boat men, and the total deficiency of autho-
ritative regulations, still too general from the feeble police of Scotland,
rendered them alike dangerous and disagreeable. Providentially few
serious accidents occurred amidst perpetual painful tumult, disorder, and
alarm. Every improvement corrective of these grave annoyances be-
came of the highest importance.

Besides, an enormous expense to the nation was incurred from inju-
dicious and incessant repair on Leitii harbour, within a mile of this new
structure, the Chain Pier. Above £240,000 of debt had been con-
tracted by the managers of that harbour for repairs and alterations,
chiefly about the years 1836 and 1840.

No expedient could have proved more beneficial, or could have suc-
ceeded better at first, than the structure now specified. But, it seems
incident to Scotland, that almost every important plan for public or
private benefit, is followed by immediate failure.

Nevertheless, without imputing blame to individuals, so little do
mankind know or study the operations of Nature, so weak and shallow
their penetration of futurity, that this strong and costly structure, which
bids defiance to the tempest, was attacked by a diminutive insect, whose
ravages threatened its speedy ruin.

Raving a favourable opportunity, my attention was directed to this
diminutive animal, originally in the year 1826, when I was enabled to
prosecute some enquiries with comparative facility, from Mr Scott of
Trinity, the owner of tin- structure ; Captain Donaldson Boewall of the
Royal Navy ; Mr Dall, Superintendant of Government stores, and others
taking an interest in the subject.

Si

242 CRUSTACEANS.

But a zealous and skilful naturalist, Dr Coldstream, having subse-
quently published an account of his own observations on the subject, I
shall here confine myself to a few personal notices.

Though new to most naturalists, from its attacks on the Chain Pier
at Newhaven, I was informed in the year 1827, that the flood-gates of
the Wet Docks at Leith were infested by the Limnoria eleven years pre-
viously ; — probably, because a copious influx of fresh-water from the
interior of the country was discharged within them. Its ravages had
been also witnessed by the late Mr Robert Stevenson, an eminent engineer,
on the wooden structures employed by him in erecting the Bell Rock
Lighthouse, seventy or eighty miles from Trinity Chain Pier.

As the nature of the animal in question savours much of that of the
two preceding, perhaps it might have been conveniently incorporated
with them, under suitable distinctions, in the Oniscoid genus, instead of
instituting a new one for its reception, where, I believe, it yet stands
single. This was done, however, by the late Dr Leach, a naturalist pro-
foundly versed in the history of the Crustaceans.

In appearance and in motion, this creature resembles a diminutive
specimen of the Aphrodita squamata.

The body is linear and flattened, the back slightly convex. It is
composed of seven segments, besides the head, bearing four antennte and
two eyes ; and the last segment with two styles like the Asellus. But
these segments are so indented and subdivided as to appear fourteen in
all. Fourteen limbs are arranged below in seven pair. The form of the
head is rounded, with much similarity to that of a cat, having a large
black eye on each side, composed of about seven specks, one being in the
centre. The antennae are nearly of equal dimensions, each pair appa-
rently consisting of four and five articulations respectively, thickly beset
with hairs, and terminating in bristly pencils.

The segments of the body are deeply divided, the whole being
covered with hairs. Four follicles constitute the under part of the pos-
terior extremity.

Much diversity of size prevails among these minute animals, which,
full grown, seem to be about a line and a half in length, and half a line
in breadth.

• I!l <TACEA>- 243

An ovarium, consisting of about eight white capsules, baa appeared
on tin- thorax.

As the | •!•! -rilling aiiiinal, tlio Asellus, feeds exclusively on decaying
leaves, so does the Mi>tenam-e of the Limnnria tercbrant seem to be de-

i entirely from the wooden pile- \\hieh it is destroying.

Its ravages consist of innumerable channels or galleries, perforating
the wood, until its substance is so much reduced as to full to pieces, or be
washed away by the waves.

Various expedients have been suggested and adopted for counteract-
ing the e\il. though hitherto without the slightest success ; but one im-
portant experiment, ami that which should promise most, has been yet
overlooked. It is well known that all the insert tribes are most fastidi-
ous in the choice of their food. Multitudes arc continually perishing
when the sustenance most appropriate is unattainable. Therefore, were
the Chain 1'iei. the pillars, abutments, or other parts, constructed of piles
or prisms comprising several different species of wood, that alone which
was grateful to the animals would be the subject of their attacks.
Whence, by allowing a considerable interval, the kind escaping entirely,
or the least injured, would be discovered by inspection.

It is not improbable that the enigma would be solved by a single
experiment.

PLATE LXV.

Flo. 7. Limnoria ttrebrcnt, back.

8. Under surface.

9. Head.

10. Head, shewing the eye* and antcniue.

1 1 . One of the antennae more enlarged.
Limb.

13. Eye.

14. Cluster of ova.

15. Ovarium more enlarged.

All the preceding figure* are enlarged.

244 CRUSTACEANS.

§ 11. CYPRIS PILOSA.— Plates LXII. figs. 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25.

The reader will preserve in remembrance that we have arrived at a
very miscellaneous portion of our work, wherein we cannot profess to pre-
serve any of that order and arrangement which is so beneficial in others.

The animal which forms the subject of this brief paragraph, is usu-
ally associated with the modern tribe, engrossing so many species under
the name of Entomostraca.

To view it externally, many would pronounce it merely one of the
diminutive bivalve Testacea.

Perhaps it may be defined an insect inhabitating a bivalve shell ;
it illustrates one of the facts whereon we have bestowed considerable at-
tention, and which affords very satisfactory evidence that dimensions
are no obstacle to exuviation.

The genus Cypris includes several species, some of which, from
their diminutive size, might be thought to resemble each other. In-
deed, I am acquainted with scarcely any species which might not be in-
scribed in a circle a line in diameter : some are not half as large. The
subject of this paragraph appears ovoidal to the eye, consisting of a
double-valved shell like many of the Testacea, Plate LXII. fig. 19 ; the
valves somewhat resembling those of the mussel. But its colour is green,
and it is covered with short hair. — Plate LXII. fig. 20, Cypris enlarged ;
fig. 21, shell more enlarged ; fig. 22, form of the valves. This must be
accepted for more specific detail.

It is difficult to understand the precise form of its organs, being in-
cluded in a shell, the edges of which are very little relaxed.

But it seems to me that the animal loses both the integument and
the valves, which are all reproduced. — Fig. 23, exuvia enlarged.

The Cypris dwells in still, fresh waters, swimming freely, and with
a kind of smooth action, much resembling that of the Hydrachnae. It
is carnivorous, feeds voraciously on mussel, numbers congregating around
the prey.

In Scotland, the Cypris breeds in September and October, depositing
very minute orange-coloured ova, chiefly on vegetable substances ; or if
in confinement, on the sides of its prison. — Fig. 24. But the favourite re-

CRUSTACEANS. 246

eeptacle rather seems to be the empty valve of one of the species. — Fig. 25.
Of tlmv Midi valves, one contained eighteen ova, another twenty, the
third twenty-four. Probably, these were produced by three different
animals.

Spawn had appeared on September 15, and on October 5, some of
the young were hatched. They were very minute. The microscope
detected nothing.

PLATE LX 1 1

Fio. 19. Cyprit pilota t

20. Tho same, enlarged.

21. Empty nhelln more enlarged.

22. Empty specimen.

23. Exuvia.

24. Ova, enlarged.

25. Ova deposited in the empty valve of a shell.

Considerable variety of the tribe Entoinostraca may be found in
Scotland, such as the Ci/pris lavis, which dwells along with the preced-
ing, and is of smaller size. A specimen spawned in autumn.

PLATE LXX.

Fio. 10. Cyprit knit.

1 1 . Spawn magnified.

CTPWS FOBTHENSIS. — Plate LXX.

A very minute species of the Cypris inhabits the estuary of the
Forth, which I have obtained several times. — Plate LXX. figs. 12, 13,
14, 15. This is of a very faint, dull, reddish-brown, the shells opaque,
somewhat resembling those of a mussel, and several exposing one or
more black internal specks. The animal springs through the water, and
crowds of it congregate on the sides of the vessel towards the light.

PLATE LXX.

Fio. 12. Cyprit Fortiauit, group.

13. Another group.

14. Group enlarged, the shells closed.

15. Specimen protruding parts of the animal, enlarged.

246 PARASITES.

CHAPTEK V.

PARASITES.— PLATES LVL, LVII.

MANKIND, inflated by pride and folly, vainly suppose that, because
the beneficence of Heaven has bestowed on them senses to observe, and
reason to judge, they can determine the cause and the use of every thing
presented to their view.

How great is their error ! they ought rather to bow themselves in
the humility of ignorance.

Their total existence is divided into periods of pleasure and pain.
But although we may plead the Divine favour, so eminent for protect-
ing the tenants of the globe, how shall we account for the subsistence of
torment ? Could it be that sensibilities and susceptibilities are inseparable
from animated matter ?

§ 1. CALIGUS CURTUS. — Plate LXVI. fig. 1, enlarged.

This is one of those plagues which Nature, for hidden purposes,
permits to exist for the annoyance of living creatures, — a persecuting,
small, but deadly enemy to those ten thousand times larger than itself.

Perhaps I should premise, that although the general outline of the
Caligus is sufficiently exposed by a simple lens, it is scarcely practicable
to ascertain the detail of the parts of the living specimen by any auxiliary.
These being chiefly visible from below, this great difficulty originates
from position, tenuity, proportions, and confusion of the principal organs,

v//

i

I

PARASITES.

ami their homogeneous colouring. All these embarrassments are Aggra-
vated by the living .-tatc, — that alone from which I am willing to derive
information.

Th'-iv a iv f«'\v subjects to which this animal may be compared : it
would most resemble a diminutive instrument of sport, the battledore.
provided the single hand were divided into two tubular appendages, a
little apart.

Thus it consists of a thin convex shield or body, from the anterior
edge of which originate two antennae, and from the posterior margin
two cylindrical tubes. Two black eyes, apparently merging in one, are on
the upper surface, near the anterior edge, and under it, the short tubular
proboscis. Eight limbs also issue from the under surface of the shield,
by which, or by means of part of them, the animal affixes itself firmly
and pertinaciously to its prey.

It is extremely difficult to discover the number, the form, the posi-
tion of these organs, but they arc what most naturalists agree to be the
complement of this species. The total extent of fine specimens may be
about seven lines, but there Is a great disparity of size among them.

PLATE LXVI.

