JNIVERSITY OF B.C. I 3 9424 00125 9768 Mil ■;.^ -V; '"•;.:,'•:"'■ .. STCkAGfc HEW tkCCLSi IMG-ONE Lpl-Fl8F U.B.C. LIBRARY m Wmmk r, fiW*''vT''^ ^T^V^T'T T/WJ «' -\WW 3tf THE LIBRARY THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA THE PRACTICAL DIRECTORY IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY MORRISON AND GIBB, EDINBURGH, PRINTERS TO HER MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE. THE PRACTICAL DIRECTORY IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY RURAL AND SUBURBAN THE ECONOMIC CULTIVATION OF ITS FARMS R. SCOTT BURN MEMBER OF VARIOUS SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES, AUTHOR OF SEVERAL TREATISES ON ' RURAL ECONOMY,' AND FORMERLY ONE OF THE LECTURERS AT THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, CIRENCESTER ILLUSTRATED WITH 77 PLATES AND NUMEROUS WOODCUTS % EDINBURGH: WILLIAM PATERSON 1881 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from University of British Columbia Library http://www.archive.org/details/practicaldirectoOOburn PREFACE. It has been for some time foreseen by shrewd observers, that a change in the leading character- istics of the agriculture of Great Britain was about to take place. The depression which has, unfor- tunately for so numerous a body of practical farmers, characterized the past few years, is only one of the phases of the change above alluded to, not the cause of it. It may certainly be said to have influenced the circumstances operating to bring about the change, to have hastened its development, and to have directed public attention most closely and eagerly to it. It has also, doubtless, made the claims more urgent which have recently been brought forward for what certain parties designate as agricultural reforms, and has brought to the front, in what many deem to be a very ominous way, certain propo- sitions of a somewhat revolutionary character. But notwithstanding all this, the elements of the change of these reforms, and those propositions have existed from a period long before that in which the ' depression ' appeared ; and the change consequent upon the moving influences has, as we have stated, been long foreseen by close observers. What the characteristics of this change are, and what its effects are likely to be upon the future of British farming, will be found ex- plained in their appropriate place in the follow- ing pages. The demands of an increased and ever in- creasing population, no less than the influence which the success of farming has upon the national prosperity, can only be met by an in- crease in the productive powers of the soil. It must be observed, however, that this increase is not one merely in the annual produce of what are the usual crops of this country, such as wheat in grain and turnips in green crops, but an increase in the number and variety of crops to be henceforth cultivated. This last addition to farm enterprise has long been advocated by many, and these the most advanced amongst our agricultural authorities, as at once affording wider scope to the energies of our farmers, and as yielding produce usefid in the general work of the farm in much demand chiefly for stock- feeding purposes. This new enterprise has received a fresh impetus and derived vastly increased importance from the keen competition to which British farmers are subjected by those of America ; and what renders the competition of all the graver importance is the fact that the like is coming from our own colonies of the North American Provinces, as Canada, and of Australia and New Zealand, not to lose sight of that coming from not a few of the peoples of South America. But the primary food demands of our vast and dense population are to be met, not merely by an improved system of working the land at present under cultivation, by the introduction of a wider range of crops, and by pressing into the service of the farmer many aids which have been hitherto greatly neglected or wholly over- looked ; but also by bringing into cultivation of one kind or another the large tracts of land which are at present lying waste, or at least greatly unproductive. This department will therefore be fully discussed in our pages, keeping PREFACE. in view what, however, is often — at least popularly — forgotten, that there are large tracts of waste land which, so far as our present knowledge permits us to predicate, must ever remain so, being literally and truly waste or unproductive land. In some measure connected with this depart- ment— put by some in close relationship with it — is the question of Small Farms. The Author has endeavoured to consider its various details from the one point of view which he conceives to be the only true one, namely, its agricultural aspect. This limits the discussion of the ques- tion to small farms cultivated on the same system as that adopted generally on the larger ones. Small farms specially cultivated with a view to meet the peculiar wants of special districts or towns are purely exceptional, and do not come within the range of that system which must be followed if the small farms are to be univer- sally extended in the way advocated by some. Second to none in his desire to see the status of the labourer and the working man raised in the social scale, he has, in common, as he believes, with the majority of practical men, come to the conclusion that this will not be effected by giving small farms to them. With the increase of the area of land under culture as small farms, there would arise an increase of the peculiar difficulties attendant upon small farming, when carried out on the wide and extensive scale pro- posed. There is all the difference between small farming carried out upon what may be called the naturally limited scale, which admits of those exceptional circumstances which alone secure success, and that general system which of neces- sity brings into existence those which, if not always strictly inimical to success, tend to make that much more difficult to be attained. The subject being one of such great importance, from the peculiar phase which it has now been made to assume, the Author has endeavoured to discuss it as much as possible from the practical point of view here indicated, while at the same time giving all due deference to the somewhat erroneous opinions, as he conceives them to be, held by many in connection with it. Doubtless, many of the errors arise from the different views held as to what constitutes a small farm. In some districts, farms of from forty to sixty acres are considered to be, if not large, certainly not small farms, although by the majority of farmers on the large scale throughout the country they are thought to be so. On these farms men make not merely a good living, but often manage to save some money. Many now, however, advocate farms so small as to be but little better than unusually large allotment gardens. On holdings such as these, under the average of circumstances, it will take very hard work indeed to secure a good living ; money saved can scarcely be looked for, certainly not sufficient to allow of improvements being carried out. It is to small farms, or rather land allotments, of this kind, and also, in some if not in great measure, to those of six, ten, and even, under certain circumstances, up to fifteen and twenty acres, that the remarks in the text chiefly apply. One point we draw special atten- tion to, not merely from its importance, but from the fact that it is generally overlooked, namely, the influence which will certainly be exerted, and not for the better, by the adoption of the general system of small farming upon the future progress of agriculture, both in its practical and scientific aspects. It is one of the popular mistakes held upon the subject, that the number of ' small farms ' throughout the country is very inconsiderable ; so much so, that it is scarcely worth while to reckon them as an element in, or as adding much to the general aggregate of, the industrial forces and resources of the kingdom. The number of small farms coming within the strictest meaning of the term, spread over its various districts, is vastly greater than is generally suspected or stated. Nor is it right to maintain, what some PREFA CE. do, that the difficulties thrown in the way — as they state, by, of course, the proprietors of land — of getting them are so great as to be almost insuperable. The fact rather is, that up to the present the supply has been equal to the demand, and that if the demand were greater the supply would be forthcoming. As pointed out in the body of the work, proprietors of land have no interest to serve in withholding land for small farms, if the desire of mere money-making, indeed, was all that was to be considered. Quite the reverse. But it is the opinion of not a few, thoroughly competent from their practical ac- quaintance with the whole subject to give expres- sion to it, that there is a limit placed to the system of small farming preventing it from very greatly extending. And a strict investigation of the whole circumstances does certainly tend to show that the general extension advocated by some cannot be successful, unless a change come over the system of our cultivation and general industrial economy as at present established, — a change so remarkable, that what its characteristics will be has not yet come within the domain even of speculation or conjecture. Much in the same practical way of looking at and discussing them, other leading questions which have an important influence more or less direct upon the future of agriculture are treated of in the text. Of these may be named here, farm leases, covenants, or contracts, tenant rights, and the essentially vital points embraced in the compre- hensive title of the ' Eevision of the Land Laws.' All of the above-named subjects are, however, but secondary or subsidiary to those which con-, stitute the chief subject of the work, namely, the practical departments of landed property improve- ment, and they are only alluded to in so far as they bear upon these. It is further necessary to state that what is given under the general subjects above named bears chiefly on the opinion, which so many now maintain, that the greater number, if not the whole, of the difficulties pressing upon agriculture can be got rid of by arrangements between the interested parties themselves ; — arrangements of the same class which, carried out during a long course of generations, have gradu- ally given rise to that code of laws or assemblage of customs, not always written or embodied in recorded laws, which have tended so much to raise us, a business nation, to a position unrivalled in the world. This individual action or freedom of contract is perhaps more valuable in the busi- ness of agriculture than in other departments, inasmuch as there is an uncertain element in soils, climates, and localities, which necessitates the application of peculiar arrangements suited to each case, and which renders the rigid appli- cation of one unvarying law to all cases a matter of, at least, very great difficulty. This peculiar feature in the land question, considered in its widest acceptation, is too often overlooked. Repeated reference is made to it in the text as modifying, more or less, the practice of certain departments of rural economy. And it is on account of this modifying influence that it so happens that a system or rule of action which is found to be applicable to and to work well in one district or locality, will not be found so in another and a different one. This feature of the land question will be found to be operative, although in a different way, in the case of such legislative enactments as may yet be carried out. In the text more than one instance of this is referred to. And although it may be doubted by some, and broadly denied by others, the Author has little hesitation in expressing his belief that it will be found in practice to be the cause of much practical diffi- culty in adjusting the working of such laws as may be passed to the circumstances of the various districts of the kingdom. He believes that this will yet be forced upon the public mind in a way somewhat unexpected by many. The indications at present that this will be so are by no means few, and are well worthy of the attention of our legislators, and of those who urge them to the rREFACE. completion of schemes more or less complicated in character. That there are difficulties, how- ever, to get rid of which legislation is required, is admitted on all hands, although it may not be so readily granted by some of us that they are either so numerous or so important as many hold them to be ; certainly not to justify exceptional legislation on lines different from those on which other departments of industry depend. One leading idea the Author has throughout attempted to bear in mind in discussing the various departments of Landed Property Im- provement, namely, that the interests of landlord and tenant are always identical. The landlord, in improving his property in a strictly agricultural sense, is assuredly improving its revenue ; and so, in thus attending to his own interests, he is attending to those of his tenants. And the con- verse holds equally true. The phrase above given, as applied to the land industry, is objected to by some, openly sneered at by others. We are told by the highest authorities, and the point is almost universally conceded as correct, that in all other branches of national industry the interests of the employers and the employed are identical. Why it should not be so in that connected with the land we fail to see. The Author does not assert that in all cases the relative interests of land- lord and tenant are identical. Exceptions are held as proof of a rule in other cases, why not in this ? And the exceptions ought not to exist, and need not. They are the result of individual action, and this action is not always confined to one side ; and if this is found in practice, in departments of industry other than farming, to be capable of setting matters wrong, individual action can set them right. For reasons easily explained if space had per- mitted, it was from the very outset, on the first planning of the work, decided by both Publisher and Author that other and vexed questions, such as the Game Laws, the Law of Settlement, etc., shoidd not be taken up in its pages. As one result of this decision, it is hoped that their readers will be gainers rather than losers, from the greater space thus afforded for the giving of specially practical matter. There are other subjects dis- cussed which have much of a social, but yet also of a practical character, to wit, the labour question, wages, the recreation of the labourer, village clubs and allotments. While the various points of these are stated, still they are discussed in so far only as they have a direct bearing upon the practi- cal subjects of the work. These embrace almost every detail connected with the Improvement of Landed Property in its varied and important departments. It is through- out borne in mind that the practical purpose which these improvements aim at securing is the increase of the produce of the land, and thus directly and indirectly to increase the revenues of the estate by ensuring its economical manage- ment, and by widely developing its resources. Hence, while what may be called the ordinary departments of the property have their various improvements described and illustrated, marked attention is paid to those now overlooked and neglected resources from which so much that tends to economy and to increase revenue can be obtained. It is hoped that what is given under those heads will alone render the following pages of great practical value. Certainly, for the most part, they constitute a thoroughly novel feature in a work of this class. Of those departments one or two may be named here, and first that of Suburban Land. Not a few estates throughout the country have wide areas situated near towns and populous villages, suitable for building purposes, as well as for certain special classes of farms. Large revenues may be obtained from these areas, and the best way to make them yield the highest amount is placed before the reader. Another department much more closely con- nected with the property question than the above named is that of Cropping of the farm. Many able authorities, in view of the ever increasing PREFA CE. demands of our large population, have of late contended that the crops grown generally, almost exclusively, are all too limited in kind and variety, and that an extension of cropping is demanded, and this no less in the business interests of the farmers themselves, than in the social ones of the public generally. The Author endeavours to sup- port this view by a number of special paragraphs, which will be found in their appropriate place in the text. It seems useless to maintain that we grow on our farms all the crops which they are capable of growing, on the ground that our soils and climates are antagonistic to an extension of their number. With soils less fertile, and under climates less genial than ours, a much wider variety of crops is produced than is to be met with on British farms. And they are raised, moreover, by farmers who can lay no claim to the possession either of the means and appliances we have at command, or of that scientific knowledge and sound practical skill which distinguish our farmers as a class. This extension of the list of our farm crops is advocated by some chiefly on account of the corresponding extension in the number of our live stock, which would, as they maintain, be thus realized in practice. This view bears upon the question, which has been and is still being so much discussed, as to the increase of grass land, and the corresponding decrease of arable culture. This will be found fully discussed in the text, with some points not always taken into account which are closely connected with and greatly influence it. One is, that corn and arable culture are not, as many suppose, one and the same thing. Many more crops come under the department of arable culture than wheat, barley, and oats, which are popularly considered to exhaust the list. And as regards the increase of live stock, thought to be wholly dependent upon the increase of land under grass, it is not seldom forgotten that grass is not the only food for cattle which is at the command of the live-stock farmer. A growing opinion, indeed, of many able authorities is that grass is not the best food. If this be doubted, as it will be by some, it is not so doubtful, to say the least, in the case of dairy cows. Growing out of this question of the extension of cropping is that of the live stock of our farms. That as much can be done in this direction as in that of an extension of crops may be doubted ; but that more can be than has been done is obvious enough to any one who has at all considered the intensely interesting subject of the acclimatiz- ing of animals foreign to this country. A very fair example of this position may be cited in the case of the Yak, the rough-haired ox of Thibet and Tartary. Beyond all doubt, this animal is possessed of qualities which render it invaluable in the countries in which it is indigenous, and which would not be less, but, under the pecu- liar wants of our population, more so in our country ; and it is also equally beyond doubt that the animal is particularly capable of being easily acclimatized, and that, while adapted for a wide range of our climatic and local conditions, it is specially so for hilly, sterile, and exposed situa- tions. And what is true of the Yak is true, with greater or less modification, of other animals well worthy of our attention. It is not denied that they may not — do not — possess all the charac- teristics desirable for our peculiar circumstances. But this objection has little practical force, and is not likely — ought not — to be made by the descendants of our Bakewells and other eminent breeders, whose skill formed from materials in- finitely less promising than those the magnificent animals which make up our flocks and herds, which are the admiration of every one. Should anything given here or in the text induce but one of our readers, possessed of influence and position, to give serious attention to the few subjects here named, out of many which this work discusses, the Author will be well repaid for the long and arduous labour which its preparation demanded. Every care has been taken to render the description of works proposed as practical as PRE FA CE. possible, to aid in which drawings have been introduced with an unsparing hand, and they, together with their accompanying full descrip- tions, will enable any one to devise, organize, and carry out to completion the greater part of the work of Property Improvement. Since the introductory chapter, explaining the scheme and scope of the work, was written, various improved details and methods of working have been introduced, and sundry departments have had a much wider significance given to them. To notice these, and bring the matter of the various Divisions up to the date of issue of the work, a Supplementary Division has been added, which gives a very varied amount of practical matter. In a subject so extensive and so varied in its details, a reference to works bearing directly and indirectly on the subject has been necessitated. These, gathered from a wide variety of sources, home, continental, and colonial, have been so numerous that it is impossible to name them here. Where special parts are quoted, the source is, however, generally stated. The Author cannot permit this opportunity to pass without drawing pointed attention to the journals of the leading- Agricultural Societies of the kingdom. From more than one of these he has derived sundry hints and suggestive details of a practical character. But those journals contain throughout, such a vast variety of papers, scientific and practical, that he expresses the hope that some means will yet be taken to make their contents as widely known amongst the agricultural classes as their unques- tionably great utility to them demands. In conclusion, the Author may be permitted to say, that nothing in the departments of labour, either in that of the Publisher or in his own, calculated to secure the thoroughly practical efficacy of the work, has been omitted. Greater haste might have been made as regards its issue, but he feels that, considered from almost any point of view, this delay has been judicious. It has enabled the most recent improvements in various practical departments to be treated of; it has also allowed — and the importance of this will at once be seen — the excitement consequent upon a remarkable period of agricultural depression greatly if not wholly to subside, and calmer and juster views of the situation to take their place. These have had the natural and salutary effect of placing before the minds of those truly interested in the future progress of agriculture in Great Britain, those steps to be taken by which that can best and most rapidly be secured. There seems now, as the result of the calmer and wider dis- cussion of the whole question, a pretty general consensus of opinion as to what those steps should be, and what the nature of the work of the future which they involve. The opportunity has thus been given to profit by all that has been thus discussed and decided, and the matter bearing upon this will be found in its proper place. In conclusion, the Author again refers to that bond of mutual interest which ought to exist between landlord and tenant as a factor in the general sum of agricultural prosperity, which affects the nation vitally, and which it is impos- sible to over-estimate. That this bond exists to a much larger extent than is popularly supposed is happily true, and wherever and whenever it exists is one of the best guarantees that the agricultural prosperity of the country, in the highest sense of the term, is certain to be secured. And so secured that with the extension of this mutual interest in each other's welfare, which is being effected much more rapidly than many choose or care to admit, one need have little fear as to the future of British farming. In the text the Author gives his reasons for thinking hopefully of this future, notwithstanding all the gloomy anticipations and disturbing vaticinations in- dulged in by not a few; — a future which, he believes, will be even more remarkable for its triumphs over difficulties than has been the past, marvellous as those triumphs have admittedly been. CONTENTS. DIVISION FIRST. CHAPTER I. PAGL Importance of the Subject considered in its Individual and National Aspects — The Causes which have brought about the Necessity for Improvement in Landed Property — Plan of the Work, and Detailed Statement of its Subjects, 1 CHAPTER II. Farm Buildings — Practical Considerations connected with the General Subject, 11 CHAPTER. III. Points connected with the General Arrangement of Farm Buildings, their Position on the Farm and on the Site selected — Details connected with Site, etc., . 15 CHAPTER IV. Parts of a Farmery connected with the Produce of the Farm — Straw or Rick Yard — Straw Barns, etc., . 23 CHAPTER V. Parts of the Farmery or Steading connected with the Live Stock of the Farm, ..... 36 CHAPTER VI. Dairy Buildings — Their Arrangement and General Fit- tings, 4S CHAPTER VII. Materials connected with the various Structures, CHAPTER VIII. Covered Farm Steadings — Steadings adapted to the Employment of Liquid Manure on the Farm — Steadings for Hilly or Moorland Districts, 78 CHAPTER IX. PAGE Constructive Details of Buildings — Ventilation, etc., . 84 CHAPTER X. The Saving, Storing up, and General Management of Manure, Liquid and Solid, and the Appliances for the same, as Dung Stances or Pits, Covered Dung or Manure Sheds, and Liquid-Manure Tanks, etc., 98 CHAPTER XI. Farm-houses, their Planning and General Construction, 103 CHAPTER XII. The Cottages of the Farm, 112 CHAPTER XIII. Drainage and Sewerage, 133 CHAPTER XIV. Ventilation of Farm-houses— Supply of Water, etc., . 137 CHAPTER XV. Points connected with the convenient Arrangement of Farm Residences, 1 1 1 CHAPTER XVI. Fire-proof Construction adapted to the Buildings <>l the Farm 145 CONTENTS. DIVISION SECOND. ROADS — FENCES GATES OUTLYING STRUCTURES AND WORKS OF THE FARM BRIDGES DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION WORKS EMBANKMENTS MARGIN AND RIVER BANK IMPROVEMENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE Farm Roads, their Construction and Repair — Bridges, 151 CHAPTER II. Fences and Gates, CHAPTER III. Outlying Structures of the Farm — Shelter Sheds in Pasture Fields, etc. — Sheds of Timber generally, . CHAPTER IV. Land Drainage — Its Importance to Landed Property, . CHAPTER V. Irrigation, CHAPTER VI. Saving, Collecting, and Storing up of Water — Embank- ments for Reservoirs, CHAPTER VII. River and Sea Bank Improvements, CHAPTER VIII. Sea Margin Embankments, . DIVISION THIRD. SOILS LAYING OUT OF FIELDS POSITION OF ROADS PLANTATIONS RECLAMATION OF WASTE LAND, ETC. ETC. Soils, CHAPTER II. Laying out the Fields of the Farm— The Position of Roads, Streams, Shelter Plantations, etc., . . 255 CHAPTER III. Plantations of various Kinds, for various Circumstances of Soil, Locality, and Climate, .... 261 CHAPTER IV. The Reclamation of Waste Lands, DIVISION FOURTH. EXTRA OR EXTERNAL SOURCES OF REVENUE OF THE PROPERTY DERIVED FROM OTHER THAN THOSE PURELY AGRICULTURAL STONE AND LIME QUARRIES MARL PITS CLAY BEDS LIME KILNS BRICK AND TILE YARDS AND KILNS BURNING OF CLAY REFUSE OR WASTE WOOD OF PLANTATIONS — REFUSE OF PONDS OR MUD, AND FROM THE UTILIZATION OF WASTE OR NEGLECTED MATERIALS OF THE PROPERTY ICE AND SNOW HOUSES PARTS OF THE PROPERTY ADAPTED FOR GENERAL BUILDING PURPOSES LAYING OUT OR DISPOSITION OF THE SAME FOR VARIOUS CLASSES OF HOUSFS, ETC. CHAPTER I. Stone and Lime Quarries, Marl Pits, and Clay Beds, CHAPTER II. Kilns — Lime-burning Kilns — Brick and Tile Kilns- Clay-burning Kilns, ..... CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. Utilization of Sundry Materials, . PACE 333 CHAPTEB IV. CHAPTER V. Land on the Property suitable for Suburban Domestic Structures — The Position, Setting off, and Laying out of the Plots, 342 CHAPTER VI. Laying out Part of the Property for Amateur Farming, 358 DIVISION FIFTH. THE ADMINISTRATIVE DEPARTMENTS OF THE PROPERTY DISCUSSION OF VARIOUS POINTS CONNECTED WITH THIS LEASES AND TENANT RIGHT SMALL FARMS — THE LABOURER, HIS POSITION, WAGES, AND PRIVILEGES IN PERQUISITES, RECREATION, READING CLUBS, GARDENING ALLOTMENT, ETC., AND EDUCATION. Introduction, 362 CHAPTER I. Leases and Tenant Right 364 CHAPTER II. Small Farms — General Considerations connected with the Subject — Cottars, Crofters, or Labourers' Small Farms, 375 CHAPTER III. Wages of the Labourer — Perquisites, etc., . . . 383 CHAPTER IV. The Recreation of the Labourer — Village Clubs, Read- ing Rooms, etc., ....... 3S9 CHAPTER V. The Allotment Question, DIVISION SIXTH. NOTES ON THE TREATMENT OF DIFFERENT SOILS UNDER ARABLE CULTURE HEAVY LANDS LIGHT SOILS GRASS LANDS EXTENSION OF SYSTEMS OF CROPPING IN RELATION TO LIVE-STOCK FARMING WEEDS AND WEEDING. CHAPTER I. Some Points connected with the Treatment of Heavy or Clay Lands, ....... CHAPTER II. Some Points connected with the General Management of Light Laud CHAPTER III. A few Suggestions on the Improvement of Old and the Laying down of New Grass Lands, the Conversion of Old Grass into Arable Land, and the Conversion of Pasture into Arable, ..... CHAPTER IV. Compost-heaps, and the Sources from which their Mate- rials may he derived, ...... CHAPTER V. An Extended Course of Cropping adapted to yield In- creased Supplies of Food for Live Stock — Weeds and Weeding, CHAPTER VI. Prize and Experimental or ' Model ' Farms — Action of Agricultural Societies — The Agricultural Press — Thr Landlord's or Domestic Faint as an Experi- ment,il One, CONTENTS. DIVISION SEVENTH. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS AND PRACTICAL POINTS CONNECTED WITH THE BREEDING AND REARING OF FARM LIVE STOCK AS AFFECTING THE INTERESTS AND INCREASING THE VALUE OF LANDED PROPERTY. Introductory Remarks — Present Condition and Future Prospects of the Cattle Trade and Cattle Farming, CHAPTER II. The Breeds of Cattle suited for different Localities, Soils, and Systems of Cattle Farming, . CHAPTER III. Notes on some of the Leading Points connected with the Practical Management of Stock, and of Recent Improvements in various Departments of Live- stock Farming, DIVISION EIGHTH AND LAST. SUPPLEMENTARY. Special Farm Buildings for Suburban and Town District Farms — Concrete Building — Fire-proof Construction — Recent Improvements in Sanitary Appliances — Gardeners' Houses — Huntsman's House — Whips' Cottages — Entrance or Gate Lodges — Park Lodges — Detached Stables, Coach-houses, and Coachmen's Houses — The Present Position and Future Prospects of the Cottage Question — Recent Improvements in Town Sewage Applica- tion— River Bank Works — Water Works for the Estate and Farm — Rain-water Tanks — Rain and Drainage Water-collecting Areas in Fields, etc. — Special do. for Buildings — Utilization of Waste Water Space, as old Marl Pits, etc. — Plantation of Waste and Neglected Lands — New Crops for the Farm — Heavy Land Cultivation — Continuous Corn-growing on the same Soil — Grass Land Cul- tivation under various aspects — Change of Arable to Grass Land — High Farming as increasing the Produce of Land — Stacking, Storing, and Saving of Grain and Hay Crops — Farm Agents, Managers, and Bailiffs — Education of the Farmer — Farm Accounts and Book-keeping — Importance of Capital — Banking— Freedom of Cropping — Modi- fications in the Systems of Farming — Revision of the Land Laws — Freedom of Contract — Law of Distraint — The Small Farm System — Transition Periods in Agriculture — Its Probable Future — Conclusion, . 477 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. No. OF 1. 10. Plan of Farm Buildings fur Mixed Husbandry, 150 to 200 acres. Stack Yards and Stack-yard Appliances and Structures — Ventilators for Stacks — Covered Stack Yards. Rain-water Tanks — Horse Ponds and Troughs — Plans showing Arrangements for Cow Houses or Byres — Single Stalled ; Double do. — Plan of Dairy Buildings. Plans, Elevations, and Sections of Cattle and Horse Sheds. Plans, Elevations, and Sections of Stable and Cart Shed. Plans, Elevations, and Sections of Cattle Sheds and Cow Houses or Byres. Sections of Windows for Live-stock Buildings — Plans of Bullock Sheds or Houses — Sections of Cattle Boxes. Fittings of Stalls for Cow Byres or Houses, and for Cattle Feeding, in Elevation, Sections, and Details. Plans and Sections of Stables in different Styles of Arrangement (Single and Double Stalled) and Fittings — Plan and Section of Farrier's or Smith's Forge. Plan and Elevation of Horse Shed — Details of Cattle-box Fittings. Plan of Dairy Farm Buildings — Plan of Dairy. Plans of Dairies — Sectional Details of do. — Plans of Dairy Buildings on the American System — Block Plans of Large Dairy Build- 1 3. Plan of Large Piggery. 14. Plan and Elevation of Farm Buildings on the Mixed Husbandry System. No. of Plate. 15. Plan of Farm Buildings for a Moorland District — Plan of American Dairy — Elevation of Timber House adapted in Style for various Farm Buildings. 1G. Elevations and Sections of Manure Pits or Dung Stances, with and without Liquid Manure Tanks — CoveredDung Pits or Manure Sheds, with Liquid Manure Tanks, in Sections. 17. Plan of Covered Dung Pit or Manure Shed, with Dimensions marked. 1.8. Longitudinal Sectional Elevation of Covered Dung Pit or Manure Shed, with Liquid Manure Tank, having Dimensions marked — Lime Kiln in Plan, Elevation, and Section. 19. Transverse or Cross Section of Covered Dung Pit or Manure Shed, with Liquid Manure Tank, with Dimensions marked. 20. Details of various Methods of Ventilating Farm Buildings — Ventilators. 21. Details of Woodwork for Farm Buildings — Stairs for Granaries, etc. 22. Plans, Elevations, and Sections of Ice Houses — Double Walls — Plans of Irrigated Fields. 23. Elevation of Farm House, Plans of which are in Text ; Style, Domestic Gothic. 24. Elevation of a Two-storied Farm House ; Style, Gothic and Elizabethan. 25. Ground Plan of do. 26. Plan and Elevation of Bailiff's Cottage, Single- storied. 27. Alternative Elevations (Style, Italian) for a Farm House, Single-storied. 28. Alternative Ground Plan for Bailiff's Cottage in preceding Plate. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 29. Ground Plans of Single and Detached Cot- tages, Single-storied and Two-storied. 30. Ground Plans of Single-storied Cottages — Plans of Bothies — Plan of Two-storied Cottage laid out specially for Lodgers. 31. Ground Plans of Cottages in Pairs or Semi- detached, and Two-storied. 32. Plans and Sections of Two-storied Semi-detached Cottage. 33. Section of a Cottage of Timber, with Details showing Method of Construction. 3-1. Sectional Drawings showing Methods of Con- structing Roads — Sections of Ditches — Sec- tion of Road Surface — Concrete Laying, etc. 35. Road Construction continued : Sections showing different Forms of Drains for Land — River Bank Facings of Stone — Do. of Stone and Timber combined. 36. Sectional Drawings showing various Forms and Kinds of Fences — Park Fences — Walls — Retaining Walls constructed of different Materials, as Clods, Turf, Earth or Soil, Wood, and Stone, with combined Work, as Soil and Timber, or Stone and Timber. 37. Drawings of Fences and Walls continued : Thorn and Live or Growing Timber Fences — Retaining Walls for Earth Bank Fences — Roads in Cuttings, etc. — Flat Stone Fences — Dry Stone Fences — Rock and Boulder Fences. 38. Retaining Walls continued : Details of Stone and Brick Construction — Various Methods of Setting Stone, as Rubble, Coursed Rubble, and Ashlar of various Kinds — Setting of Bricks, as Flemish and Old English Band — Enclosing Walls, or ' Walls of Enclosure,' in Brickwork and in Stone. 39. Timber Fences or Wood Palings, different Forms of — Details showing various Methods of joining the Timber of Fences or Palings — Setting out of Fences in Straight and Crooked Lines — Do. on Undulating Land — Hurdles. 40. Ornamental Palings — Perforations in Wood- work— Ornamental Eaves and Finials. 41. Different Forms of Gates in Timber, and in Timber and Iron combined — Hanging of Gates — Details of Gates. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. Hurdles — Rustic Woodwork — Rustic Fences — Different Forms of Plain and Ornamental Palings. Ironwork, Plain and Ornamental, for Hurdles, Fencing, Gates, Latches for Gates, Fixing of Posts in Ground, etc. Fences of different Kinds in Wire, Bar Iron, Timber, and Stone combined. Designs for Entrance Gates in various Styles, Italian, Elizabethan, Domestic Gothic. Details of Timber Work used in various Con- structions, as Shoring up Timber, Foot Bridges, Gangways, Stairs, Roofs. Lime and Brick Kilns in Plan, Section, and Details. Brick and Tile Kiln in Plan and Elevation. Plans showing Arrangement of Yards for Brick and Drain-tube Making, with Drying Sheds, Machine Sheds, and Kilns Sections and House. Brick and Drain-tube Kiln Details — Sections of Dryin Sections of Embankments and Reservoirs — Culverts — Traps — Laying of Drains. Systems of Irrigation in Plan and Section — Continental Systems in Sections. Continental Systems of Irrigation in Plan and Section. Systems of Irrigation in Plan and Section — Brown's System of Irrigating Grass Land. Details of Irrigation and Open Water Works — Mill Dams — Ditches or Water Courses, dif- ferent Methods of Constructing in Section — Method of Setting out Slojjing Sides of Water Courses. Details of Timber Work for Mill Dams or Water Courses, Weirs, etc. 57. Sections and Details of Embankments for Water Reservoirs — Facings of different Kinds for Embankments — Weirs — Embankments used in Reclaiming Land from the Sea — Improv- ing Sea and River Banks — Facings for River Banks. 58. Protection for River Bank Faces by Piling, Fascines, etc. — Training Walls for Improv- ing Flow of Rivers and Preventing Floods thereof — Groins for Sea -margin Banks — GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. No. OF Plate. Protection of Shores — Protection of Eiver Banks — Warping. 59. Protection of Eiver Banks — Eeservoir Embank- ments— Weirs — Sea-margin Embankments — ' Saltings ' — Kentish Embankments. 60. Laying out of Fields — Readjustment of badly- shaped Fields — Utilization of Waste Cor- ners of Fields — Fields in relation to one another and to Eoads, Eivers, etc. — Setting out or Planning the Fields of a Farm of different kinds — Plan of a Farm with Irri- gated Meadows. 6E Plans of Farms of different kinds continued, showing Arrangement under varied circum- stances. 62. Plan of Liquid Manure Farm (Town Sewage) laid out for different Systems. 63. Plantation of Trees — Different Systems adopted for : the ' Square,' the ' Lozenge or Diagonal Square,' the ' Quicunx or Pentagonal,' and the ' Hexagonal ' — Methods of Setting out the different Forms. 64. American System of constructing Timber-framed Structures adapted for Cottages, Out-build- ings, Cattle Houses, Sheds, etc. 65. Details of American System for Timber Farm- ing— Construction of Outlying Structures of Timber, and Straw, Furze, Brushwood, etc., combined — Eustic Woodwork. 66. Plans showing different arrangements for the Setting out of the Grounds — Ornamental and Kitchen Garden, adapted for Suburban Building Plots and for Farm Houses, etc. 67. Ground Plan and Elevation of Isolated or Detached Laundry Building, containing Wash House, with Benches for Moveable Tubs — Eanges of Fixed Tubs for Hot and Cold Water, Boiler, etc. — Wringing and Biasing House and Machine Eoom — Hot-air Drying Eoom, with Eail Drying Backs — Mangling Eoom, Ironing Eoom, Starching and Dressing Eoom — Store Eoom and Covered Verandah for Drying Vessels, etc. — The Arrangements in this Plan can be adapted to form part of Mansion or Farm House, either on the same or a modified scale. No. OF Plate. 68. Ground Plan and Elevation of Out-buildings, containing Two-stalled Stable, with Loose Box and Corn Eoom or Crib, Coach House and Harness Eoom, to which is added extra accommodation, when Cows and Poultry are kept, comprising Cow House with two Stalls, Turnip or Eoot Eoom, Hay -bin, Poultry House. 69. Ground Plan of the Celebrated Model Farm Buildings at Luton Hoo, on the Mixed Husbandry System. — The steam power of this gigantic farm steading is arranged on the divided or isolated system, a number of separate steam engines being distributed over the steading, arranged at various points to meet the requirements of the fattening cattle, dairy cows, sheep, pigs, etc., in their separate buildings. These steam engines are supplied with steam from a central boiler of eighty horse power. The steam is dis- tributed to the various engine-rooms by means of underground pipes. The sheet contains also Ground Plans of Huntsman's House and Whips' Cottages, for the Plan of Stables and Kennels of the same Estate illustrated in Plate 71. 70. Plans on larger scale of the leading parts of the Model Farm Buildings given in preceding Plate. From the large size of the steading, the sheet only admits of a Block Plan being given in the preceding Plate ; in this Plate various parts are illustrated on a larger scale, comprising Plans of the Steward or Bailiff's House, with Out-buildings, Work or Cart Horse Stables, Sheds and Yards for Fattening. 71. Plan of Dog Kennels and Stables— Dog or Hound Lodgings — Feeding Houses and Yards— Stables— Loose Boxes— Wash and Saddle Booms, and Shoeing Forge— Plan of Huntsman's Cottage, etc. 72. Ground Plan of Combined Poultry Yard and Piggery Buildings, with alternative Eleva- tions—Poultry, Geese, Duck, and Turkey HatchingandEoostingHouses.withattached Grass Buns or Yards— Feeding Styes for PigS_ Fattening Pigs — Furrow Swine- Boar Sheds — Yards and Sheds for Store Pies. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. No. of Plate. 73. Plan of Buildings for Suburban Poultry Farm — Do. for Piggery — Circular Farm Buildings — Elevations in different Styles, Details of which can be adapted to the different Classes of Farm Buildings. 74. Drawings, Elevations, and Sections of Apparatus for Constructing Walls in Concrete for Farm Buildings, and in Pists for Out-build- ings — Details of Apparatus — Details showing simple methods of rendering Timber Work of Buildings Fire - proof — Eustic or Eough Timber Work for Out- buildings, etc. 75. Perspective Elevations of Entrance or Gate No. of Plate. Lodges, which can be adapted to other Structures, as Bailiff's and Gardener's Houses, etc. 76. Ground Plans of Entrance Lodges in preceding Plate, showing Living Accommodation for Gatekeeper and Family, together with Office for Bailiff, etc. 77. Ground Plan (alternative) of Entrance Lodge, with House and Office Accommodation — Ground Plans (4) of Stable, Coach House, Harness House, Living and Bed Booms for Coachman and Family — Plans and Sections of Rain-water Collecting Ponds or Areas, and Tanks in Fields. PRACTICAL DIRECTORY FOK THE IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY, AND THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE LEADING CLASSES OF ITS FARMS AND WORKS. CHAPTER I. IMPORTANCE OF THE SUBJECT CONSIDERED IN ITS INDIVIDUAL AND NATIONAL ASPECTS. — THE CAUSES WHICH HAVE BROUGHT ABOUT THE NECESSITY FOR IMPROVEMENT IN LANDED PROPERTY. — PLAN OF THE WORK, AND DETAILED STATEMENT OF ITS SUBJECTS. Amongst the varied arts and sciences which minister to the well-being and add largely to the wealth of the community, there is none which ranks in equal importance to that connected with the land. All other branches of trade, manufac- tures, and commerce are dependent upon it, and without its produce they would languish and die out. It affords employment to a large proportion of the population, scope for the investment of enormous capital, and its wants and necessities call for the exercise of the skill, knowledge, and business habits of the most advanced and highly trained of our scientific men, and the most eminent of our mechanicians and artisans. To their con- nection with the land, some of the most brilliant of the discoveries of our highest chemists and physiologists are due ; and, so far as present ex- perience would indicate, it is destined to afford as brilliant a field for the display of the talents of our mechanical and civil engineers. No doubt much of this high position which the land, and the departments of science and industry connected with it, holds, has only been reached within a com- paTatively short period. Time was, and that not tpiite beyond the memory of those able farmers who have not yet retired from the field of active labour which their skill and fine management have done so much practically to enrich, when matters connected with the land presented a very different aspect, — when its departments seemed to have reached the point of lowest ebb in those tides of time and circumstances which pass over nearly every one of our industrial callings, — when the results of farming were but poor and un- satisfactory, and the farmers who carried it out were about the last of the various classes of the community from whom was to be expected any evidences of that stirring life, restless activity, and untiring energy which had tended to raise other branches to such a high point of social importance, and which gave to those connected with them the power of accumulating the gigantic fortunes and the many comfortable competencies, of which all have read, and which so many have witnessed. But a number of circumstances, social as well as scientific, brought about a change, as remarkable for its effects on the future prospects of all work connected with the land, as it has been for the revolution which it has wrought in the minds, the habits of thought, and the man- ner of doing business of the classes more imme- diately affected by it. And just as we find, in tracing the history of other departments of industry, — such, for example, as the very striking instance of the introduction of the steam-engine at a time when coal mines began to be un- workable from the accumulation of water, from which the power alone of that very motor was DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. able to free them, and the coals thus set free gave a wider field and a more economical range to the steam-engine in turn, — so we find that, at a certain period in the history of our country, those circumstances began to exercise a reflex influence upon each other, which tended to give the wonderful impetus to farming to winch we have alluded. Very interesting would it be to trace these in detail, and suggestive withal ; but, this not coming within our province, suffice it to state that all the departments concerned in the industrial working of the landed property of the kingdom received such an impetus, that farming, considered as a whole, — and that is the raison d'etre of landed property, — took rank as one of the most advanced branches of scientific industry, claiming a position second to none, alike from the readiness with which those connected with it availed themselves of every improvement, and from the energy, skill, and business prudence which they displayed in all their labours, and the large amount of capital which they expended upon them. These improvements in what might be called the minor details of the work of landed property, brought about, as may be conceived, a new and superior method of working, which added largely to the productive powers of the soil, and in like or in greater proportion to its intrinsic value, although it was some time before this told in the way most pleasing to those who had invested in it, namely, in a decided and a steady rise of rents. But, at a later stage or period in our national history, other causes came into operation which still more increased, in greater or less degree, the letting or pecuniary value of land, and also, to a very marked degree, the demand for its farms. To notice only one of these inciting causes, the in- crease of the population and the gradual — in some instances the sudden — rise of wages and incomes of its various classes have created such a demand for the produce of the land, and have given pur- chasers the means of paying the higher prices which this increase naturally created ; and these, again, have had a reflex influence upon the rents, which have risen greatly, and attained a point far beyond what could or would have been conceived possible but a comparatively few years ago. Other causes, doubtless, have led to this remarkable change in the development of the resources' and the rise in the value of lauded property, considered only here, for obvious reasons, from the farming or productive point of view. The chief of those causes will be noticed incidentally in the body of the work, as they come up in connection with the subjects treated of; and others will doubt- less present themselves here to the minds of many of our readers. But, by way of example, we may cite one of those causes, the extended and extending demand there is for amateur farms by men of business, who, possessed of ample means, give high rents for the farms they take a liking to, quite irrespective of their value to what may be called the class of legitimate farmers. In view, then, of the necessities of an ever increasing population, possessed at once of new desires for the enjoyment of a higher quality of style of living, of greater luxuries, and of the means of gratifying these to an extent never before in the history of our country witnessed, the ques- tion how best to augment the food supplies pro- duced from our farms, thus to obtain from these the maximum of produce with the minimum of labour expended or of capital sunk or invested, has of late assumed a vast importance, which it is difficult either thoroughly at once to grasp or to over-estimate or exaggerate. There is, indeed, no question so vitally affecting the pecuniary and industrial interests, and so closely affecting the material, the social, and, as an almost necessary consequence, the moral and religious welfare of the country, as this. It may be said truly and characteristically to come home to every one, for with it every one is concerned, from its influence none is exempt. Hence the necessity which requires, and, indeed, which demands, that the investigation of all its points should be conducted with the most pains- taking and scrupulous care, so that from it may be deduced those sound principles upon which all true and lasting and progressive improvements depend, and upon these based a system of appli- cation of the results which will draw towards them that successful practice, the outcome of the study and of the daily practice of those connected with this, the most vitally important of all the branches of our national industry. Numerous, however, as have been the improve- PRESENT CO. UION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS OF IMPROVEMENTS. 3 ments introduced during the period we have alluded to, and manifest as has been their in- fluence upon the general condition of our farms, and upon the increase in the produce of their soils, it must not be supposed that these are incapable of further improvement or of yielding increased produce; for, as our population is increasing at a wonderfully rapid rate, as also, apparently, its means of spending larger sums upon the necessaries as well as not a few of the luxuries of life, so ought also the productive powers of the land to increase, if not in like, still in some proportion thereto. Nevertheless, the fact remains that there is a remarkable difference between the ratio of increase of the population and that of the production of crops and cattle required to maintain them. Indeed, in many districts it is to be feared that the increase in the productive powers of the land is very trifling, if, indeed, in some it does not go back. Even in what may be called the external work of our farms, a vast deal has yet to be done before they can assume that degree of completeness of laying- out, and in every detail of their management, of which examples are only to be met with in our cotton, wool, and other manufactures, in which perfection in planning or arrangement and com- pleteness in detail are carried out to the utmost limits which capital, energy, and skill can secure. And as regards the productive powers of the soils of our farms, taking them all round throughout the kingdom, it is admitted by all those who have given thought to the subject, and are ac- cpiainted with its practical details, that this power can be increased to a very large extent, some authorities going the length of putting the per- centage of increase resulting from the best pos- sible style of farming as high even as fifty per cent. But while admitting this to be a somewhat exaggerated estimate, it may nevertheless be ac- cepted as a practical fact, that the produce of the soils of our farms can be increased to a point very much beyond what is now the rule, taking them on the average, if not, indeed, taking our best culti- vated farms as the standard. Numerous examples are to be met -with in proof of this ; and that these could be followed on a much more extensive scale than has yet been witnessed, admits of no doubt. Not that in all instances it is true that because a certain work of improvement in land has been done in one place, it can be done in another, inasmuch as in agriculture there are so many conflicting influences at work, tending to render the results of one trial very different from those of another; still, a close examination of the land, locality, climate, soil, and other points, will enable the farmer to decide how best im- provements can be carried out in his special case, and in how far they may or must differ from improvements of a similar kind of which he has heard. There are but few farms of which, if not the whole, at least a part of them can be greatly improved. Our best farmers, indeed, keep their lands in a constantly progressive state of improve- ment, so that, however slow may be the rate at which this proceeds, it proceeds steadily. Each succeeding year, apart from natural casualties to which all are subject, finds the farm better than it was the year preceding. This is what ought to be the normal condition of the farms of the kingdom; but our highest authorities are compelled to admit that this is not their condition, and that a vast deal has yet to be done before it be so. And it may be deemed a matter of really high national importance, that, as aiding our farmers to bring about this greatly improved condition of matters, there are now a number of helps and appliances within their easy reach, and available at comparatively moderate prices, which even but a few years ago had no existence; or, if some were to be met with, it was in the crudest of forms and at the dearest of prices. To these, which we owe to the inventive talent and the constructive skill of our mechanics, engineers, and architects, must be added the important help afforded by our chemists and physiologists, from which list it would be unpardonable to omit those agriculturists who combine in themselves all the advantages of a finished scientific educa- tion and learning, and of a thorough practical knowledge of all the details connected with the management and improvement of property. We thus see that there is, in connection with the management and improvement of the landed property of the kingdom, a future so encouraging in its aspects as to be almost classed as brilliant, but which is not the less practical. This future, however, can and will only be realized by the DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. united efforts of all the parties interested in the subject. While, beyond a doubt, the work done in isolated districts, and by a few, compara- tively, individual proprietors, cannot fail to be of considerable value, and to influence the circles immediately within their influence; and while believing that it is the duty of every proprietor, irrespective of what is thought of or done by his neighbours or acquaintances, to improve to the utmost the property entrusted to his charge, and for which he is responsible at once individu- ally and nationally, still it must be remembered that such isolated circles are limited in their influence, and it can only be when the united body of landed proprietors rise to a due concep- tion, at once of the dignity of their position and the wonderful influence which that position gives them for good, that the general improvement of land and the large increase in the products of its fields, to which we have already alluded, can ever be realized. But, while the landlords have their duties to perform, and, seeing that they have the largest stake in what will result from the proper fulfilment of these, they ought to be, as they will be, the first to give an impetus to the subject, in the general movement which is expected and hoped soon universally to take place ; still it must not be forgotten that the farmers, their tenants, have also their duties to perform, and that upon the way in which these are done will depend largely the ultimate success of the movement. That it will succeed is beyond a doubt, but the period of its fair, if not wholly completed, realization — which will necessarily be a work of long time — will depend upon the way in which the bond of union thus hinted at is formed and carried out. Never was there a time more propitious than the present for the realiza- tion of such a scheme. It will be a source at once of individual and national wealth if it be taken advantage of, and efficiently carried out. From all these and other considerations, which might here be named did space permit, but which will be obvious enough, it is by the Conductors deemed to be a period in the progress and history of landed property peculiarly and markedly auspici- ous and appropriate for the issue of a work which shall take up, and treat as fully and exhaustively as possible within a space which will not exceed what may be called reasonable and practically available, all the points connected with the sub- ject; a work, the practical details of which will not be narrowed and, so to say, confined in their application by local circumstances and other considerations, but will embrace, as far as may be said to be practically possible, the chief of the conditions of the varied districts of the king- dom ; a work so arranged to meet the wants and necessities of those engaged in the practical im- provement of landed property as to take in a wide range of circumstances, and give instructions, hints, and suggestions thereon so comprehensive, that, as a rule, they will be able to find in its pages something which will bear practically on almost every point of practice in which they may be interested. Connected with what may be called the natural features or characteristics of landed property, and of the various classes of farms into which it may be divided, there are obviously certain points which must be taken into grave consideration, as affecting not only its value or the price which it would bring if it were to be sold, but also the scheme or plan of its general management, or of the details of the work necessary to be done in the way of effecting a thorough improvement should it have been neglected as a whole and its farm lands impoverished, or where certain work of re-modelling of its parts was deemed necessary, or where, as in the case of a purchase of new lands being effected, the laying out of the whole de novo was determined upon. These points of practical detail are numerous ; and although obviously all are of importance, still some of necessity rank higher than do others, while all are so intimately connected with and influence each other in a way more or less direct, that they must be considered as forming a perfect and fully developed whole, the neglect of any one tending to injure some other. The whole may, in other words, be looked upon as a chain of practical details, the links of which, while they may be considered as separate pieces, are connected indissolubly together; and as the greatest strength of the chain is tested or shown by that of its weakest part, it is the object of the designer so to proportion its parts that as a whole it will be able to bear throughout the GENERAL PLAN OF THE WORK. 5 greatest strain put upon it, and which it is cal- culated to bear. The work, therefore, connected with landed property, when treated in any of the ways just noted, must he done with pains- taking precision, and all its details carefully planned, so that their execution may be effected with the maximum of efficiency and economy, and the minimum of expenditure in time, labour, and money. In carefully examining the details of work planned in such a way, it will be found that there is what may be called a natural se- quence of subjects, or a regular order in which they best come up for treatment, and it is when this is followed that the efficiency and economy we have just hinted at are most certainly secured. These considerations have led the author of the present volume to decide upon the scheme of its arrangement. After mature consideration, it appears to him that these above-named and other obvious ad- vantages will be gained in perhaps the readiest and most easily referred to way, by adopting the following classification, giving the whole subjects connected with the improvement of landed pro- perty under one or other of certain divisions : — (1) Structures of every kind, whether concentrated on one part of the several farms or isolated in various outlying parts of the property. (2) Varie- ties of soils met with on the property, their distri- bution, and laying out into farms and fields. (3) The reclamation of waste land, etc. (4) Internal resources of revenue of the property other than that derived from directly agricultural operations, as marl pits, clay beds for brick and drain tiles and tubes, lime and stone quarries, etc., brick and tile kilns, etc. (5) A general review and notice of sub- jects not coming closely within, or embraced by, one or other of the foregoing divisions, but having a close connection with, or bearing practically upon, the general subject. This classification of the leading divisions starts upon the principle, that before any business can be properly carried on in which various operations are conducted, it is a matter of primary importance that the necessary buildings be erected, and the various erections and appli- ances in which construction be more or less de- manded be provided, by which the work can be done in the quickest and most economical way, either in the field or at the fold. These being supplied, the consideration of the best way of working up the materials, close or near at hand as the case may be, which may be required to carry on the business, comes naturally in sequence ; as, next, consideration of every point in order to render these materials more valuable, to extend their sources of supply, and thus directly and indirectly to add to the profits of the establish- ment. The application of this principle to the improvement of landed property is so obvious, that we think it need not be here further insisted upon. "We proceed, therefore, to lay before the reader in cxtenso the various subjects which will be treated of within the various divisions we have named, not merely to show the sequence with which one subject follows upon another, but the vast variety of the different details which will be illustrated and described in a thoroughly practical way in the text of the work. It is not always easy at the outset of a work to detail fully and precisely the detailed subjects which will be treated of in its pages, if, indeed, it be wise or prudent to bind oneself within the strict lines of such a limitation ; for, however well considered these may be deemed to be, — and these in the present instance ought to be, as they have been in preparation and under classification for many years, — still, as the work progresses new ideas are elicited, new suggestions made ; while with the progress of time, which in one sense, on the one hand, is quite rapid enough in the way in which it brings forth changes and promotes progress, is nevertheless slow enough on the other to bring out such a number of improvements, and such a wide variety of suggestions, that the plan of to-morrow, if not altered in its general features, in the more complete filling up of its departments and details, may be very different from that de- cided upon to-day. Notwithstanding these con- tingencies, which are all the more likely to arise the larger the work, and the longer therefore the time over which its preparation and the full reali- zation of its details extends, the following may nevertheless be accepted as a brief, but on the whole accurate, exposition of the subjects which will or should be embraced within its pages. Under the first division, as already named, the subjects — which may be classed as ' home struc- tures ' of the farm— will be taken up in detail in DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. chapters and sections somewhat in the order as follows. Those in the first division are connected with what may be called the farm buildings proper : under this, the first department, will be considered and fully illustrated, all the details connected with the position of farm buildings with rela- tion to the fields and roads of the farm, their site, asp>ect, soil, and the principles upon which their arrangement for different kinds of farming de- pends. Then will be described and illustrated the various apartments, such as stables and horse sheds, cattle courts, yards, sheds, boxes and hammels, cow houses or byres, sheep houses, piggeries, and poultry houses. Under the general department of farm buildings, those connected with the dairy demand special attention, and in connection with which will be given descriptions of the latest improve- ments in arrangement and construction. This department of farming is now going through a pro- cess of revival, the end of which will be a complete revolution in all the details of its management. How this revival, so to call it, has been brought about, this revolution carried on, and what the details by which it is characterised, will be found fully explained and illustrated in the text. Suffice it to say, that dairying in all its branches is likely now once more to assume the position in British farming it formerly held, and its produce be as liighly esteemed and valued as before, but which, from a variety of causes needless to be named, had been so far and was being so rapidly and com- pletely lost, that some time ago it seemed as if dairying was no longer to hold a place in it. The methods of managing and preserving manure, in keeping with the results of the researches of scien- tific and the experience of practical men, will also receive full consideration ; and the most recent forms and styles of arranging the dung heaps, stances, pits, and covered manure courts, with their adjuncts of liquid manure tanks, together with the materials recently introduced into their construc- tion, such as concrete, will be fully illustrated. What may be called the domestic architecture and buildings of the farm will next follow, and will comprise all that can be well said on the subject of farm-houses, the bailiff's house, and the labourer's cottage. In connection with the farm - house, the fullest information will be given, so as to make it afford the maximum amount of accom- modation with the least expense, that accommoda- tion being considered in its threefold aspect of the entertaining-rooms, the living-rooms, and those parts of the house devoted to work and domestic arrangements. In all these, an endeavour will be made to present, possibly for the first time in practical literature, under this department, a number of hints, suggestions, and details bearing upon the relations not only which one set of rooms has to another set, but which the various parts of each room considered individually have to one another — as, for example, the relation of windows and doors to fire-places and free wall- space, so that the furniture can be placed in the best and most convenient positions for the gene- ral comfort. Nor will such minor details in the working parts of the farm-house, such as fire- places, closets, pantries, sculleries, shelving and its fittings.be deemed unworthy of notice.minister- ing materially as they do to the conveniences of working and to the economy of time taken up in doing it. In brief, it will be the endeavour of the author so to place the whole arrangements, con- veniences, and fittings of the farm-house before the reader, that the connection between each will be at once seen, and the reason why every detail recommended is given. So also with reference to the arrangements and conveniences upon which the health of the occupants of the farm-house is dependent ; these will be treated of, or attempted to be treated, in the same thoroughly practical way, without on the one hand giving undue prominence, or in some instances no prominence at all, to those refine- ments in sanitary science, the utility and prac- tical adaptability of which to ordinary dwelling- houses is, to say the least, very problematical ; but, on the other, giving all the necessary practical and easily adapted details, without fear of giving too much or being too prolix. The labourer's cottage question has long engaged attention, and given rise to almost endless dis- cussion on the platform and by the press, much of which would have effected more practical good had it not been given to the public, who have got bewildered amidst the conflict of opposing opinions and the extraordinary diversity of plans of procedure. An attempt will be made in the text to place the whole subject on the basis which DETAILED STATEMENT OF SUBJECTS TREATED. those authorities who have viewed or tried to view it in a common-sense way have of late brought forward and advocated. The writer has been one of those who have considered that the subject has been dealt with too much from one point of view, ami th it perhaps philanthropy to the exclusion of practicality has been too much thought of. One thing appears obvious, as the outcome of the most recent experience in this question, that what the labourer himself thinks of in connection with and requires in his cottage, must have more prominence given to it in the future than it has received in the past. Under this section a number of plans will be given, showing the various styles, modes, and classes of cottages, adapted to give varying accom- modation, according to the necessities of each individual case. Under the second great division of the subject we have named, will come to be considered all that for the purposes of the work more strictly fall to be treated of under the general designation of 'exterior or outlying structures' of the pro- perty, as distinguished from those connected with farmeries, steadings, or home structures. The first subject which comes up for consideration in this division is obviously roads ; next in sequence to which is that of fences, gates, etc., of various styles and forms, applicable to all parts of the property. The form of the fences in relation to roads, and the way in which they influence one another as regards position, and consequently in the saving of land as well as in the convenient working of the fields under arable culture, fall to be here discussed and illustrated. So also the relation and the setting out of the roads and the fields of a farm with reference to the farm buildings are also here considered. Next comes up the subject of drainage. As a large amount of ignorance prevails as to what constitutes the true principles upon which this depends, so far at least as deep drainage, and especially in heavy soils, is concerned, and as this forms an essential feature in the commercial improvement of landed property, we shall devote a lew paragraphs to its consideration and illustration. Having got to this point, the next subject, which is closely connected with the last, is that of irri- gation. The matter we shall give in connection with this will concern itself chiefly with the methods in use for the utilization of the water supply of the property in irrigating meadow land, the grass of which is either to be made into hay, or cut as green or forage food for house or stall fed cattle, dairy cows, and live stock generally, and will embrace all details connected with the different styles of irrigation, their laying out, con- struction of water ways, sluices, etc. etc. While, however, these will be the principal points treated of under this head, we shall notice more or less completely the methods in use for using the sew- age water of toivns, where there are parts of the property to which this can be supplied, on the most economical methods. What these are, aud what the principles upon which they are founded, will be described with special reference to their practical application to fields most favourably situated for utilizing this source of manurial supply, and an endeavour will be made to show where this can be done with profit and the reverse. Intimately connected with the department named above of drainage and irrigation, is that con- nected with the saving and storing up of water, in situations where much at present is allowed to run to waste, or, at least, not made available to any- thing like the extent to which we hope to be able to show it can be. Under this department fall to be described and illustrated the various points connected with the localities best adapted for the collecting of water, and the formation of the neces- sary reservoirs ; the best position for the retaining embankments, the construction of embankments, lead- ing the ivater collected in the reservoir to the points to be used, whether for purposes of irrigation or for the supply of the farm buildings ; and the position and construction of ponds and of drinking-troughs for cattle in pasture fields or at the farm steading, will at this point be fully detailed. The next subject in what may be called natural sequence to be considered is river improvement, either with a view to prevent the destruction of the banks, the sweeping away of good land on the margin, or the placing and construction of embankments to prevent the submersion of adjacent land, or to reclaim or restore land which lies at a distance from it. Under the subject of soils, the following may be taken as a brief exposition of the subjects which will be embraced within this division. Prelimi- nary to the discussion of the details of which, DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. will come naturally the methods by which shelter will be secured to the various forms in which the soil of the estate is divided into fields, these being discussed under the head of planta- tions. This important department will be con- sidered under the head of plantations or shelter for fields, — those designed as ornamental addi- tions, as well as a means for affording shelter, to the grounds, parks, and the like, surrounding or in the immediate neighbourhood of the mansion of the proprietor or the house and garden of the farmer, and the still more humble yet necessary shelter required for the house of the bailiff or the garden plots of the labourers. Lastly comes the department of plantations, as affording chiefly a source of revenue from the timber which they supply, and the shelter they at the same time afford to wide tracts of land, ameliorating the climate and adding to the value of lands either under arable culture or used as pasture. Strictly, the subject of fences would come here to be con- sidered, as in one sense, at least, acting as shelter to fields ; but as this is done only in a modified sense, and as, moreover, they are erected in close connection with roads, of which they form an essential part, it has been deemed advisable to confine their consideration and illustration to that part of the work under which roads are discussed. Next comes the classification of soils, their charac- teristics, peculiarities, constituents, and the culture or management of their leading classes ; reclaimed lands from bogs and peaty parts of the property, from marshes, river and sea margins; heath, common, and woody lands, etc. etc. Having thus considered the points connected with the kinds or classes, the peculiarities and the local characteristics or formation of the lands of the property, and the nature of the soils of which these are made up, we come to the next division of our subject, which concerns itself with the best methods of the laying out of the fields into which these are and must be divided so as to be worked in the quickest and most economical way. This department takes up, then, all con- siderations connected with the best form or shape to be given to the fields, the dimensions best adapted for horse power when that is used for the working of implements, with special remarks on what is required for the adaptation of steam power. Under this head, the question of the size of farms, and the various points, pro and con, with reference to the small and large holding systems, will be taken up and discussed. And in close relation thereto, and as bearing upon the subject, the legislation and attempted legislation of the past few years come to be noticed. The subjects now named bring up those con- nected with that wide and important one of waste lands, which has, in consequence of the large amount of public discussion which has been given to it, bulked largely in the estimation of the general public, who have not, as we believe, always, if ever, fairly had its true elements pre- sented to them. To do this, than which, perhaps, there is no more important department of agri- cultural social economics, an attempt will be made; and by endeavouring to take a common- sense view of the whole bearings of the case, it may be that many, or some at least, of the con- siderations we may have to offer will do good service in placing the subject on its right basis before our readers. Having discussed the general subject of waste lands, the special points connected with the reclamation of such portions of them as are capable of being cultivated to a profitable extent will come up for consideration. The division which embraces what may be called the extra sources of revenue which the estate may be possessed of, will embrace the practical points connected with such subjects as marl pits and clay beds, lime and stone quarries, and the best methods of utilising their products ; drawings and descriptions of yards, drying sheds, and kilns of various kinds for the making, drying, and burning of bricks, tiles, and drain tubes, for use either on the estate or for sale to neighbouring proprietors, will be given, as also illustrations of lime kilns. Under this division some remarks will be presented on the utilising of old and worked-out marl pits, etc., either by the formation of fish-ponds, or of re- servoirs for the storing up of water, or by filling them up, and adding by this means so much to the acreage of the land. As useful in the new system of working dairies, etc., the construction of econo- mically formed zee-houses will be illustrated and described ; as will also various structures and parts of structures calculated to be useful in, and to aid, the economical working of farms, etc. For the DETAILED STATEMENT OF SUBJECTS TREATED. first time, we believe, in a class work such as the present, a subject will be taken up and discussed as practically as possible, which comes under the extra sources of the revenue of the estate, namely, the appropriation and setting out of such parts of estates for which there may be a demand for general building purposes. There are many pro- perties, the bulk of the land of which is situated in close proximity to towns and large villages, etc. ; while others have part so placed, the re- mainder being in the country and strictly rural districts. From a variety of circumstances which it is needless to name here, there is now a demand, which is daily growing into a point of great im- portance to the proprietors of such estates, which may be designated as suburban or suburbial, for portions favourably situated on which buildings of various kinds can be erected. When these are of the domestic class, belonging generally to those who have abundant means, a good and in many instances a handsome price is offered, and is easily obtained. In view of this, it is obviously a point of great importance so to lag or set out such parts of the estate as mag be appropriated for building purposes, in such a way that the various sites for different classes of buildings may be in the most attractive positions ; while it is equally obvious that there is one method of so setting out the land by which the highest revenue may be obtained from it, and another by which this may be very much reduced. Not a few good building plots have been spoiled by the mere way in which they have been laid out. An attempt will be here made to show how such plots can be made the most of. As bearing upon this department, and as also appli- cable to the mansion and the farm-houses of a superior class, is the setting out or designing of the ground surrounding or in connection with the house, the position of the gardens, kitchen and flower, and the ornamental grounds, etc. By the display of some degree of taste in this department, there is no doubt that the value of building property is increased. In close connection with the sale and letting of suburban building plots, is the set- ting out of land for amateur farms. Various causes have increased the demand for these, and as a rule high rents are easily obtained for them. A few remarks will be given on this sub- ject, which may be of service as indicating the best and most economical way of setting them out, their buildings, etc., and the leading terms of the agreements which should be entered into respecting them. The last division of the work will be devoted to the discussion of such subjects as could not be so appropriately taken up in preceding divisions, which dwelt with specific and clearly marked off departments of landed improvement, but which, being more or less closely connected with this, and some of them of special importance, although too much overlooked as a rule, could not in the interests of the work be left out of consideration. The fol- lowing list will give the reader a fair idea of the leading subjects discussed in the division, although they may not be given in the same order as now stated : — The relative position of the various classes connected with landed property, practical points connected with this, letting of land, different kinds or classes of occupancy, leases and freedom in farming, rotations and general method of working farms, causes of success or non-success in farming, leading points connected with good and bad farm- ing, the position of the labourer on the property or the farm, his wages, perquisites, and privileges, allotments, gardens to cottages, etc. These and some other kindred subjects may be considered as exhausting the topics connected with what may be called the first class of this division, namely, ' The Organization of the Working Staff of the Pro- perty.' The second class will embrace subjects bearing upon the working of certain departments of practical farming tending to the improvement of the land and the increase of its revenue ; a brief review of the condition of British farming, and of the causes which influence it ; directions in which improvement is required to bring the production of land up to the maximum point; important part played by live stock, considered chiefly as producers of manure ; ' the leading wants of Eng- lish agriculture are stock and manure;' general management of live stock ; leading features of the cultivation of the chief classes of soils, as heavy clay lands, light soils, etc. ; deep culture and autumnal or early winter culture of the soil ; management of grass lands ; pasture and meadi >ws ; arable as against grass lands, considerations con- nected with the increased supply of food for live stock, etc. I! DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. In concluding this, the Introductory Chapter to our work, we deem it necessary to point out that we have thought it right to discuss certain sub- jects, such as the question of the labourer, his wages, etc., which may appear, at a first glance, not to have a very close bearing upon the general subject of the work. But a little consideration will suffice to show that they have in reality a very intimate connection with it. No doubt they have not had the consideration paid, them which their importance, we believe, demands, — have, in- deed, in many instances, as a whole been wholly overlooked. But this is precisely the very reason why they should be taken up in the pages of a work which treats of a subject of vital national importance, and which aims at not leaving out the discussion of any point which is likely to pro- mote the interests and to increase the value of landed property. In this matter we proceed on the assumption that the property may be considered as a vast manufactory, so to say, for the carrying out of a certain object ; and that just as a manu- facturer of cotton or wool, for example, pays every attention to the buildings which are to contain the machinery, and to the perfection of this machinery in all its details, he no less deems it a matter of vital importance to organize the working department thoroughly, and to see that the ' hands ' which have the care of the mechanical appliances are capable of not only doing their work, but have everything necessary to enable them to do this well. So in like manner with Landed Property ; the same principle runs, we venture to think, through all its departments, since just as it is essential that the farmer should not only have on his farm the necessary buildings required to carry on the work, but should take care to supply himself with all the requisite machines, appliances, and materials, so also is it essential, we consider, that he should be as careful at once in the selection and the organization of his labourers, and also to see that these have every facility given them, and be placed under such cir- cumstances as will enable them to do their work well and economically. So much for the relationship between the labourer and the farmer. As regards its influence on the interests of the property, the same prin- ciple evidently affects the relationship between the farmer and the proprietor, whose tenant he is. While it is the landlord's duty to give every assist- ance to the farmer, so that he can do his work in the best way, it is equally the duty of the farmer to do all he can to promote the interests of the estate, in doing which he may rest assured he is best promoting his own, while there are certain points which peculiarly affect his own position in relation to all the departments of farming. These and other obvious considerations, therefore, have had weight with us in giving a place to the discus- sion of certain points which, we venture to think, will prove of direct practical value in the improve- ment of landed property. We live in a period in the history of agriculture — if not in that of our nation — which can lay claim to being considered as perhaps the most remarkable of any which has preceded it. It is essentially a transition period, in which we are passing from a state of matters to one altogether new in its features, and which will exercise a potent influence, either for good or evil, on the future fortunes of the arts and sciences. It behoves all, therefore, connected with agriculture — the ' nursing-mother of all the arts and sciences,' and the primary support of the people — to con- sider well everything calculated to advance its interests and to promote the welfare of all con- cerned in the doing of its work, from the highest down to the humblest engaged in this, which has been well called the most ennobling and dignified, as it is the most useful, of the arts. Such may be taken, then, as a comparatively brief statement of the various divisions of the work, and of the subjects treated of under each. These as stated, while giving a fair idea of their leading features, fail, however, in doing so as regards the number of practical points discussed, and details illustrated in each class of subjects. To have stated all these would have taken up a much larger space than we could afford to give in our Introductory Chapter; suffice it to say, that we believe the reader will find few points unnoticed ; while some idea may be formed of the compre- hensive way in which they have been further and more clearly elucidated by means of illus- trations, by a glance at the drawings, amount- ing to several hundreds in number in the form of plates, independently of the woodcuts in the text. IMPORTANCE OF WELL-ARRANGED FARM BUILDINGS. CHAPTER II. FARM BUILDINGS. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS CONNECTED WITn TTIE GENERAL SUEJECT. Well arranged and constructed Farm Buildings a matter of primary necessity in the Improvement of Landed Property. — There should be little occasion to say much on this point, for it should be obvious on but a very slight consideration of the subject, that when any work is to be carried on requiring the accommodation and shelter of buildings, these should be of such a char- acter as to enable the special work they are designed to aid to be carried on in the shortest of time, and with the least expenditure of labour. But while this is or should be obvious even to the most casual observer, even though he should happen to be in no way learned in practical farming as a calling, it is remarkable that it is not obvious to many who have more than a mere passing interest in agriculture ; or if obvious, it is then strangely overlooked and set aside as a matter of no moment. But that this end is also of the highest value, we shall be able, we trust, to show in a word or two. At the same time, it is only fair here to record the fact, that while some landed proprietors are thus neglectful of the duty they owe to their tenants, and still more strangely of that which they owe to their own best pecuniary interests, there are others, and they constitute a numerous body throughout the country, who have done all in their power to provide their tenantry with buildings of the highest class in every department. All honour is due to them for the position they have taken and the example they have given in a matter of the weightiest importance, although, in truth, but scanty share of honour have they received beyond their own immediate neighbourhood, and, indeed, in some instances, even there. We have said that the principle with which we commenced this para- graph, obvious though it be, is by some so wilfully neglected, — for it is scarcely possible to conceive that what is so clear to others is not so to them, — that the buildings on many of their farms can best be described in the negative, as being all they ought not to be — fit, in point of fact, for nothing else than to be pulled down and got rid of as eyesores and standing reproaches to their owners. Those who have a fair knowledge of different districts of the kingdom will have no difficulty, as we have none, in bringing to memory the recollection of too many buildings of this kind, and yet situated upon farms the soil of which is good and capable of the highest im- provement. The wonder is that the tenants continue to hold the farms ; but the wonder is lessened when we consider that in many cases they have lived all their lives upon the land, been born and brought up on it, and may be representatives of a long line of preceding occupiers. He can scarcely make up his mind to leave the ' old place which his forefathers tilled ; ' and he is content, possibly from being in no sense one of the modern class of go-ahead farmers, to jog on from day to day with what has so long served his purposes, such as they are, or because hopeless of any improvement ever being made. It is clear in such a case that a tenant of a different order of mind will not like to take such a place, however well convinced he may be that it is capable, by being put under the thoroughly efficient system, the details of which he knows so well, of answering in every way his require- ments. But his first visit woidd show the hope- lessness of such an improved system of cultiva- tion being backed by the landlord, knowing will that he who could permit such buildings, — if buildings indeed they can often he called, made up of a wretched conglomeration of all material.-, DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. much of which is in the last stage of decay, — and who ohviously refuses to amend them, will just as readily refuse to carry out, possibly even to consider, such other improvements which he knows would he at once required were he the tenant. Little inducement, therefore, is there for a man of skill, energy, and capital to take to such farms, however tempting in other respects they may he. While believing that landlords of this class are but few, it is painful to know that they exist in numbers sufficient to afford material enough for the picture we have drawn. At the same time, it is only right to point out that the care- lessness we have alluded to arises not so much from want of will as lack of means, — a view which takes very much indeed off the sharp edge of censure otherwise due. Again, a number of interests may be involved in the estate, rendering it a matter of almost impos- sibility so to reconcile them as to agree to the improvements in question. In such cases the only matter for regret is, that the difficulties can- not be overcome so as to set free the land from a restraint which does it infinite damage, by annually reducing its value. It is a mistake, however, to suppose that all the advantages to be derived from having good buildings on a farm are exhausted when it is said that they afford healthy and convenient shelter for the live stock, and accommodation for the machinery necessary to work up and prepare produce either for the feeding of these, or to be sent to market. There are other advantages which should act as an inducement to landlords, difficult to move in the matter, to do so at once. Immediate Advantages obtained by 'putting down Improved Buildings. — The chief of these, and winch brings others in its train, is the increased supply of farm-yard manure which they enable the farmer to produce ; not ouly because, by the extra accommodation he has at command, he can feed his stock and keep his dairy cows, horses, etc., on the system best calculated to produce manure in the greatest quantity, and of the highest quality ; but this quality he can not only retain, but greatly improve, by means of the accommodation he is now possessed of, in its storing up, preservation, and its general treat- ment, Now this supply of manure beyond that which he could obtain under the old system, and this, moreover, of greatly superior value, not only enables him to keep up the fertility of such land as he had contrived to maintain in fair order, but to improve the quality of soils, for arable culture and pasture lands and meadows, which had been allowed to go back. By the improve- ment of the soil he secures increased produce from his crops ; and thus he is enabled to raise larger supplies of food for his live stock, or to increase their number. This, again, gives him an additional supply of manure, which enables him still further to improve the cultivation of his arable laud, and the treatment of his pastures and meadows ; so that in process of time the land which but barely yielded sufficient to maintain a few, will be found capable of supporting a largely increased number and variety of stock. Thus we see the cycle of improvement completed, and the proverb exemplified, — the truth which it symbolizes, vital to the true interests of agri- culture, being too often unfortunately forgotten, — ' No crops without manure, no manure without cattle, no cattle without crops ; ' or, as still more tersely if not so elegantly put, ' Muck is the mother of meat,' as meat is the mother of cattle. The case we have here put is no imaginary one, it is exemplified in hundreds of instances throughout the country ; and we could point to one in which the land, when originally taken, was so poor that it was let at a merely nominal rate, but following upon the erection of proper build- ings came a series of operations, no doubt ex- tending over a series of years, but with each year better than its predecessor, till at last the land was brought to that high pitch of perfection, that it, and the marvellous crops and stock which it bore, and the name of the gentleman to whose prescience, — so to say, — energy, skill, talent, and high business qualities all was due, became world- wide in their reputation. We have said enough, therefore, to show the imperative necessity which exists, on every property about to be improved, for putting down as amongst the first things, if not actually the first thing, to be done, farm buildings in every way calculated to meet the ends which the farmer has in view. How best and most economically to do this involves many considerations of importance, to which in a few ADAPTATION OF BUILDINGS TO FARM REQUIREMENTS. 13 succeeding paragraphs we beg leave to draw the attention of the reader. Of these the first is, that there shall be a Consistency in the adaptation of the Accommo- dation of the Buildings to the Special Requirements of the Farm on vjhich they are to be erected. — At first sight so obvious is this, that it seems as if it could be discussed in a single sentence. But as there is more in the statement than at first appears, and as it concerns those who are closely interested in the designing or planning and in the construction of the buildings, we shall have to offer a few remarks upon the whole bearings of the case. Tor long it was, and, indeed, in a large number of instances still, when farm buildings are required on a property, it is not the practice to call in the aid of a skilled architect; the agent, bailiff, or farm manager furnishing a plan which, however rough it may be considered from a professional point of view, gives accurately the reqiurements of the proposed buildings. From this plan a specification is prepared, and some trusted and skilled builder in the neighbourhood is called in to give an estimate for the whole, and very likely gets the 'job' to erect the build- ings. As already stated, the plan or design is certain to be good from these circumstances, the designer being not only intimately acquainted himself with the farm from his official position on the property, but he has doubtless taken to counsel the farmer, who knows precisely what he wants and does not want. But whde the plan is good as such, it can scarcely be expected, as a rule, that the planner can have such a knowledge of arcliitectural design as to enable him to give a building which is as plea- sant or beautiful to look at as it is conveniently arranged. Hence the reason why we see so many farm buildings throughout the country the ' plainest of the plain ' in external appearance, having no single element of what is known as architectural design. Here the manager may be quite capable of doing much better things, but the agent may object to ' money being thrown away upon such fripperies.' But of late years the desire to have architecturally beautiful budd- ings on estates has increased very much. Hence skilled architects are now frequently found to be planning and designing farm buildings in districts where such a practice years ago was unknown. Many of these, in addition to possessing a high status in their own profession as designers, had acquired either by study, by practising the art themselves, or by gaining knowledge from prac- tical farmers, a more than fair acquaintance with the practice of agriculture, so that their plans showed a thorough knowledge of the require- ments of the farm, and a capability to cope with such difficulties as might arise in endeavouring to fulfil them. But another class of architects, and designers not architects, entered the field, whose only knowledge of farm buildings, of farms, and what work was done on them, was obtained from studying the designs of other and more qualified men. This study was not likely to afford them the information that a design or plan of farm buildings, suited for one locality or farm, was not necessarily suited for another and a differently situated farm ; nor was it more likely to warn them of the danger arising from the fact that, because they had seen or otherwise become acquainted with the names of certain rooms, accommodation, or apartments, therefore every budding designed for a farmer must have all these apartments. This has given rise to the issue of plans, published, and even in some cases erected, the whole principle of which displayed ignorance on the part of the designer of the true principles upon which all farm buddings must be designed. One of these principles, from which may be deduced the consistency named in the heading to this para- graph, is, that no apartment or building is put down which the necessities or style of cultivating the farm do not require. One should suppose that this common-sense principle would be sure to be carried out in a farm steading, as it is as a rule universally carried out in other business buildings. But that it is not so can be seen at once by merely inspecting some of the plans of erected or proposed steadings, hi which there are apartments and structures put down which any practical farmer would know at once could not possibly be required on a farm worked upon any of the methods in use. The conclusion appears inevitable, that their designers had not been aware of the fact that, as there are, as we have already pointed out, different kinds of farming, I [ DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. there must be or ought to he different kinds of buildings required for these. Thus the accom- modation in a dairy-farm steading must be dif- ferent from that required on a pastoral or com- mon, and these again from a mixed husbandry farm. It is, indeed, only in the steading of the latter that those fancy plans, as they have been called, are admissible ; as there are so many modes of cultivation, etc. carried on, a variety in the steading accommodation is more necessitated. Still there are many buildings in which there is much that is not necessary ; and if the architect be employed by the ageut, he will be wise if he consults the farmer as to what is wanted before he prepares his plans. This, then, is the con- sistency between the accommodation of the buildings of the farm to its special require- ments named at the head of the paragraph. But there is another principle yet to notice of great importance, connected with the apartments of a farm steading, namely, that stated below in first paragraph of Chapter III. GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF FARM BUILDINGS. IS CHAPTEE III. POINTS CONNECTED WIT II THE GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF FARM BUILDINGS, THEIR POSITION ON THE FARM AND ON THE SITE SELECTED DETAILS CONNECTED WITH SITE, ETC. Placing of the various Apartments of Farm Buildings in proper relation to each other. — The style of farming being known, the accommodation required to suit it will soon be decided upon. The apartments — we use the term for lack of a better, department or compartment being scarcely applicable — making up that accommodation should be so arranged iu relation to one another, that the work done in them shall go on regularly, each operation following upon another; so that there may be no loss of time in turning back, but that it may be economized to the utmost by the regular sequence of operations being main- tained. Thus all the apartments connected with one branch should be placed in close contiguity to one another. For example, in a dairy farm, it is sometimes noticed that the working rooms of the arable department of the farm are mixed up with those connected with the dairy ; whereas it conduces very much to economy and to good management, if all the apartments connected with dairy operations be on one side of the stead- ing, and close together, such as the cow-house, the milk-room, churning-room, washing-house, cheese-press room, etc. ; while those connected with the arable part of the steading should be on the other side, as the stable, cart and implement sheds, etc. This principle is also capable of extension, in determining the positions of the various rooms themselves. Thus, the milk-house should be near the cow-house, and the churning- room near the milk-house, and the room for washing the dairy utensils near both, yet so far away or in such a position that the steam, etc. do not gain access to the above apartments. The hay-house should be near the stable, and the turnip stores and food stores near the cow-house ; the principle in all cases being, that no time should be lost in going unnecessarily from one apartment to another, but all the rooms should be so arranged as to aid the work in the natural sequence of its details. The same principle also dictates the position of the straw barn in a stead- ing, that being the central one ; and as this is the heaviest, or at least the least easily trans- ported material, the cattle-feeding places which consume the most should be placed nearest the source of supply. These principles of arrange- ment may be exemplified by a plan of farm buildings, Plate 1, which the author designed for a small estate, on the system of mixed hus- bandry, in which all the branches of usual farm- ing were carried on ; and although designed on a small scale, it will be sufficient to illustrate our remarks. The stack or rick yard (fig. 1, Plate 1) is placed at the north at the point a a ; on this side are the boiler-house, b, and engine-house, c. From these, which are placed north and south, the corn barn, d, and straw barn, e, form the central part. From this the folds or cattle-yards, ffff, are supplied with straw right and left, these being placed east and west of the central division, d and e. On each side of the store barn, c, are placed ranges of cattle-feeding boxes, g g, sup- phed with turnips from the root store, h, and with straw from the barn, e. Forming part of the westward boundary of the steading is another range of cattle-feeding boxes, i, outside of which is a dung stance or covered manure-pit, the position of which is shown at /'. Forming the eastern boundary of the steading is the cart shed, k, at one end of which is the calf-house, I, and outside of which is a second manure-pit or dung stance, m, serving for the range of stock i6 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. apartments of the east end of the northern side of the steading. This part is occupied with the work- horse stable, n, with a loose-box, o, the cow-house or byre, p, with a hay-house, q, placed between the byre and stable ; and next to the former is placed the cooking or boiling house, r, next to which is the food store, s, contiguous to the machine- room, t, the power for which is supplied by a shafting connected with the engine-house, c. To the left of this apartment is an oilcake and turnip store, u, next to which is the infirmary, v. The next apartment eastward is the hay-house, w, root or turnip store, x, bull-house, y, outhouse or store, z, poultry-house, a a ; and terminating the north range on the east side is a shed for young stock, b b, to which is attached a court placed southwards in the corner at /. Coming now to the southern range, and beginning at the western end of it, we have the slaughter-house, c c ; next to which is a young nag house, d d, which also has its small court in the corner,/. The next to this is a sheep shed, e c, and adjoining which is a covered passage, //; next to this a hay- house, g g, a root store, h h, pig-sties, Hi i, — these placed east and west of the manure or gene- ral store, jj. Going eastward is a lamb shed, kk, adjoining which is another passage, 1 1, next to which is a hay and oilcake store, m m. In close connection with the cart shed, k, is first the implement and tool house, n n, smith's shop, o o, and joiner's shop and timber store, pp. The arrangement here described gives first a northern range running east and west, comprised within the letters b b, and o ; a central range, b, j j, running north and south ; two wings parallel to this, as i and k ; and a southern range, c c, n n. And it will be observed that the whole of the apartments making up the steading as a whole are arranged in relation to one another, so that the work can go on regularly from beginning to end. Thus the corn is conveyed from the rick- yard, a a, to the corn barn, d, where it is thrashed, and the straw delivered to the straw barn, e, from whence it is passed right and left for use to the cattle-courts, //, cattle-boxes, g g, and i, and the other live-stock houses which have been already indicated. From these the manure is passed on to the dung stances at the positions j and m. An alternative plan is given in fig. 2, Plate 1, showing another method of filling up the open space occu- pied by the cattle-yards,//, in fig 1, to the west- ward of the straw barn, c, and manure or general store, jj. Thus in place of the open cattle-yard,//, fig. 1, cattle curtains are placed in which, as in fig. 2, a a are the yards bounded by walls as shown ; b b, the open sheds with ranges of mangers, c e, which are supplied with roots from the central store, d d. Northward of these curtains a range of hammers for young stock may be placed as shown, of which c c are the yards, and // the sheds. An alternative arrangement is also shown, in which a cattle-yard, g g, and shed, h h, are placed with a calf-yard, i, and a shed,/, next to which are the pig courts and sheds, k, I, turnip store, m, workshop, n, implement store, o, and cart shed, b, corresponding to k in fig. 1. By locking up the passages, //, 11, g g, r r, and s s, the whole range may be enclosed at night under lock and key. Here it will be observed that not only is the principle of sequence carried out, in which each step of procedure follows upon another, but that this is done in the way best calculated to save labour, inasmuch as the least easily handled or transported material, the straw, and which is used in the largest quantities, compared with the com- paratively small bulk of other foods, is so placed in relation to the courts, sheds, and feeding-places in which it is most largely used, that the shortest distance is to be traversed in transporting it, and also in carrying the resulting manure to the dung stances or covered shed. So also with the turnips, the next heaviest if not the most bulky feeding substance used ; these are placed in close relation to the cattle-courts and the feeding- boxes, etc. Then, again, in the feeding of the dairy cows — the food store and the room in which the food is prepared, the hay or straw cut, the turnips and other roots sliced or pulped, the oilcake broken, the beans, etc. crushed or ground, etc., and that in which mashes or cooked food are prepared, are all in close con- tiguity to the cow-house or byre. So also with the stable ; that has got its hay-house and machine- room. This principle of arrangement might be illustrated by an endless range of plans, ranging in variety of arrangement according to circum- stances ; but we have given enough at present to MODEL PLANS OF FARM BUILDINGS. '7 illustrate pretty clearly the important issues, as regards work to be done on a farmery, which the principle involves. From what we have said, this fact also may be deduced, that 'Model Plans,' or plans so called, are a mistake, inasmuch as they cannot serve the purpose for which a ' model ' is designed, namely, to be fol- lowed or imitated under other circumstances or in other localities. Now as we have hinted, and will hereafter have occasion more particularly to detail, as one of the peculiarities attendant upon the practice of agriculture, the circumstances attendant upon locality, climate, soil, position, and other points bring about such a conflicting variety of peculiarities, and these in turn decide the requirements to be met to suit the case as regards cultural arrangements, and these, again, decide those of the buildings, that it is not possible, certainly by no means likely to be often probable, that any one plan can be designed to meet the varying conditions and circumstances of a variety of farms in different localities. True, it may readily enough be admitted that a well- designed plan may so aptly illustrate the prin- ciple contended for in last paragraph, that this may in its application be modified to meet the necessities of other cases ; but this will not affect the kind and style of accommodation required, which will be found, as we have stated above, perpetually varying. And even this may further be admitted, that a well-designed plan may be found in a few cases nearly altogether adaptable, with but little alteration, to other localities. But these exceptions only prove the rule, which is, that just as a house is planned to suit the requirements of the family which is to inhabit it, so must a farmery be designed to meet the peculiar circumstances of the farm for the purposes of which it is erected. True, there are parts which are required in every farmery, these being what may be called essential apart- ments ; and what these are will be seen as we proceed. Having thus given what may be called the preliminary principles connected with farm buildings, and which we trust we have shown to be of essential importance, we now proceed to the more practical parts of the subject. These are of necessity very numerous, embracing as the}- do every detail connected with each kind of room, apartment, or part of the steading ; these details, of course, varying in construction and arrangement. We shall, however, endeavour, by throwing the whole into a series of paragraphs, and by certain modes of treatment, to take up as little space, and to draw as little upon the time and patience of the reader, as possible. Much of both of these will undoubtedly be saved him by the arrangement adopted ; as, if desirous to look at one point or to consider one detail only, he will find it very readily without having to do so after wading through a long range of matter embracing within it all the various subjects to be treated of. Having decided upon the plan to be adopted, in the preparation of which the farm manager or designer may find some hints useful to him in the illustrative and comparative plans of farmeries which will be found amongst the Plates, and described in the paragraph entitled ' Various Plans of Farmeries,' the first point there- after to be considered is the Pest Position or Locality for erecting the Finn Buildings. — A variety of circumstances are to be taken into account in deciding this very impor- tant point. First, as the health of the stock is the first consideration, this ought to decide the position ; and as, of all evil influences, dampness or humidity is the most to be dreaded, that posi- tion ought to be taken which gives the driest, even if that be the coldest part of the locality. Cold may, and indeed can, be guarded against ; damp cannot by any means known to us be prevented entering into and hovering around buildings ; it is the most insidious of all the enemies we have to contend with, or, humorously to put it as one of Thackeray's characters did in referring to the horn of the hippopotamus, ' It's the most penetratingest thing as is.' The neighbourhood of large pieces of water should therefore be avoided, especially of swampy, un- drained, marshy lands. The local winds should also be studied, and shelter by a plantation belt, if possible, be obtained from those which blow from the north and north-east directions. Sites on level stretches of land, which are surrounded on one or more sides by high ground, are generally bad. They form, in fart, the drainage deposits of these same high lands ; and unless particularly well drained, they are sure to be subject to damp c i8 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. emanations. Even if well drained, they are more or less so, for, being level, the surface water does not run easily off, at all events does not go away quickly. When in such places white mists are seen often to hang over the land, the locality may he set down as unhealthy for a site, and one almost impossible to be made otherwise. Lay or Lye of the Land and Roads influencing Position of Farm Buildings. — 'Position' involves also the relation of the farm buildings to the general 'lye' of the farm fields. Some advocate the centre as the best position for the buildings, as this obviously equalizes the work of carting materials to and from the farm ; others would make the roads decide the position of the build- ings, although we think the lesser should give way to the greater, and therefore that, the posi- tion of the buildings being decided by the highest considerations, the roads should be made to conform to the conveniences of that position. We have indicated one or two of these considera- tions ; another is the Supply of Water. — Now this is of the highest importance — cannot, indeed, be dispensed with on any consideration ; hence, if a supply of good water can be secured only at one point, and that by sacrificing other advantages, there can be no alternative but to dispense with these. Indeed, the most obviously common-sense way would be to look out for what would give the majority of the ' higher considerations ' we have alluded to, and then, before any building operations were commenced, to ascertain whether water could be obtained at this position. If not, then, ' force perforce,' another must be looked for. There are some sites available possessing nearly all the requisites for good ' building stances,' close to or upon the immediate margin of rivers, from which water of the best or at least of superior quality can be obtained. But not a few of the most eminent sanitary authorities, if not indeed the majority of them, strongly doubt the propriety of having buildings near water, from which damp emanations more or less powerful in effect are so apt to arise, and these without a doubt exercise a bad influence upon the health of the stock. If the running -water be of small breadth and depth, as a mere rivulet, then the evils are lessened in proportion to the size. Upon the whole, there- fore, although water of good quality could be obtained easily in such places, it might thus have to be purchased at a rate dearer, so to say, than what it was worth. And the facilities now at the command of the architect and builder for sinking for water are such, that there should be no excuse for a bad site being chosen, simply because it afforded a good supply of water easily obtained. All the requisites of a good site should there- fore be first looked for, and then the trial for water made. And here, in passing, is a hint which may save large expenditure ; we may remark that the ' Abyssinian Tube Well Pump or Water Apparatus ' may be used with great advantage and economy in sinking the ' trial holes.' Assuming, therefore, that water is obtainable, we have yet to glance briefly as may be at the leading points affecting the Actual Site of the Farmery, or the Position chosen. — We have said that the roads should be made subservient to the best site, not the site to the roads ; these, therefore, should be put out of consideration ; only, that if there be already good roads on any part of the farm where a good site is obtainable, some little matter as regards the site may be sacrificed, but only a little. The centre of the farm we have also stated to be theoretically the best position for the farmery, but practically there may be some points which will influence or modify this. Mr. Stephens, the well-known agricultural authority, advocated the centre ; as does Mr. Newlands, and indeed the majority of writers on the subject. But if the exact central position involves some objectionable point, such as an extremely uneven character of the land, or a site which slopes or falls too much in one direction, or one which gives a hollow, or one near a marsh or damp land, then this position must be sacrificed in view of the greater importance of avoiding these objectionable feat- ures. The point, indeed, is one of those which can only be decided by good judgment, and a ' quick eye ' to pick out, so to say, the advan- tages of one position over those of another. One word only we have to put in here, and that is by way of caution. The general idea is, that the central point of a valley, or, in other words, its SITE OF FARM BUILDINGS, AND ITS DRAINAGE. 