Flo. 1. Calirrut cvrttu, enlarged.

2. Specimens nearly of natural size.

3. Upper surface of a specimen, enlarged ; a, position of the antenna ;

6, cylindrical tubes.

It may be from the homogeneous colour obscuring distinct vision that
descriptions by different authors are discordant. Regarding one of which
Miiller treats, he says, Oculi el antenna hujus spccicbus dijficidtcr dttcgitntur ;
and he seems to assign the position of the former to the edge of the an-
terior portion. — Kniniii<nir<tca, p. 128. Baster speaks of block eyes ; where-
on Miiller remarks, — Ex oculorum caliytnr r/,nus nomcn sortitum ett. —

P. 129.

This parasite affixes itself by means of the limbs on the under sur-
face, to spots from which it cannot be dislodged without considerable
force ; therefore it must be a terrible persecutor.

248 PARASITES.

The total length of the finest individual specimens may approach six
or seven lines, the breadth of the shield or upper portion being towards
two. The whole is divided into three distinct sections : first, the shield or
body, somewhat orbicular, thin and slightly concave, apparently com-
posed of several shelly plates, faintly indicated, and with a clear mar-
gin ; secondly, a much smaller portion, by some called the abdomen, and
next the tubular appendages. On the edge of the front are two anten-
nular organs, which, externally, seem fringed, and behind these are the
two narrow oval black eyes, which, even under a moderate magnifier,
seem confluent, though actually separate ; thence inducing various obser-
vers to class this subject with the Monoculi ; three pair of the limbs be-
longing to the under surface issue from the abdomen ; a fourth is per-
haps armed with a kind of horny spines ; colour of the whole animal
lighter or darker wax-yellow.

This creature darts quickly through the water, or up the side of the
glass, considerably above the surface, where, incapable of returning, it
adheres and perishes.

Various fishes, especially the cod, are infegted by the Caligus, from
which, having no means of liberation, they gradually pine away, languish
and die.

But, as if in just retribution, the Caligus itself is infested by a
minute white leech, in vast multitudes, little exceeding a line in length.
While occupied with the Caligus in 1824, 1 observed this parasite, which
has been since more distinctly described and named Udonella, by an
industrious naturalist, Dr Johnston. I cannot affirm, however, that the
two may be identified as a single species.

At certain seasons of the year, the female Caligus bears two cylin-
drical tubular appendages, appearing deeply indented throughout by
numerous external circles.

However, these appendages are but temporary, not permanent,
though the delicacy of the animal, preventing its survivance more than
a few days, precludes observation alike of their origin and of their ob-
literation.

Having isolated a specimen bearing such appendages, in a watch-

r. ;.

n..urrn

iv\K.\>n KB •_'»•.•

glass, on November li'ith. I next day found many embryos, each in its
nmnion or involucrum. quiescent. Intermingled with these were nume-
rous white specks, in active motion, which, under the microscope, proved
yuun.ir < "////'. very minute, provided with six limbs, nor sin-wing any
resemblance whatever to the parent.

Nothing coiiltl he more transparent than the amnion involving the
embryos, some of which soon hur-t their prison. — Fig. 6, enlarged : young,
tLr. 7, magnified.

Now, the illusion representing the cylindrical appendages as in-
dented, was dispelled ; for the supposed circles, forming so many annula-
tions, had originated from the embryos, in their integuments, being piled
like so many pieces in a rouleau of coinage, horizontally above each other.

Among a numln-r of the adult Cafiiji examined on November 30th,
many specimens wanted the ovarian cylinders, while the discharge of
embrvos in their internments continued from those that had them.

At lea>t twenty specimens were found among Catigi collected on
the ~>th ; all wanting the tubes.

At this time they were inl'i-ted by the t'il<>n<-Ua.

From the form of the Cnligm, displayed on bursting its integument,
oinpared with that of the adult, the animal undergoes an evident meta-
morphosis in its course to maturity.

The surface of the shell is frequently speckled red, and many be-
come ruddy or purple, as the animal dies. Some of the young, on escap-
inir from the amnion, seem to be speckled.

Several facts regarding these minute animals are unintelligible, and
others \ery indistinctly understood. Indeed, I am at a loss to compre-
hend the real nature of almost the whole external objects affixed to the
figures represented in the plate.

A minute zoophyte, fig. 10, had found a nidus among them.

§ 2. CAUCUS SALMOXB.— Plate LXVII. fig. 1.

As the preceding parasite infests the Cod, so does the present subject
infest the Salmon. To free itself of this obnoxious enemy, the Salmon is
said to quit the sea and ascend rivers ; but whether truly so, I cannot cer-

2i

250 PARASITES.

tify from my own knowledge. Possibly fresh-water, which is speedily
fatal to most marine animals, does not spare the Caligus.

The Caligus of the Salmon is somewhat larger than that of the Cod,
the shield rudely and obtusely quadrangular, with faint indications of
compartments. Thus the parts of the shell are more solid, and the
ovarian tubes very long.

Total length of the animal two inches, whereof the body occupies
half an inch, by two lines in breadth. The ovarian tubes an inch and a
half. Colour of this subject, dark brown.

PLATE LXVII.

FIG. 1. Caligus salmonis, slightly enlarged.

§ 3. CALIGUS.— Plate LXVI. fig. 8.

This animal, which I had reason to consider a Caligus, was attached
by a long ligament to the anterior part of fig. 3. I had never seen it
before nor since, and being much smaller than the figure in the plate,
which is enlarged, I conjectured it might be one of the young in an in-
termediate stage, advancing to metamorphosis. Nothing followed, how-
ever, to corroborate this conjecture, and I should have omitted the sub-
ject entirely, had I not observed it alluded to as a distinct species in the
recent valuable work of Mr Adams.

PLATE LXVI.

Fio. 1 . Caligus curtw ? enlarged.

2. Four specimens somewhat under the natural size.

3. Female Caligus, antennular organs, a ? ovarian tubes, b ; upper

surface, enlarged.

4. The same, under surface. Here the feet are indistinctly seen.

enlarged.

5. Lower portion of another female, more enlarged. Leech, a ;

ovarian tubes, b.

6. Embryos in their integument, enlarged.

7. Young Caligi free of their integument, enlarged.

8. Caligus, originally attached to fig. 3, enlarged.

9. Capsules of unknown nature, full and empty, enlarged.

1 0. Zoophyte growing on a living Caligus, enlarged.

11. Leech, a ; seated on an ovarian tube, b, enlarged.

PARASITI.> 12-M

LER.V.CA.— Plate 1.XVI1

Tin- preerdini: animals are not the only instrument* of torment
tolerated I >v Nature, tor the annoyance and destruction of living crea-
ture.-. There are (itlit-r still more terrible ami more irresistible enemies
preying upon them, agaiu.-t \\lucli they do not seem to have any possible
means of defending themselves: for they attack different part* of the
bod\ . when- they are quite inaccessible to any organs of the sufferer.

LEBN.EA BRAM IIIAI.IS. — Plate LXV11

This is a parasite of the must irresistible and destructive kind by
whieh any living U-ing can be infested, and it assumes a position where
it is ii'it only safe from all endeavours to shake it off, but it can scarcely
be dislodged by means of sharp instruments, when the fleshy part to which
it adheres is separated. — Plate I.X V 1 1. figs. 2, 8, 4, 5. Its singular shape
precludes the powers of description ; it can be understood best only
from inspection of the original, and m-xt from the figures here presented.
especially Plate I. XV II. fig. 2, whieh -lightly exceeds the natural si/«

The whole exterior is of a hard, horny substance ; but, in fact, what
ever be the substance, it resolves into a strong vascular body comprising
the Lerrura, which is continually replenished with the blood of its victim.

From an enlargement of the upper extremity, three organs iwue.
which are provided with subordinate cruciform or branching parts,
ti::. -. ". in-erteil in the fleshy parts of the Cod, or other fish, about the
gills, the rest of the body substituted for the intestinal parts of other
parasites, being a strong and elastic tubular skin or integument.

Capacious ovarian tubes, c, ore connected with the under part of the
animal ; but I have not been sensible that they were occupied by spawn
during any periods of my inspection.

The whole is of a hard horny, almost shelly substance, but the
three organs of fixture obviously belonging to the highest portion, the
remainder is merely to be compared to a hollow in test i:

We cannot discover any motion of the animal, or how the head,

252 PARASITES.

with its inflexible deadly organs, is advanced into the fleshy parts of the
prey. It rather appears to be stationary ; and it requires to be very
carefully withdrawn, for in the course of extrication, the upper portion,
with the arming apparatus, is usually broke off, though the lower part
remains full of blood. On emptying the latter, however, which may be
done by pressure, its elastic figure, quite transparent, is discovered.

PLATE LXVII.

FIG. 1. Lemasa branchialis.

2. Entire specimen, apparatus of the head, a ; lower extremity, b ;

ovarian tubes, c.

3. Another specimen, having lost the extremity, a, in the course of ex-

trication. Lower extremity, b ; ovarian tubes, c.

4. Ovarian tubes, enlarged.

5. Empty specimen.

§ 4. BOTRYLLOFER. — Plate LXVII, fig. 6, enlarged ; natural length, a.

I speak provisionally of the precise place and the parts of this sub-
ject, having been unable to satisfy myself, from a single specimen, of the
most important facts, namely, whether it is Crustacean, and whether a
Parasite. It was found among the residue of general marine collections
several years ago, nor have I ever seen any resemblance to it before or
since.

Length, three-eighths of an inch ; greatest breadth of the body
about half as much.

The subject consists of two parts, probably as distinct in use as in
form. The chief portion or body consists of a rudely quadrangular
flattened substance, wherein were very obscure indications of something,
like several pairs of limbs,, on each side of an internal vessel ; the shoulder
is prolonged, in a general tapering form, to what is probably the ex-
tremity of a snout, from the sides of which originate about four pair of
grape looking organs, with several others along the shoulder. But the
whole was so imperfectly seen that I cannot venture to say any thing
very positive regarding it. The drawing, however, was executed by a

IS.

skilful artist. The anterior part of the iinimal moveil from side to side.
It survived several da\s.

PLAH I. XVII.

IMG. 6. BotryUoffr.

A I'K.VHUXS uiKSUTCS. — Plate LXII. fig. 1^

This subject I consider pretty much in the same predicament as the
preceding. Originally I thought it a Crustacean parasite, but it did not
maintain that character to sufficient conviction.