19 lowest point, is more sheltered from winds than the sides. Now the truth is, that as a rule the heaviest winds will he found to hlow along the hottom of the valley, although in every sense it may be supposed to he the most secluded. If the sides of the valley be not too 'pronounced,' that is, the declivity not too great, a better site will be afforded there than in the valley, which, moreover, is more likely to be damp. A gentle slope, not such as to fatigue the horses too much in going up, although they regain it in going down, — and the times of market work and carting out clung to the fields, which will all be going- down carting, will be as a rule more frequent than the going up with full loads, — is perhaps the best site, if the aspect, etc., be good, inas- much as it facilitates drainage. And it does not follow, although what may be called the general position is such, that the particular portion of it occupied by the farm buildings, or ' site,' as it is named, may be so much off the level as to inter- fere with foundation work. A quick and ready eye may be able to hit upon a site which, for building purposes, offers every advantage desir- able, and yet secures , inclination enough for drainage, etc. Aspect of the Buildings. — Having once decided on the position of the farmery, the next point to be considered is its aspect or its ' look out.' All authorities agreeing upon the advantages of sun- light for farm buildings, the south would there- fore appear to be the best aspect for them ; but considering the whole cycle, so to say, of the sun's range, it appears that the aspect which gives the greatest average amount of sunlight, not only throughout each year, but each day, is the south-east. Soil of the Site. — Position or site and aspect being decided upon, there is yet a point which exercises a material influence upon the health of the animals, and that is the nature of the soil. This may be so unhealthy that other ad- vantages may have to be sacrificed, or partly so, in order to gain a better. As a rule easily remembered, the drier the soil of the site naturally, the healthier will it be. Clay, being peculiarly retentive of moisture, comes, therefore, at once under the category of unhealthy soils, and is in fact the worst ; gravel, possessing the opposite qualities, comes under the opposite category. Sites, therefore, approach the good or the bad requisites according as they are more or less gravelly or clayey. Those soils which lie upon the sandstones and the calcareous rocks are said to stand the highest in the scale of healthy site soils, those on clay the lowest, while those on chalk occupy the medium position. Drainage of the Site. — No matter what the nature of the soil may be, it is essential that the site be thoroughly drained ; that is, drained precisely as a field is, or should be, only the drainage must be carried out to a much fuller extent. Of course, this will be modified accord- ing to the soil of the site, — a close, heavy, reten- tive clay demanding much closer and thorough drainage than a gravelly soil. In this matter the architect must lie guided by the result of his observations ; and these will only be truly valu- able if aided by ' test-holes ' sunk at various points over the surface of the site. The more numerous these are, the more trustworthy will be the data on which to base the ultimate deci- sion as to what extent drainage must be carried out. Not only must the site, however, be cross- drained throughout its length or breadth, accord- ing to the slope of the land, but the whole must be surrounded by catch-drains, at least one at the highest line along the length of the site. In short, the utmost precautions must be taken to have the ground on which the buildings are to stand thoroughly dry. And if the expense of doing this, so far as the whole of the site is con- cerned, be grudged, then let economy be prac- tised— although it is such an economy as we cannot recommend — at those points on which buildings or apartments are to be placed in which dryness may not be so essential, and let the money to be expended be expended upon those points where it is — that is, those buildings in which live stock are to be housed. We should, however, be strongly inclined to say that money ' held in ' on any department which concerns not only the life of the stock, but the ' life ' of the buildings of any part of the farmery, will be 'ill held in;' for buildings, like machinery, live longest or last longest if constructed properly ; and a (lamp building is not so. Before dismissing the various points connected DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT' OF LANDED PROPERTY. with the question of position of the farmery, it will be well to advert, if only in a word or two, to a point which may in some degree modify it. This is the supply of water which may be ob- tainable by the force or power of gravitation, by placing the farm buildings at a level consider- ably below some point at which there may be a natural, abundant, and continual supply, as a small lake, etc., or by leading the drainage water of the high lauds to the farmery. Even in these days of steam-engines, fixed, portable, and traction, water power is not to be despised. Nay, rather, it should be far more valued than it is, and far more frequently taken advantage of, as it would be, if attention were more paid to it as a matter of business importance. Esti- mates have been made of the available horse power of streams on farms in certain districts of the kingdom which are both startling and suggestive ; and if a thorough investigation of the subject were made by any one of our leading societies, the result would be equally so. There are now many cheap and easily-set-up hydraulic machines, by which the power of water, now running uselessly away past farm steadings, could be made so available that steam power might be, if not altogether dispensed with, at least largely supplemented, or less steam power required to be put down. In either case it is obvious that economy would be the result ; no small matter in these days, when fuel is so dear, especially in rural districts, which very often are situated pretty distant from sources of coal supply. Another point of importance connected with the subject is the use to which such sup- plies of water could be put in the case of fire. These two points are worth thinking about and looking after, when one is deciding upon the site of a farmery. Some Practical Details connected with the Site of the Farmery. — In the foregoing paragraphs we have pointed out the leading features connected with the choice of position, and of the site itself. It is obvious, however, that it will be a remark- able example of a series of happy coincidences, if all the best points can be secured in any one position. In every way more likely is it to happen that, in order to secure what we have pointed out as essentials in a position and site, one or two, if not several, may have to be sacri- ficed, however unwillingly. Some of the cir- cumstances modifying the choice of the best points may now be noticed. For example, while, theoretically, the centre of the farm is the best position for the buildings, the central point may be situated near a marshy, ill-sheltered piece of ground, or in other respects quite unsuited for a building site ; or it may be near a slow, sluggish river, low-banked and liable to flood, or close to a piece of water, the outflow of which is so slow that it may be said to be practically stagnant, at least possessing some of the evil characteristics of this class of water. All these, and such as these, will obviously decide the builder at once to change the position for one more nearly approach- ing the standard, even although that should be some considerable distance from the centre or theoretically best position for the buildings. Again, as to what we have said regarding the influence of a valley upon the choice of position, while we have stated that the sides will likely afford a better, at least a more sheltered, position than the bottom, still there may be modifying influences at work which may make the bottom the best position. Valleys are of course different in formation ; one side may be very steep, the other only comparatively so ; and yet the steepest side may give the best aspect, and otherwise good points worth securing. If these be not too high up, but placed at that height which will enable the balance between the carting to and from the farm buildings to be maintained, a careful exami- nation of all the points should be made, with a view to fix the buildings here. One good thing will be secured, — drainage from the buildings ; and another will probably be, namely, a constant and large supply of water obtained from the high lands above ; or springs having their source there may be found on the site, with such pressure as to enable the water to be conveyed to all parts of the building, tanks, boilers, etc. etc. One difficulty will, however, likely have to be en- countered in such a position, — getting a suffi- ciency of land level enough for the site of the buildings, — offices, farm-house, cottages, etc. etc. Still this difficulty may be overcome by a careful survey of the land. We are here, of course, supposing that the whole or by far the greater ROADS IN RELATION TO POSITION OF FARM BUILDINGS. proportion of the lands of the farm lie on the sides of the valley under notice ; hence the diffi- culties which may arise in choice of position for the buildings. But however tempting the wrong side of the valley possessing the easiest slope may be in offering certain points, still it ought not to be chosen as the position for the build- ings, as the aspect — in our supposed case, as we see above — will always be bad, and exposure to cold wind will scarcely be avoided. Now the health of the stock must take precedence of all other points, thus putting this side of the valley altogether out of court. The supply of water, at least at any pressure, will, moreover, be more uncertain. Unquestionably the worst case to deal with is where the lands of a farm lie wholly or chiefly on the sides of a valley both sides of which are about equally steep, and the general inclination or fall pretty well pronounced. Theo- retically, the best way of dealing with this case would be by placing the buildings at the bottom of the valley, and laying out the fields and roads on the faces of the slopes, not at right angles to the line of valley, but oblique thereto, or in winding lines with easy curves having an oblique direc- tion, thus saving largely in horse labour both in carting and working the soil. But unfortunately it too often happens that a small river or rivulet flows through the bottom of the valley, thus sometimes rendering it necessary that the build- ings should be placed on the worst side of the valley. Care must be taken in this case to follow the counsel given above suited to such a position. Another point which may alter the position for the buildings from the central point of the farm may be the existence of a small stream available as a source of power to drive the machinery. So valuable is this, that, apart from the points of position affecting the health of the animals, it may be worth while to sacrifice some other point or points in order to secure this ; but it should at the same time be remembered that it may be bought too dearly, so that judgment will require to be exercised. Some conceive such advantages to arise from having buildings near a river, that they will sacrifice excellent positions in order to secure these fancied advantages. We say ' fancied ' advisedly ; for we have shown that, especially in the case of sluggish rivers, such a position cannot be a uniformly healthy one, and sure to be most so at the most unhealthy part of the year. But if it be chosen, or if it must be taken as the only one available, the utmost care should be taken to place the buildings at such a high level that no damage will arise from the highest known floods which may again occur. The caution is not un- necessary, as we have known buildings being placed in a hollow much lower than the normal level of the river. Some rivers, though not sluggish, are liable to sudden floods if connected with high lands in close proximity. Roads in relation to the Position for Buildings. — We have said that frequently good positions for the buildings which might otherwise have been obtained, are sacrificed for the sake of some road already existing. This is a wholly erroneous principle ; the lesser must always give way to the greater ; and while it is not denied that, other things being equal, it is a great point to secure immediate access to a main road leading to the market town, and past the accommodation roads of the farm itself, still to sacrifice even one good point for this ought never to be done. For, independently of the advantages arising from having the buildings somewhat secluded, at least not coming right up to a main road, with its ' tramps ' and vagabonds ever ready to lurk about a place for evil purposes, it should be remembered that it is a compara- tively easy thing to connect the buildings with the main road by a feeding road, so to call it, laid down in the best position and line. If a farmery must — that is to say, if its owner wills it so — be laid down close to a road, whatever else in the wrong way may be done, at all events let this monstrosity be avoided, namely, of dividing the buildings, so that part of them are on one side of the road, part on the other. This is no imaginary case — we have seen examples of it ; and it is one which gives rise to a variety of evils and inconveniences, all the worse that they are perpetually recurring, or rather they exist in perpetuity. The loss of time caused by this arrangement is alone sufficient to condemn it. Eoads should always be made subservient to the buildings, not the buildings to the roads. Site modifying Position. — Where a good posi- DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY tion for the buildings may be obtained, this may yet have to be changed in consequence of its not affording a site with peculiarities or character- istics which are absolutely necessary to be pre- sent in it. The position chosen may possess all the external appearance of being a good building site, with characteristics of soil, etc. 'well fitted for the purpose. But in view of the important character of the buildings to be placed upon it, the large expenditure which their erection in- volves, the health of the valuable animals which they are designed to shelter, which must be main- tained, all demand that a rigorous inspection of the whole area of the intended site shall be made previous to any part of the work being begun. Now this inspection may disclose the existence of very serious faults. The trial-pits sunk or borings made, which form an essential part of this inspection, may make known the existence of a very treacherous and uncertain soil, on which it would be unsafe to build, or, if built upon, might involve large expenditure and much trial of patience and loss of time to make good. Indeed, in view of the very dangerous character of some soils, it is questionable whether any attempt should be made to overcome it by the various expedients known to engineers and architects ; the probability being, that it would be cheapest and certainly safest in the end to change the position to one where a good site soil could be obtained, involving no extra outlay in preparing it for the reception of the building. Only those who know what it is to deal with treacherous soils know the trouble and outlay of time and money which they involve ; while, after all that is done, one is never certain but some occult cause may undo all the remedial work which has been done, and cause future and ulti- mate greater loss. We note these points to show the importance of attending to the nature of the actual site, and to take care that it possesses all the requirements of a good sound one for build- ing on. In another paragraph (see Foundations) the reader will find a statement of what are the faulty and treacherous points which examination may disclose in a site the position of which is otherwise excellent. It does not follow that the actual site should be level throughout its super- ficies ; a gentle slope will be no detriment, indeed rather an advantage, as it will facilitate drainage ; and if somewhat irregular, giving sloping sur- faces in more than one direction, a skilful archi- tect or builder will make one or more of them usefully available in the placing of dung stances, liquid manure tanks, etc. etc. We have said enough to show the great importance of the subject, and to indicate the points connected with it which should be secured to the largest possible extent. All, of course, cannot ; but he who has charge of this department must carefully balance the jvos and the cons, and choose the position best calculated to secure as high a standard of efficiency as possible. To do this will demand from him the exercise of no small amount of forethought, judgment, and skill; and that a decision ought not hastily to be made, without considering well every point, and the influence which it may exercise, will be evident, when we consider that upon the good or bad placing of the buildings very much depends of the success with which farming may be con- ducted. If a mistake be made, the loss arising from waste of time, labour, material, and possibly from the necessity of after-work being required, will be great, for it will be continuous ; and, further, it will be irremediable. The evil must be simply endured ; and the losses arising from or caused by it, a great drag as they will be on the resources of the farm, though quietly submitted to, will be none the less felt. All this may be avoided, and a position as cheering as this is gloomy may be secured, by giving all that atten- tion to the subject which the important issues it involves require and demand. THE POSITION OF THE STACK-YARD. 23 CHAP TEE IV. TARTS OF A FARMERY CONNECTED WITH THE PRODUCE OF THE FARM. STRAW OR RICK YARD. STRAW BARNS, ETC. Detailed Description of the different parts of the Farmery or Farm Steading. — Having now dis- cussed the various points preliminary to the actual construction of the building, to be taken in con- junction with the plans elsewhere explained, showing the arrangements of various farm buildings from which some hints of value may be gathered in the setting out of the plan pro- posed to be erected, we are now prepared to take up the consideration of the arrangement and construction of the various parts which go to make up the farm buildings as a whole ; and in doing so we shall ' begin at the beginning,' that is, at the source from which the straw is de- rived, that being the material which is used in by far the largest bulk in the working of the steading. This comprises the stack-yard and the thrashing barn, and may include the corn and straw barns, the latter being the place in which the straw is stored up for use. And, first, as to The Rick or Stack Yard.— This, if the build- ings as a connected whole be set down on the site with the aspect recommended in a previous paragraph, will always be at the north side of the steading or farmery. It should be as level as possible, or, if inclined, gently, and with the slope towards the barn, so as to facilitate carting towards the gangway leading up from the level of the stack-yard to the floor of the thrashing barn ; well drained, so as to keep the ground not only free from actual wet, but from that degree of moisture which gives rise to exhalations of damp. It is impossible to keep the corn in the stacks too dry. With this object in view, and also to secure an immunity from the attacks of rats and mice, they are raised from the ground on what are called stathels or rick-stands, that is, pillars of wood, stone, brick, or preferably of iron, provided with a platform of timber or iron bars, on which the corn rests. But if these be used, as used in one or other of the many forms open to choice they ought to be, a good deal of the advantage they yield will be lost if the ground on which they are erected be so ill drained that damp is pretty constantly arising from it. We have seen stack-yards more like swamps in rainy weather, than what a well-ordered stack-yard ought to be. To carry off surface water, which may collect rapidly in extremely wet weather, and may remain there for some time till carried off by the drains in the soil, it will be well to have surface drains or channels also. These will be best placed if running under the line of stacks, so as not to interfere with the level surface of the spaces between the stacks where the carting is done. Those channels or surface drains may be led to a sunk-fence ditch, which some prefer as the best fence for a stack-yard ; or they may be led to a common point, at which they should deliver to a drain tube conveying the water to the under- ground liquid-manure or rain-water tank (which see under its appropriate paragraph). We prefer a good stone or brick wall as the fence for a stack- yard, although some like it to be epiite open, with not even a sunk fence. This, however, gives the place an untidy, disorderly look, and affords too ready access for the incursions of passing herds of cattle or flocks of sheep. Each part of a farmery should have its own division. It need scarcely be said that the stacks should not be placed irregularly in the yard, but, to facilitate carting the corn from the fields to the stacks, and from them to the thrashing barn, they ought to be in regular and parallel lines, with ample space 24 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY between them for carting. These parallel lines thus form a series of roadways, intersecting each other at right angles, and dividing the whole surface over which they extend into a series of rectangles or squares, according to the size of the stacks. This size, it may be here remarked, is often made far too large when the rectangular plan of building them is adopted, in preference to the circular, which we deem the best plan. "Vermin are most difficult to deal with ; and the larger the stack the greater is the difficulty, and the freer and more extensive the scope for their ravages. Again, from the large area of the stack, there is such a difficulty in placing and building up the corn with perfect regularity, that unequal settlement often takes place ; hence we too often see those huge stacks leaning over to this side or to that, or one part leaning one way, another part another, while parts bulge out here and there, giving a most unsightly appearance ; whereas by the adoption of stacks of moderate size, built up on the circular plan, a regularity and solidity of construction, so to say, is secured, together with a neatness and trimness which satisfies the order-loving eye. Moreover, they afford, in some measure at least, greater security against fire ; for if one or even two take fire, they can be more easily isolated from the others, pulled down, or reached by the engine or jet of water from the steam pump or high-pressure tank, with wdrich every farm steading should be supplied ; whereas in the case of huge stacks, the bulk of material is so great, that when once it takes fire little remains to do but to see it wholly consumed. Vermin, too, are more easily dealt with iu small than in large masses or feeding- places. The system of cutting off the enemy in detail may be applied to small, scarcely with any hope of success to large, stacks. It is by no means so easy a thing to build a stack sym- metrically, its sides perpendicular, or rather the centre of gravity of the whole mass on the proper point, so as to secure the greatest stability. And the difficulty is increased from the liability which the rick or stack stand has to settle unequally. This arises, in the first place, from the generally soft and yielding character of the ground of which the rick or stack yard is composed, it being left in its natural condition. The neatest and best way would be to form concrete sills or founda- tions for each rick or stack ; or if the expense of this was objected to, the plan might be modified by placing the rick pdlars or stands in situ, as they are intended to be placed in the yard, then marking off the position of each pillar, and there- after forming a concrete foundation in which the pillar is to rest. The great defect of rick pillars is the unevenness of their base; the more extended the bearing surface, the greater stability, and the less the inclination to settle unequally ; the con- crete foundation for each pillar should therefore be much wider or of greater diameter than the base of the pillar itself. And it would be a good plan, while the concrete was yet soft, to indent the surface with the base of the pillar, taking care to press it down perpendicularly, and withdrawing it immediately ; when the concrete sets, there would be a seat formed in the founda- tion for the reception of the pillar base. If these plans be objected to, the sites of the ricks should at least be well rammed down and consolidated. In exposed situations and in severe gales, it is no unusual thing to see stacks overturned and many blown much to one side. To increase the security and stability of the rick-stand pillar, Messrs. Bayliss, Jones, and Bayliss, of Wolver- hampton, have introduced an ingenious adapta- tion of Mitchell's screw-pile system to the pillars. These have a lengthened base underneath the sole plate, which base is provided at its lower part with a one and three-quarter turn of the flat- bladed screw. When the pillar is screwed into the soil, it takes a remarkably firm grip, so that when all the outside pillars are screwed in, and the central ones placed in position with the horizontal bars, the whole has such a degree of stability that few gales can overturn the stack, while unequal settlement is wholly or nearly altogether prevented. We think very highly of this ingenious adaptation of an ingenious inven- tion. In place of having the rick-yard open, as is the general arrangement, it has been recently proposed to cover it in, after the manner of a railway station, with a roof, but having the sides open. This arrangement may be carried out in several ways : it may be a large roof enclosing the whole space, as in fig. 4, Plate 2, or the roof may be in two or more bays, as in fig. 5 ; the SIZE AND VENTILATION OF THE STACKS. 25 arrangement of the yard may be as in fig. 8, where the spaces a, b, c, d, indicate its exterior boundary, a central roadway, e e, being provided, with a tramway, by which the contents of the ricks, as g y, can be carried forward on trucks to the corn-thrashing barn. This tramway may be placed between the rows of ricks, as shown by the double lines h h, small turn-tables being made in order to shift the trucks from the side tram- ways to the central one, e e. On one of the largest farmeries of the kingdom the corn is placed under a shed of great length, but of com- paratively small width, in order to have a roof of narrow span. This is illustrated in rough plan in fig. 9, Plate 2, in which the small dark dots indicate the position of the pillars or posts of timber which support the roof, and which are shown in larger scale at a in fig. 10, these being let into a low retaining wall, b, of brick- work or masonry, enclosing the whole space of corn shed, a, b, c, d, fig. 9. In this arrangement the corn sheaves are not placed in stacks as usual, but are packed quite closely together, filling the whole shed, the ends and sides of which are open, exposing the ends of the sheaves. A very ingenious arrangement to prevent vermin from gaining access to the corn in the shed, is shown in simple diagram, fig. 11, Plate 2. This is simply a sheet or sheets of zinc or galvanized iron, which are fixed to the upper surface and to the retaining wall, a, and bent over as at c. It will be seen from this ingenious arrangement, that it will be an impossibility for rats, however they may climb up the retaining wall to b, to pass over the curved part of the zinc plate, c, and get to the grain in the shed. Stacks are made of all sizes, some, especially in the southern parts of the kingdom, being very large ; small stacks are better, however, than large ones, for obvious reasons, the air getting better through them, etc. As to form and shape, the circular we believe to be better than the rectangular ; but in both cases the tops or roofs, so to say, are sloped off, and regularly and care- fully thatched. If circular, the diameter should, for wheat, not exceed fourteen feet ; barley should be the least-sized of all stacks, ten feet being the maximum ; while for oats, the mean between wheat and barley should be the maximum diameter. The stacks should in all cases be raised from the ground, and the best method, without adopting the plaus we have already described, for securing a good foundation is to use the cast-iron rick-stands now so largely adopted. These are made up of a series of cast-iron vertical standards, with broad base and with hooded or capped tops. These hoods are like what may be called inverted bowls, hollow in the inside and rounded at the outside. By this arrangement no vermin can get up the stack, as they cannot pass round the hollow inside of the cup, even if they are able to climb up the vertical stalk, which they are not likely easily to do. The tops of the hoods are slightly flattened, and made with slits or openings to receive the ends of iron or timber beams, which go across from one standard to another, and which make the bottom or foundation for the com to rest upon. To prevent overheating of the grain, it is essential that all stacks should be hollow in the interior, the hollow extending from bottom to top. There are several methods in use for venti- lating stacks by thus making them hollow. The old-fashioned way, and one which is still most extensively used, is the ' boss ' system, as it is called in the north. This consists in placing wooden erections as in fig. 4, Plate 3 ; these open up the centre of the stack, and, reaching from the bottom nearly to the top, permit of free ventilation throughout the mass. The ventila- tion through the extreme upper layers of the stack, and of the outer thatching, is found to be effected in the natural way (plan of fig. 4 in plate 5). These wooden structures are of different shapes or forms, another being shown in fig. 6, Plate 3 ; but the object of all, of whatever form, is to keep the interior of the stack open, so that currents of air can pass through the sheaves. They usually rest upon horizontal tressels, which keep them off the ground, and still further assist ventilation. The only objection to these is, that the currents are too apt to be formed in one direction — the vertical only ; hence, if some method of having lateral openings communi- cating with the vertical one could be arranged, a more thorough system of ventilation throughout the mass of sheaves would be secured. This to a certain extent will be attained by keeping down D 26 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY the diameter of the stack ; for it is obvious that, the farther the air has to travel in a lateral direction, the less efficient will be the ventilation through and amongst the sheaves ; and the greater, therefore, the diameter of the stack, the thicker must he the walls, so to call them, of sheaves surrounding the interior framework, as in figures just given ; and the farther, therefore, the air will have to travel from the outside to the inner open space, and the more difficult will it be to keep up the continual currents of air which it is the object of the arrangement to secure. These considera- tions would therefore militate strongly against the plan of some farmers, who maintain that you can- not make your stacks too large. It is impossible, or almost impossible, to lead com from the field so thoroughly ' won,' as the technical phrase is, or dried, that there shall be no moisture in it. Now, when the sheaves, containing this moisture to a greater or less amount, are placed in mass in the stack, it is the evaporation of this moisture, when it cannot gain access to the outer air, — in other words, get freed from the interior of the stack, — that causes overheating ; and it is scarcely worth the demonstration, that — to use a familiar phrase— it will take longer for the moisture- laden air to travel ten than it will take to travel five feet, and that it is likely to meet with more obstructions to its free exit in the greater than in the lesser length. If stacks were so constructed that free venti- lation in all directions was secured, it would not matter much how large they were ; and a plan to secure this was some time ago proposed and carried out by a Mr. Smith of Darnock, N.B., which was found in a large measure effectually to secure this. The rough diagram, fig. 7, Plate 2, will show the general arrangement of Mr. Smith's system of stack construction, the prin- ciple of which may be said to be, first, the making of a longitudinal air-way or ventilating channel, so that the stack could be made of any length ; and, second, the building up of the sheaves above and around this, so that the shortest way from this interior channel to the outside may be secured, or nearly so; while, from the way in which the timbers are trussed, the downward pressure arising from the weight of the upper portion of the stack is prevented, which pressure is in the majority of cases very difficult to meet, and is the cause of that compression of the lower sheaves together which hinders so much the free passage of the air through them, and which the usual plans are not calculated to prevent. From the sketch in fig. 7, Plate 2, it will be seen that a central opening or space is left from end to end of the stack, — which may be made of any length, — and that this is made by the arrange- ment of the diagonal timbers, bb, cc, crossing at the top, and secured there by a band or rope. Longitudinal spars, as hh, are to be nailed near the top of these diagonal timbers, bb, cc; but those marked //, g g, resting on the horizontal rafters, d d, are designed to be moveable, and are not placed on the rafters, d d, till the corn sheaves reach this height. The downward pressure of the corn at the top of the stack is relieved or got rid of by the employment of the diagonal struts or braces, e c, which are connected at one end with the horizontal rafters, d d, and the diagonal timbers, bb,cc. The dotted points show the ends or position of the sheaves. The width of the stack is arranged to be some 12 feet, the height of the central opening, a a, some 6^- feet, and the width about 3^ feet. By the employment of rough home timber, the woodwork may be put ixp at a cost varying from 3s. to 4s. per lineal yard, according to circumstances of locality, cheap- ness of labour, etc. The great advantage of the plan is the having a central opening from end to end of the stack, by which not only a perfect through-draught longitudinally can be secured, but a capability of inspection of the condition of the grain, also a point of great importance. The plan would be greatly improved, we incline to think, by having cross openings at intervals in the length of the stack; these could be very easily arranged for by vertical timber and short diagonal struts. These need not open quite at the sides of the stack, but stop short a little distance therefrom ; this would ensure the venti- lation required, and also enable the condition of the corn to be examined. There are obviously many modifications of the principle, which carries with it not a few important points worthy the attention of practical men. Somewhat on the same principle, but by no means securing such a hollow condition of stack, MR. USHER'S PLAN OF STACK-BUILDING. is the plan proposed by Mr. Usher ; but the chief point aimed at in the plan is to relieve the lower part of the stack, as a a, fig. 6, Plate 2, from the pressure of the upper part, b b, thus keeping the sheaves in the lower part quite free and open throughout ; — and this to such an extent, that in practice it is found that each straw, as it were, acts as a venti- lator, being so loose and free from the pressure on it of the upper straw ; thus, in fact, getting rid of the great evil in ordinary stack-building, where the pressure of the upper sheaves com- presses the lower ones so much that they become a solid mass, so to say, through which little or no air can pass. Mr. Usher obviates the evil by supporting the upper part of the stack on timber, c c c, not on the sheaves of the lower part, but by the arrangement shown in fig. 6, Plate 2. In addition to the loose state of the lower sheaves relieved from the upper pressure, it is found that there is a subsidence of the whole lower portion, a a, to such an extent, that an opening of some inches is found at or near the level of what may be called the timber floor- ing, cc c, which, being at the very thickest, are, in stacks as usually formed, the very densest part of them, and admit of an amount of venti- lation which is highly beneficial. The principle, therefore, on which the stacks are thus formed may be said to be a ' self-acting system ' of ventilation, which, taking advantage of the weight or pressure of the grain in ordinary cases, the source or cause of evil, forces it, so to say, to be the very means of getting rid of it, thus making the ' enemy fight himself,' and, what is the best of the business, conquer himself. The diagram requires but little explanation : the timbers used may be of the roughest, the method of fitting them up the same, so that security be attained , the stack may be made of any length, the best breadth being found to be about 14 feet, the height of the posts up to what may be called the timber or dividing floor being 10 feet, the distance between the vertical posts being 14 feet, so that the framework is erected in 14 feet squares. Mr. Usher states that, in ordinary weather, corn may be safely stacked on his system after being in the field only for one-half the usual time, so that the chances of being ' caught' in bad weather are very greatly reduced; and further, that, after being stacked, it is brought much more quickly into a condition ready for the market. It is obvious, moreover, that the time saved, and of course the expenses, in head- ing or finishing off the stack at top, are con- siderable as compared with a round stack, two sides only in the new system being required to be headed, in place of all round, as in the other plan. The expense of erecting the framework is in itself comparatively a mere trifle, as any kind of rough timber will do, which will, he also states, be saved in the course of a year or two, by the mere difference in the cost of stacking, finishing off, etc., to say nothing of the increased value of the corn. The whole principle, so far as keeping up the currents of air throughout the grain is concerned, lies in relieving the lower layers of corn from the pressure of the upper, by the introduction of the timber flooring in the centre of the stack ; and it is therefore a question whether the advantages would not be increased by adding to this relieving principle, by giving more than one row of horizontal timber. Mr. Usher, however, obviously relies upon the import- ance of relieving the pressure at the point where it is most felt, about the centre of the height of the stack ; and there is no doubt that, by putting in too many horizontal timbers, the difficulties of stacking would be increased, and also of unstacking, as the timber would come in the way of the pitching-off forks. The plan of having rick or stack yards wholly covered in has been very much advocated, as we have already said, by some of late years, and there is no doubt that many advantages would arise from it. At the same time, the difficulties attendant upon the carrying out of the plan must not be overlooked. The structural ones are in themselves of no mean order ; not that we mean to infer that roofs of any span, calculated to cover areas sufficiently large to take in the whole of the grain of the largest farm, cannot be constructed ; but one has to look at all the points of a question, and one of these would be, and is, the expense. Before taking up the next part of the build- ings connected with the barns, an important point will have to be decided, and one which 28 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. will modify considerably this part of the stead- ing. This point requiring decision is connected with the motive-power of the steading. Setting aside for the present all consideration of water power, or supposing that it is not available, the question to be decided at this stage is, ' Which is best to be employed, stationary steam- engine and thrashing machinery, or portable ? ' The points involved in this question are import- ant, and somewhat difficult is it to come to a decision, so much may be said on both sides. At the same time, we believe that a fair balance of the advantages and disadvantages of both will result in favour of The Stationary System of Steam-Engine and Thrashing Machinery. — In this, the whole ma- chinery throughout is housed in appropriate apartments in proper relation one to another, of which the thrashing machinery and that for corn- dressing are under the roof of the main building, stretching along the north side of the steading. The steam-engine may be also under this roof ; or it may be placed, as it often is, in an offset building at the back, the boiler occupying the outside apartment of this offset. But whether the engine be in this or under the main roof, the boiler, for obvious reasons, as for safety from fire, convenience of firing, etc., is always, or should always be placed at the outside of the main building. One great advantage in having a fixed steam-engine in the steading is, that it can be employed not only to drive the thrashing machinery, which may be said to be its primary duty, but also to drive the various machines for preparing food, as straw cutters, root slicers or pulpers, crushing and grinding mills, etc. etc., which, although a secondary, is still a point of great importance, — one, indeed, which cannot be dispensed with. Again, the stationary system of steam-engine admits of the highest degree of economy being obtained in the working of all its parts. Thus, to begin with the boiler, space for the boiler-house of any requisite area can easily be obtained. This admits of ample boiler space or power being given ; and nothing contributes more to the economizing of fuel for steam-raising than a boiler with ample water and steam space, and a furnace duly proportioned and arranged to suit these. A boiler of this description can be fired without that system of forcing, than which nothing tends to wear out the boiler more rapidly, and to expend fuel without any useful result being obtained from a large percentage of it. If the boiler be on the tubular principle, the advan- tages are even more apparent ; for these can be arranged with ample water-space, so that the full effective heating surface can be secured, while with slow, steady firing, and consequent steam-raising, and with abundance of steam- space, there is no violent ebullition and conse- quent ' priming ' of the steam (i.e. steam carrying from the boiler a large proportion of contained water), which does great injury to the engine. Large and properly-proportioned boilers are the most economical in their expenditure of fuel, and last very much longer in good order than small boilers with confined water, steam, and furnace spaces, in which forced firing is almost indeed a necessity. Coming now to the engine, it is an axiom that the more steady or stable the foundation on which it rests the better, thus giving an immunity from all shocks, jolts, jars, and unsteady, irregular movements, than which nothing is so prejudicial to the Avorking parts of a steam-engine, so fertile a cause of loss of power, and of a never-ending demand for repairs. A stationary steam-engine, of a good kind and of good workmanship, and well fitted up in the first instance, will work years without requiring any repairs, save the readjustment of parts which naturally wear out, but which can be done at small expense. The same truths apply to the thrashing machinery and corn-dressing machines, the whole of which, being fixed, admit of being worked in the way best calculated to enable them to give out their full effective power, and to do this with the minimum of wear and tear. Sta- tionary boilers and steam-engines, in brief, admit of the easy application of the best and most economical methods of working, and of all those improved systems by which their effective power can be increased to a maximum, many of which are not applicable to the system we are now about to take up and consider. Tlie Portable System of Steam-Engine and Thrashing Machinery. — This would be more cor- rectly termed the moveable system, inasmuch as the whole can be moved from place to place, THE PORTABLE SYSTEM OF ENGINE AND THRASHING MACHINERY. 29 each individual part of the system being fixed in framework provided with wheels ; the steam- engine, if on the locomotive type, being as a rule unprovided with traction gear, by means of which it could then be able to carry or drag itself along with its attendant thrashing- machine from place to place. Portable engines, so called, are now frequently made with trac- tion gear, so as to be serviceable either for stack-yard purposes, or for field work in steam cultivation. An excellent type of this class of engine has been recently introduced by the well-known firm of Messrs. J. & F. Howard, Bedford. Portable engines may also be of the vertical type, of which there are numerous examples in the market, in which the boiler and steam-engine are alike vertical, the whole stand- ing upon a base-plate which requires no prepared foundation, but may be placed in any desired position and set to work at once. But, as a rule, the engines used along with thrashing machinery are on the locomotive type, in •which boiler and engine are horizontal in position. There is in this moveable system, applicable to stack-yard and barn work, a simplicity which is certainly taking. It dispenses with all special buildings, is inde- pendent of any special position, so that it may be set down either to thrash out corn from ricks or stacks left in out-fields, or it may be brought up and set down to work — as it is generally made to work — in any convenient part of the stack or rick yard. But the steam-engine, being inde- pendent of the thrashing machinery, can also be used separately, taken to any part where a ma- chine has to be worked ; or the machine may be brought to it, and the strap or belt connection instantly made and the work done. But if we examine the system more closely, we shall be able to perceive that if it has its advantages, it has its disadvantages also ; and these are some- what important in their issues. First, as regards the working of the boiler and of the steam- engine ; both are placed in circumstances the very antipodes, so to say, of the stationary system. In place of ample room for either one or the other of those important members of the system, the very necessities of it compel the following out of compression, so as to have the maximum of working parts in the minimum of space, with the least weight of material possible. Hence, to begin with the boiler, — and the evils are more apparent in the vertical than in the horizontal type of engine, — the water and the steam spaces alike are, as a rule, far too small to admit of steam being raised without that forcing system of firing which in the previous paragraph we have shown to be such a source of waste of fuel, damage to the boiler, and, through excess of ' priming,' to the engine itself, the most valuable and delicate member of the system. The same remarks apply to the engine, but on the converse principle which we in last paragraph applied to the stationary engine. Here in the portable we see all the vices of unstable working exemplified. In the case of the engine on the locomotive type, however well chocked and wedged the wheels may be, the whole machine rocks to and fro with every change in the motion of the piston ; and however admirably fitted the parts may be in the first instance, under the influence of this per- petual movement they rapidly begin to work loose, and jolts, jars, and clicking noises give evidence of the mischief which is at work, and which is ever calling for amendment or repair. It may be taken as an axiom, that wherever in the working of machinery there is noise and jar- ring, there is loss of effective power and the going on of rapid wear and tear, which goes for- ward at an accelerating rate, so that if faults are not amended, and repairs made so soon as their existence is indicated, the labour and cost of ultimate work will be increased in a rapidly- increasing ratio. The same remarks apply to the thrashing-machine, the parts of which are sub- jected to the same evil influences, necessitating a system of bolting and bracing, which, while they add to the cost and weight of the apparatus, by no means quite cure the evil. No doubt, as a rule, the machinery of the system sent out by the first makers is of a highly superior class, and affords examples of ingeniously arranged and admirably constructed mechanism ; but the evils inherent in the system do away with much of these advantages, and unfortunately those evils are a necessity of it. And, as one result, it is certainly startling to know the very small pro- portion of the effective power given out by this engine which is available for the very purposes 30 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. for which the whole system is set to work. From what we have said, then, as to the two systems, the stationary or fixed, and portable or moveable, the question between them as to their relative merits cannot rest on the issue or point of economical working. That, beyond all con- troversy, is wholly, we think, on the side of the stationary system. The decision, however, may turn, as it is likely as a rule to turn, upon the score of convenience. Here much may be said in favour of the portable or moveable system. Still it is a point which can only be decided by the peculiar circumstances of each individual case, or, as may be and is often the case, by the mere opinion of the farmer or proprietor, without special reference to the economical and other points to which we have drawn attention. In view of the great extension of the system of steam cultivation — or rather preparation of the land, cultivation in the higher sense being yet a system in futuro — it is likely to be an induce- ment to many to adopt the portable system. Yet, apart from all the considerations we have brought forward as bearing practically upon the point, there is yet another which is worthy of some slight notice, and that is — The Relative Congruity in the Working of the two Systems of Thrashing. — Trace the operation of the stationary system, from the removal of the corn sheaves from the rick or stack to the gang- way leading from the yard level up to that of the thrashing-floor; the orderly and quiet way in which they are fed to the feeding-board of the thrashing-machine ; pass through this, the corn falling to the corn barn below, where it is dressed and made ready for storing in the granary, or sent, if fit, to the market; while the straw is passed quietly in to the straw barn, where it is packed closely and carefully together ready for use. With one exception, every part of the pro- cess is carried on under cover, so that the work is independent of weather; and, however high the wind may be, no loose straws are blown about, but all is orderly from beginning to end. Trace now the same operations in the open stack- yard. How differently are they carried out ! The bustle and generally untidy state of matters which reigns around is in contrast to the quiet and order of the other system ; and if the weather be wet, and especially if it be windy, it will not be difficult to decide which system seems to fall into or fit with the nature of the work which is carried out, dealing as it does with a valuable substance, liable to be damaged by untoward cir- cumstances, whatever they may be. But it is not only on the score of congruity, or of the ' fitness of things,' that the two systems may be judged. There is yet another and very important point to be considered, and that is — The Relative Danger of the two Systems with reference to Fire. — Whatever may be said of the importance of the other points noted, no doubt of the full importance of this can for a moment be held by any thinking person. The incon- gruity of a burning furnace placed in the very midst of a highly combustible substance, is mani- fest at once ; and the higher degree of congruity of the stationary system, where the straw is not allowed to approach at all within the vicinity of the furnace of the steam-engine, but is carried off and deposited at once in the straw barn, affords a striking contrast to the other system. We thus see The Danger arising from the Use of Portable Steam-Engines in Thrashing out Corn in the Open Rich or Stack Yard, and the Measures to be taken in order to lessen tlie Risk. — Numerous as are the fires which are recorded in the columns of the papers of the day, as having taken place at farms through the agency of the steam-engine, those are, we believe, still more numerous which are not recorded ; and this probably from the fact, that although considerable damage may have been done, still it had not reached the point deemed worthy of a ' newspaper paragraph.' But, then, what as to the risk which in those cases was run of total destruction of the farmery ? This risk is run much more frequently than is dreamed of by those who employ steam-engines, and very few farmers there are now, who, with anything like a moderate extent of land, do not ; and this even in the cases where fixed or stationary engines are used. Not that we would maintain that the risk of fire in the case of portable engines is dependent upon, or arises from, the fact that they are portable ; but chiefly from the fact that they afford facilities, so to say, for the attendants being careless, and also from the fact that they THE PORTABLE ENGINE SYSTEM— THE GRANARY. 3i are worked ia positions where fire can be easily communicated to highly combustible materials lying about. When a portable engine is used on the farm, and in the rick or straw yard, for the purpose of thrashing, common sense would dictate that every precaution should be taken to prevent accidents by fire. But it is not always — some cynics would say it is not at all — that common sense prevails, to judge from the general method of using portable engines in a farmery. "We have seen them in full work surrounded by heaps of loose straw, coming so closely up to and invading the precincts of the engine, that the attendant kicked the loose straw away, impressed evidently with the idea that there was danger in the near vicinity of the inflammable straw to the flaming furnace and heated ashpit of the engine. We should insist upon a clear space being kept for the engine to stand upon, and a wide space all round it, upon which it would be a fineable circumstance for the men if a single loose straw was found. We should go farther, and say that it would be but the right way to do, to have a stand made in the rick-yard purposely for the portable engine to be placed and to work upon, this being enclosed by boarding, better still by sheet-iron plates, which it would be easy also to make portable, so that they could be removed when the engine itself was laid up for the season. Say somewhat after this fashion : let a, b, c, d, fig. 1, Plate 2, be the outline of the stand, at intervals alongside of which, holes, a a, are made in the brick, stone, or concrete floor ; — this last- named material we prefer above all others for such-like work. In these, when the engine is at work, posts, a a, fig. 2, are placed, these being provided with grooves, in which boards, or boarding, or plates of sheet iron are put down, forming an enclosure into which at least straw must be lifted, but into which it cannot easily find its own way. The floor of the stand we should make inclined, sloping from the corner or end, d d, fig. 1, Plate 2, in which the coals are placed, towards b b, at which we should place a small depression or shallow tank, into which the water, which always accumulates around the stand of a portable engine at work, would collect, and from which it could be baled out when necessary. We should also in the concrete floor make depressions for the wheels, in which they could be ' scotched ' or wedged up, thus securing the steady working of the engine. We think that this arrangement would secure some higher degree of order, clean- liness, and safety, than the happy-go-lucky way in which portable engines are too often set to work in our farm-yards. And if iron plates were substituted for the wood boards forming the enclosing sides, greater safety still would be ensured. If these were corrugated, the lightest plates obtainable could be used, and the corruga- tion would give great strength to them. There may be those who may think the arrangement an over-refinement in farrn-building work. We do not think so. Prevention is always better than cure, and assuredly, in view of the dangerous practice we have already described, any simple arrangement or appliance, by which the danger will be lessened even in a moderate degree, is worth carrying out. One cannot afford to play with so potent a power as that of fire. At all events, whether this or some other safeguard be used or not, we cannot err in counselling a much greater degree of carefulness to be exercised when thrashing is going on in the open yard with a portable steam-engine in the midst of straw or near it, than is generally the rule in practice. The Granary, its Arrangement and Construction. — The granary, in which is stored the thrashed- out corn and gram till it is ready to be sent to market, or, if deemed advisable, partially used for stock - feeding purposes, is always placed on the second floor or storey, which, as a rule, extends in the case of large buildings over the whole range of the north side ; or if less accommo- dation be required, it may stop short at a point in a line with the east wall of the straw barn, this being extended back so as to admit of its roof being carried along to the north wall, meeting that of the granary running east and west. This will form a cheaper roof, at least one more easily con- structed, a valley being saved, than if the granary was extended a little farther east. The granary is generally low overhead, and the roof may either be open or a ceiling provided, the latter being a great aid towards keeping the room rat- 32 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY proof. The windows of the granary may Le placed on one side only, that being the south ; but better if on both sides, as more perfect, at least more efficient, ventilation will be obtained. The best form of window is the swivel, swung on central pivots, and provided with cords and pulleys and staples, by which it can be ad- justed and fixed at any angle, so as either to throw the air towards the ceiling or the floor. In the construction of the granary two points are essential : first, absolute freedom from damp ; second, rat-proof. The first may be secured by paying particular attention to the construction of the walls ; if of stone, carefully avoiding the honeycomb system, in which the centre is merely a mass of mortar, often of very poor quality, and stone shivers. A wall of this kind, especially if the winds blow often north and south, and the climate a rainy one, will very rapidly get damp outside ; and when this is the case, it will shortly extend to the inside. The only remedy for a wall which does get damp, is lining the interior with Portland cement concrete, made of cement two parts, one of the best river sand — not sea-shore sand, or taken from pits in which marine shells abound. No damp will come through a wall so lined. To prevent drip from the roof, a ceiling will be the best appliance to adopt, this being finished off to meet the vertical walls, not as usual with a right-angled corner, but with a curve of as wide a radius as possible. This curve prevents dust lodging ; and if a battue be made amongst the rats, should they unfortunately gain possession of the granary, if they run up the wall they will drop at the curve, and be taken up by ' Tiny,' or other-named famous ratting terrier, as they fall. The best form of floor, if a slight additional expense be not grudged, is that constructed with light wrought-iron beams ; the section known as Zore's gives the maximum of strength with the minimum of weight. The iron beams admit of a Portland cement concrete floor being laid clown, which is at ouce damp-proof, fire-proof, and absolutely rat-proof. In another paragraph will be found a description and illustration of the best form of granary floor, and how it should be finished at the surface and at the sides where it joins the walls. The Barns. — These are three in number : (1) the thrashing barn, (2) the corn barn, and (3) the straw barn. (1) The thrashing bam is on the second floor, and, as already stated, may be reached from the level of the rick or stack yard by a gangway, built solid generally ; but if it 1 >e made of T-iron bars and angle-iron uprights, with boarded floor, a space is free below it, so that passage to and fro can be made. It will not be so inconvenient as a solid gangway, round which it is necessary to go before one side can be reached from the other. Moreover, a solid gangway, or rather roadway, obstructs the light, which a bridge-like structure such as we have recommended does but in a very limited way. If no gangway be desired, the corn is forked up from the carts, etc., brought up to the wall, or a ' straw elevator ' may be used. The thrashing - barn door is wide, and may be made folding fashion with a horizontal cut near the centre, so that the lower part may remain closed while the upper is open, and vice versd. This arrangement also admits of different leaves being opened, which will facilitate ventilation and clearing away of the dust, the result of the operations going on in the barn. The floor, if fireproof, like that of the granary else- where described, should be left grooved and rough, so as to give secure foothold, and prevent falling amongst the machines, etc. The sheaves are fed to the thrashing - machine from the barn, the straw passing in to the straw barn, and the corn to the corn barn below, where it is winnowed and dressed. The corn-grinding mill and the bean and oat crushing mill are placed in the thrashing barn, the produce when finished being passed by spouts to the corn barn below, where it is sacked and taken to the food-store room. (2) The com barn should be roomy, large, and wrell lighted. This is often done by the medium of the folding and split door (see par. on 'Doors'), but side windows should be added, as light is greatly promotive in the keeping apartments neat and orderly ; dark rooms are almost inva- riably dusty, dirty, and disorderly. The floor of the corn barn will be best of Portland cement concrete, which will be rat and damp proof. (3) The straw barn is made of considerable length, projecting at right angles to the line of apartments at the north side ; it is in height THE BARN, BOILER-HOUSE, AND STEAM-ENGINE ROOM. 33 equal to two storeys, or that of the granary walls, the roof running on to meet that of the granary, and finished with two valleys. But the straw barn, though the height of two floors, has no floor at the height of the second storey, but is open from floor to ceiling, to give as much space as possible to stow away the straw. This, as it is delivered from the thrashing-machine, is taken to the outer or far end, and built or packed care- fully up, keeping the different kinds of straw- separate, as they have to serve different purposes in feeding and also as litter, gradually approach- ing the roof vertically, and the corn-barn wall horizontally. Doors are provided at both sides, to aid in the quick distribution of the straw to the cattle courts, etc., these being placed at appropriate points, according to the disposition of the straw either for fodder or litter. The floor should be damp-proof and rat-proof ; and to promote a free circulation of air through the mass of straw, port-holes are made at both sides, and it will be all the better if ventilation be fitted to the roof. Every precaution shoidd be taken to prevent the straw becoming damp and musty, as the stock will not eat it with relish ; straw at the best not being a very tempting article of diet alone, and in truth bad straw is not fit either for fodder or for litter. The south end of the pro- jecting part of the building containing the straw barn, is in some instances provided with a floor at the second storey level, so as to form an apartment of any desired dimensions to be used as a store- room for wool or general store ; this room being reached either by an open or outside stair at the end of the building, or by an internal stair from the room on the ground floor under, which room may be used as a food store or a turnip or root store for the supply of the stock in the courts, hammels, and boxes, which are placed in the area on each side of the straw barn ; see plan, fig. 1 , Hate 1. The apartments at the north side ex- ternal to the wall are The Boiler-House and Stcam-Enginc Boom. — The space for coals and for firing is generally in boder-houses too limited to admit of the free exercise of the fireman. There may be, and often is, an excuse for this in towns, where ground space is dear, but there can be none in the country, where a yard or two extra can make little difference in the cost of the farmery. Work is always better done, and more easily, when the workman has plenty of what he calls ' elbow-room,' — an expressive phrase. Dirty of necessity as the work of a boiler-house is, there is no necessity to make it dirtier and more slovenly still, by arrangements calculated to pro- mote such a state of things. The coals should be placed in a regularly-built brick or stone walled-in space or ' bunker,' with floor sloping to the back to keep the coals in, and the water with which they are sometimes sprinkled. The coals should be delivered to this by a shoot from the outside, the upper part of this being large enough to hold a good supply of coals, and thus to prevent them being knocked and kicked about, as they too often are when laid down loose. The shoot should have such a slope, that when the coals are taken out of the bunker to feed the furnace with, a fresh supply will slide naturally down, keeping the bunker always provided with coals. A bunker should be placed at the opposite side of the house, for the reception of the ashes and clinkers. These should be kept separate by a division in the bunker, and each should be wheeled off from time to time to their separate heaps ; the clinkers being used for the repair of roads, cinders being as carefully as possible consumed in the furnace, while the ashes are good to form a basis for top dressings mixed with other manures, or to be added to the compost heap (see ' Compost Heaps — Manure Sheds'). All these detafls may appear to be over-refinements. They are not so, but thoroughly practical in their nature ; for just as in a well-conducted farmery the principle of ' A place for everything, and everything in its place,' should be and is always kept in view, so also ought the companion principle, ' Waste not, want not,' both being fully and conscientiously worked out ; and if so, it will be to the advantage alike of employers and employed. The boiler- house ought to be well ventilated, and top or side lights provided in the walls, for the purpose of throwing abundance of light upon the whole length of boiler top, so that all the appliances, as feed and safety valves, etc., may be clearly seen. Some boiler-top spaces are quite dark, necessitating tlie use of a light, and inducing carelessness in keep- ing all the fittings bright and clean and in good E 34 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. working order. Although the front is usually left open, a four-leaved door will he of great service in regulating the draught, and affording shelter from driving rains, not only to the boiler-front fittings, as water-gauges, etc., but to the fireman. The engine-house may either be in a building out- side the north range, or inside, forming part of it. It should be exceedingly well lighted, so that every part of the machine may be seen. The walls should be plastered or cement-coated, with rounded - off ceiling to prevent dust lodging. Ventilation is necessary to carry off the sicken- ing, oily, offensive smells ; and so also is a floor affording a firm foothold, thus getting rid of the greasy floor so often seen, and which is dangerous as causing falls, which may lead to grave acci- dents by the workers falling amongst the moving machinery. This, however, should be guarded off by rail fence. A fire-proof bunker should be made of brick lined with cement, and pro- vided with an iron cover, in which to hold the ' waste ' used for cleaning the engine and the oil cans. Greasy waste ought never to be allowed to accumulate, as it takes fire spontaneously with great readiness. We now come to the parts of the building occupied by machinery and appliances connected with the stock. The first apartment met with next the engine-room on one side, or the corn barn on the other, being the machine-room in which food is prepared for the live stock. The completeness with which this may be fitted will depend upon circumstances ; but the greater the number of machines, the more will the feeding of the stock be economized in time and mate- rial. The fittings of the machine-room will be very similar to those of the engine-room (see preceding par.). As there are generally apart- ments for stock, of one kind or another, in both wings extending east and west of the central range containing the straw barn, etc., some prefer a machine-room in the west as well as the east range, on the north side of the steading ; this to save the taking of the food prepared in the machine-room — if one only — of the east range to the stock apartments in the west range, or vice versa. As this is a work to be performed so frequently, there is no doubt but that the plan of having two machine-rooms will result in the saving of a large amount of time in the aggre- gate of the year's work. The same remark applies with equal force to the mash or food-cooking room, which should be the apartment next con- tiguous to the machine-room, as the roots cut or sliced or pulped, or the grain bruised or ground, or the oats and beans crushed in the machine- room, will be taken directly from there to the mash-room, in which they are cooked or steamed. The question as to whether it is advantageous or otherwise to cook food for live stock of any kind is one of the vexed questions of the practice of farming. Certainly, the balance of opinion is altogether in favour of cooking ; and apart from the practice of habitually giving them cooked food, it is certainly admitted by the party opposed to habitual feeding in cooked food as part of the animal's meals, that occasional feeds are useful, and in the case of illness are essential. Seeing this, then, a mash-room will be a useful addition to the apartments of a steading, and should be provided ; not forgetting the other reason for so doing, that while one tenant may be opposed to cooked food, the succeeding tenant' may be an advocate for it. (See the chapter on the Live Stock of the Property.) The mash -room will therefore be ready for him, while the other during his occupancy can use the room for other purposes, of which he will have more than one waiting for accommodation. As regards the fittings of the mash-house, seeing that it is pretty wTell acceded by all the users of cooked food that steam cooking is quicker, more cleanly, and gives better food — that is, of a more uniformly cooked quality — than that done by fire or furnace cooking, the best apparatus to put up will be one of Messrs. Richmond & Chandler's make (Greengate, Sal- ford, Manchester), with swivel steam pans con- nected with the boiler. Some prefer to have the cooking pans or vessels supplied with steam from the steam-engine boiler of the steading, but this is a roundabout and therefore not an economical plan ; for it should be remembered that the steam-engine is not always at work, and to light the furnace and raise steam in a large boiler in order to supply the very small volume of steam required, will be a process somewhat akin to the ' erecting of a steam-engine to crush a fly.' Considerations such as these are often lost sight THE FOOD COOKING AND STEAMING ROOM. of, commonplace as they are seen to be when once explained, but they nevertheless are those which go far to render the working of the stead- ing economical ; and nothing can be unimportant which tends to save either time or labour, both of which are but other forms of money. An ample supply of water should be provided to the mash-room or rooms, and washing appliances for the cleaning of the vessels or ' licking tubs,' etc., out of which the animals feed. Cleanli- ness in these is a great help to the mainten- ance of their health, as well as an inducement for them to eat their food. Cattle and horses, especially the latter, are dainty animals, and will often turn from good food given to them in a dirty box or manger, sour-smelling, and of ' evil odour ' altogether. More harm is done to stock from this cause alone — lack of cleanli- ness— than is thought of by many. This is another point worth thinking over and looking for, and, when found, as worthy old Captain Cuttle — one of Dickens' most admirably drawn characters — would say, 'When found, take a note out.' 3<5 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. CHAPTER V. PACTS OF THE FARMERY OR STEADING CONNECTED WITII THE LIVE STOCK OF THE FARM. Accommodation for Fattening and Store Cattle, and for Young Stock. ' Cattle Curtains ' and ' Courts! — This kind or class of accommodation is one of the four classes into which the methods of sheltering and feed- ing cattle are divided ; the other three, presently to be described, being the ' hammel,' the ' stall in byre or shippon,' and lastly the ' box.' The ' curtain ' and ' court ' methods of keeping up Fig. 1. Cattle Court or ' Curtain,' with Central Turnir, Store for feeding right and left to Sheds in Courts, showing position of Dung-Stances and Liquid-Manure Tanks. cattle are distinguished by the accommodation j the only covered part. Of these two methods, being chiefly open to the air, a small shed being the ' curtain ' is distinguished from the ' court ' Fig. 2. Cross section on line A B in fig. 1. Scale as in fig. 1. by its having the turnip store central to two I it. This arrangement is illustrated in fig. 1, open yards, with covered sheds right and left of | being a plan with scale attached. Fig. 2 is a OPEN COURT AND COVERED SHED FOR CATTLE. 37 section of the same on the line A B. In fig. 1, a a is the central turnip store, with roof over. Some would save the expense of a roof by keeping it open, as they are of opinion that the turnips are better by being exposed to rain and even frost (if the latter be not too severe), in which case they are covered over with straw, or but few are brought up at a time from the pits ; as when covered up they get dried and withered, and not so much relished in this state by the stock. The turnips are delivered through port-holes, b b b, in the side walls to the mangers, c c c c, the animals Front Elevation of alternative Arrangement of Cattle Curtain, without roofed-in Back toheds. space should be given for each animal in the shelter sheds, g g, and 240 feet in the open court,//. The floor or bottom of both courts and shelter sheds should be paved or concreted, and made to slope or converge to a point at which the liquid can be carried off by a drain eating under a light wooden pent-roof or covered place, d d, supported by light vertical posts, eeee. The open straw courts are at / / ; g g being the shelter sheds or houses proper; h h, the dung stance, with liquid-manure tank under ; i i, the gates. A superficies of 60 feet of ground urt and Shelter Shed for Cattle. to the tank. One door only should be given to each shelter shed, as two doors cause unnecessary draughts ; there is this advantage, however — apart from this — in having two doors, as shown by the dotted lines, that it permits of young or weak cattle escaping when pressed by the older or stronger. Dunging doors— as at tlie dotted lines — will be a convenience to the sheds, g g. All the openings should have the angles taken off, and made round or ' bull-nosed ; ' this simple expedient will save the animals from being hurt, as at sharp comers. Water troughs are shown 3S DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. in dotted lines in the plan in fig. 1 ; they should be always provided and supplied with water at pressure, if possible, so that a con- stant supply may be kept up, the waste water being allowed to run constantly off in small quantity. The best, certainly the cleanest, mate- rial of which to make the troughs is earthen- ware ; these can be had of various sizes, and cheap. The shelter shed will be the more com- plete if a hay-rack be provided, running along the back wall. The Open Court and Shed System of Sheltering Cattle. — The position of water-troughs, a a, man- ger, b b, and hay-racks, c c, in shelter shed, are indicated in fig. 4, which is a plan showing the ordinary arrangement of cattle courts ; it is drawn to the same scale as fig. 1. The placing of a turnip store, as h h, fig. 1, in the immediate vicinity of cattle courts, is a point of essential importance, and on which nothing requires to be said, being so obvious. These are indicated by the dotted lines in fig. 4. The smaller division may be for mangolds, etc. In fig. 5, which illus- trates the ' stall ' and ' hammel ' systems of feed- ing in one building, the turnip store is placed at i i ; this will be described in due course. The troughs or mangers for the animals to eat the turnips out of, as b b, fig. 4, may be made, as they usually are made, of wood, supported on raised brick pedestals ; they are now frequently made of earthenware, and any number may be placed end to end to get the desired length. Fig. 5. Plan of Stall and nainmel Systems of Sheltering and Feeding Cattle. The height of the brick pedestals on which these rest is 2 feet. If the trough is made of wood, a convenient depth is 15 inches; the front, of 1-inuh 'batten' thickness, being secured at in- tervals to the walls by iron bars. The front slopes from a width of 18 inches at the bottom to 2 feet at the top. Moveable hay or straw racks are useful appliances in a cattle court. As gates hung in the ordinary mode are apt to be in the way when the courts are being cleaned out or ' dunged,' the more convenient method is to have them to slide on a side rail, or rather rails, one at each side of the gate-road, so that the gate can be moved full open either right or left, as desired. It is not a good plan to have one court open into another; but if it cannot be avoided, or if it is desired, the gates between the courts must be suspended in such a way that, no matter how much straw or dung may be in the courts, they can be opened to allow of free ingress and egress. We now come to the ' stall ' system, which is HAMMELS FOR CATTLE SHELTER AND FEEDING. 39 illustrated in fig. 5, and also figs. 8 to 12, Flate 3. A description of the details of this system will be found in this section under the head ' Cow-byres and Shippons,' the arrangements of part of which are equally applicable to the stall- feeding of cattle. The Hammel System of Sheltering and Feeding Cattle. — The third mode of sheltering stock is that known in the north as the 'hammel' system, illustrated in fig. 5. This system may also be called the ' small court and shed ' system, for it is in reality this. Convenient sizes are, for the shed, e c, 14 feet by 12 ; for the court, //, 14 feet by 18. These are provided with Fig. 6. Front Elevation of flg. 5. mangers, g g, and water-troughs, h h ; a turnip store is shown at i i. By all those who have adopted this plan of sheltering feeding-cattle it is highly esteemed, and we are inclined to go to a great extent with those who maintain that it is the system which combines in the closest way the necessities of artificial with natural shelter, and in the opportunities it affords of allowing the animals to have the exact amount of exercise necessary to maintain their health. A section of this is given in fig. 6. The 'Box' System of Sheltei'ing and Feeding Cattle. — We now come to the last mode of shel- tering fattening stock, namely, the ' box ' system. Each box should give as a maximum 100, and as a minimum 80, square feet of floor surface. The boxes may either be arranged in single line, as in fig. 7, or in double line, with a feeding- £i Fig. 7. Part Plan of Range of Cattle-1 passage of 6 feet wide between the two ranges. Each box is provided with a manger, which, if loose, rises with the dung, or it may be fixed by hooks to a series of ' eyes ' fixed in the corner posts, so that the height may be adjusted as desired. It will be seen from the section in fig. 8, the floor, a a, of the box is some distance below the ground level, b b, so surfaced as to drain Fig. 3. Section of Cattle-boxes in fig: 7: to points leading to the liquid manure tank, when this excavated part is floored with stones, as shown, or it may be concreted, as already described. A trap communicating with a drain leading to liquid manure tank being placed in the centre at d, the floor should dip towards this in all directions, that is, from the four comers. The divisions between the boxes may be made of brick, or as hurdles, as shown in fig. 7. Stables. — The stables given to farm buildings are of two kinds or classes : first, those given to the horses which do the work of the farm in its various departments, and are therefore called by the name of, or are placed under, the first class of work, ' work-horse stable;' setting' them out as apart from the second class, known as or named by the title of the ' carnage or riding-horse stable.' The name of this sufficiently indicates the class of work which the horses allotted to this stable per- 40 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. form, namely, the carrying or the driving of the farmer, his family, and friends. The details of arrangement and construction are, in both, iden- tical as regards principle ; the only difference arising from the superiority, on the one hand, of the fittings, calculated either to promote the com- fort and the convenience, or to minister to the health of the animals ; or on the other, to add to the appearance of finish or even of elegance to the general look of the whole interior. The fittings of the work-horse stable, while they are generally plain, even to a point of ugliness, should still be so designed and constructed as to minister to the health and the comfort of the animals. Such are the two classes of farm stables ; and we now proceed briefly to describe their general arrange- ments. The first point to be attended to, and one which is too frequently overlooked, is the width of the building. This, as a rule, is too narrow, 16 feet being that generally recom- mended. That this is too narrow by at least a couple of feet, and we should be inclined rather to say thirty inches, will be very obvious, when one considers the space taken up by the stalls and their fittings, which will leave practically very little room for the important work of dung- ing, cleaning, and the general management of the animals. One has but to analyze, as it were, the dimensions of a 16-feet wide stable, to see that these important operations cannot be carried on with anything like comfort and convenience, which alone can secure that thorough cleanliness and order in every detail of stable management which it should be the ambition, as it is really the best interest, of the farmer to secure. Thus, taking the length of the stall with its manger fittings at 8 feet, the width of the gutter at 1 foot, and the harness racks, which project at least 2 feet from the opposite wall, a width of only 5 feet is left for the dunging and general work to be done. That this is far too narrow is clear enough ; but in point of fact it is even less than this, inasmuch as the length we have given to the stalls and their fittings is at least 1 foot less than it ought to be, in order to give more room to the horse, with the full width of the fittings. The difference between work done in ample space and that where it is confined is in any case so great, and all in favour of the larger area, that it is mistaken economy to limit the size of any farm buildings, more especially where such work is to be done as that of a stable. A good width, then, being decided upon, say 18 to 19 feet from wall to wall (inside measurement), the next point to be decided is the arrangement of the stalls. That which is generally adopted places the manger, hay-rack, and water-trough — if the latter form part of the fixed fittings — directly against the back wall ; but some prefer to have a feeding passage at the head of the stalls, between them and the back wall. Two advantages are claimed for this arrangement : first, the convenience of feeding the animals direct from the passage, without disturbing the animals in their stalls ; and, second, the giving of a freer ventilation at and above the space where the animals breathe. Much can be said in favour of this plan. Where the number of horses kept is considerable, there is no doubt that a large saving of time will be effected in the feeding of the horses, as the food can be taken directly from the apartment in which it is prepared, in trucks, which may be either hauled along the floor of the feeding pas- sage, or upon a light railway specially laid down. Horses, like other animals, do not like to be, and are not the better for being, disturbed when once they have been bedded down ; and disturbance will certainly be the result at every time of feeding where the other plan of arranging the stalls already described is adopted. After all, it is a point which will be best decided by the farmer, according to the ideas he entertains as to the best way of feeding his horses, although we may state that the balance of circumstances is decidedly in favour of the feeding-passage system. The next point to be decided on is the width of each stall, measured from the inside of the travis divisions bounding each side. It is a great mistake to make the stall too narrow ; one has only to observe the habits of the horse in the field, to notice that he loves to have abundance of room in which to lie, so that he can give full stretch to his limbs, and assume the variety of positions which alone secure the thorough rest and repose which are so conducive to the main- tenance of his comfort and general health. It is painful to witness the way in which some horses ARRANGEMENT AND CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 4i are cramped up in narrow stalls, in which it is impossible for them to have the freedom above alluded to. If, indeed, the health and comfort of the animal be truly considered, the stall system can lay no claim to be considered superior to that of the loose-box, which gives the nearest possible approach to the natural freedom of the field, combined with the conveniences, such as they are, of the stable. Such, indeed, are the advantages of the loose-box system, other than that already alluded to, such as isolation during times of sickness, etc., that we should, where the highest style of accommodation is aimed at, have no hesitation in recommending it to be adopted where space is no object ; and certainly mere space, in rural districts, where land has not the high value that it has in others, is a point not to be set against the far higher consideration of the health of such valuable animals as farm-horses. Even in cases where the stall system is adopted, — which, for many and obvious reasons, will continue to be the rule for a long time at least yet to come, — we would advise, at the very least, one loose-box to form a part of every work-horse stable. As to the width of the stall, the mini- mum should be 6 feet, and that inside measure- ment from one travis division to the other. The length of the stall, measured from the front line of the hay-rack to the inside line of gutter, should be not less than 8, but would be all the better for the horse if 9 feet. In the construction of the stall it has long been a point much dis- cussed, whether the floor should be on a level, or have an incline from head to foot. An inclined floor is certainly convenient, inasmuch as it admits of the water which is used for cleaning purposes, as well as the urine of the animal, being passed cff as quickly as possible to the gutter. But some writers object to the inclina- tion of the floor on physiological grounds, as tending, they say, to exercise an injurious influence on the muscles of the hind legs when the animal is standing. There is possibly too much stress placed upon this ; and then reference is made to the fact that horses, when left at liberty in the field, prefer to stand on level ground where that is within their reach. That there are exceptions to this, any close observer of the habits of the animal will readily enough admit, as a horse in a field is seen standing pretty frequently on inclined ground when he certainly has the choice of level. The truth is, that it is difficult as well as dan- gerous to try in such cases to set down a hard and fast line from which there is to be no devia- tion ; and taking into consideration at once the conveniences of construction and the health of the animal, a medium course will be found to be the best ; this being probably met in the best way by giving the floor a fall of 2, but not exceeding 2^, inches from the manger to the gutter. There can, of course, be no objection, but, on the contrary, every reason to give an inclination to the floor of the stable opposite the stalls — that is, running along the front wall, and which is usually designated as the cleaning or dunging part. The inclination should, however, be no more than just sufficient to carry off the water used for cleaning the floor to the gutter. As regards the materials of the floor itself, much wider choice is now offered than was formerly the case, when, almost as a universal rule, small stones or pebbles were used. It need scarcely be said that this material gives the very worst possible form of floor for practical purposes, inasmuch as the interstices formed between the pebbles form spaces into which dirt lodges, and from which it is exceedingly difficult to get it removed. The smoother the surface of a floor the better, care of course being taken that it is such as to give the horses a firm foothold. The reader will find in the chapter on the ' Construc- tion and Fitting of Farm Work generally,' ample details as to the best way of constructing stable floors, and the most economical materials to use. Another point in the arrangement and fittings of stables, which has given rise to considerable dis- cussion, is the position of the hay-rack of the stall, some advocating a low, some a high one for it. Those who hold that the manger should be low, object to its high position, first, on the physiological ground that the animal is constrained to eat the food in an unnatural position, which tends to strain the muscles of the neck, the natural mode of eating being that in which the animal depresses its head to the surface of the ground; the other objection being that the hay seeds are apt to fill into the eyes and ears of the horse as they drop between the bars of the F 42 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. manger. On the other hand, those who prefer the high rack object to the low one, as the animal's breath is more likely to contaminate the hay, the saliva to drop in amongst it, and, lastly, that it is more likely to be pulled out of the rack by the horse. If nature is to be a guide in cases such as this, certainly the low position is the best for the rack, and this in all improved fittings is the one adopted ; and certainly the hay or grass can be more conveniently and quickly applied to a low than a high one, more especially where a feeding passage is placed behind. Another point in the arrangement of stables which has also given rise to discussion, is the kind of roof to be adopted. The one generally used is close-ceiled, and this in order to admit of a hay-loft being placed above. The other form of roof is that technically known as an open one, in which all the timbers are exposed. Where the health of the animals is truly considered, there can be no doubt that the open is preferable to the ceiled roof, inasmuch as it admits not only of thorough ventilation being carried out, but of that being done in the most economical manner. No doubt a ceiled stable may be warmer than an open-roofed one, but excessive warmth is not required ; indeed, correct physiological principles would seem to indicate that the healthiest condition for an animal to be in while confined in the stable, is that in which, while the air is pure, it is also comparatively cool. It should not be forgotten, in arranging and constructing a stable, that its con- finement is antagonistic in great measure to the condition, which may be called the natural one of the animal, in which he lives, exposed to air of varying temperature, which in this climate is on the average low ; while he is obviously sup- plied, for breathing purposes, with any amount required. While some advocate a large supply of light to the stable, others, and they may perhaps be said to be the majority, prefer to have very little of it, on the ground that horses are quieter in a dark than in a light building, and consequently rest and sleep better. Here, again, if nature is to be taken as a guide, and the physiological principles which it indicates are to be followed, what may be called the com- mon-sense system is the best, namely, giving an abundance of light, which is well known to exercise a healthy influence upon animal life ; while the natural intervals of light and darkness are obviously obtained in the same way as they would be were the horses pastured in the open field. Moreover, a well-lighted stable not only helps the quick doing of its work, but is much more likely to be kept thoroughly clean than a dark one, seen dirt having a better chance of being removed than that which is concealed. In some parts of the country, and in districts where breeding is carried on extensively, horses, while not pastured in the fields, are not kept in steadings in close stables of the ordinary descrip- tion, but are provided simply with open sheds attached to yards. In Plate 1 0 we illustrate, from designs on the ' detached system ' prepared by us for the farm buildings of an estate in the south of England, in fig. 1 the elevation, in fig. 2 the section, of a horse shed, the front of which is quite open, save by the posts or pillars, a a ; the range of mangers, b b, is at the back of the shed, hay and straw racks, c, as in fig. 2, being also provided. The stalls of stables may be arranged on one or other of the modifications adapted for cow byres, as shown in figs. 8 to 13 in Plate 3. In Plate 9, fig. 1, we give, as suggestive of a stable on a large scale, the plan of a double- stalled stable recommended by the Eoyal Com- missioners to inquire into the condition of cavalry stables ; in which the stalls, a a, bb, are divided by the feeding and dunging passage, c c ; the shallow surface-drains at the feet of stalls run in the direction of the arrows to the gulley traps, e e ; an open litter shed, //, is placed at one side. In fig. 7 we give the plan of a stable on the ordinary mode of arranging the stalls, a ; the dunging and feeding passage, b, in front ; c is a litter shed. In fig. 1 3 we give a section of this. Figs. 4 and 5, Plate 9, illustrate the two usual modes of fitting up the stalls ; in fig. 4 a feeding passage, a, is placed between the back wall and the hind post, b ; on this the hay-rack, c, is placed above the manger, d. In fig. 5 there is no feeding passage to the hay-rack, a — in this case in the low position — being placed against the back wall ; this either stretching across the whole width of stall, or only partly, the remainder of the space being filled up with a manger and drinking ARRANGEMENT AND CONSTRUCTION OF COW-HOUSES OR BYRES. 43 trough. Instead of the travis boards, h b, be- tween the head posts, c c, and the heel posts, d d, in cavalry stables a plan has been adopted of dividing the stalls merely by a bar, a, as in fig. 10, Plate 9 ; this being suspended by a rope or chain, b, and secured in such a way that, should a horse get his leg over the pole or bar, the pressure he exerts looses a catch which allows the bar to fall to the floor. Fig. 1 1 is the plan of fig. 10. In some cases, parties prefer to keep horses in loose-boxes, which are simply small apartments, as in figs. U and 12, Plate 9 ; section of fig. 9 is given in fig. 8, of 12 in fig. 6. In some cases, loose- boxes are not provided with mangers, etc., or if so, are so arranged that they project into a space behind the wall, from which by a simple arrange- ment they can be brought forward when required ; in other cases they are fitted up with racks and mangers, as in fig. 12. Where the number of horses kept is large, it is very convenient to have a small shoeing shed and stall in contiguity to the stables, an arrangement perhaps better than using the general smith's shop of the steading. A double forge is shown in fig. 3, Plate 9, at a a, b b being the shoeing shed ; a section of this is shown in fig. 2. For these arrangements we are indebted to the report of the Royal Commis- sioners already alluded to. Cmv-hotcses or Byres. — We now come to con- sider the arrangement of this important depart- ment of farm buildings ; and here, as in stables, considerable diversity of opinion will be found on the different points. Taking first the arrange- ment of the stalls, we find that there are several modes proposed and carried out. These will be found illustrated in Plate 3, and it will be seen on examining the drawings, figs. 8 to 13, there, that there is very considerable difference between them. The arrangement in fig. 8, Plate 3, is that most generally adopted, and has been in use from what may be called ' time immemorial.' In this the stalls, a a, are placed with their heads right against the back wall, b b ; the gutter, c c, at the foot of the stalls divides the dunging passage, d d, from the front wall, e e. This arrangement is, in the opinion of many, improved by a feeding pas- sage, a a, placed between a partition, c c, at the head of stalls, d, and back wall, e e ; the gutter, //, and dunging passage, gg, are placed in the same relation to the front wall, hh, as in fig. 8. In fig. 10, Plate 3, a new principle is introduced, the having in the cow-house or byre, and under one roof, two sets of stalls, one of which, a a, is at the back wall, b b, the other set, c c, being placed against the front wall, d d. Here the dunging passage, e e, naturally comes into the centre of the house, being placed between the gutters,//, gg, of the two sets of stalls, a a, c c. In fig. 1 1 of the same plate this principle is altered, by giving at the heads of the two sets of stalls, a a,bb, feeding passages, c c and d d ; the dunging pas- sage, e e, being, as in fig. 10, between the gutters, / g. In fig. 12 another principle of arrangement is adopted, two sets of stalls being used, as in the preceding figs. 10 and 11. Here an essential part of the arrangement is the feeding passage, a a, placed centrally between the two sets of stalls, b b and c c, the feeding being done right and left ; the gutters are at d, e, between the stalls and the dunging passages, / and g, and front and back wall, h and i. Each of these plans of arrangement has its advocates, but probably that illustrated in fig. 12 may be taken as the one which is the most esteemed by advanced farmers. The only objection which can be made to the double-stall system, or rather we should say the chief objection, and which is purely a constructional one, is the width of roof which it demands, and wide-spanned roofs are always more costly than narrow ones. There is this further constructional objection, that the house being wider than the other apartments of the homestead, taking them at the general aver- age, it breaks the line of building where the cow- house forms part of the range. There can be no doubt, however, that for convenience of working, this plan in fig. 12 is the best of the methods of arrangement shown, as it provides both feeding and dunging passages, and these in positions most likely to facilitate labour. The stalls of cow- houses are of two kinds, single and double, and no small amount of discussion has been raised as to which of the two are the best; but if one considers the habits of cows and the circum- stances under which they are placed when con- fined, circumstances essentially different from those fattening cattle which are stall fed, there 44 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY can be little doubt that the single is in every way preferable to the double stall. Mr. Stephens, the eminent authority on agricultural matters, and one whose opinions were invariably distin- guished not only by sound practical knowledge, but by a common sense wThich was very marked, strongly advocated the single stall ; and this for the reason that the cow is an animal remarkably capricious and uncertain in temper, and is there- fore apt to be troublesome to the other animal alongside of which she lies in the double stall ; and further, that a cow has generally a preference for being milked from one side, and that in case of a double stall may cause inconvenience and loss of time in milking. To these considerations we may add another, namely, that the cow at calving time requires to be kept quiet, and indeed for some time before it ; and also to have plenty of room during that trying period. These points, however trifling they may be considered by some, are truly of great importance, when we consider the value of the animals concerned, and how necessary it is that everything should be done which can secure their health and comfort, and to enable them to carry out all their impor- tant functions under the best possible circum- stances. The value of cows is often greatly deteriorated, and not a few of them lost, simply by having them so treated as to make the per- formance of these functions a matter of difficulty. These considerations evidently point to having the stalls, whether they be single or double, of ample dimensions. As a rule, stalls are made far too narrow ; we have seen double ones of a width a little more only than what was required for one animal ; the condition of the two under such circumstances may be easily conceived. For a single stall, the width should not be less than 4 feet 6 inches from travis to travis ; that of a double stall, 7 feet 9 inches to 8 feet, a little less being required for two, or supposed to be required, although why, it is somewhat difficult to say. The remarks made in the last section, under the head of stables, will apply with greater or less modification to other points of arrangement of cow-houses ; but the following details may be taken as a general description, applicable to cattle-fattening stalls as well as to those for cows. The more minute details of fittings, etc. will be found in Chap. IX. The divisions or ' tra vises,' a a, in fig. 8, Plate 3, between the stalls, are made either of stone, iron, or wood ; wTe prefer to use wood, as it is more com- fortable for the animals. The length of the travises should not exceed 6 feet, and the height between 4 and 5 feet. They are sometimes made as low as 3 feet, to allowT the animals all the advantages of companionship without being incommoded by one another ; the length of the travis measures from the front of the manger. The head and heel posts which support the boards forming the travis are 4 inches by 3 inches, let into mortice- holes made in a curb-stone fixed in the ground ; the travis boards, half batten thickness, are let into grooves made in the inner faces of the head and heel posts; the lower board of the travis being placed in a groove made in the upper face of a stone curb running along the whole length of travis on the ground. The construction as here described, although the usual way, can be much simplified if concrete is used for the forma- tion of the floors — as described under par. headed ' Floors ' — for the stone curbs may be dispensed with, the travis board resting upon the founda- tion of the concrete, and being embraced there- with at the floor of the stall. The manger should be raised on brick piers, 5 bricks, ' on bed,' in height; and if of earthenware, which is the best material, cemented to the upper sur- face of the same ; if of wood, the dimensions of the manger are 3 feet in length, 1 foot in depth, width at the bottom 10 inches, sloping outwards to 1 5 inches at top ; thickness of stuff, 2 inches. The water-trough should be placed end on with the manger, and long enough to fill up the space left by manger. If possible, water- pipes should be laid to supply the troughs, and waste-pipe to carry off the foul water. The hay- rack is placed above the manger, and should not be high. Some dispense with hay-racks, and feed the hay as the other food out of the manger. The feeding is best performed by means of a feeding passage, a, fig. 9, Tlate 3, made at the back of the stalls, the width of which may be from 3 0 inches to 3 feet. Sliding doors should be made in the back division of the stalls, through which to fill the mangers without disturbing the animals BULLOCK SHED—SHEEP SHELTER SHEDS. 45 in front ; all the water-taps — if supply at pressure is obtained — being placed so as to be within easy reach of the servant as he walks up the feeding passage. The gutter is placed at c, fig. 8, in front of the heel post, and is usually made of stone, about 12 inches wide, and some 2 to 3 inches deep. This can be very easily formed if concrete is used for the floor. The dunging passage is at d, with doors at end wall. In Plates 4 to 7 we give plans for various arrangements of cattle-fattening sheds, and for cow shippons, which we designed to be constructed of wood for a county of England in which that material is much used for farm structures. In Plate 4, plans are given of a ' bullock shed ' on what may be called the ' composite ' principle — that is, in which part of the shed is constructed as a closed building, as at A A in fig. 3, Plate 4, and part as an open shed, as at B B. Fig. 2 is a section on the line abed, fig. 3. In fig. 3 the lines e c indicate the direction of small grooves or channels made in the concrete floor, leading the liquid to the gutter, //. In fig. 1, Plate 5, there is an alternative arrangement on the closed system, in which a straw shed, a a, is placed at the end of the cattle-house, b b, which in this case was designed to be built of brick. In Plate 6, the plans of a cattle and cow shed, designed to be built of concrete, are given, in which fig. 1 is the elevation ; fig. 4, the plan ; fig. 2, a section on the line a b in plan, fig. 4 ; fig. 3, a section on the line c d. In this plan, double stalls and single ones are combined ; the cows in full milk being kept in the single, while those drying off are kept in the double. In fig. 8, Plate 7, the plan of another bullock shed on the composite principle is given, in which a a is the dairy cow-house with stalls, b a closed bul- lock shed, c a root store. In fig. 9, another plan is given, with the root store, a, centrally placed between the house, b, and that at c. In b, the bullock-house, stalls are provided. In fig. 10 is part of the plan of a cow-house designed by Monsieur Tisserand for one of the farms of the late Emperor of the French. In this the root and food stores are placed centrally, and also the dunging passage, along which a railway runs. In fig. 6 we give the cross section of a cattle - feeding box of a single row, designed for the steading in Plate 1. Fig. 7 gives part of a section of cattle-boxes designed as a double range. Sheep SJielter-shed. — The subject of sliclter for sheep has been very much discussed of late, and, like almost all other agricultural questions, has brought out exceedingly diverse and contradic- tory opinions — some maintaining that sheep do best without, others that they do best with, shelter. It is, it must be confessed, somewhat difficult to see how these physiological principles, Fig. 9. rian of Sheep Shelter-shed or House. which are now universally admitted to be true as I to sheep. The question is so wide, and involves applicable to other stock, should be inapplicable | so many considerations, however, that we cannot DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. even glance at its different bearings ; suffice it to say, that there is a growing conviction that, if cattle and other stock are the better for being provided with shelter from cold and wet, sheep are also ; and we may express the hope that this will lie one of the subjects which will be taken up by our leading agricultural societies, and fully experimented upon, so that we may be favoured with some authoritative expression of opinion which may serve as a useful guide to practical men. In fig. 9 we give the plan of a sheep shed — two sheds, a a, b b, being enclosed in this, with a feeding passage, c, between, and provided with racks, d d, and mangers at each side of the feeding passage. Fig. 10 is a section of this, not Fig. 10. Vertical Section of lower part of Sheep Shed in fig. 9. showing the roof. The side walls should have numerous ventilating openings in them, or, iii place of being sobd throughout their whole height, may have part of the height made up of lattice or louvred boarding. The floor should be hard paved or concreted. A hard floor is a de- sideratum for sheep, preventing affections of the feet. It is quite a mistake to keep the floors of sheep sheds or courts littered deeply. If a sheep has a choice between a hard and a soft ground to lie or stand upon, it will invariably choose the hard place. The shed should have an open court attached, to which the sheep can go for exercise in the open air. That a necessity exists for some improvement in the methods of keeping sheep, as practised in this country, is evident from the fact, as stated by a well-known farming authority, that a loss of 5 per cent, of the sheep stock of the kingdom represents no less a number than a million and a half of animals. Some idea of the extent of the loss may be conceived when 15 per cent, represents that of many districts. Amongst the preventible causes of such grievous losses, our authority puts protection from the weather, which may be done either by erecting rough shelter- sheds in the fields, or having a sheep-house as forming part of the steading. The Piggery. — Shelter is usually given to i>igs in their styes, but their courts are usually left exposed to the wet ; this brings about a state of filth and damp. We therefore strongly advo- Fig. 11. Plan of Piggery. Scale in fig. 12. cate the covering in of the courtyard of pig- I tion will be secured at the sides and ends. We geries, but in such a way that ample ventila- | believe that all the requirements of a good pig- CO VERED PIGGER Y. 47 gery are met in the design illustrated in figs. 1 1 , 12, and 13, which is that of one we have recently erected in concrete. Fig. 11 is the plan, fig. 12 the front elevation, and fig. 13 the cross section. £ □ □ Fig. 12. Front Elevation of Piggery in fig. 11. The shed is ventilated by openings at the points a a ; the food is delivered to the troughs, d d, by the shoots, c c; a is the trough, apertures being made in the wall of shed and in front wall to deliver the liquids to this ; the floor is con- creted, and has grooved gutters leading to drain, e. The concrete frame-posts,//, fig. 11, are shown in the position they occupy when the concrete walls are being run up. Fig. 4, Plate 4, is the plan, fig. 5 a longitudinal section, and fig. 4, Plate 10, front elevation of a piggery erected on the same principle, but of timber. 4s DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. CHAPTER VI. DAIRY BUILDINGS THEIR ARRANGEMENT AND GENERAL FITTINGS. General and Preliminary Considerations. — In our introductory chapter we have made refer- ence to this important subject or department of the farmery, as one the details of which have been very much modified by the results of recent investigations, and a wide series of careful experiments instituted by practical and scientific authorities, these having been under- taken mainly on the Continent of Europe and America ; although it is only just to say, that our own scientists and practitioners have contributed largely, and in an important way, to the general mass of information thus and now placed at the command of the dairy farmers of the world. In addition to the facts which have thus been made public, a very considerable modification in what may be called the reqiiirements of the trade has been necessitated in consequence of the changes alike of the habits of certain classes of the com- munity, and of their improved circumstances. These have given rise, not only to an increased demand for dairy produce amongst the classes who have always been able to pay fair prices for it, and who have, as a rule, considered them essentials in domestic expenditure ; but the im- proved circumstances of classes of the commu- nity who occupy a lower rank have given rise to a demand amongst them for this produce, con- sidered also as a regular part of the daily food of their households, who in former times, if they used them at all, did so only on occasions of sickness, or as a very great luxury, or at odd times, as that of family rejoicings and the like. The result of these circumstances, which, con- joined, form a remarkable development in the social history of our country, has, as already hinted at, given a wonderful impetus to dairying as a branch of farming, — an impetus which has not been met in like proportion either by the increase of special dairy farms, or by the im- provement in details of management of those farms in which dairying constitutes a part of their system ; great as have been the improve- ments which have assuredly been made within the last decade or two in every other branch. Of the increased demand for dairy produce, to which we have thus specially alluded, circumstances have confined it largely, and in many districts specially, to milk and butter, and of these chiefly the former. It is unnecessary to detail the rea- son why tins is so ; suffice it to say, that it has to a large extent revolutionized the system of milk conveyance from the farms to the various centres of consumption, and also the details of manage- ment of the farms themselves. But while this demand for milk is a marked feature of dairying as now practised, that for butter is not less so ; and although prices for it are now obtained with ease at which the forefathers of our present dairymen would have been astonished, yet de- lighted, there is such a manifest ease in send- ing the milk only to market, that many farmers, who were at one time noted for their skill in butter making, produce now only such weights as supply their own domestic demand, or those of a few favoured customers, and send nearly all their milk directly to town. This, as we shall see, has also introduced specialties in the details of dairy practice ; and if the circumstances we have named have brought about a change in the departments of milk selling and butter making, the change is the more striking in that of cheese. Whether it is from the social cir- cumstances which we have above named, or not, it is unnecessary to inquire ; but the fact re- mains, that the skill in cheese making for which, ARRANGEMENT AXD CONSTRUCTION OF DAIRY BUILDINGS. 49 as dairy farmers, we were at one time noted all the world over, has to such an extent left us, that the trade has largely decreased, and has passed from our hands into those chiefly of the American dairymen, for whose produce there is an increased and increasing demand, with a like result as regards the prices they obtain. That the decrease in our trade is not caused by the lack of demand for English-made cheese as such, is shown by the fact that the highest prices are still obtained for first-class produce, it being only in the case of the inferior qualities that the falling off is the most marked. One practical result, and for us alike fortunate and unfortunate in its influences, is, that the dairymen of America, and in like manner, al- though of the same kind, but not in like degree, those of the Continent of Europe, have paid for many years such marked attention to the prac- tical details of dairying in all its departments, — not of one merely, — and have enlisted the services of the ablest of their scientific men, that it has assumed the position of a science. Fortunate on the one hand, as we have above hinted, inasmuch as there is for us a vast mine, so to say, of scientific and practically useful infor- mation ; unfortunate on the other, that, having thus taken the lead in finding out the best way of doing the best work, they have, in the department which distance alone compels them to compete with us, namely, cheese making, done our trade a vast injury ; and in view of the new method of bringing over and landing here supplies of animal food, the probability is that the competition will be extended also to butter making in its fresh condition. In fact, as we pass this sheet to press it has already extended. jSTo evil is there, it is said, but what has connected with it some good ; and the good in the case now engaging our attention is, that our dairymen have been so influenced by the state of matters we have just described, that great efforts are now being made by them to restore the balance of the trade, which, even according to their best friends, has been lost through their indifference and neglect. The result of these efforts has been to a large extent, and will yet be to a still greater, that all the departments of dairying have been recently so much improved, and so many of the new plans of the American and Continental systems intro- duced, that the trade bids fair in a short time to display few or none of the characteristics of the old systems. What these new features are, we shall see as we proceed. Arranrjcment and Construction of Dairy Build- ings. — One of the most peculiar features con- nected with dairying, and which influences not merely the details of arrangement and construc- tion of the buildings, but, as we shall presently see, the transportation of the milk to a distance, as well as its making into butter and cheese, is the extreme delicacy of milk, and its liability to become tainted and deteriorated by various causes, such as the presence of decaying matters, or those which give rise to unpleasant odours, around or near the apartment in which it is kept. Further, by the action of fungi, the amazingly minute germs of which may be said to be present everywhere, and which are constantly acting with greater or less potency, and act even, as the latest investigations show, at a stage or stages which none would reasonably expect, — that is, actually while in or before it is taken from the udder of the cow, being generated therein by the very food which the animal con- sumes, nay, the very water which she drinks. At one period, the only precaution which was (and, we may here state, in too many cases still is) taken to obviate the difficulties connected with the treatment of milk thus created in so many and in such insidious ways, was simply to secure as far as possible the perfect cleanliness of the vessels in which the milk was put up, and of the milk-house or apartment in which these vessels were kept. But so serious were the losses from the too well known tendencies of milk to become deteriorated, that scientific men began to give their attention to the whole subject; and the result of their inquiries has been the making known of a variety of facts previously unknown, or at most but very vaguely suspected, which have, as it may be said, completely revolution- ized the whole system of the treatment of milk. And it is only right to state that these scientists were greatly aided, and their investigations ren- dered more valuable, by the help of experi- enced dairymen, practically acquainted with many minor details not always known by scientific G So DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. men, or, if known, apt to be overlooked by them. Plans of Dairy Buildings. — Tn a few sentences we purpose glancing at the leading points of what may be called the new system of dairy- house or milk management, — a system which, as already hinted at, begins, curiously enough, with the milk before it is absolutely passed from the cow, and incapable, therefore, as we would suppose, of being placed within the details of any system. We have referred to the peculiarity which milk possesses of acquiring or taking up taints which may prevail in the atmosphere around it. This peculiarity is very marked, and although long known, little attention was paid to it, or desire shown to find out its cause. At last, and for the reasons already named, investi- gations were entered upon ; and one of the few things proposed was the isolation as completely as possible of the milk-house from the cow-house or byre or shippon, for by all these names is known what might be called the cow-stable, as perhaps more clearly or popularly indicating its use. This was done, it being found, as might have been expected, that the smells from the excreta were absorbed and retained by the milk, giving to it a peculiar flavour of a highly disagreeable kind, and, what was as bad, imparting to it a strong tendency to become spoiled with great rapidity. This isolation of the milk-room of the dairy from the cow-house can be secured in two ways : first, by having the dairy department proper, of which the milk-house forms a part, wholly and completely distinct from the farm buildings proper, of which the cow-house forms, on the other hand, a part. This system, however, in- volves this disadvantage, that time is lost in conveying the milk from the cow-house to the milk-room, as, in order to make the isolation as complete as possible, the distance between the two should be of some decided extent. And this in many instances is likely to be a serious dis- advantage, inasmuch as the workpeople engaged in the milking will be greatly tempted to allow the milk as drawn from the cows to remain standing in the milk-pails in the shippon or cow- house, very likely also in the worst position, just at the dunging or cleaning passage. And this will be done to save the labour and trouble of carrying comparatively small quantities of milk to the milk-room. This temptation is not a fancy one, as those who have had much to do with workpeople well know. The difficulty may be overcome by making the communication be- tween the cow - house and the milk - room by means of a small rail or tramway, carriages being provided and so constructed that the milk-pails can be hooked on to certain parts, and thus allowed to sway freely, and conse- quently be subjected to little disturbing motion. And further still to facilitate the quick trans- mission of the milk - carriages along the rails, these may be laid with a considerable incline from the cow-house to the dairy buildings or milk-room, so that the carriages will run down gently by gravitation, the return journey being comparatively easy, as they will then only have the empty pails to carry. Where this system is objected to, and the dairy apartments proper are arranged to form part of the farm buildings, the necessary degree of isolation can- not be so well secured, and that for obvious reasons, as in the first system just described. A compromise, therefore, between what would be the best, but which cannot be had, and what can be obtained, so as to approach as nearly as possible the highest standard, is therefore the only thing at the command of the de- signer. There are various ways which will suggest themselves to him by which this can be carried out. One, and perhaps the best plan, is to have the dairy buildings or apartments proper, while they are under the same roof, virtually isolated from the cow-house by a passage as wide as can be conveniently made open to the external air. A current will generally be present through this in one direction or another, tending to blow the bad smell away ; or, if this be absent in certain states of the wind, there will be free exit upwards for any bad-smelling air coming from the cow-house. And in order to protect the attendants from rain, a narrow part of the passage between the two doors may have a light roof given to it. In addition to this separation of the two, the cow-house and milk-room, it need scarcely be said that the most complete means should be taken to secure the thorough ventilation of the cow-house itself, so that all foul air and bad ISOLATION OF DAIRY BUILDINGS. Si smells may be carried off from its interior as fast as created. la cases where there is a small dairy attached to or forming part of the farm-house, the only isolation which is demanded is that from the work- ing-rooms of the house from which bad smells are likely to arise, as the kitchen, scullery, or wash- house. A cellar milk-room will generally secure this, and it will give other advantages, such as a more uniform temperature throughout the year. A good deal not only of the isolation from sources of taint to the milk, but of convenience in working, will be obtained by a judicious arrangement of the dairy buildings themselves, however and wheresoever placed with relation to the farm buildings, etc. For in all dairies there is of necessity a good deal of extra work going on, such as washing of the vessels, boiling water, etc. Now, while this cannot be dispensed with, and as it will obviously to a greater or less extent cause a deterioration in the atmosphere of the apartments in which it is carried on, all means must be taken to prevent this deteriorated air from gaining access to the milk-room. For, even granting that the air arising from the opera- tions is not deteriorated in the sense of having bad qualities imparted to it, the damp with which of necessity it is impregnated is of itself a source of evil, and has a wonderfully bad influence upon milk. There is, indeed, scarcely anything against which the designer and builder of dairy buildings has to take such precautions as that of damp. The most careful constructive arrangements have to be adopted to secure perfect dryness, both in walls and floor. With these, however, this work does not concern itself; we can only refer the reader to works which treat of construction generally, and of agricultural buildings specially, in which the fullest details will be found. All we can do here is simply to note the importance of the point, and that attention must be paid to it if thorough efficiency in dairy buildings is desired. We have, in Chap. IX., on ' Construc- tive Points connected with Farm Buildings,' discussed the subject of ventilation in a way which, although brief, will be found sufficiently explicit and detailed for general purposes. The isolation above referred to as being absolutely essential to be maintained between the milk-room and what is called generally the wash-room, in which the utensils are cleaned, and the vessels placed in which the cleaning is done, etc., may be carried out in a variety of ways. Of course it is necessary to have these apartments close to one another, as, if far separated from each other, much time would obviously be lost. As a store- room, in which various materials, spare utensils, and the like can be kept, is always a useful place in a dairy, and tends to maintain that order which in itself is a great help towards the secur- ing of cleanliness, and consequent sweetness of atmosphere, it will be a good plan to have this placed between the milk - room and the wash- room ; of course it is scarcely necessary to say that nothing should be kept in this store-room calculated to give out bad odours. Failing the adoption of this arrangement, a passage may be made between the two rooms, thus securing isola- tion, ventilation, and yet convenient contiguity at one and the same time. If this ' open to the air overhead passage ' be objected to, — though why it should we fail to perceive, any more than in the case previously described, 'where it is used between the cow-house and the milk-room, — the doors of communication between the milk-room and the wash-room ought to be double; the free space between them being of width ample enough to admit of the easy movement of the work- people carrying vessels, etc. to and fro, while the process of closing one door and opening another is being gone through. The doors, indeed, should be double hung, so as to swing freely either way on slight pressure from the body, thus leaving the hands free to hold the vessels, etc. Nor will the convenience of a shelf on either side of the space be found a bad thing in facilitating the work. Moreover, as darkness is always to be avoided in dairy buildings, and, indeed, in all farm apartments where work is going on, the double doors ought to have panes of glass framed in, so as to light the central space between. The isolation thus secured will be so far efficient ; but in order to have all sources of milk tainting reduced as far as possible to a minimum, if they cannot be wholly got rid of, it will be essential to have both the milk - room and wash - room thoroughly well ventilated — that is, supplied with abundance of fresh or pure air, as well as with 5^ DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY means to carry off all foul air, impure or used air. The wash-house boiler chimney will afford a powerful and effective means of withdrawing the steam or vapour from its interior which arises from the operation of washing the utensils, etc. As soon as washed, they should be removed to the exterior of the building, which ought to be provided with a verandah, under which they will be sheltered from the weather, yet freely exposed to the fresh air. Having thus described the methods for the keeping of milk from deteriorating influences, so far as this can be secured by the arrangement and construction of the buddings which are immediately connected with it, it will be a useful conclusion to our remarks if we give here diagrams illustrating one or two arrangements by which the suggestions we have given may be carried out. The diagram given in fig. 13, Plate 3, is an illustration of a cow - house arranged on the double-stall system, in which the cows are placed ' tad to tail,' a milking, dunging, and cleaning passage, a a, 6 or 7 feet wide, being between them. At the heads of the cow stalls, b b, a feed- ing passage, c c, is made, 3 feet wide. The food is kept in store-rooms, d d, which may be situated, as in the diagram, central to the range of stalls, so that it can be distributed right or left ; or if more convenient, it may be placed at the end of the cow-house, each side, however, having its own food store, so that no time may be lost in goin«- roivnd to one side or the other. To facilitate the distribution of food, it is sent along a small rail in properly constructed trucks ; and is passed from these to the mangers through openings, which may or may not be provided with sliding shutters made in the division at the heads of the stalls. The stalls are or should be single, each cow having her own stall, as we strongly object to the double - stall system, for physiological reasons chiefly. Those who pay any attention to the habits and peculiarities of cows, cannot fail to observe that each cow has got its own peculiar idiosyncrasy, so to say, if so grand a term, applied generally to human beings, ' the lords of cows and the creation,' can be applied to them. This induces habits, one of which is very generally developed, that of being quiet if left alone, but inclined to pick a quarrel if in too close contiguity with a neighbour. Another habit is a determination at times not to give nidk will- ingly if alongside of another cow ; to which may be added this consideration, that as repose is of all things essential to cows in milk or in calf, that cannot be regularly maintained where they are subjected to the caprice or ill-temper of a neigh- bour; all the more as tins is likely to be called out by the far too limited space which, as a rule, is given to the double stall — a space for two very little more than that really demanded by the physical necessities of a single cow only. One has only to watch the way in which a cow comports and comforts herself in the field, where she has ample space at her command, to see that the wretchedly confined space of all stalls, as a rule, single and double, but specially double, must cause them great discomfort. And where discomfort is, there is loss. This may be taken as a rule in dairy management to which we know of no exception. The same abundance of resting space for the cows should be given to those who attend upon them ; the milking and cleaning passages, there- fore, ought to be wide, for, as a rule, cramped space invariably gives occasion to work being carelessly done. There can scarcely be a greater mistake made when designing farm buddings and laying down dimensions, than to cramp spaces in which work is to be done. The difference be- tween plenty of room and scant space is just the difference between that work being well and ill done. Ground in towns is valuable, and this may be pleaded as a reason why dairies, etc. built there are cramped in space of all kinds. It is not so valuable as to make this plea avadable ; although we maintain that the true principle everywhere to be followed is, that the points which are known to be necessary in the conduct of any business must be attended to, at whatever cost ; if that cost precludes a profit, the business clearly ought not to be entered upon, for it can only be profitably carried on where all the build- ings and appliances necessary are provided. Eeferring to the plan, fig. 13, Plate 3, last given, it wdl be observed that a rad, e e, is placed in the mdking and dunging passage. This, in the arrangement now under consideration, leads to the dairy buildings proper, which are PLA.YS OF ARRANGEMENT OF DAIRY BUILDINGS. 53 on the isolated principle already described, and which, placed on a lower level than the cow- house building, gives the rail an incline which should be just of that angle, that when the trucks are loaded they will run gently down. To pre- vent accidents, however, a simple break should be attached to each. The diagram in fig. 14, Plate 3, gives a rough indication of the arrange- ment of the dairy buildings proper. This shows an arrangement of a dairy of the simplest character, in which there is only a milk- room and washing-room, separated or isolated as described, by a double door, or by a passage as shown in the diagram to the left. In tl. fig. 14, Plate 3, is the washing or cleaning room ; b b, the milk-room ; the communication between them is kept up by double doors, the space for which is at c. The isolation thus secured between the milk-room and wash-room is but partially complete ; the better plan is to have a narrow passage between the two, as at d d; e e being part of the milk-house, and / that of the wash-room. The passage may be rendered dry, so far as the two rooms are concerned, by 1, small roof of zinc or wood, as shown by the dotted lines. But as this will only be an arrangement for very small farms, or where there is no butter or cheese made at all, it will be necessary, to make our remarks complete under this head, to show an arrangement in wliich apartments are provided for the making of those two articles. This is done in the above Plate 3, fig. 15, a third type diagram, which is designed on the isolated or separate system ; the rail, a, communicating with the cow-house of the main farm buildings, shown in the first diagram, fig 13, Plate 3 — d being the rail corresponding to a in third (3 fig. 15, Plate 3. In this it will be observed that a comparatively complete isolation of the wash- house, b, from the milk-house, e, is obtained, not only by the passage, b b, but still more effectively by having the wash-house, b, at the extreme end of the building ; while the distance to be traversed in conveying the utensils of the milk- 1 >om, c, to the wash-house is not great, and may be done directly under the cover of the front verandah, d d, the end of wliich is shown by the dotted lines ; while the churning and cheese-room — e e and h — uteusils may be taken by the internal \ The fourth diagram, given in fig. 16, Plate 3, illustrates the arrangement we have already described, in which the milk-room and other dairy apartments are connected with and form part of the main farm buildings and cow-house ; the isolation being effected between the cow- house and milk-house by the passage, as shown, wdiile the wash-house is kept at the extreme end of the dairy buildings proper. The cow-house is arranged upon a different principle from that shown in the first diagram, fig. 13, Plate 3. In this the cows are placed head to head, with a feeding passage between the two rows of stalls. The cow-houses are at a a ; the feeding passages at p p, entering from the central passage, b. As the food is cooked in the cooking-house, c, from which the necessary supplies of food are obtained from the root and food store, d, it is taken along the feeding passages, p p ; as the cows are milked, the milk is taken to the milk-houses,//, between which is, or may be placed, a small cream-house, (j, if that be used occasionally or regularly for butter in. i kiii','. When ready, it is taken to the churn- ing or cheese-making room, h, the cheese being stored up in the store-room, k. The wash-house is at /. A broad verandah, m, n, is in front of wash-house and milk-room. The ' offsets,' k, I, may be two-storeyed to afford additional cheese- storing room, etc. ; whde that of c, d may be fitted up as rooms for the workmen. The main building, a, a, b,j, is single-storeyed, and is mainly lighted from the roof. A small steam-engine and boiler in i may be economically employed to work the churn in room h, while a light running rope, shown by dotted lines, may take power to the cooking-room, c, to work the root-cutters, straw-cutters, etc. The manure from dunging 3, o o, may be taken off by the trams, q. In addition to the plans of arrangement we have here shown, the reader will find, in connection with the designs for farm-houses given in other parts of this work, sketches showing the dairy apartments in connection with the out-houses. This arrangement, as a rule, and for the reasons we have already stated, we do not approve of, unless the dairy be well isolated from the other apartments. It is right, however, to state that those out-house arrangements are chiefly, indeed wholly, designed for farm-house work, not to 54 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY, supply produce for the market ; and on the prin- ciple involved in the old and well-known saying, that a ' shoemaker's children are the worst shod,' anything in the way of farm produce may he supposed good enough for farmers, especially those of the small class. The plans we have given may be either iso- lated buildings, or form part of the general arrangement of the farmery ; but in view of the considerations affecting the keeping of milk in good condition, the designer must decide which of these two systems he should adopt. In Plate 11, fig. 1, we give a plan illustrative of a more complete arrangement than any of those just given, this being the design of a thoroughly practical dairy farmer, specially prepared at our request. In this arrangement there are two cow- houses, marked a a, b b, separated by a wall, c c. Each cow-house contains twenty double stalls, the two affording accommodation for' eighty cows in all. Stalls are arranged so that the dunging- passages, d d, are placed in the centre between them, the feeding passages, e e, being at the head of the stalls. It might be an improvement in this plan if doors were placed at the points //, at the end of those passages, so that there might he a through communication from the lower end of the building or front, to the upper or back, at which turnip stores, as at the points g g, might be placed, these being in addition to the general food stores, h h h h; these latter being supplied with steam cooking-vat, i i, in which mashes are prepared by means of steam, this being supplied by the boiler in the engine-house, j j. The food stores, h h, have their supply of turnips from the root store, k k, in which also the root-cutting and pulping machines are placed, as well as the straw- cutters ; it might be a convenience if to this plan a straw and hay room was added, between the turnip store and machine-room, k k, and the churning-room, I I. The feeding passages, e c, are supplied with a small tramway or set of rails, by means of which the food is conveyed on trucks from the machine-room, k k ; the dunging passages, d d, are proposed by the designer to be paved with one broad flag, stretching from side to side or from gutter to gutter, m m ; but we should prefer, for reasons stated in another chapter, Portland cement concrete, as being better and cheaper. The churning-room and cheese-pressing house is at I I, the cheese store or curing-room at n n ; the milk-house is at o o, and is provided with a fountain at the central point, p. The washing-up house is at q q ; the space, r r, left in the corner, at the right hand of plan, might be usefully filled up with a calf-house, or, in place of this, with an open court for the cows to be turned into ; and beyond this, and at as great a distance as possible, the piggery, say at the point s s. A feature of this plan is the addition of a cattle-house, or rather of a series of hammels, 1 1, placed under two spanned roofs, with an open feeding and dunging passage, u u. The hay- house is placed at v v, the turnip store at w w, while the bam or straw-house is placed at x x. Our remarks and illustrations on the subject of dairy buildings would be somewhat incomplete, if we did not, at least in brief fashion, notice the factory systems for making butter and cheese, now occupying so large a share of agricultural opinion. The system was introduced in America some quarter of a century ago or thereby, and has been so remarkably successful there, that it has been introduced into this country, mainly, however, for cheese-making purposes. We do not require here to concern ourselves with a detailed notice of the commercial and business features of the system, it being sufficient to state that the main idea or leading principle of the system is to collect from the various farmers of a given district the milk which they produce, this being taken to a centrally-placed ' factory,' where the collected milk in large bulk is worked up, on a regular system, either iuto butter or cheese, or in some instances into both substances. By having regular supplies and a large bulk of milk to operate upon, all the appliances are made with a view to economize labour to the utmost , and not only this, but to keep up a constant and progressive improvement in all the working details, the management of the milk, the ap- pliances by which it is worked up, and the pro- cesses through which it passes. The result of the system has been an enormous improvement in the processes of butter and cheese making, securing these of the highest quality and at the lowest price for working, while, at the same time, some very valuable facts have been elicited as to AMERICAN DAIRY BUILDINGS. 5! the nature of milk, its production in the cow- house, and as to the general arrangements of the whole system of dairying, from the selection of the animals, their breeding and feeding, up to the manufacture of the products of butter and cheese. The butter and cheese factories were not ori- ginally established as such, but grew out of or were the result of the working of what are called in America ' creameries,' so named ori- ginally from the fact that the first were estab- lished to supply the New York market or mer- chants with a certain bulk of cream at stated intervals, this being obtained from the milk provided by various farmers. Great care is taken not only in preparing the milk to be forwarded by train to its destination, but also in packing it, if the expression may be allowed, so that no deterioration in quality shall arise from the dis- turbance caused by the transit. Milk is found to keep much longer if deprived as rapidly as possible of the contained animal heat imparted to it by the cow. To cool milk, a great number of appliances, more or less ingenious and effective, have been designed for use in the creameries. The milk is put into cans in comparatively small quantities, and these cans are placed in a ' pool,' so that they Rre surrounded by fresh, cold, spring water, care being taken that the milk does not stand at a level higher than that of the water surrounding the cans in which the milk is placed. Previous to placing the milk in the cans, it is strained immediately after milking ; and while in the can it is occasionally stirred, to prevent the cream from rising. When cooled, it is put into the carrying or conveying cans, each of which holds about 40 or 50 gallons, and the covers of ■which are so arranged that there is no free space left between the surface of the milk and the lower surface of the cover. The following is a plan of a ' creamery ' given by Mr. Willard, lecturer at the Maine State Agricultural College, in a paper on the ' American Butter Factories and Butter Manufacture,' published in the Jour- nal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, and to which we are indebted for the above details of the system. In fig. 1, Plate 12, a a is the ' horse-walk ' for delivering the milk-cans ; b b, the ' milk-cooling pools ; ' c c, the ' wash- room ; ' d d, the ' kitchen or lunch-room ; ' e, the ' office.' We have said that the butter fac- tories arose out of the creameries, and this in consequence of the desire of those interested to be independent of the milk dealers, when fair terms could not be made with these ; hence originated the idea of at once manufacturing the mdk obtained from the farmery into butter or cheese. The following plans, figs. 2 and 3, Plate 12, as given by Mr. Willard, will show the arrangement of the first butter and cheese fac- tory, as designed by Mr. Slaughter, of Orange County, New York State ; and the arrangements and appliances of which were so well considered, that they are, as stated by Mr. Willard, deemed by many, even at this late date, both convenient and economical The main structure is of two storeys, built in a very cheap yet substantial manner ; the lower storey of which is devoted to the ' pools for cooling the milk,' the ' cheese- making room,' and the work-room ; while the upper is taken up wholly as a cheese-drying and store room. In fig. 3, Plate 12 — the ground plan — a a is the ' cheese-making room ; ' b b, the ' presses ; ' c c, the ' milk-vats ; ' d d, the ' wash- house ; ' e e, the ' storing-room ;' f, ' pool ' or ' tank ' for the water to cool the milk-cans, sup- plied from the ' spring,' g, outside ; h and i are two other ' pools,' connected by the pipe /. The ' storing-house,' which forms a wing at the end, is one storey high. The butter-making and packing-house is a detached building opposite to the storing-house, and separated from it by an alley, along which the teams or carts pass in delivering milk or carting away the butter and cheese. The butter-making building, as shown in fig. 2, Plate 12, is provided with a churning and packing room, a a ; a horse-walk, b, for working the churn, e ; an ice-house, e, and a store-cellar, d. The following is an account of some American factories : — ■ ' 1st. Florr & Warner's factory, Huntingdon, Lorain County, Ohio. Average number of cows, 1000. Size of buildings : manufacturing-room, 30 feet by 40 feet; press-room, 14 feet by 50 feet ; drying or curing-house, 3 0 feet by 100 feet. Two storeys high, besides basement. Cost of buildings, 2000 dollars; machinery, 1800 dollars. This includes vats, presses, boilers, etc. Capital invested, about 0000 dol- 56 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY lars, 1000 dollars of which is in land. Work- people employed ; four men at 9 dollars per week, and four women at Z\ dollars per week, besides board. The maximum distance. from which milk is brought to this factory is 6 miles, average about 2£ miles. Factory not owned by the patrons. Charge for manufactur- ing and furnishing salt, bandage-cloth, colouring- material, curing and selling cheese, 2 dollars per 100 lbs. Whey fed to swine at the factory. ' 2d. Peter Colbetzer & Co.'s factory,in Spencer, Medina County, Ohio. Average number of cows, 700. Size of buildings, 20 feet by 100 feet; two storeys high, with lean-to for press-room, 14 feet by 40 feet; and milk-receiving room, 10 feet by 12 feet, which also serves for an office. In this, a, fig. 2, Plate 11, is the press-room, 40 feet by 14 , b b, the cheese-presses ; c, the milk- vats ; d, the water-tanks ; e, the cheese-curing room ; /, the hall, with stairs to upper storey ; g, the milk-weighing house ; h, the engine-house. This is a very convenient factory. The floor in the manufacturing and press-room inclines to the rear 14 inches, where a gutter is placed in the floor, which also inclines 4 inches, and dis- charges at O. The upper storey is all devoted to curing cheese. Cost of building, 2200 dollars (£440) ; machinery, engine, boiler, and other furniture and fixtures, exclusive of land, 2350 dollars ; capital invested, 6000 dollars (£1200). Work-people employed ; one man at 14 dollars per week ; three men at 8 dollars per week ; one boy at 5 dollars per week ; two women at 5^- dollars per week. Milk received, 2,130,508 lbs. ; cheese made, 228,200 lbs. Maximum distance of transporting milk, 5 miles ; average, a trifle less than 2 miles. Charge for making and furnishing salt and bandage-cloth, 2 cents (Id.) per lb. The factory not owned by patrons. Whey fed to hogs. Gross earnings of factory in 1868, 5300 dollars (£1060), net 2800 dollars (£500). In fig. 2, Plate 15, we give the section, in fig. 3 the plan, of the dairy buildings above alluded to. In fig. 2, a is the press and drying room ; b, the cheese-room ; c, the cheese-curing or drying room ; d, the engine-room, placed in a small offset or shed. In fig. 3, a a is the press and drying room ; b, a row of cheese-presses, the dotted lines, c, representing the cheese-racks ; d d, the tramway leading from the dairy, plan of which is shown in fig. 4 at e c ; /, cheese-vat ; g, the milk-vat, holding 5000 gallons ; the milk- weighing machines are placed at h, while the workmen's room is at i i.' An important part of these factories, as will be seen, is the spring or source of water supply, and the connected ' pools ' in which the cans containing the milk to be cooled are placed. In the first factories erected, the springs are within the building, tanks enclosing these, and which tanks receive the water. These are in length 12 feet, in breadth 6 feet. The tanks are made in the solid soil, this being dug out, and the sides lined with masonry, and are so arranged that the water-level is the same as the level of the floor of the spring-house. Packs are placed near the bottom of the ' pools,' on which the milk-cans rest, the water flowing upwards through the racks till it reaches a point or level of 17 inches above them. The cans are 20 to 22 inches deep or long, and 8 in diameter, and are placed upon the racks close together, so that the hold- ing or rather cooling capacity of each pool is equal to 2040 gallons. The milk in the cans should not be above the level of the water in the pools. In cases where a spring cannot be ob- tained in the spring-house, the water from the spring is led by means of pipes into tanks exca- vated below the level of the floor of the spring- house, the bottom of the tank being cemented and covered with flagging or oak planking. For details of the processes of making butter and the skim-milk cheese, we must refer the reader to Mr. Willard's paper already alluded to, which will be found in vol. vii. (2d series) parti. No. 13, of the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal. The factory system of dairy working had been car- ried on for a long time in America before it was introduced here, although it had attracted the attention of our leading agriculturists. This led in time to the introduction of the system, and the first cheese factory was erected in Derbyshire, at Langford, under the auspices of a most influential committee. The build- ing was designed by and arranged under the superintendence of a Mr. Schermerhorn, who had been requested to come over from America by the committee, and who had a most intimate THE MILK-ROOM OF DAIRY BUILDINGS. 57 practical knowledge of the system as there prac- tised. The following, fig. 4, Plate 12, is a rough sketch of the arrangements of the building, adapted from a plan given in a paper by Mr. Gilbert Murray in the Journal of the Royal Society, in which a is the receiving shed, b receiv- ing-room— store-room, d d milk- vats, e water wheel, / dry vat, g g cheese - presses, h h sweet whey tanks, i i waste whey tanks, j k engine and boiler, 1 1 warehouse, m stove to warm ditto. But important as are the influences which well arranged and constructed dairy buildings have upon the maintenance of the good qualities of the milk, — that is, supposing this is in the first instance obtained from the cows, a sug- gestive point of great importance, and on which M*e shall have somewhat to say presently, — there are other precautions to be taken, and other work to be done, in order to secure this in the very highest degree of efficiency. To these we now beg to direct the attention of the reader, premis- ing that the matter here given is from a report which we drew up as to the plans and arrange- ments of a dairy on the very largest scale, pro- posed to be erected on a farm where some hun- dreds of stock were kept. The Milk-room. — In designing this, two very important points are before us, very materially influencing not only the size of the milk-room, but the disposition and nature of its fittings. These points are, first, whether it would be advisable to make the butter from churning the whole milk ; or, second, to make it from the cream. Although holding a very decided opinion that the best results are to be obtained by churn- ing from the cream, not only in the superior quality of the butter, but from its better keeping qualities, and having, moreover, by far the largest weight of evidence from experienced workers in favour of this mode, it is nevertheless fair to state, that inquiries which we have re- cently made have resulted in getting an opinion from dairymaids of large and extended experi- ence, to the effect that better butter is made from the whole milk than from the cream, while the making of it is more convenient. It is to be understood that the cream on the one hand, and the whole milk on the other, are to be ' soured ' or ' lappered ' before churning, — a point of importance, and which of itself demands a specialty in the dairy. So far as the use of the products of the butter-making is concerned, the ' skim-milk,' and ' butter-milk,' and the ' whey ' — it does not matter which mode of working is adopted — may be sold off or consumed by the stock. But so far as the size of the milk-room and the churning-room is concerned, the point is one which brings with it very important con- siderations. First, as to the size of the milk- room. Assuming that the milk is set up in vessels to be ' lappered ' or ' soured,' which expe- rience points out as the best mode of working from the whole milk, these vessels will contain a very much larger quantity of milk than vessels which are used to contain milk from which to get cream. A much less space, therefore, in the mdk-room will be required. And a cream ' sour- ing ' room will also be dispensed with. Another advantage obtained would be the comparatively easy regulation of the temperature of the milk- room, especially in summer, when the whole milk in a soured condition would be churned from. We now come, however, to the arrange- ment of the churning-room, and the labour con- nected with the churning. So large a mass and weight of material as would be the result of the system of churning from the whole milk soured woidd obviously involve a much larger space in the churning-rooni, and much more complicated arrangements for churning, than would be neces- sary if the butter were made from cream. In the first place, from the increased size of the churns, increased space would be necessary ; and, what is of much greater importance, greater power would be required to work the churns. In cases where steam power was available, this would not so much matter ; but in some cases working by hand is preferred. It is obvious, however, that hand-power working of the churn would be quite out of the question, if the whole milk was used from which to make the butter. On the point under discussion, the results of very extended inquiries, as well as our own experience, convince us that the finest quality of butter is made from the cream ; and so far, therefore, as the churning department of the dairy is concerned, a greater simplicity of ope- ration will result if this mode of making u 58 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. butter be adopted. It is scarcely necessary to say, however, that a very considerable diversity of opinion exists as to which is the best of the two methods here discussed ; and according as the one or the other is preferred, so far as the milk and churning rooms are concerned, so will be the arrangements of the dairy. Prevention of Damp in the Dairy Building. — A feature of essential importance in the construc- tion of a dairy building is the keeping of the walls and floors thoroughly free from damp. This applies with especial force to the milk-room. The plans generally adopted to secure this free- dom from damp are little better than mere palliatives, and should only be looked upon as fairly good adjuncts to that plan which alone is to be relied upon, but which has been overlooked hitherto to a very remarkable extent in building practice ; we refer to the drainage of the site upon which the building stands, and to the mode of erecting the foundation. Provision for this site drainage should be made, circular drain-tiles being used. If these cannot be obtained, horse- shoe tiles may be used, or stone-fitted drains, but in any case the drains must be to the full depth to secure thorough drainage of the site. These drains will follow the fall of the ground and lead out to any convenient drain. As a further pre- caution against damp, a layer of concrete of 6 to 8 inches in depth is laid under the floor, and it is to be specially noted that this continues under tJie footings of the walls, and is carried up on the outside of the same to the level of the ground- line. Floor of the Milk-room. — The floor of the milk- room slopes from the walls to the centre of the room, at which point there is a drain or gutter, open, but which may be closed with flat tiles or stones easily removable. Water-pipes are laid along the walls under the milk-shelves, and pro- vided at short intervals with taps, to which short lengths of hose and jets are attached. By these, water in any quantity, and directed to any part, may be used to clean the floor, the water flowing and being swept towards the central drain, which has a fall throughout its length, and communi- cates with the sewage drain. Walls. — The walls throughout, at the lower part, to be of brick, hollow or cavity in the centre, and to be carried up at least five courses of bricks high above the level of the ground, the upper and outside course to be splayed or angled ; and where timber is abundant and cheap, the upper portions of walls may be made of it, with hollow or cavity space also in the centre, which may be filled with some non-conducting material which is not likely to decay and give out bad smells. The walls in milk-room to be lined, as also the cream- room, with white glazed tiles, or with plates of enamelled iron, which may be had of any dimen- sions, and will be easily fixed. This lining to extend to a height of 30 inches at least above the level of milk-shelves. The wJwle of the comers of the milk-room and cream-room to be rounded off, to prevent, as much as possible, the accumulation of dust. Double Entrance-door; Windoivs. — The entrance- door to milk-room to be double, or, what will be better, a porch to be provided with self-closing doors, the inner door also to be self-closing. The window-s to the milk and cream room to be double, with as wide a space between them as the thick- ness of the wall will admit of. The windows to be in two halves, opening horizontally; the cor- responding halves in the outer and inner windows to be connected with swivel bars, so that when the inside half is opened or shut, the corresponding half outside will be opened or shut also. By opening or shutting the lower or upper half of the win- dows, the current of air may be directed above or below, or horizontally, as desired, and the ven- tilation of the room much facilitated. Venetian blinds or jalousies to be provided to the outside of each window. Ventilation of Milk and Cream Rooms. — This is to be provided for by the combined operation of ventiducts for the admission of fresh and the withdrawal of used air. No ventilation can be complete and satisfactory where these two pro- visions are not carried out. The system recom- mended for adoption is what has been called the ' natural,' as opposed to the artificial, in which special means are provided to create currents. Natural ventilation we have alw-ays found to work well where judiciously carried out. The means which we propose are as follows : — 1. Appliances for sup>plies of Fresh Air. — Out- side the building small wells are to be sunk in VENTILATION AND WARMING OF DAIRY BUILDINGS. 59 the ground part of wall of milk-room. These wells are to be lined with stone or brick, and to have their floors sloping from the wall outwards, and to be provided with small drain-tubes leading to the main drain-tube, to carry off any water which might collect there. The wells are to be provided at their upper part with a ledge to sup- port the deodorizing boxes, containing animal charcoal. This deodorizing material has, in one instance where tried, been applied with marked effect in hot, confined weather. We have consulted a practical chemist, who highly approves of the plan, and who, at our request, is instituting a series of experiments on some points to which we have directed his attention. The deodorizing boxes may be, in extremely hot weather, supplanted by ice boxes, which would cool the air before entering the building. When neither the deodorizing nor the ice boxes are in use, a grating with small meshes or apertures skoidd be used to cover the upper portions of the wells, to prevent the ingress of vermin. The admission of the air through the apertures in the walls communicating with the fresh-air boxes is regulated by a proper valve. A few of the fresh- air ventiducts may be taken under the floor, to open out into gratings placed under the central ranges of milk-coolers, dividing or diffusing by this means the supply of fresh air to the room. These central ventiducts to be regulated in supply by valves specially designed, but of simple cha- racter. 2. Appliances for withdraiving the Used Air. — To withdraw the used air, a ventiduct or shaft of timber is used, with a valve for regulating the egress of the air. The chain is passed over pulleys in the shaft, and over a small pulley placed above an aperture made in the ceiling near the line of wall, and terminated at a point within easy reach by a weight. This weight is provided with a projecting part at the back, which slides in the slit of a face-plate. By sliding this weight up and down, the valve will be moved up and down correspondingly, the weight counter- balancing the valve. The valve is arranged to be fully open when its distance from the aper- ture of the shaft is equal to the diameter of same. The diameter of the valve, a, fig. 2, Plate 20, is considerably larger than that of the shaft, b ; this is done to direct the currents of air so as to create a draught along as wide a surface of the ceiling as possible. An alternative mode of withdraiving the used air is by making, in place of a solid ceiling, one composed of parallel strips of wood, or, better still, with blocks between at intervals, so as to form air-spaces. These open into the air-spaces in the roof, and in this case the ventilating shafts will be cut off near the ridge, the arrangements for regulating the egress of the air being the same as already described. (For additional remarks on ventilation and description of appliances, see Chap. IX.) Arrangements for Warming the Apartments and for obtaining a supply of Warm Water for Clean- ing purposes. — In this country it is not usual to adopt means for raising artificially the tempera- ture of our milk and cream rooms. The best authorities, however, believe that great benefits would arise from the system, as there would be means at ready command for regulating the tem- perature of the milk, and thus facilitating the operations of the dairy. If artificial heat is decided upon, it is essential that the method adopted by which to obtain it shall be capable of such regulation in its working, that any desired degree of temperature may be obtained. This facility in the regulation of the temperature can only be had by the adoption of one or two methods, namely, the use of ' steam ' or of ' hot water.' Hot-air stoves are, as a rule, incapable of being regulated so as to ensure accuracy in the degree of temperature they give to the air of a room which they supply. But with the use either of steam or hot water as the heating medium, an accuracy of regulation can be secured to a great degree of nicety. Of these two modes of heating, hot water possesses the greatest num- ber of advantages ; but, at the same time, steam, while very available for the purpose of wanning the air of the buildings, is also available in another and extremely useful direction in which the hot-water system cannot be made available. We refer to the use of steam in raising quickly and conveniently krge bodies of boiling water for cleaning. Another use to which steam may be put, and which is, we believe, for the first time here described, is the purifying of vessels 6o DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. by subjecting them to a stream of steam. This can be easily done, by making a special chamber in which the vessels to be purified are put. The utility of this need not be here enlarged upon, in view of the advantages to be derived in dairy operations from the use of thoroughly cleansed vessels, as churns and the like. In view of these considerations, the best and most efficient plan would be to have a ' hot-water apparatus ' to supply the heating pipes for raising the tempera- ture of the rooms, and a small boiler to raise steam for the purpose of creating supplies of warm water, and also for raising the temperature of cheese-vats by being led into spaces made outside of them. Where a steam-engine is on the premises, it may be said that steam may be obtained from the boiler of it. But it must not be overlooked that the boiler of the steam-engine may not be in use, while steam may be required for the dairy ; and it would be a waste of resources to fire a steam-engine boiler of large power to obtain a quantity of steam which might be ob- tained from a lesser-sized one. Arrangements for Lotoering the Temperature of the Rooms in Hot Weather. — In hot weather, the ventilation will have to be kept up to its maxi- mum capability; but it is just at this time that the difficulty is greatest in maintaining ventilat- ing currents, these depending for their existence upon the difference that exists between the tem- perature of the air in the room and that outside. In summer it often happens that the circum- stances are reversed, or nearly equalized. Hence the difficulty of ventilating a building at this season. To aid the lowering of the temperature therein at this season, it is the practice in some dairies to have cold water running in troughs under the milk-shelves. As this expedient is founded upon the fact that evaporation produces cold, Mr. Horsfall, the great dairy authority, has very ingeniously extended its operations by wet- ting the calico blinds of the windows by project- ing water upon them. We propose to place this method under more complete control, by having endless belts of calico stretching from floor to ceiling behind the milk-shelves, and supported by and passing over rollers. These will afford large evaporating surfaces, and which surfaces will be very quickly wetted by having the lower roller to revolve in a trough of water. Where water-troughs are used, in place of having them fixed, we would recommend them to be placed on brackets cast upon the pedestals which sup- port the milk-shelves or coolers. Fittings of the Milk-room. — The milk to be creamed is set up in two kinds of vessels, — the ordinary milk-dishes, which are placed on the shelves, and the milk-coolers, which are fixtures. The cheapest form of efficient milk-shelf is cast- iron grating of a simple pattern. This kind of shelf has given great satisfaction where used. It is easily kept clean, contracts no taint, and the perforations admit of a free current of air under and around the milk-dishes. If this kind of shelf is not adopted, although we are inclined to recommend its adoption, marble would be the best material, or slate ; wood is not to be recom- mended. It might, by way of carrying out ex- periments in all directions, be admissible to fit up part of the milk-shelves in various materials. But whatever be the material employed, one point in erecting them we would most strongly insist upon, and that is, keeping the whole line of shelving throughout at least two and a half inches from the wall. The advantage of this is obvious on consideration. Corners are always difficult to clean ; and the corner formed by the junction of the milk-shelf with the vertical wall we have invariably found the most difficult to be cleaned, no matter how careful the dairymaid may be. But by keeping the shelf clear from the wall, the cloth used in cleaning can be passed completely round the edge of the shelf, and under it also. As regards the materials of the milk-dishes, of breakable materials, glass is the best ; only, if not well annealed, it is liable to break in the scalding. Good earthenware, white glazed, will be found very good and serviceable. Of non-breakable materials, tin is the best, but it must be of good quality. Lead we rank second, zinc third ; but such is our opinion of it (zinc), that we think it should never be used, the lactic acid in the milk setting up an action prejudicial, if it be not actually poisonous, to the milk. The Milk-coolers. — Were it not for the diffi- culty of finding room for and handling such a very large number in large dairies, as we are now describing, we would recommend milk-dishes to be CREAM, CHURNING, AND SCALDING ROOMS OF A DAIRY. 61 used throughout ; but this is not easy to be done in so large a dairy. Coolers are, therefore, almost a necessity. The only material 'which we think available, under all the circumstances of large dairy working, for the construction of the milk- coolers, is the best tin, unless they can be made of enamelled iron at a moderate cost. The coolers must be rounded off at the corners, to facilitate cleaning ; the corners or angles in the inside also rounded off. They must be provided with appropriately-arranged tubes, to draw off the milk and cream. The coolers are all to be placed in a trough, so as to admit of hot or cold water being passed along the side and under the coolers in water. Some of the details connected with the milk-shelves, milk-coolers, and of the water-troughs for both, are given in Plate 12, figs. 8 and 9. The coolers being fixtures, the most complete arrangements will be necessary in order to supply hot water for scalding them. This will be led by pipes from the upper boiler in the scalding-room, and which, being supplied at pressure, will enable the coolers to be thoroughly washed by means of jet and hose, if deemed best, or, if not, by the ordinary vessels, which will also be supplied from the boiler. It would be easy also to place pipes running along the length of the coolers, with taps to each cooler, from which both cold and hot water could be supplied. The coolers are not continuous, but have intervals of three or four inches be- tween them. This will enable them to be cleaned thoroughly all round, as well as allow the trough- water to circulate round the ends. In place of a trough for hot water for heating the coolers, an alternative plan may be adopted of having the coolers double-cased, steam being admitted into the space behind; see fig. 9, Plate 12. We pre- fer the trough system as the simplest, and as being also available for passing cold water in summer. Cream or Souring Room. — This is a distinct apartment, fitted up very much in the same way as the milk-room, but with shelves only. Re- marks have already been made upon the heating of this. The room is arranged for twenty-four seven-gallon crocks, in which the cream is set for souring. It may, however, be set up in vats of larger dimensions, although the crocks will be found the most convenient for the system of working adopted. But in whatever way set up, it will be essential to mark in some distinc- tive way all the vessels, or the positions in the cream-room of the vessels, so that each portion of cream set up will be known from another, and thus each be taken at its proper time for churning. The dimensions of the cream - room will depend upon the mode adopted for working the dairy, — whether the churning is done at long or short intervals. In the design connected with these remarks, the cream-room is arranged to hold the cream of two days, taking twenty- four crocks of seven gallons each. As a safe rule for practice, the smaller the quantity of cream put up to sour the better, as the risk of loss arising from taint is lessened ; for if a taint attacks a crock, the less it contains the better, for the loss is the less ; and loss assuredly there is, or at least ought to be, wherever a taint is in the cream. Where this is the case, it should not be used for butter-making. It is a frequent source of annoyance to the dairymaid to see how often and how mysteriously a taint affects the cream. As a rule, also, the smaller the dishes are which the dairymaid has to handle, the less risk there is of breakage, and the more quickly, too, is the work got through with. The Churning-room. — Little need be said of the fittings of this, as these will depend upon the mode of working adopted. The butter ' making- up ' table will be placed in this ; it will best be made of marble, hollowed out for a considerable length, and with rounded corners. The ends should be flat. A full supply of the purest water obtainable should be supplied to the table, and means provided for running off the water when united with the milk proceeding from the butter making-up process. The Scalding - room for Washing the Dairy Vessels. — In this room au arrangement of 'copper ' furnace, with scalding-vats combined, is specified. It consists of two coppers and two vats placed opposite to each other. The walls forming the central space between these are carried up some two or three feet above the level of the boilers, and support a tank or open boiler. The two flues of the copper unite in this centre space, and pass through the tank in the form of a cylindrical tube of iron. The tank is kept supplied at a 62 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. regular level with water, and the heat from the flue is thus utilized to a large extent. Provision, however, should be made to use steam from the independent boiler already alluded to, to heat the water in the tank when the copper furnace is not in use ; so that the vats, etc. in the milk- room may be supplied from it. Steam should also be supplied to the scalding-vats in the scald- ing-room, to obtain a supply of hot water inde- pendently of the tank. Means must be provided for carrying off the used water from the scalding- room. As a large amount of vapour is produced in this room, it is essential that the ventilating system should be complete, in order to carry it away as formed. To do this, the same kind ot roof as already alluded to may be used ; but ad- vantage should be taken of the ' draught-power ' available in the chimney of the copper furnace. This will pass right through the roof; and if it be surrounded with an outer cylinder, a con- siderably powerful ventilating current will be established between the outside of the chimney and the inside of the ventdating tube. The upper ends of the two tubes are provided with caps, to prevent down-draughts, or one will do for both. A good deal of heat will be created in the space, aud a rapid current from the room will be the result. The air which passes from the room through the spaces in the ceiling should be withdrawn from the space in the roof by ventilators placed at intervals. Cheese-making Booms ; Vat-room and Press- room.— In the vat-room two vats are placed. These are made with jackets, or one vessel is placed within the other, leaving a space between them. In this space warm water or cold iced water may be put, according to the season, and to the temperature of the milk in the vat re- quired. Means must be provided for carrying off the water from the spaces or jackets, and the whey, etc. from the vats. The hot water for supplying the spaces or jackets, and for scalding and cleaning tbe vats, may be supplied from the tank in the scalding-room by a special pipe led from it or from the coppers. Or steam may be used to boil the water in the vats themselves, the cold water being obtained through a special pipe. In place of fixed vats, Keevil's or other form of cheese-making apparatus may be used. Of the press-room arrangements little need be said. From this, immediate access should be had to the store-room. The Butter-store and Cooling-room. — This may be made inside the ice-house ; see section on this subject. There is nothing to prevent this, the best possible position for it, being obtained. A very simple constructive arrangement is all that is necessary to be carried out. If this plan be not adopted, a separate store should be pro- vided, means being taken to keep the tempera- ture of this at a low point in summer by special means, as noted in another paragraph, or by using masses of ice, placed on tables in the room, or by having ice-safes in it. None of these modes, however, will give such satisfaction as placing the butter-store within the ice-house. Another mode is to construct a special cooling- store, much on the same principle as the ice-house already described, with hollow walls and roof filled with non-conducting material, and -with a space in the floor which is to be covered with a grating, and under which ice is placed; or ice- boxes may be placed in the ventilating boxes or shafts by which the cooling-room is supplied with air. On the advantages of a supply of ice for the various operations of the dairy it is needless here to enlarge, this having been done in another chapter. In figs. 5, 6, and 7, Plate 12, we give ' block plan ' diagrams, illustrative of different methods of arranging dairy buildings on the large scale worked on the ordinary farming system, but in which the constructive details and appli- ances are on the most carefully considered system ; of which the preceding remarks or ' specification,' as it may be termed, may be taken as affording an example. The method of arranging and work- ing the machinery may, of course, if thought best, be on the same system as adopted in the butter and cheese making factories, some of which we have illustrated and described in preceding paragraphs ; but the plans of arrangement of the buildings may, nevertheless, be such as we have shown in Plate 12, figs. 5, 6, and 7, or with such modifications of these as may be deemed best. The interior arrangements of the various block plans will depend upon local circumstances or the opinion of the farmer, but the principles upon which these are founded, and which we have THE PIGGERY OF LARGE DAIRY BUILDINGS. 63 already described, should be kept carefully in mind in portioning out the internal spaces. In all the plans the letter N indicates the north sides of the buildings. Possibly the plan in fig. 7 will be found the most convenient in working, as all the operations may be carried consecutively on in three directions only, first straight, and then right and left. But that in fig. 6 may afford the best-sheltered building ; this is easily capable of affording twice the space by simply adding the part as shown by dotted lines. Tlie Piggery of the Dairy. — A part of all dairy establishments conducted even on the smallest scale, and one which is daily increasing in im- portance, is that of the ' piggery.' Nor need this be at all matter of surprise, for, apart from all considerations of necessity as connected with the consumption of the refuse or ' waste ' materials of the dairy, as the butter-milk, the produce of the butter, and the whey, that of the cheese-making departments, the increased and increasing demand for meat of all kinds has raised so enormously the prices obtained for pig meat in its various forms of joints for the butcher, and for cured parts as bacon and hams, that an additional inducement of no small value and importance weighs with the dairyman now to make the most of his refuse by pig breeding and fattening, as compared with former times. It is true that it is one of the disputed points of practical farming, Do pigs pay ? and much has been written to prove that they do not ; but it is hard to see why they should not do so, — perhaps, let us admit by way of argument, in less degree than other live stock ; but whether they do or not, many dairymen are so circumstanced that no other means of using up their ' dairy refuse ' is open to them than by the keeping of pigs, so that a piggery is with them essential, if only as a means of ' reducing a loss and preventing waste.' Hence the necessity for us to point out a few facts connected with the piggery as part of a dairy establishment, which we shall do under the idea that this is one on the large scale, and therefore requiring a piggery of a corresponding character. The great objection to piggeries per se, as form- ing part of dairies, is the odours they give rise to, and which, as again and again we have pointed out, are to be avoided by all possible means, con- taminating as all odours do the milk of the dairy. It is quite a possible, and, as we conceive, a very probable thing, to conceive that much of the evil connected as an ordinary rule with piggeries, arises from defective plans of arranging and con- structing them, and of the mode of keeping the pigs themselves ; and that this evil is not there- fore a necessity of the system of pig-keeping, which cannot be got rid of by any means within the command of the dairyman. But as preven- tion is better than cure, it will be the wisest plan to make the piggery or piggeries, structures iso- lated wholly, and placed as far from the dairy buildings as may be compatible with convenience of working. If placed on a lower level than the dairy buildings, and not at a very great distance from them, the whey may be conveyed from these to the piggery by means of a timber shoot ; or a small rail may be laid down, on which trucks may run gently down by gravitation, these carry- ing the filled whey-pails. By either of these arrangements the chief labour of the piggery, so far as the dairy is concerned, will be materially lightened. The piggery buildings for a large dairy should comprise within themselves conveniences for the working of the whole, without having occasion to waste time in going to and from the farmery, in order to get such materials as may be re- quired. As embracing what we deem the chief essentials of a piggery on the large scale as regards accommodation or arrangement, and chiefly as giving a suggestion upon those points, we give in Plate 13 a plan in which the accom- modation is for a piggery on the large scale, and the extent of which can be enlarged or diminished as circumstances may dictate, without destroying the integrity of the arrangements. The pig-sties are arranged rectangularly in plan, enclosing a space in which are placed the food store, a, and the cooking or boiling houses, bcde, one of which is appropriated to each range of pig-sties. This central group may be modified according to cir- cumstances ; in some cases it may be found better to give only one boiling-house, with trams radiat- ing to the sides and corners of the interior space, or two may be used. In the plan, the food store, a, is lighted from the top ; and by doing this by means of an ornamental lantern crowning the 64 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. central group, some degree of architectural effect may he given ' even to a pig-sty.' In the ranges of the sties, the corner ones are made larger and appropriated to the farrowing sows, as at /, g, h, and i. The upper and lower ranges of sties, as jjj and k k k, are appropriated to the store-pigs and to fattening-pigs, while the side ranges, as 1 1 11, are devoted to young pigs. Of course these arrangements will be modified according to cir- cumstances, the sties being portioned out as the pigs of one class happen to exceed those of another. The ' boar ' sties are placed in the position as indicated at m and n. Tramways are used to take the food from the boiling-houses, as the tram o o, while lateral ones, as pp,q q, r r, run in front of the sties. They will also be used to lead off the manure to the entrance or exit gates at the points s s. MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION. 65 CHATTER VII. MATERIALS CONNECTED WITH THE VARIOUS STRUCTURES. The Materials employed in the Construction of the Farm Buildings. — These are stone, brick, con- crete, slate, and timber. Some of these may be had on the property, if not indeed all of them. Timber and slate or tiles are used in every build- ing, and must therefore be had, even if brought from a distance. But as regards stone and brick for the building of walls, the choice of either of them will be guided by circumstances. If stone abounds in the immediate neighbourhood of the farm, it will be the better way to use it, unless there be special difficulties in the way of quarry- ing it. But if the farm is not provided with a quarry, or one be not moderately near to it, so that the stones have to be carted from a great or considerable distance from some far-off part of the property, then the expense of tbis, added to that of quarrying and working the stone for the building, may be such as to make it so dear as to be precluded from use. In this case bricks may be used, these being either bought from the nearest maker, or, if a good clay-bed be already opened and partially worked for the making of drain tiles and tubes, its area may be extended and clay obtained for the making of bricks, and perhaps of roofing tiles as well ; and thus, if well arranged and conducted, will be found a pro- fitable source of building material, useful for a great variety of constructive purposes of the property. We name these points to show the importance of duly considering every detail con- nected with the buildings, so as to arrive at tbe most economical method of constructing them. A great deal of this depends upon what may be called the administrative department of building, and how it is carried out ; this including the employment and the organization of labour, and the regular supply of material to them, so that no stoppage of the works shall occur, as often does, from the lack of orderly method in bring- ing on the ground the various materials as they are required in due sequence. Time is econo- mized and money saved by every department working steadily on from the beginning to the close without halt or break. Nothing is more indicative of the want of a managing head than to see men loitering about, waiting for material to come forward which ought to have been there, or turned over to help in some work where they are not required or with which they are not acquainted. More money is lost in building erections from lack of administration, not only as regards material, but as regards labour and other departments, than is generally thought of, or will be conceded by interested parties. We are now prepared to note the materials used in building in detail ; and first, as to Stones. Build- ing-stones are classed under one of three great divisions, — (1) the granites ; (2) the limestones ; (3) the sandstones. Granites. — The difficulty of working granite with the tool, as well as of quarrying it and removing it from its bed, precludes its use as a building material for farm purposes, except- ing for certain exceptional parts, or in certain circumstances, where it may be used if it can be got without involving heavy cost for transport. It is the most durable of all stones, and notwith- standing the drawbacks attendant upon its work- ing, it is largely used in districts where it is plentiful — where, indeed, it may be said to be the only building-stone available. Granite is often found mixed with various foreign substances ; if protoxide of iron is present, or, indeed, any one of the iron constituents, its lasting properties are considerably reduced. The trap-rock known as 1 66 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. green or blue stone, sometimes called whinstone, affords a hard and durable stone, not so difficult to -work as the granites, and is often used for building purposes. A goodly variety of boulder stones may be met with in various parts of the property, many of which afford good material for the erection of fence walls, etc. A caution is here necessary, never in any instance to use stone taken from the sea-shore or its neighbour- hood for use in buildings inhabited by human beings, or for sheltering live stock. They are always damp. Limestones. — Of this, the second class, there are a number of varieties. These are generally put under one or other of three classes, the ' oolitic,' the ' magnesium,' or the ' shelly ' limestones. Of the oolitic limestones, the best known and most generally used in the southern parts of the kingdom, especially the metropolis, are ' Portland ' and ' Bath ' stone. Of the magnesium limestones, the best known is that used in the Houses of Parliament, which was obtained froni Bolsover, in Yorkshire. There are, however, other well- known quarries of it. As a rule, the ' oolitic ' formation yields the best qualities of building limestone. In limestone counties, such as Derby- shire, there is a wide variety of stones for build- ing purposes. Shelly limestone makes capital chimney-pieces, taking on a good polish, and showing a variety of tints and forms. Lime- stones are not very difficult to work, but they are not in this respect and others such favourites with the workman, who loves a stone so readily and easily worked up in any of the forms used in building, from ' rough ' or ' random rubble ' up to the most finished, and highly smoothed and polished, regularly set ' ashlar,' as The Sandstones, which are plentifully met with over a wide range of districts, although, of course, varying in quality, from that of a poor, open, crumbling texture, up to the finest, hardest, and closest grained, such as the Darley Dale of English, and the Craigleith of Scottish quarries. Sandstones work freely under the tool, and the most of them take on a good, smooth, if not a polished surface, under proper working. The ' grey ' coloured variety, known generally as ' free- stone,' is the favourite sandstone; the 'red,' from its colour, not being so highly esteemed, and as not possessing some of the good qualities of the grey. Yorkshire sandstones are well known and highly valued, as affording a supply of excellent paving and flagging stones, although, as is well known to those who know the county, they are also largely used for general building purposes, giving that grey cold look to the houses, so dif- ferent from the warm and picturesque red colour of brick or red sandstone. We now come to Brick. — This, as is universally known, is made from clay, tempered or weathered, well worked into an equal homogeneous condition, moulded into forms of rectangular shape, then burnt, in a ' kiln ' regularly constructed, or in a more rough and readily made ' clamp ' of old bricks and the new moulded bricks, till the mass becomes hard and partly vitrified. But it is not so well known that the quality of the brick is gTeatly dependent upon the constituents present in the clay. Thus a sandy clay with low cohesive powers yields bricks so soft that they scarcely repay the cost of making them ; marly clay gives a better quality ; loamy clay better still; while the best of all bricks are those made from clay in which a pro- portion equal to one-third of alumina and two- thirds of silica are present. Clays composed almost wholly, at least principally, of those two substances give those bricks known as fire-bricks, which, being capable of standing very high degrees of heat, are used for lining furnaces, etc. A good bed of clay of this kind, if found on the property, may be said to be a little mine of wealth. A good, well-burnt brick should, when struck, give out a clear, ringing, almost metallic sound ; and when broken by the trowel, should display a fracture close, hard, and dense, material perfectly free from all extraneous substances, as small stones, etc., and also from air-holes and vacant honeycomb-like cells. The nomenclature of bricks, which need not be given here, is some- what puzzling, being chiefly derived from local circumstances, etc. ; hut the best building bricks are generally classed as ' stock,' the second class being known as ' place,' while 'bums' or 'clinkers' are the most inferior of all These classes, especially the stock, are again divided into sub- classes. Comparison beticcen Brick and Stone as Build- ing Materials. — Local prejudices, as a rule, decide COMPARISON BETWEEN STONE AND BRICK IN BUILDING. 67 the relative value of stone and brick as building materials. If stone is plentiful, brick is seldom used ; and all speak in favour of stone as the best material, far away superior even to the best brick. Nor is the converse of the case less marked. But, setting prejudices altogether aside, there is surely some common platform, so to say, upon which their relative merits may be discussed, if they be not positively decided. That stone is peculiarly liable to decay from the action of atmospheric influences, especially if smoke or gases from chemical manufactories be present, is admitted on all hands. But some stones exfoliate more or less rapidly, even under the influence of ordinary atmospheres, such as some of the softer class of red sandstones, and some qualities of the limestones ; and in all there is more or less uncertainty as to what their ' behaviour,' to use an engineering term, will be under cer- tain circumstances. The facility with which the open pores of sandstone — all, indeed, more or less — take up and retain damp, and the well-known action of frost as a disintegrator, to say nothing of the chemical combinations entered into between the air, the moisture, and the constituents of the stone, all tend to increase its liability to disin- tegration and decay ; while in some cases the readiness with which minute vegetable growths, as mosses and the like, attach themselves to, flourish upon, and greatly disfigure the appear- ance, is but too well known. Turning now to bricks of good quality, they are rarely affected by the atmosphere, save only that it may blacken or discolour, but scarcely ever disintegrates the surface. As to the working of the two mate- rials, we find a remarkable difference between them, — one that even the most casual observer cannot fail to notice, — the ready handiness with which bricks are manipulated, and the quick way in which they are piled together in the building, with the slow process of stone walling, the lifting of heavy stones, the slow but necessary — if good, honest work is to be done — process of bedding them, and of bonding them together. The bricks are ready for immediate working, and their form admits of a thoroughly solid and well-bonded wall being obtained by them, which it is in general a very difficult thing for the workman to avoid secur- ing, as the bricks themselves decide their position in the wall, even if he has, as too often unfortu- nately is the case, the desire to do bad work. But in the case of stone, not only is there much time expended in the cutting, facing, and dressing the stones before they can be used, but there are many ways in which a wall anything but solid can be and is built. The through-bond stones belie their name, and do not always go through ; bedding is also carelessly performed, leading to unequal settlement ; while, if almost any build- ing be examined, the walls will, to a greater or less extent, be found — and the thicker they are the worse the fault is likely to be — not to be of solid stone as a brick wall is of solid brick (unless it be a cavity wall purposely hollow), but a mass chiefly of mortar (or grout), with a packing of stone shivers. The very peculiarity of the class of bond employed in brickwork necessitates a solidity of wall, whereas in stone walling, bonding good and honest de- pends upon the workman ; while from front to back a thoroughly solid wall of stone is seldom met with in ordinary work and practice. The following may be taken as a summary of the points of difference between the two materials, and an indication of the circumstances under which they should be used. In districts where stone can be easily obtained, and obtained at a cheaper rate than bricks, it would be folly to use bricks, however valuable as a building material they may be proved to be, and are. But when the margin or difference between the cost of stone and that of brick is small, although even in favour of stone, we would certainly recommend brick to be used in prefer- ence ; for as a building material it possesses many most valuable qualities. In the first place, the labour required to dress stone is not required in brick ; when set up in walls, the joints are easily made good, and the walls are solid throughout, affording none of those vacancies and spaces for the harbouring of damp, or for the refuge of ver- min, which stone walls, built as many usually are, do afford. This point, connected with ver- min, as rats and mice, is of immense importance in farm buildings. Then, again, bricks are much less liable to atmospheric influence than stone or other walls : a brick building is not nearly so liable to be attacked by damp as a stone building. 6S DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. This, although counter to the opinion of many, is, we believe, nevertheless strictly true ; at all events, we have come to this decision after the inspection of a vast number of structures erected with the two materials, and we are borne out in this opinion by a large number of the highest authorities on construction. Not only is a good brick less ab- sorbent of moisture than ordinary building-stone, but if it gets thoroughly wet it dries more rapidly than stone, which remains wet a long time, if, indeed, it ever gets thoroughly dry. And as regards solidity, a brick wall 9 inches in thick- ness, well built, will contrast favourably with a 2 -feet wall of stone, if built, as is frequently done, in a scamping style, with the centre hollow and ' honeycombed,' from the number of small stones used to fill it up with, and the often poor quality of the mortar used to grout them with. There is, however, one point which indicates the change of opinion as to brick, even in districts in which the prejudice against it was perhaps the strongest, and this is the rapidly extending em- ployment of it. We now come to notice a build- ing material, the most recently introduced, and which, from the many excellent qualities which it possesses, is becoming most extensively used, and is likely to become still more so the more widely it is known, especially in farming districts, as we believe it specially well adapted for build- ings, etc., there generally erected. This is — Portland Cement Concrete (for ordinary con- crete, see par. on next page). — The mode of build- ing, or rather of constructing walls in earth, known as ' pise ' or hard-rammed soil, and with which our readers are doubtless acquainted, pro- bably led to the use of concrete as a substitute for the earth, as possessing a capability of being more easily worked, and a much greater strength. Composition of Concrete. — Concrete may be defined as a mixture of gravel, stone chips from quarries or from the preparation of stones for building purposes, cinders, clinkers, broken bricks, and the like, with lime or cement. When lime is used as the material to bind the substances which form the bulk of the concrete, the concrete is used for the making of foundations ; but where it is required for building purposes, a hydraulic cement is used to bind the broken bricks, gravel, etc., used as the bulk of the material. The cement almost alone now used is that known as ' Portland,' which, in fact, is the most valuable of all such materials. It is made by mixing definite proportions of chalk and clay, mud, and carbonate of lime, with the argillaceous deposit of certain rivers, the waters of which flow over clay and chalk. In this country tire Medway, or rather the bays and creeks on the sides of it, afford the best material. The cohesive strength of the cement made from these materials is very great, four times as much as that of the best hydraulic lime. When mixed with broken bricks, it forms a concrete which is stronger than Port- land stone in the proportion of 2.280 to 1.480. In purchasing Portland cement, it is wTell to specify the weight per bushel. A good quality is that which weighs 110 lbs. ; some authorities prefer a lighter cement, as 100 to 105; but the weight of experimental evidence is in favour of the heavier cement. We have named a number of materials of which concrete can be made, but to these may be added the nodules of burnt clay — clay can be burnt at a cost of Is. Gd. to 2s. 6d. a cubic yard- — broken glass and crockery, hard chalk and chalk flints, broken slag from iron furnaces, and, indeed, almost any materials which form hard, compact lumps or nodules, which do not disintegrate or crumble away. Where these vary in size, the large lumps may be used to pack the centre of the wall, the thinner con- crete being used to bind the whole together. Concrete is an exceedingly good material for the construction of farm buildings, inasmuch as generally in these there are long stretches of solid walls, with comparatively few window and door openings, and with simple internal parti- tions ; these peculiarities enable the appliances required to be made and used very economically. It is peculiarly well adapted to the building of enclosing walls, formation of tanks for water or manure, for floors rat-proof, all of which can be erected and laid down at a mere fraction of the time which ordinary methods take. Another point which renders the system peculiarly applicable to the construction of farm buildings, is that it can be carried out without the use of skilled labour. Such is the extreme simplicity with which concrete building can be carried on, that we have set labourers to work on it who never CEMENT AND LIME CONCRETES. 69 had seen or heard of it, quite convinced that they would he able to do it satisfactorily, and the residt has justified our expectations. We recently erected a concrete building of a somewhat com- plicated character, and yet it was done by the aid of common labourers alone. As in the case of ' pise ' building, named above, moulds specially made are required. It is obvious that the more building required, the cheaper will it be made, inasmuch as the cost of preparing the moulds will be distributed over the greater surface of walling ; but, the plan of the building being decided on, a little consideration will show how the moulds may be made in such a way as to he available without cutting or other alteration for the largest extent of budding. There are several modes of forming the moulds and adjusting them for work- ing, some of which, being patented, are available only by employing the patentees or by working their apparatus under a royalty. Proportion of Materials used in making Con- crete.— The proportion of the Portland cement to the broken materials used for making the con- crete varies according to the practice of various practitioners. Some use so small a proportion of cement as one part in eight of the materials ; others seven ; but a safer proportion is one part of cement in five or six of the materials. This we adopt in our own practice, modifying the proportions, however, according as we require in some parts a greater strength than in others, as pillars or narrow pedestals, in which case we use as high a proportion as three parts of the cement to eight of the material. Mixing the Materials used in making Concrete — The best way of mixing the materials is to have a platform made of strong boards well clamped together, and which may be of any con- venient dimensions — as 7 feet square. This is laid upon the ground in close vicinity to the place where the budding is to be erected. The gravel, broken or crushed bricks — of size to pass through the meshes of a ^-inch sieve or screen - — are then placed upon the board, together with the cement in the proper proportion, and the whole well mixed together in a dry state. "When the mass is well mixed, water is sprinkled over it, gently at first — best done through the rose of a watering-pot — and applied till enough is given to enable the cement to adhere to, or become in- corporated with, the broken material ; the whole being of that consistency as to be easily passed into the moulds, and to be pressed closely up to the sides and ends, and to embrace, as it were, the larger lumps put into the centre of the mould, and forming the packing, of which more presently. A little experience will soon enable the workmen to know the proper state of con- sistency in which the mass should be for using; care being taken to mix it well up before wheel- ing it off to be put into the moulds, as, if not well mixed, the cement is apt to settle to the bottom, leaving the upper portion, of course, weaker than the lower. Ordinary or Lime Concrete. — This, which is chiefly used in foundation work (see ' Founda- tion '), and for filling in faults in the soil, etc., is composed of lime, sand, and gravel. The lime is in proportion to the sand as one to two or three of sand, the gravel being of the same bulk as the sand. The whole are well mixed together, and then brought to the consistency of ordinary mortar by the addition of water. If it is de- sired to have a quick-setting concrete, the lime used should be of the class known as hydraulic (see next par., ' Limes '), such as the ' Dorking,' Hailing, or Blue Lias, of which the last is by far the best, and that generally employed in good work. Limes. — The nomenclature, as well as the phy- sical qualities and chemical constituents, and how they ' behave ' towards one another, are all at present in a transition state, the science of the subject passing through that crucial stage in which the crude, hap-hazard conjectures of early times, fortunately for the science, have recently begun to give way to those in which the whole subject is being considered by some men of science in a thorough way, so as to place all its detads upon a secure and trustworthy basis. "What the result of these investigations may ulti- mately be, it is hard to say , but much good cannot but arise from them, and many notions, now widely accepted as correct, will be proved to be anything but so. Meanwhile, we may state that limes used for budding purposes are obtained from the limestone formations, from chalky deposits, and from marl pits or quarries. 70 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. The limestones thus obtained do not present the peculiar appearance so well known as that of lime until they are burnt in kilns, when, chemi- cally, they are known as the oxide of calcium, the fire having driven off the carbonic acid, and popularly ' quicklime.' When this has water poured on it, the lumps or largish pieces — in which form it comes from the kiln-burning — swell, crackle, burst, and fall into the condition of a fine white powder, a high degree of heat being at the same time generated. This powder is called a hydrate of lime, ready to be made into mortar of a class determined by the quality or nature of the lime. The qualities or classes of lime are two — common, or rich, fat limes, and hydraulic, or poor, meagre limes. The common lime hydrate makes a rich, fatty-looking paste, which readily slakes by the addition of water. The hydraulic hydrate of lime makes a thin paste, which does not slake. The common limes do not harden with water, or but very slowly, if not washed out at the first ; hydraulic limes harden more or less rapidly, according to their constituents. Those which confer this valuable property on lime are silica and alumina, which are present in greater proportion than the car- bonate of lime. The best of the hydraulic limes at present known is the blue lias, which contains as much as one-fifth part of clay in which the silica and alumina are present. Artificial hy- draulic limes, or rather cements, can be made by burning any good marly clay ; and when calcined into hard nodules, these are ground to a condition of coarse powder-like sand, and mixed with fresh- slaked lime in the proportion of one part lime to three parts of the powder, and adding water till the whole is of the required consistency. This cement or mortar is capable of resisting a high degree of heat. Hydraulic artificially-made lime of a lower quality than this may be made by mixing common lime with clay, burning the mix- ture, and grinding the calcined nodules. Hydraulic Cements. — Those in use are obtained from nodules of conglomerates of limestone and clay, with in some cases a small proportion of silica or sand, 'which lie in large quantities along the shores of the tidal river Medway, on the Thames, and at the Isle of Sheppey, as also at Boulogne in France. The Sheppey Isle yields the cement known as Roman, now rapidly giving place to the much superior Portland cement yielded by the Medway nodules. The nodules are subjected to a high degree of heat, and after- wards ground into fine powder. For a descrip- tion of the qualities and uses of Portland cement, see a preceding paragraph on ' Portland Cement Concrete.' There are a considerable number of natural cements found at various places on the Continent, one celebrated source being on the Ehine, in the valley of the Bruhl. Asjihalte is generally classed amongst the cements, although, properly defined, it is a mastic composed of natural or mineral tar, with bituminous limestone, which is the asphalte proper, being a porous limestone ; this being finely powdered and mixed with the tar. Asphalte has long been used to form floor- ing surfaces, etc., but is fast being superseded by Portland cement concrete, which is not only greatly superior to it, but is very easily laid ; whereas asphalte requires the aid of skilled work- men. Slate and Tiles.— When the classification of stones is adopted which has three divisions, the ' siliceous ' taking in the sandstones and granites, the * calcareous ' embracing the limestones, slate is classed under the 'argillaceous,' of which, in- deed, it is the chief if not the only industrial representative. Slate is a hard and dense, com- pact and heavy substance, close grained, capable of being split easily into thin plates, which con- stitutes its principal feature, and makes it so valuable for various purposes. The colour is blue of various shades, from light to dark, and some varieties are tinted with beautifully-marked veins of a greenish colour. Slates are cut into various sizes, distinguished by name as countess, duchess, imperial, etc. Tiles. — If good clay be found on the farm, or on some part of the property, roofing and flooring tiles may be made, as well as bricks and drain tubes and tiles. Tiles are either ' flat ' or ' pan ; ' if flat, they are provided with a hole at the upper edge, by which the tile is secured to the roof battens by a pin driven through the hole, and linking on to or hanging from the batten. In pan tiles, which are double-curved, or ogee- shaped in sections, a projecting knob is made in the under side of the upper edge, by which the VARIETIES AND CAUSES OF DEC A V IN TIMBER. 7i tile is supported from the batten, on which the tiles rest. — Flooring-tiles may be square, lozenge- shaped, or rectangular. Tiles afford a warm- looking, picturesque covering for roofs ; but being considerably heavier than slate, the scantling of the timber of the roof must be increased in pro- portion. Timber, Varieties of. — Timber is largely used in the construction of farm buildings, chiefly, however, for the roofs and detached fittings, few of the apartments having joisted and boarded floors. Home-grown timber may be used for the construction of the roofs, wall plates, and work not requiring to be finely wrought. For the internal fittings, doors, window-frames, cow-house or byre and stable fittings, foreign timbers, which are easily worked under the tool, will require as a rule to be used. Where appearance may be sacrificed in these fittings, at least to a great ex- tent, a clever workman will manage to make what he will call ' pretty good ' or ' tidy ' fittings out of home-grown timber. That of the cattle- boxes, cattle courts, or curtains, may all be made of this, as appearance is not much studied in these structures. Not that we should at all counsel heavy, clumsy work to be done ; but while it may be coarse in one sense, so far as regards the rough appearance of timber, which will not work ' kindly ' to a smooth surface, still the whole work, if well proportioned, will look neat. The foreign timber generally used comes from either North America or from the northern parts of Europe, hence called Baltic, Dantzic timber, and so on. The American pines are largely used in this country. The white pine- wood is used generally for ordinary joiner work. It is the cheapest, and works freely under the tool; it is generally of good quality, free from knots, shakes, and green wood ; as its name indi- cates, it is free from all resinous or pitchy matter. For work of a superior class the yellow pines are used, while for the best work the red pines are employed. If the latter be employed for interior fittings, paint need not be used, as the veins of ' humour ' arising from the disposition of the resinous matter with which this variety of wood is largely provided — hence its superior strength and durability — give a very finished and often beautifully - grained surface, more especially if varnish be employed to finish off with. These remarks apply, with some slight modification, to the yellow pines of good quality. Baltic fir or pine woods are more thought of by our trade, and bring higher prices, than the same classes of wood which come from North America. The term ' Baltic ' generally includes all the timbers which are known as Dantzic, Memel, Christiania, and Drontheim, frequently called ' Drum.' All these timbers are supplied to the trade in the form of ' bulks ' or ' logs ; ' these being of considerable length and of large sectional area, the usual measurement being 18 inches on the side, afford heavy timber for beams, lintels, scaffold- ing, etc. When cut up for smaller work, the pieces are known as planks, battens, and deals. A deal averages 9 inches in breadth and 3 in thickness ; ' battens ' are cut from deals, and average in breadth 6 inches, but often as much as 7 and as little as 2 inches, and vary in thickness from five-eighths of an inch up to 2 inches. What are called ' boards ' are cut from deals, the breadth being greater than 4^- inches, and the thickness not exceeding 2^ inches. Boards are designated according to the number of them cut out of a deal ; if three boards are cut, it is called ' three-cut stuff,' and so on. A ' plank ' averages 1 1 inches to a foot in breadth, and is of various thicknesses. The pieces used by carpenters are known as ' timbers,' while all pieces of smaller scantlings used in interior work are classed often under one general head, that being ' stuff' Diseases and Decay of Timber. — All timbers are liable to decay, some specially so. A disease to which flooring timbers, especially those on the ground floor, are exceedingly liable, is that known as the ' dry rot ; ' if this, which is a species of fungi, once takes decided hold of flooring joists, the only alternative is to pull them out and sub- stitute good sound timber for them. The best preventive known of this dreaded disease in timber is keeping the joists thoroughly exposed to cur- rents of air ; ventilating bricks, therefore, as they are called, although now generally made of iron, should be inserted in the walls at intervals under the line of timber. The most durable of all timber, and not nearly so liable to decay as others, is oak — English-grown oak being preferred 72 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. to foreign, as of higher quality. There is no cause which so predisposes wood to decay as alter- nations of wet and dry. "When timbers are ex- posed to this twofold influence, and used in parts where great strength is required, timber of the best quality of its class should be employed ; oak, for the reason above named, being by far the best and most economical in the end. If pine be used, it ought to be Baltic red pine of the highest quality. The Use of Timber grown on the Property, and its General Management. — The following re- marks apply chiefly to this important depart- ment, although much will obviously apply to foreign timbers. The first practical point is the period of the year at which the timber should be cut down or felled. When cut for building purposes, it is necessary that the trees, at whatever period of the year they may be felled, should not be allowed to stand so long as to exceed their average period of growth. This is important, when we consider that timber allowed to be too old before it is cut is likely to have what is technically known as ' star shakes.' Star shakes in old timber are cracks in the wood, which radiate from the centre to the circumfer- ence of the tree, having their greatest width or extent of opening towards the centre of the tree, or that part where the timber is most valuable ; whereas in young trees the star shakes, while radiating as above, have their widest opening at or towards the circumference of the tree, or at that point where the least valuable part of the wood is met with. This point bears, then, upon the value of the timber ; but it also appears that the value is influenced by the season of the year at which the timber is felled. The best season would be that immediately preceding the period when the ' sap ' movements begin in early spring- time. Practically, however, the felling season extends itself from the period when the sap movements or active vegetation ceases in the autumn, to the period before it begins in the spring, or, in other words, between the months of October and April. As the sap movements in timber exercise a most important influence upon its value, it will be interesting here to glance briefly at a few points connected with them. The sap of trees, which is composed of oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon, and sulphur, and which forms a considerable proportion of the bulk of the green or fresh wood, is, as may be supposed, a varying quabty, and that according to the season. At first sight, from the fact that the sap movements are most active in the spring months, it might be supposed that the amount or quantity of sap in trees would be greatest in spring. Accurate experiments show that this is not so, and that the greatest quantity is met with in the months of December and January. It gradually diminishes in the months of October, November, February, and March ; next in April, May, August, and September ; the minimum being in the months of July and August. Of course, these general statements must be modified by cir- cumstances, such as dry and wet seasons, but the rule, as a whole, stands as we have put it. After being cut down, the sap, as a rule, evaporates gradually ; it is only in some cases that the sap is got rid of by its flowing or exuding from it, and this flowing out is greatly dependent upon the state in which the timber is after being felled ; for if the bark is stripped, the flowing out of the sap from the wood is much quicker than in cases where the bark is allowed to remain on. With bark stripped off, the weight of the sap gradually diminishes ; but with the bark on, this fluctuates, moisture evidently being absorbed from the at- mosphere by it. We now proceed to the seasoning of the felled timber. This is a department in the manage- ment of home timber of which it is impossible to overrate the importance, yet one which is frequently neglected, and concerning which many erroneous notions are afloat. Before proceeding to the description of the practical methods in use, it will be of some service to our readers if we glance at a few of the points connected with the natural peculiarities of timber trees bearing upon the practice of seasoning. There is considerable difference in the natural properties of wood. This difference is attribut- able partly to the physical construction of the fibre or ' lignin,' and partly to the nature of the sap which has nourished it whilst growing. The physical construction of the fibre includes not only its form, but its substance also. This point is important, inasmuch as the evaporation of the SEASONING OF TIMBER. 