A week after a quantity of miscellaneous matter had been eolle. t. •«:
from the sea, in the end of February, a vast legion of Monocidi roue to-
wards the surface of the water. Many of the subjects of the present
paragraph were interspersed among them.

These were absolutely microscopic objects ; length not exceeding
the sixth of a line, the body tapering slightly downwards ; a pencil of
bristles hung from each shoulder, at least once and a half as long as tin-
body. Four black specks in a line, slightly curved, appeared across tin-
forehead.

Colour of the whole animal white.

This creature has a quick, active, searching, motion, frequent 1\
bristling itself up.

I could not refer it to any established genus, nor can I affirm it to
be a perfect animal, or in progress to metamorphosis.

PLATE LXII.

Flo. 18. P«puiU*i Ai'rnUiu, enlarged.

254 HYDRACHNA.

CHAPTER VI.
THE HYDRACHNA, OR WATER SPIDER.— PLATES LXVI1L, LXIX.

THE genus Hydrachna comprehends a race of small carnivorous
animals, exclusively aquatic, bearing considerable resemblance to the
Crustacean tribe, which we have just quitted. They also exhibit cer-
tain prominent habits, in common with those of terrestrial Spiders.

But there are various distinctions in form and proportions, in gene-
ral organization, and animal propensities, altogether affording such a
modification of distinctive features, as to constitute sufficient elements of
a separate genus, whereof I shall at present endeavour to avoid all prolix
discussion.

Some of its characters are quite obvious, others much less so. — Thus,
although equally ravenous, fierce, and cruel, with the boldest, I am yet
unacquainted with any species among the Hydrachnse, lurking in quies-
cence for concealment, during the approach of prey, or of constructing a
snare for the unwary victim.

Nevertheless, independently of the figure, there is much correspon-
dence in many things between the Crab, the Spider, and the Hydrachna.
The beholder cannot but be impressed with their general similarity of
shape, and with the same ferocious disposition, as belonging to predatory
animals, and demonstrated in the employment of destructive organs to
attain their purpose.

Having had very favourable opportunities for observation, a number
of years ago, though subsequently interrupted, I ceased for a long time

' /

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•

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"•*:.'•:::

• V*;.
•••*

it

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II Vl)|{ M II NA.

to prosecute farther enquiries into the suKject. ]!ut, 1 acknowledge thai
I did so with tlio lea reluctance, oiler pernsim: tin- work special!'
\oted to it hy tin- learned and industri-ni- Otho Frederic Miillcr. \\li.i-.
writings, universally useful, must be always most highly pri/cd hy thtiw
who can 1'onn a due estimate of their intrinsic value.

Tin- cxteii>ive knowledge delayed by Miiller was derived from that
beet of sources, practical acquaintance with each individual con-

stituting ii genus, and that very often while many of them were yet in
the living state. Miillcr, like I.iniuriis, seized on a few of the ino.-t
prominent features, those not difficult to be recognized ; but, if any thinj:
shall be regretted of Miillcr. it i< his anxiety for de»»cribing nnnihera to
great as to have left neither time nor opportunity for preserving hi.- suK-
ili\.-.

Modern authors. ho\\c\er. perhaps less skilful, hut more ea^ci l<>i
change, have ventured to dismember certain genera, or have left only an
inferior s»-etion to represent the whole. They have vainly endeavoured to
erect so many new systems from among the fragment*. But men- de-
scription of the body, including anatomical details, l>y entering on such
minutiu' as none but some of the more modern naturalists would have
thought of, is insufficiently adapted for general information. Ik-side*,
much remains for explanation ; for, the lower we descend for character-
as the source of deductions, the less important feature* are obtruded to

view.

The Ht/drachna; to be literally interpreted Water Spider*, are very-
beautiful animals, of delicate and symmetrical form, decorated with vivid
i-olours, agreeably interspersed. Their lively courses amidst their traiif-
purent dwelling, the limpid element, combined with the diversity of
their appearance, render them amusing and full of interest.

Mu'ller, who is still to he held the leading authority on the su!
characterizes this genus generally, as engrossing animals distinguished by
eight feet, two articulated palpi, and two, four, or six eyes.

The figures annexed to these observations, explain more amply that
the shajH? of the |KM!V is globular, ovoidal, or simple, with a prolongation

256 HYDRACHNA.

behind ; that the head and body are united in one, forming a single or-
ganization, of what other authors subdivide as three, that is, head, thorax,
and abdomen. Earlier distinctions were founded on the figure of the
body, the presence, number, and position of the eyes, and other judicious
characters, such as may be readily recognized and sufficiently adapted
for scientific arrangement. For these, some modern naturalists desire
the substitution of certain minutiae, sometimes of very difficult detection
and equivocal determination ; which may be possibly alike decisive when
discovered, such as the form and position of the mandibles, the place of
the mouth, the intervals and proportions between the joints and the
limbs, and other matters. But these must be sought by naturalists
habituated to similar investigations, nor do they contemplate the pre-
servation of the subject itself entire, in freedom, or with the knowledge
of its habits.

Hydrachnae dwell exclusively in fresh water ; they are found in
marshes, ponds, lakes, slow and tardy currents, where a wider and more
ample space admit their pursuing a deviating course throughout the
brighter portion of the finer days of summer. The observer who stations
himself at a certain point of the brink, towards the margin, is assured
of being visited by each successively in its course. Let him advance, he
may anticipate that in passing onwards he shall be visited by another :
next, by a third, a fourth, and by many in succession. All are guided
evidently by a common impulse, as having a particular object in view.
Thus, they expose themselves to capture ; for the naturalist, by merely
sinking a white saucer obliquely in that direction from whence they
visibly journey, and raising the opposite edge leisurely, intercepts their
nearer approach in farther retreat, and secures them.

Such may be a useful lesson. The habits of those wild animals,
most valuable to the hunter, are thus rendered the means of their capture.
Should Hydrachnae be alarmed, they always descend, seeking safety in
deeper and deeper water, the wonted resource of aquatic animals to
escape ; some there are, however, who under similar circumstances always
endeavour to rise upwards.

Certain species, undoubtedly, prefer considerable depths ; a few may

I /

LUX

*

13

t

HVDHACMNA.

be called rather littoral, which frequent the margin and the shelter of the
• ov.-rte cast by shade, or otherwise, over the places they inhabit, and
run along in search of such minute particles as are to be found near the
bottom.

Many swim with evident exertion, advancing slowly and heavily
umiilst their element, from t he disproportionate powers and dimensions of
their slender hairy limbs as natatory organs, compared with the size and
ilen-ity of the body. Their speed is precisely in the ratio of the pre-
valent temperature. Hence they are most active in summer.

Hyilrachnte, like all other insects, are extremely sensitive of the
influence of heat or cold. During the genial season of the year, they
are full of life and action ; but retreating to their haunts below, on the
approach of winter, they probably remain torpid until the return of
spring.

They are subject, besides, to a kind of torpor or lethargy, also like
insects, during the finer parts of the season. Specimens become suddenly
motionless, without any obvious external cause ; and after remaining as
dead at the bottom of their vessel, gradually revive to activity.

Some years ago, while occupied with the effect of freezing mixtures,
I subjected several Hydrachnoe to them, during the heat of summer.
When the preparation had sunk to thirty-eight degrees, six fell to the
bottom, and there remained motionless. On this occasion the cold was
resisted longest by the species denominated Papillator of Miillcr. In
other experiments during winter, two Hydrachnae became languid when
the water fell to thirty-six degrees ; and when the heat was reduced to
thirty-two degrees only one or two could move their legs. Next day the
wonted activity of all was resumed.

Possibly the habits of this animal are modified by situation. In the
close of July I took four from a small pool lying in the course from the
high road to Canty Bay, in East Lothian, opposite to the Bats itlft. All
were of the species Cmenta, plump and vigorous. Unlike the ordinary
habits of their kind, they burrowed in the mud, and frequently ascended
from the bottom of the vessel, totally disguised by what had adhered to

Si

258 HYDRACHNA.

them. Among others taken subsequently from the same place was one
evidently in a fit, which remained so for some time, lying motionless while
removed to a different vessel. Next, the feet beginning to move, it re-
vived, and swam away. Another died after remaining long in a fit,
copiously discharging a reddish-brown liquid.

Some anologies will be found quite as decided between the nature
of this and the Cancer tribe, rigorously circumscribed as such.

Hydrachnae, so active throughout the day, seem to pass the night
in profound repose. Early in the evening the numerous tenants of a jar
of water are all seen motionless, resting on the neighbouring plants, or
sustaining themselves by contact with the side of the glass. There the
limbs are much contracted, and nearly in the same attitude as if clinging
to a plant.

The common equisetum, or horse-tail, is useful as a place of repose
for the night, besides which, it is nibbled by these creatures during the
day. Its presence may be still farther beneficial, as a place of protection
from their mutual hostilities. At night, therefore, the general quiescence
proves a considerable difference from the nocturnal habits of most
aquatic, and especially most marine animals, rendering it the season of
their widest excursions, and their fiercest encounters.

The repose of the Hydrachna is also influenced by the absence of
light, for it is uninterrupted while an apartment continues dark, but all
are aroused to action by its admission. Then their chief enjoyment is
sporting in the sunshine, and in their renovated element.

Hydrachnae are among the most rapacious of living animals, bold,
fierce, and cruel, the natural and inveterate enemies of all their congo-
nera : they are no less hostile to each other, against which is waged a
perpetual war of extermination. Neither do they hesitate on attacking
such animals as are suitable to their appetites, though double the size of
the assailant.

One species, let us provisionally denominate it IIydrachna ferox,
from its nature, dwelt in a small pond, in common with another species
not dissimilar, though perhaps of somewhat inferior dimensions, the back
stained with a yellow cross. — Plate LXIX., figs 1, 2, natural size and

II YD HA ('UNA.

enlarged. The natural pivy of this latter is the Ilydrachna tpinifer.—
Figs. 3, 4, 5.

On the margin of this pond lay the fragments of a decaying boat,
containing a quantity of macerating leaves fallen from the neighbouring
plantations amoni: ten m t w. -he gallons of water, where had also gene-
rated numerous broods of the lower animals — the boat having remained
two or three yean in the same spot undisturbed.

The water was replete with multitudes of the Entomostraca in par-
ticular, in con.suk'raMe variety, and among them the finest specimens of
the Daphnia, or Water Flea, which is one of the largest of the tribe, nor
much inferior to the smaller HydrachniD.