73 watery portion of the sap of the wood, which is vitally necessary, is either facilitated or retarded, according as the fibre is open and spongy, or close and compact. And again, in woods where the fibre is close and compact, such as oak, beech, etc., the proportion of sap to fibre is much less than in the more open and spongy woods, such as fir, willow, etc. But although the porosity of wood is important, as being the medium of evaporation, the nature of the sap is a point of greater importance, for the following reasons : — When a tree is cut down, it is charged with that quantity of natural moisture which has been necessary for its vegetable existence. Now it is an established physiological fact, that the very moisture which has been necessary for the per- petuation of either vegetable or animal life, becomes converted into a primary element of decay and decomposition the moment that vitality ceases. The verification of this fact is simple and conclusive ; remove the natural moisture from either vegetable or animal matter, and you effectually protect it from decay. The second cause of the difference in the properties of wood, before alluded to, is the nature of the sap which has nourished it whilst growing. It is scarcely necessary to state that the sap of all the trees is not alike. This difference is caused by the various proportions of different chemical sub- stances which enter into its composition. Tor instance, the sap of some trees is more or less resinous, as that of the pine ; gallic or astringent, as that of the oak ; or mucilaginous, as that of the cherry tree. And according to the increased proportion of these substances which the sap contains, there is less liability to rapid decay ; whilst, on the contrary, the more water the sap contains in its natural state, the less durable is the wood when deprived of vegetable life. The decay of wood of all kinds dates from the time that its vegetable life has been destroyed by cut- ting down. From that moment the work of decomposition begins, and is expedited or retarded according to the nature of the wood, and the length of time that may elapse before the watery portion of its sap is evaporated. If, then, such moisture is allowed to remain, decay soon becomes perceptible ; but, on the contrary, if it be expelled, the process of decay is so slow, and so gradual in its operation, as to be imperceptible for centuries in some descriptions of wood, and hence the necessity for using well-seasoned wood. The chief cause of decay in wood is the fermenta- tion of the nitrogenous substances contained in the sap; this fermentation being developed under the influence of the action of the oxygen in the atmosphere with the moisture in the wood. Seasoning by Immersion in Water. — This plan proceeds upon the principle, that by lying in water the sap is washed out of the pores, and the water takes its place ; which, when the timber is afterwards exposed to the atmosphere, is much more easily and quickly expelled by evaporation from the timber, than the sap in its ordinary or natural condition. To obtain these results in the qivickest way, two things are essential, — the placing of the timber in running water, and the highest degree attainable of purity. But where strong peat or moss water can be had, it may be used advantageously to preserve or season wood in small pieces, such as those used for fences and the like purposes. Where estates are in the neighbourhood of the sea, the timber has been recommended to be seasoned in the sea water. It is much more difficult to work under the tools, and is, moreover, sub- jected to the atmospheric changes which bring out the dampness occasioned by the presence of the salt particles left in the pores. Steeping in lime water is a most effectual method of season- ing or preserving timber, and on the efficacy of this method a provincial newspaper quotes a case which came under the notice of the editor : ' Several ash trees were felled and cut into scant- lings of various dimensions. The timber, after a few weeks, was put out of the way into a dry pit, in which a considerable quantity of lime had been stored for the purpose of making mortar, some of the refuse of which, together with a por- tion of good material, still remained. By an accident, water was let into the pit, and filled it to nearly half the height of the stacked timber, which, however, remained in situ for twelve or thirteen weeks, when it was used. In less than three years, nearly every piece of timber that had remained above the lime water in the pit DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY was completely tainted or destroyed by dry rot, ■while that portion of the wood which had been well soaked in the lime solution remained sound, and continued to do so as long as it remained under our notice, which was some three or four years afterwards.' Mr. J. Bailey, Denton, in a letter to the Agricultural Gazette, drew marked attention to the value of this method. He says the immersion of wood iu a solution of lime renders it, by the cheap and simple process of absorption, equally durable when used above ground and under shelter, and will be found worth equal attention. That timber, when im- mersed for a short time in a solution of lime, undergoes much the same changes as when sub- jected to the action of metallic agents, or to the process of creosoting, will be apparent from the followiug statement of Dr. Voelcker, who, at the request of Mr. Bigg, analysed three specimens of timber used. Pits or ponds may be constructed varying in size and position with the locality in which they are made, and the quantity of timber to be soaked. The simpler their character, the more profitable their use. A common pond, from which cattle can be excluded, is perhaps the best soaking tank that can be adopted. All that is essential is to have depth and size sufficient to steep and hold timber of all characters and dimensions that may be required upon the estate ; and it is unnecessary to say, that a little outlay in the first instance, to make the tank sufficiently commodious, may be the means of saving in the end. Having secured a good supply of water in the tank, the next point is to immerse in it a sufficient quantity of lime to satisfy the water — that is, to feed it with all it is capable of absorb- ing and retaining, thus, in fact, impregnating the water completely with lime. To render this intelbgible, we will assume that it is intended to make a steeping tank or pond 50 feet long and 20 feet wide; this, if filled with water 6 feet deep, will contain 37,500 gallons. As it requires only 8 8 grains of chalk or stone lime to impreg- nate 1 gallon of water, 46 lbs. of lime will satisfy this quantity of water, if equally dis- tributed through its bulk ; but as it is better to make sure of uniform effect, such a quantity should lie used as will cover over the bottom of the pond. It would nut require many bushels to do this, and the mixture should be renewed at discretion as the pond receives fresh water. In the solution thus made, the timber, cut to the required scantlings, and sawn on all sides, is placed, — the larger pieces, intended for beams, etc., at the bottom of the bath ; and the smaller tim- bers, intended for rafters, boards, and skirtings, etc., at the top. In this condition they remain for periods varying, according to the size of the timbers, from three to nine weeks. They are then taken out, and after being exposed for a few days to the sun and wind, are dry enough and ready for use. Natural seasoning may be simply described as the placing of timber in such a way that, while secured from rain, snow, and sources of annual damp, it is freely exposed to currents of air. This, of course, implies the use of cover- ing-sheds, and the timber should be piled in such a -way that the whole may be dried as uniformly as possible ; for it is found that, when the side of a piece is dried more quickly than another, it warps. The shortest period to which timber should be exposed to natural seasoning is two years, and the process is judged to be pretty complete if the timber loses one-fifth of its weight. Another precaution to be taken in carrying on the process, in addition to that named above, is not to expose the timber too soon to the drying process of currents of air, more especially if the weather is very warm and dry. In this case the timber should only be partially exposed to the air, and this may be best effected by piling the planks pretty closely together at first, gradually widening the spaces between them as the process proceeds. Preservation of Timber. — Timber which has been thoroughly well seasoned may in one sense be said to be in that position in which its good qualities will be preserved, so that the seasoning and the preservation may be said to be synony- mous terms. But while this is true, it is also true that although we may, and in practice some- times do, get wood thoroughly seasoned, — that is, give it properties by which it will be preserved, — still we find in practice, if we put that timber under conditions in which it loses those proper- ties, it begins to decay. In other words, we by seasoning give it certain desirable qualities, which by preservation we enable it to retain ; hence PRESERVATION OF SEASONED TIMBER. the two processes are in practice essentially dis- tinct. The most obvious mode of preserving timbei from the causes which bring about decay is the old-fashioned one of painting its outer surface. That this is effective only under certain circumstances we all know, for paint itself, under the action of the atmosphere, rapidly decays, exposing the timber to the same. A very effec- tive way of using paint on external woodwork, and rendering its effect much more lasting, is to go over the surface with a drying oil, and when this is wet, carefully strewing clean sharp river sand over the whole surface, and then finally painting this surface with ordinary paint of the desired colour. In place of the first coat of drying oil, the ordinary paint may be used. Coal tar, for the timber in constructions such as timber houses, is a good preservative. It is much more lasting when mixed with sharp river sand, which may either be mixed with the tar and the mixture painted on, or the tar may be first put on, and the sand strewed over the surface while the tar is wet. We prefer to use the two modes in con- junction,— that is, putting a small quantity of sand in the tar in the first instance, and painting the surface, and finally strewing the sand over the whole. An excellent method used in some places on the Continent is the employment of crushed shells, as cockle and mussel shells, which are strewed over tarred surfaces. A very pleasing effect is given to the surfaces so treated, by the varying colours of the shells. The preserving effects are said to be very lasting. In preventing the attacks of fungi on wood, a paint made of 100 parts of flour of sulphur, 1 5 parts of manganese, and 67 of manganese, is used on the Continent with effect. A surface preservative is highly spoken of. It is made up as follows : — Linseed oil, 1 5 parts ; resin, 1 5 ; tar, 5 ; white lead, 1 2 ; any colouring material, 4; cement, 6 ; oxide of iron, glue, 2; hydrate of chalk, lard, 15; litharge, 2. The whole to be boiled and reduced to one-tenth of the original bulk, and applied hot. As in the case of the other exterior applications already described, so in that of paint, it is essen- tial that the wood be well seasoned before it is applied. No matter how good in itself the preservative coating be, it will not prevent, but rather promote, the decay of the wood on which it is used, if that wood be moist in the interior. If a plank or other timber be fitted up, and one half exposed to the weather in its natural or ordinary condition without paint or other coating, and the other exposed half be painted, we find, on examining the timber, that the unpainted half, though surface-cracked and weather-beaten, is by far the soundest. The internal moisture or sap of wood is the first thing to be got rid of ; then, this being done, outside preservatives may be applied with advantage. Timber is sometimes preserved by subjecting it to the smoke of certain combustibles. The effect of smoke, especially that of wood, as a fair preservative of timber, has long been known. The timbers of the open roofs of the middle-age houses, which were often ex- posed to the smoke of burning wood issuing from the open and otherwise defective fire-places, are found, in their blackened condition, to be at this day in the highest state of soundness, although doubtless much of this is due to the currents of air to which they were also exposed. The follow- ing is a description of a mode of adding to the durability of home-grown timber, or scantlings of small size of foreign timber, by exposing them to the smoke of burning tree twigs of birch and beechwood : — ' The action in this case is exactly that which takes place in smoke-drying fish, the creosote of the smoke coagulating the albumen of the wood with which it comes in contact. The simplest means of smoking the wood is to pile it loosely together in some old building, all the voids of which can easily be closed up. In a vacant space reserved for the purpose, a quantity of birch or beech spray should be set fire to, and, the apertures being all securely closed, the in- terior will soon be completely filled with smoke. After a day or two the door should be opened, and the process repeated according to the size of the wood ; the smoking should prove effectual in its preservation, if from four to six strong appli- cations are made. After the piles are arranged, very little labour is required in burning a fresh quantity of spray every alternate day or so. To secure the full effect resulting from this cheap and simple process, the wood should be air-dried during a summer previously ; and in putting it into the building it will be advisable to lay it in a direction slanting slightly upwards, with the 76 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. butt ends a little off the ground ; if the sticks are standing with the butt ends close on the floor, the entrance of the smoke into the pores of the wood will be somewhat obstructed.' The old-fashioned method of charring the sur- faces of the ends of posts subjected to damp is an effectual way of preserving timber. The char- ring or carbonization is carried to a short depth only, and only for a certain length of the timber subjected to it, as, for example, the ends of posts which we put into the earth. The carbon thus formed on the wood is thought by some to have such an effect as prevents the access of decaying principles to it. By others, the carbon is con- sidered useful only as preventing the damp from the soil penetrating to the timber. If this is all that carbonizing effects, then the same purpose would be served to a large if not an equal extent, by protecting the end of a post let into the soil with such abundant materials as broken bricks crushed small, cinders, etc. That the carbonizing of timber serves more useful purposes than merely preventing damp from entering it, may be inferred from the results of the system of carbonizing timber over all its surface, when used for ship- building and other constructive purposes, as intro- duced very largely in France by M. Lapperant. The apparatus is ingenious, yet simple, by which the inventor applies a flame to the surface of the wood to be preserved. One beneficial influence exerted by the process is this, that the high temperature induced by the sheet of flame desic- cates the timber to some distance below the charred surface. And while the charring and drying are going on, the vapour in the wood is forced out precisely in the same way as we see it forced out in a liquid condition when a log of damp wood is placed upon a good fire. No doubt the drying or desiccation of the wood is only partial, as it does not extend to the interior of the log or piece subjected to the charring process ; but the inventor states that the dampness or moisture in the interior of the wood has not a like deleterious influence upon it as damp in the exterior. He says we have arrived too quickly at the conclusion held by the majority of practical men, that we are to judge of the effects of damp in the interior of a piece of wood from its effects on the exterior. All point to this striking fact as a likely proof that we are wrong in doing so, namely, that the woods which retain their mois- ture longest last the longest, or those which part with it the most quickly, the most quickly decay ; thus, for example, the oak is the most enduring of timber, yet it retains its moisture for the longest period. Then, again, that it is not moisture alone which is the cause of decay in wood may be predicated, says M. Lapperant, from one fact, that we can preserve wood any period by immers- ing it wholly in water. No doubt moisture in wood is one of the causes of its decay, but it is not, as some suppose, the only, indeed not the chief cause ; but it is the presence in the air which comes along with it of minute infus- oria, which is the cause of the fermentation which decays the wood. Another advantage derived from charring the wood by the action of a sheet of flame, as used by M. Lapperant (in addition to that of the destruction of those infusoria?), is that a thin coating of charred wood is made, which rests upon an interior sur- face of timber not charred, but only tarrified. This interior surface, impregnated with the essential oil of creosote, is antiseptic. The last advantage to be named of the plan of chairing the wood by the action of flame, is that the process hardens the surface to a remarkable degree, and helps largely to preserve the timber. In Bethell's process of preserving timber, the heavy oil of tar, in which creosote is largely present, is employed. The substance coagulates the albuminous matter found in timber, and, hardening it, partly increases the strength of the woody fibre ; and as the oils are insoluble, they cannot be washed out of the timber. Further, their action is such that they effectually prevent worms from attacking it. Their effect also is to absorb the oxygen by which decay is induced. They also resinify the interior pores, preventing access of air ; and they are obnoxious to all fungi and animal parasites. From the colour and objectionable smell which the oil imparts to the timber, the process is only available for outside work. The patented process is rather compli- cated, but for all the purposes of the farm, the plan of simply steeping the timber in the oil in a tank made for the purpose will be amply avail- able. The timber should be dried before it is PRESERVATION OF TIMBER—THE TAR OIL PROCESS. put into the tank, in which it should be allowed to remain for twenty-four to thirty-six hours, according to circumstances. The oil should be made hot in a pan or small boiler. This process of immersion will be found very useful ; but where it cannot be carried out, much of its advantage will be obtained by simply painting the surface of well-seasoned timbers with the oil. This will make them last longer than if this painting were not done. 7$ DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. CHAPTEE VIII. COVERED FARM STEADINGS — STEADINGS ADAPTED TO THE EMPLOYMENT OF LIQUID MANURE ON THE FARM STEADINGS FOR HILLY OR MOORLAND DISTRICTS. Covered Farm Steadings. — Much discussion has been given of late years to the arrangement and construction of farm buildings in which all the apartments are collected together, and placed under one large roof common to them all. As in other departments of the practice of farming and farm architecture, so in this, there is very considerable diversity of opinion on the points connected with this system. Some maintain it to be the most perfect both as regards the principle on which its buildings are con- structed, and their healthiness generally for the live stock kept in them. Others just as warmly hold that the buildings on this system do not give either of those advantages — at least to such a marked extent as its advocates claim for it. At first sight, the principle is apt to present itself in somewhat attractive fashion — in the very compactness with which the various apartments are of necessity arranged, in order to avoid the cost of extra roofing. There is something which commends itself to those who have ' order ' largely developed. Again, time is likely to be saved in the working of a farmery so disposed ; while the protection afforded from the weather by the common roof ensures a degree of cleanliness and gives an air of general comfort not seldom want- ing in farmeries, so much of which is exposed to rain, with all its inevitable concomitants of mud and watery pools and half-drowned materials or fodder. But the advocates of the system claim for it other and much higher advantages than those, good and attractive as they seem to be. Take, for example, the manurial department of the farmery, where stock are kept in considerable numbers in open yards, as under the system most generally, indeed we might say univer- sally, adopted ; and comparing this with the feeding-yards — if the latter term can be here appropriately used — covered entirely over and side-walled up to the roof on the new system, there are certainly very striking advantages gained by the latter. Both from the researches of science and the results of successful practice, it seems to be established beyond a doubt, that manure made under cover is better as manure than when made in open yards. This, be it noted, is a question altogether distinct from the preservation of manure collected from stables, cow-houses, or byres, etc., in which the stock are kept under cover, at least for a portion of each day, including the night season, as well as such manure as may be made in the usual open yard. This method of manure-preservation, although no doubt possessing many of the features which characterise the other, of manure made in covered yards, has points, however, peculiarly its own. What these are, and indeed the whole sub- ject generally, will be found described under the special chapter (X.) devoted to it, in which ' Covered Manure Pits or Dung Stances,' and also ' Liquid- Manure Tanks,' are illustrated and described. What we are now concerned with is the making of manure under covered courts, which term is the most applicable to the system, as compared with that made in open and exposed yards ; and, as we have already stated, it seems established beyond all doubt that the manure made in the court is greatly superior to that made in the yard, while there is this great additional advan- tage, that -a very considerable saving of labour and material is effected. Taking the evidence of an able and well-known authority on the point, CO VERED FARM BUILDINGS. 79 we find, so far as the saving of labour is con- cerned, that in the open-yard-made manure it has, of course, in the first place, to be moved from the yard to the place in which it is stored up, — generally an open or exposed dung- heap, or at the best, in many instances, a dung stance walled in, but yet not covered over (see par. above referred to). While there, it has to be turned over at least once, and frequently twice, before it is taken to the laud ; whereas under the covered-court system there is no removal at all required, and no turning over, simply because, from the way in which the straw is given to the animals, and that in which it becomes thoroughly mixed and incorporated with their solid and liquid droppings, it is fit to be carted at once away to the fields where required. In the words of the authority we have alluded to, the very object of the covered courts is, that the ' cut or bruised straw should absorb all the liquid, and be also mixed with the solid manure, forming together a pasty mass, too greasy and solid to admit air or permit fermentation.' Another ad- vantage possessed by the manure is, that there is nearly, if not wholly, an entire absence of that prolific insect-life which is at once the pest as it is the characteristic of manure made in open, exposed yards. The other advantage alluded to obtained by the system is, that it effects a con- siderable saving of material, inasmuch as it is better to give the straw to the animals in com- paratively small quantities, spreading it out thinly over the surface of the court floor, rather than in the heavy, thick masses so often given in the open-yard system. The reason for this is obvious, at least from one point of view ; for in the open yard, exposed as the animals are to cold and wet, a certain amount of straw is required to afford them some warmth and shelter from the wet and damp manure below ; while in the covered, walled- in courts this is not required, shelter being other- wise obtained. This last point, while for the present it finishes the subject of manure, brings us to another advantage of the covered-farm-building system ; and this is the beneficial effect upon the stock, during the winter months especially. We have elsewhere, in another paragraph, fully explained the principles upon which warmth and shelter given to stock is, to a certain extent, equi- valent to a saving in their food. We there- fore have simply to notice this here as one of the advantages of the system, referring the reader to the special paragraph named. But while the covered-farm-building system is undoubtedly possessed of the advantages now stated, it is only right to state the disadvantages which it undoubtedly involves ; and these, in the opinion of certainly a very large number of prac- tical men of the highest standing in their profes- sion, are so grave, and so difficult to — if indeed they can at all be — overcome, that they will always militate against its very wide, not to say aught of its general adoption. And it is, at all events, a feature strongly corroborative of this view, that although several years have now elapsed since the system was first introduced, it has not ad- vanced in any striking manner ; rather it would be the correct way of putting the matter, to say that its non-adoption in cases where new farm buildings have been erected, is the striking feature of the question as it stands. The first and per- haps the greatest disadvantage of the system is, that the very compactness and concentration which we have already noticed as forming in the minds of some its great attraction, are the source of evil of a very grave kind. This disadvantage consists in the too well known rapidity with which certain complaints and diseases prevalent amongst live stock spread and diffuse themselves, so to say, among the animals of the farm, even when they are what one would suppose to be pretty well separated and isolated from each other. Now, in a covered-in building, the roof, which is common to all the apartments, thus embraces them in what might be called a perfect unity; but it unfortunately leaves all the apart- ments open at a certain height to one another, the only isolation or separation of one from another being that obtained by the use of the dividing or partition walls. When, therefore, disease breaks out in one apartment, its virus or infectious qualities may be said to be common to all, as it has free course throughout the whole building. The only way to overcome this diffi- culty is by building the division walls right up to the roof, and making the junction between them as completely tight as possible. But this, So DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. while it involves large expenditure, by no means overcomes the difficulty, at least only in a partial way ; for by doors, windows, ventilating apertures, and the thousand and one chinks and crannies inherent in all buildings of any size, the commu- nication between one apartment and another is kept up ; and ventilation in such a structure, if it can be made complete, will offer in this very completeness facilities for the transmission of in- fectious vapours or odours. For, as in railway stations, which offer examples of the like prin- ciple of covered-in construction, so in the far- meries, the currents will often be found to sweep from end to end of the structure, in place of being divided and carried off by the special in- dividual apertures provided for ventilating the different apartments ; so that these strong and undivided currents will or may carry the noxious influences from one end to the other, and thus pass over in succession the apartments which ought to be perfectly isolated from each other. But reasoning from analogy, and noting carefully the results of the most recent researches and experiences of medical men connected with their treatment of the diseases of humanity when congregated in public buildings, hospitals, infir- maries, and the like, we are in a measure com- pelled to pronounce the covered-in farmery a mistake. For what is the experience here alluded to ? Simply that, in place of concentrating a mass of individual disease in one huge building, the principle of dividing and isolating is now being rapidly adopted. By the arrangement of separate storeys and wards, it was thought that in large hospitals, etc., the required degree of isola- tion— in the necessity for which all were agreed — would be secured. But it was and is not so ; so that we find the most recent system to be one in which the various wards are placed in buildings separated from each other by space as wide as cir- cumstances of site and locality will admit of. And some of the most advanced of our medical autho- rities would go even farther than this, and carry out the principle of division and isolation to its utmost limits, till an aggregate of single rooms would alone constitute the characteristics of pub- lic hospitals for the treatment of disease, and these rooms not always, if at all, in the same locality. Now, while of course by no means going the length of saying that hospitals and farmeries covered in are the same, — that is, that a farmery is not primarily a place in which disease is always present, — still there are, as our farmers have had too good reason to know in times past, occasions when, on disease breaking out in one part, it spreads to another, till at last, so far as the stock build- ings are concerned, they may be said to constitute a huge infirmary of diseased and complaining cattle, etc. Experience, therefore, would point to the principle of isolation and division as a safer one to be adopted than that of concentra- tion, which, as we have seen, is the chief feature of the covered-in farmery. But there is still another point of disadvantage to be noticed respecting this, and it is one connected with construction. While large roofs possess many advantages, they are of necessity costly in construction, and the cost does not increase in proportion with the increase of the span or width of the building, but in a higher ratio. Again, other constructive peculiarities, which will be obvious on considera- tion, prevent the use of timber in the construc- tion of large roofs, as the weight on the scantlings of the various parts requires to be increased in rapid proportion ; iron, therefore, has to be em- ployed, in one or other of its many forms, and this requires skilled labour. The cost of keeping a wide-spanned and a long length of roof in good repair is also an important item. Now, by having the various apartments of comparatively narrow width, the roofs, being of small span, can be and often are constructed of home timber, which on some large estates is very plentiful, and is, moreover, easily obtained, being near to the place where required. Again, narrow-spanned roofs have the scantlings of their timber so small, that the roofs are light, and their mode of framing simple, so that unskilled labour, or at least that degree of skilled labour easily obtained in country places, can be readily secured. All these things point to a greater degree of economy in the construction of small buildings than in that of such large structures as are likely to be covered in with one large roof, common to the concen- tration of apartments under it. Now all the advantages of the large covered-in LIQUID MANURE OR SEWAGE FARM STEADING S. building which we have already named, can, we think, be secured by a system which has been elsewhere classified by us as the ' detached ' or ' grouped.' In this the apartments are separated by intervals more or less wide, according to cir- cumstances, while the yards or courts may be also detached from one another, and yet wholly covered in and walled up ; and the whole may be so designed, that the simplest and most economical system of construction could be adopted. Nor, even in the generally adopted system of constructing farm buddings, and of which we have given several illustrations, need the special advantages of the covered-in system be lost; for however closely connected the apartments may be, and however situated the cattle-yards may be in relation to these, the method of making manure by, and of giving pro- per shelter to, the animals, can still be carried out as efficiently as in the large covered-in farmery. Of course the yards or courts would have to be lessened in floor superficies, so that the roofs could be made of narrow span, and therefore made cheaply. But this would in no way inter- fere with the proper carrying out of the manage- ment of the stock ; it would only be increasing the number of separate courts, making many small in place of a few large ones ; and tins would be an advantage rather than otherwise, not only for the reason already stated, but because fewer animals would be in each, which would bring the system more like that known as the hammel (see special paragraph treating of this), which is supposed by many to be the best of all for keep- ing stock in, especially young stock. But the advantage of the detached or grouped system would also be apparent in its greater safety than that possessed by the covered-in system. We allude here specially to the danger arising from fire. Now the more concentrated apartments are, the greater the likelihood that if fire breaks out in any one of them, it will spread rapidly, so as to take in the others. We thus see, that as regards not only the health of the animals, but also the increased safety secured to the buildings which shelter them, the system of division and isolation — an exemplification of the saying, ' Divide and conquer ' — offers many advantages of a specially valuable nature. Farm Steadings planned with a special view to Economizing tlie Liquid Manure of the Lite Stock, etc. — Diverse as are the opinions as to the value of liquid manure obtained from towns, and which is known generally as sewage, when used for farming purposes, there is but one opinion as to that which is obtained from the live stock of the farm. These two classes of liquid manure are popularly understood to be the same sub- stance, but that this is essentially erroneous any one at all conversant with the subject knows well enough. That too little attention has been paid to the thorough economizing of the liquid manure of the farm steading, we have endeavoured to show in Chapter IX., where liquid-manure tanks, as also dung stances or manure pits, open and covered, are described and illustrated. Mean- whde, as coming under the subject of the present chapter, we have to illustrate and describe the plan of a farm steading designed by Mr. James D. Ferguson, agricultural engineer, Glasgow, given by him in a paper published by the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, under the title of ' Beport on the Best Mode of Saving and Applying the Liquid Manure of Farm Steadings.' The reader is referred to this paper as containing much information on this important subject ; it will be found under date July 1850. A good deal of discrepancy exists between the estimates made, and consequent uncertainty prevails as to the exact amount of liquid exuviae furnished by the animals of the farm ; nor need this be wondered at, consider- ing the varied and ever varying circumstances under which they live, the food they are kept upon, and the modes in which they are housed. Mr. Ferguson's plan, illustrated in fig. 1, Plate 14, is designed for an acreage of from 350 to 400 acres, arable or cultivated on the alternate husbandry system, on which is kept a breeding stock of 20 cows and 1 bull, 10 heifers or ' queys,' 2 0 one-year-old young stock, 18 fattening cattle, 16 horses old and young, and from 12 to 15 pigs. Partly fed in the house on green cut food during the summer, i.e. summer-soiled, these animals, exclusive of the calves, should, at the lowest calculation, pro- duce daily the following quantity of liquid manure : — S2 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. 20 Cows and Bull, 21 Fatting Bullocks, IS — galls. 39 @ 3 galls, each = 1 1 7 Queys or Heifers, 10 @ 2\ ,. 25 Year-old Cattle, 20 @ 1^ n 30 Horses, old and young, 1 6 @ ^ n 8 Swine, 15® "Which for the whole year would be 6 From this will have to be deducted the time the horses are working in the field, an average of 8 hours daily ; this will amount to ^, say, of their exuvial yield, . . 973 galls. Deduct also for the time the cows and young stock may be in the fields, say, on an average, 4 hours a day, for which \ must be deducted from their exuvial pro- duct, . . . 7,178 185 7,525 Leaving a balance of produce of 8,151 59,374 As in its natural state this liquid manure will be too strong, it is therefore to be diluted with the same bulk of water, which will raise the total yearly produce to 118,748 gallons; to which, if the slops of the house, contents of water-closet, etc., be added, allowing for these a number of gallons equal to 10 daily, this will yield 3,650 gallons, which added to the above will make the total yearly produce of liquid manure = 122,398 gallons. Allowing 1200 gallons to be applied to each acre at a time, this will irrigate 30 acres three several times. The land here referred to is grass land. It forms no part of this work to enter into details as to the use of liquid manure,1 or the crops to which it is most successfully applied, these belonging to the department of ' Practical Farming.' We conclude this paragraph by explain- ing the different apartments as numbered in the 1 See Outlines of Modem Farming, vol. 5, for ample details on the utilization of town sewage and liquid manure, irrigation with ditto, etc., published by Crosby Lockwood & Co., London. plan: — 1. Corn barn ; 2. Straw barn; 3. Sheds for turnip stores and for other roots, and for root- cutting machines ; 4. Covered-in liquid-manure tank; 5. Open feeding sheds, hammels, with granary and wool-room over in second storey ; 6. Hay, straw, and turnip sheds ; 7. Corn box, filled by spout from granary above the hammels (in 5) ; 8. Covered yard for cow dung; 9. Cow- byre, cow-house, or shippons ; 10. Quey or heifer house; 11. Open shed for young cattle; 12. Clean-water tank for mixing with or diluting the natural liquid manure ; 1 3. Horse watering- trough; 14. Work-horse stable; 15. Sheds for mares, foals, and young horses; 16. Covered yard for horse dung (this being kept separate from the other dung, for obvious reasons) ; 1 7. Piggeries; 18. Turnip store ; 19. Boiler-house; 20. Poultry-house; 21. Calf-house; 22. Potato- house; 23. Boiler-house for heating milk; 24. Cheese-room; 25. Ash-pit and privy ; 26. Wash- ing-house; 27. Implement shed looking south; 2 8. Cistern into which the drains are discharged ; 29. Sleeping-room for men-servauts ; 30. Biding- horse stable ; 31. Harness-room ; 32. Gig-house ; 33. Coal-house; 34. Tool-house and workshop; 35. Porch at scullery door of farm-house; 36. Scullery; 37. Pantry; 38. Dairy; 39. Passage; 40. Kitchen ; 41. Back lobby ; 42. Bed-room ; 43. Dining-room; 44. Front lobby; 45. Parlour or sitting-room. From the last-named apartments it will be observed that the farm-house forms part of the farm steading. For the opinions on this point, the reader is referred to the chapter on the farm-house (XL). In Chapter II., Division III., on ' The Laying out of the Fields,' will be found remarks on and an illustration of the important point of the dis- position of these and the distribution of the liquid manure, and which is specially worthy of notice for hilly moorlands, being that adopted by the well-known authority, Mr. Eobert Smith, of Emmett's Grange, Exmouth. We now give the plan of the buildings for this farm, in fig. 1, Plate 15, for which we are indebted to the pages of the Journal of the Bath and West of England Society, vol. v. New Series : — ' a. Farm- house, ash-house, privies ; b. Calf -houses ; c. Piggeries ; d. Cart-horse stable, chaff and gear houses, with granary over for hay and straw, cut- FARM STEADINGS FOR HILL OR MOORLAND DISTRICTS. S3 ting chaff, etc., with out door of stack-yard and barn, with spout to convey the chaff to the house below; e. Barn with water-power attached; e". Water-wheel ; /. Implement-house (granary over the barn, and load the corn underneath) ; g. Cart shed ; h. Open or close cattle sheds ; i. Turnip- house ; j. Cow sheds ; k. Loose box ; I. Nag stable ; m. Gig and harness house ; n. Coal and wood house ; o. Entrance gates ; p. Kitchen gar- den ; q. Open yards for cattle, horses, or pigs ; r. Stack-yard ; s. Entrance paved ; t. Sitting-room window, which commands every door, office, and yard in the interior of the buildings ; u. Front entrance and garden ; v. Shrubs ; w. Entrance to the cart-horse stable ; x x. Parts planted.' As the work of reclamation of hilly moorlands is one of time, it will effect some saving if the buildings for the farm are not put down at once, but so planned that the additions required can be erected as the necessity for them arises. And as there are, as a matter of course, a good many points where there is rising ground, advantage should be taken of this so to place the buildings that masonry, etc., may be saved. ' In this case,' says Mr. Smith, ' the hill is cut away for the build- ings, and a suitable road is formed at the back, upon a level with the granary, or granary barn floor, — a great convenience in practice, the chief merit of having two offices under one roof, the roof being the major outlay in the cost of all build- ings.' The above plan is arranged to suit the outlay upon a small farm, so that the buildings may be erected from time to time, as the tenant requires them for use, and as the receipt of rent comes in to assist the landlord's outlay. Thus, in the outset, and during the first summer, the house and adjoining offices, stable, etc., with the granary over (marked a in fig. 1, Plate 15), may be erected ; and the square yard enclosed by a substantial wall, which will come into use when the subsequent buildings shall have been erected. Second year, the remaining south offices, stables, etc., with granary over, and granary barn with sheds under, situated at the north-western wing, may be erected (at the point marked b, fig. 1, Plate 15). Third year, the western cattle sheds, turnip-house, etc. (at point marked c, fig. 1, Plate 15). Fourth year, the eastern side may be filled up or not, according to the progress of the farm. The usual estimate for this class of build- ings, 12 feet in the clear of proportionate height in the walls, roofing, etc., adapted to the usual average purposes of this class of farm, is about 23s. per running foot. The prices both of labour and material have risen so very much since the date of the paper, that 25 per cent, may with safety be added to this figure. Should men of capital and enterprise wish to try their hand at extensive enclosures, cultivation, stock farming, etc., even then the house and buildings can be erected to suit them at the same rate of outlay, and on the same plan of divisional erection. 84 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. CHAPTER IX. CONSTRUCTIVE DETAILS OF BUILDINGS VENTILATION, ETC. Foundations. — The subject of foundations, treated technically, is such a wide one, embracing so many and such important details, that it is impossible to treat it anything like systematically or ex- haustively, even if the scope of our work admitted of this, which it does not ; not being a work on construction, all we can do is to give one or two hints which would be generally useful.1 A thorough inspection of the proposed site of build- ing should be made, in order to ascertain whether the soil is not of a treacherous character, causing afterwards undue settlement in the walls, which, if not leading to actual danger, will at least cause cousiderable expense in making good defects in walls, windows, door fittings, etc. Attention to the condition of the soil upon which farm buildings are to be erected is not always given with the care which the importance of the subject demands ; indeed, in some cases no atten- tion is given to it at all, the buildings being put down at once upon a spot of ground which is deemed to be a good place, without any thought being given to the question as to whether the soil is a good one or not. We have bad abun- dant evidence of this presented to us ; and the wonder is that it should be so, in view of the important points involved. For these do not com- prise merely those connected with the stability of the buildings which are proposed to be raised upon it, but also points connected with the health of the human beings or the animals which they are designed to shelter. On this latter point, it is certainly surprising how little of the careful attention which it requires has been given to it. 1 The reader desirous of having full details of different kinds of foundations under varying circumstances of soil, position, etc., will find them in our large work, The New Guide to Masonry, Bricklaying, and Plastering, Theoretical and Practical, pub lished by Messrs. A. Fullartou & Co., Edinburgh and London. It is, indeed, only of late years that this notion has been acted upon, that the soil of the site of the house has an important influence on the health of the inhabitants ; and this notion has not been as yet greatly developed and extended. We have said that it has only been of late that this attention — such as it is — has been given to the subject, but it would have been more correct had we said that it has only been revived of late, for ancient authors were very fully impressed with it. Although even a careful inspection will show what would appear to be a good and safe soil, still it ought to be remembered that some soils change wonderfully after being opened up and exposed to the atmosphere. Thus a shaley soil will be very hard on first being opened up, but becomes soft, and even, if left long enough, sludgy. Even good soils possess defects such as faults or fissures, so that although it may appear at first sight expensive, it will in the long run be found to be the most economical plan to dig trial-pits at various points over the area of the proposed site, especially if there be any doubt as to the goodness of the soil. In the succeeding chapter, ' On the Farm-house,' some remarks will be found on the importance of having the site thoroughly well drained ; this chiefly as a pre- cautionary measure on the score of the health of the inhabitants. This is of no less importance as regards the live stock of the farm. This drainage, therefore, should be thoroughly well done, and special care should be taken to see that the water be conducted to a proper outfall. If, indeed, a discharge on the average be constant, and the quality of the water good, enough may be obtained to keep up a small pond in the imme- diate neighbourhood of the steading. Floors. — A good floor is a very essential part CONSTRUCTION OF FLOORS AND PA VEMENTS OF FARM BUILDINGS. 8 = of farm building apartments, especially those in which live stock are kept, as it adds much not only to the comfort, but also to the health of the inhabitants. The methods of constructing floors are almost as various as the materials used. Of the latter, stone, in districts where it is plentiful in the immediate neighbourhood of the building, is largely used in one of three forms : first, flags or pavement ; second, of setts or small cubical blocks, such as are used for paving the causeway in public streets ; and third, pebbles, or small rounded stones. Of these, the first is the most expensive ; and from becoming smooth and slip- pery, and having a tendency to retain on its surface dirt or greasy substances, it becomes dangerous to the animals, which cannot secure a good foothold. To avoid this, some prefer to use it with its surface merely quarry-dressed, securing a rough surface ; but where the flagstones are not of very large dimensions, the best way is to work the surface into a series of small ridges. This, of course, adds to the expense of the floor, and hence as a general rule, where stone is employed, the third system is adopted. This, however, gives perhaps the very worst form of floor, it being not only specially uncomfortable to the animals, but impossible almost to be kept thoroughly clean, the dirt lodging firmly between the inter- stices of the stones. The next material used for flooring is brick, this being generally set as brick on edge, forming parallel lines, but the bricks generally are disposed angularly. Unless the pointing between the bricks be done with the best mortar, or, what is better still, Portland cement, the dirt is apt to lodge between the interstices. The cement pointing may be economized by making the lower pointing to a considerable depth of the brick of good mortar ; the cement pointing should stop short at the upper surface of the brick, in order to afford a firm foothold to the animals ; a form of brick adapted for stable floors, etc., is shown in fig. 8a, Plate 21. Paving-tiles are also much used for the formation of floors ; these are generally square, and disposed angularly. In the forma- tion of floors the upper surfaces of which are as already described, it is essential to have a sound and uniformly laid bottoming ; should this not be attended to, unequal settlement will take place, rapidly deteriorating the floor. What may be called composition floors, that is, composed of two or more different substances, are much used in some districts, and some of them when well con- structed form most excellent surfaces. We can only notice here two kinds, in which crude coal tar and Portland cement are the bases. The following is a description of the first of these ; and although the first part is applicable to path- ways and private roads, and which may be applicable to some parts of the steading, it is essential to give this in order to describe the plan as applicable to floors. In the case of pathways : ' First prepare a suit- able quantity of sand by screening free from stones, and mix thoroughly with the tar in the same manner as when mixing mortar, using as much sand as can be worked into the tar, which will then be in a proper condition to spread easily; dig a trench of the desired width, 6 to S inches deep, and fill easily with stones to within 2 inches of the level of the ground ; then fill all the interstices with coarse gravel, forming a moderately smooth foundation, over which pour sufficient tar to fill up any spaces. The object is to cement the gravel. After this, cover with the tarred sand to a depth of about one and a half inches, and smooth to the required shape with the edge of a board. This must be rolled quite firmly, and a clean surface produced by sprink- ling over dry sand, and rolling until the tar ceases to come to the surface. It may be occa- sionally sanded until the surface attains a per- manently grey colour. The odour of the tar will gradually disappear, and after the first season will be scarcely perceptible. ' Private roads may be made hi the same manner, by digging some three inches deeper, and using first a layer of large stones, and after- wards smaller stones, and then gravel, topped with tarred gravel, rolled and sanded as described. ' Floors, etc. : This plan may also be adopted for stable floors and cellar bottoms, but for such purposes is greatly improved by adding about one part of roofing pitch to two parts of tar, which are heated together until thoroughly blended, and applied hot. The sand and gravel which are used with it should also be heated, or they will cool down the mixture of pitch and tar so as to render it very hard to work — in fact, 86 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. impossible to be worked thoroughly. Well made, these are most admirable floors.' The next we describe, namely, the Portland cement in the form of a concrete, forms in our opinion by far the best form of floor, viewed from every point, which can be obtained. This materia], if the work be carefully executed, — and the work is so easily done that a common labourer may undertake it without any previous knowledge of it, — makes a floor quite equal to the best of stone ; it forms a beautiful surface, easily kept clean, impervious to wet, and therefore a good means of preventing damp rising from the ground, and, by consequence, water used in clean- ing out the house from soaking into it. Gutters can be made in it with the greatest ease, large enough to form the main gutter, as //, fig. 3, Plate 4, and small enough for the small-grooved gutters made in the floor of the stall upon which the animals lie, converging thus to main gutter. a b c d, fig. 1 4, represents the outline of stalls ; Fig. 14. Surface Drains for Stan Floors. ef, central groove, some inch and a half wide, with an average depth of an inch, the side grooves g h running into it, these being in section smaller than cf; i represents the main gutter, 6 inches wide and 2 or 3 inches deep. These gutters are all formed with the greatest ease while laying the concrete, by simply using long pieces of timber, the edge of which is half- rounded, so as to give the desired width and depth to the groove. The main gutter is formed by a mould with the required curve at the side (see fig. 10«, Plate 21, for different forms of moulds). The whole operation of concrete floor- making is done with such ease, that we have employed a mere labourer to lay large surfaces, although he had no experience of it, and never, indeed, had heard of the material. Doubtless, a little ' nous ' and care are requisite to ensure a flat surface, and to give the required fall or slope to the gutters ; but a very little experience will give the workman confidence in laying this con- crete, which in every respect forms the best floor for all working rooms. The following is a brief description of the mode of making the concrete, and preparing the ' bottoming ' of stones for the concrete to rest upon. The best material to use is crushed or ground brick or small clinkers, large enough to pass through a 2-inch or lf-inch ring; if these cannot be obtained, good sharp sand, sea or river, will do admirably ; we have used both with success. The broken brick, clinkers, or sand are well mixed with Portland cement, in the proportion of three parts of the material to one of the cement, water being added to bring the whole to such a consistency as to be easily spread upon the floor. Not much should be mixed at a time, as it sets rapidly. The spreading should be begun at one end of the space, and gradually brought down to the other end, so that what is done be not trampled upon. Where parts must be passed over before the concrete is ' set,' planks or wide boards should be laid down. In forty-eight hours the surface will be quite hard enough to be walked over without injury, and in a week it will be as hard as stone, and will present the appearance of a floor of that material, solid, without a crack or flaw throughout its whole extent. The dunging passage, e e, fig. 3, Plate 4, should slope inwards gently from the front wall towards the gutter, //, that water used in cleaning, etc. may flow from this part of the floor to the gutter. The floors of the stalls should slope from front of manger to the gutter, and also be grooved, as shown in fig. 14 (woodcut). Eaised 'flags,' or stepping-stones, may be formed outside the door, of concrete. The concrete is made 2 inches in thickness, and is laid upon the rough surface of the ' bottoming,' which is formed of broken bricks or road metal of size sufficient to pass through a 2 or If -inch ring. The depth of this bottoming is 4 inches, and the upper surface should be carefully levelled before beginning to lay the concrete on top of it ; the full depth of the floor is therefore 6 inches. A section of a floor as adapted to the manure pits, described in Plates 16 to 19 inclusive, is shown in Plate 34, fig. 8, in which a a is the bottoming resting on the ground b, c the concrete. Ventilation. — The same principles which regulate VENTILATING APPLIANCES OF FARM BUILDINGS. 87 the ventilation of the apartments in which human beings are assembled, apply to the buildings in which the live stock of the farm are housed. These principles will be found described in the chapter on the arrangement of farm-houses ; but it is necessary to point out, that in the case of those buildings the air is not only deteriorated by that which is expired by the animals, but that it is further rendered impure by the emanations pro- ceeding from exuviae of the animals, liquid and solid, — a fact, we may parenthetically remark here, proving the value of carrying out the system of securing cleanliness, to which we have in another section alluded, and by which these exuvite will be frequently removed, and the stalls and litter be kept perfectly sweet and pure. As the reader will see by referring to the chapter above named, there is an astonishing diversity of opinion as to the best way in which the prin- ciples regulating ventilation can be carried out, although there is great unanimity as to principles themselves ; so he will find, if he reads up the literature of the subject, or, what is better, has a practical knowledge of it, that a like diversity exists with reference to live-stock houses. A certain amount of air being deteriorated by causes more or less numerous, and a like amount of fresh air being required in place of it, it would seem but an easy matter to decide upon a plan by which the foul air could be withdrawn and the fresh air supplied. Yet, notwithstanding, this problem so simply stated seems apparently to be so difficult of solution, that the plans in connec- tion with it are so numerous that they may be described as 'legion.' Further on, the reader will rind the method described which has been recommended for the ventilation of stables by the Royal Commission appointed to inquire into the sanitary condition of military stables ; but we here give an illustration and description of a plan proposed by the author of a prize paper on sani- tary arrangements for stock, by Mr. W. Brown, jun., Elderstone Farm, Peebles, published in the Transactions of the Highland Society for February 1870. The inlets for the fresh air are proposed to be constructed as in fig. 7 (in section A), Plate 3, in which a a is the outside back wall, b the line of floor, c a recess made in the wall a little above the floor level, to which the external atmosphere is carried by means of a tube, d, built into the wall and curved as shown. As all changes at right angles in the direction of cur- rents of air are causes of loss of power, we should be inclined to recommend the tube to be curved from external atmosphere to recess, as shown at B in same figure. The author recommends the diameter of tube within the wall to be 6 inches, widened or flattened out towards the recess, c, so as to give an orifice, for the air passing inwards, 1 2 inches long by 6 broad ; the opening should be provided with bars or a grating furnished with a moveable galvanized iron plate provided with orifices similar to those in the grating, so that by moving this to and fro the amount of air admitted can be regulated at will, or wholly shut off if desired. The openings of the tubes, d, should be about a foot above the level of the floor ; but where the situation of the house is much exposed, and the temperature normally low, each alternate orifice should be as high as 4 feet above the floor level. By this arrangement the admission of air can be regulated according to the condition of the weather or the force of the wind, opening the higher orifices when this is strong, and closing the lower ; and in calm still weather, when full ventilation is required, opening both lower and upper. The orifices are placed in the back wall, so that the entering air will not pass over the gutters and the litter and stall floors, contami- nated with the exuvire of the animals, and dete- riorating the quality of the air ; and should there be any source of impure air, such as dung pits or cattle courts, at the side where the fresh air is admitted to the pipes, d, the author recommends that these should be made 8 inches in diameter, so as to afford space for the filling in of small pieces of charcoal, about 2 inches in diameter, for the purpose of disinfection. The foul air is pro- posed to be removed by means of ventilators placed along the ridge of the roof, one for every four cattle, with orifices 5 inches square ; these to be placed between skylights made to open, the length being 30 inches and the breadth 18. The skylights are so arranged in connection with a rod running along the inside of the roof, and a series of cranks, that by tightening or loosening a rope the whole can be raised or lowered at pleasure. Many years ago, we proposed a ss DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. method of regulating the admission of fresh air (through apertures such as are described by the Poyal Commissioners in their report) ; this is shown at a a, and on large scale at b b, fig. 4, Plate 20. In this a wooden box, a a, slides in and out of the aperture, c ; this is provided at its outer end with a stop and handle, c, and with a series of angular holes, as shown at b b. The operation of this is so obvious that it requires no further explanation. The fresh air ventilator for apertures near the floor level, as devised by Professor Armitage, the well-known veteri- nary authority, is shown in fig. 6, in which is a diaphragm, a, behind the grating, b. Some prefer the fresh air to be admitted at the top part of the walls, being conducted to the lower level of the floor through channels formed therein, this being done in order to have the air as free from dirt, etc. as possible. In order to regulate the admission of air to the upper-level apertures, a contrivance such as is shown in fig. 7, Plate 20, may be used. The controversy has long been carried on, as regards the ventilation of stables, as to the relative advantages of the ceiled or open roof, but there can be little doubt that the latter must give freer space than the former. The Commissioners, to whose report we have more than once alluded, state as the result of their ex- tensive investigations, that the open-roofed stable is infinitely the superior of the two, with venti- lators placed at the ridge, as in figs. 9 and 10, Plate 20, at a a ; beneath the eaves of the roof, an air brick, or rather a range of air bricks, some- what in the position as indicated by the dotted lines b b, fig 9, is placed. A point in stables at which the foul air lodges, and which it is difficult to remove, is the corner part at the meeting be- tween the back wall and the floor line. The Commissioners recommend an air brick to be placed between every two stalls, at a distance of 6 or 8 inches from the ground level. Another plan to remove the air from this awkward point is proposed, consisting of a shaft in the wall, carried from end to end of the stable, opening at each end to the outer air ; an ah- brick with a sliding cover is made to communicate with this shaft, the opening being in the centre of the stall. "Where the aperture in the back wall is made as at a, in fig. 8, Plate 20, the air brick being inserted therein, the external ad- mission may be made at a point above the dust of the ground as at a, or curved as at b. In fig. 5, Plate 20, & shows the air grid in section, and in elevation at c ; the dimensions of air brick, 9 inches by 6. As in some cases ceiled rooms to stables are necessary, as, for example, detached buildings connected with the residence, in which accommodation is placed in a second storey for the coachman, etc.; and as, moreover, in many instances, stables in steadings are already built on that principle, with hay-loft or granary above, ventilation, which is generally very im- perfect, may be made very efficient by first pro- viding means for the admission of fresh air at the lower part of the building, by one or other of the plans now described ; and secondly, with- drawing the used air. By far the most efficient means of doing this is the passing of ventiducts through the space between the ceiling and the roof, or the apartments on second storey, as the case may be ; these ventiducts, or shafts, com- municating with the lower apartments and ter- minating at the ceiling by special openings, and provided at the upper part, at some 18 or 24 inches above the ridge, with a cowl or cap. This arrangement is illustrated in fig. 1, Plate 20. Figs. 2 and 3 illustrate methods of regulating the current through the ventilating shaft. In place of the ventilating ' cap,' as shown at a in fig. 1, or some other form of this, as the revolv- ing ' cowl,' the upper part of ventiduct or shaft may be terminated by an arrangement as shown in fig. 11, Plate 20, in elevation at a, and in plan at b. In this the ventilating openings are on each side of the square shaft, and are closed by flaps or valves, c c ; these are connected by jointed rods, the central part of one being opened out, as at d, to admit of the passing of the other rod through it. From whatever direction the wind blows, that flap is closed while the other remains open ; thus, when the wind blows in the direction of the arrow, it closes the flap c, and opens the opposite one shown by the dotted lines. The ventilation of cow-houses is very much the same in its details, while, of course, it is precisely the same in its principles as that of stables. As they are almost univer- sally open-roofed, we have designed a foul-air NEW METHOD OF VENTILATING FARM BUILDINGS. S9 ventilator, which, of course, is applicahle to all similar structures, which experience has shown to he very efficient in getting rid of the used air, and assimilating that in the interior to much of the freshness and sweetness of the exterior atmo- sphere. This, as fitted up by us, is illustrated in figs. 15, 16, and 17. We make in the roof, on each side of the ridge, large rectangular openings, generally 5 feet by 3 feet ; at top and bottom of these we fix, parallel to the ridge, light iron rails ; on these run wheels which carry the 'ventilating' frames proper, these, being capable of being moved either right or left as desired, exposing the aper- ture, leaving it entirely open, or, it may be, wholly or partially covered. When entirely open, if the size and number of the openings be pro- perly proportioned to the size of the house, we find tbe air almost as sweet and fresh as that of the external atmosphere. In rainy and stormy weather the openings must of course be closed, but it is surprising how large a proportion of each day we find in which we can have them fully open. But while shut, the passage outwards of the foul air is still secured, for we make the frames to be at least two inches above the open- ing, so that there is a wide space all round both sides and ends for the foul air to pass out ; while the former being made some inches all round Fig. 15. External View of Ventilating Frame for Roofs of Cow-houses, etc. larger than the apertures in the roof, rain, etc. is I external view of one ventilating frame on this prevented from entering. In fig. 15 we give an | principle. The dotted lines show the width of of Upper (IS) and Lower (17) Sides of Ventilating Frame. the opening in the roof, the frame being thus so much larger, as named above, than the opening ; a a, the ridge ; b b, tbe upper line of rail ; C e, lower ditto ; //, the lower wheels. The upper QO DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY wheels being under the frame, are not seen in the sketch. If more than one frame is used and close together, the frames may be united by a rod, g g, h 7i, so that the whole can be moved together; a ventilating space equal to half the roof surface may be thus gained. By a very simple contriv- ance of pulley, chain, and counterpoise- weight, the ventilators are moved along the rails with great ease. To enable any of our readers to carry out this system of ventilation, we annex, in figs. 16 and 17, sections showing the upper and lower portion of the ventilating frames and rails. The rails, a a, are laid upon triangular battens nailed to the rafters ; b b, the wheels ; c c, the central axles, which are fastened to the frames, d d. In fig. 17, the upper part, e e, is a small penthouse at the ridge, to pre- vent rain being blown down ; // shows the ventilating spaces when the frames cover the apertures in the roof. In the diagram, the frame, d d, is shown as made of wood ; but we make them of galvanized iron, which we find to be lighter and stronger. Window, Door, and Gencrcd Work. — A few il- lustrations under this head will be of some prac- tical use. Take the case of windows first ; it is scarcely necessary to say, of stables and live- stock houses generally, that they are as a rule most deficiently lighted, not only as regards the amount supplied, but the way in which the appbances connected with the supply are ad- justed and fitted up. Badly placed as they generally are, their small surface makes the amount of light admitted to the building less than it would otherwise be if more judiciously situated ; in some cases narrow and long, but the length, however, not so great as it should be. We find them often jammed quite close up to ceiling or top of wall, and firmly fixed in their frames, which, to be sure, considering their situa- tion, is of no great moment, as they cannot be reached to be opened or closed. It is safer, as a rule, to place a window too near rather than too far from the floor ; a good height of a sill from the latter is 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet. It is a great point in the lighting of all stock apartments, which should be kept scrupulously clean, to have the light thrown well upon the floor, as the nooks and corners are apt to be neglected. This, indeed, may be said to be the rule in all badly-lighted apartments, which are as badly cleaned ; men have excuses enough for not get- ting rid of dirt — a fertile source of foul air and unhealthiness amongst the stock — so that it is absurd to give them another in the absence of light. "We are well aware that some advocate that dark- ness in stock-rooms— of course, we mean com- parative darkness — is absolutely beneficial, and in case of fattening bullocks essential. Some, however, dispute this, and their number is daily increasing ; and while we know that some of our best feeders approve of the yard and shed method, — the latter the housing, — it is difficult to see how the abundant light with which they are there supplied, and is not deemed bad for them, can be so when they are confined in close, walled houses. In addition to the purpose windows primarily serve, it should not be forgotten that they may be so fitted as to form most efficient adjuncts to such systems of ventilation as may be adopted. Various forms of what may be called ventilating windows have been introduced, one frequently used being the sbding window, which is made to slide backwards and forwards into a recess formed in the wall. The lower part of the window frame is usually made square, but it is better to have it rounded, as at a, in fig. 1, Plate 7, sbding in a corresponding hollow part, b. The sliding win- dow works, however, more easily when the slid- ing is converted into a rolling motion by the addition of small wheels at top and bottom, or bottom only, of the frame. One form of roller is shown at c, the central groove of which runs on the rounded part, d. This window, however, acts but inefficiently as a ventilator, inasmuch as it admits of no regulation in the quantity of air admitted, so far as the extent of opening in its length is concerned, this being uniform, however widely or narrowly the window may be moved. To obviate this difficulty in some degree, and also to throw the air upwards towards the ceil- ing, which some approve of, the window, a, fig. 2, Plate 7, is hinged at its lower part, b, and by means of the usual cord and pulley at top of the M'indow, it can be opened, as shown by the dotted lines, d. This form of window is some- times hung in the reverse way to that shown in fig. 2, so that the air is admitted at the lower CONSTRUCTION OF DOORS AND STAIRS IN FARM BUILDINGS. 9i part ; by reversing the position of drawing, so as to have b at the upper end, this arrangement will be understood. The extent of opening is usually only of one degree, a simple hook and eye being used. To admit of various degrees of open- ing, the better ' fitting ' is the quadrantal, with thumb-screw, the only objection to this being that the quadrant of necessity projects into the room. The best form of window, however, which enables the air to be admitted in more than one direction, is the swivel or swing form, shown in fig. 3, Plate 7. In this, the window, a a, is swung on a central stud at b ; the usual cord and pulley attachments are provided as at a, fig. 4, Plate 7, by which the frame, b b, can be pulled into any position ; two positions are shown in the drawing, the arrows indicating the varieties of currents which may be obtained by this form. The well-known form of ventilating board with vertical openings placed under the window, in a large number of stalls, might be modified, so far as its openings are concerned, in the way indi- cated in fig. 5, Plate 7. Indeed, it might be a good plan to have frames so made placed at different points of the building, by which the air could be admitted horizontally, as at a ; upwards, as at b ; and downwards, as at c ; and although a trifle more expensive, each class of opening might have its separate sliding shutter, so that anyr one of them, two of them, or all, might be used as required. Doors. — These, as a rule, are made quite nar- row enough ; the difference of an inch or two in the width makes a very great one in the ease or otherwise with which an animal enters or leaves the buildings ; and farm animals are too valuable to allow of any risk being run from such a cause as this. This likelihood of injury is still further in- creased, first, by the sharp angles left at the reveals or rybates at each corner. Indeed, as a rule, all stone and wood work at openings should be rounded off. Many a severe injury is done to a valuable animal by coming in contact with sharp corners, especially if these be of stone. In brick buildings, this rounding-off of corners need cause little or no expense, as ' bull-nosed ' bricks, as in fig. 12, Plate 50, at a, or ' splayed,' as in fig. 13, at «, can be easily had at a trifle beyond the cost of ordinary ones. The projecting or isolated parts of internal fittings, as head and heel posts, should also have their corners rounded off, as at fig. 6, Plate 21, in place of being angular, as at fig. 7. Or the ' arris ' or corner may be taken off, as at a, figs. 6 and 7, in elevation at fig. 5 ; where the strip- ping-off of the arris does not extend the whole length of the piece, — which is said to be ' cham- fered/— but a square part is left, as at fig. 4, it is called a ' stop chamfer.' Fig. 3 is side view of fig. 4 ; fig. 2, a Gothic stop chamfer at a. All the iron fittings of doors should be made so as to have no projecting parts. In view of the dangers arising from the hanging of doors in the usual way, especially in the case of stables, sliding doors are sometimes used ; these, passing into recesses in the w^all, leave no projecting door against which a valuable animal might in sudden fright injure himself. Staircases and Stairs. — Stairs being so often ascended, if their construction be so defective as to give rise to inconvenience and loss of time, it becomes a serious item in the working of the steading, when it is repeated, say, over the period of a year. Staircases should always be designed, if at all possible, — and few cases there are but what with a little thought may be so, — so that all the steps are ' flyers,' — that is, of the same breadth throughout their whole length, as at a, fig. 13, Plate 21, and not 'winders,' or angular, as at b, as the position of the feet, c, shows that in the ' winder,' b, a large proportion of the step is useless, and at the extreme angle, as d, positively dangerous. Figs. 14 and 16, Plate 21, show a staircase 'landing' laid out with 'winders;' fig. 1 5, with all the steps ' flyers.' A great con- venience in a staircase is the ' landing ; ' in figs. 1 4 and 16 the worst forms are shown. In fig. 15, the landings, a b, are parallel ; when divided by steps, as c, the parts a and b are called ' half- spaces.' For men carrying heavy weights, as in farm-steading work, well-disposed landings are great conveniences as resting-places. In outside stairs this is seldom attended to, but by a little contrivance it may be attained. A good broad landing at the top, as at a, fig. 17, Plate 21, is a great convenience, in order to enable the door, b, to be easily opened and entered. Fig. 18 shows two forms for the upper side of the hand-rails of DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY outside stairs, which are much easier in use than the square form sometimes used. There is a great deal in the way in which the steps are set in or formed in outside stairs. If placed parallel, as in fig. 22, or, worse still, with a set or inclination towards the outer edge of step, as at the dotted lines a, there is great danger, especially in wet weather, of the party sliding down or being thrown forward. Especially when a heavy weight is being carried down an outside stair, the feeling that one is to be thrown forward is in itself a cause of discomfort ; the opposite being the case when the steps are set with an inclina- tion backwards, as in fig. 21, or formed, as in fig. 19, with the thickest end towards the front. A firm foothold is a great matter in doing heavy work on stairs. This may be secured, if an iron stair be used, by corrugating the upper surface, as in fig. 2 0. Figs. 8 to 1 2 illustrate a capital invention of Mr. Hawksley for giving to steps a good foot-surface, and for enabling the surfaces to be renewed. This consists in setting blocks of wood, stone, or cement in iron frames having hollow spaces, as in figs. 11 and 12, and shown in section in larger scale at a a, figs. 8, 9, and 10. Fig. 9 shows the mode of fixing the frame, a a, to the stone step, b b, by means of a screw, c, leaded into the dovetail, d ; e e are the blocks of stone or cement. Fig. 10 shows a method of securing the frame, a a, to the tread, b, and riser, c c, by the screws, d. Fig. 8 is another method, a wood cleat, as b, being secured to the carriage, f, of the stair, d, section of b. Fittings of Stalls in Coiv-houscs and Stables. — In fig. 1, Plate 8, we show the usual method of fitting up the travis or division between the stalls, in which there is a feeding passage behind, as at a. The manger and trough are of earthenware, and placed on the floor at b ; some prefer to raise the manger from the ground on a brick or stone foundation, some 12 or 15 inches in height, and to form the manger itself of timber, the dimen- sions of the manger being 2 feet wide at top, a, as in fig. 3 ; width at bottom, as at b, 1 0 or 1 2 inches; the depth, a b, 12 or 13 inches. Wood, however well cleansed and cared for, cannot pos- sibly be such a sweet material as earthenware, wrhich, for mangers and troughs, we consider un- surpassed, cast-iron being the next. Indeed, if this latter material be tar-glazed, on the plan introduced by Dr. Angus Smith for water-pipes, which gives an interior surface as smooth and almost imperishable as glass, then we consider it to be the best, as it is not liable to breakage, as in earthenware fittings ; although, if these be soundly made, nothing but the most disgraceful carelessness can manage to break them. The tar-glazing above alluded to is simply subjecting the cast-iron object to a high temperature, and coating the surface with coal-tar. In fig. 1, Plate 8, the distance between head-post, c, and heel-post, d, is 5 feet 6 inches ; the height from ground to top being 3 feet 6 inches or 4 feet ; the scantling of posts, 4x3. The travis boards, e, are let into grooves made in the posts, which are fixed at foot into blocks of stone, as shown. For a short distance in front of the manger the floor of the stall is either boarded, as at /, or formed of some soft material ; and this to prevent injury to the knees of the cows, who raise them- selves upon them in getting up. The remainder of the stall floor may be paved, as at g, up to manger, h, as so also the dunging passage, i. If concrete be used for the floor, the stone blocks, j j, may be dispensed with, and the posts fixed at once in the concrete and soil below to depth of 9 or 12 inches. To prevent draughts, the stalls are boarded off from the feeding passage, a, and in the centre of each stall an aperture, as a a, fig. 2, is made, the length of which is 30 and depth 20 inches. This is provided with a sliding door, b b, so that when the mangers are filled with the food from the trucks running along the rails, h k, fig. 1, the sliding doors are closed by the handle, c, fig. 2. Some prefer to carry the boarding at the head of stalls right up to the roof, as shown partly by the dotted line I, fig. 1. In place of having the travis boards extending from bottom to top of posts, as in fig. 1, they may be left partly open, as in figs. 7 and 8, or as in fig. 3, Plate 8. This latter figure shows an excellent arrangement of travis-fitting adapted from that used by Mr. Blackford at Aldershot ; and fig. 4 shows the way in which the divi- sion between the stalls and feeding passages is constructed: a, the head-post; b, the bearer carry- ing the manger, c d (a b, fig. 3); e, top; and /, part of cross rails stop-chamfered. Figs. 5 and 6 show REPAIRS OF FARM BUILDIXGS. 93 different methods of making and fixing the fit- tings by which the cattle are secured in their stalls. Fig. 6 is one very generally adopted ; — an aperture, as a a, is cut in the travis board, b b, and an iron bar, bent as shown at e, fig. 5, is secured as at c in fig. 6. To prevent any pro- jection, the upper end may be sunk, as at d in fig. 5. For single stalls, the iron bar is fixed to the left-hand travis-board, as at d, fig. 5 ; but for double stalls, one on each side of the travis- board, c, is required. In place of having two single bars, the arrangement as at/, fig. 5, may be adopted. In fig. 3, at c, the cattle-binder is secured to the post d, as shown. In place of having them perpendicular, the iron binders, if fixed at an angle, as at a, in figs. 7 and 8, Plate 8, the chains with which the cattle are secured will be found to slide easier up and down. As regards stable fittings, little requires to be said, the illustrations in Plate 9 sufficiently indicating their character, in addition to what we have pre- viously stated regarding them. In cattle-boxes, as in figs. 6 and 7, Plate 7, the divisions between the boxes are generally made with simple hurdle fittings, as at a in fig. 6 ; as so also the gates, as at a in fig. 7. Generally, the manger and the water-trough are simply placed on the top of the manure ; in other cases more elaborate arrange- ments are made, in which they are kept in one position at the back wall of the box, and made to shde up as the height of manure increases. A very simple arrangement is fixing two iron bars into back wall, the bars being bent so as to pro- ject from it, and leave a space up and down which the eyes of wrought-iroii staples can slide, these being fixed at each upper end, and at the back of manger. This arrangement is shown in fig. 5, Plate 10. There is no need to have any pinching screws at the eyes of the manger staples, as its weight, with the food, etc., tends to cant it forward, as at a in fig. 5, Plate 10, jamming the eye, b, against the rod, c, and thus keeping it tight in any position. Repairs of Buildings uml Preservatives for Outside Work. — A word or two only of caution is required under the first of these heads, and they may be comprised in the proverb, that ' a stitch in time saves nine ; ' and probably the pro- verb receives no more striking exemplification than in the case of buddings, which deteriorate with amazing rapidity, should even the smallest defect be allowed to remain unattended to. All buildings should therefore be periodically exa- mined, in order to see whether defects in any parts exist ; and if so, where the best interests of the proprietor are considered, they should be attended to at once. Under the second head, as materials exposed to the atmosphere deteriorate with great rapidity in a changing climate such as ours is, cheap, easily made, and efficient materials for the coating and preservation of out- side work of all kinds on the farm are desiderata, and worthy of being well known or recorded and published. A very capital black paint — if it may be so called — is coal tar and lime. The lime should be well slaked and reduced to a fine powder, — any kind of building lime may be used but chalk lime, which is not suitable for the purpose in view, — and the fine powder is to be mixed with the tar, which should be kept boibng in a caldron or ordinary tar boiler for about half an hour. The lime should be added in the proportion of one part to each gallon of the tar ; the whole well mixed together, and kept boibng for another half-hour. It must be appbed to the woodwork while hot, and when cold it will have a hard, glazed, and shining appearance, and wdl effectually repel all rain. We should think it equally applicable to stone and iron- work. Coal or gas tar applied cold to woodwork is rendered much more efficient if dry sand be mixed with it. It is essential, however, that the sand be sand ; for as there are, as the French say, ' faggots and faggots,' so there is sand and sand. In other words, it must be perfectly free from all vegetable and decaying organic matter, etc., and soil of all kinds ; and, as we have said above, it must be dry. Some prefer to mix the dry pure sand with the tar, and then paint the surface over with the mixture ; but this plan is not a good one, and for tins reason. To get the full benefit of the plan, the tar must be well rubbed in by means of the hard, sharp-pointed brush used for the purpose, so that the pores of the wood be tilled with it ; and to ensure this, the rubbing should be done ia the direction of the lines of the fibres. Now the sand prevents this being 94 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. done, at least so efficiently as it ought to be. The best way, therefore, is to rub the tar well in iirst, and then strew the sand over the surface while wet. It is scarcely necessary to say, that the greater the number of coats of tar the wood- work gets the better. The worst of coal tar used as a preservative, is the lugubrious tone or tint it gives to the surfaces covered by it. Various substitutes for paint of a more lively colour than tar have been proposed, and the following has the highest com- mendations given to it for cheapness and efficiency ; it may be called a milk paint, as milk forms one of its chief ingredients ; and which, although the fact be not generally known, is one of our best sizes. The milk used is skimmed milk, but where new milk can be afforded, the paint will be all the better. The ingredients are as follows : — Skimmed milk, 2 quarts ; fresh slaked lime, 6^ ounces ; linseed oil, 4 ounces ; and common whiting very finely pounded, 3 pounds. By the addition of a little yellow ochre, a warmer colour may be imparted to the paint ; or by adding Prussian blue, the very pleasing tone or tint known as ' French white ' may be given to it. The more care taken to mix the materials, the finer and more economical will the paint be ; they are best mixed in a stoneware or earthenware vessel, and if small portions only be put in at a time, and well mixed, the better will the paint be. Put in a little of the fresh slaked lime, then add a little of the milk, suffi- cient to make the whole of the consistence of a thickish cream. When thoroughly mixed together, put in a little of the linseed oil, mixing again the whole thoroughly. Next put in more of the lime, milk, and oil as before, mixing well up ; and when the whole has been put in, add the whiting, mixing all up most thoroughly. The paint is then fit for use. Like all paints, the less taken up by the brush and put on at a time, and the more thoroughly it is well rubbed in, the better will the work be, and the less the quantity used. Even some painters do not know how to use paint, but the above is the true and economical way to use it. This paint is for inside work, and it is quite equal to the ordinary paint, and lasts longer. To make it available for out-door work, to the ingredients named above the following are to be added : — 2 ounces of slaked lime, 6 ounces of linseed oil, and 2 ounces of white Burgundy pitch ; this latter to be melted by a slow heat, and added by degrees to the mixture. This paint keeps its colour for a long time, can bear rubbing well, and does not change colour or get dark under smoke and gases like ordinary paint. Did space permit, we could extend our remarks on this and other points connected with repairs and keeping build- ings in good order, but what remains of it at this point we devote to a single line or so on the subject of preservation and restoration of old or neglected buildings. There are many structures part of which may be fast going to decay, but which having been built at a time when the ' inevitable British workman ' had a pride in doing the best work he could, and never dreamed of ' scamping,' as he often does now, the remaining materials will likely, and in many cases will be certain to be found so good that the expenditure of a few pounds in labour and in materials would make the place, ' old ' as it is now, ' amaist as guid as new ' then. We need scarcely say more, for a hint on this subject is nearly all that is required. We trust that, for the sake of their own pockets, those who happen to have old build- ings of the kind described will take the hint we here give. We could point out not a few in- stances where it has been taken with great and good economical results. Cleanliness throughout the Buildings. — We have in general terms referred to the keeping of farm buildings in a condition of good order as regards their fittings and their cleanliness, and it is the vast importance of the latter subject more especially that is our best excuse, if excuse be at all needed in such a case, for again referring specially to it. The influence of cleanliness upon our own persons is well known ; indeed, Dr. Smith, one of our ablest sanitarians, states that the modern science of sanitary economy may be comprehended, as far as externals are concerned, in the words, ' Keep yourselves clean.' That this advice, so far as the body is concerned, is fol- lowed pretty universally may be true enough, but it does not always, as we too well know, apply to the habitation in which the body is housed ; at the same time, it must be said that a very great improvement has been made in the latter, CLEANLINESS IN FARM BUILDINGS— EXTERIOR STRUCTURES. 95 amongst nearly every class ; and although the practice may not be all that is desirable, the prin- ciple is no longer disputed. But it is a curious and suggestive circumstance, that while this is so as regards ourselves, and the houses which we inhabit, we do not think it necessary to apply the principle to the keeping of the live stock of our farms, although it is exceedingly difficult to explain why this should be so. A very limited knowledge of physiology would be sufficient to show, what we have elsewhere in this work ex- plained, that the functions of our farm animals cannot be carried properly on unless the skin and coat be kept in a state of thorough cleanli- ness. This being so, all the animals should be kept regularly clean, supplied with clean litter, and have their stalls and other parts of the building in which they are housed attended to with the same degree of scrupulous care, in order to maintain this cleanliness. The authority we have quoted points out that there is an absolute necessity for keeping all parts of the interior devoted to live stock absolutely pure, from the fact that, arising from the presence of the animals, there is an organic substance deposited upon the woodwork and other fittings, walls, etc., of a highly offensive character, which, if allowed to remain, gives out emanations highly dangerous. Ventilation, however effective, does not and will not carry off these, because the organic substances become attached and adhere with what may be called great tenacity to all parts of the interior, and keep accumulating. Ventilation, no doubt, is essential, and goes largely to reduce the evil ; but still, to have things as they should be, two things are essential, pure air and clean surfaces. It needs scarcely be said, that the vessels out of which the animals feed must also be kept in the same degree of cleanliness we have here advo- cated. There is, indeed, a greater necessity, so to say, for this being done in their case than in that of walls, etc., inasmuch as the contaminat- ing materials, allowed to collect and remain in the vessel, not only give out the emanations we have shown to be injurious, but the)' exercise a deleterious influence upon the new or fresh supplies of food put into them, — an influence which tells upon the health of the animals in a way very much more prejudicial than most farmers are disposed to admit, and which gives rise very often to complaints and diseases which are reckoned to be very mysterious, but which, if traced to their origin, would demand no great expenditure of time or knowledge to be easily accounted for, and comparatively as easily cured. In this as in other departments, the rule, 'Do what you do as well as you can,' if carried out well, ' every man,' as the authority we have named states, ' would find out that his business rose in his estimation, and his work would become an art, which would continually rise higher and higher, according to the amount of mind devoted to it. If a farmer, then you farm on the very best prin- ciples, and you would find it a noble occupation. This ride would tell him that his farm should be managed with all the skill that our experience and knowledge of nature shows us to be possible, and that his cattle should be kept with the same scrupulous care. It is fortunate for this theory that the greatest success would be assuredly attained by it ; but even if a greater amount of profit were not gained, it is a sufficient gain to see the work more thoroughly done, and every animal kept by us happier and healthier. . . . But surely farmers do not require this advice more than others. None are prouder of their productions, their crops, and their stock, it is true ; but it is for them to know that their neglect of sanitary laws is rapidly productive of evil and destructive of their property ; whilst health is a subject daily de- manding their attention, as they must to a great extent be physicians to the whole of their cattle. It is the unwholesome belief that anything is good enough for beasts that has so much degraded our stables and cow-houses, and the result has been severely returned to the owners in the shape of discomfort, disorder, and loss. We trust, then, that a reform in this department will be widely extended, — a reform I should be glad to see based, not on the greater profits that are to be expected, but on those higher principles which will make even the cleaning of a stable not merely a dis- agreeable necessity, but the cheerful accompani- ment of a noble heart.' Erections exterior to the Steading — Slicltcr-sheds, etc. — But while the fixed and permanent build- ings of the farm, the farmery, farm steading, or by whatever name it may be called and known, 96 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY ought to be designed so that ill point of arrange- ment and construction they are all which the truest interests of the landlord, as well as the practical requirements of the tenant, demand, the principle which is fast coming to the front in connection with modern fanning must not be lost sight of. In view, indeed, of the important practical issues which it involves, it must be fully considered, so that its practical advantages may be obtained. The principle here alluded to is that of not confining the buildings, or rather the structures, of the farm to one point only of the farm, but, by a judicious extension to various parts of it, afford to those, such conveniences in the way of structures as will best enable certain styles of stock-keeping, etc. to be adopted, so as to meet the requirements of a new and improved sj'stem of working certain departments of the farm. Up till a verjr recent period it has been, and indeed, as a rule, it may be stated to be the custom now on farms on which stock is kept, to provide shelter for the animals only at the stead- ing or farm buildings ; none, however small in point of accommodation and poor in point of construction, being provided at those outlying portions of the farm on which stock are pastured for a large portion, and in some districts for the whole, or nearly the whole, of the year. This, as stated above, is the system which may be said to be universally followed. Of late, however, this rule has found exceptions, and this at the hands of those who, taking into consideration the prin- ciples which modern agricultural science has shown to regulate the feeding and fattening of stock, have seen the apparent absurdity of so keeping stock, that at one part of the farm they are housed in accordance — or, on the whole, with something like a fair accordance — with those principles, and keeping the same kind of stock, on another part of the farm, in direct contradiction to them. What those principles are which regulate the feeding and fattening of stock, and the proper rearing and management of those animals which are not fattened for the butcher, as the horse and the dairy cow, — the latter being, as it were, only incidentally fattened as a secondary, not a primary consideration in their keep, — will be found fully explained in the chapter which treats of the ' General Management of the Live Stock of the Farm.' It is here only necessary to point out, or to recapitulate, so to say, in a word or two, the leading features of these principles, in order to understand the causes which have led certain farmers, holding advanced and enlightened views of their important calling, to modify very materially certain departments of practice connected with their live stock. Briefly, then, as food creates heat, gives warmth to the system of the animal partaking of it, and at the same time helps to build up and maintain that system, so that all the vital functions may be performed regularly ; so, conversely, may it be stated that heat or warmth acts in a certain measure as food, or, more correctly put, tends to economize that food by not permitting it to be drawn upon unnecessarily in the maintenance and conservation of heat or warmth. Hence the truth of the antithetical aphorism, in which this principle is conveyed in few but suggestive words, ' Food is heat, heat is food.' From which it follows as a natural consequence, that where animals are exposed to cold for any length of time, there is a corresponding, if not exactly a proportionate loss of food, that going to maintain the warmth of the system almost wholly, which, under other cir- cumstances of a more favourable kind, and more in consistence with the principles we have named above, would go chiefly to the feeding and fatten- ing of the animals, and at the same time the maintenance of a healthy degree of warmth. Hence will be seen the objection which some farmers have to that system of managing certain varieties of live stock which involves long ex- posure to cold, — in point of fact, to all the in- clemencies of the seasons, which are so notoriously inclement as those of our country are. And where, from the peculiar circumstances under which they may be placed, or from an idea that partial exposure to the open air or pasturing therein, even in severe weather, is the healthiest method of managing live stock of certain kinds, they adopt the system of outlying pasturing or keep, they believe that true science demands that shelter should be provided there, in which the animals can either go at pleasure, or be housed at such periods of extreme severity of weather OUTLYING STRUCTURES OF THE FARM. 97 or under such circumstances as the farmer may deem necessary. We see, therefore, how it has come about that in such systems of farming out- lying shelter is necessary, and involves arrange- ments of a special kind ; and it is to these that we in a future chapter direct brief attention. By the exercise of a little ingenuity, very com- fortable ' shelter-sheds ' may be erected at re- markably little expense, and in very little time. The reader will find this department treated of in the third division of the work, Chap. I., ' The Outlying Structures of the Farm.' 9s DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. CHAPTER X. THE SAVING, STOKING UP, AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF MANURE, LIQUID AND SOLID, AND THE APPLIANCES FOR THE SAME, AS DUNG STANCES OR PITS, COVERED DUNG OR MANURE SHEDS, AND LIQUID-MANURE TANKS, ETC. .Preliminary and General Considerations. — Farm-yard dung as manure presents to the agriculturist a means of both chemically and mechanically influencing the fertdization of the soil, and adding largely to the increase of the products drawn from it in the shape of crops, which excels any other natural substance or com- bination of substances at the command of the farmer, including, as it does, all the constituents of our farm plants. It is not strange, therefore, that no subject has been so much discussed in the range of agricultural literature as this, nor about which so much has been definitely learned as regards its nature and constituents, and the best mode of practically applying it to the soil. Yet, notwithstanding this, it may safely be said that in practice there is perhaps no department in practical farming so much neglected, and none in which wasteful processes are so frequently carried out, as in the storing up and preservation of what is afforded by our farm stock. To what cause or causes this is to be chiefly attributed, we are not now concerned to know; but it may be permitted us here to say, that one reason why this widespread indifference exists, is that those to whom the planning and erection of our farm buildings are often entrusted, have not, as a rule, been careful to give prominence to structural arrangements by which manure could be best kept in accordance with correct principles, as indicated either by the researches of agricultural chemists, or the field practice of able farmers. It will be well very briefly here to point out what these principles are. Farm- yard manure, or ' dung ' as it is usually termed, is composed of the excrements, solid and liquid, of the animals fed in the farmery, together mak- ing up what may be called a natural manure, one of the characteristics of which is its large bulk. It has been called a ' universal manure,' inasmuch as it contains all the fertilizing con- stituents which our farm crops require ; all the inorganic or incombustible substances found in the ash of our agricultural plants are present in the ash of farm-yard manure. Of the organic or combustible substances valuable as fertilizers found in dung, some are readily soluble in water, and contain a large proportion of nitrogen, which yields ammonia; while some are insoluble in water, and contain only a small proportion of nitrogen, which gives rise to the formation of acid compounds. But in addition to the influence which, through these substances, farm - yard manure chemically exerts upon the soil to which it is applied, it is found to act also very bene- ficially in a mechanical way, and this more especially and usefully in heavy clay soils, in opening them up and admitting the atmospheric influences to act upon them. The marked feat- ure, however, of farm-yard manure is the small proportion which its fertilizing substances, or those which act chemically upon the soil, bear to those which act mechanically, and which last are in themselves of no or little fertilizing value, save in the above-named mechanical way. Thus, in a ton of manure in a well-rotted or short con- dition, there are of fertilizing substances only 48 pounds ; while there is of water no less a weight than 15 cwt. 9^ lbs., and other materials of very inferior fertilizing value equal to 4 cwt. 1 quarter and 27 lbs. From the very fact that it contains so little of high fertilizing value, COVERED DUNG PITS AND LIQUID-MANURE TANKS. 99 as here shown, the importance will be obvious enough of any plan for managing manure by which the most can be made of it. Some look upon the whole bulk of their manure as fertiliz- ing, whereas, as we have shown, the reverse is the case. Further, the largest proportion of fertilizing substances contained in the manure, small as their proportion is, are present in it in a soluble or readily soluble condition, so that when exposed to atmospheric influences, as rain, etc., they undergo changes which tend very materially to reduce the value of the manure as a fertilizer. In its fresh state, manure contains a comparatively small percentage of ammonia, the nitrogen exist- ing chiefly in the form of insoluble nitrogenous substances ; but as the age of the manure in- creases, and decomposition sets in, the amount of ammonia increases, and a large percentage of the organic matter of the manure becomes soluble. By exposing them to rain and dry weather alter- nately, a thorough disorganization of the con- stituents takes place, breaking up the equilibrium which keeps them together, allowing them to escape either into the atmosphere or to be carried away by the drainage of the heap, when that heap is kept, as it too often is, lying on the surface of the ground. The decomposition of ammonia arising from this condition of matters is, however, not the chief cause of the loss of fertilizing value which the dung sustains, the principal loss arising from the washing out of the soluble fertilizing matter by the rain. Hence the absurdity of the method of keeping manure, which we may say is general in some districts, heaped up in some corner of the farm-yard, at a roadside, or at the edge of a field, exposed to the rain, wind, and sunshine, and placed on such a bottom that the soluble matters either soak into the soil, or are allowed to run away to the nearest ditch or drain. As the plants to which manure is to be applied can only take their fertilizing constituents in a soluble form, the great point to aim at is to have the manure kept in such a way that none of the soluble portions be washed out of it and allowed to soak into the ground, or pass away to drains or ditches. The simplest way to secure this is to have an open manure-pit, but of which the sides and bottom arc made water-tight, or as nearly so as practicable. This may be done in several ways, either by puddling the bottom with clay, lining it with bricks on edge set in cement, or asphalted or concreted. We have used concrete with great success, and prefer it to all other materials for lining tanks or pits for this purpose. We shall in a succeeding paragraph describe the way in which we use this material. The pit may either be made by excavating the soil to the depth of 3 feet below the ground level, as at a, fig. 1, Hate 16, or formed by building a low wall of brick or stone above the ground level, of 3 feet in height, and puddling under and around it, as at b in fig. 2. In this case an entrance should be made at an end or side, whichever is most convenient, so as to admit of the dung being wheeled into or taken from the interior of the space. As a medium between these two modes, another method is to make the pit half in and half out of the ground, as at c, fig. 3. In all these diagrams the dotted parts indicate the puddle, the asphalt or the concrete used to line the interior, and the letters g I the ground level. The bottom of the pit should not be level throughout, but be inclined in the direction of its length, so that the drainings from the manure will drop to the deepest part, from which it can be lifted up at intervals and thrown over the surface of the manure in the pit, or be taken away in a liquid-manure cart. To get easily at this liquid, a portion of the solid manure can be removed from the lower end. But by far the best arrangement of an open pit is that used frequently abroad. The floor of the pit slopes from all sides towards the centre, where a grated entrance to a tank is made, into which the liquid from the dung flows, and in addition the drainage from the cattle stalls, horse stalls, and piggeries. The tank is provided with a small cistern or settling tank, into which the solid matter in the liquid settles, and which is removed from time to time. The liquid-manure tank, instead of being placed in the centre of the dung-pit above, is often placed at one end, the floor sloping towards the tank, as at a in fig. 4. We have named the loss sustained by exposing manure to rain ; but it remains to be noticed that the sun, acting upon the mass, exercises — at least is said by autho- DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. rities to exercise — a more prejudicial effect upon manure than even exposure to wind and rain. In view of this, as well as the shelter it affords from the latter influence, the most modern and approved method of managing farm-yard manure is to place it in a pit, covering the same with a roof, but with open sides and end. The value of manure kept under cover in this way is proved beyond a doubt to be much higher than that exposed to atmospheric influences. One autho- rity of high standing puts the value of covered manure at fully one-third higher than that made in open yards or pits. It is to Continental authorities that we owe the idea of covered dung- pits. Another point in favour of covered dung is the saving effected in working it ; for it is so rich, and free from what is known as ' weak outsides,' that all necessity is obviated for cart- ing the manure to the field or outside, and work- ing it up in the heap, as is the ordinary practice in manure management. An objection has been offered to manure made in the covered dung-pit, to the effect that it is apt to become dry and mould)'. It is found, however, in practice, that the fertilizing salts are retained in the manure made under cover, and that these tend to keep it moist. But this objection, if it be not from this cause met and overcome, can most certainly be overcome by having in the dung-pit a liquid- manure tank attached, from which the liquid can from time to time be pumped and thrown over the dung-pit above. In fig. 7 we give a longi- tudinal section; and in fig. 6, Plate 16, a trans- verse section of a covered dung-pit, as used on the Continent : a is the liquid-manure tank ; b c, the covered dung-pit ; d d, the posts supporting the roof. The gates are at the sides, in the centre; the sills of the gates are at the ground level. In some rare cases it may be more convenient to have the gates at the end, and in others, gates at both sides are used. The dimensions of the pit will be proportionate to the number of stock kept, upon which point we shall give a note hereafter. In making the dung-pit, the soil is dug out to a depth of from 3 to 4 feet, ac- cording to circumstances, and the whole exca- vation lined with brick, well puddled with clay as a foundation, or concreted, which will be the best material to use. The brick wall is carried up to a height of 3 or 4 feet from the ground ; the wooden posts to support the roof are let into the wall, or may be let into a wooden sill placed on the top of the wall. The settling tank is at one side, and outside of the dung-pit; or the wall of the dung-pit may form one side of the settling tank, the dimensions of which may be 3 feet deep by 4 feet long and 3 broad. The liquid manure from the cattle stalls, etc. is led into this tank by a 3-inch drain-tube, which enters the settling tank some 5 or 6 inches from the upper edge. At the same height another drain-tube leads off the pure liquid to the main tank. The solid refuse settles in the settling tank, from which it is from time to time removed. The mode of withdrawing the liquid from the main tank is as follows : — With the bottom of the main tank a large 9 -inch drain- tube is connected, and this is passed along horizontally till it reaches a point outside the dung-pit wall to any point de- sirable ; it is then curved, and continued verti- cally up till it reaches the level of the ground, where it is covered with a stone cap, in the centre of which is a circular aperture to admit the barrel of the liquid-manure pump, the tube of which descends nearly to the bottom of the ver- tical part of the drain-tube. The liquid-manure pump is fixed on a platform raised a height above the ground to admit of a cart being brought up to it at the proper level, so that the manure can be pumped at once into the liquid-manure cart. The drainage from the manure in the dung-pit passes into the liquid-manure tank by the iron grating fixed into the man-hole door of the tank, and which is placed in the centre of the arch of same. To facilitate the drainage, the floor of the pit is dished, or slopes on all sides. The roof of the shed is supported by uprights. The excavaticn for the tank shordd be made of such dimensions as to admit of the easy set- ting of the bricks and the puddled clay behind the bricks. The bottom arch or invert of the tank should be laid upon a puddled-clay bed of 1 2 inches thick ; in a close, retentive clay soil, this will, of course, be dispensed with. The clay, both under the invert and behind the bricks, should be laid in thin layers, not in thick masses, each layer to be well rammed down before the next layer be added. In puddling behind the COVERED DUNG PIT AND LIQUID-MANURE TANK. bricks of the vertical walls of the tank, cure must be taken to bring the puddle well up to the bricks. The bricks forming the invert or bottom arch of the tank to be carefully bedded in puddle, and the joints made in hydraulic cement. The walls of the tank should be carried up in courses not exceeding three bricks in height, and the back of each course puddled carefully with clay, as above described. The connection of the lower end of pump pipe should be carefully made, and well cemented all round the opening with hydraulic cement. The floor of the manure pit to be made of concrete, composed of three parts crushed brick, or clean, sharp, river sand, to one of Portland cement. The concrete is to bo laid 2 inches thick, upon a bottoming of road metal of size sufficient to pass through a 2-inch ring; the depth of bottoming to be 4 inches. It is not easy to give definite rules to propor- tion the dimensions of manure pit and tank, but the following statements will be of use in deciding upon these. A cubic yard of farm-yard manure from the cattle-boxes weighs one ton ; if made in the open yard or in cattle stalls, 15 hundredweight. When taken fresh or long, i.e. with the straw new or nearly so, the manure weighs considerably more than when half-rotten, the loss of weight being estimated at one-fifth. When the manure is thoroughly decomposed or ' short,' the loss of weight is one-half. The weight of cattle excreta varies very much ; one authority gives the weight of solid and liquid voided daily by an ox of average size at fifty-five pounds, twenty-five pounds of litter being used. Taking the depth of a liquid-manure tank at 10 feet inside measurement, — a greater depth is not easily made, this depth of tank requiring an excavation of 12 feet, — and the diameter 6 feet 10 inches, the contents are 2269 gallons, 6^ gallons to the cubic foot. A diameter of 9 feet gives, with the same depth, 4538 gallons; a diameter of 11 feet 10 inches, 6507 gallons ; and 13 feet 8 inches, 9076 gallons. In the illustra- tion in fig. 7, Plate 16, a small settling tank marked b is shown at the bottom. Where liquid manure is brought from the buildings, it might in the first instance be allowed to enter a settling tank before passing to the main one, as shown at a a in Plates 17 and 19. This tank allows all solid matter to be deposited, the overflow being comparatively pure, and passing away from the settling tank by a pipe, c c, at its upper part, this pipe leading directly to the large tank, / /, in which it is stored up until wanted. When a supply is required, either to moisten the dung in the pit above or to be led to the fields, it is taken out from the tank by means of a liquid-manure pump, which may either be a permanent fixture attached to the platform of the stage for pump shown in plan Plate 1 7, or it may be made so as to ' ship ' and ' unship ' as required. We have found the form of pump made by Richmond & Chandler, of Salford, work excellently in practice, and not liable to get out of repair. The liquid manure is led to the pump by the large pipe d d. Plate 19 is a transverse section on the line A B in plan, Plate 17. In Plate 46, G, fig. 3, we give front elevation of the woodwork at a a, Plate 18, being the part where the two bars cross to fill up the space between the verti- cal uprights of the rail with which the brick wall of dung-pit is crowned. In fig. 4, Plate 46, is an inside view of the edge or narrow side of the part in fig. 3, same plate. We have given in Plate 19 a 'longitudinal section' on the line C D in plan, Plate 17, in which a" a" is the dung-pit covered by the ojien roof, b b, and the retaining walls, c c, finished witli the open trelliswork, d d, with concreted floor sloping from all points to the grated opening, c e, which leads the deposited liquid to the tank, //, placed in the centre of the dung-pit. The liquid from the stables, cow-houses, etc., is led direct by means of open or covered drains, the latter circular and trapped, to a small collecting and depositing tank, a a, which is provided with a stone cover, g. From this the overflow leads to the small drain-pipe, h h, to the tank,//. The liquid is led or pumped, as previously stated, from the tank by the pipe d d, which is carried forwards and bent upwards to the level of the ground at i i. j j is part of the wall of pit, and k k the plan of settling tank, a a. There is, as many of our readers are aware, no science in which there are such diverse opinions as that of agriculture ; and we therefore find that, while some are greatly in favour of DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. covered tanks and manure pits, there are others who strongly object to having the dung covered at all, maintaining that its value is best kept up, if not raised, by allowing it to remain exposed to the atmosphere. We by no means admit this to be the case ; for it appears to be admitted by nearly all authorities, without exception, that the most valuable gases contained in the manure escape most freely and pass away in the atmo- sphere when exposed to it. Further, that the highly ammoniacal properties contained in dung are washed out of it, and conveyed to the sur- rounding soil, with all the greater facility if that be of a porous character, if the manure be exposed to rains and wet. If these things be so, then upon the whole it appears to be conceded on all hands, that the best way of preserving manure is to keep it from the atmosphere, and from being washed by the rains ; and that, upon the whole, this can best be secured by compressing it within an enclosed space, and covering that space by a partially open roof, in a manner more or less modified, somewhat similar in detail to the design we have given. One of our most ad- vanced agriculturists thus puts the advantages obtained by the employment of covered dung- pits such as we have illustrated. While the dung kept in the ' open heap has twice to be removed, and once turned over, the covered-yard manure needs no manipulation, but can at once be carried to and placed upon the land, with all its manurial ingredients unwashed and un- wasted ; no drippings of waste from it, for the liquid and solid voidances are all mashed into a paste ; and there is no unprofitable carting of rain water, as in the case of the open yards.' The best form of floor, the most solid and the most lasting, is that formed of concrete, of which, in Plates 18 and 19, we give a section showing its construction. In this the outline is not flat, or at right angles to the walls, but, as shown in the diagram, slopes away on all sides to the centre, at which point there is placed an iron grating, r, through which any liquid percolating from the solid manure above passes to the tank beneath. The total depth of the floor-covering in this mode of construction is 6 inches, of which 4 are filled up with broken stones about 2 inches in diameter, the remaining 2 inches being covered with the coating of concrete. The cement best to be used for this concrete is that known as ' Portland,' which, to be of good quality, should weigh not less than 105 lbs. to the bushel. This is to be mixed with sharp sand, or clean, small, sharp gravel, with water sufficient to mix it to the consistency of thin mortar. The pro- portion of sand or gravel to the cement may be, as already stated, three or four, or more, but the higher the proportion of cement the better the work. The sides — indeed, the whole of the tank — may be formed of the concrete ; but in this case a mould will be required to retain the cement or concrete till it sets ; no mould will be required, it is needless to state, for the floor, as the con- crete is simply placed on the ground and levelled. The tank, like the retaining walls, may be made of brickwork set in the cement, special care being taken to have the joints made perfectly water-tight. PLANNING AND CONSTRUCTION OF FARM-HOUSES. 103 CHAP TEE XL FAEM-HOUSES, THEIR PLANNING AND GENERAL CONSTRUCTION. '.miry General Considerations. — Sanitary evils are generally written and spoken about as if they belonged to and were exclusively connected with the houses of towns. And, no doubt, those when so placed, so arranged and constructed as they too often are, it must be, and no doubt is, a hard thing for those living in them to live in them healthily. With rooms badly arranged in relation to one another, and these too often cramped in their dimensions, ill lighted, and worse ventilated, healthy living must be a daily struggle in them. But it may be objected to this view of the matter, that it is only applicable to houses in towns, and these only in their ' back slums ' and degraded quarters, and that it does not apply to houses in the country, ' where all is fair to look upon, all is fine to know.' And the objection holds good to a certain extent, but only to a certain extent. For it is unfortunately too true, that the sanitary evils connected with house arrangement and construction are not confined to the towns, but are too often met with in the country, — not so obvious, doubtless, in many respects, but not the less dangerous because not known, or, if known, not cared for. Country hamlets may be fair to look upon, and may raise only pleasurable emotions in the mind of the traveller as he looks upon them from a passing train ; but a nearer and closer inspection would show that it was only distance which had lent enchantment to the view, and that in many in- stances the work of the sanitary reformer was but too much needed there. Nor need the other objection be taken to our remarks in this view, that if there are sanitary evils existing amongst country houses, it is only amongst those of the poorer or the very poor classes, and that they certainly are not to be met with amongst those in which the rich and the well-to-do live. Country houses — and we include in the term farm-houses as well as mere residences or seats — are only too abundant in which the evils aris- ing from damp, the emanations of badly-dealt- with sewage and fscal matters, or from those not dealt with at all, from badly lighted and badly ventilated rooms, are existent to a degree of danger not dreamed of by many, even amongst those who live in them. It has, indeed, of late been pretty well seared into the minds of many who formerly took no thought upon the subject, and exercised no care to know about it, that ' halls,' as well as ' huts where poor men He,' may, with all their completeness, be very dan- gerous places to live in, and that it behoves them, at all events, to see whether this thing be so or no. Sanitary construction, in point of fact, using the term in its widest acceptation, is a thing which, if it is to exist at all, will exist in the future; for, despite all that has been said and written about its importance, it is not a thing of the present. We doubt, indeed, whether many houses in the kingdom can be met with which, in their arrangement and construction, show that all the details indicated by the science — for science of a high order it is — have been thought of and carried carefully out. But the considerations affecting the health of householders are not the only ones which should be kept in view. If houses are built to live in, people must not only Eve in them healthily, but comfortably, — that is, where aE the conveniences of living well are carefully ministered to. And the necessities of living thus demand that not only great and important points be attended to as regards construction, but the many little things also as regards arrangement. Life, after io4 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. all, is made up of little things, and we incline to think that the want of little things, which minister to one's comfort and convenience, tries one's tem- per and tests one's patience more than the want of what we call great things of more seeming importance. What these little things, both in house arrangement and construction, are, we shall see as we proceed. And, first, as to the site of the house. This involves three points, — the soil, the aspect, and the laying out of the site. The best soil for a house, according to the majority of authorities, is gravel ; the worst, stiff clay. Although some recent investigations have thrown doubt upon the opinion that a stiff clay is the worst, we nevertheless hold with the majority that it is the worst soil for a site. Much can, however, be done in the way of bringing even this soil to a fairly healthy condition, by thoroughly draining it. Sandy soil is a very healthy one on which to build, although certain precautions are necessary in forming the foundations of the walls on it. Ague and other diseases prevalent in damp and marshy soils are rarely if ever present on sandy soils, and the same may be said of gravel soils. The position of the site is a point of no small im- portance, and should not be overlooked ; we refer to its position relative to the surrounding land or to certain objects, such as a river, a pond, or lake. At first sight, an elevated position would seem to be the best, for from it not only is the best and widest prospect obtained, but it is cer- tainly the healthiest, as affording the most readily availed of facilities for carrying off not merely the drainage water of the soil, but of the sewage matter of the household, and the air will be more bracing and drier than on a lower site. But, on the other hand, it should be remembered that an elevated site subjects the house placed on it to heavy gusts of wind and to battering rains ; and as, moreover, in the case of a farm-house, the farm buildings proper are placed near it, a great deal of labour is expended in cartage and horse-work, which would be avoided on more level ground. A site moderately elevated should therefore be chosen, as the one best calculated to aid the daily work of a farm. A site near the base of a steep ascent is often chosen, with a view of obtain- ing shelter from certain winds ; but it is not a good one, as, although the house may be sheltered from the obnoxious wind blowing directly upon it, still winds blowing in the direction of the rising ground are often deflected and driven back upon the house, and forced down the chimneys. A house placed on such a site is almost always a smoky house when the wind is in a certain direction. And the site of the house, moreover, is generally damp, from the drainage-waters of the rising ground behind it finding their readiest access by the soil at a lower level on which the house stands. A site free from rising grounds in immediate proximity to the house, and yet moderately elevated, so that drainage from all sides will be easily secured, will be the best. It is scarcely necessary to say that a site near marshy ground should never be chosen, although it frequently is. And although the objections to such a site do not often obtain with such force in the case of a lake, pond, or piece of orna- mental water, still, even in such cases, the house should not be built immediately upon the margin of the water. Near proximity to a river, in fact, is found to be a bad tiling where lung complaints, etc. are in existence in the household, especially when the river has a slow, sluggish current, and the waters stretch out into long reaches or bays. The case is worse where the waters of the pond or lake are nearly stagnant, and still worse where the house is so placed, as it sometimes is with relation to the water, that the site is actually on a lower level ; in this case, drainage from the pond, etc. to the house is in- evitable. A sheltered situation, or what is popularly known as this, is considered the great desideratum for a country or farm house ; but it should be recollected that the site may be too well sheltered, — so much so that the air may be stagnant round it, no healthy breezes being allowed to reach it. To carry out this notion of complete shelter, not only are houses often placed in low-lying places surrounded M-ith rising ground, but trees are planted round it, not only in great numbers, but in close proximity to the houses. Now, while by no means objecting to trees, it is worth while to state that they may be so placed in relation to a house as to make that house positively un- healthy. They should never be so placed as to SITE OF THE HOUSE— THE KITCHEN-GARDEN. 105 exclude the sunlight and the free access of air. A gloomy house, into the rooms of which the sun can never force unfettered access, is not, cannot be, a healthy house. Moreover, when trees are so placed as to prevent the free access of the sun and light to the house, another evil arises from the dampness engendered and the unhealthy ex- halations which often arise from ground over- shadowed by trees. Rather than have trees near a house, it is better far to trust to the security of shelter from the cold fierce winds by raising a belt of trees and shrubs, but these planted at some distance from the house. When this is judiciously done, it is surprising how a keen cold wind is tem- pered before it reaches the house, even although the trees be planted at that distance from it which we consider essential to health ; and that, moreover, when the belt of trees is but of small breadth. The beneficial effects of leafage and branches in tempering winds is a point not much known. The site of the house should be near a road, for reasons of convenience obvious enough ; but, in order to avoid as much as possible the dust from the road entering the rooms, the house should be placed some distance from the road, and — if the dictates of good taste be thought of — hid, or partially hid, from the public gaze by a belt of ornamental trees and shrubs. The exclusion, to as complete a degree of practical efficiency as possible, of dust is a matter of more importance than at first sight it might be presumed to be ; for dust is not only a dirty thing, but being foul in another sense not always thought of, it is positively unhealthy, and is one of the constituents of the unhealthy air which we breathe too often in our dwelling-houses. The position of the site with relation to sur- rounding objects having been briefly considered, we come now to the aspect of the site, or rather that of the house which is to occupy the site. The best ' look out ' or aspect of the principal rooms is the south-east. By principal rooms we mean those which are occupied by the family during the day ; it being essential, where health is con- sidered, that these should have as much as pos- sible of the direct sunlight, and this the south- east gives. We are too well aware of the fact that housewives do not like the sun to shine in upon rooms, the ' saving of the carpet ' being with them the object in view. While we have some consideration for this economical view of the matter, we have none whatever for that which holds it to be the fashionable thing to do, namely, to have drawing, dining, or sitting-room shrouded in partial darkness during the day. Be the motive what it may, however, it is our part to point out the fact that sunlight and heat exercise a most important and beneficial influence upon health ; but if carpets or fashion be deemed by some to be of more value than health, on this point we have nothing to say. The relation which the house should occupy to its kitchen - garden is a subject upon which much could be written ; but it is one to which, for obvious reasons, we cannot devote more than a sentence or two. The usual arrangement is for the kitchen-garden to be at the back of the house, and at as great a distance from it as possible, as if it were an object to be got out of sight, an inconvenience, or a convenience the existence of which is to be tacitly admitted, but not brought forward as one to be proud of, or to form part of the residence and its surroundings which are to be the seen or show parts of it. We believe this to be a mistake. While, no doubt, placing the smoothest lawn, the finest shrubs, and the fairest flowers so that they can be seen always from the best or most frequently occupied part of the house, we would not box up or wall in the kitchen-garden, as is nearly always done. To a gardener of good taste and thoroughly practical knowledge, there should be no difficulty in making the kitchen-garden play an important part in the general surrounding of the house — ■ to make it a pleasant thing for the eyes to look upon. The relation, again, which the farm-house should bear to the farm steading or home stall is one upon which it is necessary to offer a few remarks. The view of the surrounding country which a house should have, has always, and properly, been considered a point of importance ; yet some have so far lost sight of this as regards a farm-house, as to go the length of actually recommending that the farm-house should occupy a site so near the farm steading, or rather should form so complete io6 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. a part of it, that the farmer may be able from its windows to command a full view of all the opera- tions going on in it. With this view we need scarcely say we by no means coincide. The close contiguity of the farm-house with the steading, implied in the fact that its windows may over- look all that is going on upon it, and which is advocated by some, does not meet our views as to site. At first sight it appears to be right that the master's supervision should be constant, and to attain this, that his house windows should over- look the farm buildings, so as to take in the whole at once. This implies, at least, that he is always looking or often looking out of his windows — not a very dignified occupation for any one. All the fair requirements — fair for the master and man alike — of an honest supervision will be met by having the farm-house near the steading, within such easy reach that when so disposed the farmer may step clown to the offices ; and, to our way of thinking, more influence wdl be exercised upon the men to induce them to work faithfully by the unexpected or irregular visits which their master thus makes, than by personal overlooking, which partakes too much of the character of slave- driving, and too little of the quiet characteristics and manly independence of modern farming, to be to our taste. Plan of a Farm-house. — This brings us to the accommodation which the farm-house should possess. And here, at the outset, we freely express our disbelief in what are called ' model plans.' Practically, there can be no such thing as a plan which can be designed to suit the always varying requirements of different families and different circumstances of farming. It may be that now and then a plan which has been designed to meet the necessities of one will be found suitable for another, but the cases will be few — so few that, as said above, practically there is no such thing as a model plan. Each house must be planned to meet the requirements of the farmer who is to inhabit it ; we know of no other rule for guidance in this case. Still, certain accommodation is required in every house, and cannot be dispensed with, such as the kitchen and working apartments, and the living and sleeping apartments. We have already said that we do not believe in model plans, and in giving the plans we now do of a first or second-class farm-house or country residence, we do not put them forward otherwise than as suggestive plans illustrating the apartments required in a house, the means and position of the occupants of which are supposed to be such as demand arrangements calculated to minister to some of the elegancies as well as to the comforts of modern life, and these apartments arranged in such a way as to meet in a fairly successful manner the conveni- ences of a household. The plans, no doubt, are open to criticism ; for that, indeed, they are here offered, and we ourselves could easily enough point out faidts in them, or means by which their arrange- ments could be improved. It is right, however, to state that they are the result of much study, and have received the approval of a first-rate agricultural authority, whatever that be worth. Fig. 18 is the ground plan, fig. 19 the chamber plan, and fig. 20 the foundation and cellar plan. In commenting upon these plans, we shall take up the various classes of apartments in order, giving such remarks thereon as we deem likely to be serviceable in a practically suggestive way. Working Apartments of the Farm-house, — Kitchen, Scullery, etc. — And first as to the ' work- ing apartments.' These, it will be observed from fig. 18, are all placed in close and direct relation to each other, so that no time will be lost unne- cessarily by traversing long passages in going from one to another. First in importance of these working apartments is the kitchen. This should be large and spacious, well lighted and ventilated. The fire-place should be large, and fitted up with one of the ' patent cooking-ranges ' now so largely used. The boiler attached to this should be of as large dimensions as can be obtained in the space, as boiling or hot water is often and urgently required in a farm-house. To add to the means of sirpplying this when re- quisite, the boiler in the scullery may be used. The windows of the kitchen should be so placed with relation to the fire-place that a full light may be thrown upon the cooking and other operations going on at the range. For frequently do we find kitchen windows so placed that the cook works, if not quite in the dark, certainly in a shade not calculated to aid the work she may be engaged on. The worst position for the PLAN SHOWING ARRANGEMENTS OF FARM-HOUSE. 107 window is in front of the fire-place, for then the cook stands literally in her own light ; the best is at the side, as in the plan in fig. 18. Cross- lights are good, and the advantage obtained from having the windows which give them is that, when required, the kitchen may be thoroughly ventilated and ' air blown ' through it by opening them. In the plan in fig. 18 this advantage cannot be obtained, in consequence of the position of the pantry and scullery ; but it might still be obtained, although to a less efficient extent, by having a window in the corner next to the left hand (looking towards the fire) of the fire-place. Ventilation should be secured by having a venti- lating air-flue built up alongside the chimney- flue, and fresh air supplied by one or other of the methods described in a succeeding chapter. The flooring of the kitchen is always a disputed point with builders, some preferring stone flags, others tiles, and others flooring boards. There is not much dispute upon the point amongst good housewives, who almost invariably prefer flooring boards, not only because the floor surface is more comfortable, but because pride is taken in having it kept so clean that the ' boards are made to look as good as new.' If a hard cold floor sur- Fig. IS. Ground Plan or First Floor of Farm-house of a Superior Class. Scale in fig. 20. face, however, be preferred, we unhesitatingly recommend Portland cement concrete to be used, in preference to stone flagging or tiles. The advantages of the concrete we have elsewhere fully explained. One advantage alone may be repeated here which no other form of flooring surface gives, namely, it is wholly without cracks or seams in winch dust, dirt, or water can lodge. The kitchen should be placed near to the dining- room, and yet isolated therefrom as much as possible. This isolation will best be secured by having a passage between the kitchen and the dining-room, as in the plan (fig. 1 8), thus cutting off the smell arising from cooking, etc., and also the noise attendant, or which seems to be neces- sarily attendant, upon the performance of all kitchen duties. To save the servants from much walking, we have given a door to the dining-room, opening into the passage near the kitchen, but this may be dispensed with if necessary ; it will, however, be a great saving of labour, and if the kitchen be properly ventilated, the nuisance arising from the smell of cooking will be reduced to a minimum. An ample supply of shelving should be given to the kitchen, and an excellent cupboard may be made in the recess at the side ioS DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. of the fire-place which is not occupied with a window as above recommended. A housewife who knows what work is, never objects to having too much accommodation for ' putting things away. ' The Scullery. — This apartment should be placed in immediate connection with the kitchen ; it should be provided with a small fire-place and a copper or small boiler and furnace. A large and shallow slop-stone should be provided on which to wash the dishes and cooking utensils ; it should be not more than two and a half or three inches in depth, and be rounded off at the corners, the bottom being curved easily up to meet the flat border at ends and sides, the breadth of the border being not less than three and a half inches. This slop-stone will be easily kept clean, and be in every way much more useful than the deep abominations appropriately known as ' sinks.' At one end of the slop-stone, a flat surface of stone, at the same level as the margin of the slop-stone itself, should be placed ; the breadth of this ecpial to the slop-stone, say twenty-eight inches, and the length say three feet. This stone shelf, as in fact it is, will be found very useful in cleaning up dishes, etc. The hot and cold water-pipes should be terminated above the slop- stone. The slop-stone and shelf should be sup- i or Chamber Plan on Second Floor of Farm-house in fig. 18. Scale in fig. 20. ported upon brick pillars, bull-nosed at front — that is, with the corners rounded off- — so as to afford space below the slop-stone on which to put away various kitchen and working utensils. The scullery should be amply provided with shelving for dishes, and face-boards with hooks to hang vessels of various kinds from. A back door should be provided by which to gain access to the back-yard. The scullery should not be made a ' washing-house.' We would ear- nestly recommend this, together with the laundry, to be built in the yard close to the scullery, but yet cmite separate from the house. The wash- house proper should be provided with boiler and furnace, and wash-tubs, to each of which a cold and hot water-pipe should be attached. The laundry should be provided with racks to dry clothes upon, a furnace to heat the irons upon, and a large ironing table. Both wash-house and laundry should be well lighted and ventilated. Pantry and Store - room Accommodation. — • Abundance of pantry and store room should be provided in the farm-house. In the ground plan (fig. 18), the large store-room is provided for the storing up of what may be called the permanent provisions and materials, the small pantry next DAIRY AND CELLAR APARTMENTS OF FARM-HOUSE. log the scullery being only designed for the mate- rials daily and hourly wanted ; the pantry behind the scullery and dairy is designed for what may be called the housekeeper's pantry. No fire-place is shown in the large store-room, although we recommend that one should be given, as an occa- sional fire in damp weather will be serviceable. The dairy is designed to make up the small quantity of butter and to keep the milk required for the family, the large business dairy being part of the farm buildings — that is, if dairy- farming forms part of the business of the farm. The dairy (and scullery also) should be floored with Portland cement concrete. We need scarcely say that we highly disapprove of the placing of the water-closet next to the dairy, as shown in the plan in fig. 18. Its position there — than which there coidd not be a worse — was insisted upon by the party for whom the house was designed ; and being so placed, we did not consider it necessary to alter the arrangement of the plan as now given. For our views as to the position of the water-closet of a house, see a succeeding chapter. Cellar Apartments. — One of the cellar apart- ments (see fig. 20) should be fitted up with stone -*wf- Fig. 20. Cellar or Basement Plan of Farm-house in figs. IS and 19. shelves on a low level, and timber shelves on a higher level, and a large salting-stone, with dished recessed parts, should be provided on which to salt hams, meat, etc. The roof above should be provided with a series of strong hooks, which will be found useful in a variety of ways. Ceiling- hooks, we may also remark here, should be liberally supplied to the kitchen, scullery, pantries, and store-room, from which to hang hams, flitches of bacon, etc. Entertaining or Public Rooms. — We need say little of the entertaining rooms, the dining and drawing rooms, the fittings and arrangements of which will depend upon the taste and the means of the occupants. We have provided (see plan, fig. 1 8) a room which may be used either as a parlour, breakfast-room, library, or office. The dimensions of the entertaining rooms will also be dependent upon the above circumstances ; but we would suggest that, although by no means objecting to these rooms being of large and ele- gant proportions, the comfort of the other and essential parts of the house should not be sacri- ficed to obtain this. A suggestive elevation of this house will be found in Plate 23, to a larger scale. DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. llnl-room Accommodation. — This refers espe- cially to the bed-room accommodation, which ve too often see treated as if it were altogether a secondary consideration, the primary one appa- rently being to have large and elegant ' show- rooms,' as the entertaining rooms of a house have been by some wags, and with a good deal of pun- gent truth, ironically called. Let it be always kept in view, in the planning of a house, that the health of its occupants is the primary thing to be considered, and that this can best be considted by having those rooms the largest and most con- veniently arranged in which the occupants of the house spend the greatest portion of their time ; and this is done in the bed-rooms. We are great advocates for making the bed-rooms the best rooms in the house ; they should also be as numerous as possible. It is a great mistake to proportion their number to meet the wants only of the normal condition of the family. We should have in a farm or country house more than the mere conventional spare room; we should have spare rooms, to meet the sudden demands made upon the hospitality of the host, which occur so often in country districts. These spare rooms would also be extremely useful in cases of sickness. A hint may here be given as to the bed-room accommodation for servants, if, indeed, the term ' room ' be allowable in writing of the accommodation too frequently given in this part of a house, which consists of some wretchedly-confined, damp, dingy, and dark hole on the ground floor, or some small closet at the top of the house under the slates, cold in winter and hot in summer, and not always wind and rain proof — accommodation which we have no hesitation in designating as disgraceful and de- grading, alike to the giver and recipient of it. We would advocate no luxury in the bed-rooms for servants, but we would nphold, nay, insist upon the necessity for then- being neatly arranged and cleanly kept, and, of course, large enough to be comfortable, and so fitted up as to be healthy. We have seen dog-kennels in the country quarters of gentlemen in every sense better rooms than the so-called ' bed-rooms ' of servants. In Plate 23 we give front elevation of the plans of the farm-house of which, in the woodcuts of this chapter, we have given the plans. Fig. 2 is an alternative design for upper part of bay window, having a ' flat ' at top, on which flower vases may be placed. It will be observed that the plans are reversed in position in the text, for the convenience of lettering, etc. ; the front of fig. 18, for example, being the end towards the left hand. To give variety to the elevation in Plate 23, the window of nursery (see fig. 19) may go up so far into the roof, the outside elevation being as shown in the dotted lines a a. We might multiply such examples almost acl infinitum ; but all that we deem it necessary here to give are plans of the farm-house of a smaller class than that already illustrated. The elevation of this is shown in fig. 1, Plate 24, an alternative illustration being shown in fig. 2. In Plate 25, fig. 1, the 'ground plan,' a is the lobby; b, the dining-room ; c, breakfast-parlour or drawing- room ; d, the kitchen ; e, the scullery ; /, the wash-house, with back door, g ; h, china closet ; i and j, cupboards. In fig. 2, the ' chamber plan,' a is the landing with skylight over ; b, the stairs leading from ground plan in fig. 1 ; c and d, front bed-rooms ; c, dressing-closet ; fg, back bed-rooms ; h, servants' bed-room ; i, the water-closet. The scale to which these plans are drawn is 8 feet to the inch, or -|- in. = 1 ft. But few words are required to be said on the subject of the ' bailiffs house,' which may be defined either as a first-class cottage, or as a third, or perhaps a second-class farm-house, according to circum- stances. Thus the plan just described may be considered as one applicable to bailiffs. In Plate 26, we give in fig. 1 the elevation, and in fig. 2 the plan, of a single-storeyed bailiffs house. In fig. 2, a is the lobby ; b, the sitting-room, with bed-room over and cellar under, the former being gained by the stair going in the direction of the arrow c, entering from the back lobby, d; the cellar being entered from the kitchen, c, in the direction shown by the arrow, /. Over the kitchen there is a bed-room, in line with that over the sitting-room, and lighted by a dormer window ; g is the scullery ; h, larder ; i, wood and general store-closet ; j, water-closet ; h, bailiffs bed-room, with a gun and odds-and-ends closet at I ; m, bed-room. In Plate 2 7 we give two alter- native elevations of another bailiffs house, single- storeyed, but of a higher architectural class, to THE BAILIFF'S HOUSE. suit special situations. The plan is shown in fig. 1, Plate 28, in which a is the porch ; b, the inner lobby; c, the bed-room; d, the sitting-room; c, spare bed-room, or servants' do. ; /, the kitchen ; g, the scullery, in which a bed may be fitted up for the housekeeper at a ' pinch,' when the bachelor bailiff has a friend with him ; h, the larder ; i, the water-closet, which will be improved if made with an external set-off, as shown at j. The scale for this plan, and for elevation in Plate 2 7, is 8 feet to the inch. In fig. 2, Tlate 28, we give the plan of a single-storeyed bailiff's cottage, with more bed-room accommodation than the last, and which is drawn to a scale of 12 feet to the inch. In this, a is the porch ; b, the lobby ; c, the dining-room ; b, front bed-room ; e, small back bed-room ; /, do. ; g, servants' bed-closet, lighted by skylight over ; h, kitchen ; i, scullery ; j, water-closet ; with space for guns, etc. at k, and hats at I; m, china closet. DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. CHAPTER XII. THE COTTAGES OF THE FARM. Theee are few subjects connected with what is termed the economy of the farm, to which so much attention has been directed, and so much both written and said, as that which forms the subject of the present chapter ; and, as may well be conceived, few on which such diversities of opinion have been promulgated, and so many plans and projects proposed. From this, there- fore, it may be inferred that it will be impossible to give more than merely the briefest of outlines of the subject, which possesses also such a wide variety of details, many of which are of great importance. Into the discussion of the subject as a whole, a good deal of irrelevant matter has been introduced, as well as a warmth of expres- sion which scarcely befits one which claims to be considered part of an important science. We shall therefore endeavour not to follow the ex- amples thus set, but to keep as closely as possible to the purely practical details. As, however, the subject is generally treated under the two aspects of what may be called ' practically paying ' and ' philantbi'opical,' — which last, as a rule, ignores all considerations connected with the first, — it will, however, scarcely be possible so to treat the subject as to exclude all points philanthropic, for these in- volve others which are of necessity closely bound up with the whole subject. In truth, the social and moral considerations connected with it are not only important in themselves, but they form what may be called the guiding motives which brought about the necessity for the improvements in cottage building, and largely dictated the principles upon which these have been carried out. Indeed, it might almost be said that, had it not been for the moral evils which arose from the condition into which the dwellings of our labouring population had been allowed through a long course of years to fall, their improve- ment would in all probability have been retarded for a long period. These moral evils were so numerous, and acted so injuriously upon the population, and, by the natural course of events, also, although in less degree, doubtless on that part of it above them which had the good fortune to be placed in better circumstances, that they were compelled, so to say, to adopt methods by which those wretched dwellings were either wholly done away with or vastly improved. But not only were the moral evils numerous and lamentable in their results, but, as may well be supposed, the physical ones were no less so ; and while they called forth the sympathies, they claimed the attention of those men of science who were best calculated to meet and overcome them. The result of the labours of the two classes interested in the amelioration of the condition of the labouring population, proves not merely that the removal of the moral and physical evils which had so long oppressed them, tended to raise their status in the rank of life, but that such improve- ment actually enabled a larger pecuniary profit to be made. It is needless to show how this was done, as it will be obvious on very slight consideration ; but we have said enough to show how, as stated at the commencement of this section, there has been from the first, and must always more or less be, an alliance or conjunction between what we called the purely practically paying and the philanthropic considerations con- nected with this important subject. It would be easy, if the space and scope of our work ad- mitted, to give what would be, under the best and most favourable view, a picture, so to say, of the condition of the dwelling-places of the labour- ing classes, which would be even then in one CONDITION OF, AND IMPROVEMENTS REQUIRED IN, COTTAGES. 113 sense melancholy in the extreme, from the cir- cumstances which it would embrace ; but our readers, if they have not already become well acquainted with the literature of the subject, will likely have seen enough in the course of their experience to render this labour on our part un- necessary. Suffice it to say that this condition was, as a rule, and is yet to a large extent, so bad, that it could, and can, scarcely be rendered worse. But while many will be disposed to admit that this is true of the dwelling-places in towns, on what is called their sanitary condition, they may not be disposed to admit that it was or is equally so in regard to the country ; we fear, however, that but a very slight experience of facts, as they have existed and still exist, will rapidly dispel this illusion. We could easily cite instances from our own experience in proof of this, but we prefer to quote the evidence of a recent and high authority, who thus describes the condition of certain rural houses in a rural district : ' These, detached and in rows, so filthy in their surround- ings, that we must step from stone to stone to obtain entrance. With many, too, I think almost a majority, the doorstep was broken or want- ing. The walls were in a most wretched plight, and the whole set down at random on a piece of land, which, from the awkwardness of the place, seemed impossible to be intended for any purpose.' Well might the writer say that he imagined ' that such wretched places were temporary, and that the owners were only waiting for a convenient day of improvement ; but such a hope,' he says, ' is gone by, and I now perceive that they are actually considered as finished and habitable. The people living in such places are not at all times degraded,' continues the eminent authority we are quoting, ' I am happy to say, but they are unfortunate in having too few wants, — a state which, in my opinion, is not philosophical, for I believe that the school of Diogenes did not deserve to live except among the self-indulgent.' While the last remark is true enough, so far as regards what may be called the better class of labour, or the small farmers, we fear it is but too often the case, as regards the condition of the majority of the ordinary labourers as a class, that his wants are by no means always attended to, however few they may be, as few they generally are ; and if they were, it would be well both for them as well as for their employers, to whom their right physical condition must of necessity be a matter of vital importance. What these wants are, we shall endeavour, as briefly yet as fully as possible, to explain in the succeeding paragraphs. But while saying this, and by implication putting the land- lord or the farmer, whose duty it is to supply cottages for the labourer, and when supplied to keep them in habitable order, apparently in the wrong, we by no means join with those ultra- philanthropists who see all evil existing amongst these two classes, and all good amongst the labourers. Although less injury has been clone to the agricultural than to the urban working population by the utterances, so to say, of the press and platform during the last two or three decades, — utterances which have impressed the labourers with a notion that they are very ill- used people indeed, and that everything was to be done for them, and they were to do nothing for themselves, — still it is unfortunately the fact that quite enough of injury has been done to the rural working people to lead them to sup- pose that all virtue was comprised amongst them ; whereas the truth, and it is one abundantly evi- dent on very slight consideration, is that human nature breaks out in its phases amongst them as amongst their superiors, — phases displaying evi- dences of what we have elsewhere described as remarkably spicy bits of evil-dispositioned human nature, and which, when they come in contact with similar phases amongst their employers, makes it a somewhat puzzling task for our phil- anthropists, as well as our practical men, to settle satisfactorily. That we have not as yet struck out the path through the wilderness of words, opinions, and circumstances in connection with this wide and important subject, we have but to take up the leading journals of the day to find abundant evidence ; and certainly, in connection with it, there can be no manner of doubt as to the fact that the interests of employers and em- ployed are in every way identical. For, as we have in another place put it, the briefest con- sideration wdl show that, as the employer pays a man to get so much work out of him, it is by no means a common-sense proceeding to force him to live under such circumstances of house U4 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. or home as will of necessity deteriorate his work- ing capabilities; and that these are deteriorated by bad house accommodation and its numerous cognate evils, is, after the experience of a long course of years, axiomatic enough. For if we breathe bad air, or live in damp, dark houses, diseases and complaints, more or less marked and dangerous, must reduce bodily strength and that vigorous working power which it is worth some- thing for the employer to have existing amongst his labourers. Enough, then, yet not more than enough, as to what may be called the philosophy of the subject ; let us now turn to the practice, which we shall find as we proceed to be sur- rounded with difficulties of no common order. Nor need this be wondered at, if we consider the vast variety of details and practical considera- tions mixed up with it, creating what has been truly designated as a many-sided subject. Nor have the difficulties connected with it been lessened by the way in which some, who have claimed for themselves the right to be considered as practical authorities, have gone about its work in anything but a practical way. One circum- stance alone, for example, has done much to retard true progress, namely, forgetting or ignoring the fact that the condition, so to call it, of the agricultural working population is materially dif- ferent from that of the towns ; and this extends also to what may be called the economics of landed property. What these are which affect, and are the effects of, this important subject, we shall see as we proceed. We have said that it is a many-sided one ; thus we have to consider what some authorities look upon as the primary, if not the only point, — namely, sanitary details. These, of course, are of vital importance, and must be duly attended to and secured in the highest degree of efficiency ; but the paying point is one which cannot be overlooked, for, however much philanthropists may be inclined to do so, certainly the landlords will not be so. Again, the relation of the pro- perty created by the erection of cottages on an estate must be considered with reference to the legal position and responsibilities of the landlord in regard to it. Then come up not a few points connected with the social economics of the question, which must be fully discussed and decided before the whole details can be said to be fairly exhausted. Taking these as what may be called its leading divisions, we proceed to consider in somewhat regular order their import- ant details , and for obvious reasons we shall consider first the second of the above divisions, namely, that which refers to the point of paying. A great deal has been written and said upon this, not always with a wise judgment, inasmuch as considerations connected with the property have, as we have already hinted at, been lost sight of or thought to be of little moment. But these cannot and ought not to be overlooked, as it is not merely present proprietors who are always concerned in the matter, for they act as trustees, so to say, for the rights of those who have to come after them ; but apart from this considera- tion, we maintain that it is perfectly legitimate for every one erecting cottage property to see that he is fairly paid for his outlay, nor in being so does it follow that he is to lose sight of the purely philanthropic considerations. And urgent as these latter are, and essentially necessary to be attended to, we believe that this will be made more likely to be the case when the property is planned and erected so judiciously that it will pay a fair outlay for its cost, than when, by going what we may call wildly into the matter, money is expended so lavishly that no fair and adequate remuneration can be reasonably expected to be obtained from the property. There can be no doubt of this, that the general question of the improvement of labourers' cottages has been greatly influenced by the careless expenditure of many, which has naturally deterred others from following in the same line who have forgot the simple fact that there might be some other plan of proceeding with the work, by which at once the paying and the philanthropic considerations might be equally and fairly met. We shall see as we proceed several considerations which affect this point, but which have been too frequently overlooked. There is, however, the other side of the question, which weighs with a greater force, and operates on a larger number of proprietors than many conceive of, or would be likely to conceive. This class do not trouble themselves as to whether cottages will pay, from the simple fact that they do not care to build them at all ; ARRANGEMENT AND CONSTRUCTION OF COTTAGES. and this they excuse on several grounds, which need not be entered into here. Suffice it to say, that evidence ample enough can be afforded them, and to some of which we have already alluded, that if philanthropy has no weight with them, their own interests unmistakeably should. This, it must be confessed, is a delicate point for one to enter upon ; but if private considerations are to have their due weight, which can scarcely be denied, it must on the other hand be conceded that there are public ones which no man is en- titled at least wholly to overlook. Before dis- missing the paying point, there is one thing which should not be lost sight of, that the conditions of rural cottage and town cottage property are so essentially different, that the country cannot be expected in any case, however prudently managed, to pay so well as that in the town. Cottage property in the country must almost of necessity come under somewhat the same condition as that of the farm or general land of the estate, which we all know does not yield the high return of that in towns, and much of the outlay of which is a long time before it begins to yield a return at all. On this point a judicious writer has the following remarks, bearing so closely upon the whole subject of the present chapter, and so suggestive of many practical considerations, that we deem it right to give them here : ' Were the outlay on a house and the rent of a house for farm work as indefinite in their proportions and returns as the outlay on the fields of a farm, and its returns as uncertain, and if the human con- stitution had not such a merciful and such a wonderful power of self-adaptation to hard usage above that of all other created living things, I venture to say cottages would have been infinitely better than they are. How many millions upon millions are sunk in the fields, that have never paid at all, and never will pay ! and how many more are laid out every year on the bare pro- bability only of paying in the long run ! And this cheerfully, too ; for if all this had not been done and were not continued to be done, agri- culture could not prosper at all. Persons accus- tomed to manufacture any other raw material, on which they can exactly, if the market keep steady, calculate a certain return for a certain outlay, are apt to imagine that the same may be done in farming. A grievous mistake this, truly. Sup- pose the seasons and the markets never disap- pointed the farmer, the best chemical analysis and the best and most costly appliances may be all as good as thrown away on certain fields ; and yet such risks must still go on, because, as I hear the farmers often say, " If it is not to do with it, it will not do without it." Now I really have the greatest sympathy with all this very costly and constant adventure ; but I do plead also that it be extended somewhat more to the moral field, and to stone and lime this field ; for I am prone to think that when you set to house-building, you borrow too much of the certain percentage system from the people of the more certain returns on raw materials for outlay and work in towns, than your own land raw material in its working ever can show. Why, then, it may be argued, because of this uncertainty, the greater our return on the stone and lime outlay upon it ought to be. I could answer this in another way, but I take the farmer's way : " You cannot do without it, and I only now plead that you extend your risking to it as heartily as you do to your fields, and most assuredly your so doing will produce a set of hands who will work up this other raw material to you to a better repay- ing pitch, by much, than it has ever yet been before. Thus will your outlay be repaid, and that with usury." ' Having thus briefly introduced a subject the importance of wliich demands, if space would admit of it, a much more comprehen- sive statement of its various aspects, we now proceed to take up its leading departments. Arrangement and Construction of Cottages. — The first point in the practical department of cottage arrangement and construction to which we direct attention is that of the site. We have already, in the preceding chapter on the farm- house, gone into the details connected with soil, and its preparation in reference to site ; and what we have there given applies so closely in many details, that we do not require to go much further into the subject now, concerning ourselves chiefly with one or two points only which are frequently overlooked. First is the relation of the cottage to the farm for which it is designed. One would say that obviously the true position for the cot- tage is the point nearest to the place where the n6 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY labourer works. But obvious as this is, it is somewhat absurd to say that in many cases cottages are not even allowed to be built on the land where their occupiers work. We need not enter into any details of the reason why this system was adopted ; suffice it to say, that no considerations connected with the operation of the poor law as regards residence should ever have been allowed to interfere with the dictates of what are alike those of common sense and common humanity. It makes one almost ashamed to record the fact, that for the purpose of avoid- ing to maintain labourers when old age and poverty threw them on the last resource to which unremunerative labour is with us almost invari- ably driven, they were compelled to walk miles to and from their working place in order to find a house in a parish the bounds of which were bej'ond that in which the farm was situated. And after all, such a system could not in any sense of the term be said to be an economical one, its very object being frustrated by the loss of labour on the part of the poor workmen who are com- pelled to submit to it, it being a physical impos- sibility that any man could give his employer the full benefit of his physical energies, when these had been thrown away, so to say, upon the labour involved in walking to and fro in all weathers, and in all conditions of health, from the farm to his distant home. There is certainly vast improvement in this department ; indeed, the system cannot be said now, as a rule, to exist, although for other reasons, or from other causes, cottages are not always supplied to farms, either in the full number recpiired or in the proper state of repair and condition as to accommodation, so that many have to walk considerable distances from the farm to the cottage in which they live. It can hi no sense be the interest of the landed proprietor that the labourer should have a diffi- culty in finding a comfortable home at a point the nearest possible to that at which he works. His interest obviously is all the other way. But on the supposition that the labourer's cottage is placed on the farm on which he is to work, and that it is placed within a reasonable distance of the farmery or steading, where much of that work necessarily lies, let it be understood as a point of essential importance, that the actual site of it — for what we have been hitherto con- sidering has had in reality chiefly a reference to its position rather — should be such that the cottage will not merely have healthy land on which to stand, but that it should give to it a cheerful, pleasant aspect. Too often, as in the early part of this chapter we pointed out, cot- tages are built upon the worst plots which the farm can yield. This is a great mistake ; for where all the surroundings are of an adverse character, they exercise a bad influence upon the labourer, so that he is indifferent as to making it what it ought to be, a place pleasant to look at, which is his duty, as well as one healthy to live in, to secure which is that of the landlord. It is scarcely necessary to say that the cottage should have land sufficient for ample yard and garden ; and it will add to the attraction of the farm, as well as offer an incentive to the labourer to fill up his spare time with something better than that of filling nightly a corner in the bar parlour of the 'Cat and Fiddle,' if a small plot be placed in front of the cottage to be devoted to flower-gardening, bee-keeping, etc. The yard at the back of the house should be of such ample dimensions as to afford space for a good-sized privy, ash-pit, coal and wood house, and tool- house ; and it will be more complete, and will yield another outlet for pleasant labour which will tend to keep the cottager at home, if a small poultry-house or shed be added. The piggery ought to be a part of every cottage, as nothing scarcely tends so much to the economy of the household as the food yielded by a pig, and the food in the form of carefully-saved scraps, which would otherwise likely be thrown away, winch i ' piggy ' himself consumes. We now come to the accommodation of the cottage. This has been, and is, such a fertile subject for discussion, that amidst the vast variety of opinions which have been brought forward in connection with it, it is a matter of no small difficulty to place before the reader even the baldest and briefest statement of the leading points of but a few of these. One set of autho- rities will be found to insist upon a fixed rule, from which there is to be no deviation, while another set all rules at defiance ; both alike, how- ever, agreeing in this, that the peculiar circum- ACCOMMODATION OF COTTAGES VARYING WITH CIRCUMSTANCES. 117 stances of cottagers are not to be taken into account as an element in the consideration of the accommodation which they may require or wish to have. Now we maintain that the very opposite of this ought to be the rule, because it is obvious that these are precisely the points which ought to decide what the accommodation of a cottage should be. Hence cottages should have accommodation of a varied character, not so much as regards the actual size of the apartments themselves, — for there should be a minimum below which no apartment should be, — but as regards the number of those apartments, a small family obviously not requiring the same accom- modation which a large one will. It is very re- markable how much of what might be called this common-seuse principle has been overlooked ; and we venture to say that its having been so has been the main cause of the cottage question having been so much retarded in its practical solution in so many districts of the kingdom. And this simply because many cottages were built of so much more an expensive character than was absolutely necessitated, that the proprietors in many cases being, so to say, alarmed at their cost, were afraid to venture upon erecting others on their property. And we are free to confess that the feeling was very natural, and just what was very likely to be done by other classes simi- larly placed. Much might be said on this point, which unquestionably is an important one ; hut its leading features are so obvious, that we need not take up space by further dwelling upon it, the special circumstances of the farm or property giving the key to what will require to be done. One point only we shall deem it essential to in- sist upon, namely, that one or two or more cot- tages, according to circumstances, of the smallest class, should be built for old married couples past work, and for which if no occupant of this class on a farm should happen to be forth- coming, the same cottages would obviously do for an able-bodied labourer aud his wife, with no family, or, say, with but a single child. As regards this class of cottage for old people past work, we surely do not require to say much or plead strongly for; we can conceive of no addition to a property which would be such a true adorn- ment to it, as a cottage dotted here and there, inhabited by old people whose youth had been devoted to the service of the proprietor, looking up to him as the source of material comfort in the days when youth had fled. Such cases do exist, and exist, we are proud to say, in larger numbers than many think of ; but it would be well if they were still more numerous, as we believe there would be few things which would tend so much to increase and cement the good feeling between the proprietors of land and those who live by the labour which it affords, and which now more than ever, in those changed and ever- changing days, is so urgently required. A point which has been much discussed in connection with the extent of the accommoda- tion of labourers' cottages, is whether it should be confined to the housing of the family of one man, or whether it should be extensive enough to enable the family to take in lodgers. Some writers have dwelt upon this point, as if the latter system was a greater evil than any one of those about which there has been and can be no dispute ; while some, if indeed it might not with almost complete truth be said, nearly all our landlords, having taken this view, have built the cottages on their estates with the accommoda- tion so arranged that it was an almost physical impossibility for lodgers to be accommodated. While freely admitting that there may be evils connected with the system of having lodgers accommodated in the cottages of married labourers, we as freely confess that we fail to see that these are either very great in themselves or likely fre- quently to come up. After all, it is well to try at least to take a common-sense view of any subject, and deal with facts as they exist amongst us. Now what are the facts ? It seems an absurd way to put it, and yet it must be so put, seeing what some writers have said about it ; but all the labourers on a farm are not mar- ried, and have of necessity to live somewhere. Putting out of the question the bothy system, elsewhere in this chapter described, as, how- ever applicable to the circumstances of certain districts in Scotland, quite antagonistic to the habits, customs, and modes of thinking of the southern parts of the kingdom, it is difficult to see what system can be adopted for the housing of unmarried labourers, if they are to be for- nS DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY bidden access to those of the married ones. And after all that has been written about the family circle, and its healthy and happy influence, it does seem an odd thing that the unmarried men on landed property should be driven to such straits as to forbid them to partake of these influ- ences, or, if they should have them, be compelled to walk to some village, perhaps miles away from the scene of their daily labours. Very vivid pictures have certainly been drawn of the con- taminating evils of what has been called the lodger system ; but it has been difficult to gather whether the family was contaminated by the lodger, or the lodger by the family. One can conceive of a case or cases where both would be bad, and then we are free to admit that the evils arising from such an unhappy conjunction would be considerable ; but we incline to think that such cases would be found seldom to occur. Another view of the case is, that if the evils are so great as said by some, but a poor compliment is paid to the family of the married labourer on the one hand, or to the unmarried labourer on the other. And surely there are not a few cases of family circles throughout the country resembling in their happy features the beautiful picture drawn by Burns in his inimitable Cot- tar's Saturday Night; and if so, unmarried lodgers, in place of being worse, woidd be in- finitely better of coming under their hallowed influence. On the other hand, we can conceive of a lodger possessed of such a high character as to influence in the best possible way that of the married labourer with whom he might reside, and who was unfortunately dissipated or vicious. Certainly the plan or system cannot be a good one which forces the unmarried labourer, if to nothing worse, to the necessity of trudging long distances to and from his labour in order to obtain living accommodation. A very able paper on ' The Boarding, Lodging, and Maintain- ing Young Agricultural Servants ; the best and cheapest mode of doing so,' was read before the Central Farmers' Club, in which, as may be gathered from its very title, the system of lodg- ing unmarried labourers is advocated, and in which a plan of cottage specially designed to afford accommodation for the married family and for the young men is illustrated in fig. 5, Plate 30. In this, which is the ground plan, a a is the living-room, 12 feet square, in which there is a closet or pantry, b, at side of fire-place ; c, a closet for tools ; d, for clothes. The wash-house, e, is entered from the living-room, and has a dresser at /, and a sink at g ; stairs to second floor are at h ; and entrance is obtained to the yard, i, by the back-door, j. The wood and coal place is at k, and I m are open sheds ; in that to the left, n is the privy, and o the urinal. On either side of the living-room are the lodgers' bed-rooms, p p, q q, each containing three beds, as marked. The bed-room for the married couple is on the second floor, shown in fig. 6, Plate 30, at a a. A closet, b, enters from the landing, c ; and another closet is at b, in the bed-room, a ; e is a small bed-room for the children (if any), or for another lodger ; while another bed is in the apartment, /. It will be observed that this plan is that of a re- gular lodging-house, in which not fewer than six, and as many as eight, may be accommodated if there are no children, by using their bed-room, e ; or the second bed in bed-room a may be used for young children. The objections which have been made to the lodging system will, it is obvious, be more likely met with in this case, where so many young men are accommodated, much of the discipline being dependent upon the ability and firmness of the head of the house ; if this be not exercised, difficulties will arise. We should therefore be inclined to recommend the system of having ordinary cottages, with an extra bed-room for the accommodation of one lodger only, or at the most two. By this means the family influence, on which we confess we place great value, will have the best chance of being exercised. Whatever be the extent of accommodation with which a cottage is provided, there are cer- tain essentials to be attended to in connection with it ; thus, however small a cottage may be, certain apartments must be given to it, the smallest that can be built requiring first a living- room, and second a bed-room, with appropriate conveniences ; extension of accommodation being as a rule, or, as we may say, always in the direction of the bed-rooms only. This naturally, therefore, divides cottage accommodation under two heads ; and to the necessary conveniences of APARTMENTS REQUIRED IN COTTAGES. 119 the two classes of apartments we now briefly direct attention. The living-room first comes under notice, and this, as a rule, is made generally too small It should be remembered that a cer- tain area of floor space is absolutely necessary in order to enable the work to be carried on, which, with few exceptions, is wholly done in it ; and also to enable the members of the family, often pretty numerous, to move about, and also to have space for the necessary articles of furni- ture. There is scarcely anything which gives one so much absolute discomfort as the feeling of being crushed up and confined in a room, to say nothing of the loss of time and inconvenience to the housewifery operations caused by the want of it. A very common size for a sitting-room is 12 feet square, and even 12 by 10. The last- named dimension is simply ridiculously below the mark, whilst the first is too small for the generality of families. 14 by 12 is a fair size, and will suit the placing of the furniture, etc., with a moderate degree of convenience. But space in apartments need not be grudged, as ground does not possess the same high value in the country as in towns ; and while a few inches even add materially to the comfort of the inmates, the extra materials required add wonderfully little to the cost of the building. An essential part of the ground-floor accommodation, supposing the cottage to be two-storeyed, is the scullery ; this also should be made of pretty ample dimen- sions, so as to admit of as much of the house work, especially the washing, being done in it with all comfort. The small closets, measuring 4 feet 6 inches or 5 feet wide by 5 feet 6 inches or 6 feet long, do not deserve the name, as they cannot really serve practically the purposes of a scullery. Pantry or cupboard conveniences cannot be too liberally supplied to a cottage, as they not only keep the rooms orderly, but enable clothing, etc. to be kept in the best condition; one closet with a light to the outer wall should in all cases be supplied as a larder. But the best place for storing certain provisions, and a convenient one for many domestic purposes, such as curing bacon, etc., is the underground cellar, which must be dry, well lighted, and airy : the stairs leading to this are placed under those giving access to the bed-room floor, and may be entered either from the living-room, or from the small passage leading from that to the scullery. As to the fittings of the living-room and scullery, much could be said if space permitted ; we can only, how- ever, refer, so far as the living-room is concerned, to the importance of having the fire-place fitted up with a proper grate. The fire fittings of cottages generally are very much below what constitutes the standard of efficiency ; by far the best, as it is unquestionably the cheapest, is that used almost universally in Lancashire, and largely in adjacent counties, in which the oven as well as the boiler is heated from the central fire-place, which, by a simple contrivance, can also be made larger or smaller in dimensions according to the size of fire required. The heating of the oven can be regulated in this form of grate to the greatest nicety, by simply drawing out or putting in a damper. An ash-grid in the hearth is a great source of economy, as it enables the cinders to be saved, which are too frequently thrown away, although they assist greatly in making a good, clear fire. The scullery should have a slop-stone in all cases, not a sink, which is well named, considering the abomination it generally is. This is best placed under the window, as all the cleaning operations will be seen. A small boiler with a special furnace and flue should be also part of the scullery fittings. With regard to the bed-room accommodation, space permits us to say but little, and that little will be but a repetition in one sense of what we have said as to dimensions or floor space of the living-room ; in fact, the bed-rooms ought by right to be the largest rooms in the house, as they are those in which the largest portion of time is spent, and that under the most unfavourable conditions as regards health. The bed-room floors should be provided with closets in which to place clothing, etc. If the dimensions or floor area of cottage rooms is, as a rule, too small, their height from floor to ceiling is also to be found the like fault with. A height of 8 feet in the ground-floor and of 7 feet and 7 feet 6 inches in the second- floor rooms, which is too generally specified in cottage work, is far too low. A high-ceiled room is always healthier than a low one, and the additional cost incurred by the necessary addition of a course or two of bricks is not DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. worthy of being at all considered in view of the greater advantages obtained. All rooms, it is scarcely necessary to say, with the knowledge we now have of the healthy iuiluence of light, should have large windows, and these double hung, so that air can bo admitted both above and below. A good deal of discussion under the head of accommodation has been carried on, as to whether that accommodation should be given in the form of a single or a two-storeyed cottage. As a rule, the prejudices or opinions in favour of the former prevail more in the north than in the south. In the case of the smallest size of cottage, the accommodation may be placed on the ground floor, forming that class known as single or one- storeyed cottages ; and as these are generally or better adapted for old couples, they possess an advantage in having accommodation on one floor, thus saving them the labour of ascending and descending stairs ; while the disadvantage, and indeed danger, usually attendant upon having bed-rooms on the ground floor may be obviated by the plan already recommended, of having the flooring raised above the ground level by enter- ing the house by means of two or three steps, and also by having the natural soil dug out from beneath the flooring for some depth, either leaving the space void or filling it up with smithy clinkers, or, better still, a layer of concrete. But in the case of cottages having either the maximum of accom- modation or that approaching to it, there can be no doubt that two-storeyed cottages are better than single ; cheaper, because the influence which a roof has upon the cost of building must be very considerable. The more closely it ap- proaches to that of a square or rectangle, the cheaper the construction of the roof is. But it is not merely the question of cost as regards this, but also the influence it has on the arrangement of the apartments ; a cottage with its outline square, or a rectangular one, affording a larger amount of accommodation than one which is broken up, or has various offsets in its outline. This may be illustrated in figs. 5 and 6, Plate 29 ; fig. 5 being a square house, fig. 6 being on the rectangular plan. It will be seen from an inspection of fig. 6, that an exceedingly compact arrangement of the apart- ments is obtained, no space being lost, while it is obvious that the roof will be of the most easily, and therefore the cheapest, constructed kind, as there will not be a single break in any one part of it. The roof of fig. 5 will also be of the simplest character, the ends being merely gabled, and the eave carried right along from end to end. In fig. 6, a is the entrance door, approached by steps, b ; the lobby, d, form- ing the fourth, thus raising the floor of the house to a very considerable height above the ground level, a point as to the importance of which we have already offered some remarks. The back lobby is at e, on the right hand of which there is a pantry or store-closet,/, and on the left a small projecting lock-up china closet, g. The living- room is at h, from which entrance is obtained to the scullery, i. The bed-rooms are three in num- ber, as j, k, and I ; _;' and I having linen or other closets entering from them, as m and n. From this description it will be seen that a large amount of space is most usefully turned to account, giving many conveniences, as closets, etc., which are exceedingly valuable in a cottage ; while separate entrances are obtained to the bed-rooms, without the necessity of passing through one to gain admission to another. In the plan in fig. 6 there is an inner porch, a, giving access to the living-room, b, the scullery, c, and a store-closet, d ; o is the principal bed-room, while / is a bed- closet entering from the scullery, c. Both of these cottages are single-storeyed. This point is further illustrated in figs. 3 and 4, Plate 30, which are examples of square and rectangular single- storeyed cottages. Fig. 7, Plate 29, and fig. 7, Plate 30, are examples of cottages of irregular form, or with set-offs ; the set-off or projection in fig. 7, Plate 29, being at the back, while that in fig. 7, Plate 30, is at the front. The porches, a a, and closets, b b, in both of these figures will of course add to the expense of the roofage, to save which the plan of inner porch, as at a in figs. 5 and 6, Plate 29, is very often adopted. It will thus be seen that the form of a cottage exercises a decided influence upon its cost not merely as regards the roof, but, as we have already shown, it influences also the extent of accommodation which the same amount of walling gives. While on the subject of accommodation, and how that exercises an influence upon the cost of the cottages, DIMENSIONS OR CUBICAL COX TENTS OF COTTAGES. it may be as well again to refer to the size of rooms as influencing the ventilation. And here we point out that although, in the majority of works treating upon cottages, plans more or less elaborate for securing ventilation have been ex- plained and strongly recommended for adoption, we venture, although we shall by many be con- sidered thus to be behind what are considered the ' requirements of the day,' to maintain that all plans of ventilation in common cottages will be simply ineffective, because they will not be attended to. Indeed, if the apertures can be stopped up, and rendered thoroughly inoperative, the almost certain chances are that they will be so, such being the horror — for it is nothing less — which the working classes have, as an almost invariable rule, for fresh air. The expense, then, of adopting such plans may as well be avoided ; and the supply of fresh air necessary for health be trusted to by giving a fair if not the largest amount of cubical space to the rooms, and to the action of the fire-place, in conjunction with the openings of doors and windows, which in such structures are generally, and in this case fortunately, by no means too well fitted or air- tight. "What ought to be the cubical contents of a cottage room is, however, a point by no means definitely decided upon by authorities, their statements varying from as small an amount as 240 cubic feet of air required per day per individual, up to as much as 4320. Where ventilating authorities differ so widely, it is diffi- cult to decide as to the actual amount required. One authority, however, who has had large ex- perience on the subject, and devoted no small amount of time to ascertain what is a fair average space, states that on the ground floor, with a height of eight feet from floor to ceiling, and an area of floor in living-room of 150 feet, the consequent cubical contents of 1200 feet will be sufficient, those of the scullery, with an area of 8 0 feet, being C40 cubical feet. In the second or bed-room floor, the principal bed-room, with an area of 120 feet, and a height of 7 feet 6 inches from floor to ceiling, will give a cubical content of 9 0 0 feet ; the smaller rooms, with an average area of 85 feet, wdl give a cubical content of 6 3 7 or thereby. But, as we have already said that these heights from floor to ceiling are too limited, while the same may be said of the floor area, if these are increased, so also will be the healthier conditions of the rooms. The following statements of area of rooms, with their cubical contents, will be use- fid under this head : — Living-room, 1 7 feet by 15, with a height of 8 feet 6 inches, gives an area of 255 feet, and a cubical content of 2170 ; the bed-room, 15 feet by 10, and a height of 8 feet, gives an area of 150 feet, and a cubical content of 1200; a bed-closet, 11 by 8, gives an area of 88, with a content of 700. Assuming the scullery to be an offset, and of greater height than the living-room, namely, 10 feet, in order to provide for the vapour of washing, etc., when 11 feet by 9, gives an area of 99, and a content of 990 ; or when 9 feet C inches by 9, the floor area in square feet is 85, and the cubical space in feet is 850. Even with small rooms and no special ventilating apparatus provided, if, in addition to the fire-place, and what we might call the mural air- chinks provided by loose-fitting windows and doors, cottagers could be persuaded to open these as re- quired every day for a certain period, nearly all the objects of good ventilation would be secured ; and gTeat as their horror is of fresh air, this surely need not extend to the case of the bed- rooms, which they do not occupy during the day. and for a portion of which at least they might have their windows open. A still greater advance would be made if they coidd be persuaded to have a small part of the upper sash open during the night. Even occasional blow-throughs ' of fresh air woidd be of vast service to health and comfort, to which end it is a good plan to have the windows at back and front opposite, or nearly so, to each other, communication being kept open between them by the door in the intermediate wall. Before dismissing the subject of accommo- dation, we may here remind the reader that we have recommended privies external to the cottage, not water-closets. These, whether internal or ex- ternal, are found in practice to be as little required by cottagers as plans, more or less elaborate, of ventilation, as they are not as a rule attended to as they ought to be, and hence not only soon get out of repair, but into a condition of the most filthy disorder. If the ashes but not the water slops of the house are thrown into the privy, nearly all the sanitary requirements of the case Q DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY will be met; more fully so if the cottager can be persuaded to distribute evenly over the sur- face now and then supplies of dried soil. ' Sani- tation/ to quote the new phrase of the day, can be more easily and efficiently provided for in cottages than the majority of writers on the subject seem to be aware of ; the great point to be aimed at being to simplify rather than to complicate their work, to do the latter of which seems, however, to be that at which so many of them strive. Closely connected with the subject of conveni- ent working of cottages is the supply of water. If it is pitiable to think of the labour which the head of the house sometimes has in walking to and from the farm on which he works to his cottage at a distance, and to which we have elsewhere alluded, it is no less so to think of that thrown upon the wife or children, in many cases, by having to carry water a considerable distance, while that water is often of very nearly the worst quabty. Much has been written on the evils of this system, but much need not be here given, as they must be patent to any one on slight consideration. A well, therefore, should form part of the convenience of every cottage ; and in many cases, by a little judicious observa- tion, a spring affording a constant supply of excellent water may be found in such a position that, by a little contrivance, the house, without any damage to its site, might be arranged in con- venient relation thereto. But even when a good well or spring is provided to the cottage, the supply of rain-water, which is open to every building, should never be neglected. This may be stored up either in an underground tank made in the yard, or in a cistern placed over the scullery, which will be the best position for it. To estimate the quantity of rain-water which may be obtained from a certain space of roof, measure the roof, and multiply its length by its breadth, so as to get the superficies ; make this into incites , divide the number of inches by 231, which will give the number of gallons for each inch of depth of rainfall. The average depth will be ascertained by the table of rainfall for the district ; but it may be taken as between 3^ and 4 inches for each month. The quotient, then, above obtained is to be multiplied by 3i or 4, in order to obtain the number of gallons received from the roof in each month. It has been estimated that in the neighbourhood of London the annual supply of rain-water is 4800, say 5000 gallons, for each 400 square feet of roof surface. A span roof, then, of 10 feet by 2 0 on the side, will give this quantity ; and from this it will be seen what a splendid supply of soft water is within the reach of all possessors of buildings. And as regards cottages and villas, our experience seems to point out this as a rule, that if the whole roof-space be economized, and the water from it be carefully stored up, the supply obtained will be found sufficient for all the purposes of the washing of clothes and per- son, the extent of cistern space being propor- tionate to the roof space, at the rate already stated, namely, 5000 gallons annually for each 400 square feet of roof surface. Possibly an average for the whole kingdom may be put at 5 0 0 0 gallons for each 500 square feet of roof space ; so that the proportion, very easily remembered, is arrived at, 1000 gallons per year from each 100 square feet of roof surface. On this point of the supplies obtainable of rain-water in rural dis- tricts, a French savant, M. G. de Cause, has been making some curious investigations, of which we here present a brief resumi. M. de Cause esti- mates the roof area of a farm-house of a farm of one or two acres— a mere cottage with us, although the roo/-space is often greater than in this country, where compactness is more aimed at — at 90 square yards, and the average rainfall 76 cubic centimetres, which gives an annual supply of 60 or 65 cubic yards of water. The consumption of water in farms he puts at 2 gallons per day per individual, for all purposes, cooking and washing, or, say, 3^ cubic yards per year. A horse will consume five times this quantity, or 10 gallons per day, or 17^ cubic yards per year ; a cow or ox, 6 gallons per day ; a sheep, 2 quarts ; and a pig, 3 quarts a day. To ascertain the contents of a tank or cistern circular in form, square the diameter in inches, and multiply the product by '0034, the quotient is the number of gallons for each inch of depth. In figs. 1 and 2, Plate 29, we give plans of cottages of the second class, and in figs. 3 and 4 those of the first or superior class, built in the PLANS OF COTTAGES ADAPTED FOR SCOTLAND. 123 Buchan district of Aberdeenshire, and reported upon by Mr. James Black in a paper in the Transactions of the Highland Society. In fig. 1, which is ground plan, built in pairs or as semi- detached, ft is the living-room, 13 feet by 11, entered from the porch, b ; c, stairs, going over the recess for ' box-bed ' (see a succeeding par. on this). In the attic plan, fig. 2, a is the boys' bed-room, b the girls' bed-room, with bed space or closet, B ; c, stairs. In fig. 3, ground plan of first-class cottages, also built as semi-detached, a is the porch, b the living-room, c the scullery, cl the pantry, c the stairs, / the box-bed. In fig. 4, the attic plan, a is the girls', b the boys' bed-room, the beds being in the spaces c c; d, the stairs. In fig. 7, Plate 2 9, the cottage is single-storeyed, and detached : a, the porch ; b, a closet or a water- closet, — although this arrangement we do not ap- prove of ; c, the kitchen ; d, the scullery ; e, back or children's bed-room ; /, front or parents' do. ; g, larder ; /;, wood, coal, or general store-closet ; i, china, linen, and clothes closet. Here we have bed-rooms with space for free, open beds, and a supply of conveniences, in the form of pantries and closets, beyond the usual standard. In figs. 4, 5, and 6, Plate 31, we give the plans of a pair of cottages, — or semi-detached, — with ar- rangements and accommodation on the system usually adopted in the North of England, the part in which by far the nearest approach to the ' standard of excellence ' in both is attained as a rule, although there are, we regret to say, nume- rous deviations from this. In fig. 4 is the plan of cellai', an almost invariable adjunct to even the lowest class of cottages in the North, especially ' lordly Lancashire.' In this, a a are the stairs, entered from passage, and gained in the direc- tion as indicated by the arrows in fig. 5 ; b (fig. 4) is the cellar room ; c, a coal or beer place. In fig. 5, ground plan, a is the porch or lobby ; b, stairs ; c, living-room or parlour ; d, back pas- sage ; e, china-closet ; /, larder, entering from kitchen, g ; h, scullery. In the yard, if a rain- water tank or ' terra-cistern,' as this is called, from being for long lined with terra cement, is provided, its position is at i ; j, privy ; k, ash- pit ; I, coal ; m, lumber-house ; n, poultry-house or pig-sty. In fig. 6, the chamber plan, ft is the landing ; b, the front, d, the back bed-room ; e, small do. ; c, linen-closet or bed-closet. Scale, |- inch = 1 foot. In Plate 32, in figs. 2, 3, and 4, we give half plans to -| scale ; and in fig. 1, half section (to double scale) of another example, with less accommodation than last, of a semi- detached or pair of cottages. In fig. 2, ground plan, a is porch ; b, pantry ; c, scullery ; d, living- room. In fig. 3, chamber plan, ft is landing ; b, closet ; c, front or large, d, back or small bed- room. In fig. 4, cellar plan, a a, space for stairs ; b, cellar-room ; c, wash-house ; d, space for coals or beer. Although this cottage, as arranged, gives a large amount of accommodation, still it gives it in such a way as to make it objectionable in a construc- tional point of view. Thus it makes the roof an expensive one ; and a cheap form of roof we advocate as a necessity in all classes of structures. All projections, or what are called ' offsets,' such as in figs. 4, 5, and 6, Plate 31, are objection- able, as they necessitate breaks in the roof, which are always expensive. In figs. 1 and 2, Plate 31, we illustrate how the front part may be so altered as to allow of a cheaper form of roof than in figs. 4 and 5. Here, by bringing down the outer walls, as a, and extending the front wall right and left, the corner is done away with. This admits of a longer entrance, so that the stairs may be brought forward, and an extra closet obtained at the end, as at b, at right hand of plan. Fig. 2 shows the bed-room plan, this giving a small bed-closet at a. By taking down the wall, as c, shown by the clotted lines, d, space for pantries may be obtained, one entering from the lobby, a, the other being an extension of the pantry, e. This will do away with the corner at /, and bring the outline of cottage almost to that of a rectangle, winch will be completed by the alteration suggested in figs. 3 and 4. In this, the recess, i, in fig. 5, is done away with, a wall stretching across, as in fig. 3 at a, giving two apartments which may be made into sculleries ; the sculleries, as in fig. 5, being formed into pro- vision stores or linen closets. In the chamber plan, fig. 4ft, two additional bed-closets are obtained in the cottages, ft a, those at b b being dark closets, or lighted from the roof. Although we have little space left at our command now, it may be as well to give a few 124 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERIY. remarks and an illustration or two in connection with cottages in Scotland. Delicate in some respects as the subject is on which we are about to enter, truth compels us to state that, bad as the state of the cottages of England was at their worst period, that of those in Scotland was de- cidedly worse. With no desire to take the part of one as against that of the other country, we think that we may refer with safety to such ex- perience as can be derived from the history of the sanitary investigations of rural districts in both countries in proof of the above statement. Nor need we fear even the result of such inves- tigations as might now be made, as illustrative of the fact that, both in arrangement and in con- struction, cottage-building on the northern side is apparently guided by principles very different from those of the southern side of the Tweed, — those principles affecting closely at once the health and comfort of their inhabitants ; and that these are, as far as evidence goes, less thought of by those resident in the north. In support of this, we deem it necessary to cite no further or more conclusive evidence than that given by Christopher North, whose reputation in the world of letters is universally spread, and who at least cannot be charged with lack of patriotic feelings ; for if ever there was a true Scotchman, in the widest and best sense of the term, Professor John Wilson was the man. Any one, therefore, desirous to know what his opinions were on the subject of cottages, should read his article thereon, as given in his collected works. And if his remarks were pungent at the period at which he wrote his article, when English cottages were at their very worst, when their improvement was not even thought of, — at least certainly not broached as one of the social improvements of the age, — it may be said of many districts of the north that they are not less applicable now, as serving as contrasts to cottages of a similar class in the south. Without going deeply into details, which would certainly be striking and suggestive, we would content ourselves by simply referring to one or two points in construction and arrange- ment in northern cottages which would at once set them apart as very different from those of a like class in the south. We would not cer- tainly go the length of saying, that in the arrangement of cottages and the general style of living — which, if not caused, is certainly greatly influenced by them — these are at least a century behind those of English cottages. This, beyond question, is a very exaggerated way of putting the point ; but, nevertheless, like all statements of the kind, it conveys a large amount of truth. Nor should it be forgotten that the statement, such as it is, is not one put forward by partisans of southern systems and habits, — those, in fact, as a rule, knowing too little practically of the matter as existing in both countries to be able to give an opinion on it so decided as that stated, — but is chiefly put forward by northern authorities. We have said that there is a large amount of truth in the state- ment, exaggerated though it be, nor would it be difficult to bring forward many instances in proof of it. Take, for example, the very large number of cottages in nearly, we may say, every dis- trict in Scotland, which have no provision made for the exercise of, we shall not say the ordinary decencies of civilised life, but simply the neces- sities of mere social existence. It is folly in such a case to mince the matter, and to have an affected delicacy about it, when the fact itself exists but too notoriously. Need we say that we refer to the total want of privies or water- closets ? We by no means wish to put forward as a fact that this department of house con- venience, or rather necessity, is in England in all cases what it ought to be ; far, indeed, from it. But this we do venture to say, that whatever be the defects of the privy or water-closet system in England, even the poorest class of cottages have some provision of the kind. Nor would it be easy to find any class of the community, in suburban and rural districts, who would be at all satisfied to rent or take a cottage to which such was not attached. And low indeed as the morals of too many of the lower class of Eng- land is, we have found it not seldom to be the fact, that many of them have positively refused to believe us, when we stated that hundreds of cottages in Scotland have no provision what- ever of the kind. Whether these statements be absolutely accurate or not, the fact remains for consideration, that it is difficult to conceive how any class of our population should consent to ENGLISH AND SCOTTISH COTTAGES CONTRASTED. 125 live under the circumstances we have named. Excuses enough, or at least reason enough, there might be for the very lowest of the population submitting to it, but we need not be surprised when astonishment is expressed that classes higher in reality, ay, in the moral if not in the social scale, have in Scotland for a long course of years submitted, and in large numbers at the very time we write submit to it. It would be wrong, how- ever, to lead those of our readers who are not likely to know the subject practically, to suppose that no improvement in this department has been made in northern cottages. Improvement at once decided in character has been, is being daily made ; but notwithstanding which, there is a very wide area in which it can still and ought to be made. We are referring now to exterior arrangements.for the privy in Scotch and inEnglish cottages alike is one exterior to the house. As an almost universal rule, there are other, and, we fear, numerous departments in which Scotch contrast but poorly with English cottages. Take, for example, the sleeping accommodation. Although there are many cottages in England single-storeyed, in which of necessity the bed- rooms are but a little above the ground level, the rule may be said to be that bed-rooms are on the upper floor. Certainly the opinion is xvniversally prevalent that they should be placed there ; and there are sound sanitary reasons for the system, one thing being very obvious, that the room must of necessity be drier and better aired. But while there may be and are differences as to the posi- tion of the bed-room in English cottages in the ground floor or upper, it would be a hard task for any one to find an arrangement of the bed similar to that prevalent in many a rural district of Scot- land, known as the box-bed. (See c, fig. 1, and /, fig. 3, Plate 29.) This, for the information of our southern readers, we may state is a recess made against the wall, in which the bed is placed, the front being provided with a fold- ing door, which is usually closed through the day, and too often through the night also, when the bed is occupied. Unhealthy as this ar- rangement must of necessity be, it is rendered still more so from the fact that the recess forms in too many instances actually part of the living- room, which is occupied constantly, and in which all the household operations are carried on. Although, as a rule, this is necessitated from the circumstance that many cottages have no extra room or bed-room accommodation, still it is, in many instances, purposely so arranged, in- asmuch as the labourer and his wife prefer to have the warmth and snugness of their living- room in which to sleep. Unhealthy as the arrangement is, one of the most enthusiastic, as he is certainly the ablest advocate of cottage im- provement in Scotland, states that it is carried out, at least in structures recently erected, not so much because the labourers are aware of its unhealthiness, but because it is their only defence against the dampness. This brings us to note that this same feature of dampness is a remarkable peculiarity of Scotch cottages, and it arises from more than one cause. Perhaps the most powerful is the system — and it is one which builders, with a persistence which has long surprised us, have carried out, although they must be well aware of the evils arising from it — of building the cottages close to the ground level, so that the floor is, as a rule, actually in contact with, or placed at a very little distance above, the natural soil. Now in England, although there are unfortunately exceptions, the rule is that the ground floor is carried above the soil for some height, by having two or more steps by which access is gained to it ; while, as pointed out in another part of this chapter, dampness is still further provided against by the system of underground cellar apartments, which are used for storing up provisions, etc. It certainly is a fact that damp cottages are much more frequently the rule in Scotland than in England ; and although we believe that it mainly arises from the cause just mentioned, we believe also that it further arises from the stone, which is almost universally used in constructing the walls, as well as from certain peculiarities in the way in which these are put together, and to which we have in another part made special reference. As regards the conveniences of Scotch cottages, by which domestic work is quickly and most economically performed, there can be no question of this, that both in number and efficiency they are far behind those of English ones ; indeed, it would be more correct to say that a large number of 126 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. them are totally deficient in these. That we take no exaggerated view of the case, those who have a practical knowledge of the condi- tions of the cottages both north and south will bear us out. And if those who have not this higher advantage will only refer to published works, embracing what may be called the history of cottage accommodation, embraced within the last twenty-five years, and longer than this, for the matter of that, they will find abundant evidence of the truth cf what we say. In truth, it speaks in one sense volumes for Scotch cottagers that they are able to conduct their domestic affairs in the efficient way which many of them do, seeing that they are so deficiently supplied with the necessary conveniences, and, as we have said, in some cases not supplied with them at all ; for it must be admitted that, under similar circum- stances, English cottagers would be quite at a loss how to proceed at all. It is scarcely necessary to enter into a detail of what the deficiencies are in house conveniences to which we now refer, as, on examination of the plans and their accompany- ing descriptions, which we give in the appropriate chapter and section, these will be noticed by the intelligent reader. But we may here simply refer to the conveniences for cooking, in the shape of fire-places, boilers, and ovens, in sculleries or wash- houses,and in the minor but not less important con- veniences of pantries or closets of various kinds, in which the different classes of household mate- rials can be put away, so as to be readily obtained when wanted, and which so materially add not merely to the tidiness — a word, by the way, better known in its full and suggestive signification in England than in Scotland — but to the actual com- fort of a house. All these things are, we know, con- sidered north of the Tweed by many there resident as of little, or, to speak perhaps more truly, of no importance, being designated by them by a word which is only expressive to Scotch ears, as ' fikey.' That is, as if they were beneath the notice of intelligent people, and not worthy of the trouble bestowed on them. But we venture to maintain, knowing somewhat of the circumstances of the working classes on both sides of the Tweed, ex- tending over what we may almost safely say to be the whole period of the time in which their consideration has formed a leading one of our social movements, that the above-named conveni- ences, and such others as we might have alluded to, go very far indeed towards making a house attractive, and acting as a strong counteracting agency to the influences of the beer-shop and the public-house. We may talk till doomsday about this moral influence and about that , but assuredly the truth remains, that a man — and the lower in the social scale he is, the closer it obtains — is mightily influenced by such considerations as meals nicely cooked and neatly and orderly set before him, as well as by a house in which order and tidiness take the place of disorder and ' confusion dire.' So mightily, that when to these are added the avoidable nuisances of what to man are almost unbearable, that of washing day and washing up, the chances are that few can resist the temptation of fleeing from them to the ' Cat and Fiddle,' or the ' Jolly Labourer,' the landlords of which know too well how to make their bar parlours or their drinking-boxes, according as they are in England or Scotland, attractive and comfortable. We write, therefore, on a point of no little importance, when we urge, as we do now, the necessity of providing all cottages with every convenience calculated to make them as attractive as possible. It is well when a man's house, however humble it may be, is the point to which he looks, when engaged elsewhere in his daily labour, as that which goes far to lighten its toils and hardships, and to which he looks for- ward during the ' toil and heat of the day ' as a harbour of refuge therefrom, and a place abound- ing in those home attractions, which, when once experienced, are always dear, and which are more and more valued the longer it is his happy lot to have them. We do not lose sight of the fact, and we name it with no small degree of satisfac- tion, that very great improvements have been introduced in the departments now under notice in cottages erected more or less recently in Scot- land, and for which that country is greatly in- debted to her — by many much maligned and misunderstood — landed proprietors. Still, it would, knowing somewhat practically of the actual state of matters, be a pleasant thing for us to record that this improvement was universal. It has been our lot, even almost at the time we write, to be called upon to examine cottages THE BOTHY COTTAGE. 127 very recently and now being actually erected, in which the very worst features of the old system are perpetuated. We believe, however, that where such cases are met with, the cottages come under that unfortunate class — in many cases at least — of building speculations, the proprietors not being amenable to or under the influence of the dictation of proper authorities, or of advanced and correct opinions as to what is required and demanded by a higher standard of efficiency. In addition to the good work done by landed proprietors individually, it is only right to state that an immense impetus has been given to cot- tage improvement in Scotland by the Association for Promoting Improvement in the Dwellings and Condition of Agricultural Labourers, in the reports of which, published by Messrs. W. Black- wood & Sons, Edinburgh and London, the reader desirous of perusing the subject in its fullest details will find them amply illustrated and described. The Bothy Cottage. — In connection with the accommodation for the farm labourer in Scot- land, there is the feature which may be said to be altogether peculiar to that country, although it is not by any means universal therein, being confined almost wholly to its northern districts, — this is the bothy. This may be described as a detached cottage, exclusively inhabited by unmarried labourers, although we regret to say that in some counties there have been, if there be not now, instances in which workpeople of both sexes have been or are compelled to hve under one roof. What the bothy is in its worst features, and, we may say, from what evidence has been afforded us by a very extended inquiry into the subject, what constituted, up to at least a very recent period, its general ones, may be gathered from the de- scription of one whose every statement may be rebed on, and which virtually is this : ' Seldom more than one ill-built house of one apartment, having no in-door, no lath, no plaster, no floor, hardly a window, and a vent (Anglice, chimney or flue) that will hardly draw ; no chair, no table, an old broken stool or two, two or three rude and rickety bedsteads, one iron pot, and one large iron spoon or ladle, a water bucket, and a litter of fuel and filth ; — and this is all the accommodation and furniture that some half- dozen constantly and heavily toiled men have to make themselves comfortable with from one year's end to another.' If it were not unfor- tunately too true that cottages in England, in point both of construction and accommodation, have been met with nearly as bad, it would be difficult to make our southern readers believe that such wretched accommodation is given to Scottish farm labourers. The best reform would in the case apparently be ' to reform it altogether,' and do away with the system entirely. But it would appear, from what the great majo- rity of practical farmers say in the counties or districts in which the system is prevalent, that it cannot be dispensed with under their style or mode of farming ; although to perhaps less pre- judiced or worse informed minds it would seem a somewhat reasonable thing to suppose that the ordinary cottage system, workable in other dis- tricts, would also be so in those in which the bothy seems to be indispensable. Failing this, the next thing to do is improving the bothy, all too prevalent, of which we have given a descrip- tion by a most competent authority ; and it is perhaps owing to the efforts of this same autho- rity— the Rev. Harry Stuart of Oathlaw — that such improvements have been made. The general character of these, as proposed by Mr. Stuart, is illustrated in figs. 1 and 2, Plate 30. Fig. 2 shows what may be called the ordinary condition of the bothy, in which a is the entrance-door, leading at once to the main room, b; c c being a species of divan of hard boards, called in the vernacular ' resting-beds ; ' c , a closet ; d, space for stairs leading to second storey, being a single room in which there are no partitions, but the beds arranged simply as desired. Fig. 1 shows an improved arrangement of a single-storeyed bothy, an inner porch, a, leading to the living- room, b, with resting-beds, c c; d, a closet ; e, a scullery ; /, a small bed-closet ; g, a bed-room, with fireplace in it, and having space for two beds, as at h and i. By this arrangement a greater degree of privacy is allowed to the men, and conveniences for keeping the place in some- thing like decent order secured. Timber Cottages, or those of Mali riot other than Stone or Brick. — Having alluded to the pay- 128 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. ing point of cottages, we now refer to two points which are closely connected with this, and which are unfortunately frequently over- looked. Indeed, the first of these has been so seldom, if indeed pointedly, alluded to in any work treating on the subject, that it will come to many of our readers now as one altogether novel, the first allusion being made to it, so far as we know, in an article contributed by us to one of the leading agricultural journals. The point refers to the use of a material hitherto almost comparatively unused in the erection of cottages. The materials almost universally used with us for building are brick and stone, about the relative merits of which much has both been written and said. With both, cottages absolutely weather-proof can be obtained, so far as the pre- vention of wind blowing and rain being forced through chinks is concerned ; but in the far higher sense in which weather-proof is seen or understood to mean perfect immunity from damp, it is not so easy to say that either stone or brick are materials by which this immunity may be obtained. That this is true, let the exceedingly large number of buildings testify- — first-class as well as second and lowest class — which are to be met with in the country, thoroughly and hopelessly damp. Now we venture to maintain that the first point to aim at in having a house healthy is to have it thoroughly free from damp. A house may be cold, but if it is not damp it will not be unhealthy necessarily ; but a damp house, even if kept warm, will be so, must be so, stone varies so much in character ; and we know so little practically about it, that the builder cannot be positively sure that if used it will be able to resist damp. Brick, if really well made, will almost always give a dry wall ; but there are bricks and bricks, — some so soft and spongy that they take up damp freely, but unfortunately do not give it up so freely, but almost wholly retain it. These facts, as well as this other important fact, that the use of these materials involves considerable cost, have caused inquiries to be made as to the use of other materials, which, while less costly, will give healthy houses, in the sense of being thoroughly free from damp. Amongst these, concrete perhaps takes the first rank. Although much has been said on the score of its economy, in that of its efficiency nothing has been or could be said per contra, We have also seen excellent cottages constructed of galvanized iron, which, although perhaps colder than if built of other materials, were not damp ; and we have seen not a few made of wood, which were both warm and thoroughly free from damp. We are a people full of strong prejudices, and are not easy to be moved out of any groove in which we have been long running ; and if we were dis- posed to recommend the adoption of wooden or timber cottages in place of those built of the good old-fashioned materials of brick or stone, we would be met at once with a long list of objec- tions. But if we could take our readers to a certain district in England, in which the con- trast is singularly enough presented of wretched, weather-beaten, decaying cottages of brick and stone, and a few constructed of timber, we feel perfectly certain that the conclusion they woidd come to would be the same as ours : better, a thousand times better, this comfortable wood cottage than those others, although they are built of the orthodox materials. Let the reader re- member that we are not advocating the use of wood or timber as against the more lasting ma- terials ; but we are advocating this position, that if the cost be too great of building a cottage in the ordinary way, it is better to employ another and a cheaper method, even although that goes strongly against our preconceived notions. And however much we may be prejudiced against wood houses, let this be remembered, that whole peoples dwell in such houses : in Sweden they are almost universal ; in America they are met with everywhere ; and surely no one can say that the winter climates of those countries are better and more genial than our own. Without at all being desirous to become the advocates of wooden cottages, we may say that there is no difficulty in making them thoroughly healthy and com- fortable ; and in showing this in a brief sen- tence or two, we may give a few constructive hints, which, if not availed of for cottages, will be useful in connection with other structures of the farm : as, for example, in the construction of shelter-sheds in outlying pasture fields, and in other structures, of which, be it remembered, not a few are used for various buildings of the WOODEN v. BADLY-CONSTRUCTED BRICK OR STONE COTTAGES. 129 farm, — even, indeed, of most important parts of the farmery, — in various districts of the country. The use of wood for the purposes of many buildings is assuredly on the increase, and must have struck those given to observation of what is going on around them ; public companies and corporations, even, refusing to consider it a material beneath their notice even for important buildings. In building a wood cottage, the first essential point to be attended to is the foundation and the floor. If these be well made, the structure will be comfortable. The level of the floor, when finished, should always be higher than that of the surrounding soil. It is the forgetfulness or ignor- ance of this simple ride that gives us so many cottages damper than they otherwise might be. If the floor is to be boarded, the flooring boards should rest upon joists raised so that at least two steps will be required to enter the cottage. If the floor be made of Portland cement concrete, — or of lime concrete, as in some of our midland counties, — the floor level need not be so high above that of the surrounding soil, as there is little fear of any damp arising through floors of these materials, which, we may here remark, are the best known for making damp-proof floors. The walls of a wooden cottage may be made in a variety of ways. Fig. 1, Plate 33, shows the most complete method. The interior space may be filled up, as it is in Sweden, with shavings or moss, or dried seaweed if obtainable, or, where a little extra expense will not be grudged, with broken stones, the spaces between which are to be filled with grout or mortar or cement, which will go far to make the house fire-proof. The posts, a a, fig. 1, are mor- ticed into a horizontal piece of timber, b b, fig. 2, which runs along and round the building ; or, if a brick or concrete base, as a a, fig. 2, be made, the posts may be inserted in this, and the piece b b dispensed with. The inner boarding, b b, fig. 1, is that which receives the plastering or paper. This inner boarding may be dispensed with in cases where economy is greatly studied, and calico nailed so as to stretch from post to post, and upon this calico the paper is to be placed in the usual way. Those who have not had experience of this method of finishing the inside of a wood cottage would have some diffi- culty in believing how warm and comfortable it is. Comparatively little is known as to the heat-conserving powers of common paper. Let newspapers be qudted, so to say, between two thin pieces of calico, and a warmer bed-covering will be obtained than even a thick and very much more costly blanket or coverlet would give. This, if the poor would act upon it, is a hint of much value to them. Much of the comfort of the cottage depends upon the way in which the boards which form the outside covering, as c c, fig. 1, are put together. If simply put edge to edge, as there shown, and the joints left uncovered, the boards soon give or yield, and open chinks are formed. To prevent the wind, etc. from blowing through these battens, ' rolls ' or fillets of wood are nailed, covering the joints. And here we give a hint as to the method of fixing these ' rolls ' or fillets. If the ' roll ' or fillet is fixed to the two contiguous boards, as a and b in fig. 3, by two nails, a and b, as the boards separate, — as they are sure to do more or less, — the inevitable result will be that the force of the separation will split the ' roll,' c, thus doing away with the very object which it i3 put up to prevent. But if the fillet, as d, is nailed to one board only, as at e, however much the boards separate, the ' roll ' will not be split, as it will simply go with one board, as e, leaving the other, as /. The width of the fillets should be about two inches. A much better way to secure a weather-proof joint in the boards is to have them rebated, as at a in fig. 4 ; or the joint which we have ourselves designed, as in fig. 5, may be used. Any rain which may be forced by the wind into the joint will pass no farther than the channel a, which will lead it to the foundation, in which a small drain should be made communicating with the outside. It will be observed that, in the latter, it will be a very difficult thing for rain or even wind to be forced through the joint ; so much so, that the ' roll ' or covering fillet may be almost dispensed with. The outside of the boards may either be coated with coal tar and the surface sprinkled with dry sand, or painted with brown paint, and the sand sprinkled over ; the last will look better, but the best preservative is the tar. In fig. 6 we give a section showing the weather-proof board- ing we have designed for the roofs of wooden t3° DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. erections. Fig. 6a is an assemblage of two of the roof boards, a and b, with the ' roll ' or fillet, c, covering the joint, d. It will be observed that any rain forced in at the edges of the 'roll,' c, fig. 6«, will slide down the inclined part, a, fig. 6, and from thence into the channel, b b, which will lead the water to the eaves or gutter, as the parts a b run the whole length of the boards. In fig. 7 we give a section of a wooden cottage. It is scarcely necessary to add that all fire- places must be built of brick, stone, or concrete. The best covering for the roof is asphalt, well tarred and sanded. In fig. 7 the cottage is shown as having a boarded floor, a a ; below the joists, b b, there is a lime or concrete layer, c c, this being separated from the joists by a vacant space, shown in black. This arrangement of floor will give a dry one. d is a door leading into another apartment ; e is the fireplace. The roof is of the simplest construction, with a ' collar beam ' or 'tie-beam,'/,and the ' rafters ' are covered with boarding, and this again with asphalted felt, tarred and sanded three coats over its whole surface. Whatever objection may be raised against the use of timber cottages, certainly this can be said in their favour, that they will be in- finitely more healthy and comfortable than are so many of the wretched, tumble-down, half-rotten brick and stone erections which, under the name of cottages, disgrace so many of our rural dis- tricts, while at the same time they will assuredly look better, and add to the amenity of the pro- perty ; unless, indeed, the so-called more sub- stantial structures are to be looked upon as ruins, adding to its picturesque effect. We do not wish to be understood, however, as advocating the erection of timber cottages in preference to those of brick or stone under all circumstances ; we simply say, that under those in which the greater expense of brick or stone structures is objected to, it would be infinitely better to build cheap timber houses than to allow the wretched structures of the former materials to remain, as they can in no sense be said to minister either to the health and comfort of tho.^e who live in them, or to the reputation of those on whose property they are. Moreover, there are localities and circumstances in and under which temporary structures of timber would be useful, some of which will at once present them- selves to the minds of our readers. The next point to which we have to direct attention is one in which there are, as a writer has remarked, although in connection with another subject, 'large capabilities of utility;' that is — The Improvement in Arrangement and Construc- tion of Old Cottages. — There can be no doubt there is a wide field for work in this way, and of that thoroughly practical character which would commend itself at once to many who have not been as yet much influenced by what has been said either as to the philanthropic or the paying features of the subject. There are many old cottages throughout the kingdom which were built at a period in our industrial history when men did honest work, and walls were built which were really designed to last, and have lasted for a range of years, which work if done as now, in these scamping days, would have had no chance of standing out so long. Now, by a very small expenditure, these well-built walls could be re- paired, and the whole interior and exterior made ship-shape ; the one ministering to cleanliness and comfort, the other to the maintenance of the structure in good repair. And so far as tending to increase the good feeling between landlord and tenant is concerned, a feeling which should be cultivated as widely as possible, we rather think that more would be effected by kindly efforts to improve those cottages wliich, still inhabited, are yet in such a state of disrepair that they cannot be inhabited with comfort. As a rule, those who inhabit such cottages have a wonderful degree of affection for them ; they may have lived long in them, or their forefathers before them ; and whether this be so or not, it certainly is the fact that they cling to and think more of an old place than one of those bran-new model cottages, which — it is needless to disguise the fact — are more frequently viewed as things rather ' to be afraid of,' and, at all events, are not much liked. Then, again, by a little management, adding a room to one house and a couple of rooms to another, the varying accommodation which we have often pointed out as necessary can be easily obtained. The improvement of old cottages naturally divides itself into two branches : first, tho repair- IMPROVEMENT AND RE-ARRANGEMENT OF OLD COTTAGES. 