I was accustomed to resort thither for supplies of microscopic object*,
both in general anil promiscuous collections, and as selected objects from
among many, being the most valuable to be obtained in the neighbourhood.
On one occasion I found that a phial of miscellaneous matter had in-
cluded above sixty Daphnise, and six specimens of the Hydrachna fero* ;
those being put aside for the night, without farther expectation of what
the morning might disclose. I observed, on the return of light, with
some surprise, that each Hydrachna liad seized a Daphnia — hurrying it
along, though hardly to be retained from strength and dimensions within
its ferocious grasp ; and on the following morning, that not one of the
sixty, unless a few minute specimens, survived — the shells of the rest, all
lying at the bottom of the phial, voided of their contents, testified the
fate of their recent tenants.

Again, ten of the same, the first species of the Hydrachna above
named, having been accidentally committed to a jar, with above a hun-
dred Daphuiic, none of the latter had escaped next day.

As it was impossible that the assailants required such a quantity of
food, it became evident that the victims were the objects of a mere wan-
ton thirst for destruction — a most mischievous feature in the history of
these minute carnivorous animals.

It was discovered, besides, that among a number of the Entomostraca
introduced along with the Hydrachna, one was speedily seized, and borne

260 HYDRACHNA.

away by each, when its existence quickly terminated ; the stronger,
meantime, either pursuing an uninterrupted course, resting on some
neighbouring substance, or lying supine at the bottom, while more lei-
surely devouring its prey.

Young Hydrachnae also ferociously seize the animals, though larger
than themselves ; thence, where a few minute Daphnioe escaped at first,
as in the preceding case, they too were quickly devoted to destruction.

Thus, Hydrachnae do not spare each other ; so that whether impelled
by hunger or excited by animosity, numerous colonies of both them-
selves and the Daphnia are gradually exterminated, with exception of a
single specimen remaining, the ultimate victor of both.

A small specimen fixed itself on the Hydrachna extendens, a com-
mon scarlet flattened kind, already referred to as larger, and named by
Miiller ; nor could the victim by any means dislodge the assailant. It
lay as if stunned and about to perish, until relieved of its enemy. This
red species is one of the quieter and more pacific. From frequenting
sandy places, and moving heavily, it is liable to pursuit. — Sometimes the
animals of one species are attacked and devoured by the Hydrachna of
another, not a tnird of the size.

These mutual attacks are accompanied by ah1 the ferocity of the
fiercest animals of prey, and they are effected by means of their offen-
sive organs reciprocally. Great devastation is the consequence. The
formidable fangs of a beautiful black and yellow species, with bluish legs,
are seen from a specimen of the character of Plate LXIX., fig. 27 ; also
from the Hydrachna, figs. 25, 26, which was taken in May, in Braid
Hills pond.

Hydrachnae continue plump and sleek, from feeding on those dying
in their vicinity. The colour of some named here, the e<rtendens, for
example, remained vivid, and the body in good condition, while surviv-
ing others : and if one of the dead was pierced, the substance escaping
tinged a considerable quantity of water red.

The disposition of these little animals, so strongly displayed in more
violent sensations, is greatly modified. From four specimens of them

IF YD K \rllNA. 261

in harmony during captivity, I was induced to name the crea-
ture ll'1'lrni-hiin jJ'ti-iifn, a character so opposite to that which has been
de»rril>ed.— Plate I.XYIII . enlarged, fig. 29.*

llydrachiue sometimes subsist spontaneously on other animal dub-
stances. When I'eedini: profusely, they are full, plump, and smooth, of
velvet appearance, and remain so after death. Owing to tin- extreme
difficulty of olitaining correct delineations of such active and restlew
animal-, it is probable that most of the figures preserved have been those
of specimens after life had fled. All the illustrations presented here.
however, were taken from animals during vigorous animation. N>
theless, the characters of many an- most equivocal.

The llydnicliiuo breed at different periods of the year, and, in com-
mon with the smaller insects, cliietly during summer. Conspicuous indi-
cations of sex were noted long ago by Miiller, and more recently also by
M. Duges. But there are species wherein the difference is extremely
slight, though no resemblance between the male and female exists in
others.

During the union of a species of the .S'////« //»•/•, the pair remained
motionless at the bottom of their vessel. Spawn appears in April, and
during the subsequent month, and the maturity of the young has l*-en
also postponed as late as the beginning of November.

Certain species of Hydrachnse are extremely prolific. Some of those
above enumerated, such as the Ht/Hrachna i-.it, •«'/»•«>, allixetl more than
six hundred ova to the side of a glass jar, where its history could be
favourably and distinctly followed. The quantity and fashion of tin-
deposit depends much on the species ; it is generally in patches, and the
same spot being resorted to repeatedly by the parent, it occasionally at
tains considerable dimensions.

The patches consist of twelve, twenty, an hundred and fifty, or a
greater number of ova, for the most part symmetrically arranged in a
single stratum, on leaves, wood, stone, or whatever else may have been

* Body, tending to globular, about half a line in diameter. Eye*, two on the anterior
surface, black, considerably apart. Limbs with scanty hairs. Colour grayish-brown,
lighter on the middle of the back. Taken in a small pond on Braid Hill*.

262 HYDRACHNA.

in the vicinity. Sometimes the quantity and accumulations are wonder-
ful. On raising a branch of privet, which dipped amidst the water of a
pond, I found the leaves actually weighed down by the quantity of
spawn investing them.

One of the sides of a leaf bore from sixteen to twenty patches, each
consisting of at least fifty ova, and both sides of others had forty or fifty
patches, equally exuberant.

A twig with a few leaves was consigned to a jar of water, from
which at least ten thousand young were hatched by the 4th of August :
and next day the multitude proved infinite. All these I concluded to
have sprung from the species Per ox or Spinifer.

Besides the places of usual resort, the under surface of stones sunk
in the water is frequently invested by thousands of ova, though it would
be difficult to comprehend how the parents can either reach or quit
their site.

Simple inspection of such leaves, as above described, is very delu-
sive ; a transient view would persuade the observer that what he sees is
very remote from the truth.

The aggregate production of young animals is a very interesting
subject, in shewing the ratio of multiplication. But no specific compu-
tation has determined the quantity of spawn from any single specimen
of the Hydrachna. Patches from individual specimens of the Ferox,
have consisted of four, eight, nine, twelve, eighteen ova each, respec-
tively. These patches are from half a line to a line or more in diame-
ter, alike indefinite in number, form, and contents.

But they are always a beautiful object under the microscope.

In general the embryo seems to attain maturity in fourteen days.
More are sometimes required, for here, as may be readily concluded,
there is also frequent irregularity.

Patches, consisting of from twelve to fifty ova, appeared on the
29th and 30th of August, on the sides of a vessel containing specimens
of the Hydrachna cruenta — Plate LXVII. figs. 1, 2. One about the eighth
of an inch in diameter, received some accessions subsequently, and broke
up about the 25th of September.— Plate LXVffl. fig. 9. I then rated

II V I»K \< UNA.

the period requisite for gaining maturity at :il>out twenty-eight day* ;
but the young are to minute individually, that, although the spawn had
bwn obviously dissolving, I rould not at first discover them ; mere speck*
to the eye, they could be with diluYulty selerted for observation.

Under the mii-roscope such nascent Ilylnichna are discovered to
have only six limbs, the whole complement is of later acquisition. Thru-
two black eyes, somewhat apart from the front, are sufficiently conspi-
cuous.— Plate 1.XVI11.. fig. 7.

All but one of the young of seven ova from the Ili/drachnafcraje,
affixed to a glass on the 6th of September, Plate LXV1I. fig. 8, were
hatched on the 22d of that month.

But although gross irregularities embarrass the history of the genus,
other observations shewed that the young might be matured in fourteen
days.

On the 23d of July, I committed 6ve large and turgid females of
the Hydrachna feroje to vessels ; spawn appeared next day, of pale-yellow
all luminous matter, in three patches, containing three, twelve, twenty-
two ova, respeetively. Other five, introduced on the 25th of July, pro-
duced spots, the first containing thirty ova, the second eighty-seven.
Some of the former were hatched on August 8th, thus making the period
for reaching maturity extend to fourteen or fifteen days.

A number of Hydrachna) having been transferred to a vessel on
August llth, a pateh of eight ova appeared next day, and on the day
following, other two of eight and twelve ova respectively.

In the latter, the eyes of the embryos were visible on the 20th, and
on the 27th, three had forsaken their prison ; thus attaining maturity
in fourteen days. Some remained twenty hours longer, moving and
shifting their position within their capsules.

Additional observations shewed, that, in August, fourteen days were
just about enough for the young attaining maturity from the dat
production by the parent.

The advance of the embryo is distinctly exposed within the inte-
gument as maturity approaches.

A ruddy tinge distiugushes moat of them, and some are stained

264 HYDEACHNA.

scarlet or vermilion, derived perhaps from the contents of the .abdomen.
Hence, where the parent is unknown, it is difficult to determine the par-
ticular species occupying the spawn.

The decaying leaf of an Iris bore a patch of several hundred ova on
the 15th of September. Its colour brightened in proportion as the em-
bryos approached maturity. — Plate LXVIII. fig. 14. Some had escaped
on October 26th and 27th, but many remained on the 2d November,
when one of beautiful vermilion quitted its capsule during microscopical
observation. This young animal must consequently have remained there
at least forty-eight days. — Plate LXVIII. fig. 15. Thus the period be-
tween production and maturity is infinitely varied and most irregular,
whether from being dependent on the species, as is probable, regulated
by the temperature of the atmosphere, or influenced by both.

If the spawn be in a watch glass, the young rush out of the water
on escaping from the capsule, and run very actively on the bare glass
itself.

M. Dug6s remarks, that such nascent Hydrachnos run on the
surface of the water, and on the sides of the vessel, believing also, that
before attaining perfection, they may, as parasites, infest such insects as
frequent the water.*

Hydrachnse descend amidst their element on the approach of cold ;
and they seem to seek shelter among mud, or the roots of plants, through-
out winter, or until aroused by the reviving influence of Spring.

In certain years they abound, in others they are rare, and some
seasons seem to favour the multiplication of particular species ; possibly
atmospheric influence has as much effect on the spawn as on the parents
themselves.

In May 1802, hundreds in great variety could be taken in a recent
artificial pond, whereof the superficies did not exceed a quarter of an

* Much information will be derived from the perusal of two memoirs on the genus
Acarus, by the acute naturalist here referred to. He there partitions the genus Hydrachna
of the Linnoean system into several subdivisions, chiefly derived from external characters,
and explains the metamorphosis of the young in their progress to perfection. — Annulet de»
Sciencei Naturellet, Sec. Ser., torn. I. Paris 1834, in 8vo.

/ V

IIYIHt ACIINA. 266

acre. But the pond being stocked with perch about tint turn-, the
H\'lra<-hiMB became rare subsequently.

'I'll' Jn MTV i u nuerous afterwards. I remarked tin- like in

About that time. some. of many falling into ray poneasion, .-ur\
abort .1 >'•.,:•

The history of only a few specimens baa been preserved along with
tin- hrirf narrative. lor the purpose of illustrating the general and varied
features of a very singular race of living beings.

PLATE LXVHI.

Flo. 1. //y<Jratl*a cnumta.

2. The same, enlarged.

3. Another specimen, natural «iie.

4. Tho same, enlarged.

5. Limb, enlarged.

6. Spawn, enlarged.

7. Young from the name, enlarged.

8. Spawn of ffydrockna/erot. enlarged.

9. HydnckM extoubmi.

10. The same, enlarged, back.

11. Tho same, enlarged, boll\

12. Spawn, natural size.
l.'l. Tho same, enlarged.

14. Other spawn of the same, enlarged.

15. Young from fig. 14, enlarged.

16. Group of young from fig. 12, enlarged.

17. Empty spawn, the young having boon disohargcd.

18. Portion of the same, enlarged-

19. //ydrackna peograpkita .

20. The tame, enlarged.

21. Hydnekna caudate.

22. The same, enlarged.

23. Spawn of Hydraehna tpana.

24. The same, enlarged.
25.

26. The ume, enlarged.

2L

266 CONCLUSION.

PLATE LXVIII.

27- Fangs of the same, enlarged.

28. Hydrachna placida.

29. The same, enlarged.

PLATE LXIX.

FIG. 1. Hydrachna ferox.

2. The same, enlarged.

3. Hydrachna spinifer.

4. The same, enlarged.

5. Another specimen.

6. Hydrachna maculata.

7. The same, enlarged.

8. Hydrachna sparsa.

9. The same, enlarged.

10. Hydrachna varia, enlarged.

1 1 . Hydrachna crassipes.

12. The same, enlarged.

13. Hydrachna albator, small.

14. The same enlarged, back.

15. The same, enlarged, belly.

16. Hydrachna albator, female.

17. The same, enlarged.

Now, let us pause awhile to indulge a brief retrospect of the pre-
ceding observations. We have accomplished a general survey of a large
proportion of the animated universe, for none other was in view. Our
progress has been slow and desultory ; no rigid injunction prescribed the
reverse of either, — nor was expedition or regularity enjoined. Thus we
have not ventured to take a general nor a specific view of what may have
been the leading incidents of that stupendous event, — the Creation.
But the enlarged and magnanimous mind cannot fail to discover that a
boundless blank, chilling and cheerless, must have overspread the Uni-
verse, for which the Divine Power has substituted an host of families of

« « IN i i.i BIOK

living beings, each al>idin_' h\ its own nature. Doubtless peace and tran-
quillity occupied the regions of Paradise when originally diverted from
solitude, though po-sibly Ibr periods hi it .short mid Heeling, — if we say so,

dune in profound ignorance, in all humility, for we cannot presume
to allirm what might be the earliest of it, and what the latest, or \\hai
tlie progTWB.

Neither the -mailer nor the lar^e-i an- i-alled of the greater import-
mice, nor do \ve know the inlluem v either of light or of darkness.

Yet \\e may presume that only what was actually done pr
pleasing to the Omnipotent Being, — or good in his Mght. Fart her.
without arrogance, we may conjecture, that harmony alone predominated
when the gates of Paradise were first unlocked, — that the lion and the
lamb reposed together in peace.

If the earliest periods were so spent in harmony, by what \\ere these
succeeded? Did the sun still sink tranquilly beneath the horizon; did
darkness overspread the earth ? What could be displayed when hid In-ani!-
ushered in the morning of the second day, or of the third ? When the
preceding evening fell, did peace still prevail ; or now, when Min.«hine
proclaims the truth, has the flesh of the lamb been pie reed by the Ian;:-
of the lion ; — were its innocent limbs besmeared by the bloody stain> and
remnants of its gore? Too much reason there i« to l>elieve, that the
vices of animated nature, still revelling to our degradation, were already
let loose, but that, through the Divine favour, we have gained the mean>
of i ibliter.it inir their revolting impression, or effacing their sanguinary
• ••nsequences.

The Powers of the Creator over the creation adapt each cr<
being to the peculiar place it shall occupy in the Universe.

We commenced our survey with strange and unusual object*, tlm-
of which an innumerable part of mankind have never heard, ami whieh
few have ever seen. But we found life vigorous in the Ilolothuria
throughout a remarkable distribution; nor was its distribution impaired,
as we turned to the Astcrias and Echinus.

Pursuing our irregular course, we reached other beings, whose or-

268 CONCLUSION.

-;ui>, discharging the same functions, seemed to be multiplied an hun-
dredfold.

But, multiplied or reduced, Divine favour still applied the whole
to the purposes for which they were intended.

In advancing, we think we behold certain important organs mis-
placed. The mouth, the most prominent in front, or seated in the neck,
or in the belly, — we behold one, or two, or a multitude of eyes, on the
upper surface, or clusters on either side of the anterior portion, — we see
the limbs reduced or multiplied, the feelers probing the nature of what
is presented to them.

Is not this the will of the Creator, who finds reason to modify or
transpose the instrument of feeling, of sense and sensibility ?

Were it omitted, all these might become nugatory and inefficient.
But here is the magnitude of His power displayed, and all for the bene-
fit of the humbler works of the creation. It is needless, however, to
descend to minutiae, — let us abide by the magnitude of the incident, not
of the object, for incidents are great and overpowering, while objects are
trivial and diminutive ; — we are seeking what is to occupy and enlarge
the mind, not for what is to dazzle the eye, or to swell on the ear, — we
retreat within ourselves, seeking a peaceful solitude in the reflection on
tlie power and benignity of the Omnipotent.

END OF VOLUME FIRST.

ANALYTICAL INDEX

TO VOL. I. OF

HIE POWE1IS (IF THE CREATnU

« IIAI'IKR I.— ECUINODERMATA rA«E 17

Holotkuria— difficultj of fixing its proper position in the Sytltma

Natural, ....... 18

Ortnenu' Iconr* Animaliiim, .... 19

Specimen of the .Scotifa, InJuerau, and I'hantapvt, . . 80

Holothuriie dwell in the sea, .... ib.

Their true nature cannot be dUeorered in a distempered state, . ib.

§ 1. HOLOTHURIA PENTACTEH, ..... .'I

General appearance of the Holothuria, . . . .22

Holothuria pentode*, its size, members, Ac., . . ib.

When detached generally float as long ovoid*, 88

Suckers can be wholly retracted and rank in the flesh, . ib.

TcnUcuU, in a quiescent state, retracted within the body, . 84

Absorbs water copiously, ..... ib.

Colour various, . . . . . . ib.

None recovered from the sea fit for immediate study, . 85

Mr Henry Goadby's Lecture, . . . ib.

Bohadsch, Milller, Tiedcraann, Delle Chiaie, . . 86

Holotkuria pentaetet dissected by Mr Goadby, . . . ib.

Retpiratury Tree — Mr Goadby, Dr Knox, ... 87
Naturalists do not agree as to the nervous system — Delle Chiaie,

Professor Goodsir, . .... 28

Natural form and habits— Mr Daniel White M'Culloch, . 89

Their safety depends on coolness, . SO

Not so stationary as other species, . . ib.

Tendency to rupture, ... ib.

Mr Adams, Sir Edward Belcher, . 81

Prolapse of the intestinal organs alike frequent, . . ib.

Food not ascertained, ..... 88

Extreme timidity of the Holothuria, ib.

270

ANALYTICAL INDEX.

CHAPTER I.— continued.

Found about the mouth of the Forth, . . PAGE 32

Usual colour different shades of brown or purple, . . ib.

Found floating like balls of various shapes, . . 33

Ampuda Poliana, ...... ib.

Mr Merrilees of Lerwick, ..... ib.

Plates I., II., III., IV., V., VI., VII., VIII., explained 34

§ 2. HOLOTHURIA FUSUS, — The Spindle Sea Cucumber or Sweepwater, 35

Specimen from the north-eastern part of the Forth, . . ib.

Size, form, and peculiarities, .... 36

After sunset shoots out eight luxuriant, arborescent tentacular organs, 37

The tentacula seem a vegetable product, ... 39
The beautiful arborescent apparatus becomes a wide shallow funnel

at night, ....... ib.

On the slightest shock, or intrusion of light, the whole apparatus is

quickly withdrawn, . . . . .40

The Tentacula distended by a fluid, ... ib.
Use of the tentacula uncertain — probably designed for an alimen-
tary purpose, ...... 41

The intestine always full of a soft brown or yellowish matter, . 42
Quantity of animal matter in a Holothuria equivalent to what is in

a rat or weasel, ...... 43

DelleChiaie, . . . .. . 44

Food of the Holothuria still problematical, . . . ib.

Body covered by flexile, extensile papillae — not with a tube, 46
When quiescent, the skin resembles shagreen ; prolonged, the body

is invested by a woollen-like coat, ... ib.
The suckers overspread the whole skin — when disengaged each has

an independent action, .... ib.

Advances head foremost — the fore and hind suckers alternately re-
laxing, ...... 47

Of nocturnal habits, ...... 48

Holothuria pencillus must be expunged from the Systema Nature?, 49

After entire mutilation new tentacula produced, . . 51

Propagation, ...... ib.

None of the spawn proved fertile, . . . .54

The whole organic mass separated from the body, death in consequence, 55
Such mutilation ascribed to accidental causes, . . .56
Holothuria fusus found about Orkney and Shetland, and the estuary

of the Forth, ..... 57

Professor Goodsir, ..... ib.

Species of the Holothuria multiplied beyond the truth, . . 58

Of various colours, ...... ib.

ANALYTK A I IN nKX. 271

fllAITKK I.— tontivxd.

I! !»t/iuriafunu readily coven itself with extraneous matter, PAOB 59

Doubtful if ajiv individual of the specie* is exempted from mutilation, 61

8omeofDelleChi*ie1ifpedin«lMiurTirirfk«ofint«tiBe«fifleen<Li^ ib.
If the intestine* are evacuated by the anterior extremity regenera-
tion commonly replace* them ; if by the posterior, death in-
variably ensue*, .....