131 ing of the decayed parts ; and, secondly, the re-arrangement of the whole structure, so as to add to the accommodation which the old cottage has to give when in its altered state. Of the first little need be said here, as that will be decided very soon on inspection of the building ; and any tradesman can execute what is deemed advisable. One word, however, may be given here by way of warning, and that is, that it is often a mistake to surjpose that to patch up decayed parts is the most economical way to do. There are some parts of a building, more especially in the roof, that to make a patch of is little better than throwing away money, the only true economy being to renew them. The judgment of the party inspecting any old cottage property proposed to be repaired will decide this point. The re-arrangement of an old cottage is the most difficult part of the subject, and one to which we purpose devoting a few remarks, illus- trating these by diagrams, which will serve prac- tically enough all the purposes of elaborate and more accurate drawings. There are many cottages throughout the country consisting merely of one room ; and although these do, and do well enough, supposing them to be in good repair and otherwise healthy, for single people, or for an old couple without children, still they would be all the better if they had some trifling extra accom- modation in the way of scullery or pantry. And another addition is always useful, and that is a porch. This adds materially to the warmth of the house in winter-time, and thus saves coals ; the porch may either be added externally or made internally, in which case it affords the opportunity of giving a pantry or little closet off it. This internal porch can only be given where the interior of the cottage is large, and in many cases they are too large, so much so, indeed, that they are difficult to keep warm ; and by an old person or old couple, who do not require to be bustling about, a small room is better liked. Take, for example, a cottage of one room, a, b, c, d, as in fig. 3, Plate 30, of which there are many in the country. This of itself presents no conveniences whatever, and cannot possibly be a warm house in winter, there being no porch ; and the fire-place, in- dicated by the letters / p, being opposite the door, d, every wind that blows in that direc- tion sends a cold current right across the room, and those sitting near the fire to get the heat, get the cold draught in large proportion, doing away with the good of the fire. Strong, stalwart people may do with sitting in draughts, although even with them the practice is question- able ; but for poor old folks, with tliin blood, and, alas ! too often thinner garments, the state of matters is anything but what it should be. And if we who are better off would try to realize the evils that others who are much worse off suffer, certain it is that our philanthropy would take much more practical directions than it often does. Comfort often is required by poor people ; it is all they ask, when charity in a more offensive form — and charity with some is always offensive — is the last thing they wish or want. Thus, by simply adding a porch to the cottage, as by an ' offset,' a large amount of comfort may be given to its in- mates without in any way expending much money, and yet a true charity may be done all the same. And by adding slightly to the length of the porch, space may be given for a pantry, a convenience which in the cottage under review, fig. 3, Plate 30, is only ' conspicuous by its absence.' Or, in place of putting the porch outside the wall, it may be placed inside. The window might interfere in the extending the length of the porch, so as to give a pantry ; but if space can be had in the interior of the cottage, this might be fitted up in a corner of the cottage ; or, if the porch is placed outside the house, it may be extended in the direction of the breadth of the house, and space would then be given for a pantry. "We might give a wide variety of plans showing how old cottages could be improved, but it will be enough to show the general principle upon which this may be proceeded with. Thus, in fig. 3, Plate 30, we may suppose a b c d to be the out- line of a single-storeyed, one-roomed cottage, with a door at the point e ; by adding an offset, /# h i, space for a small bed-room,/, may be obtained, a porch at k, and a small scullery or store-closet at/. If a second bed-room be required, the extension/ g may be carried down to m n, the door of the house still remaining as at e. But by filling up the corner c d, fig. 3, Plate 30, and the old doorway, e, a very convenient cottage could then be obtained, the lobby and entrance being at 0; the old scullery at I re- DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. moved, and formed either into a larder or a small bed-closet for a child ; the new scullery being at q, and a store-closet at r, and a linen one at s. But by making the entrance at t, and a small inner porch, as shown by the dotted line at g, the lobby, o, and larder and store-closet, r, might be laid together to form a moderately good-sized bed-room, o r, space being had at u for a wardrobe. Fig. 4 may serve also to illustrate another examjile, abed being the one-room cottage, and by making offsets or addi- tions at the ends,/(7, considerable accommodation would be secured, and laid out in various ways and for various purposes, of which the illustration, is an example. DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE OF FARM-HOUSES. 133 CHAPTER XIII. DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE. These subjects, which, treated of generally, would comprise the enunciation of many principles, and the giving of a great number of illustrations, will be compressed into but small space, inasmuch as they will refer only to the limited class of buildings already noticed, and that in what may be called the simplest of methods. Thus, drainage has only to be considered in connection with the site of the buildings, of which we will tpke the farm-house as an example, the details being obviously applicable to the other buildings of the property. Drainage of the Site of the Farm-house. — A great deal has been lately written about the pre- vention of damp in a house. For long we have advocated the prevention rather than the cure, and as damp in a wall in nine cases out of ten arises from damp in the soil, the only true way to prevent damp in the walls of a house is to drain thoroughly the soil of the site upon which it stands. This may be dispensed with in the case of very light and porous soils, and where the position of the site is such that there is a slope, and therefore a natural drainage from it ; but in heavy and medium soils it is absolutely indispensable. In view, in- deed, of the insidious nature of damp, and how even in the most porous soils it will be present, we would even with such thoroughly drain the soil of the site. We are confident from what we have seen, and from the results of the experience of others, that houses which are now damp would have been otherwise, even without the constructive applications we have described, had the soil on which they stand been wTell drained. Of course this drainage can be best, cheapest, and most effectually done, as it ought to be done, before the house is built ; but still, in view of the good effects obtainable from the system, we would re- commend in the case of houses already built, and which have turned out to be damp, the sites to be as well drained as they can be. In such a case, the only kind of drains available are intercepting drains surrounding the house (as the drain shown by the thicker lines in fig. 21), although the cross drains should be carried through as close to the house as its foundation will permit. In houses about to be built, the whole area of the site should be cross-drained, as shown in the diagram. Fig. 21. Plan showing Drainage of Site and Grounds of Farm-house. The cost of draining a site is not so very expensive ; but if even more than it is, the out- lay would, in all cases, be well repaid by the advantages obtained. The following brief state- ment will give one or two practically suggestive details. A site one acre in extent can be thoroughly drained throughout, the whole area surrounded with a deep catch -drain, and the site of the house specially deep drained, at a cost of .£20 nearly in two classes of light soils, or at an annual rent-charge of, in round numbers, 30s. 6cL or 34s. 8d. ; in medium and heavier soils at nearly <£23, or at an annual rent-charge of 43s. One acre of land thoroughly drained throughout, but not surrounded with a catch- drain, as shown by the double line in tig. 21, and the site of the 134 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. house specialty deep drained, as in the diagram, costs, in light soils, £12, or, commuted into a yearly rental charge, 18s.; in medium soils, nearly £14, rental 21s. ; in heavy soils, £17 for the acre, yearly rental 26s. In the first named of the two cases ahove, suitable for a farm-house •with garden ground, etc., the following are the ' qualities ' and sizes of drain-tubes required : — 77 yards of 6-feet-deep drains, 277 yards of 5 -feet-deep drains, 745 yards of 3^-feet, 1062 yards of If -inch drain tubes, 2235 yards of 1-inch do. For the second case, 147 yards of 5-feet-deep drains, 622 yards of 3^-feet drains, 441 yards of li-inch drain-tubes, and 1866 yards of 1-inch tubes. Sewerage — Liquid-manure Tunis. — The or- dinary sewers, or rather drains, — for sewers, properly speaking, are large, — used in farm build- ings are those only required to lead, in the case of the steading, the liquid exuvia from the live-stock apartments ; and in the case of the farm-house, etc., the liquid refuse to the tanks prepared to receive it, which is the best place, in the case of the residential buildings, for its final deposit. It may be taken to the nearest stream, or, as it too often is, to the nearest ditch or open drain. But in the first of these cases it is sure to pollute the water, and, in the second, the air in the immediate neighbourhood. No doubt some may take excep- tion to the tank as only the old-fashioned cesspool under another name, about the evils of which so much has been said, and which we, at all events, have no desire to defend. But a liquid-manure tank and the old-fashioned cesspool are two very different things ; and yet a well-constructed cess- pool is a tank, just as a tank may be called a cesspool. The faults of the old-fashioned cess- pools were the bad way in which thej were constructed, the bricks or stones being badly set, and the mortar bad ; so that the sewage matter drained through to the surrounding soil, and often to the water of neighbouring wells, making both impure, — alike the cause of noxious emanations from the one, and poisonous qualities in the other. The cesspool, moreover, was almost always left uncovered, or, if provided with a cover, it was so defective that the foid gases easily escaped into the air. Now a liquid-manure tank possesses, or should jiossess, the very opposite of all these character- istics. The bricks or stones should be carefully set in cement, not in poor mortar, which is easdy and soon worked out from between the joints. The backing, moreover, between the bricks or stones and the enclosing soil should be well puddled with clay, the cover should be air-tight, and all openings made into it trapped with deep syphon-traps. If all this be done, and done care- fully, and the drains leading to the tank be well ventilated, no evil of a sanitary kind need be apprehended from the presence of a tank in the neighbourhood of the house. It should, however, be placed at some distance from it, say at the extreme end of the garden. This will be the best place for it, as the position will be convenient for emptying the contents for manurial purposes. The value, indeed, of these contents for manure is such, that they will pay at least the annual charge of per- centage of the cost of the tank, but in general much more than this. If a heap of dry, or comparatively dry soil be prepared near to the tank when it is about to be cleared out, and its contents be thrown upon the heap, and the whole mixed up, or the contents of the tank covered at once with the soil, no un- pleasant smell need be feared. There is no deodorizing treatment so effective and prompt in its action as ordinary soil. The Water-closet. — In planning the house, ample space should be given to the water-closet. As a rule, the size of this convenience is so small that it is made one of the most inconvenient parts of a house. This arises from most mistaken notions respecting it ; often, too, from a false delicacy, which prompts the putting of it in such places, and arranging it in such a way, as if the best thing to do was to put it out of sight, as the most disagreeable of subjects. And in one sense no doubt it is ; but its presence is a known necessity, ministering to the health and conveni- ence of the household ; and being so, it ought to be arranged in the way best calculated to meet those most important, nay, essential requirements. The room in which the water-closet should be placed ought, in our opinion, to be a room in the sense of being 'roomy,' — we mean to make no pun, — not stowed away into a closet, literally ' closed ' or ' close-set,' as perhaps the word originally was. The place should not only be spacious, but well TRAPPING AND VENTILA TION OF DRAINS. 135 lighted ; and above all, means should be provided to supply it liberally with fresh air, by which the foul air can be forced out as soon as generated. It should, moreover, be of easy access, yet secluded ; and both of these requirements can be met by the exercise of a little care in the planning. Many reasons, and all of them important, concur, we think, in clearly pointing out the plan as being in every way the best, of having the water-closet perfectly isolated from, or projecting from the main wall of the house. This is not easily done, if indeed it can be done at all, in towns ; but there is nothing to prevent it being done in the country, and yet at the same time be of con- venient access from the house. For the strong, the young, and the healthy, a convenience of this kind should be provided in the garden, at a distance from the house. Drain Traps. — We have above alluded to the foul gases generated in drains and cesspools. The latter abomination may not have an exist- ence— or it ought not — as the excreta may be sent into a neighbouring river, or, better still, a properly constructed liquid-manure tank, as that belonging to the farm buildings ; but drains are an absolute necessity wherever a water-closet is used, and in the great majority of instances they act in no other way than as long cesspools, — of small diameter, no doubt, but mischievous enough in their way, from the length to which, even in the most favourable circumstances, they necessarily extend. No doubt, to prevent the foul and most dangerous gases generated in their interior from passing into the house through the medium of the water-closet, or the scullery, or wash-house, sink or slop-stone, ' traps ' are used. But these, in the great majority of cases, are traps only in name, not in reality. The efficiency of a trap depends upon a certain volume or mass of water, the amount of which is supposed in theory to be always constant ; or at least, that water to a greater or less extent should always be present in the apparatus. So long, but only so long, as this volume of water is in the trap, the gases from the drain cannot pass through the water, and from thence into the open part of the trap, which is connected with the water-closet or sink. But some traps have such confined water space that it soon dries up in warm weather, and is not of depth enough to resist the pressure of the drain gas. In water- closets the usual form of trap is a ' syphon ' or ' S '-shaped tube, the water which remains in the bent part preventing the gases from flowing into the house through the open end at the closet. But even this form, more efficient in general than the bell trap, as less liable to have the water evaporated, is by no means to be depended upon. If the gases accumulate in the drains to a danger- ous extent, or if the outlet of the same is exposed to the action of strong winds, as they often are, the pressure of air upon the water in the trap is greater than the pressure due to the column of water in the bend, and the result is that the gases are forced througli the trap and into the house. This happens much more frequently than is generally supposed. Further, traps and pipe connections being almost always made of lead, the gases from the drains soon corrode this, and holes are formed through which they easily escape into the house. Ventilation of Drains. — All these facts show that some method of dealing with drain gases, so as to prevent either their formation or their accumulation to that extent which becomes dangerous, is necessary. The best and most trustworthy method of dealing with the difficulty is the adoption of special means for ventilating the drains, so that as quickly as the gases are formed, they are led off from their interior. This method has one great advantage to recommend it, if it had no other, which is, that it is independent of all care — or, what is more likely to be the case, of the carelessness — of attendants ; and when once done, involves no expense in keeping it in working order. There are two methods of ventilating the drains, one of which only as }'et has been adopted ; that is, the carrying of a pipe or tube which communicates with the interior of the drain up the side of the house, and terminating it at the eaves. Bain-water pipes will act as ventilators of drains, but as we recommend the saving of rain-water, which may be collected from the roofs of all houses, in place of its being wasted by being sent into the drains, we of course advise special ventilating tubes to be made, and these to be terminated, not at the eaves, but at a height some feet above them ; and also to 136 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY be furnished with a special cap, by which the upward action on the draught of the tube will be aided. This method gets rid at once of the objection made to the use of the ordinary rain- water pipes as ventilators, namely, that being terminated at a height very little above the windows of the upper storey, the gases passing out are apt to be blown into the rooms through the windows. The objection is perhaps more fanciful than real, and the evil, if evil it be, thus created, even at its worst, will be innocent com- pared with the evil of allowing the concentrated gases from the drains to pass directly into the house through defective water-closets, baths, and sinks. For the gases, having always an outlet at the rain-water pipe, would be kept in a much less concentrated state than in the drains, and when once in the open air diffusion is rapid. Gases diluted with fresh air cannot possibly be so dangerous as when concentrated and unmixed with air. But the plan we recommend, if outside tubes are to be used for ventilating drains, will get rid, as we have said, of this objection. An excellent ventilating cap for terminating the pipe is the archimedean screw ventilator, invented by Silver of Farnham, near Bolton in Lancashire. It is stated that some thousands of these are fixed to sewer ventilating shafts in Liverpool alone. The other method by which drains may be ventilated has only recently been proposed, but we have no hesitation in stating that it is the better of the two ; that is, to have a flue leading to the kitchen chimney, the flue communicating by special and minor flues with all the drains or pipes leading from the water-closet, the bath, lavatory, and sinks. The upward current in the chimney will draw in the gases from the drain as rapidly as they are formed, and the gaseous products of combustion present in the chimney will tend to disinfect them ; at all events, by mixing with the heated air and the products of combustion present in the chimney, the united gases will, when they make their exit at the flue mouth, be rapidly diffused in the atmo- sphere. It is impossible to exaggerate the evils atten- dant upon the escape of gases from drains, when they are suffered to pass into the interior of houses. Recent investigations have proved beyond a doubt that much disease, and that of a dangerous kind, arises from this cause alone. Ventilation of drains is the ' newest thing out,' and may, therefore, like most new things, be looked upon with doubt by some ; but it is nevertheless of vast importance, and we have shown that it is no difficult or expensive thing to carry out. Neither is it a new thing by any means, for we find a tiotice of it in the work of an author published no fewer than a hundred and fifty years ago, who insists upon its import- ance, and shows how, by ' secret vents passing \ip through the walls like a tunnel,' the ' ignoble conveyances ' of the ' suillage ' (sewage) may be let in and dispersed in ' the wilde air alofte,' to the manifest advantage of the ' health of the inhabitants.' So the plan, after all, has all the advantages — whatever they may be — which respectable old age brings with it. VENTILATION OF, AND SUPPLY OF WATER TO, FARM-HOUSES. 137 CHAPTER XIV. VENTILATION OF FARM-HOUSES SUPPLY OF WATER, ETC. We have already, in a previous chapter, illus- trated the practical details of ventilation as applied to the apartments for the live stock of the steading, and there referred to a suc- ceeding chapter in which the principles would be described ; it remains for us, in this place, to fulfil our promise, which we shall do in describing the Ventilation of the Rooms of the Farm-house. — Of all the questions connected with the arrange- ment aud construction of houses, not one has given rise to such a diversity of opinion as that of ventilation. Architects and builders have been blamed, and in no measured terms, for what they have done, as much as for what they have not done, in endeavouring to settle the question, Can our rooms be ventilated ? And yet, on a fair view of all the points connected with the subject, it is open to doubt whether architects and builders have been — or are — entitled to all the blame for allowing, as a rule, houses which they design and build to remain without any attempt at ventilating them. For a little consideration will show that house proprietors and occupiers have done, and in point of fact do still, much to prevent plans for ventilating rooms having fair play when they have been provided. We all know the horror of draughts which possesses the mass of people. The mere notion that air is coming through a hole, if it does not urge them to do what the old proverb advises them under such circumstances, — ' to make their will and mind their soul,' — certainly urges them, in the great majority of cases, to go and stop up the hole, so that no air can get through it. Now, as a rule, if architects do make ventilating apertures in connec- tion with a room, the idea is at once taken, and persistently held, that with these there must, of necessity, be a draught or draughts, and forthwith the ventilating appliances are condemned, and pro- bably the architect who designed them also at the same time. Now it is obvious that, if fresh air is necessary, — although, it must be confessed, there seems to be a pretty widespread notion that it is not so, from the dislike had to it, — there must be some apertures made by which it is admitted while fresh, and others by which it is to be with- drawn when it is made anything but fresh by its being breathed. And fresh air can be supplied to a room without of necessity creating a draught. The difficulty is to get people to believe it ; and believe many of them will not, so long as they have before their eyes the apertures by which it is admitted. ' Don't I know that air is coming through these holes, and there must be a draught ? ' To such a style of argument as this, if argument it be, what reply can be made ? It certainly is remarkable how we say this ; but we are, after all, not so sure about it, for even people of the most fastidious tastes in almost everything make this of fresh air an exception, and submit, day after day, to breathe foul air, which, to an educated sense of what fresh air is, smells of bad air. The peculiar odour of air which has been again and again breathed is, indeed, very marked, and is well known to 'practised noses.' How it exists the next paragraph will endeavour to explain. Causes of Deterioration of Air in Ajwrtments. — Up to a comparatively recent period, the generally received opinion as to the cause of air becoming foul after being breathed was, that the process of deterioration was entirely chemical. The fresh air being inhaled into the lungs gave up its oxygen to the blood, took up therefrom carbonic acid gas, which, being exhaled, passed out in a deteriorated state. This for a long time was held universally 133 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. as the theory accounting for the presence of bad air in our rooms, and is, as above stated, held by a large number of people yet. And it has only been in comparatively recent times that investigation has clearly proved that it is not merely the air which has passed through the lungs, and been ex- pelled therefrom, which constitutes what is known as foul air in rooms. There are causes other than this that tend to increase, not only the amount, but the degree of foulness of bad air. Thus we now know that air, in addition to being chemically deteriorated by passing through the lungs, is organically deteriorated by the presence in it of organic impurities taken up from the body. Then, again, in addition to the organic impurities passed off by the air expelled from the lungs, there are other organic impurities which are passed off from the surface of the body by insensible and also by sensible perspiration. Still further, the air in our rooms is rendered impure by the dust floating about in them, and which dust is often the pro- duct of very disgusting substances. Then, again, the air is deteriorated by the product of combus- tion from candles, lamps, or gas-light, and, what is perhaps worse, by emanations from foul drains in the neighbourhood of the room, or from damp decaying vegetable and animal substances under the floor or within the soil of the site of the house. Prevention of Draughts in supplying Fresh Air to Rooms. — No doubt there are difficulties in the way of supplying fresh air in such a way that draughts or currents will not be created and felt, — for created they must be, otherwise ventilation could not be secured, for ventilation without currents of air is a mere contradiction of terms. The great point to be arrived at is to arrange the fresh-air appliances in such a way as to diffuse the air as much as possible ; this points to having fresh-air apertures as numerous and as small in area as possible, and to have them in such posi- tions that the incoming current may be felt to as small a degree as possible. An arrangement which has been found very effective in practice is, admitting the cold fresh air by apertures in the wall leading to a hollow space behind the ceiling cornice of the room ; the cornice being so con- structed that its upper part communicates with a species of flat shelf, so to call it, and this shelf is provided with a finely-perforated zinc plate. The fresh cold air admitted to the room through the apertures, in its descent to the zone of respiration, becomes in a degree warmed before it reaches the zone, and the sensation of draught is reduced to a minimum, if it be not altogether got rid of. For it should be noted here, that the chief source of the objection to incoming currents of fresh air is, that the air being cold it is at once felt, and being once felt it is decided offhand that there must be a draught. We believe, therefore, that if fresh air were sent into a room at or about the temperature of the air in the room, no objection to such cur- rents would be made, and we should hear no more about draughts. Hence the value of the plan above noticed for admitting fresh air, although it possesses certain obvious disadvantages, of which only one may be named here, — the fresh air is warmed by coming in contact with foul air, — although the objection be not a very grave one, seeing that the contact with the foul air is so short in respect of time that the contamination is not much. We ourselves prefer the fresh air to be supplied to a room below, at least not above, the zone of respiration. To secure this we know of no contrivance so efficient as the grate known as the ' ventilating grate ; ' and of the various forms of those yet introduced, that of Captain Galton we deem the best. In this, the grate is so arranged that in itself it affords the maximum of heat with the minimum expenditure of fuel, while, at the same time, it warms a large supply of cold air admitted from the external atmosphere ; which air, after being warmed, is admitted to the interior of the room by openings specially made. As tending much to the comfort of the house in cold weather, we would strongly recommend the hall, lobby, and staircase to be well warmed by means of a stove-ventilating fire-place in the hall, or in the case of a large mansion by hot-water pipes. The various rooms of the house will draw as from a central reservoir supplies of warm air, and the cold draughts so often complained of when doors are opened leading into the hall, lobby, or staircase, will be avoided. With this arrangement might be added another of having the skirting- boards of the rooms at that side nearest the hall or staircase perforated with apertures, other aper- tures being made in the wall, so that warm air might flow in from the hall, lobby, or staircase VENTILATION, WATER SUPPLY, AND SITE DRAINAGE. '39 into the rooms ; or apertures might be made in the lower panels of the door, and these covered inside the room with a light silk curtain, capable of being raised or lowered like a railway carriage spring blind. Care should be taken to bore the holes in the door panel obliquely up, so as to throw the air upwards. The supply of fresh air warmed to the required degree being secured by the means we have described, the next point to be attended to is getting rid of the foul air. By far the best means for securing this important point is the addition of a ventilating-flue — or supplementary chimney, as it may be called — built alongside and in close contiguity with the ordinary chimney-flue of the fire-place. The interior of the ventilating-flue gets warmed by being in contact with the chimney-flue, and the current upward is sufficiently strong to withdraw regularly and with certainty the foul air from the room, the foul air passing from the room to the ventilating-flue through an aperture made in the wall near the cornice-ceiling. As the subject of ventilating and warming is such a wide one, it is obviously impossible that we can here go into all its details, even if the scheme of this work admitted of this being done, which it does not. To those, therefore, of our readers who wish to go into the subject more minutely than we have been able to do here, we beg to refer them to a small handbook, entitled ' Practical Ventilation,' published by Messrs. Blackwood & Sons, Edin- burgh and London. The supply of water is a point of great import- ance, and one which should be carefully attended to. The source of supply in the majority of country and farm houses is the well. This should be dug in a position as near the house as possible ; of course, near the working parts, as the kitchen, scullery, and wash-house. Where the place of final deposit of sewage matters is the cesspool, or rather tank, as already described, the cesspool should be arranged as far from the well as possible, although if it be lined with Portland cement con- crete, as recommended, there need be no fear of leakage from it contaminating the soil, and thence likely to drain towards the well. But the material which prevents leakage from any receptacle to the surrounding soil will prevent leakage to a recep- tacle from the soil. We would therefore recom- mend the well to be lined with Portland cement concrete ; and the same for tanks in which rain- water is stored up. Bain - water for washing purposes, whether of clothes or of person, is the softest and best which can be procured, and all means, therefore, should be taken by which the rain passing from the roof of the house can be saved. One cistern should be placed at a short distance below the roof, from which the water- closet and the bed-rooms and bath are to be supplied. For kitchen purposes and for washing, the rain-water will be best stored up in an under- ground tank ; this being placed near the scullery and wash-house, a supply being obtained for these when required by means of a pump. We now come to notice a few constructional points. In treating of the site and its drainage, we pointed out that this drainage was perhaps the best method of securing dry walls. Damp, as a rule, in walls arises from the moisture in the soil being drawn up from it by capillary attraction in the materials of which the wall is composed ; the more porous these are, and the more carelessly put together, the damper being the wall. To prevent the damp from rising in the walls, what are called ' damp-proof courses ' are provided, these being generally a layer of sheet-lead, slate, or tar, or, in the latest improvement, hollow bricks laid at a level a little above the level of the ground. These are all more or less effective ; the lead, although the most expensive, being perhaps the most effective in preventing the moisture rising from the ground up the walls. But the best way assuredly is to prevent, if possible, the existence of the moisture in the soil at all, — we mean, of course, undue or excessive moisture. This is best done by draining the site ; the drains should be deep and pretty near each other. Damp, however, often arises in walls from long-continued rain being driven in upon the surface by wind long continued in one direction. From this cause, the side of a house facing the prevalent wind, and if that wind be the rainy one, is frequently damp. A course of slate is often nailed to the wall so ex- posed, but this, although generally effective, is not an expedient pleasing to the eye. If the exterior of the house is cemented throughout, the exposed side may be cemented with Portland cement, which, if well done and the cement of good 140 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. quality, will be effective. The best plan to adopt* however, is to build the exposed wall with hollow bricks, or with ordinary bricks with a ' cavity ' or internal space. This hollow brick wall or cavity system may, indeed, be carried out throughout the whole building, and with good results, as the house will be warmer and freer from damp than it would be if built with ordinary bricks in the ordinary way. A capital means to secure a dry house is to have the whole cellared under. Some of the cellar apartments will be found very useful for a variety of domestic purposes. In the formation of basement or cellar floors, there are several materials at command ; those generally employed are stone flags, tiles, and bricks set on edge. In the use of all of these, the great point to be attended to is the formation of a sound foundation. The soil should be dug out for a depth of some inches, and its place taken by well- sifted ashes and cinders, or smithy clinkers ; the ashes to be placed uppermost. The whole should he well rammed down, and the surface made as uniform as possible, and of course level through- out, carefully bedding the flags, tiles, or bricks upon the surface. This will make a drier floor than if the natural soil is left, upon which the flooring material is to he laid. If bricks or tiles are used, the joints should be filled in with cement, pressing this well down and carefully finishing off the surface. A good floor surface can be made with lime and ashes ; but by far the best material for the formation of basement floors, and floors of dairies, is the Portland cement concrete, the characteristics of which, and its xises in build- ing walls, etc., we have elsewdiere fully described. Should the expense of cellaring the whole house be objected to, we would nevertheless, in view of the advantages derivable from having a cellar apartment for storing up meat, beer, wine, etc., advise part of the house to be cellared under. The other part, although not cellared, should have an excavation of at least a foot in depth below- the level of the under side of the floor joists. This will keep the timber well off the ground, and will admit of its being well ventilated by apertures in the wall — the best preventive of dry-rot. If the ground surface under the timber be Portland cement concreted, the house will be all the drier, and free also from vermin. The foundation course should all be laid in concrete, and this be well brought up to the footings and beyond them, so as to keep the soil away from the walls on the outside as much as possible. CONVENIENT ARRANGEMENT OF ROOMS OF FARM-HOUSES. 141 CnAPTER XV. POINTS CONNECTED WITH THE CONVENIENT ARRANGEMENT OF FAEM RESIDENCES. This subject is such a wide one, and embraces so many details, that the title to the chapter would have been more fitting if we had said ' some of the points,' for it is only to a few that we can possibly direct attention. These, however, will be such as exercise a great influence on the convenient working of houses, although they are seldom mentioned and pretty generally overlooked. Size and Fittings of Bed-rooms. — Much of the comfort, certainly much of the convenience, of a bed-room depends upon the way in which the door is placed, or doors are placed, with relation to the fire-place and the window or windows. Some are so carelessly planned in this respect — if the term planned, indeed, can be here applied — that it is almost impossible to place the furniture in the way it ought to be placed. Not seldom have we been called upon to inspect a house in which the bed-rooms, from this cause, were almost useless. Only the other day we were consulted about a house in which all the bed-rooms were so planned that not a bed could be placed without either stretching across the fire-place or the window. We need scarcely say that this house was not purchased by the party looking at it. With some, all that seems necessary is that the room should have a door; but whether it exercises any influence upon the convenience of the room as a place in which to sleep, does not seem to have been thought of. A very common mistake is to place the door in the centre of the wall next the lobby or landing-place. This position almost invari- ably cuts lip the furniture space so much that it is not easy to place it properly, and in the case of small bed-rooms it is almost an impossibility. Thus take, for example, the case as illustrated in fig. 22, in which a is the lire-place, I the window, and c the door in the centre of the wall leading from lobby d d. Taking the space occupied by the bed as e, it will be seen that the position it is made in the diagram to occupy is the only one in which it can be placed ; and even this is an unfortunate one, as it throws the foot of the bed too near the fire-place. It cannot be placed in either of the corners d d, for the width is such that the sides of the bed,/#, come past the door architraves. The difficulty is still greater where the room has to contain a wardrobe, and where the room is comparatively small, for the corners d d cannot take it in, and it cannot be placed against the window ; and if, to make room for the wardrobe in the corner h, the bed is placed nearer the fire-place a, the inconvenience in this respect is made worse ; or if the corner i is taken, the bed comes too near the door. All the diffi- culties named — and they are not fanciful ones, having been met with by no means seldom in practice — could have been avoided by simply putting the door in either one or other of the 142 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. corners a b, fig. 23. This at once gives facilities for placing the furniture in the most convenient ~J~~ Lj .a O ' /"■ i <■ I Fig. 23. Bad Position of Door in Bed-room. position, — the bed at c, the wardrobe at d ; a fair amount of space is thus obtained between the foot of the bed c and the fire-place, useful in cases of sickness. But in the case here illus- trated there is again a choice between the two positions of the door, one being better than the other; thus it will be better to put the door in the corner a than in b, as the corner at b will then be left free, so that the washhand-stand can be placed at i. True, it may be placed at h ; but as in most rooms there is or should be cup- board or press convenience, and as iu brick-built houses the space made by the projecting jambs of the fire-place is always used in this way, the door -will be either at h or j, so that the wash- hand-stand cannot be placed there. And even should there be no press, and therefore no door, we hold that the best position for the washhand- stand is at i — where the door of the room is at a, not at b — inasmuch as this arraugement gives free space all round the fire-place — a convenience at all times, but more especially in times of sick- ness, so great, that it should be used in all bed- rooms if possible. But further, there is a choice between a good way and a better even in the mode of placing the door at a in fig. 23 ; for if placed, say, midway between the space formed by the side of the bed and the wall k k, the probable result will be that a wall-space is left too short to be made useful in the placing of furniture ; but if the door-cheek of a is placed as close to the wall k k as will only afford room for the architrave (and this should always be given, as it looks to us always an ugly thing to see a door furnished on one side only with the architrave mouldings), then a space will be given for the placing of a chair or other article of furniture — as a small table in case of sickness — in the corner b, next the door a, and at the side and head of the bed. Such points as these may by some be considered as trifling and beneath the notice of an architect or builder, but they are precisely those which make or mar the comfort and convenience of a house. Such houses, as has been well said, are made to live in, not to look at merely, and what adds to the comfort of living cannot be in any sense unimportant, certainly far from trifling. The case now illustrated is much more difficult for the housewife to deal with, where the bed- rooms are very small, and where the planner has thoughtlessly placed the door in a bad position. And we regret to say that very small bed-rooms are too much the rule in all classes of houses ; but as on this point we have already offered a few remarks, we pass on to the subject in hand. Take the case, for example, illustrated in fig. 24, 24. Bad Arran — and such a monstrosity in planning as this has been perpetrated, — in which a a is the landing b a small closet entering from the same, c the door to bed-room, d the window, e the fire-place / a small dressing-closet entered by the door g. Now where can the bed be placed ? Not in the corners i, j, nor in k, for the bed would then come within the line of the door g ; or if this door was even nearer the window d, the bed would still come beyond the door c ; the bed POSITION OF DOORS TO ROOMS IN FARM-HOUSES. 143 can in this case be placed only against the window d. All such absurd difficulties should never be met with, and would never be if in planning a house special plans on a larger scale of the bed-rooms were taken, and the bed-space put down therein in all positions, so as to ascer- tain which would be the best for it to occupy. If this were done, in many cases the planner would see that his bed-rooms, however well and con- veniently placed they seemed to be in the general plan, would not do when coining under the hands of a housewife who has to arrange the furniture of the rooms, and make them, what they should be, convenient and comfortable. How often have we had the complaint made to us, ' Oh ! the house is very nice in many ways, but it will not do for us — we cannot get our furniture into the bed-rooms, so as to move about comfortably in it ;' which, to our mind, is very much like saying, ' Oh! the house is a very good house, but it can- not be lived in ;' as if living in a house were not precisely the object for which it was built, and no other. The position of the bed is an important point in the estimation of some, that is, the side of the room at which the ' head ' should be. Some very curious researches have been recently made by a Continental physicist into the influence of the position of a bed on the sleep of the party occupying it. Position and Hanging of Doors of Entertain- ing Rooms. — Nor is this difficulty in getting a house in which the furniture cannot be properly placed on account of, to a large extent, the way in which the placing of doors has been done, confined only to bed-rooms ; not seldom, indeed, is it met with in the case of the entertaining and working rooms. As a rule, it should be the aim of the planner to give as long and unbroken wall-spaces as possible, against which pieces of furniture can be placed. We have now in re- collection not a few rooms we have seen in which it was an absolute impossibility to place a bookcase or a sideboard without blocking up a door, a window, or the fire-place. The mere hanging of a door is a matter of some importance. We have often met with doors to cupboards, pantries, etc., hung in such a way that when opened they actually shut out the light of a window blocked up, as thus (fig. 25), where a is the window, with the door hung so I n h_r V Fig. 25. Bad Position of Scullery and Cupboard Doors. as to open in the direction of the curve, keeping the light from the closet b; while by hanging the door on the side, as shown by the dotted line d, when open the full light would be thrown into the closet, — a great convenience, surely, in looking for or arranging things. The awkwardness of such a method of hanging doors is shown further in the same diagram, at the closet or cupboard on the opposite side, c, of the fire-place, farthest from the window, the interior of which will be effectually darkened by the open- ing of the door; the method of hanging the door shown by the dotted lines will obviate this, and be doubly convenient if a piece of furniture, as a wardrobe or bookcase, /, be placed where shown. The peculiar awkwardness — often leading to accident — of the method of hanging doors as shown in fig. 26 should be avoided, the door a b b L^ Fig. 2G. nanging of Contiguous Doors in Room Interiors. of the room entering from passage b b being very apt to collide with the door c of the pantry d, as shown by the dotted lines. Again, in fig. 27, the awkwardness occasioned by hanging the door so as to open inwards, as shown, to a small bed- closet leading from a larger sitting-room, would have been avoided by hanging the door so that it would open to the large room. In fig. 26, the door, opened as at b, blocks up the space c at side of bed. 144 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. Again, doors provided to small rooms, as dress- ing-closets, entering from a larger room, should as Fig. 27. Hanging of a Door lead Small to a Large Room. a rule be made to open into the larger room. By reversing this method, much of the space of the small room will be done away with. Thus we have known a dressing-room attached to a bed-room rendered most inconvenient by having the door opening into it ; as thus, where a in fig. 28 is the washhand-stand, b an article of "T3 Fig. 2S. Hanging of the Door of a Dressing-room. furniture in the dressing-room, d the door open- ing into it in such a way that any one standing at c, and wishing to get into the bed-room d, had first to shut the door, then pass to the space in front of it, then open the door and pass out; whereas all this could have been avoided by hanging the door as shown by the dotted lines, so as to open against the wall of the bed-room. So also in the hanging of doors opening into nar- row passages ; this should if possible be avoided, especially if the doorway is in the centre of the passage, so that one may have occasion to go farther along it ; the passage is, in such a case, fairly obstructed by the door opening into it, if the passage be narrow, by being so near the opposite wall that there is no room till the door be closed. In water-closets, from their being made as a rule so small, tin's inconvenient mode of hanging the door so as to open into the closet is specially annoying, as many of our readers must have experienced, especially in town houses ; and in such cases, as they often enter from a passage, of the two evils the least should be chosen, and the door should be made to open to the passage — although that may be, as named above, incon- venient— in place of opening into the closet. The hanging of doors of water-closets and privies is generally carelessly done ; for example, the method illustrated in fig. 29, than which nothing Fig. 29. Hanging of Water-closet Door. could be more awkward — the party walking in having first to open the door a, then crush him- self up into the corner b, then shut the door to get to the seat ; the process being reversed is just as absurdly tedious in getting out. We could easily multiply instances of badly hung doors, but we have given enough to show that some attention is required in this department of house-fitting, where perfect convenience and com- fort are wished for. Position of Windows. — The arrangement of windows to a room is a matter of considerable importance. Abundance of light should be given to every room, for light exercises a most impor- tant influence upon the health of their inhabit- ants ; the windows should therefore be large, and the sills placed not higher from the floor than one foot. This enables the view to be more thoroughly enjoyed, and throws light full upon the floor, thus aiding the cleaning out and dusting of the room. Some attention should be given to the placing of the windows, or at least one of the windows, with relation to the fire-place, so that those sitting at it while at work or while reading should have an ample supply of light. All closets should be well lighted ; and all the windows of these should be capable of being opened and shut. FIRE-PROOF CONSTRUCTION. 145 CHAPTER XVI. FIRE-PROOF CONSTRUCTION ADAPTED TO THE BUILDINGS OF THE FARM. It would be difficult to name any class of buildings to which a system of fire-proof con- struction could be so advantageously applied as those erected in rural and outlying dis- tricts. The freopiency with which accounts are met with in the public prints of this class of buildings being nearly, if not wholly, destroyed by fire, and the number of cases of partial loss which, although known locally, are not publicly announced, shows that they are liable to fire in a degree, if not beyond, certainly quite up to the average of other buildings. Indeed, within the range of our own experience, we are prepared to state that, in cases of fire breaking out in farm buildings, those resulting in total or nearly total loss greatly outnumber those cases in which the fires are extinguished before great loss has been sustained. Nor need this be matter of sur- prise, if we consider that they are almost always isolated from the chances of immediate help, — and help in case of fire, to be of real value, we all know requires to be immediate. Even in the most favourable cases, where the farms, being suburban, are near a town where fire-engines are obtainable, the time which must necessarily elapse before a message can be sent, and a practi- cal answer to it obtained in the arrival of the fire-engine at the scene of the fire, is in nine cases out of ten just the time which is required to enable the fire to obtain such a mastery that it cannot be put out before large if not total loss is the result, or if put out, only after much damage has been done. In districts completely separated from towns by large intervening dis- tance, the case is worse ; so bad, indeed, that, as a rule, the fire has simply full scope to work its will, the chances of getting help in time sufficient to make head against it being altogether against the probability of getting it while it can be use- ful. The circumstances, moreover, of farm build- ings are such that they present unusual facilities for fire quickly spreading, and this from the presence in large bulk of combustible materials, as straw, and also from the presence, as a rule, of large surfaces of exposed timber work. Taking all these circumstances into account, it may to some be matter of surprise that farm buildings are not, as a rule, constructed de novo fire-proof, or, if not absolutely so, still in such a way that the amount of materials employed in their construction of a combustible character, and exposed to fire, would be the minimum, not the maximum, as the rule unfortunately in practice is. But the real difficulty has been, not the absence of the desire on the part of proprietors to have their buildings fire-proof, but the fact that they could not find any system presented to them, which, while being moderately costly only, offered the advantage of being also efficient. For, strange as it may appear to some of our readers, fire-proof systems, up to a very recent period, have been ' conspicuous only by their absence ' in the art of building construction ; and although several have of late been introduced, they have not as a rule been characterised by cheapness, however efficient they might promise to be. In no way, we venture to say, is the art of buildiug so defective as in that department by which materials can be so arranged in a building that the chances of their taking fire are reduced to a minimum. Indeed, so distinguished is house construction by the absence of means to prevent ravages of fire, that distinguished authorities do not hesitate to say, that if our houses were built for the purpose of aiding the ravages of fire when once it breaks out in them, they could not be X 146 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. better built and designed. For not only are materials highly combustible in themselves, used with a lavish hand, as if no other materials were available less combustible or wholly incom- bustible, but they are placed in such positions and arranged in such combinations, that they posi- tively facilitate, if they do not invite, the ravages of fire. We have wooden floors, wooden partitions, wooden roofs, wooden staircases, wooden doors, — wood everywhere ; and wood so put together, as, for example, hollow quartering partitions, and hollow floors and skirting boards, that once fire gets hold of it, the whole goes up little less readily than a firework. The question is therefore one of no small im- portance, Is there no way, or are there no ways of using building materials ordinarily met with in rural districts, in such a way that fires will be, if not absolutely impossible, still by no means so dangerous as they usually are ? and if so, can the system be so simple that its carrying out will lie within the compass or capacity of ordinary workmen ? Such remarks as we are now about to offer, and such suggestions as we propose to make, will enable the reader, we trust, to say whether the question above put can be answered affirmatively or no. In giving a few of the practical suggestions which the consideration of the solution of the problem here offered involves, we deem it necessary to state that they will, with certain modifications which will be obvious to the practical man, be applicable to all classes of structure wTe have in preceding chapters de- scribed and illustrated, domestic as well as those connected with the steading. Taking timber as the material employed, as that most readily obtained, and with the working of which country mechanics are perfectly familiar, the object in view is to combine it with another material or with other materials not in themselves combustible, and in such a way that the timber will be so protected by these, that practically it may be considered safe from the attacks of fire. Let us take for our first example the case of a floor, which, in nine cases out of ten in ordinary farm buildings, is left exposed completely from below, no ceiling being provided, and the floor generally ill laid above, so that a fire when once it breaks out has the best possible chance of consuming the whole of the timber in the shortest possible time. To make this fire-proof, it is necessary that both upper and lower surfaces be so constructed that fire commencing either from below or from above will not be communicated to the opposite surfaces. In the case of ordinary or domestic buildings, this may be said theoretically to be met by the general method of forming plaster ceilings, the timbers on their under side being protected from fire coming from below by the incombustible material with which they are covered. But practically the security afforded by this common arrangement is but a poor one at the best, — the worst one which could be offered, as it misleads people into the belief that at one point their buildings are non-combustible. But in practice, but a very low degree of heat in the room beneath the ceiling causes the plaster to crack, peel, and fall off in large flakes, leaving the laths exposed to the fire, and leading the flame to the hollow spaces beneath the floor, and these again to the hollow partitions or the skirting boards ; and thus a series of vents for the fire is rapidly found, aiding quickly and greatly its intensity. The principle of the ordinary lath and plaster ceiling in making a fire-proof ceiling is retained, but the practical working of it out is materially altered. In place of thin laths, which are wTeak in their liability to split, substitute stiff firring pieces or strips of wood, cut out of half- inch or three-quarter stuff, to have a breadth of one and three-quarters or two inches. In place of being positively rectangular, if they can be cut so as to be narrower on one side than the other, so as to form a sort of dovetail, the work will be all the more secure. These pieces are to be firmly nailed to the under side of the joists or beams, running at right angles to the length of these, and at such distances that spaces of two inches are left between each piece. These pieces form a species of open platform, which is to sup- port and to be embraced in the plaster or quick- setting mortar which forms the ceiling. This mortar is, however, not to be set in place in the ordinary way. The best plan is to have a plat- form of flat boards supported properly from below, and the surface of the boards to be at such a distance from the lower edge of the joists, that when the mortar is forced into the space thus FIRE-PR OOF CONS TR UCTION—FL 00 R S. 147 left, its thickness will be the exact depth required to form what is in reality the ceiling. A simple method will be by simply holding up a plasterer's board below the joists and strips while the mortar is being placed in position ; or the board may be altogether dispensed with, and the mortar put in from above, giving the parts, as they protrude from between the strips and below them, a finish off with a trowel, so as to give or get as well as possible the necessary thickness of mortar below the strips. In this mode of working, a very quickly setting mortar will be required, to pre- vent its dropping away altogether from the strips before it sets. But this latter mode of working out the system we would not recommend, although pretty fair work may be done by holding the board below, while the quickly setting mortar is put in from above. But in neither of these modifications of the true system of working, first explained, will it be easy to get the proper thick- ness of material which forms the ceiling below the strips, so that extra material will have to be put on afterwards, plaster fashion. Now one great advantage obtained bjr working in the proper way is, that the complete ceiling of the right degree of thickness is obtained at one operation, and the solidity of the whole secured, which we have shown to be of such value. But even with the worst done work and with the simplest of appliances under this system, we will venture to promise that a floor and ceiling safer from fire to a degree not obtainable under the old, or rather the present system, will be the result. The work should be commenced at one corner, so that, at the first, a part of the end and side wall will be got as a resisting surface. Afterwards the next length should be done in the direction of the length, so that one strip stretching along the whole apartment will be done first. The junction between the wall and the mortar of the ceiling should be most carefully made, and the surface of the wall at the line of junction should be chisel-roughed or ' tooled,' to afford a good ' key ' to the mortar. So much for the ceiling or under side of a floor. If all the chances of fire arising were to come from the apartment below, this fire-proof construction might end at the point we have reached, as, if the system described was properly carried out, fire even of a fierce kind might rage below, yet not reach the timber joists above the ceiling, which, so far as we have gone, are left exposed and not covered in their upper by the mortar, which so firmly embraces and covers their lower sides. But where there is an apart- ment above in which materials of an inflammable kind are stored, and to which men with their habits so careless of fire have access, then it will be necessary to have a fire-proof floor as well If joists were placed near enough to each other so as to admit of the use of the ordinary-sized paving tiles, and if these were bedded with cement on the joists, and their edges brought carefully in contact, a floor to a large extent fire- proof would be obtained, reducing, as it is esti- mated, the risk of fire at least one-half. This species of floor would be still more efficient if the junction between the outer tile edges and the walls all round was made as tight as possible by the addition of a cement skirting or dado, the base of this reaching well in upon the surface of the floor tiles, and carried up some few inches above it. Flooring tiles woidd be vastly im- proved for fire-proof purposes if the edges were rebated all round, that is, with a species of groove at least half an inch broad. This would enable the tiles to lap into each other, and the joints could be made perfect with a thin mastic cement ; or, if left in their ordinary condition, the joint would be so far perfect that materials from the surface or flame would not go immediately down- wards, but would meet first a solid surface, and then have to travel horizontally the full breadth of the lap or rebate, which would then better be of three-fourths of an inch than half an inch, as named above. But to make a floor as perfectly fire-proof as can be made without the use of incomlmstible materials throughout, we must resort to a modifi- cation of the system already described as available for ceilings. The same method, indeed, may be followed, only placing the strips of wood nailed to the upper side of the joists, and running at right angles to them, a little closer, so that the mortar when laid on shall not have too easy a tendency to fall through the spaces. The mortar when laid must be of greater consistency than when used for the ceiling, and it should be gently 1 4S DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. forced through the spaces, so that but a small portion will be allowed to pass through. As the mortar is laid, — and an inch of thickness above the level of the joists will be sufficient, — the sur- face should be levelled as uniformly as possible ; care being taken, when the work is at any part left off, that the finish be made at or near the centre of a joist, and the outer edge left as rough and jagged as possible, so as to form a good key to the next portion laid down when the work is resumed. If a boarded floor be desired, narrow battens — if these are dove-tail shaped, placed narrow edge downwards, they will take a firmer hold of the mortar — are bedded in the mortar while soft, these running in a direction at right angles to the intended line of boards forming the floor, and which are nailed down to the battens when the mortar surface is finished. If a boarded floor be not desired, the floor surface is more carefully levelled and smoothed down, or it may be finished off with light tiles. Portland cement concrete or mortar will form an excellent floor. However finished on the surface, the greatest care must be taken to form the junction between the edges of the floor and the walls all round in the way already de- scribed. A floor thus made, and finished off as explained, will not only be fire but rat-proof, — the latter a point of great importance in farm build- ings, as in the granaries, dairies, hen-houses, etc. The other method of forming the bearing sur- face to support the mortar is to bridge the voids between the joists by short pieces of lath or pieces of waste or timber, or even branches of rough trees may be used. The ends of these rest upon narrow strips of wood nailed on the inner side of each joist, and at such a distance from their upper edges, that when the laths are put in place, resting at their ends upon the pieces of wood, the distance from the upper surface of the laths to the upper edge surface of the joists is about an inch. The laths thus laid form a species of floor upon which the mortar is laid, this being put in of such a depth that it will cover the joists to a depth of nearly an inch. The surface is finished in one or other of the ways already described. By the system now described, the combustible timber forming the floor, or rather supporting the floor and the ceiling, is completely covered with or embedded in a non-combustible material ; and so completely fire-proof woidd a floor so con- structed— if honestly constructed, not scamped in the execution — be found, that if the floor surface was formed of boards, the boards might be burned and yet the joists would remain untouched by the fire. But a building, although infinitely safer with fire-proof floors and ceilings, — for with these, other parts might be burnt, yet the building would remain nearly as good as ever, — stdl it could not be considered completely fire-proof if the staircases, partitions, and roofs were con- structed in the usual way. A few notes, there- fore, upon the adaptation of the system described above to those parts of a building will be of some service. It has been said — and although the saying is exaggerated, there is much truth in it — that fire, as a rule, could be easily put out if breaking out in the lower apartments, were it not for the stair- cases, which act as ready conductors of fire from a low to a higher level of the building ; and the same may be said of partitions, so far as the carrying of fire from one apartment to another on the same level, or on a higher level too, is con- cerned. Let us take up partitions first. We are, of course, now considering timber partitions, generally specified as quartering parti- tions, not of brick, which are practically, per se, fire-proof. Timber partitions, being finished with lath and a thin coating of plaster on both sides, are hollow ; and as soon, therefore, as fire causes the thin plaster to scale off, which it very rapidly does, the partition may be likened to a chimney or flue, by which the fierceness of the flames is stimulated, and rapidly conveyed to the rooms or roof above, and to the adjacent apartments. Now, by simply filling in the spaces between the sills and posts and braces of the partition with any kind of rough timber, so as to form a number of cells, no matter how unshapely or unlike to one another in form, and filling in these spaces with stone shivers or broken bricks still further to increase the number of cells, and thus form a species of honeycombed work partly of stone or brick, and chiefly of wood, a partition in great measure fire - proof will be obtained, — almost FIRE-PROOF CONSTRUCTION— STAIRCASES, DOORS, ETC. 149 absolutely fire-proof, if the small cells or honey- comb spaces be again filled up with a quick-setting mortar well pressed in towards the centre from either side, the whole being left rough on the surface to afford a key for the outer and superior plaster, if that be wished for, or smoothed over and made uniform if not. In place of filling in the spaces with broken bricks or stone shivers, pieces of coke may be used as already described ; they will be much lighter, and although in one sense combustible, still, placed as they are, they may be considered as incombustible. In Paris, where plaster of Paris rubble is cheap and easily obtained, this is used for filling-in purposes ; it is light and quite incombustible. A modification of the above method is so obvious that it scarcely demands a detailed de- scription as applicable to staircases, — the object being to imbed the timber as much as possible in the mortar, giving this a secure hold by spac- ing the timber strips nailed on to the under side of the carriages of the stairs in the manner already described. The wTood steps of a staircase so con- structed might be consumed, and yet the stairs remain intact as means of communication. Tim- ber, to burn quickly, must have air supplied on all sides ; it is, in fact, a very difficult thing to set fire to timber planks laid flat and kept so ; and it is just in the fact that in the system now described the timber is so placed that little or no air can get to it, that its value as a fire-proof system mainly lies. And the system is obviously as applicable to roofs as to the other parts of buildings we have already noticed, these being supplied with interior ceilings, so to call them, constructed in precisely the same way as the floor ceilings already de- scribed ; the strips of wood being fixed to the under side of the rafters, and the mortar put in before the roofing slates or tiles are put on. Where roofs of one-storeyed buildings in farmeries are open, that is, with all the timbers exposed to view, the adoption of this system would be no difficult matter, even in roofs already constructed and finished with their slate and tile covering. Methods of carrying it out will readily suggest themselves to the intelligent reader. The only parts of a building we have not yet considered are the doors and windows. The latter, when burned, obviously open up ways of com- munication for fire spreading from one apartment to another. In farm and other buildings where appearances are not consulted, or in other places where safety is before appearance, the only door at once fire-proof and light, so as to be as easily moved as a wooden door, is one made of cor- rugated iron plates, or of Mallett's buckled iron plates. Light and absolutely fire-proof doors may be made of corrugated iron, hinged to T iron bars built in or secured to the jambs. By the use of light angle and T iron for the framing, and of ordinary sheet iron for the covering, we have constructed a fire-proof door nearly as light, and moving almost with as much ease, as a timber door. Where doors and sills are very wide, in place of having the sliding doors of timber, corrugated iron may be used with great advantage. Mallett's ' buckled plates,' which are very light and yet very strong, are used for doors. Making the floors of a granary in the way we have described, with the mortar and cement well worked up towards the walls, and finished off with a curve, and with the ceiling and roof also formed carefully, the apartment will be absolutely rat-proof — that is, proof against their attacks from the outside. But if the doors are formed in the usual way, the chances are that the rats will find their way in by gnawing the under part of the door. To prevent this, the lower slide of the door may be covered with sheet iron, which should be turned in under the lower edge, and up for a short distance on the inner side. To prevent rats from gaining access to lower apartments, the only sure pre- ventative is to have a solid floor well worked up to the walls ; and no better floor can be made on ground-floor levels than that formed of Portland cement concrete. The windows only remain to be considered, and as the fragile glass is the material we have in them principally to deal with, the only way of preventing them aiding the progress of a fire — which, when the glass is broken by the heat, they do very effectually — is by using the revolving iron shutters now being rapidly introduced into good houses. The system we have now described, although new in this country, and certainly new to many of our readers, is not in another sense new. It has been for long carried out, aud largely, on the ISO DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. Continent, and is so still, although it is being rapidly superseded by a system in which iron is used in place of timber for the joisting and •wooden strips ; but as we wished to describe methods or a method applicable only to cases where home materials and easily-got labour were at hand, with a description of this new system we do not now concern ourselves. It remains, therefore, for us to finish our remarks on this important subject by adding a few words on the mortar which should be used for the system we have endeavoured to explain. This should be of the best quality, and to ensure this the materials must be good ; the sand must be clean, free from all soil, etc., and sharp, and the lime should be fresh burned ; ' stale ' lime will not make good mortar. The fresh-burned lime should be slaked with only as much water as will give a dry, loose powder. This powder, however, con- tains hard particles known as the core of the lime, which, if mixed with mortar to be made from it, will tend greatly to reduce its tenacity. To get rid of these hard lumps, the lime powder obtained as above should be passed through a quarter-inch sieve. The sand should be in pro- portion two parts to one of the lime powder ; these proportions give the hardest and most tenacious mortar. The sand and lime should be thoroughly mixed and well worked, as much of the value of the mortar depends upon this opera- tion being well done. Mortar thus prepared will give most satisfactory results. If mortar is made properly, it will be found sufficient for the system we have described, but the addition of some hydraulic lime or Portland cement will make it set more quickly. On the Continent, where plaster of Paris is cheap and easily obtained, it is used largely for the purposes named in this paper ; it has the great advantage of setting very quickly, but which may also be obtained in the case of ordinary mortar by the use of a cement as above named. An authority says a mortar capable of resisting fire may be made by mixing fresh-ground lime of chalk from the lower beds with pozzuolana. But as this may be difficult to be obtained, its place may be supplied by burning any marly clay that is fit for brick-making to a grey clinker, and reducing such clinker to a grain of the size of coarse sand. The fresh-ground lime to the extent of one-fourth is to be mixed with three- fourths of this artificial pozzuolano, both very dry ; and when well mixed, to be made into a paste with soft water. As we write, we have observed in an American paper a description of a method of fire-proof construction used by the celebrated Hiram Powers. It is a modification of the method used for long in this country for forming flat roofs and terraces of tiles. The tiles are used in conjunction with brick arches, the bricks of which do not exceed 1^ inches in thickness. They are like the ordinary bricks much used on the Continent for building purposes. The following is Mr. Powers' description of his house built on this principle: — ' My house has no joists. All the floors are of tiles, resting on arches. One of these arches was made over a room 25 feet square by four men in four days. The bricks are about 1^ inches thick, and laid edgewise with plaster of Paris. There was no framework pre- pared to lay them on, unless you would so term four bits of wood which a man could carry under his arm. And yet this arch is so strong as to be perfectly safe with a large dancing party on it. It would pay, I think, to send out here for an Italian brick-mason, who knows how to build these thin but strong arches for dwelling- houses. I know there is a prejudice against brick or composition floors. " Too cold in winter," it is said. And so they are if bare ; but cover them with several thicknesses of paper, and then carpet them, and no one can discover the slightest difference between their temperature and that of wood floors. (We may observe that the paper saves the carpets considerably.) I do not insure my house, as I know that it is not combustible.' Mr. Powers draws attention to the fact that the great point in getting a house fire-proof is to prevent draughts, a point we have in this chapter insisted upon, and he enforces this by the same illustration we have adopted, the difficulty of setting a flat board on fire : ' A floor will not burn without a supply of air under it. Throw a dry board upon a perfectly flat pavement, and kindle it as it lies, if you can.' DIVISION SECOND. ROADS— FENCES— GATES— OUTLYING STRUCTURES AND WORKS OF THE FARM— BRIDGES— DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION WORKS- EMBANKMENTS- MARGIN AND RIVER BANK IMPROVEMENTS. CHAPTER I. FARM ROADS, THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR — BRIDGES. Farm roads, being those which come under the denomination of ' accommodation,' serving only for the purpose of communicating from one part of the farm to another, and connected only at certain points with public roads, or those under the supervision of the parochial or township authorities, do not require to be of the same high class as regards construction as those just named. Still, it is obvious that the more per- fectly they are made at first, the longer they will last without requiring any repairs, and the traffic will be conducted with the least expenditure of horse power. We regret to say that this last consideration is one in a great many instances lost sight of, although it tells very materially on the general expenditure of the farm, few of its items so rapidly amounting to such considerable sums as this. The economical construction of a farm road depends upon several points, as the laying of it out so as to secure the easiest level, the avoidance of sharp curves, and the securing of a soil the best calculated to give a good foundation. These are, however, not always, indeed not generally, easy to obtain, especially in the case of farms the fields of which are already laid out, — these, of course, dictating the position and direction of the roads. In the case, however, of a property which is either to be remodelled in all its departments, or set out de novo, more numerous opportunities will be offered to take advantage of the best circumstances. What these are, are involved in what we have already said ; and to others less obvious, but not less important, we shall presently direct the reader's attention. In doing this, space will compel us to be very brief, for the points connected with the subject are so numerous, and these involving so many considerations of practical importance, that a treatise could well be written upon it before it would be exhausted. Fortunately, as we have already hinted at, the subject, so far as the neces- sities of the present work are concerned, will not suffer by this compression, the work to be 'lone coming under what may be called the simplest class of road construction. Supposing the roads of the farm to be laid out de novo, where changes in their direction are to be made, it is obvious that the best form for the deviation will be that of a curve of as large radius as possible. But as the roads are decided as regards their direction by the fields, and as, from what we have said in the chapter on the laying out of fields and roads, this general rule will have in many cases to be considerably modified, the curves often assume a less de- cided form, taking often very nearly that of a right angle with a corner, but less or more spar- ingly rounded off; but the designer will have to be guided by circumstances. Some do not object to fields with rounded corners, although the general rule is to have them rectangular; but where the field is bounded externally by a ditch, this form may still be adhered to, and a com- paratively easy curve of road obtained by round- ing off the outer line of the ditch Rul diagrams, more or less elaborate, might be given to show the best form of curves ; but for farm work generally the eye of the designer will be able to mark out those which will be sufficiently con- venient, the line chosen being marked out by 161 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. stakes driven into the ground to guide the work- men. In the setting out of roads, their breadth is the next point to be considered. Some prefer to have them uniform throughout the estate ; but there are circumstances which modify this rule, some parts of the farm obviously having less traffic, or necessity for much carting being done, and there is no use in throwing away land which remains for a large part of the year unused, taking it from fields which are at all times valu- able. Eoads, for example, leading to upland pasture fields may be made narrower than those leading to fields under arable culture, where much carting to and fro of manure and produce is carried on. Some may be made merely suffi- cient to admit of the easy passage of a loaded single cart, the points at which fields are entered, or other parts, being without much trouble so set out as to afford room for the passing of vehicles going in opposite directions ; while others will require to be wide enough for two carts. It is scarcely necessary to say that the cart width should be calculated from the largest overhang- ing load which it may have to carry ; for example, straw or hay. The width of what may be called the main road of the farm, that is, the one lead- ing to the farm-house and offices from the nearest road or highway, will have to be obviously the greatest, and be provided with at least one foot- path. And in some instances a saddle-horse road or ' bridle-path ' may be found a conveni- ence. It is a disputed point whether farm roads of any kind leading to the interior parts should have any footpaths at all ; but on those connected with the fields on which there is the greatest amount of personal labour done, a footpath, how- ever narrow, will clearly add to the comfort of the workpeople going to and fro. In rearranging fields and their adjacent roads, a good deal of road-space will be saved and field-space gained by rearranging the ditches, which generally border both sides. The drawing, fig. 7, Plate 34, will show one method of doing this. The inclination of the road is a matter of considerable import- ance. Numerous experiments have been made to show the influence of this upon the draught ; possibly Sir John M'Neill's are the most com- plete and conclusive. From these we may state that it has been shown that a saving of no less than one-fifth is effected by having a road with a gradient of 1 in 40, as compared with one having a gradient of 1 in 20. And Mr. Bailey Denton, putting this into figures or money value, and showing that the difference in these two gradients amounts over a certain given distance to 2d. a ton, it needs scarcely be said that it is of some importance for the designer of farm roads to pay attention to this point. Of course, in farms already laid out, especially in old ones, where considerations of this kind were not much thought of, many instances will be found where it is not easy to have anything like a level road. Still, where the farm is being remodelled, a judi- cious rearrangement of the fields will allow of that of the roads, so as to do away with heavy gradients. The plan above alluded to is singly having an underground tubular drain, Q> in place of the open drain, fig. 6. We shall hereafter return to the subject of open drains at roadsides ; meanwhile we proceed to point out other features connected with the road surface. The first ob- vious point is the shape or transverse section of this. Engineers are divided into two classes, one of which advocates the convex, the other the flat form. Theoretically, the flat form is the only one in which the most economical draught can be secured, as all the wheels sustain on such a surface an equal portion of the load ; and the road surface is maintained longer in good repair, as there is no unequal pressure. But while the level road is the most theoretically correct, that which gives a convex form to the surface is advocated by perhaps the majority of engineers, on account of the facilities it affords for the getting rid of the surface water. Much, how- ever, of this arises from the defective construc- tion of the road itself, as well as from the careless way in which roads are allowed to get into bad repair, so that ruts and channels are formed, in which water collects and remains. A level road, properly constructed, remains for a long time in repair, and does not admit nearly so readily of the formation of ruts as one ill con- structed or of a convex form. And just as we have shown that a steep road involves loss of money, it could be as easily demonstrated that a convex road is also the cause of loss. How- ever, the practical circumstances attendant upon DRAINAGE OF ROADS. »53 roads as they are and kept — or, perhaps, to put it more truly, not kept — in repair, make the convex form the best which can be adopted under general circumstances. At the same time, however, it must not be overlooked that much more is made of the advantages of convexity than is properly due to it, because it is assumed that the wet to be shed from its surface by reason of it, is assumed to be pure water, or at least in a state of great fluidity ; whereas every one knows that it is almost universally in the form of mud, of more or less viscidity, which requires special means to be taken to be got rid of, excepting in the case of heavy rains, which act as natural scavengers. Where, therefore, the convex cross - section is adopted, it should be kept down to the minimum ; and, in fact, an inclined surface, such as the line i I, fig. 7, Plate 30, will be better than a decided convex surface, such as is shown in fig. 6. The maximum rise at the crown or centre of the road should not, for a width of 18 feet of road, exceed 3^- inches. It should never be forgotten that the invariable tendency of all high-crowned roads is to cause the horses and vehicles to keep to the highest point, which is done almost intuitively as a mechanical necessity, to keep moving always in the same line, thus forming the deep ruts or channels with which every one is but too familiar, and which act simply as receptacles for the storing up of rain-water, which, independently of other damage, soak» into and injures the road surface. By having the subsoil, so to say, of every road thoroughly drained, nearly all of the evils attendant upon roads generally would be avoided, and the question of convexity of cross- section would require seldom to be discussed. If, also, roads were properly used and kept in repair, to which point reference will be found further on, there would be few of the annoyances and difficulties in wet surfaces so frequently complained of. The drainage of roads is generally considered sufficiently attended to if side ditches be provided, fig. 1, Plate 34. But these, in place of providing for the dryness, add, as a rule, to the wetness of the subsoil of the road. Formed with little regard to its surface, the water, which chiefly drains from the adjoining fields, — the ditches, in fact, forming the outfall for this, — often stands at a level actually higher than that of the road. In view of the defects, then, of the open ditch, certain modifi- cations have of late been proposed ; one of these is shown in fig. 2, Plate 34, in which the open ditch is done away with altogether, and a deep or narrow trench, as c, substituted, this being filled with broken stones and provided at the bottom with a tubular drain, a. These stones prevent the silt or mud from passing into the drain, a ; but where the traffic is considerable, as on the road leading from the main or parish road to the farm offices, a more complete and perfect system may be adopted, as shown in the same drawing. This consists of a small open drain, running along the outer edge of the footpath, /, provided at intervals with gully traps, d (the trap d in fig. 2 is shown in larger scale at fig. 4), which arrest and retain the road mud, the water passing away as it rises by the cross drains, e, communicating with the lateral drain, b. There is, however, in this form of gully trap such a tendency for the silt or mud to be carried over into the drain, b, which silt has a remarkable tendency to set or concrete, and thus to fill the drain, b, where the highest form of efficiency is desiderated, a gully trap as in fig. 4« may be used. The larger recep- tacle or cesspool is that which arrests the silt or mud, from which it can be removed from time to time by lifting off the cast-iron grid at the road surface ; and should any silt, as in times of flood, be carried over from the larger cesspool, it is passed into and arrested by the smaller cesspool, shown to the left of the drawing, so that there is little chance of any being carried into the drain, b, fig. 2. Another method of dealing with side ditches is shown in fig. 5, Plate 30, where, in place of filling up the ditches and treating them in the more expensive forms as just described, they are left open, as in the figure, but a tubular drain ia placed along the bottom. This plan is possessed of many advantages. Thus, at certain seasons, these ditches are simply what may be called open cess- pools, with small and sluggish streams struggling along their bottom, while their sides are so hardened and baked that their action, as drainage sm faces for adjoining fields, is nearly wholly stopped. But by having the tubular drain as shown some distance below the bed of the ditch, which, at the time of the laying of the drain, U 154 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. should be levelled and re-formed with clay and gravel, the water in dry seasons is carried by the tube as in the upper diagram, while in time of flood the tube and ditch are as shown in the lower. By giving a proper fall to the drain-tube, and, of course, providing at the proper intervals the junc- tions not only with the side drains of the road, but with the outfall drains of the adjoining fields, the water is carried in ordinary periods so quickly away, that the ditch, in place of being, as in ordinary circumstances, a receptacle for all kinds of muddy and decaying refuse, is so dry and clean that it may, for the matter of that, be used for a sheltered footpath. The agricultural advantages of this method of arranging the roadside ditches should not be lost sight of ; indeed, as an eminent authority points out, the tubular drain-tubes would of themselves act in the way of draining adjoining fields, especially if these were of small area, as in suburban small farms. In a free soil they might drain land inwards to the extent nearly of a chain, although in stiff soils the maxi- mum might not exceed eighteen feet. He gives it, moreover, as his decided opinion, that the ditch, filled up after being provided with a tubular drain, will drain a much greater breadth of land than when open ; indeed, calculations show that a mile of tubular drains, one on each side of the road, would drain fifteen to twenty acres of adjacent land. The drainage power of the ditch is always more or less injuriously affected by the vegetation which gradually covers its sides, forming very frequently a very thick covering. Nor, when the ditch is filled up, should the value of the extra laud obtained be overlooked, it being calculated that the surface of land taken up by ditches on both sides of the road for a mile in length is equivalent to three-quarters of an acre. The gain of cultivable land is therefore considerable, and it is more especially the case in marsh land districts, where the open ditches are not only more numerous, but wider. Thus it has been calculated that, by covering in the ditches in such districts, an acre of land for every twenty -five of water surface could be obtained for grazing purposes. The sanitary advan- tages are abundantly obvious. These remarks, of course, apply to roads made on the old plan ; but in constructing others do novo, special drains will have to be made, in order to have the whole soil of the road as dry as possible, a sine qud non in effective road-making, the best more especially, as may be supposed, in the case of close, retentive soils. Mr. Bailey Denton, the author of a very able paper on ' Farm Boads on Strong Soils,' in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, gives a diagram and description of the best method of draining them. We give in fig. 6, Flate 34, a modification of Mr. Denton's plan. In this the road surface is convex, bounded on either side by open ditches, as c f, the width, c d, of which is thirty inches, and the depth, e /, eighteen. These ditches may be bounded towards the field either with an open fence on the flat or a quick-set fence formed in the usual way. As it is a great object to have the surface of the road kept as dry as possible, open fences admitting light and air are better than those which tend to exclude them; and it is one of the advantages of the method of under drains we have described and illustrated at o in fig. 7 and in fig. 5, that it gets rid of the huge mounds which bound the side of old ditches, as in fig. 1. In the plan re- commended by Mr. Denton, and illustrated in fig. 6, Blate 34, the metalling of the road is limited to a width of nine feet, as from a to b, which is one-half of the width. This is bounded on either side by the drains, j, the depth of which from g to h is four feet, a 2 -inch drain- tube being placed at the bottom of the drain trench. The depth of the layer of metalling is nine inches, and is uniform throughout the whole breadth of the metalled surface ; the side parts from I to m are made up of the soil taken from the side ditches, ef. The full width of the road is eighteen feet, or nine feet from centre line, a, to side line, c m. At every point in the length of road where there is a hollow, or where it is broken by any means, culverts or drains should be placed, the depth of these being such with relation to the side ditches, e f, that the crown or upper part of the cross culvert should be no higher than the under side of the lateral or longitudinal drains, k The dia- meter of the cross culverts, wdiich will be best made of tubular or egg-shaped drain-tubes, is re- commended to be eighteen inches. Where roads are remodelled to suit this system, and the exist- ing ditches, as c /, are too shallow to suit the level of cross culverts and lateral drains, they must be METHOD OF FORMING ROAD SURFACES. 155 deepened. The ends or junctions of the cross culverts should he provided with flaps or iron grating, to prevent the entrance of vermin. The metalling should be of as uniform size as possible ; a good dimension for the stone will be that which will pass through a 2 -inch ring. Great care should be taken to have the metalling laid uni- formly, and greater efficiency will be secured if it be put down in successive layers, say of three inches deep. A great point in the construction of the road on this system is the foundation on which the metalling is placed. This may be a very non-absorbent and very hard material, more or less easily obtained, dimensions not being of such importance as the getting of a thoroughly compact, evenly laying, and well-bounded stratum, with the upper surface as regular as possible to receive the metalling. The best material with which to finish off the upper surface of the metalling is well-sifted gravel of as uniform a size as can be obtained. This should be laid on very uniformly. A disputed point in the construction of roads is whether the road surface should be firm or yield- ing. Some of our best road engineers maintain that an elastic road lasts longer than an unyield- ing one ; one would certainly be inclined to con- sider a firm road to be the best of the two, but in some cases the road -maker will have little choice, as the soil will be naturally of a very yielding character. Where this is excessive, as in marshy or boggy land, the difficulties of the undertaking will be greatly increased, and in some instances professional advice will have to be called in, in order to overcome the difficulties in the best and most economical way. In some cases, however, this may be dispensed with, and a very firm and lasting foundation may be formed by means of faggots or fascines , these being placed on the boggy surface and allowed to settle gradu- ally, and successive layers placed, if necessary, one upon another, until a settlement is secured, when the top materials may be placed upon the top layer. In the formation of such foundations the great point is to secure a regularly-formed series of layers , any attempt to make the foundation quickly will be sure to be a failure, it being essential that ample time be allowed for the fascines to settle down on a steady bed. These should uot be placed in successive layers parallel to one another, but each layer should cross the preceding one at right angles. The same care should be taken in the formation of the upper beds of stones, etc., these not being placed in situ, but, as in the case of the fascines, they should be placed in thin layers, and with as long intervals between the times of deposition as possible. The great object, in point of fact, in such cases is to overcome the tendency of the swampy, boggy material, of which the roadway consists, to suck in as it were the road material it is designed to hear; and this can only be done effectually by the process already described, always bearing in mind this other important principle, namely, giving as broad a bearing surface to the foundation on which the materials are to rest as possible. These materials should also be bonded together as care- fully as possible, and those of a broad surface and comparatively thin w?ill be found better to use than large, heavy, and irregularly formed ones. Perhaps the most difficult soil to deal with on which to form a roadway is that in which quick- sands are met with. If these are of limited area, after the soil has been thoroughly drained, the. best way to deal with them will be to fill them up with concrete, formed of blue lias lime and gravel, one part of the lime to four of the gravel. Where gravel cannot be obtained, a very good sub- stitute will 1 le found in nodules of burnt clay, which, by the way, may here be named as also forming a good substitute for the ordinary metalling. In all cases of unstable soils, as marshy or boggy, it is scarcely necessary to say that thorough drain- age is an essential requisite, and must be carried out as efficiently as possible before any attempt is made to form the road. In the case of boggy soils this drainage is done much in the same way as in their reclamation, as to which the reader is referred to the chapter on the ' Reclaiming of Waste Lands ; ' the drainage must be done for some considerable time before, in order to allow the central part to get as dry and consolidated as possible. The drains, which are made on each side of the intended site of road, should be cut deeply, and communicate at points with their leading watercourses or main drains ; where the soil is very much saturated with water, it will be as well to cany at intervals cross drains at right angles to the intended line of road, these com- 156 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. municating with the side drains. These should Le of small dimensions, and they will form ulti- mately useful means of binding the road materials with the natural soil when once it is dried and consolidated. X\\ excellent material for forming the pitching or lower stratum of road foundation is stated to be blocks of dried peat ; these must be thoroughly deprived of moisture as far as possible, and be laid with the same care as already recommended with other forms of pitch- ing, so that they may bond well together to form an even surface. The size of the pieces forming the separate layers should be gradually decreased as the line of intended surface is approached. In forming roads above the level of the surrounding laud, necessitating the construction of embank- ments, the work assumes elements of considerable difficult)-, in some cases necessitating the employ- ment of professional advice, and in all the exercise of the greatest care, especially at points where watercourses are to be crossed, and where the soil is of an unequal and yielding character. The work in many of its features resembles that required in the construction of embankments at sea margins in the reclamation of land, so that the reader is referred to the chapter on that subject for information as to special details. "Where, on the contrary, roads are carried through cuttings, the work may in its general features be one of very simple character, or, as in the case of embankments, may involve such difficulties as may make it the most economical plan to call in professional advice. The formation of roads in some districts is rendered one of considerable expense, from the difficulty in obtaining the proper materials for the formation of the upper surface. Where, however, stones can be had in abundance, very excellent roads may be formed on the principle adopted by Telford, the celebrated engineer, remarkable for his success in road-making, referred to by Mr. Denton in the paper we have already quoted from, and illustrated in fig. 9, Plate 34. In this the upper surface rests upon blocks of stones, as a, which should be quarried and tooled expressly for the purpose, care being taken to have the stones well bonded, and the upper metalling laid with great care, so that the interstices be- tween the blocks be carefully filled up. For this purpose, grouting of lime will be found very useful, or a thin concrete of some hydraulic lime and fine gravel. A modification of the new method of paving streets adopted with so much successinLiverpool.under the plans of Mr. Deacon, the surveyor, might be applied in districts where granite or greenstone ' setts ' can be had easily. A concrete bed six inches in depth is first laid, on which is placed a little sand ; the ' setts,' about three inches wide, are then driven home into the concrete, and grouted with small stones. The whole is then ran over with a composition of pitch, tar, and oil. A roadway thus formed possesses all the durability of granite, with the elasticity of wood. It might be used for the roads near the steading leading to the main road. Although comparatively expensive where the ground is of an unstable character, the traffic heavy, or the extent is short, an excel- lent and, indeed, taking all circumstances into account, by far the best material for road-making is Portland cement concrete. One great advan- tage it possesses is, that it is so easily used that any common labourer can be employed to put it down ; while it sets uniformly and quickly, and the surface is one not only absolutely impervious to water, but for hardness and capability of re- sisting wear and tear it can only be compared to a large block of solid stone, without crack, cre- vice, or defect throughout its surface ; and, indeed, it may be said to excel even the best quality of stone ordinarily met with. A full description of this material will be found in the chapter on ' Con- structive Details,' but an illustration of it will be found in fig. 8, Plate 34. The main feature is a bottoming of stone or road metal, a a, some 4, 6, or 8 inches thick, according to circumstances of the soil, resting upon the ordinary ground or soil, b, with a layer, c, above the metalling of the concrete, for the ingredients and proportions of which see the chapter just referred to. Where bricks are made on the property, they may be used in the formation of excellent roads, as in the manner described in a succeeding paragraph. In concluding our remarks on the construction of roads, which, considering the importance of the subject, have been all too brief, a word or two on the materials used in constructing their upper surfaces may be of some practical service. PITCHING OF ROADS— MAJOR STAPLE TON'S METHOD. 157 The locality will, as a rule, decide which should be used, for it comes to be a very expensive matter when these have to be imported, so to say, from districts more or less distant from the property ; but even in cases where the best are not obtainable in the neighbourhood, the exercise of a little care in looking out will often result in the production of one or other kind of material which will be found in the main very serviceable ; for in cases where roads are constructed on Telford's principle of an underlaying of pitching, as at a in fig. 7, Plate 34, it will be a very singular case where stones of quality good enough cannot be obtained. Even sandstones almost of the softest description may be used for the pitching, if the recommenda- tions which we have given be followed ; and although whinstone or greenstone, as it is other- wise called, forms, of course, the best material for the finishing surface or metalling, in cases where it cannot be obtained on the property, others may be found which will prove serviceable and lasting. Granite and flints will form excellent substitutes for this, and even smithy clinkers and hard cinders will, for lack of better mate- rials, form, when judiciously used, by no means contemptible surfaces. Even the broken pieces of bricks, granting, of course, that these are of a good quality, will also be available. Whatever be the material used, the great point to aim at is to get it if possible of such a character that all the lines of fracture of the pieces are as sharp and angular as possible, so that they will cohere and bind or bond together ; round-shaped pieces, no matter how hard and non-absorbent they be, are the very worst to use, as they do not bond, but roll upon one another, and always form a surface more or less loose. If in the neighbourhood of ironworks, and where a stone-breaking machine is available, the furnace slag in larger pieces forms an excellent material for pitching, while the smaller are no less valuable for the metalling. Even should no other materials than gravel be obtainable, this, in the form of concrete, made as already described, will be found capable of form- ing good and efficient roads if judiciously used. It is, in fact, in the way in which peculiar local and other difficulties are met and provided for, that the ability of the manager of landed property is perhaps best displayed, it being easy, or com- paratively so, to do work when all the materials and appliances required for it are at hand. A very good example of the way in which exceptional cir- cumstances may be taken advantage of is exem- plified in the road formed of bricks on one of the estates of Major Stapleton of Myton Hall, under the direction of Mr. D. Livingston, C.E, under the inspection of Mr. Calder, the agent of the estate. The exceptional circumstances were a scarcity of stone to form a road metal, and where stone had to be imported from such a distance that it cost 10s. the ton ; but common building bricks were very abundant, so that it was decided to form the road of brick. The plan adopted is shown in part of the diagram in fig. 8, Plate 35, to the right-hand side of the line a b. The line of road passing through undrained fields, it was necessary to dry the road base. This was done by putting in side drains of 3 and 4-inch pipes, and of an average depth of 3 feet 9 inches. One of these is shown at c in fig. 8. The ground was then excavated and embanked at points where reqiured, the slope of the embankments being 1^- to 1, and the surface of the road was curved, as shown from d to c. The base was thoroughly consolidated by passing a very heavy roller to and fro several times over it. On the base thus rendered firm, the bricks were placed on edge all over the surface, as shown at/, the outer line, or the last or outer row, butting on a single row of bricks on end, as at g, these being placed at an angle, as shown, in order to afford a good resisting point. On the top of all, screenings were placed to the depth of one inch, and the whole was then rolled with a heavy roller several times before being opened for traffic. In the same drawing, fig. 8, we show other methods of form- ing this brick road. Thus, to the right-hand side the road is adapted to a position where a side ditch, h, is in existence, witli a bank topped with a fence, i, the side-walk being at j. On the left-hand side of the drawing, an open drain, k, receives the surface water of the road, d I; this being nearly level, but rather if anything sloping to the point k from the centre of road, the side part being bounded by a wood or wire fence, I. There are various methods of forming road surfaces of materials other than those commonly in use ; one which is being rapidly introduced 153 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. is Portland cement concrete, this resting on a bottoming of ordinary road metal. The French have long been famous for their system of road-making, both in the case of the use of ordinary materials as well as in that of new ones, such as asphalte, in the employment of which material they have succeeded in forming roads of a character vastly superior to any intro- duced into this country by our own road-makers. Allusion will be made to this further on, but we meanwhile here describe a method of forming ordinary roads which experience has proved to possess so many excellent qualities, that we do our readers a great service by describing it. We may state that it has been subjected to the severest tests, to long-continued practice, and is used throughout France, not only in metropolitan but in rural districts. Before laying down the new material, they loosen the old surface with a pick ; then they lay stones much of the same size as those we use in Macadamized roads, and scatter a small quantity of sand over them ; next they water them — this part of the process would be seldom required in our climate ; then they roll them with a roller of about 4 feet diameter by 4 feet in breadth, and 2^ tons weight, drawn by horses or oxen, according to circumstances. Having passed over the whole surface with this, they re-roll it several times, gradually increasing the load on the roller to 5 tons. The roller is so constructed that it can be drawn backwards and forwards without turning, by changing the team. The effect of this is, that the surface is completely consolidated and brought to its proper form at once, having no hollows to retain water and make puddles, and so hard that a heavy omnibus passes over it smoothly and without disturbing the material. This effects a great economy in the wear and tear of vehicles, and pain and injury to horses, and no loose stones are left about the road. The French occasionally re-roll the consolidated road to keep down in- equalities, and they do the same with the foot- paths where made of gravel, so that they can be walked upon comfortably at once. This would be an inexpensive way of improving our suburban footpaths, which are so often complained of by ourselves and strangers. The saving by this system results from the decreased quantity of material consumed, for the expense of the labour is more than double. It has been stated on good authority, with reference to a particular portion of the road in France, that by the old system the cost per annum for maintaining the road used to be about £1000, while on the new it is reduced to about £600. In the formation of side-walks and of comparatively short lengths, and of surfaces such as are often required in farm buildings, etc., there are sundry materials which may be used econo- mically and effectively, and in such an easy way as to make the work come within the ability of ordinary labourers. We have already alluded to Portland cement concrete ; we now show a method of using coal tar, which, if the farm, etc. be near a town, can be got frequently at a very trifling cost. In the formation of side- walks, the first thing to be done is to prepare a suitable quantity of sand, by screening it free from stones ; mixing thoroughly with the tar in the same manner as when mixing mortar, using as much sand as can be worked into the tar, which will then be in a proper condition to spread easily. Dig a trench of the desired width 6 to 8 inches deep, and fill evenly with stones to within 2 inches of the level of the ground ; then fill all interstices with coarse gravel, forming a moderately smooth foundation, over which pour sufficient tar to fill up any spaces. The object is to cement the gravel. After this, cover with the tarred sand to a depth of about 1^ inches, and smooth to the required shape with the edge of a board. This must be rolled quite firml}-, and a clean surface produced by sprinkling over dry sand, and rolling until the tar ceases to come to the surface. It may be occasionally sanded until the surface attains a permanently grey colour. The odour of the tar will gradually dis- appear, and after the first season will be scarcely perceptible. Private roads may be made in the same manner, by digging some 3 inches deeper, and using first a layer of large stones, and after- wards smaller stones, and then gravel, tarred, topped with tarred gravel, rolled and sanded as described. This plan may also be adopted for stable floors and cellar bottoms, but for such pur- poses is greatly improved by adding about one part of roofing pitch to two parts of tar, which are heated together until thoroughly blended, and FORMATION OF PLANTATION ROADS. 