The nature of what if called Trepcmy, or Bed* de Jkfer, to perplex-
ing to naturalist*, perhap* determined, . . ib.
Propagation, ....... 68

Bohadsch, Tytrmaux, Bennet, Beale, ib,

Scottish Uolothuriw free of offeniive odour — BOM, . . 64

Mo*t favourable abode of the Holothnria fusu* U in deep water, 65

Plate* VIII., IX., X^ XL, XIL, explained, ... 66

} S. HOLOTBCUA SCOTICA, ..... 67

Ilittory of the Holothnria imperfectly understood, . . ib.

Difficulty of identifying the different specie*, . . 68
Specimen described, . • . . . . .69

Lost tcntacnla restored, ..... 70

Habita the same as the fusus, ..... 71

Two other specimens, white, .... 73

Plates XII., XIII., explained, .... ib.

§ 4. HOLOTHURIA BoDOTRIjK, — HoLOTIICRIA CEcXCS, . . ib.

Professor Forbes on Echinodermata, . . . ib.
More irregular shape than the preceding specie*, . . 73
Form and organ* described, ..... ib.
Tentacula and antcnnula- not so luxuriant a* the fusus, . ib.
Little difference in its habit*, . ". . . ib.
Some specimens pure white, other* yellowish brown, . 74
Dwells in the Forth, from Inch Keith to Mar Bank, . . ib.
Divide* itself into two or more part* spontaneously— each regener-
ating the defective organ*, . . . ib.
Mode of progression solved, . . ib.
No precise rule governs the time of division, . . .75
Before division the animal assumes the figure of a sand -glass, 77
Renovated tentacula of the purest white, 78
Food of the animal yet undiscovered, ib.
Plate XIV., explained, ib.

§ 5. HOLOTHOUA FHAMTAPD*, . 79

Most remarkable of the whole ipecies, ib.

272 ANALYTICAL INDEX.

CHAPTER I continued.

The difference in form and parts described, . . PAGE 80

One of the largest specimens about four inches and a half long, 82
When laid open, six strong, muscular bands run down the whole length, 83

PLATE XV., Holothuria phantapus, ... ib.

Holothuria elegans of Miiller, . . . . .84

Holothuria evidently a local creature, . . . . ib.

Large and fleshy species said to serve as food at Naples, . ib.

Few naturalists have studied from living specimens, . 85

Holothuria, — summary of details, . . . . ib.

Little known of their habits in their native state, . . 86

CHAPTER II.— ASTERIAS, THE SEA STAR, 87

All inhabit the sea — no similar animal found in fresh water, ib.

Considerable variety in their organization, ... ib.

In the water they have a swift, gliding motion, as if nearly buoyant, 88

Deprived of water they soon fall from the sides of theglass to the bottom, ib.

Crawl into fissures for protection when the tide ebbs, . . 88

Swarm throughout the Scottish seas in great variety, . ib.

They are voracious and carnivorous, ., ^ . . ib.

Their alleged destruction of oysters improbable, . . ib.

Not the rays of the star-fish which its prey may dread, but its mouth, 90

Their habits, ...... ib.

Grow to a large size, . . . . . .91

Number of organs not uniform in these animals, . . ib.

All are cold, rigid, and disagreeable to the touch, . ib.

Subject to frightful mutilations, . ... . ib.

If death does not ensue, the lost organs are replaced, . . ib.

The aspect of individuals vary much, both in form and colour, ib.

Presents many beautiful patterns for imitation in the arts, 92

Surface subject to continual alteration, ... ib.
Mode of perpetuation obscure — roe generated in spring and advances

to maturity in summer, . . . . .92

Ovaria determined by the species, .... 93

The embryo animal originally circular, . . ib.
Star-fish live many years — may be divided into two sections : —

I. The Attcrias. II. The Ophiura, . • . ib.

SECTION I. — § 1. ASTERIAS QLACIAUS. — Northern Sea Star, Cross-fish, 93

Abundant in the Scottish seas, . . • . . ib.

Form and organs, ...... 94

ANALYTICAL INDEX. 27S

• II AFTER II.-

Moit Urge, powerful, and ravenous of iu kind, . PAOI. 94

Purple Mem* the natural colour, .... ib.

Inactive, it i* eootracted and apparently helplc**, . . ib.

Food, «>5

Orarium, . . . . . . . M

Spawn long of attaining maturity, .... ib.

Extremely subject to mutilation of the ray*, . . . ib.

1'Ute XVI., explained, ..... ib.

§ 2. ASTEUA* K\39r.x*,—Redduk-yeUoiD Sta-itar, ' . .97

Extremely variable in colour, .... ib.

Reeemble* the previoo* specimen, . . ib.

One specuBen fifteen inches between the extremitiei of the ray*, ib.

Form, organs, ovarium, &&, ..... ib.

Subject to mutilation of the rays, .... 99

Reproductive energies powerful, .... 100

Mutilation not incident to me or age, ... ib.

Same facts apply to both the glaciali* and rubeni, . . 1"!

Plates XVL, XVII., XVIII., XIX., explained, . 103

§ 3. AITCKIAS (CIIBSLLA) OCCLATA. — This animal is readily recognised, ib.

Its appearance and organ* described, ... ib.

Food, .... ... 108

The young beer DO resemblance to the adult, . . ib.

Shelters itself under rock* and stones, . . . ib.

Plate XX. .explained, . . 104

§ 4. ASTUUAS AJLAMCIACA, ...... ib.

SIM, organs, colour, A&, ..... ib.

Propagation, . ...... 105

Not common, ...... ib.

Plate XX I., explained, . . ib

§ 5. ABTUIA* ENDECA, — Nine-rayed Star-foil, . . 106

One of the larger and more beautiful inhabiting the Scottish seas, ib.

Description, ...... ib.

Ora, ... ib.

Not common, _• _ ..... 107

Plate* XIX., XXII., XXIII., explained, . 108

§ 6. ACTEUA* (SoLAtTtt) PAPPOSA, .... ib.

274

CHAPTER II.— continued.

ANALYTICAL INDEX.

One of the largest, singular, and beautiful dwellingin the Scottish seas, 1 08

So remarkable as almost to defy description, . . . ib.

Its peculiar characteristics, . . . . 109

Glandular specks not supposed to be organs of vision, . . 110

Feeds voraciously on mussel and even their own species, . Ill

The sucker resembles the proboscis of an elephant, . . 112

All very tenacious of life, ..... ib.

Ovarium, ....... ib.

The ovaria advance from April until July, . . ib.

Named Kelle, or Te Kelle, by the Scottish fishermen, . . 113

Plates XXIV., XXV., XXVI., explained, . . ib.

SECTION II.— OPHIURA BBACTEATA,— Plate-mail Star-fish, . . ib.

Ophiura prominently distinguished from other star-fish, . 114

Chief distinctions described, .... ib.
The form probably undergoes considerable modification with age, ib.

Size and vigour depend upon locality and sustenance, . . ib.

Some live in deep water, &c., . . . . 115

Extremely numerous, . . . . . ib.

§ 1. Appearance, form, and organs described, ... ib.

Feeds voraciously on mussel, . . . . . ib.

Sometimes has a disagreeable odour after feeding, . . ib.

Mutilation of the rays particularly incident, . . . ib.

Propagation, . . . . . . lie

Ovoid capsules compose the spawn, . . . . ib.

Specimens of six inches have been replete with ova, . ib.

Plate XXVII., explained, ./. . . . ib.

§ 2. OPHIUBA VTJLGARIS, . . . . . 117

Most common and numerous of any species, . . . ib.

Distinguished by the profusion and distribution of colours, ib.

Best specimens found in the northern seas of Scotland, . ib.

Disc small in proportion to the animal, ... ib.

Undergo great changes in attaining the adult state, . . ib.

The rays particularly liable to mutilation, ... ib.

Plate XXVIII., explained, . . . . . ib.

§ .'!. OPHIURA PUNCTATA, . . . . . 118

The largest species belonging to the Scottish seas, . . ib.

The finest specimens expand to more than eight inches, . ib.

\\AI.YTCA1. IM>RX.

Description, ...... PAO» I I -

Pl»t. \\ I \., explained, .... ib.

Miscellaneous observations, ..... il..

COMATULA RABBATA, ..... ISO

This animal nearly allied to the Ophiura, . . . ib.

Form, organs, and habits, .... ib.

Liable to great mutilation, . . . . . ib.

Food unknown, ...... Ul

Not to rare in Orkney at elsewhere in Scotland, . . ib.

Plate XXX., explained, ..... ib.

ECBINCS, THE SEA URCHIN, ..... ib.

Observation* of reputable author* imperfect, . . ib.

Inefficiency of Artists, Ac., . . . . . 12-

§ 1. ECHINUS BFIUJEKA, ..... 1 - .

Sue, organs, peculiarities, and habiu, . . ib.

Spinet of nse in prehension or seizure, . . . 1 -ji ;

Can travel on its back by means of the spines and suckers, . ib.

Carries even-thing useful or useless on its back, . . ib.

The spines are deciduous, but reproduction restores them, . ib.

Di vented of the spines the shell resembles an orange, . 127

Colour darkens with age, . . . * .138

Shell about the sixteenth of an inch thick, . . ib.

Planked like the hull of a vessel, . . . ib.

Orifice above surrounded internally with the orarium, . ib.

If uninjured is not of difficult preservation, . . . 129

Natural propensity to destroy, .... ib.

Reputed to hare been used as food by the ancients, . . ib.
Said to have been formerly brought to the Edinburgh Market for

the sake of the roe, ... . . ib.

One species denominated Echinut fdulit, ... ib.

Animal described, . . . . . .130

Pediccllarias cover the Echinus in thousands, . . 181

The head separates from the stalk, . 132

Not separate and independent parasites, . . . ib.

Plates XXXI., XXXII., explained, ib.

§ 2. ECHIXUS (SPAXTAXOUI PCETCEEC*), 133

Another kind of Echinus, . ib.

Very different in form, and less familiar to naturalists, ib.

Called Mm'* face, and Monkey fact, by the Scottish fishermen, ib.

Belongs to deep water, and is often permanently buried in the sand, ib.

276

CHAPTER U.— continued.

ANALYTICAL INDEX.

Perhaps the largest Scottish shell animal, the crustaceous race

excepted, . . . PAGE 133

Rudely resembles a flattened heart, ... ib.

Two specimens each five inches in length, . . ib.

Description, .... ib.

Usually sunk in the sand, of which it swallows an enonnous quantity, 135

Plate XXXII., explained, . . . . ib.

§ 3. SPATANOUS (FLAVESCENS), — NIVECS, . . . ib.

Fine delicate-looking animal, somewhat heart-shaped, . ib.

Largest specimens two inches and a-half in length, . . ib.

Three or four kinds sufficiently definite, . . . 136

Form, organs, &c., ...... ib.

Burrows in the sand at various depths, — rather a scarce animal, ib.

Plate XXXIII., explained, . . . ;'.;1 . 137

Miscellaneous remarks regarding the term Echinodermata, ib.

CHAPTER III.— CRUSTACEANS, 139

Subdivision resting on analogy essential, ... ib.

The observer ought to preserve an accurate record of facts, . ib.

Crustacea form an immense class, . . . 140

Great variety, and as yet imperfectly known, . . ib.

The shelly covering leads to singular physical consequences, ib.
It is frequently renovated, . . . . .141

Shells of living crustaceans of various colours, . . ib.

Some naturalists have viewed the animals as near akin to insects, ib.

Shell composed of numerous parts or segments, . . ib.
Crustaceans provided with a number of limbs, by which the genera

is founded, ...... 142

The Decapodes, or those with ten limbs, the most familiar, . ib.

Motion of the. crustaceans is chiefly walking or running, . ib.

Harbour generally among rocks and stones, . . ib.

The senses, especially of sight and smelling, very obtuse, . ib.

Generally carnivorous, ..... 143

A few genera confine themselves to land vegetable products, ib.

Some of them of a most contentious nature, . . ib.

The Actinia a deadly enemy, . . ib.

Frequent change of water essential to the preservation of specimens, 144
In the living animal the claws are open and the tail closed — the

reverse is the case when death ensues, . . . ib.

ANALYTICAL INDEX. 277

•. i'll.i; \\ I. —Continued.

The Cmetr mamm kill and devour one another, . . r*ori4..

Crab* and Lobstort eagerly sought after at food, ib.

Imported from Norway to the London market; and MOM of the Wes-
tern Islet are said to yield 60,000 annually, US

None bat rocky coasts are frequented by Lobtten and Craba, ib.

The common Crab and Lobster only used for food in Scotland,—

not so in the Adriatic, ... ib.

Some genera so peaceable and inactive, that many ipecimeni are

overgrown with marine vegetables, ... ib.

Progeny of a tingle Crab, (pared for two teasons, would probably

tatufy 10,000 people, .... 147

The texet distinguished by the shell, . . . . ib.

The roe adheres to the tbell of the female until the fietus burttt the egg, 1 48

A few tribe* of Cnutacea ditcharge the ora through long tube*, ib.

Mott Cnutacea undergo great changet in their progreM to maturity, ib.

An error to imagine that animal* protected by a hard integument

undergo no alteration with the lost of life, . 149

Habits of the crustaceans extremely diversified, . . ib.

Death simulated to escape danger, ... ib.

The integument of tome it horny or coriaceous, . .150

The crustacean tribes treated of divided into three portions, ib.

PART I. A. — DECAFODE*, TEN-LIMBED, SHORT-TAILED CRAM,— BEACBYOTU, ib.

§ 1. CANCER »#.**&,— The Shore or Harbour Crab, . . ib.

Its form and organs, ..... 151

Crustacean class compared to insects, . . . . ( ib.

Dr Milne Edwards, 152

Principal divisions not more than two in the crab, . . ib.

Green the prevailing colour, .... ib.
Habits and disposition, ..... 158

Food, ib.

External integument an indurated shelly corering, . .154

Occurs of all different dimensions, .... ib.

At certain seasons the limbs fall of fleth, . . ib.

Acquires a new shell when the old it insufficient, . . ib.

The change effected again and again, . . . 155

Specimens about to exuviate usually dull, heavy, and inactive, 156

Tie aamalefcaDM from the hiid part of the thelL. . ib.

Specimen from Blackness Cattle— itt exuviation, . 157

Became very tame — something like memory demonstrated, . 158

Exuviation verified by another specimen, . . . 159

Female tpawned after eighteen months, . 161

b

278 ANALYTICAL INDEX.

CHAPTER III.— continued.

Reproduction of defective parts, . PAGE 162

Perpetuation, . . . . . . 164

Plates XXXIV., XXXV., XXXVI., XXXVII., explained, 166

A. — § 2. CANCER PAGURUS, — The Common Crab, . . 167

This species most familiar when in maturity, . . ib.

Dimensions depend on subsistence, ... ib.

The Common Crab the largest and strongest in Scotland, . 168

Form and organs of Cancer pagurus described, . . ib.

Fierce and rapacious — its food, . . ib.

Dr Duguid, Kirkwall, ..... ib.

Extraordinary exuviation — lost limbs restored, . . 169

Death from the immaturity of certain parts at exuviation, 170
Limbs of the new animal, while in the original shell, folded across

its breast, .... ib.

No one has seen a large Common Crab white, . "..' . 171
Shell, though repeatedly regenerated, of the same colour, . 172
Specimen, on exuviation, defective of eight limbs, . . ib.
Next change the limbs wholly restored, . . . 173
New animal and its organs must be concentrated within the origi-
nal shell, ...... ib.

Colour reddish-brown, . . . . . 174

Permanent symmetry, by successive exuviations, restored from de-
defects of four- fifths of its important organs, . . 175
Perpetuation, . . . . . • 176

The Crab-fishery neither a lucrative nor favourite employment, 177

Plates XXXVIIL, XXXIX., XL., XLL, LXX., explained, 178

§ 3. CANCER (POBTUNUS) LIVIDUS, — The Flying Crab, . ib.

Beautiful and symmetrical animal, decked in lively colours, . 179

Its organs and form described, ... 180

Shell stained by various colours, red, blue, and white, . ib.

Food, ....... ib.

One of the most prolific of the tribe, . . . .181

None of the roe productive, . 182

This animal less contentious than some of the others, . . 183

Plates XLII., LXX., described, . ib.

§ 4. CANCER (PORTUNUS) PUSILLUS, — The Sand Crab, . ib.

One of the smaller species — its form, colour, &c., . . 184

Food, 185

ANALYTICAL INDEX. '-'7'.'

CHAPTER III.— cMAwirdL

Reproduction of the shell, FACE 182

Numerous young burst their capsules, . . . .186

ExBTiation sometimes rery swUnly, ... 187

Chief braiding saasons, April and May, ib.

This species somewhat rare, .... 188

Plafcs X I.I II., XLIV., explained, ib.

§ 5. CAXCU (PIXNOTBERES) VETERCM, ... 189

One of the mallrr animals inhabiting the Beotish seas, . ib.

Asaoeiates with the MytUrn moMAa, ... ib.

Dr Leach, Mr W. Thompson, and Mr T. V. Thompson, . ib.

Enters some biralre shell and dwells in peace with the owner, 190

SIM, appearance, and organs, . . . . ib.

Propagation of young, ..... ib.

Plate XLV. explained, , . . 191

§ (1.) CANCER (FORCELLAXA) LONGICORMS, — Tke Ventilating Crab, ib.

Smallest of the Scotish crabs, . . . ib.

Its form, organs, Ac^ ..... ib.

Extraordinary derelopment, the pfdipalpi, . . 1 92

This species very tranquil, .... ib.
Food, perpetuation, Ac., ..... ib.

Plate XLV. explained, .... ib.

$ (2.) CANCER (PORCELLAXA) FLATYCHELES, — Rougk-footfd Crab, . 192

Form, organs, food, Ac., .... ib.

None of the specimens erer fed, ... ib.

Plate XLV. explained, . ib.

C . — CAXCU (CORYSTES) CASSITELAUKUS, . ib.

Form, Ac^ described, . . . ib.

Dwells in deep water, and rarely seen, ib.
Plate XLVI. explained, .

General remarks on Crustaceans . . 194

I).— 1. CAXCU (IXACBCS) DoRSETTExaia, ib.

Form so marked as not to require description, ib.

Specimens dwell together in peace, 'b.

I).— 2. HYAS ARAXEOS,

Dr Leach— two British species, tiytm anmttu sad Hfat eosrctJBii, ib.

280 ANALYTICAL INDEX.

CHAPTER III.— continued.

Variety of aspect great — size, form, &c., . . PAGE 195

Ova, ....... ib.

Extremely languid — deep water its proper dwelling, . ib.

Shell often totally invested by marine algae, . . 196

Plates XLVII., XLVIIL, explained, . . ib.

I

D. — 3. CANCER (HYAS) COARCTATUS, .... ib.

Torpidity irresistible, . . . . ib.

Specimen described, ..... 197

Small one washed on board a steam- vessel between Orkney and

Shetland, . . . . . . 198

Plate XLIX. explained, . . . ib.

§ (4.) CANCER PHALANOIUM, MACROPODIA PHALANGIUM ; Leach, — The

Spider Crab, ...... ib.

Its form, organs, and colour, . . . . 199

Weak and incapable of resistance, . . . . ib.

Perpetuation, ...... ib.

Senses alike obtuse as in other species, . . • . ib.

Food, &c., . .... 200

Plate L. explained, . . . . . ib.

§ (5.) CANCER HORRIDUS, MAIA LITHODES — The Prickly Crab, . 201

Dr Leach, ....... ib.

Size, appearance, and organs, .... ib.

Spawn cavity, . . . . ib.

Colour, ...... 202

Plates LI., LII., explained, . . . ' . ib.

PART II. A. — DECAPODES, TEN-LIMBED, LONG-TAILED, CRUSTACEANS, — MACRODKI, ib.

The Macrouri comprehend the Astacus, or Lobster, and its congenera, ib.

Difference between the Cancer and Astacus great, . 203

§ 1. CANCER BERNHARDUS, — The Hermit Crab or Soldier, . . ib.

General remarks, ..... ib.

Form, organs, size, and colour, . . . . ib.

Food — lively and voracious, .... 204

Its nature pacific, ...... ib.

Process of exuviation different, and more obscure, . ib.

Breeds at an early age, and somewhat differently from the Cancer, 205

The young bear no resemblance to the parent, . . 206

ANALYTICAL INDEX. 281

CHAPTER III.

April the chief breeding season, . . . PAUB 206

Plate* LI II., LI V., explained, . . .107

8 2. GALATREA ironowu,— Tht Thorny Baitard Lobtter, . ib.