159 applied hot. The sand and gravel which are used with it should also be heated, or they will cool down the mixture of pitch and tar so as to render it very hard to work — in fact, impossible to be worked thoroughly. Well made, these are most admirable floors, and almost entirely un- surpassed for walks and private roads. A very important department of farm roads is that connected with plantations, when these form part of the property. We have already stated in the preceding part of this section, that the general roads of the farm need not be of uni- form width, but that those leading to outlying parts, such as plantations, may be made narrower than those on which the traffic is greater. This, however, does not presuppose that the narrow roads should be less carefully constructed ; indeed, in those leading to and from plantations, as the weights are more or less heavy, they require to be made with great care. But the traffic to and in plantations being of different kinds, the roads themselves come under different categories, some being used for heavy, others for light traffic. The roads leading to the plantations, although they may be, as we have recommended, narrow, must be made to bear heavy loads, as the roads converge from various parts of the plantations to them. To suit the requirement of meeting vehicles, cer- tain points on the line of road may be widened out, the most convenient for these being at the entrances of pasture or other fields. Although plantation roads are too much neglected, both as regards their laying out in proper directions and in construction, it is not easy to overestimate their importance to the proprietor. Because some are used, indeed it may be said the majority of them, only at intervals of greater or less extent, some proprietors seem to think that they can in a great measure be dispensed with, or if not wholly so, still such as are made are few in number, and of the worst class as regards laying out and construction. But a very little consideration will show that the plantation roads are just as essential as those on any other part of the farm. It should be borne in mind, that one of the most important elements in the valuation of the timber is the expense involved in its transportation from the place of its growth to where it is sold. This element is of far greater importance than many are disposed to think, and often forms the point on which the question turns as to whether home-grown timber yields the highest possible profit, or merely that which pays little more than current expenses. It is a welbknown fact, that timber purchasers look very sharply after the means by which they can get the produce trans- ported from the plantation to the depot where it is prepared and sold ; as well they may, seeing that the difference between good and bad roads makes that which will either yield a profit of as much as 20 or 30 per cent., or a loss to the same amount. The offers of timber mer- chants are not defined merely by their estimate of the value of the timber itself as it stands in the plantations, but is guided greatly by their survey of the way in which that can be transported. And this survey not merely takes cognizance of the number and directions of the roads provided, but, whatever some proprietors may think to the contrary, of the condition in which these roads are ; for it makes a mighty difference in the ultimate profit if a road is so bad that the loads on an average take one-fourth or one-fifth more horse-power than they would if they were properly constructed. More need not be said on this point ; although, in view of the actual condition of plantation roads on too many properties, what has been said was necessary, and more could have been done so with some prac- tical suggestiveness. Plantation roads, from what we have said, will be seen to divide themselves naturally into two great classes : first, those which may be said to be mere bridle - paths, which lead up or converge to the second class, on which the heavy traffic is conducted ; the first class being used almost wholly for the purpose of dragging single trees to the main road at certain points, where the heavy loads are made up and trans- ported from the farm. In laying out new plantations, the line of road should be carefully considered ; but on this point we have already given remarks under the special chapter on plantations, to which we beg to refer the reader. Whatever is done should be done with special reference not only to the general features of the locality, but also to the particular way in which the plantation is laid out, with the classes of i6o DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. trees of which it is composed. The direction aud number of roads should always form part of the plan of the plantation, and not be left till after the trees have obtained a large development. Leaving, then, the reader to refer to the chapter on plantations, which will be found under its special head, we proceed to give a few details as regards construction. The contour or general level of the roads will depend very much on the nature of the ground; but, as a rule, it will be better to choose lines at which there will be a fall both transversely and longitudinally, as the water will shed more easily from off the surface than when they are on a dead level, or approach- ing thereto ; and from what we have said in the preceding paragraphs of this section as to keep- ing roads dry, it should be understood that this principle applies just as forcibly in the case of plantation roads as those of a general kind. One advantage arising from having the roads off the level will be, that this dryness will be greatly secured with the natural drainage of the land. Of course, it need scarcely be said that this principle of having roads off the level, in both senses of their section, will have to be modified according to circumstances ; thus, those having the heaviest traffic should be as level as possible in the direction of their length, the reader re- membering what we have said in a preceding sentence as to the great loss of horse power arising from having heavy gradients ; and it is just one of the advantages of laying out the roads in the first instance, that the best direc- tion for the road can be obtained. As re- gards the formation of the surfaces, the class of the road will naturally modify the materials employed, and the way in which these are to be laid down. Thus, the subsidiary ones, or those which are simply used for dragging along the trees which are cut at various points of the plantation to the main roads, will require, as a rule, to be a little more than the mere natural surface, whether that be natural sand, gravel, or other material, more or less consolidated. Of some of these, perhaps the best will be the natural and close-grained grass, so to say, along which the trees may be dragged with great ease ; and where these subsidiary roads get larger in conse- quence of the heavier loads to be transported, and wheeled carriages have to be used, as the interval between one period of use and another is as a rule very considerable, all ruts which may be formed will be thoroughly filled up and eradicated by the natural growth of the sward. The worst surface to deal with is that which is of a very unequal and yielding character; and in such cases it may be necessary to provide special means for making the surface hard and firm. In many cases, what of itself would form a good road surface is found to be a bad one, chietly through the excess of water, which may be carried down from the higher grounds, and, stagnating there, ultimately bringing the soil into what may be called the w7orst condition. Under such circumstances, the first thing to be done is to drain the line of roadway. The drains may be open, and one at each side of the road. Again, this will, however, have to be modified by cir- cumstances ; for if the drain on the upper side be placed close under an earth bank, it will be soon filled up by the silt carried down therefrom. A close or a stone -filled drain may therefore there be substituted ; or, what may perhaps be better, the drain may be made only at the lower side. But a drain at the foot of the embankment, of such size only as will suffice to carry off surface water, should be made there. The face of the embankments should be provided with open diagonal drains, leading into the surface-water drain at foot ; this precaution will tend materially to keep the road dry. The width of the best class of plantation roads will vary according to circumstances of locality, but the maximum width may be put down at 14 feet, although 12 may for average circumstances be quite enough. Positions for meeting and turning points, by a little care and observation, will be easily secured. The pitching and metalling of those which have to take the heaviest traffic will be done in the same way as already described in preceding sentences of this chapter. Keeping up in Good Repair of Farm Roads. — There is scarcely, if indeed there be any of the departments of the work of the farm which occupy a more important position than this. A proprietor or farmer may erect buildings or lay down extensive lengths of road and fencing, without concerning himself much as to the con- IMPORTANCE OF REPAIRS OF ROADS. 161 siderable cost which they involve. But when asked to pay for repairs when these are requisite, he will begin, as a rule, to grumble at the cost they involve, and to express doubts as to whether they are really wanted, or, if apparently wanted, to venture an opinion that their execution might be delayed for another season at least, without involv- ing much loss. Such may be taken as the way in which the question of repairs is too often treated, and that it leads to grave and serious losses in the end it is not difficult to understand. Repairs, in place of being looked upon in this way as merely indifferent matters, are in truth in the category of those which, if not in the rank of first, are certainly in those of secondary import- ance. We do not require to call to memory the wise saws and sayings, or the pithy proverbs of our forefathers, to tell us what ought to be the proper course to be followed in this matter. Common sense, to say nothing of the teaching of business prudence, lets us know, in language most unmistakeable in its purport, that if a repair which at first sight appears to be of the most trifling nature in its character and the work it requires, is neglected, it may be the means of bringing about such an extension of mischief, that to set it right will demand many pounds, where a few would at the first have sufficed. Of all the departments of farm work, there is perhaps none to which the lesson of the proverb, ' A stitch in time saves nine,' is more applicable than that of roads, especially those of the farm. For it should be always borne in mind, that the cause of the surfaces so rapidly wearing down into irregularities of all kinds, does not arise from one influence at work, but from several, and one so acting upon the other, that when once set in operation, they tell with an increased and always increasing force as destructive agencies. Although farm roads have not frequent or much traffic, still that traffic is very heavy. It is not, however, the mere weight of the loads which are hauled over its surface which rapidly deteriorates the surface, b\it the very smallness of the traffic, or rather the few conveyances which pass over it, brings about an evil which greatly helps the destruction of the road ; and this is, that the carters, having a choice as full and complete as can well be of those parts of the road best suited for easiest driving, pre- fer naturally the centre or highest part. The result of this is, that two lines of ruts become rapidly formed, and they become larger and larger as the traffic goes on, and this in two ways : first, the mere gravity or weight of the load, the pressure of which acts vertically, or nearly so, upon the rut bottom ; secondly, the lateral action of the wheels upon the sides of the rut, which being steadily worn down, very speedily adds to its size ; the double operations, although different in detail, are precisely similar in prin- ciple to those of the locomotive engine on the rail. Repairs as a rule are very costly in proportion to the material expended on them, so much labour being required, and that, as things go now, is a very high item. The better and most economical way is, therefore, to prevent the necessity for carrying them out. The road being in first-rate order to begin with, every precaution should be taken to keep it so, and these precautionary measures must begin as soon as the traffic begins. To keep the surface as free as possible from mud and extra- neous matter of all kinds is a work which may be begun at once ; and the more thoroughly this cleaning is done, the greater will be the saving effected. For friction on a road surface is not only caused by the rolling wheels and stamping of the horses' feet ; but all stones, mud, etc., left on the surface under the action of the carts, rub and grind themselves down, and while doing so act upon the general body of the road surface, so that a threefold process is constantly going on in wet weather. The extent of the mischief done to the road from this cause will depend upon the hardness or softness of the materials, the depth to which the layer of detritus or muddy silt is allowed to accumulate upon the surface, and the way in which good plans of clearing it away are carried out. A farmer can scarcely be expected to keep a road or ' street' cleaning machine; but in consideration of the aggregate length of roads on the estate considered as a whole, it will assuredly pay the landlord to have one for the general use of all the farms. The capital sunk in the construction of a good many miles of farm road is a consideration of great importance, and it is no uncommon thing to see a length of road which has cost more for its repair than it did in i6i DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY its original construction, this arising from the defective way in which the repairs have been man- b ;ed, or ra I her wholly neglected. If the property i ', and the road mileage be therefore consi- derable, it will be cheaper in the first instance to purchase a horse-worked road-sweeping or clean- ing machine ; the cost of this, which is capable of thoroughly cleaning 10,000 yards superficial per hour, is not worthy of consideration when set against the hand-worked machine, costing£3, 10s., and capable of cleaning, at a cost of 4s. to 5s. per annum, a certain surface of road, which done by manual labour costs from 20s. to 30s. The true and most economical way to conduct the manage- ment of road repairs, where there is a fair extent of mileage, is to have a trustworthy man ' told off ' for the duty of keeping all the roads of the estate in as perfect repair as possible : to this duty may be added the duties of looking after the ditches, fences, and gates along the line of roads. He should be well paid, as farm wages go ; and the whole responsibility of the department should be thrown upon him. Consequent upon the length of roads, he ought to send in, at intervals of greater or less extent, a report or statement showing the condition of the roads, ditches, fences, and gates ; the amount expended upon their repair during those periods ; and, if extensive repair be demanded on any special work, such as the diver- sion of a road according to plan decided on, bis e-timate of the probable cost should also be sent in. He will, of course, have a staff of good, well- trained men, and these in course of time will become ' experts ' of no small value on the property, even when called upon to do work other than that of road repairing, etc. The C'/'ii rait, r of tin Mod rials bust adopted for ilu, Repair of Roads. — Judging from what are too frequently seen lying on the surface of roads, by way of making good defects thereon, one would be inclined to say that some entertained the idea that anything not good enough to be used for other purposes was good enough for this. No greater mistake can be made than this ; for here, as in every other department of work, the better the quality of the materials used for re- pairs, the more perfect will these be, the more Listing, and, in the end, the more economical. This may be taken as an axiom of repairing work of all kinds, and not the converse, which some seem to think the correct way of putting it. The materials employed must possess the following characteristics: — As regards their mechanical pro- perties they must be hard and tough, to resist to the utmost the grinding down processes to which they will be subjected ; and as regards shape, the more many - sided and angular or sharp- edged, and the less they have a rounded form, the better ' bind ' will be obtained between the different pieces, and the nearer will be the approach to the compacted dovetailed mass, where each piece has a hold or ' grip ' upon its neighbour ; which, in point of fact, may be called the standard of efficiency as regards the masses of stones used to repair roads. In the 1 2th volume of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England (Part ii. No. 24), there is a very excellent paper on 'Eoads and High- ways,' by Mr. W. H. Wheeler, Civil Engineer, in which there are a good many details of practical and historical value connected with the subject ; and although many of these refer to roads of greater importance than the general run of farm roads, there are, however, some which may be specially appbed to these, as, for example, in materials used for repairing roads. A brief resume" of what Mr. Wheeler says on the subject will be useful to the reader, whom we refer to the volume above alluded to for special and further details. After pointing out the three requisites which are demanded from repairing materials, and which we have already named, and running over the various stones used, he states that there is only one out of the wide range of rocks or stones at command which possesses those requisites, this being fragments of the granitic and trappean rocks, broken so that they will pass through a ring or gauge of two inches diameter. Although expensive in the first instance, unless to be had on the property, still, from its superior lasting qualities, and the smaller bulk of it required as compared with other materials, Mr. Wheeler is of opinion it is the cheapest thing in the end to use, and corroborates this by a series of tables compiled from the working books of certain lengths of road. As a rule, the stone used for repairs is that kind and quality most plentifully met with and MATERIALS FOR REPAIRING ROADS. 163 most easily obtained in the neighbourhood ; but some of these, although cheap in the sense of being close at hand where wanted, are so in- herently bad that it would be infinitely the cheapest thing to do if granitic stone were brought on to the property, even from a great distance. In limestone districts the limestone is almost universally used, both in the construction and repair of roads ; and those who have had much experience in living in a district of this kind, as say Derbyshire, will have had disagreeable experi- ence enough of the rapidity with which it rubs down into a fine detritus, which rain converts at once into surfaces of white mud, and its absence into a white dust. Yet it is a tough stone (one of the requisites we have named), but peculiarly liable to atmospheric influences, as rain or frost. It rapidly disintegrates ; it is, in short, so bad a material that it ought never to be used for road work, for, if so used, the consequent expenses involved will be a continual source of outlay. If sandstones are often used, their comparative cheapness, or rather dearness, will depend upon their quality ; a vast bulk of worthless sand- stones are,however,used yearly, which do not repay the cost of carriage. Gravel is a material in great request for road repairs, temptation to use it arising from its hardness and the apparent ease with which the nodules bind together in the ruts and depressions ; but this bond is only apparent if the gravel nodules be round ; in this case their working up to the surface, on which they lie loosely, is merely a matter of time. No road is more dangerous to the horses than that on which rounded materials have been used, and worked up by the pressure of the traffic to the surface; it keeps the poor horses working on it in a state of per- petual nervous excitement lest they should fall, or causes not seldom serious accidents to them when they do fall. Flint gravel, if the nodules are not round, makes a good material if used judiciously, giving a clean and firm surface. If the sea be near the property, one may be tempted to use shingle or the stones met with so plenti- fully at various parts of the shore ; but here, again, the caution as to shape or form of each piece must be remembered, for to use those rounded is simply throwing away money. There are many departments of work which will illustrate the old adage, that even gold may be bought too dear; to few does it apply more forcibly than to roads, for materials may be used which will never repay the cost of even carting them a short distance on the property itself. Hence it is that Mr. Wheeler, to whose paper we have referred, insists that it is cheaper to import granitic stones, even from a great distance, than to use those which are close at hand. On many pro- perties large supplies of granitic rocks may be met with easily ; and as in such cases it will be useful to know the best way to prepare it for use, and how to use it to the greatest economical advantage, Mr. Wheeler gives some very useful instructions. The stones are to be carted to and laid alongside the road to be repaired, in heaps at regular intervals, the usual average bulk or weight of each heap being 1^ tons ; but this, we may remark, will be a point regulated by the re- pairs necessary to be done at particular points ; some repairs, being slight, will require less bulky heaps, and vice vcrsd. As soon as the autumnal wet season commences, that of the repairing of roads begins too ; and no loss of time can be tolerated through slow, easy-going processes, but the work — especially if the mileage be exten- sive— must be pushed on with vigour, when we say that all repairing work must be finished before the middle of January. The stones put in after this time are found in practice to work themselves up to the surface, in place of remain- ing in situ. In point of fact, the repairing stones put in seem, as may be reasonably supposed to be the case, to require a certain period of compara- tive repose in which to get compacted. The broken stones, previously prepared of the requisite dimensions, are taken from the heaps by barrow- fuls, and they are taken from this by means of a shovel, and spread openly over the loose surfaces of the ruts caused by the pressure and grinding away of the sides of these by the wheels, as well as by the treading on and grinding down action of the feet of the horses. Some care ought to be taken to have the ruts and depressions supplied with the stones, not shovelled carelessly in, irrespective of the relationship which exists between the depth of the ruts, or their breadth, and the number and weight of the stones. Again, where the ruts 164 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY or depressions are very deep and broad, some attempt ought to be made to fill in the stones with that regularity as to the depth of each layer which will best give a fine and compacted mass. A good deal of the after success of the repairs depends upon the way in which those are done. By proceeding thus, Mr. Wheeler says that a bad gravel road may be converted into a granite road possessed of an even surface, and that hard and firm, and capable of resisting even heavy traffic. The expense, moreover, of the transformation is by no means great, considering the nature of the results obtained ; thus the weight of granite stones during the first two years may be set down at about 50 tons per mile, the weight during the third year falling to 30 tons. The principles of repairing of roads which we have propounded may be shortly stated as that of keeping up a continuous well-drained system, filling np the ruts and depressions as they arise or are formed ; thus fighting the enemy, so to say, in detail, and never allowing such a length of time to elapse as is the general system, so that a large extent of mileage has to be put under repair at once, and the whole breadth of road covered in with the usually too well known and too well dreaded layers of stones, through which and over which the poor horses have to drag their heavy loads as best they may, until, by a long, tedious, and expensive process, the stones are crushed and crumbled down into the road, and a comparatively hard and smooth sur- face is at last obtained. But upon the system we have explained, and still more efficiently by the employment of granitic stone covering advo- cated by Mr. Wheeler, the better surface is ob- tained ; the work though in one sense continuous is not so, as we have explained, but being taken in detail as the defects arise, each hole thus takes only the minimum of material. But excellent as the plan of repairing roads described is, where thorough efficiency and the highest standard are aimed at, the construction of the road being in the first instance supposed to be sound both in principle and in detail, the road afterwards should be so managed as not to allow of ruts being formed at all. Where the traffic is heavy, this will be difficult to accomplish ; but in farming districts, where, though heavy, it is not continuous, this higher efficiency could be secured by no great outlay of time given to suspension of the traffic. Mr. Wheeler says, what under the old system took 200 tons per mile to keep it in good repair, under the new system required only some 80 tons, a difference representing a large amount in only one department of the property improve- ment. Of course, Mr. Wheeler's notes, of some of which we have given a brief rcsumi, refer chiefly to highway or turnpike roads, but they can be modified to any required degree when applied to farm roads, and the principle is appli- cable to all classes of roads. Repairs would be reduced to a minimum if roads were properly used, as they are not. If carters would be persuaded to vary their line of progression even by but an inch or two, so as to avoid the continual driving along in the same rut day after day, not only would they find their labour easier, and this because that of their horses would be easier also, but they would soon come to see that ruts would almost disappear. Roads which are, especially in winter-time, almost a terror to the carters themselves, — who, though rough, are not wholly devoid of feeling for their horses, — would become by the above system so well and evenly surfaced, that the carting would be a pleasure. Nor is the principle of managing the road traffic shown only in its good effects in the prevention of ruts and hollow parts here and there over the surface, but also in the getting rid of those loose stones, which, lying on roads, are a great cause of loss in cartage and suffering to the horses. These loose stones are the results of the system of carting always in the same line ; for the pressure which causes the formation of ruts and hollows in one place, is that which keeps the stones in a state of perpetual movement upwards till they reach the surface. No doubt it may be said, that to manage the road traffic in this way would involve so much labour in supervision, etc., that few farmers would be willing to carry it out. But as they have not the work to do, but only to see that it be done, to one acquainted with human nature and the management of men there would be no difficulty in hitting on a plan which would secure the ready co-operation of the carters in carrying out the system here advocated. And so quickly LA YING OUT AND CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS. 165 manifest would be its advantages even to them- selves, we believe, that they would have some inducement to carry it on. And as for the pro- prietor and farmer, so great would be the saving to the one in money, and to the other in time in getting his carting done, that they have every inducement to see the system carried out. Few have any idea of the loss of money and rapid de- terioration of horses caused by bad roads, and it is a loss which is continuous, as it goes on all the year round. And for this, if for no higher reason, on the score of humanity, have we given such prominence to the subject of repairs. For there is an enormous mileage of farm roads throughout the country, constructed so badly as regards their cross section or form, and made with materials greatly, in many instances wholly, unfitted to form a good body and surface of road, that the only way to bring them into proper con- dition is by carrying out a judicious system of repairs, such, for example, as that we have advo- cated. And that it would pay to reform the farm roads on properties is beyond a doubt. To pay in the highest sense, there will, of course, be demanded good administration, careful choice of the workmen, of the materials, and in the way in which these are conveyed to and laid along the road under repair. There can be no doubt that the keeping of farm roads in good condition is a matter of the highest importance, and that a large percentage of loss occurs yearly from their being neglected is beyond a doubt ; and this loss arises in many instances not so much from the fact that the roads have been badly designed and constructed in the first instance, as from their being allowed to get into bad condition, either through neglect or absolute indifference. At the same time, it should never be overlooked that a road badly constructed in the first instance will be much more difficult and expensive to keep in good repair than one which has been made rightly at the beginning. This is a point too frequently overlooked , for if faultily constructed, the faults are always there, and no amount of repair, how- ever conscientiously undertaken, can overcome them. We have endeavoured to point out the best and most economical methods of laying out and constructin" roads for the farm ; but it will not be amiss if, in conclusion, we give a brief risumA of these, and offer a few further remarks. And the first point we would draw attention again to is, that however carefully the bottom or foun- dation, as well as the surface, be made, defects will inevitably and too speedily begin to show them- selves, unless drainage be thoroughly attended to ; and we should here impress upon the reader the importance of the principle that both upper and surface drainage be alike specially attended to. Some road-makers conceive that if one be done the other may be neglected, — a damaging belief, which gives rise to endless necessities for repairs. Others, again, who carry out both under and upper, attach greater importance to one than to the other. Now both shoidd be thoroughly done ; indeed, it is a question with some able road-makers, whether, if saving has to be carried out, it should not be done in the case of under rather than surface draining. The best roads which have been made are probably those in which surface drainage is carried to what may be called perfection ; and apart from other circumstances, a convex surface certainly gives greater facilities for this being secured than a perfectly flat one (see previous remarks on this point). The con- vex form of the road is too often changed and injured by the system of placing all sorts of rubbish along the side boundaries, continuing the practice by allowing it to remain for unlimited periods, until the sides actually in some in- stances become higher than the centre. It is only in very badly neglected places that this is carried out to any great extent along the whole length of the road ; but it is obvious that, where adopted, the convexity of the road will in like proportion be injured or destroyed. The road- sides should be kept scrupulously free from all encumbrances, those only being tolerated, at cer- tain distances pretty far apart, at which materials for repair are laid down, as we have already recommended. Indeed, so scrupulously would we keep a roadside free from all extraneous matter, that we should even go the length of having offsets made at certain points for the deposit of repairing materials. The surface drainage is greatly aided by having the side fences as light and open as possible, so that the wind can sweep over the surface of the road with the 1 66 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. least obstruction, and the sun's heat gain access. These points are greatly overlooked in many instances, to the detriment of the road. Hence the absurdity of having roads bounded by high fences. Another point in under-drainage greatly overlooked is the importance of having the road bounded by two drains, it being essential to have a drain on either side, the effect of which in consolidating the road, as well as thoroughly draining it, can scarcely be over-estimated. The great point, to sum up this part of the subject, is to keep the road dry throughout from top-surface to foundation. As regards materials for repairs, the farmer who is on the look-out will be surprised to find that he has a wider range than he is apt to suspect, many a good material for the purpose being overlooked or con- sidered unfitted. The truth is, that in this, as in other departments, much is lost simply from want of care and attention. In the paper by Mr. Bailey Denton, to which we have already alluded, and which should be studied by every one in- terested in the subject, a very suggestive hint as to repairs is given, in his saying that it is an axiom with engineers that roads should be so well constructed, that their maintenance should be reduced to that point at which the current loss of materials will be represented by the wear and tear ; but with regard to internal farm roads this rule may be safely modified, the same reason for keeping them in the high class of repair demanded by public roads not existing. Less material, there- fore, may be used by the farmer ; but if so, it is obvious that it will be all the more incumbent on him to use it with judgment, and on this point we need scarcely say that it involves re- peated examination of their condition. Of course, much will depend on the repairing materials used, some lasting longer than others. We have said enough, in concluding the subject, to show that the condition in which farm roads are kept depends upon the farmer himself. In a large majority of cases he will find, when disposed to blame the contractor, the fault lies more upon his own shoulders. He cannot, at all events, bring forward the excuse that he is ignorant of defects, as he has abundant opportunities of finding these out when he is going from the one part of his farm to the other. It is surprising, however, how re- peatedly one will pass over places in bad repair without ever being aware of the fact. No one requires more to study the habit of observation, or to whom it is more practically valuable, than the farmer. In close connection with the subject of roads comes that of bridges. It is such a wide one, and embraces so many important points, that we can hardly refer to the simplest constructions of the farm, except only in the briefest fashion ; to do justice to it, would take up the limits of a treatise. In fig. 5, Plate 46, we give the sketch of a wooden bridge for foot-passengers, with a width of roadway of between 5 and 6 feet, and a span varying from 24 to 30. The main beams, which are separated at intervals by braces, are 12 by 8 ; the uprights of the handrail are about 4 feet 6 inches high, and 4 by 6 in scantling. The bridge is supposed to be reached on one side by steps, a, at which there should be a broad landing, b, the other side, c, continued on the level. Fig. 6 shows a form of abutment of stone work used in cases where the bridge beams have not a solid base of soil to rest upon, or where the span is broken up into more than one length in crossing the stream, ravine, or valley. Fig. 9 shows a design for a light iron bridge on the lattice prin- ciple. In fig. 8 we illustrate a plan for forming a gangway reaching from the low level, a, as that of a stack-yard, up to the first floor, b, as say of the granary. Broad landings in such cases should be given as frequently as possible, as at c ; they are very convenient, as affording resting- places for those carrying heavy lifts. In all cases, in entering an apartment on a higher level, as b, a broad landing, as at d, should be given, as useful for shutting and opening doors and as resting-places. FENCES AND GA TES. 167 CHATTER II. FENCES AND GATES. Fences. — This department, although it is often classed as one of the minor subjects connected with the improvement of landed property, is nevertheless one of great practical importance. Fences may be divided into two classes, — first, those used simply as a means of enclosing fields, dividing them and the crops which they bear from one another, and preventing the stock feed- ing on pasture land from passing either from one field to another of the same character, or to fields bearing arable crops. The second class com- prises fences which not only serve the above- named purposes, but also that of shelter in dis- tricts more or less exposed to high winds, etc., or which are situated in severe climates. As our succeeding remarks, and the illustrations which when necessary will accompany them, will show, the kinds of fences in use are very numerous. Some are marked for the extreme simplicity of their construction, others for their complication ; some for the small extent of land which they occupy, others for the very reverse of this. There is, perhaps, none of the minor departments of improvement of landed property which has met with so much warm discussion, and on the points of which such very decided opinions have been expressed, as that of the fences of the latter class just named, — fences which, at one period, were almost universally used, and as universally esteemed as necessary agents to good farming. Those huge erections — for the term is specially and strictly applicable, as may be well supposed — were sure to call down the reproaches of farmers in modern times, when the value of land was much thought of, however little it was deemed by our forefathers, to whom they owed their existence; nor were the reproaches less forcible of those who knew what farming really was, when the damage done to the crops was taken into consideration. The warfare between the upholders of the old and the advocates of the new system of fencing was long and bitter ; and the former had warm advocates in the lovers of the picturesque, as beyond a doubt these old- fashioned fences added a charming feature to the landscape, which in many districts is now wholly lost, and will soon be entirely so all over the country. It is unnecessary to enter into the details of this controversy now, inasmuch as it is a settled question that great loss accrues to the farmer, if from no other cause than that arising from the extent of land, irrespective altogether of the expense in erecting them, and the labour in- volved in keeping them in repair, cleaning them, and keeping them free from weeds. As an example of the first-named loss, a writer mentions the fact that the fences on his farm take up no less an extent than five acres, which, if devoted to a proper system of culture, would actually keep ten cows. But apart from the question of the losses above stated, there is another point of the highest consideration in connection with fences, aud this even in the case where these are con- structed on the most approved and most modern principles ; and this from their iufluence on the steam cultivation question. Years ago, in the leading journals of agriculture, while having oc- casion to describe the different systems as they were introduced, and to record at a later period the eminent success of those which are now the established systems in daily work over a large area of land, we pointed out that none of them would be able to develop their powers to their fullest extent until the fields of our farms were specially prepared in order to meet their essential requirements ; and this not merely in the way 1 63 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. of preparing their surfaces, — a branch of farm engineering which is hardly as yet in its infancy, — so that they could be made as level as pos- sible, but in that of decreasing the number of fences, so as to give the largest area of uninter- rupted sweep, so to say, in which the apparatus could work at the greatest advantage. This con- sideration alone is one which will affect the future of our system of fencing, which in many of our farms is being already carried out. But there is another consideration which will have a like result, and that is the mere cost of the fences necessitated by a system of farming which apparently demands numerous fields of small dimensions. Some advanced farmers, indeed, go the length of saying that the burthen now entailed upon them is so great, that a modification of the system is essen- tial, even if there were no other considerations affecting the cpiestion. The mere interest is a matter of some moment, and if expended in carrying out an improved system of farming, would yield considerable results. This is not the place further to enter on the subject ; but, as an example bearing upon it, we may just allude to the system of soiling or stall-feeding of cattle and dairy cows, which, if carried out, would do away almost entirely with the necessity of having fences. Where, however, the system of pastur- ing is adopted, we shall see in a succeeding para- graph that fences will, on an improved system, be rather increased than diminished in extent ; and even in the case of the old-fashioned fences, there are special cases in which it may be advis- able to retain them. In certain classes, moreover, of landed property improvement, fences of various kinds are necessary, so that, apart from the cir- cumstance of the great and radical improvements we have just alluded to, which will not, like others, be carried out with great rapidity unless they form an exception to a general rule, fencing of all kinds will remain, we may safely conjecture, an important department of modern farm work. We therefore proceed to describe the various classes of fences. Mud or Turf Fences. — These are much more frequently used than one would anticipate, after what we have said as to huge erections occupying much space of land ; but they are very useful, nevertheless, — as, for example, in reclaiming land, in the formation of sunk fences, and in the fencing off of plantations, etc. In conjunction with stone, they form a very good and, if properly attended to, durable fence. The term ' mud ' is not in all cases strictly applicable, indeed rarely ; for it is soil in different conditions of humidity, generally more or less dry, so that it can be cut and placed in situ like turf. A fence of this material, to fence off a plantation of reclaimed land, is shown in fig. 2, Plate 36. The pasture or arable part of the farm is at a ; the sunk fence or ditch at c ; e, the mud fence ; b, the planta- tion. The mud wall is surmounted with flat stones, or with gorse or whin as shown. If of mud, the wall may be backed up with the soil from making the ditch, c, fig. 3, Plate 36. This will allow of the face being nearly perpendicular, thus increasing the difficulty of the wall being leapt by the cattle at the side a. For protecting two contiguous fields, say of rough or reclaimed land, a mud fence may be built, or one with any of the rough stones which may be found in abundance on such land. The fence is simply a duplicate of fig. 2, a second ditch being on the other side of the fence, as shown by the dotted lines d, fig. 2, Plate 36. Fences for moorland pastures, reclaimed commons, etc., may be made, in fact, of almost any materials readiest to hand. Turf may be had in abundance in some fields reclaimed, which are pared and burned, as much being re- covered from the burning as will form the fence. This may either be required to fence from one side only, as in the case of a plantation being on the other, in which case the fence will be formed as in the last figure, either with or without a sunk fence or ditch ; although this latter not only adds to the difficulty of stock leaping the wall, but is not all lost ground, as some seem to think, for good bites may be had from the inner side, if water is in the ditch, or from both sides and bottom if there be none. The mud or turf fence, to fence both sides when there is a field on either side of the fence, may be made as in fig. 4, Plate 36, with a broad base to give stability to the fence, and protect it as much as possible against the attacks of cattle. It is usual to crown the top with green turf, but as the grass on this sometimes grows luxuriantly, and tempts the cattle to put their feet on the sides FENCING ON HILL Y MOORLAND. 169 in order to reach the grass, it will be the safer plan to crown the top, b, with stone, or if that be not easily obtained, with whin, gorse, or thorn stops and branches, according as either one or other of these can be had with the least labour. These tops must all be dead wood, thus giving no chance of them taking root, which would defeat the object in view, by producing a crop of leafage more tempting to the cattle than grass from turf coping would be. Or stakes of timber may be used as coping, as in fig. 5, tied paling- wise by a horizontal bar, a a. The worst of all these latter tops, dead wood, branches of thorns, etc., and wood, is that they present orifices at their junction with the top of fence which admit rain, which, descending to the interior, rapidly destroys the solidity of a mud wall ; and in the case of stone, it is difficult to fix the wood stops, etc. The better way is to build the wall high enough, and finish it off with small stones, if larger ones cannot be had. The best plan, however, is to make the mud fence in the centre between two sunk fences, as in fig. 6, a scarpment or set-off at the base, as at a a, being made sloping, to increase the difficulty of the animals gaining a footing on the wall ; the slope will also carry off the water quickly. If the fence be made, as in fig. 7, in the centre of a broad ditch, a a, the base, b, must be of stone, to carry the mud above the water line, — that is, unless the ditch, a a, be a dry one ; still even in this case there will be lodgments of water, so that a low stone founda- tion should be made in which to place the turf, as in fig. 8. Fencing on Hilly Moorland. — The importance of this department of work need not here be commented on, as it is evident that it must play an important part in its reclamation. Their dis- position and situation will, of course, be regulated by a ' variety of circumstances, such as the extent of the farm, the character of the land, whether arable, pasture, or meadow, or the inequalities of the surface, the supply of water, etc. Ou farms of tolerable size, having a moderate quantity of arable land, the number of enclosures should be twice as many as the number of years in the rotation of cropping. Thus, in a moist grass land district, where the fields remain in pasture for several years, and are under the six-field course of culture, there should be twelve enclosures, two of which are always under the same crop ; and the situation of each field should be so arranged as to group together a good and an inferior field, one being at a higher elevation than the other, and consequently at a greater distance from the homestead ; the homeward field (being nearest the manure heap) thereby affording roots for the yards, if wished, while the distant elevated poorer field has its produce consumed upon the land. In the adjustment of the lines of fences, much convenience and some saving of expense in drainage will be secured if they are made to correspond with the outlets of the main drains ; and these, again, with the carriers for irrigation.' In our introductory re- marks on fences (for which see chapter on ' Eoads and Fences ') we have gone fully into the pros and cons of this much-debated subject, and have drawn special attention to the injury done by the large old-fashioned fence of mud, sods, or earth, surmounted with trees and shrubs of all kinds, and covered over for their entire surface with weeds and grass, affording refuge for a host of vermin. But while these are objectionable in districts enjoying fine soil and mild climate, it should be remembered, as pointed out by Mr. Smith, what is too frequently forgotten, that large fences, affording shelter, are necessary in less favoured districts ; for ' in corn countries it is no matter how few and how low fences are ; but in a moist, windy, and elevated district, suitable for the production of stock alone, which naturally require shelter against such elements, good stoned and ditched banks, with healthy beech plants upon them, are no small adjunct to the capabilities of a "West of England hill farm.' And what is true of farms there of this class, is no less so of the farms of other districts. The modern fence used on the West of England hill farms is illustrated and described by Mr. Smith in his paper ' On Moorland Cultivation,' and of which we give a diagram, fig. 9, Plate 36. It is faced with stones, a a, on each side to the height of four feet, and then topped with two feet of grass sods, b. Upon this top or crown, beech plants, c c, in two rows are set, protected on each side by low hedges, d d, the stakes of which are made from fresh-cut or live willows. The plan of live stakes is a good one, 170 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. for these materially aid the growth of the beech plant, and support the bank by the quick growth of their roots. In the enclosures of moderately elevated moorlands in the same district, the fences are of the class known as hedges on the flat. These have a ditch sunk upon each side, as a b, fig. 11, Plate 3G, and the soil taken from these is thrown into the centre, by which a platform or bank, c d, is formed, in which the quick plants, as e c, are laid in as the work proceeds, or as soon as possible after its completion. These are protected by a double post and rail, / g, a double sod bank, such as was used in Lincolnshire at the enclosure of heaths, illustrated in fig. 10, in which a b are the side ditches, 1 8 inches in width ; c d the base, on which the sod walls, ef, are raised ; gg&ve the two rows of quicksets. When these were sufficiently grown, it was customary to take down the decayed sod banks or walls, and to use their materials in the formation of compost heaps along with quicklime. Stone Fences. — These range from the simplest up to the most elaborately designed and con- structed structures, according to circumstances, and the desire of the proprietor to have work more or less complete and finished in character. The simplest of all is that formed of boulders or rough stones, such as are met with in abundance on some classes of hilly moorland ; and in such cases form rough and rude-looking fences, but quite in keeping with the locality, and yet thoroughly effective. Bough boulder stones, but of a more rounded character, and smaller generally than those of moorlands, are also met with in river beds of lower districts, and in such abundance as to suffice for the erection of fences of this class. Some care is, of course, necessary to select and place the stones so that they will bind or interlock, so to say, with each other, as on this being efficiently done depends the stability of the wall. To save the trouble of doing this, some workmen trust to the giving of a very broad foundation, making the fence rather a heap of stones, conically shaped, than a structure having some, and those the most valuable, features of a dry-stone walL But it should be remembered that this style of ' throwing together ' a heap of stones is costly, inasmuch as the cartage is a costly item; and a fence thus built, if the term can be used of it, takes a much larger number of stones than one in every way lighter, but which, properly constructed, gives by far the strongest fence ; and it may be taken as a rule, that a good workman will build a ' boulder waU ' as fast as a bad one will throw together a heap of the stones of the other kind of fence. The mere weight of extra stones which the workman has to lift is no small matter in the item of time alone ; and time is money. Fig. 9, Plate 37, illustrates a form of boulder fence, to aid in the erection of which a rough ' template ' — hereafter illustrated when de- scribing stone walls of a higher class — will be useful in giving the form or section, and enabling this to be maintained throughout. This may be made in a few minutes with some rough sticks, nailed or even tied together at the points of junction. Forms of large boulder fences are shown in figs. 10, 11, and 12, and will be found described in the chapter on reclaiming land under the section, ' Beclaimiug Land encumbered with Boulders.' Where large, broad, flat stones are numerous, a good firm fence may be made, as at a a, fig. 13. Where the soil is light, the stones may be jammed up by wedges, as at b b, and greater strength may be obtained by overlapping them, as at c. A combination of low mud fence, as d, and flat overlapping stones, as e, may be made very strong to resist cattle, by having at intervals wood braces, as at fg, in place of having continuous lines, as g, on the ground level ; offsets, as h k, of soil may be made. Fig. 1, Plate 36, shows a stone wall in place of the mud, as shown in fig. 2. Fig. 14, Plate 37, shows two forms of templates with plumb lines, which are used in building dry - stone walls in order to keep the outlines correct and the wall perpendicular. Forms of dry-stone fences are shown in figs. 1 and 2, Plate 38, fig. 1 being a sunk fence, and fig. 2 a retaining wall. Figs. 3 and 4, Plate 38, show stone walls on the slope, a a, in fig. 3, being the mode of setting out the foundations, and b of terminating the wall at foot ; c shows the coping. Fig. 4 may illus- trate a wall sloping from a road, a a; b being the line of outside retaining wall ; c c shows the form of footings ; d d the drain from road. Figs. 5 to 29 iBustrate various modes of building stone and brick walls adapted for superior parts of STONE FENCES—SUNK FENCES. 171 the property, as those near the residence, or where work of a hetter class is required. Fig. 5 is a stone wall of the kind called ' rough or random rubble,' in which the stones are put together without any dressing, as they come from the quarry; the stones being of all sizes, the only point attended to being the choice of stones as uniform as possible, especially at the base and outer sides. The strength of the wall depends chiefly on the goodness of the mortar, although this is aided by causing the stones to interlock with each other as much as possible, and by using at intervals 'through' or large stones going across the wall. In random rubble work of the best quality, in addition to mortar being used in the ordinary way, the stones are further cemented together by what is called grouting — that is, fill- ing in between the interstices mortar in a thin condition. Fig. 6 illustrates what is called coarse rubble, the stone being partially dressed with some regard to uniformity of size. Bond is obtained by the use of headers and stretchers. A header or through, as c, fig. 8, goes right across the wall, while a stretcher, as b, goes along the length of it. They are generally placed alter- nately, as shown, and as in fig. 10. In place of large stones being used throughout the thickness of the wall, the central part may be filled up with small stones, as figs. 9, 10 ; or these may be employed as backing, as in fig. 9. Figs. 7, 11, and 12 show part walls built of ashlar, which is the highest class of work. Of this the most superior is what is called rubbed ashlar, as in figs. 1 2 and 1 3, in which the outer surfaces of the stones are rubbed smooth. Figs. 13 to 18 show different modes of finishing off superior walls, as those bounding the gates of the entrance lodge, fig. 16 being known as a rusticated work. Designs for the low retaining-walls at entrance gates to parks, etc., are shown at a a in figs 1 to 8, Plate 45, with bounding or gate posts at b. Where part of the retaining wall is finished with timber, as in fig. 6, in place of being stop-chamfered, as in fig. 9, they may be finished as in fig 10, in eleva- tion and section. Figs. 24 to 29, Plate 38, show park enclosing walls of a superior kind, designed chiefly to be built of brick For high walls materials may be saved by using offsets, as in fig. 26, in section at A, and elevation at B ; or a thin wall may be built, as in fig. 27, having at intervals counterposts or buttresses, as a a, in elevation A, section B, and plan C. Figs. 2 5 and 28 show cornices for brick walls, and fig. 29 a hollow wall with coping, a, of stone weathered or sloping on both sides, and throated or grooved, as at a, all along its under sides, to prevent the water going down the front of wall. In fig. 20 the coping is finished with half-round bricks, «, or with tile coping, as at b. Fig. 21 shows the method of setting out brick walls on the plan known as ' Old English ' or ' English ' bond, in which the courses are alternately of stretchers, b b, and headers, a a. Fig. 23 shows the ' Flemish bond,' in which the courses are made up of headers, a, and stretchers, b, alternately. In both of these, c c show the half or quarter brick known as ' closers,' used to finish the end of the wall off with proper bond, without which, at certain points, the joints would reach from top to bottom of the wall, as at a b c d, fig. 22. Sunk Fences. — As it is the general wish to make the grounds immediately surrounding and in the vicinity of the mansion have the appearance of unlimited, or at least apparently unknown extent or expanse, some other than the ordinary enclosing- blank wall of stone or brick, as the case may be, is demanded. Generally what is called a 'sunk fence' is employed. Sunk fences are made pretty wide at top, to prevent any favourite breed of sheep or fancy cattle, which may be allowed to graze on the lawn, from leaping across, as the wall on the other side is of necessity kept as low as possible. The width of sunk fences will vary according to circumstances, but care should be taken not to make it too narrow ; the very least width from face of retaining wall, e, to point where the land or field, /, fig. 1, Plate 37, begins, should be six feet, but eight to nine feet will be the best. In place of having the face of wall, e, fig. 1, perpen- dicular, it will be stronger, and resist the back pressure of soil at b better, if made with a slope or batter as in fig. 3, with openings to allow of the drainage water to pass through from back to front. The top of wall is covered with a thick grassy sod, to give the green finish necessary to keep up the grassy appearance of the whole extent of park, etc. The fence is shown in fig. 1, Plate 37, where a a is the ditch, the soil 172 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. of which may be wholly or partly used to form a backing, b (this may be short, as at b, or thrown out towards c), dying away into the ground ; and if this is sown with grass seeds, the whole will have a green and level look when viewed even from a short distance. A very pretty kind of sunk fence may be formed without incurring the labour and expense of building a stone wall, by the arrangement as shown in fig. 3, Plate 37 ; where a is the ditch, both sides of which, b and c, are grass-covered ; at the side b a scarcemeut or set-off, d, is made, and the soil taken from a thrown up and back as at ef, the part e forming a bottom for the quickset fence g. The part / need not be high, and if the ground at the back slope upward it may die away into the general incline ; if level at the back, it may be formed as shown in the preceding illustration in this section. The illus- trations in fig. 6, Plate 36, and figs. 7 and 8, Plate 37, will serve to show how the fence as arranged will protect from both sides ; but if positions occur where a sunk fence may be made on either side, as in the diagram in fig. 7, Plate 37, the arrangement has this advantage, that the hedge, a, may be kept very low so as to be little observed, the necessary height of the fence per sc being obtained by the depth of the ditches or sunk fences, b and c, on either side. This will give little obstruction to the view, and both fields will be protected from cattle, etc., passing from one to the other. In similar localities, a small brook or watercourse, as in fig. 8, may be made to form part of the fence, fencing off, as in the last case, two contiguous fields, and giving at the same time the advantages of a sunk fence ; the brook, a, fencing from the field, b, and the ditch, c, and quickset or hornbeam fence, d, protecting from the field, c. Where the nature of the ground behind the fence and the character of the soil will admit of it, the stone retaining wall, as in fig. 1, Plate 37, which gives, of course, the best work, may be dispensed with, and a sod or turf wall may be substituted ; the outer surface of this becoming covered with herbage — especially where it has a good batter or slope, as in fig. 2, Plate 37 — this wdl accord more with the general green surface than the surface of a stone wall Yet in process of time this latter even will become covered with green moss, etc. But even in the case of a stone wall, its colour may be said to be lost when viewed from a distance of, say, fifty or sixty yards, and to become merged in the general appearance of the ground. This fact admits of a sunk fence being so made that the full depth of the ditch, as a, fig. 1, need not be taken into account, the height being made up by increasing that of the wall some 24 or 30 inches, as at a in fig. 4, Plate 37. This will save expense in cutting, and relieve the difficulty in getting rid of the excavated soil. To aid the drainage of the mass of sod behind the wall, in addition to the apertures through this, it will be a good plan to have a backing of stones behind it, as at b. A sunk fence of this kind is useful where there is rising ground behind the wall covered with plantation, and where there is a considerable distance between the level where the ground begins to rise and that of the policy or park ground below. Should the face of the rising ground behind the wall be rough, or if it be de- sirable to conceal it, it may be faced with a hedge of quickset or beech, as in fig. 5, Plate 37, at a a. The wall should be so well set forward as to ad- mit of a good backing of sod behind and at top, to admit of the roots of the plants having a good start at first ; and if the wall is of stone, it will be as well if it be capped with a stone coping, c, ' weathered ' towards the ditch side to throw the water into this; and this coping may be 'throated' to keep the drops from running down the face of the wall. All this, while it adds to the expense, wdl also add to the efficiency and the lasting nature of the wall, if this be made of stone. Where the ground behind the wall is only of moderate height, or where it is not deemed essential wholly to conceal or rather mask its surface, a very good effect can be obtained by having a gorse, whin, or furze fence trained to fall over the point of the wall of sod, or turf, or of stone, as at a in fig. 6 ; and if plants of the white broom be here and there put in at intervals, a remarkably pleasing and striking effect will be obtained. As there will, if well trained, be a perfect flush of yellow blossoms from the overhanging gorse or whins, this fence may be used in situations pretty near the house, as it will add to the beauty of the ' outlook.' A further pretty effect may be obtained in the winter season by having holly plants here and there in line of fence, the red WOOD FENCING AND PALING. berries of which will contrast beautifully with the green of the gorse ; nor will the decayed yet ever varying tints of the leaves of a few horn- beam or beech plants, put in here and there, lessen the effect of the fence as a whole. All this, of course, involves trouble and some small amount of thought, but all will be well repaid by the results, and what is now here stated may serve as hints for other circumstances and other work. Wood Fencing and Paling. — Where home timber is grown in abundance on the property, the thinnings out of certain parts, and the prim- ings of other more advanced trees, will afford in many cases a fair supply of wood applicable to the erection of fences and palings. The stock of timber would be larger if greater care were taken of the supply yielded from various sources ; but the reverse of this is often the case. Again and again have we witnessed in wood operations, that in collecting and burning the brushwood and small undergrowth, most serviceable pieces were collected with the rubbish and ruthlessly destroyed. Again, large scantlings of excellent timber will be found lying uselessly by road and ditch side and in corners of fields, broken by the wind from adjacent trees, etc., or littering the farm-yard, all of which, if collected and taken to the wood-house, and cut up, if necessary, by the saw, would form excellent material for topping of fences, filling up of gaps, or for the formation of palings, but which is otherwise allowed too often to lie neglected till it rots and decays. ' A place for everything, and everything in its place,' is a wise saw, which should be ever exemplified in all departments of the property, and will alone — in- dependently of other obvious advantages — secure neatness, trimness, and the sense that there is a clever directing head in the administration of affairs. The opposite of all this is suggestive of many unpleasant considerations, of empty exche- quers, an absent or careless and indifferent agent or landlord. These remarks will not have been given in vain if they serve to urge but one here and there to ' have his house in order.' Nor will he lose by the influence which order will have on the men under him, who most readily take their tone from the master; if he be indifferent, they Mill be so, and vice versd. Not always is this the case, but it operates more extensively than some are inclined at times to admit. The simplest and by no means the least effec- tive wooden fence for ordinary work, and certainly not so ungainly in appearance as some say it is, is that made of upright posts, a, fig. 1, Plate 39, with stay-posts, b, at intervals to strengthen the whole, in addition to which a horizontal brace or bar, c, is carried along near the top of the posts. This may be altered, if not improved in appear- ance, by making the upright posts double the distance from each other, and filling in the lower space by shorter pieces, d d, which will thus make the fence rabbit - proof, if desired, while the fence will be good to fence off cattle, etc. from either side. In place of having a horizontal brace or bar, as c, fig. 1, Plate 39, at the top, some use lengths of hoop iron, tarred to prevent rust, to secure the posts together, thus, — a a, fig. 2, being the posts, b b the hoop iron twined in and out, showing at front and back face of each post alternately. To prevent the iron from slipping, nails may be driven in here and there, although they will not often be required, if the stay-posts be strong and well braced with braces projecting at right angles to the line of fence. With braced stay-posts, this will be a strong and elastic fence ; the hoop iron, as it gives and takes laterally, yet comes back to its original position when the pressure is removed, allows the fence to yield to any sudden pressure, as of cattle or sheep, without giving way. In place of hoop iron, galvanized iron or steel wire may be used. The diagram, fig. 3, Plate 39, shows a fence of galvanized wire with timber posts between. This fence is easily erected, and may be made rabbit- proof by having the wires close together at the bottom, and gradually widening towards the top. A top rail of timber, b, is usually added in order to make the fence more plainly visible to cattle and sheep, who are apt to hurt themselves by coming violently against wires which they do not see, the upright posts only partially aiding this. If the annealing of wire could be de- pended upon, more might be made of its elas- ticity in the cheapening of fences in which wire is used. Wood fences, with horizontal bars passing through mortices in the uprights, are efficient, and look very well. In diagram, fig. 4, 1/4 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. Plate 39, a is a sectional end view of a post with the mortice holes, b, in it. The bars, c, are passed through these end to end, either butting against each other in the centre of the face of the post, which is the simplest form of joint, or hav- ing the ends of the bars cut into ' half-lap ' joints, as at c, or sloped off as at d ; c is the most secure form of joining the bars. The contour of the ground over which fencing passes is rarely uni- form, and so also the direction in which the fences pass from point to point, it often being the case as regards the latter, that, in place of the posts being in a straight line as in fig. 7, Plate 39, the direction is as in fig. 8. In such a case, in place of having sharp angles, as shown in the dotted lines a, b, and c, the fence will look much better if the posts are placed in curved ones, as shown ; the larger the radius of the curve the better. To a workman with accurate eye, these curves will be set out with sufficient accuracy at once ; but to one not so gifted, the better way will be to continue straight parts of the fence, as b a, a c, to some distance beyond the point, a, where the fence post would be placed on the angular system, and then joining those lines by a curved line, d, at the centre of which the post would be placed. As regards the vertical deviation from the level, as indicated in fig. 9, the way to have the posts in unison with the irregularities of the land is to mark off what is to be their standard height from the ground, as from a to b, on all the posts, as from c to d. Then, by driving slightly in nails at those points, cords, as shown by the dotted lines, efdg, can be hung on these, and they will be parallel to the contour of the land, as shown by the lower line, h c. Then, by allowing so much above and below this line, according as the ground rises and falls, the upper part of the fence will be uniform with the contour of the land, although, as in the other case previously named, one with an accurate eye may save all this trouble. A wood paling of a superior kind is illustrated in fig. 14, this being finished with a cap, forms of which are shown in fig. 13. In this form of fence, the bars are dressed off to uniform scantlings before being fitted up. In fig. 14 these bars are shown as being placed on the posts at uniform distances ; but a neater fence is secured by having them placed at varying heights along the length of posts. Where the bars are five in number, includ- ing the cap bar at the top, good distances between them are 3, 3^, 4, 4^, and 5 inches, the greatest width being of course at the top. To facilitate the placing of the bars at the proper distance along the length of fence, two bars shoidd be provided, as a a, fig. 10, in which nails may be driven, and these bars hung by the upper nail to a cord, which should be stretched along the line of posts at the proper height from the ground ; the other bars are dropped quickly on to the nails, which will give at once the height at which they should be secured. In this case the bars are nailed to the outside of the posts. As the bars are apt to slip off the nails, iron catches may be fixed to the hanging bars, a hook being made to hang on the upper cord. A combination of iron wires and wooden posts, with upper bar, to show the fence to sheep, is shown in fig. 3, the wires being closer together near the ground, to prevent rabbits passing through. There are a great variety of forms of wooden fences, which it is needless here to illus- trate and describe. In fencing off turnip brakes, when eaten off by sheep, or in temporarily divid- ing a pasture or other field, what are called hurdle fences are employed. These are made very light, but strength is obtained by angle bracing, as in the diagrams, fig. 16, Plate 39. These hurdles are driven into the soil, kept in line by diagonal braces, a, at intervals connected with and secured to the upright, b, by a wood pin, and at foot by another pin taking into a stob or stud driven into the soil. The whole, although apparently complicated, can be put up and taken down with great quickness. This arrangement is illustrated in figs. 1, 2, and 3, Plate 42. Iron hurdles are now made, and are in many districts fast superseding wooden ones ; the vertical uprights are terminated at the ground line by forked ends, the prongs or tongues of which, when forced into, take a firm hold of the soil, and keep the hurdles in line without in- volving the use of diagonal stays, as in the case of wooden hurdles. If the forked ends be made on the twist, that is, with one prong in advance of the other, so that the two form a line oblique to that of the hurdle fence, they will take a much WOOD FENCING AND PALING. i/5 firmer ' grip ' of the soil than if made straight. The worst of wood, when employed for fencing purposes, is that the feet of the upright posts decay rapidly, in consequence of the wetness of the soil into which they are driven. It is not constant wet which destroys timber rapidly, but the alternation between wet and dry. Charring the lower ends is only efficient, and that even but to a moderate extent, when done so that the carbonizing of the wood extends pretty deeply; to char a mere skin is of little or no service. Dipping the feet of the posts in one or other of the wood preservative liquids now so extensively used may be found to act beneficially ; but perhaps the readiest way is to bed the foot in a layer of clay puddle, and ram this well round the foot up to and a little above the ground level ; this will keep the wet from striking upon the timber for a long time, especially if the puddling be carefully done. A good deal of controversy has arisen on the point as to which is the best way of driving in uprights made of young trees, etc. — that is, with the thick or thin ends downwards. It saves labour to drive the thin ends in, as little or no pointing is required ; but there are those who maintain that the true way is to have the posts in the same position as the tree grows, thick end down, especially in the case of larch. Other forms of fences, in which iron wire and timber are combined, are shown in figs. 2 and 3, Plate 44, fig. 4 showing a combination of iron with stone. In figs. 5 and 6 iron fencings are illustrated, with straining posts, as in fig. 6 ; and in figs. 7 and 8, iron hurdles. Rustic fences of timber are shown in figs. 5 to 10, Plate 42. A form of fence in which wood and wire are used as the materials, and on a plan somewhat different from those in use generally with us, has been introduced in America, and with decided success, as we understand. It is possessed of great strength, and may be modified in construc- tion to meet the necessities of different kinds of stock. The wire is used of as many strands as may be required to give the necessary strength, both as regards the strength of each wire or the purpose ior which the fence is to be employed, the stretching posts and intermediate posts being made of timber. The stretching posts are placed at distances apart of from 150 to 350 yards ; and the intermediate ones at distances of 6 yards apart, according to the strength of the wire and the kind of stock required to be kept fenced in. Slabs of varying thickness, according to circum- stances, are placed between the intermediate posts, being first bored through with holes edge- ways, that is, in the direction of the breadth of the slab, the number of holes corresponding to the number of wires in the fence. The inter- mediate posts are fixed in the ground, and the slabs strung, as it were, between them on the wires, these passing through the holes in the slabs ; which being about 4 inches in breadth, are, being presented flat side to the fields, easily seen by the stock, who therefore are not liable to be hurt by dashing up against them in their runs, which often is the case where what are called 'invisible' or thin wire fences with small-sized stretching or straining posts are used. The ' stretching posts,' placed as already stated at the longest intervals, are moveable, working or giving laterally in slots or grooves cut in the ground ; the wires are tightened up in these posts by means of cross bars which pass through the posts, the ends of these cross bars being made with a mortice to receive wood wedges or wedge- shaped pins; these, as they are driven home, tighten the cross bars, and through them the wires which are fixed to them. The great advantage of this system is that the wires do not require to be strained till they are very tight, the degree of tension required being that only which is sufficient to keep the wires in line, as the slabs strung on to the wires between the inter- mediate fixed posts, acting independently of each other, produce, so to say, a number of cross strains, the resultant of the whole of which gives the necessary degree of tightness to the whole system. By making the slabs double, and merely nailing them together, any one half can be removed, so as to release the wire and enable the slabs or parts of them to be renewed as they decay. Palings are generally employed in the neigh- bourhood of the house, and are of flat boards secured in a variety of ways to vertical up- rights, these being on the side farthest from the house, so that a flat surface of timber is pre- sented to view. This is when close -boarded paling is used. As a rule, palings of this kind 176 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. are profoundly ugly as put up with us, and one has to go to the Continent to see what really beautiful effects can be produced by the way in which the boards are cut into ornamental forms at their termination, or provided with perfora- tions on their surfaces of a very neat and often striking character. In figs. 1 to 4, Plate 40, we give illustrations of various forms of paling, chiefly of an ornamental character. Figs. 6 to 11, Plate 40, and figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, and 12, Plate 41, are designs for the upper termination of gates. Gates are of various designs, so far as the way is concerned in which the bars, etc. are arranged together ; but there is one point in every well- formed gate which is an essential feature. This is illustrated in fig. 1, Plate 41, and is the placing of a diagonal, as a b or c d, stretching from one corner to the other, dividing the rect- angular frame abed, into two triangles, as a db,b c a. This arrangement of triangles, which is the element of a truss, is the way in which the greatest strength can be given to a rectangular frame, as a b c d, of a gate. Any arrangement, therefore, such as in fig. 1, Plate 42, in which this diagonal arrangement is absent, is sure to give a defective and weak form of gate. The diagonal acts either as a strut or a brace, or as a tie (for definitions of these terms, and for other matters of great practical constructive importance, the reader may consult with advantage our large work, The Practical Guide to Carpentry and Fram- ing, published by the Messrs. Pullarton & Co., of Edinburgh and London), according to the position in which the gate is hung. If e be the hanging post, or that by which it is hung to the fixed post, the diagonal c d will act as a tie and be under tension, the parts of the gate having a tendency to fall in the direction of the arrow ; it may there- fore be an iron rod. The other diagonal acts as a brace or strut, and may be of wood ; but in a wood gate it would look awkward to have two materials, wood is therefore used for both dia- gonals. However a gate may be designed, and its general surface or body within the frame filled up, so as to show a front more or less ornamental, as figs. 8, 9, 13, 14, and 15, Plate 41, the diagonal should always be provided; for when absent, some part will go wrong, and will inevitably be weak, and give way sooner or later at some of its parts. This is the principal cause of gates drooping and pulling down the posts, although we shall see afterwards that this arises from defective ways of fixing the latter. Various designs for gate-posts and balustrades, and posts as terminations for balustrades, are given in Plate 45. Hanging Gates. — Some prefer to have a gate hung so that it will be ' self-closing.' This has its disadvantages as well as its advantages, and we incline to think the former greater than the latter, as they are sources of danger as well as of inconvenience. Thus, in passing through a self- closing gate, especially if it be so hung as to close quickly, the gate may catch an animal before it gets fairly through, and do it injury; or it may come in contact violently with the hind part of a vehicle. A self-closing gate may, in fact, be said to be a contrivance to overcome the diffi- culties which arise from pure neglect of a duty, which is to close the gate after it has been passed through, — a duty which is clearly one which ought to be done. In hanging a gate which is designed to hang freely at any point of its opening, all that is necessary is to make the upper stud, a, fig. 12, Plate 43, exactly per- pendicular over the lower stud, 6, so that a bar passing through the centre of both will be exactly vertical, that is, if the post itself be so. To make it self-closing if not opened more than three-fourths of its sweep, which sweep is a semicircle, described from the centre of the gate- post hinge stud, the gate opening both ways, the stud of the upper hinge, as a, must be made at a point from the plumb line, a b, nearer the gate, as d, equal to two inches, than the lower stud, b ; the gate in this instance being on the side, d, of the plumb line, a b, or gate-post. If the upper stud, a, be placed to the left of the plumb line, a b, or nearer the gate side of the post to the extent of an inch, and the lower stud, b, be placed an inch to the right of the plumb line, or farther from the gate side of the post, as at the point c, then the gate will fall wider open if it be opened to a greater extent than the fourth of a circle, which it will in the great majority of cases be sure to be. This disadvantage is obvi- ated by the arrangement of the studs first named. As to people passing through on horse- FENCING ON HILL Y MOORLAND. U7 back or in a vehicle, as it is a trouble to them to descend to close the gate, it will be as well to hang it so that after passing through it will have a tendency to fall towards the post without requiring a great push to enable it to catch the latch. It is scarcely necessary to say that in place of adjusting — when the gate is designed to be self-closing — the studs from the plumb centre line, a b, fig. 12, Plate 43, the same result will be attained if the ' hanging post ' be set in the ground one inch or two inches off the perpen- dicular or ' plumb ' according as desired, and as above stated. A self-closing latch is a necessary appendage to a self-closing gate ; one which may be made by any labourer is shown in fig. 13, Plate 43, by bending a rod of iron and jointing it at a to the bar of the gate below the latch, b, and upwards towards c, where it may be finished with a handle, c. Simple forms of the joint, a, and handle, c, are shown at d and e, which can be made in the ' smithy ' by any labourer. The greater the angle made by the line a b with that of a c, or the distance of the handle, c, from the joint, a, the easier the latch falls down. There are different modes of fixing the hang- ing or hinging post, to which the gate is hinged, in order that it may be as firm in the ground as possible. Fig. 9, Plate 43, illustrates one method to which generally various minor modi- fications are added. In this, a is the hanging or hinging post, inserted pretty deeply into the soil, say some thirty inches or three feet, and thereafter fixed in the centre of a flat stone, b ; and there is sometimes the further precaution taken of having another stone, as c, placed vertically as an addi- tional bearing surface, with smaller stones between it and the soil. A stay or tie, d, is sometimes also secured to the post and to a stone, e, placed at an angle as shown. The same arrangement is made at the lock or latch post, at the opposite side of the gate. Another method of securing the two posts — the hanging and the latch — is shown in fig. 10, in which the two posts are connected at feet by two iron bars, let into matrices made in the posts, c d. Fig. 11 shows a method of fixing the feet of the posts by small stones at sides and bottom. The forms of hinges are very numerous ; some are made very orna- mental. Fig. 3, Plate 41, shows a form of hinge in which the upper part of head post of gate, as e, fig. 9, in place of being made plain, as in field gates, is finished off as at a, fig. 3. Figs. 4, 5, and 7, Plate 41, show other ornamental forms of finishing off head post, top, and upper rads of gate. Entrance gates to parks are made highly orna- mental, generally in keeping with the style of the house. Various forms and parts are shown in Plate 41, fig. 10 being a rusticated gate, formed, like the fences in Plate 42, of natural branches of trees selected with care and a natural taste for one's work. Some have a pecidiar aptitude for work of this kind. We know a gamekeeper who constructed work of this kind which would have done no discredit to a first-rate artist, yet he had no designs to work from. It was all done by the aid of the eye alone, and the design seemed to work itself out, so to say, as he pro- ceeded. A small hatchet, a hammer, a saw, and a forester's knife were all the tools he had. The forms of latches are also numerous. In Plate 43 we give various designs for iron gates, fig. 3 being part of one adapted to iron fencing, in which the gate is at some part where an entrance is desired. Fig. 5 shows part of a farm field gate. Fig. 4, a wicket gate, made by Messrs. Morton & Co. of Liverpool, which is designed to admit of the full opening being given, so as to admit of sheep, wheelbarrows, etc., being passed through. This is effected by simply jointing the part a a at bb. The arrangement is shown in plan in fig. 7, where the turning part a, centring at b, is kept locked, which it may be by one or other of the arrangements shown in fig. 8, Plate 43 ; the gate cannot pass the points, but by unlocking a b the full opening is obtained, as at d. i7S DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. CHAPTEE III. OUTLYING STRUCTURES OF THE FARM SHELTER SHEDS IN PASTURE FIELDS, ETC. SHEDS OF TIMBER GENERALLY. In a preceding chapter in the First Division we have devoted a brief section to the explanation of the principles on which the necessity for shelter sheds in outlying fields is based and advocated by advanced farmers. These sheds are essential, not only in serving as protection against the cold and damp of winter, but from the excessive heats of summer, with their atten- dant plagues of tormenting and even dangerous insects. We now give a few remarks and illus- trations showing how such sheds can be eco- nomically and readily constructed. The cheapest kind of structure which can be obtained, and in the quickest way, will be that made up of rough (home) timber posts, or the bolls of young trees driven into the soil at intervals, more or less wide as the posts are strong or the reverse, with their branches interlaced between them horizon- tally, and the spaces thus formed filled up with gorse or whin or broom ; or failing these, the smaller loppings of beech or hornbeam, with their attached leaves, may be used. Fern leaves or bracken may also be and have been used ; and if so with some degree of skill and care, so that they interlace and bind in one with another, a shelter of no small efficiency in keeping out blasts of biting cold winds will be obtained, and at a very trifling cost. The final interlacing or finishing cover should, of course, be so arranged that the rain will be shed towards the ground ; ami it will serve to keep the shed, as a whole, freer from damp, if an open drain or cutting be made all round the shed. This will be most readily formed with the spade, making a triangu- lar section with two cuts taken at an angle. The cut should be made shallow at the beginning of the drain, and gradually deepen as it ap- proaches the point at which it is carried on to the ditch. Should there be a high bank or stout fence at the part of the field most exposed to the prevailing wind, this will form a good site for the shelter shed, which, being to the windward of the bank or fence, will be thus sheltered from the full force of the wind ; otherwise it might be injured, if not blown down, in heavy gales. To strengthen the somewhat frail structure, — for at the best it will be but a makeshift, — diagonal stays may be added, these being driven into the soil and secured there somewhat as hurdles are secured in folding sheep, and nailed or spiked firmly to the vertical posts. Makeshifts as such shelter sheds just described are, and rough-looking and ugly as they will be in appearance, they will be infinitely better than none,1 and their erection will yield to the farmer such mental satisfaction as will amply repay him for the trouble he may be at in providing his fields with them. Apart altogether from the pecuniary benefit he will obtain from their use, he cannot, if his mind be rightly balanced, but feel more comfortable from knowing that the animals entrusted to his care are by them made more so, — saved, in fact, from what in many cases 1 In some — we may say with all safety, in many — districts of England such rough-and-ready structures form the only buildings, if such they can be called, of the steading or home- stead ; and they are so placed, moreover, in relation to one another, that any of the regularity in working, which we have already shown to be essential to secure economy of time and labour, is utterly out of the question. Such steadings are a disgrace to the farming of any district in which they are met with, and may well give rise to heart-burning complaints and charges. Nor is Scotland — the land par excellence generally of substantial steadings — altogether free from such excrescences of structures as forming part of the regular steading, but fortunately they are few and far between. SHELTER SHEDS IN PASTURE FIELDS. 179 and seasons is absolute pain. Such higher con- siderations ought not to be left out of account in considering the subject now being discussed. Should the farmer have in his employment one of those men who are known as ' Jack of all trades,' — a title which savours more of ridicule than such men deserve, inasmuch as they are really valuable servants about a farm, where, as on ship-board, such varied work is required to be done, — he would find no great difficulty in constructing sheds of timber, but the ' filling-in ' of which is of straw, in place of gorse, furze, whins, or brackens, as just described. These timber and ' straw-walled ' sheds, if tins term can be used here, will be much neater in appearance, if executed with anything like a fair degree of care, than the rough gorse-filled ones, and they can be made very durable by coating the surfaces with one or other of the preservative materials we have elsewhere described. The following brief hints may serve as a guide to the ' Jack of all trades ' in erecting and finishing such straw- walled sheds. At the four corners of the intended shed, posts should be secured, these being well wedged up with wood wedges or stones, so as to keep them as 'plumb' as possible. Between these, other posts of smaller scantling or dimensions should be secured, and diagonal stays or braces placed between and nailed to the upright posts. The height of all should be equal, and over all hori- zontal pieces should be secured. The back posts should be higher than the front ones, so that when a series of poles are laid from one side to the other, these poles, forming the roof, will have a slope from one side to the other. These poles may be nailed to the horizontal timbers, or tied to them by tarred ropes. Between the posts at the sides and ends and the poles forming the roof, smaller poles may be wattled or intertwined, and straw at the same time filled up in such a way that it will go in and out between the whole. A ' natty ' labourer will do this sort of work in a quicker way than we take to describe it ; and if the covering is not thought thick enough to keep out the cold, straw may be put on and secured by pins and tarred rope in such a way as to make, if not a neat, at least a thoroughly snug shelter. The door should be made at the end or side opposite to that at which the ' cruellest ' wind blows generally. This is but a hint, but there are many other ways in which shelter sheds, ' rough but kindly,' may be extemporized, and which will serve not only for wintry but for summer weather, in which the poor animals, rendered half crazy by the attacks of the ' fly,' may shelter, for at such times shelter sheds are scarcely less useful than in cold wintry weather. The ' Jack of all trades ' should have also no difficulty in designing a system of portable shelter sheds, the parts of which could be set up and taken down with great facility. The posts should be made ' multiples ' of each other, so that any part could fit any required position which it had to assume, and so that there would be no looking out for this part and that part to ' fit in.' The vertical posts in very superior work might be fitted with the adaptation of Mitchell's ' screw- pile,' now so largely used in a variety of ways. The roof timbers and braces should also be made adjustable, and of the same dimensions throughout, so that any one could be used for any part. There is more to be made of this convertible system of construction than has yet been made in the farm, and its uses will suggest themselves to many in construction. The capability of taking such shelter sheds to pieces, and again erecting them in some other and not very distant part of the farm, with anything like moderate ease, and so as not to require the employment of skilled labour, offers advantages which will at once be obvious to our readers. The only part which we would be inclined in some cases to form of anything like a permanent character would be a foundation-course of brick, on which to lay the ' site ' to carry the uprights ; but even this may be dispensed with by tarring the ' sill ' and coating it thereafter with sand ; this, if well done, will preserve the wood for a long time against the effects of damp. The foundation 'sill' may still further be protected from wet by making an open drain all round the shed, sloping away from the side ; or if flat stones can be easily had in the neighbourhood of the site of the shed, a handy labourer will not be long in building up, dry-stone-wall fashion, a foundation course a few inches high, which will keep the timber sill well out of the wet. This, however, will apply more i So DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. strictly to sheds placed permanently than to those which are portable, the lower parts of which will be sufficiently protected from the effects of damp and wet by using one or other of the pre- servatives we have elsewhere described. The reader will find in some of the earlier plates of the work, designs for timber erections which will give the ' Jack of all trades ' some ideas useful in carrying out this suggestion. These will, of course, be ecpially applicable to the designing and erec- tion of such shelter sheds as, being in fields near the house and steading, or forming, indeed, some parts of the latter for the housing of one or other of the various classes of live stock, will require or ought to be of a more substantial character as regards construction, and more pretentious in point of architectural design, if such an ambitious term can be applied to them. The drawing in fig. 5, Plate 15, will give a suggestion or two as to the way in which a timber shed can be made to look fairly attractive, at least kept from being positively ugly in the bald and bare deformity generally met with in timber structures, even in cases where some neatness in elevation is clearly required and expected. In concluding this subject, we may say that, much as timber structures may be despised by some, they will afford an infinitely more comfortable and healthy means of sheltering live stock, or storing up produce, than the wretched tumbledown stone or brick structures, or those composite ones of wood and gorse or whins, too often met with, while in point of appearance they will be as superior. Timber properly looked after will last a long time ; and we may here — in addition to what we have in a preceding paragraph said as to preservative materials to be applied to them — call attention to the paints for damp preventing and ordinary wojk introduced by the Silicate Paint Company of Liverpool. Those paints, etc. are highly esteemed by competent authorities. One system of constructing timber sheds, etc., we would propose, — for there are several we could suggest if space permitted, — is illustrated in the fallowing figs, in Plates 64 and 65, and is a modi- fication of that largely used in America, where timber is used in ways and for purposes which our carpenters little think of. We may here note that as the system is applicable to the construction of timber houses of a more ambitious character than ' sheds,' and may be applied to structures in which there are two storeys, and in which the flooring is of timber, we have deemed it advisable to pre- pare the illustrations in such a way that they will serve for both classes of structures, indicating those parts which are not required for the more simple constructions at present under considera- tion. The first part of the structure is the sill, which is shown at a a in fig. 3, Plate 64, end view, as rectangular in section, and of 8 inches by 3 inches in dimensions. The method of junction at the corners is shown in figs. 1 and 2, the joints being of the kind known as the ' half lap.' In fig. 1, a a is the ' sill,' running, say, from west to east ; b b the half end of the joist, which runs at right angles to this, or north to south, showing in the other view in fig. 2 at b b, a a in this corresponding to a a in fig. 1. The sill is laid all round the site, and of such length and breadth as may have been determined upon, — see a pre- ceding section for best width of buildings for various classes of stock, — each corner being made as in figs. 1 and 2, and when the battens forming the sill require to be lengthened, the same kind of half-lap joint is used, as indicated by the dotted lines at d in fig. 3 ; the two being further secured, if deemed advisable, by a trenail or pin inserted in an auger hole made at d. At each corner, and also at door or entrance, the upright posts, as c c in figs. 1 and 2, are square in section, the size being 4 inches by 4 inches ; but the other posts between the corner ones, as the posts b b in figs. 3 and 4, are rect- angular in section, being 4 inches by 2 inches. (In the case of a structure in which a wood floor is required, the joists for supporting the timber flooring boards are laid as shown in figs. 1 to 4, the ' corner ' joists, as in figs. 1 and 2 at d d, being of larger scantling, 8 inches by 3-^, than the central joists, c c, figs. 3 and 4, Plate 64, the scantling of which is 7 inches by 2 inches.) The posts may be joined to the sill by the common mortice and tenon joint shown in fig. 2, e being the ' tenon ' made at the end of the post /, g the ' mortice ' in the face of the sill h h ; the post tenon may be simply let into the mortice, or be secured there by a trenail or wood pin as at d CONSTRUCTION OF TIMBER SHEDS. in fig. 3, or a wrought-iron screw bolt and nut may be used in place of the wood pin. The distance between the corner and smaller posts, as b b, figs. 3 and 4, from each other, may vary from 2 feet 6 inches up to 3 feet, these widths serving as the openings for windows, if these be required. The sills and posts being put in place, the nest operation is putting in the ' wall-plate ' which is to carry the rafters of the roof. This is illus- trated in fig. 5, Plate 64, in which a a is part of the vertical post, corresponding to b b, figs. 3 and 4 ; b b the wall-plate, simply laid on to the squared off end of posts, and secured by nails. The wall-plates join end to end by a plain ' butt ' joint, as at d, or they may be made with a half- lap joint, as at d in fig. 3. The rafter is at c c, and is laid on at 14 or 16 inch intervals, or even up to 1 8 inches, according to the lightness of the roof covering, being notched to the wall-plates as shown. In place of nailing the wall-plates to the upper ends of posts, the under side of the wall-plates, a a, fig. 6, Plate 64, may have notches, as b b, cut in their lower side to half their depth, and of breadth equal to the width or thickness of the vertical posts, the intervals between the notches being equal to the distances between the posts. These notches receive the ends of the posts, the rafters being secured as shown in fig. 5. In large structures on this system, such as used for the reception of heavy material, as a granary, the corner posts, in place of being in one length of a large scantling, as say 4 by 4, are made up of two pieces 4 inches by 2, which is the scantling of all the other pieces, arranged as shown in fig. 7, Plate 64, in winch a a is the sill, b b the flooring joist, c d the corner posts, each 4 by 2, but one, c, being placed at right angles to the other, d. In the case of two-storeyed structures, the vertical posts may be required to be lengthened. Fig. 1, Plate 65, shows one method of doing this, in which the lower piece, a, and upper, b, are joined by a simple butt joint as at c, outside flitches or covering pieces being nailed outside on each side as shown. Fig. 2 has the joint with a mortice and tenon as at «; the outside flitches, as b b, may be dispensed with when this joint is \ised. Fig. 3, Plate 65, shows the simplest method of securing and supporting the flooring joists, a a, of the second floor, these resting on cross pieces, b b, nailed to the vertical posts, c c. Fig. 4, Plate 65, shows another method, in which the cross pieces, a a (corre- sponding to b b, fig. 3), are notched into the ver- tical posts, b b; c c the flooring joists. An inspec- tion of the various diagrams illustrative of this system will show that one of its principal cha- racteristics is that the timbers are so disposed that the strains or pressure to which they are sub- jected act in the direction in which they are best calculated to resist pressure, namely, in that of the length of the fibres of the wood, not across them, as is too often the case in other methods of disposition of timber framing ; in other words, the strains are nearly all tensile, that is, having a tendency to pull the fibres apart, in which direction timber exercises its greatest strength ; indeed, it is a difficult matter to tear asunder timber along its length, while it is comparatively easy to break it across. This feature of the system enables timbers of much less scantling or dimensions to be used than under the ordinary system. It will also be observed, that although the ordinary joints of carpentry, as tenons (as in fig. 2, Plate 65), scarfing (the half lap, as in figs. 1 and 3, Plate 64), and notching (as in fig. 6, Plate 64, and fig. 4, Plate 65), may be used, they can all be dispensed with and simple nail- ing used in place of them, thus making the work so easy as to be within the compass of the most- ordinary labourer's capacity for work of this kind. It is to be observed, however, that the nails must never be driven at right angles to the pieces, as at e, fig. 2, Plate 64, but always diagonally, as at / in same figure ; this diagonal method of driving nails is the true secret of obtaining the strongest possible construction. We have every confidence in recommending this system to the notice of the practical reader ; it has been most extensively adopted in the United States, where structures sustaining heavy weights are formed with scant- lings of timber so small as to have called forth expressions of astonishment how such slender, spidery-looking erections could do the work they did so well. The carpenters of this country have much to learn from those of America. Rough, home-grown timber may be used with this system as well as the squared timber of foreign growth, a iS: DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. little nous, of course, being required to select and adjust the pieces. The structures in which it is used will not, of course, look so well as when squared timbers are employed, but for sheds for cattle this wdl not matter so much. Fig. 5, Hate 65, will illustrate how rough pieces may be used so as to give somewhat of an ornamental effect ; and fig. 6, same plate, illustrates the method of forming straw walls and roofs. The support for the straw of the walls is obtained by the vertical uprights or poles fixed firmly into the ground, as a a a, and placed near enough to each other to give ample support to the straw. This should be of as long lengths and as un- broken as possible, flail-thrashed being the best, so that it can be interwoven, so to say, between the posts, as b b b, shown on larger scale in separate drawing in fig. 6. The straw should run in the direction of top to bottom of the wall, and the interweaving should be done so that the one length will mix with or ' bond,' as a brick- layer would say, with the next contiguous. Still further to give a support to the straw, horizontal pieces of timber, as c c, such as small branches, may be placed between the upright vertical posts, b b, fig. 6. The straw forming the roof will be put on much in the same way, the best arrangement being shown in d e, where the upper layer or row, d, overlaps the lower, e. The straw should be secured at intervals to the roof-poles or branches by nails, as shown at/, the nails being broad headed, and provided with what may be called washers of strong listing or leather, so as to give the nail heads a secure hold and bearing surface on the straw. The roof-poles or rafters, as h h, are to be laid pretty close to one another, and secured to what may be called the 'wall-plates,'^^. The rough sketch diagram here given is only designed to be suggestive of methods of forming rough shelter sheds with such ordinary materials as may be easily obtained on any farm. A clever labourer will be able to ' knock up,' as the phrase goes, a very effective structure, which, although it may not look very ' tidy ' or shipshape accord- ing to the ideas of regular workmen, will be found eminently useful, and will serve to save many a valuable head of stock from the tortures of a severe winter, no less than from those of the insects of the summer. Chea.}) roofs, which can be made chiefly if not wholly of ' home ' materials, is an important de- partment of farm building economy. The follow- ing remarks on the subject we communicated to the pages of The Field, and give a place to here, although with one or two additions which we consider necessary to make them fitted for our present purpose : — ' Where rough boards can be had, a very good, and indeed a lasting, though cheap roof covering may be obtained by using them. Slabs will answer if of uniform breadth throughout their whole length, although the boards may vary in breadth where uniformity of look is not essential. This uniformity of breadth in each slab is neces- sary, as the junction lines or edges must run in straight lines from ridge to eave of roof. The joints will thus be so that they can be covered from end to end with the wood " rolls " or " slats." To save labour, if neatness is not important, these covering slats may be made flat on both sides, although the rounding of the upper side adds much to the appearance of the roof. To prevent the covering slats or rolls from being split by the " giving and taking " of the boards of the roof, the joints of which the slats or rolls cover, these must be nailed to the boards on one side only, — that is, either to the right or left of the joint between two contiguous boards, — never to both right and left. In other words, each slat should be nailed to one board only. Thus, if the line of nails of one " roll " be on its left-hand side, the line of nails of the " roll " next in order should be on the right side. Each separate roll thus covers its own board, and is quite independent of the next, and all thus have freedom to " give and take " as they shrink or expand, as the case may be. The neglect of this precaution, or, in other words, the nailing of the slats or rolls to both of the contiguous boards, gives rise to great dis- appointment and loss, for the joints are never tight. The expansion and contraction — and one or other is continually going on — of the boards either split the rolls or the edges of the boards. By nailing the rolls or slats to one board only, the other board is allowed free to move to and from that to which the roll is nailed, and the joint is always kept covered. Of course, the roll or slat should be made broad enough to cover CHEAP ROOFING. 183 the joint even at its greatest amount of expan- sion. This caution we here give applies also where rolls or slats are applied to cover the vertical joints of the sides of a boarded shed. 'A roof boarded and rolled may be made to last well for years, without slates, tiles, zinc, or asphalted felt, by simply covering its surface with a composition of ordinary coal tar, in two or three coats, as follows. The first coat is the coal tar simple, applied hot, and in fine weather, when the surface of the boards of the roof is dry. The tar should in the first instance be applied with a soft brush, and as evenly or uniformly over the surface as possible, beginning nearest the ridge, and working gradually down to the eaves. It is better, also, to cover the whole surface by narrow strips, each strip reaching from the ridge to the eaves ; beginning the strips, say, at the west, and working on gradually to the east end. By this means the whole will be more uniformly done, and in such a way that when once a strip is done there will be no necessity for walking over the surface till the whole is thoroughly dry. As above stated, the coal tar should first be laid uniformly on the surface being worked at with a soft brush, and then this part well rubbed in with a hard brush. There is a brush made on purpose for this, which is at right angles, or nearly so, to the handle. The tar should be rubbed well into the wood by means of this brush, working it backwards and forwards, and in angular directions as well. The object being to get the wood well saturated with the first coat, a little labour and pains should not be spared at this, the first part of the work to be done. The next coat is made up of coal tar as before, mixed with clean, dry, sharp, river sand, in the proportion of one part sand to three parts coal tar, the whole being well and thoroughly mixed before it is applied to the roof surface. The application is made as above described for the first coat, care being taken that the first coat be dry. If two coats satisfy the owner, the last coat when finished, and while the stuff is wet, should be sprinkled well over with the dry sand only, which may be pressed down with a flat board to secure its adherence to the tarred sur- face below. A very pretty effect is obtainable by using, in place of sand, crushed or pounded shells ; and if these can be obtained of different colours, by a little judgment displayed in the laying of these on the surface, either in horizontal or vertical strips, or in diamond or other shaped surfaces, a still more pleasing effect may be ob- tained. The more numerous the coats of coal tar and sand are, the more lasting will the roof be. ' The same application as above described may be given to roofs the boards of which are covered with asphalted or roofing felt. As to the laying of this on, little need here be said, the maker from whom it is obtained generally sending out explicit directions for putting the sheets of felt on the boarding with which the roof is covered as a foundation. One word of advice only would we give here: do not make the overlap — where one sheet overlays the other — too narrow, with the object of saving the felt ; this is false economy. Let the overlap be at least three inches in width, and use zinc, tinned or galvanized, not iron nails, or better still, copper nails. ' The objection to coal tar in its crude state is that, from the pyroligneous acid present in it, it has a tendency to destroy the material of which felt is composed ; but this objection does not obtain with such force in its use for covering wood boarding. When objected to, an excellent preservative for felted roofs is a mixture of asphaltum with the light oil or naphtha obtained in the distillation of crude coal tar. In place of the pure asphaltum, which is rather dear, the pitch obtained also from the distillation of crude coal tar may be used with almost equally good effect. The pitch is first melted, and the naphtha added while the pitch is warm, not too hot, as the naphtha will be apt to take fire ; when well mixed and allowed to grow cold, the substance may be applied to any surface like paint. It is also valuable for preserving zinc or galvanized iron roofs, rain-water pipes, or other metal surfaces exposed to the atmosphere. A composition, with this mixture as a base, has been recently intro- duced as a substitute for felt, broken or crushed asbestos being mixed with the pitch and naphtha ; this is spread on the material with which the roof boarding is covered as a foundation, canvas or paper being used for this purpose. 'The cement known as "Portland" is now being used, as we have repeatedly exemplified in these 1S4 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. pages, in a variety of ways in construction, and with marked and most economical advantages ; perhaps its most recent application is to the formation of cheap and durable roofing in con- junction with coal tar, and the strong brown paper, such as is used for laying under carpets. The paper is laid upon the boarding of the roof, the sheets overlapping not less than three, but better if four inches ; the sheets are then tacked down, and the surface covered with the composition, which is made as follows: — Take 180 lbs. of Portland cement (this should weigh, to be good, 100 lbs. to 110 lbs. to the bushel), and mix it well in a caldron heated by a furnace. Care must be taken to heat the tar gently at first, so as to prevent it boiling over; and the cement must be mixed gradually in small quantities, so as to ensure its thorough mixture with the tar. The mixture, when completed, is to be spread over the surface of the paper with a brush, and in as hot a condition as possible. The surface is then to be rolled over with a light roller, to make it as even as possible, and when partially dried is then to be covered with another layer of brown paper, care being taken to make the second layer to " break joint " with the first-laid layer ; that is, the centre of the sheets of the second layer should be placed over the joinings of the first layer. A little practice will enable this to be done with ease. In some cases a layer of sand is laid all over the surface of the boards before the first layer of paper is laid down. The second layer, ■which will not require tacking down, as it will adhere to the cemented surface of the first layer, is next to be coated with the hot cement, as before, and a third — and if a first-class roof covering is desired, a fourth — layer of brown paper laid down, each layer breaking joint with the one preceding. The last layer is covered like the others with the hot cement, and strewed thickly and uniformly over the whole surface with clean sharp sand and ashes. The gutter is attached to a gutter board, which should project six inches at least beyond the eaves, this being fixed or nailed down after the first layer of paper has been laid down. The second layer will, of course, be made to extend over the whole surface of the gutter board. The flashings at chimney and copings, if any, should be placed so as to pro- ject at least six inches above the roof covering ; and they should be turned at their upper edges into the joints of the brickwork, if this be the material, or secured to the timber if that be used, and well cemented in the same. To prevent the feet of the workmen injuring the surface of the paper, they should work on thin boarding placed over the roof; and to prevent all returns upon the surface laid down, the layers should be begun and continued at the ridge, and worked down to the eaves. ' As a substitute for the asphaltic felt roof covering so largely used, a new species of roof covering has been recently introduced, in which pasteboard is the base in combination with asphalt. "We have used this, and found it to form an excellent and very durable roofing. It becomes in a very short time as hard as slate, and is said to be fire-proof, as indeed most crucial tests which have been applied to it showed it almost, if not quite, to be. We are glad to say that none of the buildings to which we have applied it have afforded us the opportunity to put it to this test. In all other respects our experience enables us to speak highly of it.' Few have advocated the rise of timber for the erection of the main buildings of the homestead or steading, and in view of the readiness with which this material takes fire, and the quickness with which, when it does so, it is totally con- sumed, prudence would scarcely justify its adoption. Still in some districts, where home timber is plentiful, and sawing machinery driven either by water or horse power is available, there may be cases in which additions, at least, might be made to the steading with it. These might be considered as but temporary until erections of a more durable and safer kind could be constructed, or maintained only till some special purpose or urgency which called them into existence was met. In a paper read before the Farmers' Club, London, by Mr. Bullock Webster, ' On the best and most economical plan of Farm Buildings that can be recommended to Landed Proprietors ' (November 1854), he advocates the use, indeed, of such materials as the district best and cheapest affords, — bricks in one place, stone in another, clay clumps in a third, timber in a fourth, and so on. As regards the general principle of MR. WEBSTER'S RECOMMENDATIONS. 