One of the nxxt beautiful, curious, and symmetrical of the tribe, ib.

Form, size, organ*, &c., described, . . . .•..-

Motion tingolar and vehement, . . . . ib.

Propagation, ...... .

Exuviation, . . . . . . -.MO

This species prciaroed to be migratory, ... ib.

Plato LV. explained, ..... ib.

B. — DECAPODS*, TEN-UXBED, IX>MO-T AILED, CBOBTACEAX*, — MACBOOBI,

AST ACCS, THE LOBSTER, . . . .211

The form of this genu* differ* considerably from that of the Crab, ib.

§ 1. AfTACUS NoKVEoicot, Linrurut, NORWEGIAN LOBSTER, . ib.

Beautiful, lively, and active creature,— perhaps migratory, 212

Fabriciui, Fauna Groenlandica, . . . . ib.

The animal described, . . ... . ib.

The ovarium, ...... 2U

PlateLVL, LVI I., LXX., explained, ib,

Called the Crayfish by fishermen, . . . . ib.

Fresh water Cray fish not natural to Scotland, . . 215

From the ova Rathke traced the progress of the embryo, . ib.

Said to dwell chiefly in muddy stream*, . . ib.

§ 2. ASTACUS MARINU8, — The Common Lobtter, . . . ib.

Though familiar its history little known, . . ib.

History and description of qmrimeas, ... . ib.

Ova, ....... 216

Mr Gillespie Graham, — gigantic claw, . . . ib.

Lobster fishing in the Western Isles for the London market, ib.

LVIIL, LIX., explained, . . . .217

3. CKAXOOX, — The Shrimp, ..... ib.

Learned author* say little of the Shrimp, . . . ib.

Size, form, Ac., . ib.

Lively creature, and very tame, . 218

Carnivorous, . . . ib.

The shell often cast, but without any preliminary indication, ib.

282 ANALYTICAL INDEX.

CHAPTER III.— continued.

Propagation, . . r PAGE 219
Its natural abode smooth, sandy shallows, near the sea shore, ib.

Plate LX., LXL, explained, . 219, 220

Note,— appendix to preceding paragraph, 22 0

*

§ 4. PANDALUS ANNCLICOBNIS, — The Ring-horn Shrimp, — Leach, . ib.

Not identified with the genus Crangon, ... ib.

Description, .... ib.

Exuviation ensues at all seasons, . . . 221

One of the genus named Hippolytus by Dr Leach, . ib.

Plate LXI. explained, ..... ib.

CHAPTER IV.— MISCELLANEOUS CRUSTACEANS, . . . .222

subordinate genera to the Crab and Lobster, . ib.

§ 1. CANCERILLA TUBULATA, . . . -. ?,

Account of a parasite attached to a young Ophiura, and named

as above, ..... ib.

Plate LXII. explained, . 224

§ 2. ASTARICILLA, ....... ib.

Mr Montagu describes a mutilated specimen, . . 225

Form, organs, length, &c., . . . ib.

Ovarium, young, &c., . . ib.

Plate LXII. explained, . 226

§ 3. ASTACILLA LONOICORNIS, ... ib.

Distinguished by singular appearance and habits, . . ib.

Form and organs described, . . ib.

Considered by some a species of Oniscns, . 227

Its motions very singular, .... ib.

Plate LXII I. explained, . . . . ib.

Exuviation took place in October, ib.

Propagation from March to December, . . ib.

Progress described, ..... 228

Animal dwells in deep water, . . . ib.

Plate LXIII. explained, . ib.

§ 4. ONISCCS BALTH1CUS (IDEOTEA MARINA), . . . ib.

Length, form, organs, &c., .... 228, 229

ARAJ.TTICAI. ISDMC. 1>

rll.APTER IV.-

Feedi roneionaly, and swim. swiftly, . . r*ot SM

iriatioo at dMhrent seasons, ... ib.

Plate I.X II I. explained, .... ib.

$ 5. OMSCCS (IDEOTEA) UTTOMON, .... ib.

Baron de Geer had never aeen a living •px^num, . . ib.

Animal described, length, form, organ*, Ac., . . 230

Dart* swiftly through the water, . ib.

Feeds greedily on animal lubstances, ... ib.

Plate LX 1 1 1., explained, . . ib

$ 6. ASKLLUI MEDC&C, ..... ib.

Two parasite* frequent the Mednaa, resembling the Cyclopean

race among the Entomottraca, ... ib.

I length, organ*, Ac., ..... ib.

Dwell* a* a parasite on the Medott — iwim* twiftly, . 231

Spawn, t ...... ib.

Plate LXII. explained, ib.

B. - AlELLUB MEDUSA, ......

Form and habit* described, ib.

i

C. — CTCLOPS BTAONOBUX, ..... ib.

Observation* of Baron de Gear, Miller, and Baird, . . ib.
Cyclopean race characterised by one eye only, . ib.

Animal described, . -' •

Ora, ... ib.

Inhabit* fresh-water pool*, . ib.

Plate LXIL described, ib.

D. — CYCLOP* PUMCTATOT, . . «b.

Cyclopean race dwell both in the fresh-water* and in the sea, ib.

Punctatiu a minute animal, Ac^ . >b.

Mores swiftly by jerks through the water, . 284

Plate LXII. explained, ib.

E.— CrcLon FA«CIATDS,— BeUei Cyclop*,

It* form, Ac., described, ib

Plate LXX. described, *•

§ 7. NmraoH ORACIUS, ib-

Styled the Spider Crab, ^

284

CHAPTER IV.— continued.

ANALYTICAL INDEX.

Its slender form described, .... PAGE 234

Languid, and of a tranquil disposition, . . . 235

Prolific female, . . . . . ' ib.

The young and their organs, . . . . ib.

The animal dwells in the sea, . . . . 236

Plate LXIV. explained, . . . . . ib.

§ 8. PYCNOGONUM LITTOKALE, — The Whale Louse, . . ib.

Unlike the preceding, this animal is coarse and strong, . ib.

Its form, &c., described, .... ib.

Most languid of all creatures, and without propensities, . ib.

Great disparity of size, . . . . 237

Plate LXIV. explained, . . . . . ib.

Note, — Pycnogonum, — Mr Henry D. S. Goodsir, . ib.

§ 9. ASELLUS VOLGARIS, . . . . . ib.

Doubtful if this animal has been assigned its proper position in

the Systema Naturae, ..... 238

Though rare, it abounds in a pond at Red Braes, near Edinburgh, ib.

Coarse, repulsive animal, called the Slater in Scotland, . ib.

Its form, ...... ib.

Does not swim, but runs, . . . . . ib.

Propagation, ...... ib.

Exuviation less frequent than amongst other Crustaceans, . 240

Extremely pacific and tranquil, ... ib.

Plate LXV. explained, . . . . ib.

§ 10. LlMNORIA TEREBRANS, . . . . . ^ 241

Attention directed to this insect in 1826 by its ravages on the

Chain Pier, ..... ib.

Dr Coldstream's observations, . . .' . 242

Dr Leach instituted a new genus for its reception, . ib.

Its form, organs, &c., described, . . . . ib.

Much diversity of size prevails, . '„ . ib.

Ovarium, . . . ... . . ib.

Food — the wooden piles, .... ib.

Various remedies found unavailing, . . . 243

Plate LXV. explained, . ib.

§ 11. CYPRIS PILOBA, ...... ib.

Usually associated with the species named Entomostraca, 244

Genus Cypris includes several species, . . ib.

ANAI.YTIfU. INDEX. L'.s .",

CHAPTER IV.-

Form, ««c, Ae^ described, . fMt Ii4

It* shell reproduced, . . . . ib

Dwell* in mill, froth water*, .... jb.

Breed* in September and October, . . . . ib.

Plate. LX1 1., LXX., explained, . . 345

CTMUB FOHTHCMIU, .... ;\,

Inhabit* the Forth, . . . JD

Colour and action, ..... ,|,
Plate LXX. explained,

CHAPTER V.— PAEA.ITM, . . J46

Man incapable of determining (be cause and MB of everything, ib.

{ 1. CALIOUS cram, ...... ib.

Thii one of the plagues which nature permits, . . ib.

Form and organs deMribed, .... 247

Plate LXVI. explained, . . . ib.

DeMriptMUofanthor*— Mailer, Barter— discordant, . ib.

Orgu* farther deKribed, . . . . .248

FUh, eqwaally the Cod, infertad by it, . . ib.

lUelf infected by a minute white leech, . . . ib.

Embryo*, .... 249

UndergoM a change in it* progreM to maturity, . . ib.

Shell frequently tpeckkd red, . . ib.

J 2. CAUQCI IALMOJOB, ...... ib.

This parasite Mid to infect the Salmon, ib.

Sixe, form, Ac., 250

Plate LXVII. . ib.

J 3. CAUODB, ....... ib.

Mentioned a* a dirtinct ipecie* in the work of Mr Adama, 0>.

Plate LXVI. explained, . ib

m

, BRANCBUUH, . . ill

A most dertiin4i»e parasite, . ib.

Description, • . ib.

Plate LXXVI. explained, 252

$ 4 BOTBTLLOTKB, ib

Doubtful whether a Crustacean and a parasite, . ib.

286 ANALYTICAL INDEX.

CHAPTER V.— continued.

Description, . *AOE 252

Plate LXVII. explained, 253

§ 5. PEQASILLUS HIRSUTTJB, >b.
Did not quite maintain the character of a Crustacean parasite, ib.

History and description, ib.

Plate LXIL, explained, ib.

CHAPTER VI. — THE HYDRACHNA, or Water Spider, . 254

The genus Hydrachna described, ib.

Mttller, Linnaeus, . • 255

Animals distinguished by eight feet, ib.

Dwell chiefly in fresh water, . 256

Sensitive of heat or cold, . 257

Habits possibly modified by situation, ib.

Pass the night in profound repose, 258

Most rapacious, bold, and cruel, ib.

Hydrachna ferox, ib.

The Daphnia, or Water Flea, • 259

Number of Daphni» destroyed by the Hydrachna ferox, ib.

Hydrachna extendens of Miiller, 260

Hydrachna placida described, . 261

Food of the Hydrachna, ib.
Breed at different periods of the year — Muller, M. Duges, . ib.

Spawn deposited on leaves, wood, or stone, ib.

Embryo attain maturity in fourteen days, . . 262

M. Duges, Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 264

Plate LXVIII., LXIX., explained, 265, 266

Conclusion, . 266

/

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