1S5 arrangement, Mr. Webster advocates the use of a series of sheds, arranged in the way best suited to the peculiarities of the district and the kind of stock to be kept, but prefers the square or oblong (rectangular) as being the ' most advantageous,' and admitting the convenient arrangement of the sheds for working. He is a strong advocate for wide buildings, such as we have insisted on, the width of his sheds being, in fact, the same as that we recommend, namely, 1 8 feet ; the height from floor to the level of wall-plate for roof being 8 feet. Where timber trees are abundant on the property, Mr. Webster suggests that in cutting them down, and afterwards in cutting and sawing them up into timber, directions should be given that any- thing which could cut up into rafters, wall-plates, etc., adapted for the sheds, if 18 feet wide in the clear, should be laid aside and stored up, so as to be ready for the use of any of the farmers on the property who were building or extending their farm steadings. The reader will find in another part of this work remarks and illustrations on the use of timber as a material for the construc- tion of cottages. iS6 DT RECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LA AWED PROPERTY. CHAPTER IV. LAND DEAIXAGE ITS IMPORTANCE TO LANDED riiOrEETY. Land, Drains and Drainage — what they are, and what it is. — It is not our intention, as it is not indeed within the province of our work, to give anything like an exhaustive statement of drainage in its practical details ; our object will he fully served if we name a few of its leading principles, and this chiefly with a view to show the importance of carrying it out thoroughly, wherever it is desired to have lands capable of yielding their fullest produce. In addition to this statement, we shall also give brief paragraphs descriptive of drainage as applicable to certain lands and districts. The importance, to all in- terested in landed property, of a correct, even if it be but a limited amount of knowledge of land drains and drainage, can scarcely be overestimated, for to the system of modern drainage of farm land may be attributed much of the increased produce which it now bears, as compared with that formerly obtained from it. But although drainage has done so much for farmers, it is cer- tainly surprising how many even of them have very inaccurate views as to what its principles are ; nay, more, even as to the way in which drains act, and the several ways in which they operate beneficially on the land. We say the several ways, for it is not known to all that drains do not act in one way only, as so many suppose. What these ways are we shall see as we go along. The primary, and what may be called the essential work which drains have to perform, is to get rid of the water which lodges in the soil. This, in our moist climate, with such heavy rainfalls, is generally in excess of the require- ments of the plants ; and when so, and especially when lodging in or about the part in which their roots find a space, in a stagnant condition, materially injures them by arresting their growth and preventing their full development. This in- jurious action of water in excess in a soil operates in several ways ; amongst others, it tends to lower the temperature of the soil, and by increasing the sources of evaporation, lowers that also of the atmosphere immediately in contact with the sur- face or floating over it. This is known and under- stood even popularly, as a damp soil is always set down as being in or forming a cold region. Our ancestors had a dim perception of the evils arising from an excess of moisture in the soil designed to bear the few crops they cultivated, and in order to get rid of what they believed to be the only source of this excess, namely, the rain water which percolated from the surface to the soil below, they formed channels, known as furrows, at varying intervals of width, and com- municating with ditches made alongside the hedges. These channels or furrows led the sur- face water into the ditches ; and when to a certain extent the land was kept or made to be surface dry, they fancied that all that could be done was done. In districts in which the rainfall was less than that in others, as less surface water had to be carried off, the furrows or channels were made less frequently, or at wider intervals along or across the surface of the fields. Hence the dif- ference in the width of land between the furrows in different districts, a circumstance which has puzzled not a few to account for, and is popularly set down as one of the many examples of the careless way in which farmers did their work, — a puzzle which, in another way, has descended to our day, and which has increased rather than lessened the intricacy of its solution ; for it so happens that, as a rule, the modern drains have followed the lines of the ancient furrows, so that this diversity in drainage practice is also set WHAT DRAINAGE IS. 187 down to the stupidity or carelessness of farmers, whereas, as we may see, there are good reasons for the practice. In process of time, as men began to see that the mere getting rid of the excess of rainfall did not get rid of the damp- ness, etc. of the soil, it occurred to some that the evil was connected with something more than with the surface only of the soil. It is far beyond the limits of our brief chapter to enter into the history of draining, inte- resting though it be ; we must pass its details wholly over, stating only this much, that one plan followed another, each more or less success- ful, so far as one point only was concerned ; but all were wide of the true mark, till at last the blot, so to say, was hit, and the true system of drainage discovered, and at once placed on the list of things accomplished, by and through the scientific knowledge, practical skill, and indomi- table energy of Smith of Deanston, to whom agriculture owes many other inventions and dis- coveries, and who gave to his system the name of ' thorough drainage.' At once grasping the dif- ficulty, he saw that the key to its solution lay in the fact that the evil was under the surface, and that under the surface it must be met. In place, therefore, of placing his trust upon the furrows of his predecessors, — although he did not discard them, as they served more than one useful purpose, — he made his channels under ground. These were laid or dug at some depth from the surface of the soil, and taking the arrangement of main drains and subsidiary ones, the underground was intersected by a series of channels, all converging and leading their contained water to the main outlet or outfall drain or ditch. The position of the drains or channels was regulated according to the peculiarities of the land to be drained, and their slope or inclination as well. When first introduced, the system laboured under great dis- advantages, chiefly arising from the defective nature of the materials used to form or fill in the drains with, and which at that time were alone those which the agricultural engineer had at his command; and it was not till the earthen- ware or burned clay drain-tube was invented that it could be said to be carried out with all the efficiency which was essential to its thorough success. The reader not initiated into the mysteries of the farming art is, of course, to understand that the drain-tubes are placed at the bottom of channels or trenches cut into or out of the land to receive them ; that, made in short lengths, they are placed end to end, so as to form a continuous line for the whole length of the trench , and that when properly laid, the soil taken out to form the trench is filled in so as to cover them completely up. The interstices throughout their length, at each point where two contiguous tubes are placed end to end together, allow of the water percolating through the soil from the surface downwards, laterally from the sides, or upwards from below, to enter the interior of the drain-tubes, and these being placed or laid upon an incline or slope, carry the water on towards and deliver it to cross intersecting and larger diametered drain-tubes, and these again to the main outfall, which may be a ditch, or rivulet, or stream, or river. Such, then, is a very brief and simple statement, free from all technical details, but which, nevertheless, will convey, we hope, a fair idea of what drains are, and how they are placed or laid in the fields which they are designed to drain. How they do drain it, or in other words what drainage is, the statement also shows, but not so fully and ex- plicitly as we wish it to be, and to which fuller description we would beg the reader's close attention. Popularly, and indeed, we may say, technically, on the part of those closely connected with farming, it is supposed that what drains do is chiefly, if not by some thought wholly, to catch the water as it descends through the soil from the surface, or such portions as may pass through the sides of the trench or the soil at the sides of the drain-tubes. Now although this is the case to a large extent, it is not always that the drain-tubes catch or arrest descending water ; in many soils the probability is — for we can only conjecture in such hidden operations, although the conjecture is pretty well founded upon facts — that by far the largest proportion passes the drain-tubes wholly by as the particles (of water) drain through the soil, and this because they find an easier passage vertically, than by deflect- ing and going onwards towards the drain-tube, this being more decidedly the case farthest from these. How, then, can drain-tubes in such cir- iSS DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. cumstanees drain the land ? A little farther back we italicised a few words, which were these : ' or upwards from below ; ' and this is what was meant by them. In all lands there is a level, the depth of which varies according to circumstances, at which level or point the water is arrested, the nature of the soil below or at this being such as to prevent any water passing through it to a lower leveL Now suppose that so much of the surface water, not arrested or caught up by the drain-tubes, keeps passing down the soil till it reaches this level, and that it cannot, from the nature of the surface, pass away to any side ; the consequence is, that the water must continue to accumulate below in what we may call the lowest receptacle, and as it accumulates, its level will continue to rise upward in the soil, until at last it gets to the level or a little above that of the drain-tubes ; and the next result is, that it will pass through the interstices of the tubes, and into their interior, and as these are on the slope, it will be at once led off. In this way, there- fore, drains act as conveyances of water coming up from the soil below. This process, not known to a few connected with farming, may be popularly illustrated by supposing a sponge to be placed at the top of a glass vessel, descending into it say an inch in depth. Water poured into this vessel on the top of the sponge will pass through this, and, filtering slowly, will drop from its under side to the bottom of the vessel ; continuing to pour water upon the sponge, the space below it will ultimately get full, and coming up to the level of the sponge, will again be re-absorbed by it and be again filled, but this time from below. Here the sponge is the soil in which the drains are placed, the space imder it the lower stratum of soil, the bottom of the vessel the impermeable sod through which the water cannot pass to a lower level. The distances between the drains, and the depths from the surface at which the drains should be laid, are points about which a vast deal has been written with reference to the fixing of certain rules applicable, or said to be so, to all circumstances. This uniformity of practice, how- ever, it is needless to say, can never be hoped for, in view of the wide variety of soils, their position, locality, aud mechanical or natural character- istics, such as light, heavy, or intermediate. The points of practice can only be decided after a close investigation of the locality, and a mature consideration of all the points connected with the land proposed to be drained. As regards the depth, one point has been made very clear by the experience of the last generation or so, namely, that this has been far too shallow. That the full advantages of draining cannot be obtained by the shallow system, will be obvious by studying the considerations and principles we have pointed out in our preceding remarks. By drains placed at but a few inches' depth, — for some are but little better than this, — the zone or stratum of soil brought within their influence is very limited; and that many advantages are thus lost, which would be gained by a deeper zone, will be seen from the following consideration, which must be added to the others we have already given as making up the important list of advantages which drainage affords. For it is not only the withdrawal of the water from the soil, preventing the formation of stagnant deposits therein, and raising its general tempera- ture, which exhausts the list of drainage benefits ; there is another and an important one which it serves, namely, the opening up of passages or ducts, as they may be called, down and along which air is led and passes through and amongst the par- ticles of soil ; for as water contains air, as the water percolates downwards through the soil it delivers so much air to it, as well acting thus as in another and a mechanical way, so to call it, that is, by frictional dragging or carrying down what may be called columns of air. Again, as the drain- tubes, which intersect each other in the form of main drains, cross drains, and subsidiary drains, cut up the ground into a series of parallelo- gramic or rhomboidal spaces, and as these have a great number of open joints, and as all ulti- mately terminate at points, namely at the out- fall, open to the air, there is thus formed in the interior spaces of the soil, at a depth propor- tionate to the depth at which the drains are laid, a series of air tubes, along which air is continually passing, and through the joints of which it is supposed to pass into the soil. Nor are the aerial operations thus continually going on, and which are ever working to ameliorate the condition of the soil, and to afford nourishment and a stimulus ADVANTAGES OF DEEP DRAINAGE. 189 to the roots of the plants which grow in it, con- fined only to the media we have explained ; the influence of evaporation of the water and moisture must not he overlooked, as being powerful more or less in this way. A continual circulation is thus going on within the soil of those very influences which we have seen to be beneficial ; and these are rendered all the more efficient if they are carried out in conjunction with deep cultivation, on which in another part of this work we have offered a few remarks. It will now be evident that deep drainage is much better adapted to secure all the benefits we have thus described than the shallow system so often carried out. But while many are ready to admit that deep drains will act efficiently in light soils, as these are open and porous in texture, in heavy soils of precisely the opposite character they will not admit that they can operate at all. We cannot afford the space necessary to explain fully those principles upon which depend the action of all drains, and which influence that of deep as well as of shallow ones. But a few words will perhaps suffice to make the chief points so clear, that the reader not quite up to the subject will lie able to think it out further and fully for him- self, and be satisfied with this, that deep drains will and must act so long as the natural laws exist. It is, perhaps, too familiar a way to put the matter to quote the saying, that what can get in can get out, still it really conveys the gist of the point. For heavy lands in many instances are known to be wet, and the source of wet to arise chiefly from surface or rain water going downwards, no under water existing save that which accumulates belowT at the level of im- permeability, as we have already explained. In all cases where objects are hidden from inspection, or are occult, it is dangerous to dogmatize in either way, — as much so, to say that deep drains will take away or drain the water from land, as to say that they will not. In such cases, what is left us to do is to examine what would seem to be the result of the action of certain laws which we know do operate in other cases. Thus we know — and this is not disputed by any one, even by those who are the most determined opponents to deep drainage — that drains placed or laid at depths even of thirty inches, but to give the utmost limit of allowance, say twenty-four inches, do drain, and drain land effectually. Now, in the absence of facts on either side, it appears somewhat hazardous to say dictatorially that up to those above-named depths drains act, beyond they do not. Who can draw the line which separates the efficient from the non-efficient drains ? If thirty- inch drains ' draw,' to use the technical or popular term to indicate that water passes down to them, why should a thirty-one- inch one refuse to do so, why a thirty-three, or even a four-feet drain ? We know of no law which says that drains will only draw up to thirty inches, but will not draw at forty-eight. But fortunately for the interests of practical science, we have a pretty wide array of facts to prove that drains even at fifty-four inches deep ' draw,' and ' draw ' efficiently. Let any one who does not believe in deep drainage cut in the most adhesive and densest of clays a drain trench to the above depth, and he will be soon convinced of the truth of what we have stated. Of course, if it is essential that drains at shallow depth shoidd be well laid, it is still more essential that where laid deep every care ought to be taken to have the best of work done in connection with them. From what we have said, the reader will have perceived that deep and thorough drainage does not yield to the soil one advantage only, but several, and all of the highest value from a cultural point of view. Further, it will have struck the observant student that these advan- tages would be rendered still more valuable by combining wTith deep drainage deep culture of the soil ; just as deep drainage would increase the value of deep culture, the two acting and reacting on each other, both combining to keep up the continuity of a circle of operations and processes of the highest value to the soil and its products. Indeed, one may be said to be the comple- ment of th" other, and the system of cultivation is not complete unless both be carried out ; the two complete the circle of operations which should be carried on in the soil. The depth to which drains should be made, and the distances between the drains, depend upon circumstances ; it is in vain to look for rules or a System applicable to all soils, localities, and circumstances. These 190 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY require all to be carefully considered ; and the fuller and more accurate the knowledge which the farmer possesses on all points connected with the formation and character of the strata, the more likely will he be to be successful in draining. It is not a hap-hazard operation, but one which demands the exercise of a wide, varied, and accurate knowledge of science, and true is it that a thoroughbred farmer is a thoroughbred man of science. But any kind of drainage, so that it be ' thorough,' is better than none ; but now that so many good engineers and surveyors thoroughly well acquainted with drainage under all circumstances can be had, there is little excuse for any landowner or farmer not having his lands properly drained. Importance of Drainage Works being properly executed. — When circumstances of soil and locality are so favourable as to make drainage an easy matter, or where the farmer knows its principles and practice so well that he designs and executes his own drainage, we need scarcely remind such a one, what so many, how- ever, forget or overlook, that an important element of success in drainage work is the personal over- looking of all its details, more especially the levels and the laying down of the drains. We may talk as we like of the ' solid worth, honesty, and integrity of the British workman,' with whom, somehow or other, now-a-days, all the virtues alone seem to remain. But we know a trifle of their habits, and so also, we take it, do not a few of our readers. And one unfortunate habit (to put the matter mildly) is, that whenever any work is to be done which can be or is from its nature covered up or hidden when completed, or said to be completed, some portion at least of that work (again to put it mildly) will be sure to be ' scamped,' — that is, not done properly, or perhaps not done at all ! Drainage is of this class of work, obviously, and it will be but prudent on the part of the farmer to see that the work is really done, which means done well. If not done at the beginning, it will not be done at all ; and ' Oh, never mind, it will never be seen,' if not a phrase often heard from workmen's lips, is a thought sometimes present in workmen's minds. Tlie Forms of Druins, or the way in which they are filled up, varies according to circumstances. In Plate 35, figs. 1 to 6, we illustrate those now generally employed ; figs. 1 to 3 being those in which stones are used to fill up the drains, figs. 4 to 6 those in which drain-tubes are used. The horse-shoe drain and flat tile, at one time so much employed, are now almost entirely discarded. In reclaiming land where stones are numerous, by far the cheapest mode of filling drains is to employ them, as in figs. 1 to 3. The method will, of course, vary according to the size and shape. In low lands where clay fields (see succeeding chapter on ' Tile-kilns ') are present, and extensive tracts of land are to be drained, by far the best form of drain is that in whioh the circular drain-tubes are employed. These are sometimes used along with ' collars,' in which are short lengths of circular tubes, as a a, fig. 11, Plate 3 5 ; these embrace the drain-tube, b b, so as to cover the joint, c, and prevent any roots from entering the tube by means of the joints, or soil, etc., apt to silt and stop them up. The collars are, of course, loose, and wide enough to easily admit the water. They add considerably to the expense, and some do not deem their presumed advantages to be repaid by their use, holding that the better way is to have the tubes properly laid, so that the tubes will not separate and get out of place or true level. On this point we have already offered a remark. Attention must be paid to the condition of the ' outfalls,' and the ' valves ' or ' traps ' fitted up there. Generally the ' outfall ' drain is led to the nearest open ditch ; but this is often through neglect allowed to get so silted or filled up with mud, that this gets up to or beyond the level at which the outlet flat, valve, or trap is placed. In this case it is obvious that the latter becomes quite inoperative. The ditch should be kept quite free from mud (see Chap. I. Division I., on ' Eoads '), so that the trap will be free to act. The simplest and perhaps the best form of outfall flap is the earthenware one shown in section in fig. 8, Plate 51, and in front elevation, fig. 9. This may be made more effective in preventing rats from entering the drain by having a small frame with grating attached in front. In laying drains, it is essential that the level of the bottom, or the ' floors,' shall not only be THE COST OF DRAINAGE. 191 perfectly uniform throughout, that is, not leaving any indentations here, protuberances there, but that the line of descent or inclination to the out- fall shall be perfectly straight. To ensure this, what are called ' levelling rods ' are used. These are illustrated in fig. 10, Plate 51, and consist of central staffs, three of which are used. Two of those staffs are made two feet long, and the third as much more than two feet as the drain is deep ; that is, if the drain is 3 feet 6 inches deep, it must be 5 feet 6 inches long. The staffs are strips of wood, with cross-pieces 9 inches long at the end that is to stand uppermost. The two shorter staffs are planted upright, one on the ground on a level with the field at the head of the drain, and the other at the lower end ; and a man stands at one of them looking over its top, with his eye in a line with the other. A second man then takes the longest staff and holds it upright in the drain, just touching the bottom, and walks along from one end of the drain to the other, keeping it in the upright position. If, while it is moved along, its top always appears in a line with the tops of the other two, as seen by the person looking along the three, the fall of the drain is uniform ; but if it rises above this line at any one place, the bottom is too high there, and requires to be reduced ; if it falls below the line, the bottom is too low, and must be raised. In this way the fall may be rendered perfectly uniform. The Cost of Drainage. — A great deal could be written under this head, as it is clear that circumstances of locality and soil, supplies of materials, rate of labour, etc., exercise an impor- tant influence upon the point ; at best, one can but give what may be looked upon as an average illustration, and perhaps a practical one is met with in that given by the well-known authority, Mr. Spooner, in a Parliamentary paper issued on the subject of drainage. Under the old system of construction, with drains stone- filled or provided with horse-shoe tiles and soles, the general rule held was that the cost was equally divided between the labour and the materials ; but under the improved system of tubular drains, there is found to be a considerable balance of the materials as against the labour. It is right, how- ever, to note, what will be evident enough, that the cost of drains is materially increased as their depth increases, — a general rule being, that their cost is doubled for every foot of increased depth, and the same proportion for every part of each increase. The cost of labour, however, can be determined with sufficient accuracy by comparing it with the standard of the value of moving a solid yard of earth of any one description of hardness. On this basis Mr. Spooner has drawn up the following table, applicable to the two classes of drains, stone-filled and tubular, — the depths in each being assumed as 3 feet in figs. 3 and 5, Plate 35 ; 3^ feet, figs. 1 and 4; and 4 feet, figs. 2 and 6, Plate 35 ; the width at top being 18 inches in fig. 2, 16 inches in fig. 1, and 12 inches in fig. 3, the width at bottom in all three being uniform, namely 8 inches. The widths of figs. 4, 5, and 6 are the same as in figs. 1, 2, and 3, but the width at bottom, h, is 3 inches. The following is the table referred to :— Stone Drains. Average Running Sandy Soils, Light Stiffer Clavs and Hard Clay and Close Width Of Yards of Loams, and Light Oravel, requiring Soils, requiring Pick- Back Drain to Clays, easy diggings, some Pickwork, work before they can Drain. the Cubic at 4d. per Cubic at 6d. per Cubic be done, at £d. per Yard. Yard. Yard. Cubic 1 ard. Per Yard. Per Rod. Per Yard. Per Rod. Per Yard. Per Rod. d. d. d. s. d. d. s. d. u 2 + 2 11 3 1 44 4 1 10 12 2J- n 9 2? 1 H H 1 5i 10 3J + n 6i If 0 8J 24 1 0 '. Pipe Tile Drains. d. d. 1 d. s. d. d. s. d. 10J 2A + 11 9 2| 1 li 34 1 54 H 3T I A 7 l'J 0 101 -i''i 1 2 71 5 A Of i\ 1£ 0 64 li 0 8^ 192 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. The + and — attached to the figures in the second column imply a small fraction greater or less than the number stated. In the price per rod, the fractional parts are reduced to the farthings nearest to them. From the table it may be seen by inspection that the cost of cutting a stone drain of 3^ feet deep may be 9d., Is. l^d., or Is. 5^d. per rod, according to the hardness or otherwise of the soiL For pipes the cost would, under the same circumstances, be either 7d., 10^d., or Is. 2d. per rod. So also a pipe drain in one description of soil may cost in labour but 4^d. per rod, in another description 8^d. per rod, and the same if for stone Is. Did. per rod. Having ascertained the number of rods and tiles required per acre, the drains at any given distance, the cost may be easily ascertained as follows : — Suppose the soil to be of Class No. 2, the working of which is worth 6d. per cubic yard, the drains 24 feet apart, 3 feet deep, pipes 1^ inch in the bore, — 110 rods of drains, at 6^d. per rod, £2 9 7 1815 pipes 12 inches long, l|-inch bore, at 21s. per 1000, . . 1 18 21 Cost per acre, £4 7 H Example 2d. — Soil, Class No. 3, worth 8d. per cubic yard, laid with horse-shoe tiles in flat soles, — 110 rods of drains, at 8^d. per rod, £3 15 7^- 1815 2 by 21 inch tiles, 12 inches long, at 25s. per 1000, . .£254 1815 flat soles, at 16 s. 6 d. per 1000, . 1 9 111 3 15 31 Cost per acre, £7 10 11 In both these cases Mr. Spooner has not in- cluded extra estimates for leaders, and for the larger-sized tiles required for them, inasmuch as, when the tract of land to be drained is of large extent, he finds that the estimated quantity of the other pipes exceeds the actual quantity used, and that the extra expenditure for leaders is thus generally covered. Ilill-oide Drainage. — In connection with the subject of drainage, there is a wide field of improvement in that of the hill-side pasture laud of many districts. A vast proportion of this, if it cannot be said to be lying in a state largely unproductive, may certainly be said to be capable of such improvement as to be productive of a larger yield of sheep food, and consequently greater rent to the landlord. The popular notion connected with sheep pasture laud in hilly dis- tricts is generally an erroneous one, this being confined to that which supposes them to be com- posed of vast tracts of rough and innutritions grasses, which owe this condition to the want rather than the superabundance of moisture. 13ut the truth is, that in mountainous districts all kinds and classes of soils and subsoils are met with ; so also, as a natural result, their condition as regards moisture. And just as varieties of soils are encountered, so also are all varieties of surfaces, from the steep declivity, to wide tracts of flat table-land. Drainage, if properly carried out, can effect great improvements in soils of such districts, in the same manner, although not, of course, in the same degree, as those which lie in more favoured ones ; still it is beyond a doubt that, when properly carried out, this will be the case. In districts where it has been so, there has been an almost immediate increase in the value of the herbage, and an increase, but that in a much higher ratio, of the rental of the land which produces it. Nor should it be over- looked that the water, which is the result of the drainage of such districts, may be utilized for the irrigation of the lands which lie at the foot of the mountain ranges. These are frequently flat in surface and boggy or mossy in character, abounding of necessity in water, which renders the soil wholly unproductive ; and strange as it may appear, these can be best changed from this character by means of irrigation, the supply of water for which is derived by the drainage of the adjacent hill pastures. It will thus be seen that, even under circumstances which seem to be the most antagonistic to all improvement, there is a wonderful connection between the two classes of soil or land, so apparently unlike and antagonistic to each other; that the excess of a substance which prevents by its presence the improvement of the one, is the very thing which is required to HILL-SIDE DRAINAGE. 193 aid in that of the other. We have here, therefore, another of the many instances which might be adduced of the fine adaptation of natural circum- stances, which look at first sight so opposed, but which are in reality remarkably well adapted to each other, — an instance of how the evil of one may be found to be the benefit of another district. From what we have said as to the character and variety of the soils and surfaces of hilly districts, it will be seen that their drain- age is one which involves no small amount of consideration as to the best, the quickest, and the most economical way in which it can be effected. Nor is this influenced by the above circumstances alone, but those of climate and locality, and even of the kind of stock to be kept, come into play, and modify of necessity to a large extent the systems which will have to be adopted, that which is suited for one being obviously unsuited for another. No small amount of ability in taking note of the circumstances which we have named is required in order to carry out a system which will give the best results ; modifying this just as these indicate or do not indicate what ought to be the course of procedure to be adopted. Thus it might appear to be necessary to get rid, in the most effectual manner possible, of the water which is apparently the cause of the low nutritive condition of the grasses, whde in reality it might be necessary to retain on the land a certain degree of moisture ; indeed, over large surfaces of hill pasture, even in cases where there is an apparent and decided excess of mois- ture, this precaution above alluded to is essen- tial, as tending to maintain a certain temperature during the colder months of the year, as well as to keep up the supply which is necessary for the nourishment of the herbage. It is just, indeed, in that fine and close adaptation of the peculi- arities of the system adopted to those of the soil, locality, and climate, which characterises the work done in this class of the improvement of landed property, from those plans which are carried out with a preconceived notion that one system is applicable to all circumstances. Hill drainage, as a rule, differs from that of arable lands in more favoured localities, in that it is of a much simpler character. The drains being generally open ones, their dimensions would seem to be dictated, as indeed, strictly speaking, they should be, by the circumstances of the particular locality to be drained. But here, as in other cases, the plan adopted must be varied in details to meet certain conditions ; thus, if on certain soils the drains are made too shallow, the grasses which they bear are apt to grow in such a way as rapidly to fill them up with a close undergrowth which renders them inoperative ; while, on the other hand, if made of too great a depth, they are apt to act as traps, so to say, being in a measure but minor ditches, into which, being unprotected, the young lambs are apt to fall and be lost or injured. It is difficult, therefore, to give precisely any definite rule by which to decide the size of hill-side drains. But in view of the danger above alluded to, they should be made with sides of considerable inclination, as a lamb has obviously a better chance of getting out of a drain so formed than of one with sides more perpendicular. A depth, therefore, of 12, and certainly in no cases exceeding 18, but better, say, 16 inches, will, in the generality of circum- stances, be found to be a fair average. The width at bottom should be comparatively narrow, for the reason above stated, if for no other (that of between 5 to 7 inches being also a fair average, a width at top being from 20 to 24). The direction of the drains, or that in which they run in relation to the surface of the land, varies or should vary according to circumstances. A very general plan is to make them run oblique to the surface, running into main drains which ultimately deliver the water to the outfall ; this in many districts being afforded by the streams or small rivulets which always abound more or less in hilly lands. The distance between the drains will depend upon the quality of the land and the herbage ; the higher the land is, the better it will afford to have the drains cut at more frequent intervals. Poor lands, or those of the lowest quality, although in one sense requiring to have the best drainage put upon them, obviously do not permit of the expense of putting drains at too close intervals. A great deal of the skill of the hill district drainer will be shown not merely in what may be called a knowledge of ordinary work in details, but in deciding whether or not few or many drains will be required; one drain, well placed, frequently 2 is 194 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY doing more good than several not so judiciously disposed. The skill of the drainer will further be tested by the presence of parts of land of unequal character, and of mossy or boggy parts. One point is very necessary to be attended to, and that is not to overdrain hill pastures ; for it should be recollected, although the fact is often overlooked, that their very formation is such as demands and requires a certain degree of moisture, and this moisture varying in degree, according to the soil, the herbage, and also the kind of stock which is designed to be maintained on them. As we began what has been of necessity but a brief outline of the leading points of the subject, so we conclude, by directing atten- tion to the fact that a considerable increase in the rental of such parts of landed property may be looked for from drainage judiciously carried out, and this also frequently in conjunction with irrigation improvements, which will largely increase the breadtli of land producing richer herb- age, and therefore capable of carrying increased numbers of sheep, and, not least, maintaining these in a higher state of health, and bringing them into a finer condition for market, than is possible under circumstances where the land is allowed to remain in an unimproved condition. Drainage of Hilly Moorlands. — As in the fences of those lands, so in the drainage of them, it is found that what may be called the more scientifically arranged drains of low-lying and valuable lands have to be modified to meet the peculiar circumstances of these elevated and rougher districts. Thus, in many parts the drainage water, the result of the sudden and heavy showers, — if such a gentle term can be appbed to the heavy downfalls, waterspout almost in their action, — collects so suddenly and in such bulk, that the 'refined' system of the tubular drain of more favoured districts would not act promptly and efficiently enough to carry off the water. The open or surface drain, generally used in draining hilly sheep pasture land, may sometimes be used with good effect in very steep parts ; but for the permanent drains, the stone-filled drains, of which a modification is used by Mr. Smith (see in chapter on * Reclamation of Waste Lands,' par. ' Hilly Moorlands '), will be found by far the most effectual, Generally the inclination or slope of the surface of the land in hilly districts is the point chiefly attended to in the drainage of such districts ; but Mr. Smith tells, as the -result of his experience, that this is of ' less importance than the dip of the strata.' We have not space to give even a resume' of his remarks on the general condition of the strata of hilly moorland ; suffice it to say that springs are formed in them, which either ooze out at certain points, or, what is worse, ' extend at a uniform level for a long distance along a hill-side, poisoning all the ground below this.' The object of the drainage of such districts is, then, not to catch the surface water, but that which flows from the spring-head. To do this a deep ' open ' drain is cut from the bottom to the top of the valley. On reaching the head of the bog or swamp, care must be taken to 'drive up ' a deep and efficient level for the spring-head, in order to tap and carry away the stream that there rises from the ' light rocks.' This done, the work must be allowed to settle, to afford time in order to see what may yet have to be done. To prevent the possibility of the water slipping or missing the drains, the drains should be cut not only through the peaty soil, but fully six inches into the fixed strata. And in all lands which have been formed by a succession of de- posits, the drains must, as an invariable rule, be cut into the bed below, to a depth of from 6 to 8 inches, so that when stone-filled, the drains will be sure to be under the old course or current of water. In ordinary cases the drains should be cut across the Une of strata at right angles ; those cut with or on the line of the strata have done little or no good. In fig. 7, Plate 35, we give a section of the partially stone-filled drains illus- trated by Mr. Smith (see chapter on ' Reclamation of Waste Lands,' par. on ' Hilly Moorlands '). Improvement of Watercourses in Drainage Plans. — In close connection with the drainage of fields, as well as in the setting out of these, either de novo, or in amending or improving those which have been formed under older and less careful systems, the alteration of watercourses is a use- ful part of the improvement of landed property. In many instances, especially in low-lying dis- tricts, these watercourses are the cause of con- siderable damage being done to the adjacent land, in consequence of the water, in times of flood, IMPROVEMENT OF WATERCOURSES. i?5 overflowing the adjacent lands. Sometimes this enforced irrigation is beneficial enough, but in others it is the reverse. A good deal can be done in obviating the evil, as, for example, by straight- ening the course of the channel, getting rid of curved parts, which form projections and materi- ally affect the onward flow of the stream. The great object is to provide for all occasions when superfluous waters are likely to come down, so that these will be carried off as quickly as possible without undue scouring of the bed of the channel. To secure this, and in addition to what has been already stated, all natural obstructions, such as vegetation, the branches of overhanging trees, etc., should be got rid of. These impede the flow of water to a much greater extent than is generally supposed, while at the same time they form points or nuclei at and around which mud and other materials collect, still further adding to the opposition to the steady and rapid flow of the water. Bad as the influence of improperly attended to watercourses is, especially in the case of small ones, it is much worse in that of large, the obstructions being more numerous and of a more difficult character to be overcome. These need not be specified, as unfortunately those of our readers who have ill-regulated watercourses passing through any part of their property know too well their nature and the mischief they give rise to. By a careful survey of the run of these watercourses it will, we think, be found as a rule, that by attending to the conditions of the streams in the way we have indicated, and by adjusting the flow, sufficient fall can be obtained in the majority of cases to prevent any undue flooding By the mere cutting off of sharp bends, not only will the forms of the adjacent fields or lands be improved,— a point of great importance in those under arable culture, — but by giving a regular and uniform inclination to the bed of the course, great improvements may be anticipated. The shallowness of the stream is a fruitful source of evil, and this may be overcome to a large extent by a very simple method of confining the banks, such as by planking, or fascines, or faggots with earth backing. In small watercourses, the depth at the points where the worst natural obstacles are met with should not be less than 3 or 4 feet, and in all cases the sharp angles or bends should be changed into easy curves of as wide a radius as possible. This expedient, bringing the course as nearly as possible into a straight line, which is the best of all, would alone go far to remove the evils complained of ; while not only would the form of the fields be improved, but a large addition to their cultivable surface be obtained. So little attention has been paid to this department of property improvement, and so marked would be the advantages of attending to it, that if the cases throughout the country, unfortunately too numerous, were taken in hand, the mere addition to the area of land available for agricultural purposes, now utterly lost, would form an item which would astonish not a few. And this is altogether apart from the great damage which is done to the adjacent lands, — damage which, unfortunately, often arises at the worst possible time, — damage, moreover, which cannot be prevented under the present system. Another advantage obtainable by improving such watercourses, in the case of those passing through grass land, would be that the irrigation would be materially facilitated. Under every aspect, there- fore, of the case, it is assuredly worth the atten- tion of those connected with property, and one which ought at once to be taken in hand. ig6 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. CHAPTER V. IRRIGATION. Classes of Irrigation. — The necessities of an in- creased and an ever and a rapidly increasing popidation have of late and are now giving spe- cially marked prominence to all schemes by which the fertility of the land can be increased, upon which so much depends for the raising of our food, whether that be in the form of ' crops ' or of 'cattle;' and not only so with reference to those lands already under cidtivation, but also with reference to those which, known by the term of ' waste,' have given rise to much, and as yet mainly, if not altogether, unprofitable discussion. Much of this unfortunately nega- tive result may, we fear, have arisen from the ignorance of many of the practical details of the subject by those who have entered upon this discussion ; this ignorance giving rise to a not merely exaggerated estimate of the extent of waste land throughout the kingdom capable of improvement, but also to the no less exaggerated views as to the ease, and also the economy, with which these waste lands can be brought into cultivation, and maintained in a high state of fertility. While, therefore, it may be accepted as a truth that a wide area of waste land exists which can be cultivated with profit, it may no less be accepted as a truth that there are some of them about which this cannot be said with any reasonable hope of its ever being realized. And, moreover, the fact remains, that there are lands now under cultivation of which it may be said, and this without fear of contradiction even from those who belong to the class who maintain that 'whatever is, is right,' that a large percentage of them are still capable of being so far improved that they could yet bear larger crops of produce, or maintain more extensive flocks of sheep or herds of cattle. And further, that of the wide tracts of waste laud at present lying wholly un- productive, a large percentage could be brought under profitable cultivation, by the expenditure of sums not difficult to be raised by a people whose spare cash — and cash not easily to be spared — is too often engulphed in the thousand- and-one schemes which, being of a somewhat 'airy' nature, are, in appropriate enough terms, stated in the daily papers to have been ' floated ' in the market, and of which not a few of them are destined to be ' sunk,' taking with them the hard-earned gains of the saving and the prudent, no less than the more easily attackable funds of the scheming capitalists, who are ever ready to ' go in,' as the phrase is, for anything. Amongst the powers at the command of the farmer by which the fertility of land at present under cultivation can be increased, and waste lands brought into cultivation, irrigation may be named as one possessed of no small value. Al- though of this value there is but one opinion amongst authorities, it is a somewhat curious and suggestive fact that it is one which is by no means so readdy and largely made use of as it might be, and as, we unhesitatingly say, it ought. It would, did time and space permit, open up some practically useful points, to inquire why this should be ; enough for our purpose to draw attention to the fact that it is. Indeed, it may be said that, so far from being on the increase, irrigation is less practised now than it formerly was, this holding true of countries other than our own. But it is, on the other hand, gratifying to know that an increased attention is being given to the subject ; and it is to be hoped that, before very long, lands, which at present are in every sense of the term ' waste,' wdl be covered with the grass which 'yieldeth food for cattle,' or IMPORTANCE OF IRRIGATION. 197 waving with the corn which ' giveth strength to man.' We thus see that water plays an important part in the creation and maintenance of rich pasture; but its application presents so many difficulties, that one must call to aid the most minute attention to details, and especially an exact observation of atmospheric circum- stances. There are certain rules, however, the application of which, in some cases, rests on the sagacity of the employer. The mode of irri- gation varies according to the effect desired, also according to the different periods during which it works. Sometimes water is desirable at all times ; in other cases it has a bad effect upon meadow lands, and causes an inferior crop of hay. It is often easier to obtain a satisfactory crop from a new meadow, than to renew every year the wonderful produce of old meadows. Irriga- tion increases the fertility of the soil, bestowing nutritive elements, and replacing those taken away by the former crops. It is to this we must devote our attention. Generally the action of water is useful to meadows when the season is fresh and cold, and the temperature of the liquid higher than the air. This is the case in autumn; hence the advantage of irrigation at that season. The efficacy of this operation in autumn, besides, depends on another circumstance worthy of mention. The autumn rain carries from the fields much nutritive element, and deposits it as mud on the surface watered, which richly manures the fields. Water can never injure the meadows at this season; indeed, all farmers are agreed on the great advantage gained by the autumn irri- gation, which should commence in October. It is sufficiently watered when the surface becomes black, and acquires a softness which leaves the mark of the feet. The following year a marked increase in the pasture will be seen. Sometimes the irrigation fads from a want of water. How- ever, the case is contrary when the land is made inclined, which deceives the eye, and we do not perceive the full amount of water poured on the soil. Where the water has been too abundant, noxious weeds grow, and it is long before the meadow gains its original quality. On the other hand, when too little watered at one, but too much at the same place, certain plants, as the Agrostis stolonifera and Poa pratensis, grow to such a height that it is impossible to cut them down before winter. This speedy growth cannot fail to hurt the grass, the season being too far advanced to convert these herbs into hay. They contain too little nutriment to be given to the cattle green. In all cases this tardy cutting down is very prejudicial to the meadow, as the frost might come on immediately, which would cause a considerable diminution in the crop. When the water is very scarce, and autumn cold, it is advisable to keep the channels full in those parts which cannot be watered, which will compensate in some degree for the frost. The channels must be emptied from time to time, and the meadows dried up. When all the surface has been watered, begin again, and continue thus till the water freezes. These operations need not be stopped for a slight frost, but during the severe frosts the water must not be allowed to flow on the meadows. When thaw comes, the irrigation may commence again. When the effects of frost are felt at a great depth in the soil, it is time to stop irrigation for the season, and leave the meadow to its winter repose — that is to say, allow the water to escape from all the channels and ditches. Although the months of January and February should bring abundance of water rich in fertilizing matter, we must resist the temptation, remembering the proverb, 'Those who water in January have meadows, but no hay.' Atmospheric influences have a great effect on the soil. This operation must not be thought of when snow covers the ground, or when it begins to melt under the influence of the rain. But in spring, when the rays of the sun melt the snow, causing the plants to spring naturally, it is neces- sary to water plentifully, not sparing even the trouble of sweeping away the snow. If, on the contrary, there are cold draughts, which have penetrated deeply into the soil, we must not water till the frost has disappeared, or, thanks to the advanced time of the year, it becomes possible to destroy the effects of this temperature by means of irrigation. Marshy pastures are usually behind good, firm, meadow soil. It is at the beginning of spring that the irrigations are made which act on the soil as manure. So long as the season is cold and rainy, we must water vigorously, though not so abundantly as DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. in autumn. Too abundant irrigation would be very hurtful. In carrying plans of irrigation out, we thus see there are many points to be considered. Thus the quality or kind of water used is a point of consider- able importance ; although it may be stated, as a general rule, that there are comparatively few qualities but what may be used, there being what may be called only two exceptions to this, — (1) that containing iron, and (2) that flowing from the surface of ' white peaty ' or ' black rnoory ' soils. This latter, however, can be very much improved in quality by causing it to traverse long distances before using it, its coming in contact with various soils of better character than the original one from which it is obtained, giving new and favourable qualities, but chiefly from the atmo- sphere having a long time to act upon it. In hilly districts, the water, which flows rapidly from the high levels to the low-lying land at the foot of hills, and which, if allowed to remain stagnant there, forms bogs and mosses, may be considered an exception, if a deep drain can be run in the subsoil so that the bog can be tapped, and the water used before it becomes con- taminated by the peat. Indeed, it may be stated as a general rule having few exceptions, that all waters derived from deep drainage may be used for irrigation. There are some indica- tions on which irrigators place considerable re- liance as to the water which may be used ; thus, that in which water-cresses grow is considered good, as well as that of streams, etc., the stones of which become covered with mossy or vege- table growth. Warm springs, as they are often termed, or which rarely freeze, are also esteemed. In carrying out plans of irrigation, it is essential that the land should be thoroughly drained, stagna- tion of the water being quite antagonistic to the principle, which may be briefly stated as passing continuously over the surface a thin stream of water. This, however, is only continuous in a sense, that is, during the time when the irrigation is carried on. rerhaps the best plan is to com- mence watering somewhere about the end of September, but not later than the first week of November, and carry on till the circumstances already named decide when it ought to be stopped, October being considered the best month to begin ; the exact periods will, however, depend upon circumstances of locality and climate. The flow of water, however, is not continuous even during this period, being alternative, a general rule being the keeping of it on for six days and shutting it off for three days. But on all these points, circumstances of weather, etc. will modify the practice. Thus, if at the time when the water should be shut off, and frost should set in and cause the formation of a thin sheet of ice, the water must be kept flowing in as thin a sheet or stream as possible; but should the ice thoroughly form, so as to cover the irrigated surfaces, the water must be then shut off. In the warmer months greater atten- tion to the management is required, and special care should be taken to prevent anything like stagnation of the flowing sheet, as a thin scum will likely be found on the surface, exceedingly prejudicial to vegetation. In warm weather, the intervals during which the water is kept on are shorter than in winter. The produce of irrigated meadows is used in different ways, the almost universal plan, however, being the mowing of it either for green food on the stall-feeding or soiling system, or for haymaking. The first crop, however, after the formation of the meadows is generally eaten off by sheep, this consolidating and so enriching the soil that succeeding crops may be mown for a considerable period without any manure being applied. The rate at which the water flowTs over the surface will, of course, depend upon its inclination ; and this, again, upon the nature of the soil, a dry one having a lower rate of declivity, and requiring less water, than a wet and heavy one. As a rule, the flow should be quick rather than slow. A quick run, in fact, produces the finest grass. It is difficult to estimate, therefore, the quantity of water required, but, on the average, 2000 gallons per minute may be allowed for. Such may be stated as some of the leading points in irrigation practice. We have now to describe briefly the principal methods of laying out the land ; perhaps the oldest, at least nearly the oldest, system was that carried out in hilly districts, and now known as the catchwater meadow, or hill-side irrigation. ' Catch Meadows' or ' Hillside ' Irrigation. — Various circumstances, elsewhere alluded to, having HILL-SIDE IRRIGATION. 199 brought about continually increasing demands for supplies of animal food, the amount of which seems ever to keep up in a higher ratio than the supplies themselves, render every plan by which the live stock of the kingdom can be increased in number a mutter of most vital importance to the nation. And great as have been the improvements in breeding, and in the methods of feeding our cattle, — methods which, by taking advantage of the teachings of science and the lessons of experience, have succeeded in so economizing material, or making it do a far higher duty than was ever anticipated, that what took four or five years of time to bring an animal forward to a certain condition, takes now but two and a half or three years, and in some cases less, — still, notwith- standing all this, the practical difficulties are not so much in increasing or obtaining the required number of animals, — although these are great enough, — as the means or materials for main- taining them ; and it is to the latter point that the attention of our stock-keepers is mainly at present directed. Hence the importance of all means by which the food supplies of stock can be increased, and hence also the urgency with which many are putting forward the absolute necessity there is for taking advantage of every means of doing so. It is not so much the fact, which the most advanced of our agriculturists have again and again of late stated, that the produce even of our best cultivated lands, by still more improved modes of treatment than have yet been intro- duced, can be increased, that we would here draw attention to, as the fact that there exists in many districts of the kingdom sources from which large supplies of cattle-feeding material can be raised. This is, indeed, indicated more or less directly in the very title of this section, which proposes to deal with the method of utilizing the water sup- plies in hilly districts, the soil of which and the climate in which they are situated being alike more or less favourable to their practical utilization. What is done, and done so well, in one district, may obviously be done in another, with, of course, such modifications as changes in natural circum- stances may bring about. Thus the ' late Mr. Smith of Exmoor, whose name will ever be asso- ciated with some of our most practical agricul- tural developments, and with none, perhaps, more strikingly than that named in the title of the present section, states that in removing from the east to the west of England, nothing could exceed his admiration of the water meadows of the western districts in early spring, a period when in the eastern he had been wont to value a blade of green grass as a rare production. ' To see,' he says, ' the Exmoor ewes, with their early lambs, in January, feeding upon the verdant meadow, to me was a miracle, — first, the early period of lambing; and, secondly, the green meadow at such an inclement season. But if we turn to nature as our guide, we find the green grasses ever springing at the water's edge, and yet daily verdant at the springs, even at the very summit of our forest hills, at an elevation of one thousand feet. Thus these practices of agricultural art are dictated to us, and are alone waiting the skill and enterprise of man to cultivate and extend them.' To this extension Mr. Smith devoted his best ener-gies, and this work of ours will not have been written in vain if it be the means of draw- ing attention to a system which is assuredly applicable to many districts in the kingdom, — a system which promises, with no small degree of certainty, to make as sources of agricultural wealth, streams and soils which at present are running to, and remaining in a state of nearly absolute waste. As some of our readers will be unacquainted with the principle upon which 'hill-side,' or, as it is more generally and better known, ' catch- water meadow irrigation,' is founded, we deem it right to describe here very briefly its leading details. These will be found illustrated in the rough plan in fig. 1, Plate 52, in which A B is a plan, and a a section. Thus, suppose in A, a to be a watercourse or rivulet winding along the side of a hill, and, of course, taking in its how the general contour or level of the same in the direction laterally, or its length ; this, at some convenient point in its length, if obstructed or dammed up by some contrivance more or less simple, naturally causes the water to overflow the channel at its lower side, b, and to flow down and over the surface of the subjacent land, c, at a lower level. Suppose, further, that at a certain point of this stretch of inclined land, c, a small drain or carrier, d, is cut, running more or less DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. parallel to the main source of supply, a, this drain or carrier, d, ' catches' the water which has flowed over the stretch of land, c, above it, and accord- ing to the level of the land laterally along which the drain, d, runs, is the rate of flow or inclination of its collected water. Supposing, then, this drain, d, to be dammed up at one convenient point, the water will overflow the lower edge and be shed over the surface of the stretch of inclined land, c, at a lower level. The water flowing over d may again be arrested by a second drain, /, running more or less parallel to the drain or ' carrier ' d, which, if again dammed up at some convenient point, causes it to shed the water over a third stretch of land, g, placed at a still lower level than the preceding stretches, c and c ; this third stretch, g, may be supposed to be the last of the series of stretches thus irrigated, the water of which is delivered finally to the rivulet or carrier, h, which flows on uninter- ruptedly to its outfall. Or, in place of so doing, if the land below it, as i, be suitable, the water from h may be used for irrigating that land by the system of the ' ridge-and-furrow ' irrigation, elsewhere in this chapter illustrated and described, as shown at// in elevation A, fig. 1, Plate 5 2, and // in plan B, same figure. Such may be taken as a brief popular description of the ' catchwater ' meadow irrigation system, one which on hill-side land has certainly the advantage of cheapness in its favour, as the same quantity of water will irrigate more land than any other. ' The hill- side,' as Mr. Smith remarks, ' being already formed by nature to our hands, the spirit-level beauti- fully traces the varied slopes, and marks the onward course for the gutterer or waterman, who should be a man of taste in the art of levelling, as the marking out of the intermediate spaces upon irregular ground is found to be a nice point, that the water may flow in an even stream over the sides of the gutters.' The arrangement of the main water-carriages or channels (as at a a, in fig. 1, Plate 52) are formed (if made specially, and the natural rivulets not used, or not available at the desired points, and which carriages are, of course, supplied from these rivulets) three feet wide and six inches in depth at the lower side, the depth of the upper side varying according to the slope or inclination of the hill-side, the fall or inclina- tion being at the rate of one in 396, or two inches in a ' chain ' of 22 yards long. This fall is rather rapid for general purposes, but Mr. Smith adopts it in order to clear the carriages of the soil, etc., which he conveys to the lower meadows through the agency of the water, according to the method which will be presently described. The arrange- ment of these main water-carriages is, of course, dependent solely on the formation of the land and the supply of the water ; and when this is derived from a small brooklet or stream, these carriages take their lead from this 'in due suc- cession, whereby the required supply of water is kept up, and are so arranged that in crossing the valleys or otherwise they pass below the hill-side springs, that these may be tapped and drained into them,' which, as Mr. Smith says, is a ' good and cheap process.' The small water-carriers, as d and /, figs, a and b, Plate 5 2, are cut for width of 1 8 inches, and have a depth of 5 ; the distances between these carriers are generally uniform, and this is made so that the distance is three-fifths from the upper carriage and two-fifths from the lower. As the majority of these water-carriers are laid out upon the land just as nature has formed and left it ; in order to form the better qualities of grass and to eradicate such mossy surface as generally exists in land which has been at one, time under wood, Mr. Smith finds it the better plan to let the water flow over it freely for five or six days in succession at first, as a thin flow has but little effect. The watering is repeated at intervals of a month, more or less, according to circumstances ; but care must be taken not to allow it to flow too long over the same surface, as this encourages the growth of coarse water grasses, such as grow near springs. In the second season, when a certain amount of improvement has taken place, the water may be more thinly spread over the surfaces, and during shorter periods ; but these and other details can alone be decided according to circumstances of locality, etc., and the experience which the water- man alone can gain by observation of the peculiar circumstances. In addition to the irri- gation of meadows by the catchwater system just described, Mr. Smith struck out an idea, as bold as it was original, and carried it into practical effect with striking results. Paying a close SMITH'S METHOD OF HILL-SIDE IRRIGATION. attention to all the circumstances under which the system was ordinarily carried out, Mr. Smith perceived that from the very character of the water-carriers, and the routes which they took in descending from the higher to the lower regions of the land, there was afforded what we call a splendid opportunity for making these carriers for reconvening any quantity of the accumulated soil in the valley to the poor and neglected hill- sides, which have been robbed, deprived as they have been of this deposit by the long-continued and ungovernable washing away of it during a succession of rainy seasons. When the valleys are drained, the soil becomes decomposed and dries, and a rich ' black mould ' is formed, which is dug from the upper side of the carriage, chopped rather small, thrown into the stream, and, if water can be made to come down with a rapid fall even for a short distance, it will reduce itself so small as to mix with the stream. In order that the soil may be properly placed and distri- buted over the surface of the meadow land, the ' waterman ' is in attendance at the meadow, in order that the rush of soil and water may be changed as the work proceeds. The irrigation of flat meadows at the foot of the hill may be con- ducted on the same plan ; but a heavier soil must be used if it can be obtained, as the composition of these bottoms is chiefly black or other friable soil. Of course the carrying out of this plan will depend much on local circumstances ; the period when the waters are highest, that is, after long-continued rains, being chosen for washing down the soil, especially when placed at a distance, or where the situation presents diffi- culties for its easy ' swelling away.' As some of the waters in many of these hilly districts are not well calculated for irrigating purposes, such as impure boggy waters, care should be taken to arrange the carriers of these so that they will have a considerable distance to traverse, as the longer the distance peaty water, for example, has to run, ' the better it becomes for irrigation, as a sediment is deposited in its onward course, hence the water gradually purifies and improves.' But to effect a greater improvement, and bring about a more decided change in the character of the water, Mr. Smith hit upon another addition to his plan, by which the carriers were made the vehicles of conveying not only manure from the irrigated meadows themselves, on which young cattle were fed, and on which sheds were placed for their reception and shelter, which produced it, but also of conveying from the farm-yard its supplies of manures without the necessity of employing horse power. The sheds for the young cattle above alluded to are placed at the higher part of the meadows, a short distance above the water- carriers, thus leaving space between for the cattle to pass to and fro. Opposite the sheds, and on the line of the main water-carrier, a small pond is formed, into which the manure is thrown, so that the wrater, as it passes along, carries with it the manure from the shed and distributes it over the land, which is thus, as may be conceived, greatly benefited thereby. "When the season for irrigation has passed, the cattle are removed to other fields, the meadows effectually cleaned, sown with grass seeds if necessary, brush harrowed, rolled, and laid up for hay ; and the pond is cleaned out, its contents thrown up into a heap in order to decompose, over which a layer of peat earth may be thrown, and the heap turned over twice during the summer months. By the time the irrigation season arrives, the compost heap, sufficiently decomposed, is thrown into the pond on the main carrier, and by the water conveyed to the surface of the meadows. The pond or pit may be further utilized during the summer months, when empty, by storing up in it the soil, sediment, etc., taken out from the carriers when cleaning and repairing them. Mr. Smith still further utilizes the irrigating water as a earner of manure, soil, etc., by having the water of a convenient brook to work in the first place the water-wheel of the farm steading, after work- ing which the water is passed through the yards and buildings, collecting and washing out ' the sewage of the whole establishment, then passing it away to a pond at the outside of the buildings, from which the adjacent meadows are watered.' The advantages derived from this plan have been very marked, a portion of hill-side over which the water was passed becoming covered with green and daily improving grasses, the chief of which was white clover, while not a single seed was sown upon the land. Further, by means of water passing through the farm-yards, any portion 2c DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMEXT OF LAXDED PROPERTY. of the farm-yard dung may be thrown into it and conveyed to the meadows, and this at periods when horse labour might be valuable for other work of the farm. "We have heard much of the value of water as a carrier in the case of town sewage, and Mr. Smith has done good service in drawing attention to methods of utilizing the same medium for the cheap conveyance of manurial matters from one part of the farm to another. Nor is the cheapness alone of the method its principal feature, but the uniformity with which a manure is distributed over the surface of the land constitutes, in our opinion, one not less valuable ; and it is obvious that the plan could be extended to the amelioration of poor soils by conveying to them supplies of richer ones, which have all the advantage of being distributed uniformly over the surface ; in fact, we see the value of the principle of ' warping ' land, elsewhere described in this work, and which will be there seen as producing land of what might almost be called inexhaustible fertility. For many districts, therefore, there lies (apart from the great advantages derivable from the system of irrigation conjoined with it) in this method a future of improvement for lands now of the poorest, which will yield, if it be judiciously carried out, large supplies of the food for stock which is daily becoming a greater and greater necessity in a national point of view. The practical stock-keeper, who is thoroughly versed in all the details of his calling, knows well the advantages derivable from a ' change of bite,' as it is technically called, to his cattle, — that is, changing them at due intervals from one field to another. This, as a natural consequence, involves the principle of having a good many fields, and this again the advantage of having more of small dimensions or area than fewer of a larger. Mr. Smith, in view of this, found that the most con- venient size for his water meadows was from five to six acres, — a size which admitted of the desir- able change, and also the easiest way of watering them in succession. He also draws attention to the value of the ponds we have described, as affording means of storing up water which can be made available for turning for a brief period water on to meadow land when the hay is removed from it, or to pasture lands in dry seasons, thus giving a great impulse to the growth of grass when required. They can also be made available for making good the deficiencies of water supply, where that under ordinary circum- stances is less than that which would be required for full irrigation, care being taken to have these ponds placed at convenient points, — as, for instance, where small streams or water-carriers meet. By this plan a small quantity of water will irrigate as much as from eight to ten acres of land. In conjunction with the water-carriers, Mr. Smith adopted the plan of having ' sod fences.' These were, like the watercourses, laid carefully out with the spirit-level, so that while some were ' found to collect ' the surface water from the upper lands to a certain point most eligible for a pond, others were arranged to convey the water from the pond to the nearest meadows. By this plan the water-carriages are made when the sod fence is erected, and are consequently included in its cost, saving at least one shilling per chain ; if the carriage is formed in an otherwise useless dike, the land is saved on which the carriage would otherwise have been cut. This system has also the immense advantage of enabling the farmer to control the results of the immensely heavy falls of rain in hilly districts, and to save and utilize the particles of soil, manure, etc., washed down from the higher levels, by leading them to points where they can be rendered practically available in the way we have already described. A modification of the ordinary catchwater meadow as described above, and which is esteemed highly by practical authorities, has been introduced by Mr. Bickford, of which the following brief description will give an idea. The main feature of the system is the method by which the drains are laid down, with great expedition, over a sm-face, no matter how irregular that may be, and by which the drains follow these irregulari- ties with the utmost precision. In this system, therefore, no parallelization of the drains is attempted, although this, of course, may happen at certain parts of the surface. The instrument for finding the levels is extremely simple, and is in form precisely like a pair of compasses, kept open at a certain stretch by means of a cross bar, in the centre of which is placed a plumb-line which hangs from the central joint of the instrument BICK FORD'S MODIFICATION OF CATCH WATER IRRIGATION. (a spirit-level may be substituted for the plumb- line, being placed on, and at the centre of, the cross bar). The height of the instrument is about 5 feet 4 inches, being the width between the lower ends. The method of using this is as follows : — The workman, taking the instrument, fixes the extremity of one leg at any point of the land's surface at which the carrier or drain may bo desired to commence; and by a series of trials he keeps moving the other leg, and placing it at different points of the surface, till he finds a point at which, when at rest, the plumb-line hangs straight, or the spirit-level indicates that the two legs are resting on a surface at points precisely on the same level. A small peg is then driven in at the point shown by the second leg, and this affords another starting-point, at which one of the legs is fixed in the ground, until, by a second series of trials, a second point is found at the same level. Pro- ceeding thus, a series of points will be obtained, some four feet apart, all on the same level, but the line of which may be exceedingly tortuous. Of course, it is necessary in commencing the work to decide upon the point at which the drain terminates, as well as that at which it commences. A series of lines, at any desired distance from each other, may thus be pegged out over the surface of the land, and along which, by means of a simple plough, also invented by Mr. Bick- i'ord, the drains or water-carriers can be cut to the desired depth. In place of pegs, the level points may be indicated by cutting out a small sod. Parts on the surface of the land may be reached at which it is not possible to find a level corresponding with the last taken. In this case it is necessary to stop the drain, which may be stopped by a sod, and a new line for level points started either above or below the old one. An important part of the system is the getting the water quickly off from the land. To effect this, ' gutters are cut in the direction of the inclina- tion of the ground, i.e. in the exact same line along which the water would flow if left to itself to run.' If the gutters take any other direction, swerving too much to the right or the left, they will cut off the water from some of the land cm one side or the other. There are other points connected with the laying down of the main carriers and drawing - off gutters, full details of which will be found in a pamphlet, published by Mr. Eidgway, Piccadilly, London, repub- lished from the Journal of the Bath and West of England Society. But what we have given will sufficiently explain, in connection with the two plans given in Plate 22, the general features of the system ; these we have adapted from two plans given in the Journal above named. Fig. 1 0 is the plan of part of a hill-side laid out as a steep water meadow, which lies between two little rivulets as shown. That on the left, as a c, is good water improved by the drainage matter of a house and stable. It is added to by the water of a good spring, g ; that on the right hand, as w iu, is poor cold water issuing from an alder bed and bog. This, as will be observed from the plan, is not used for irrigation, but is carried under the good water or left-hand stream, c c, which continues to flow in the direction as shown by a trunk at t, and carried on towards a pond, where, after being exposed to the air, it becomes improved and fitted for irrigating pur- poses at a lower level. The left-hand stream, c c, is conveyed from north to south in a gutter, a b, having a rapid fall. It is confined on the north side by the gutter, a c, in the hollow, and on the south by a special channel, b b, in order to keep it out of the bog-water stream, to to. The mouth of the main outfall of some under- ground drains, p p, is placed at the point d, c being a similar outlet for the drains, o o, indicated by the dotted lines. All these streams are com- bined and carried over the trunk at t, to be used for irrigation in another meadow to the south- west and south, below the coppice or wood indicated at ;// y. On the north side the stream may be led away to a projecting knoll flanking the valley and swelling to the north-west. x indicates dry ground on a porous rock. These undulations fairly represent the configuration of a mountainous country. It is easy to see what perfect mastery over the water is thus obtained, how completely it can be concentrated on any particular section, and how quickly and directly it can be conveyed to the desired point ; and this may be all done by following the undula- tions of the land, without levelling the surface. The double lines part, as a b c d, represents the 204 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. carriers; and these when tapering, as atssp, begin to irrigate. In fig. 11 we give a rough plan of a level water meadow, representing a field the soil of which is alluvial deposit, and situated at a river-side. The stream enters at the point a, is carried for some way up stream, and in the direction a b, in order to irrigate the knoll situated at b c d. This plan of going up stream is sometimes practised on a large scale, in order to lead a warm, rich stream from a lateral valley over a river-side meadow, when the use of the river water would be comparatively unprofitable. For this purpose an embankment is thrown up against the bank of the river, to carry the supply upwards to the head of the meadow ; the outlet waters, after irrigation, pass under the embankment in culverts. This arrange- ment may be noticed on a fine meadow between Tiverton and Dulverton, on the banks of the Exe, a little way above the Exeter Inn. The stream is distributed in the way we have de- scribed over the general slopes, and is again separately led out to the point at e, where the radiating carriers, c fg, may command the project- ing elevation, and each of which gradually tapers, so that, as the stream advances, the lessening capacity of the carriers causes the water to over- flowto the right and left. The marks > X indicate the course of the emptying or drying gutters. Where a cross supply gutter and a drying gutter become so rapidly level, they are merged in the system of level contours, and become irrigators. Irrigation for Level or Flat Districts or Surfaces of Land. — The plan or method in use for these districts, and that which is most commonly adopted in this country, is known as the 'ridge-and-furrow' system. There are modifications of this to suit the peculiarities of certain localities; and sometimes a combination of this method, and the ' catch water ' system last described, is adopted at points where hilly lands merge into flat ones at their base. There are other systems adopted for level laud, but these are principally met with on the Continent, where, indeed, irrigation is carried out to a much greater extent than it is with us ; and so great attention is paid to its defects, that its practice has reached the highest state of perfection. For this reason, and also from the fact that the details of methods there practised are not widely known, — specially, at least, the details of the one named above, the ' ridge-and-furrow,' — we shall do our readers a practical service by describing and illustrating them. Marked, indeed, as have been the benefits in districts in this country, we have but to cross the Channel to find in the rich and fertile fields of our continental neighbours what irrigation can do, alike on the smallest and on the largest scale. Mr. James Howard, the well-known agricultural engineer of Bedford, in his admirable paper, read some years ago before the local Farmers' Club, on 'Continental Farming,' refers with approbation to the beneficial effects which irrigation has exercised, in various places on the Continent, in raising the cultivation to a comparatively high state of perfection. There is, perhaps, no part of the Continent which has been so signally bene- fited by irrigation as that district of Belgium known as the Campines, the most interesting part of which can be reached in a few hours from Antwerp by taking the railway to Turnhout. The traveller, as he journeys on towards this town, will pass through a country which, in its general aspects, presents to him at once the features of a spare, barren, and wild sterility rarely equalled in any of the wildest districts, and of a fertility singularly striking in its beauty, even to an unpractised eye. The sterility illus- trates what the condition of the land throughout nearly the whole of the district was once, and in large tracts still is ; the fertility that which it is fast presenting under improved and im- proving cultivation. On one side one will see nothing but sand, so light that it is driven into heaps or scattered like snow-drift before the wind, with here and there only stunted shrubs and patches of heather and wdd-flowers ; on the other will be seen waving corn or green grass, and all the evidences of abundant fertility. One great cause of the change which lias taken place in a large measure in the condition of the soil, and which is daily extending, is the system of irrigation, which has been so carefully and ex- tensively carried out in the province. There are many methods of irrigation employed, but the first we shall describe is identical, as we have already said, in its features with that known among us as the ' ridge-and-furrow ' system, in which the CONTINENTAL METHOD OF IRRIGATION. 205 land is divided into a series of sloping surfaces, over which the water is shed or distributed from the gutter, «, at the apex of the ridge, x x, fig. 6, Plate 52, and taken up by the gutters, b b, at each end of its base. Great skill is shown in the setting out of the land to be irrigated on this method, and in working so that the soil taken out from the cuttings shall be used to the best advantage in the embankments or raised parts forming the sloping surfaces. The land is laid out into compartments some seventy or eighty feet long, the length of these being in the direction of the general slope of the land. "We present our readers with the working plans and sections of a field laid out on the system practised in Belgium, these being taken from a report on the subject by Mr. T. Keelhoff, engineer in charge of the service of irrigation of the Campines. Fig. 1, Plate 53, is the plan of the upper part, and fig. 2 of the lower part of the field. This, as will be perceived, is laid out in lengths angular in section, as shown in the transverse section in figs. 2 and 3, Plate 52. Of these angular parts, «' a', Plate 53, is the apex, along which the channel for leading the water is placed ; this overflowing, flows down the sloping sides in the direction of the arrows, and is received by the channels b' Z/,figs. 1 and 2, Plate 53. The channels all lead into the large drain or watercourse B B. The channels, a a, at the top of the ridge, receive their supply from the watercourse A, fig. 4, Plate 53, which runs at right angles to them. The whole field is divided into ' compartments,' in each of which there are five of the ridged parts, so to call them; and each of the compart- ments is divided from the other, so that each can be irrigated independently of the other. To aid in this, a small sluice is made at the point E. See fig. 1, Plate 53. The 'compartments,' each of which, as above stated, comprises five of the ridged parts, are placed so that the length of the channels, as « «,fig. 2, Plate 53, runs transversely to the general inclination of the whole field, so that the channels a a and B B have a gentle flow or inclination over the whole field throughout their length. It will be observed, on inspecting fig. 2, Plate 53, that the channel B, which receives the water flowing from a' a' over the sides of the ridged part, bends round and flows between the two compartments, and then delivers its water to the channel A, fig. 1, Plate 53, which thus is the channel of supply for the channels, a' a', of the ridged parts of the second compartment. A small sluice is placed at the bend of the channel B, at the point R, fig. 1, Plate 53. The main source of the supply of the channels A A is the large drain or channel at g g, which runs at right angles to a a, and parallel to a' a' b' b'. Fig. 2, Plate 52, is a section of fig. 1, Plate 53 ; fig. 3, Plate 52, of fig. 2, Plate 53, on a line parallel to the channels A A, and at right angles to the ridged parts, a' a' b' b'. Fig. 4, Plate 52, is a section in a line at right angles to the channels A A, or along the length of the ridged parts, a' a' b' b', and the upper end of the field, of which fig. 2, Plate 53, is the plan. Fig. 5, Plate 54, is the section of the lower part of the field plan in fig. 2, Plate 53; and fig. 6 is a cross section of one of the ridged parts. The length of the ridged part is 25 metres (a metre is 3"339 feet); the breadth of one of the sides of the ridged part, as c d, is 5 metres. The wTidth of the channel a' a', at the top of the ridge, is 25 centimetres; the depth, 6-05 centi- metres. The width of the channels b' b', 25 centimetres; and depth, 20 centimetres. The width of the channels a a, 50 centimetres (half a metre) at the bottom (they have inclined or sloping sides, as shown in section fig. 4, Plate 52), and 1 metre at the top; the depth is 25 centimetres. The channels B B have a width at bottom of half a metre ; at top, of a metre and a half, with a depth of half a metre. The width of the slopes e c, figs. 4 and 5, Plate 53, is 3 metres. Some of the leading measurements we have given approxi- mate to our own measurements. The fourth method of irrigating land is illus- trated in fig. 2, Plate 55, and is applicable to land so disposed as to present a series of alternate depressions and elevations. The channels of distribution, as a a, are placed at the height of the elevation or rising part of the ground, running in the direction of the slope or declivity of the land. These channels of distribution receive their supply from the mam channel, Y Y, fig. 2, Plate 54, which runs along the upper part of the land. The channels of distribution gradu- ally die out, as shown in tig. 2, towards the cud 2C 5 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. of their flow, and between each two, as 1 1 2 2, fig. 2, Plate 54, which occupy the tops of the high parts of the land, the third, as 3 3, is placed, occupying the lowest level between the other two. This, it will be observed, is narrow (or dies out) at the upper, but widens at the lower end, where it joins or delivers the water to the channel b b b b, which may either lead the water away, or act, such as Y Y, as another channel of supply, X X, to irrigate another plot, as B B, at a lower level. Spreading or radiating from the channels of distribution, as a a, right and left are smaller channels, c c c c, which run down the sloping- sides of the heights, shedding the water over the surface, and which is finally taken up by the intermediate channels, as c c. These small channels, as c c, are wider where they start from the channels a a, as at the point 4, but gradually die out as they approach the bottom of the incline. The fifth and last method we have to describe is that illustrated in fig. 1, Plate 54, in plan at A A, and in section at B B. This method is a modification of the first method we have described in fig. 1, Plate 53, and is adopted in cases where the inclination of the land is too small for that system (fig. 1) to be adopted, or nearly flat. The inclination best adapted for this system (fig. 1, Plate 54) is 0' 05 m. per metre. It consists, as seen in section at B B, fig. 1, Plate 54, of a series of plots, one above another, these being level in the direction of their length, but inclined in the direction of their breadth, as in the section B B. On one side is the channel of supply, as A A A in the plan in fig. 1, Plate 54 ; this channel is subdivided by sluices at C C C, according to the number of the plots into which the laud is divided. These sluices serve to shut off the water from, or to let it on to the different plots as required. As will be seen from the plan A' A', each plot, as d e f, is surrounded at the two ends by part of the channel of supply A' A', at the ends by part of the channel b' V , and at the sides by the channels a a b b. The water supplied by A' A' flows along the distributing channel a a, and is shed over its lower edge and flows over the surface of the first plot, d, returning by the channel b b to the channel of supply A' A'. Small sluices are also placed at the points g g (in plan) between the channels of two plots in contiguity. The arrows in plan and section show the direction in which the water flows. Pig. 3, Plate 54, illustrates a section of the first stretch of land on the ' catch - water system' (see fig. 1, Plate 53) next the main carrier, A ; fig. 4, a section of one of the sub- carriers of the same section. Details of Irrigation Work. — A few of the points connected with irrigation work remain to be noticed at this point, and first, as to the form of the channels or carriers by which the water is led from one point to another. In a great number of cases the minor channels are very simple, as also the sluices or stops by which the water is led off to the various divi- sions, being merely small courses cut by the spade, or in many instances, as in catchwater irrigation, by the plough, and the stops formed by turf or by small boards sliding in grooves. The. main watercourses are, however, more com- plicated, both in their form, their construction, and in the sluices which regulate the distribu- tion. Figs. 1 to 5, Plate 55, show different forms, which vary according to the soil through which they pass. The more compact the latter is, the steeper may be the sides. Thus, taking fig. 1 to represent a channel of distribution passing through a heavy and compact soil, it may be in some cases made with sides almost perpendicular, as a c d b; or, taking the depth in all the examples to be uniform, the slope may be equal to one- third of that, d f, fig. 2, which is one-third of the depth, d b. In less compact soils it may be one- half, as in fig. 1, or one-fourth, as in fig. 3. In setting out the channels, the breadth of bottom, as a b, is invariably equal to the height, b d ; and perpendiculars, a b d c, should be raised from the points a b, and a line, as c f, should be drawn at right angles to these, on which to set off the slope. Where the channel is large, and where the soil through which it passes varies at different points in quality, the sides may have at certain parts to be set out, as at/# j e h i, in fig. 4, with a depth of between 2 and 2^ yards ; the width of the horizontal parts, as / g, from 18 to 24 inches. In many cases the channels are made with perpendicular sides, which are protected in various ways. One method is shown in fig. 6, Plate 55, by driving in at intervals sharp piles, a a, backed by planking, b b, and connected by DE TA IL S OF I R RIG A TIOX WORK— BR O WN' S SYS TEM. 207 wales or cross-pieces, as c c. This is shown in plan in fig. 7 ; figs. 8 and 9 give the details, showing how these cross-pieces are fixed on to the longitudinal parts, d d, fig. 6, connecting the piles together. In Plate 56, in fig. 1 we give a method of protecting the perpendicular sides of distributing channels by means of fascines, as a, in place of the planking, b, as in fig. 6, preceding plate. The piles, b b, are connected by cross- pieces, c, as shown in detail at d and e. In fig. 2, Plate 56, another method of protecting the sides is shown, in which twigs or osiers, a a, are intertwined between, and supported by piles, b b, driven in at intervals, and supported by cross-pieces in the same manner as in fig. 1, details being shown at d e. Sluices, as already stated, are in some cases of the simplest, but in others are of a construction more or less com- plicated. The simplest form consists of two side-pieces in which central grooves are cut, these being driven into the soil and connected at the top by a cross-piece, in the centre of which a rectangular slit is cut. The sluice or gate, so to call it, consists of a simple board at its lower part, which passes into the groove of the side timbers, and is provided at its upper part with what may be called a shank or handle, passing through the slit in the cross part. The shank has a number of holes, into which a pin is passed, which rests upon the cross timber and keeps the sluice or board open at any desired height, and thus regulates the flow of water. In more complicated but still simple forms of the sluice, in place of a pin being used and perforated shank, a screwed bolt is substituted, and a large nut bearing on the cross-piece ; — by turning this, the board is raised or lowered. In larger channels of distribution, more complicated forms of sluices are used, one of which, much used abroad, — where, we have said, irrigation is carried out on a more extensive and systematic plan than is here adopted, — is illustrated in figs. 3 to 6 inclusive, in Plate 56. Fig. 3 gives a general sketch of the arrangement and distribu- tion of the parts of this, in which a a b b is the channel, which is widened below the sluice at c d before it is narrowed at b b to the original breadth, a a. Tbe upper part, e, is boarded over in order to enable the workmen to operate the sluice, the apparatus of which is fixed on the cross beam,//; the part below the sluice is also boarded, either in the manner shown at d or at c. The sides, d c, are protected or lined with sheet piling, part of which is shown at a a in fig. 4. In some cases this sheet piling has its place taken by ordinary piles, as at b b in the same figure. The sheet piling is capped, as shown at c e, on which the flooring rests. The sheet piling, a a, fig. 4, terminates in a vertical beam, cross section of which is shown at d, a similar one being placed at the opposite side, at the sluice opening at g in fig. 3. Between the two a row of sheet piling supports the flooring or sill of the sluice, and is continued onwards on both sides of the opening for some distance, as shown partly at e e in fig. 4. The last piles of this row, as well as of the side row a a, are notched or grooved into the beam d. The flooring, e, in fig. 3, is supported on cross beams stretching across the opening a a, fig. 3 ; part of the beams, which rest on vertical piles, secured by a mortice and tenon, g, are shown at / g h /; i i, fig. 4, are part of two of the planks of the flooring, c e, fig. 3. Two cross beams, as j, fig. 4, are placed in front of the sluice in order to carry the planking, and are supported by four or five piles, the tops of the tenons of which are shown on the beam j at k k, fig. 4. Fig. 6 shows part of the side elevation partly in section, taken through the line h in fig. 3. Fig. 5 is part of front elevation across the lower face of beam // fig. 3. In fig. 4, a a shows part of the flooring ; in fig. 6, a a is part of the sluice timbers, b b the side corre- sponding to a a, fig. 4, on the other side of the opening c d, fig. 3. Irrigation by Steam Poiccr. — We have now to describe a method as efficient as it is novel in principle and simple in detail, the invention of Mr. Isaac Brown, of Edinburgh. Briefly described, this system consists in forcing water by steam power through a series of pipes laid at intervals over the surface of the land to be irrigated, placed at certain intervals apart, according to circumstances. The pipes are perforated along the upper side of their length in such a way that the streams, which are of very small diameter, cross each other, and are thrown over the inter- vening spaces, somewhat alter the style shown in 20S DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. fig. 5, Plate 54. Fig. 6 may be supposed to be the disposition of the pipes, a a, over the field, b b being the main supply-pipe, through which water is forced at a pressure, and which may be supposed to be derived from a river bordering the held. This method has been applied in several instances with marked success, a very noted example being that at Stoke Park, and carried out under the direction of the well-known agriculturist, Mr. John Coleman. It might be supposed that the small apertures in the pipes would be apt to be stopped up very speedily by soil, etc., but this is not found in practice to be the case ; the pressure at which the water is driven through them prevents this happening. We have examined the system in operation under a variety of circumstances, paying particu- lar attention to the condition of the apertures, but failed to discover one as having been com- pletely filled up. A few had obstructions which caused the streams to be deflected from their exact course ; but this could scarcely be said to be a fault, inasmuch as the water was directed over the laud. To prevent the filling up of the apertures by corrosion, lead pipes are used. At Stoke Park the pipes are laid at a distance of 16 yards apart, and the water forced through them by means of a 12 -horse-power engine, working one of Tangye's pumps at a pressure of 00 lbs. to 70 lbs. on the square inch, equi- valent to a head or column of water 120 feet in height. It throws a shower over a plot of one and a half acres at a rate of 10 tons in 15 minutes. Six acres are thus laid out, and plot after plot is taken in rotation, the watering being- done at night to avoid any bad effects on the grass from the sun heat. We have used the word shower, as it most accurately describes the effect produced by the minute streams crossing each other from the same pipe, and intersected by the Streams from the adjoining pipes, producing what may be described as a perfect artificial shower. One must see it in order to observe how com- pletely the effects of a gentle summer rain is imitated by the apparatus. There can be no doubt that, when properly carried out, the system bids fair almost to revolutionize the practice of sheep-feeding, although it is obviously applic- able to other live stock, either soiled on green cut food or fed on hay. Taking the plots in rotation, Mr. Brown, we may add, has rendered the system of folding as easy as it can well be by the invention of a new form of hurdle, having a central bar, from which project other bars forming a large square cross, and which can be rolled along the ground, wheel fashion, in a most expeditious manner. Drainage Water for Irrigating Purposes.- — The water obtained as the result of drainage of cer- tain lands may often be utilized for the purposes of irrigation. Mr. Smith (see description of ' catchwater' meadows) describes a plan for drain- ing lands formed at the feet of valleys, which, containing many springs at the sides and feet of the several hills, have formed, from their long and unmolested course, dangerous bogs. This process is a cheap one, and the water is put into immediate use for irrigating the lands below. The plan adopted is, by taking the level for the water-carriages (used in irrigating) from a point at which a level may be driven up to the spring at a proper depth, to effectually carry off its water into the water-carriage below; and it thus mixes with the passing water, and at once takes its part in redeeming the grasses of its late and nearest neighbouring bog below, which had been tapped upon the same plan, and dispersing its water in an onward direction for a similar improve- ment. Care should be taken to tap these springs deep enough, as they are much increased by irrigat- ing the upper hill-sides, especially on porous soils. Town Sewage Irrigation. — In treating of this subject we shall only glance at what may be called its peculiar features as distinguished from that of ordinary irrigation, as the details of both may be said to be nearly, if not altogether, identical ; so that a plan for applying the water, as met with in its ordinary condition, will be applicable, with but trifling modifications, — if any, indeed, be demanded, — to one for using the other material. The difference between the two systems lies, in fact, in this — that while the one deals with water in its pure or ordinary condition, the other takes in hand the treatment of that which is rendered impure by the circum- stances connected with the towns which produce it. These modifications run, therefore, more in the direction of points connected with the supply, TOWN SEWAGE IRRIGATION— POPULAR OPINIONS THEREON. 209 and the crops to which that can he or is made available. The discussion of this department revolves more round these and cognate points than those connected with the practical working details. While irrigation, per se, has been carried on from a period dating far beyond that of which we have written records, irrigation by or with the agency of town refuse in its liquid state is, as our readers do not require to be told, but a thing of yesterday. But notwithstanding its recent origin, there is no question connected with our social development which has created so much discussion, and about which so many opposing facts, or assumed facts, have been stated, and so many conflicting claims made. And yet, looking at the subject from what may be called the national point of view, it might be reasonably supposed that the application of liquid sewage to the fertilization of land by one or other of the known methods of irrigation would just be as simple and free from complicated questions as those have been found in practice to present. But in looking closer into it, we find that the difficulties arise just in the way we have already hinted at, from the peculiar circumstances con- nected with urban arrangements ; so that the difficulties present themselves before, not after, the liquid is supplied to the land upon which it is proposed to be used. Taking this view, one would say, then, that those interested in the land should have little reason to concern themselves with any circumstances connected with the sup- ply, but should simply confine themselves to making arrangements by which that supply could be utilized. But it is just from the fact that there is such a close connection between the urban circumstances affecting the supply, and the methods of using it on the lands, that those interested in the latter find that they must concern themselves with the former. This, how- ever, may, from another point of view, be said to depend upon the way in which they look at the whole subject; for if they are content to look upon the supply of town liquid refuse as just so much water, to deal with in the ordinary way of irrigation, plus such fertilizing matters as may be passed into or come along with it to their land, the difficulties above alluded to will be very much lessened, although by no means got rid of. But if, on the other hand, they prefer to look at the subject from what may be called the popular point of view, that sewage is to be considered valuable almost wholly on account of its being a manure, but only in a liquid form, then the difficulties will be found to present themselves in their most aggravated forms, and will have to be dealt with, and in so dealing with them not a little trouble will devolve upon those who attempt to utilize it. For it is just in connection with this very point of considering sewage as a manure of great value, that the opposing facts and conflicting claims we have alluded to take their rise ; and what these have been and are, and how much they have retarded the progress of an important movement, affecting in the closest way large bodies of the community, those only know who are intimately acquainted with the history of its details, and have traced these from the earliest period of its inauguration up till now. For example, farmers have been told that they were guilty of the purest folly in paying high prices for manures brought to them from foreign lands, while they had quite as valuable a supply passing, so to say, their very doors, in a large and ever-increasing stream, which they had merely to arrest and apply its liquid trea- sures to their land, which could be done, if not in the easiest, at least in a very easy way, and at a cost infinitely below that which they paid for the higher priced materials. In brief, while all the difficulties — as difficulties which could not be ignored or overlooked — connected with the subject, or, to use the popular phrase, with the 'utilization of town sewage,' were made the least of, all its advantages or valuable features were made the most of. And, as a natural result of this mode of dealing with the subject, the corporate bodies of those towns who had — as every town had — large volumes of this liquid sewage to dispose of, were known to hold most ex- aggerated views of its value, — to revel, so to say, in golden dreams of profits so great as to constitute to them a vast source of wealth ; and as a farther result, this only added to the difficulties, and prevented them from being met and dealt with in a common-sense way. For, apart from the point as to whether the sewage was or was not so valuable to farmers as the popular party, so 2 D DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. to call it, which looked at all the points of the subject as tinted with the coulcur de rose, main- tained it was, they led the corporations to overlook and quite forget a very essential con- sideration— namely, that before farmers could possibly avail themselves of this valuable manure, it was necessary that it should be taken to them. But here, again, the difficulty was made light of, and assertions were freely made that this transportation of the refuse of the towns to the fields of the farmer could be made not only with the greatest ease, but in the cheapest of ways ; for the very nature of the refuse — its liquid form — presented, it was confidently stated, the exact circumstances under which its move- ment from one place to another could be best, most quickly, and most cheaply done. From the first we held, as we hold now, that the common-sense principles of ordinary commercial dealing shoidd be applied to this subject, as well as to others in which men are concerned with one another ; so that we considered farmers were in relation to corporations simply customers, who might or might not buy the sewage the latter bad to dispose of. But before they could be purchasers, it was but a common-sense view to take of the relationship, that the sewage at least should be placed within their reach, and that proof should be given them of its presumed value, which proof it lay with the seller to pro- duce. We therefore cleared the farmer of the inconsistent charge of folly or blameworthiness laid to him of purchasing foreign and dear manures, neglecting a cheap and home-made one, so to call it ; and if there was folly at all, it was on the side of those who expected him to buy a manure of which, if he was disposed to purchase, he could not obtain possession. And as against what we conceive to be the highly exaggerated value which was popularly attributed to town sewage viewed as a manure, we held that tins value was not so great as was thus stated, but that there were certain circumstances of a grave and special nature which tended greatly to reduce this manurial value, and that if these considerations were overlooked, then no re- port published or opinion given on the subject of sewage utilization could be trustworthy in the true scientific sense of the term. Still further, while admitting freely enough that the manurial constituents of sewage, being in the liquid form, presented great facilities, in an engineering point of view, for its quick and easy transmission from one point to another, we, on the other hand, held that the very large bulk of water present in sewage in its normal condition tended greatly to reduce its agricultural value as a manure, and introduced, moreover, other farming difficulties, to which we shall presently allude. So decided was this difficulty, that many of those who adhered to what we shall, for convenience sake, continue to term the ' popular ' side of the question, endeavoured, if not to get rid, at least to lessen it, by adopting methods of dealing with the sewage by which its solid particles or con- stituents shoidd be separated from it, treated in such a way as to form a solid manure, leaving, at the same time, the liquid so clear and pure that the sanitary difficulty connected with it in its original impure condition would be got rid of, inasmuch as it could then be sent into streams and rivers without contaminating them. Chemical investigations, however, put the point beyond all doubt, that no process could extract from sewage the solid substances in such a way that a paying manure could be formed of them. For, apart from other difficulties connected with such processes, there remained this unfortunate one — unfortunate for the hopes of their pro- jectors— that the most valuable manurial con- stituents of sewage remained in the liquid left after the extracting process, and that these its most valuable constituents could not, by any process which would pay, be obtained from it. In view of these facts, about which much could be written if space permitted, we hold that in dealing with the difficulties to which they gave rise, and in endeavouring to get rid of them, whatever might be the plan which would be found in the majority of cases to be the best adapted to them, that plan would be in the direction of utilizing sewage in its ordinary con- dition, by one or other of the plans of irrigation ; but that, even so far as irrigation was concerned, we maintained that the chances of that being adopted, so as to give the most economical results, would depend very materially upon circumstances of locality. And, further, that in view of the TOWN SEWAGE IRRIGATION— DUTIES OF CORPORATIONS. enormous bulk of the matter to be dealt with in the case of large towns, it might be possible that some modification of the water-carrying system of drainage would have to be introduced before the difficulties attendant upon the question could be met. Still further, it was held by some that the experience of one district or locality in its treatment of town sewage agriculturally would not be an unfading guide as to what would be the experience of another district ; that the circumstances of soil, climate, and locality exercised a potent influence either for good or evil, and were those which would come into play, and must be met and dealt with in con- sidering the chances of success of any scheme of town sewage utilization. Finally, it was held that, taking all these various points now named into consideration, the great probability was that, for some years to come, there would be no general realization of schemes for utilization of town sewage ; that comparatively few would be carried out ; that, when carried out, they woidd not be greatly, if at all, remunerative in a com- mercial sense ; and that, in place of the diffi- culties connected with the question being lessened by the experience of advancing years, the great probability was that they would continue to be uni- versally felt. Such were the opinions we held years ago, and it is, at all events, suggestive of grave consideration when it is now stated that the experience of the past decade has proved, to a very remarkable extent, the general accuracy of the conclusions we have above stated. The town sewage question is still a ' vexed one ;' it is not surrounded with fewer, but what we conceive to be as great difficulties as before. Certainly — and we put this issue very clearly and decidedly — the difficulties are not easily to be overcome. These difficulties, however, we conceive it to be the part of the corporate body of towns to deal with, and we shall only allude to them so far as they may affect the practical details of the method adopted for utilizing sewage. From what we have said, the reader will of course understand that we propose to consider the method of irrigation as the best by which this can be effected, simply assuming that those who purpose applying sewage have at their command supplies of it, without considering by what means, or upon what terms, that supply may be obtained. Leaving, then, all considera- tion of the question whether irrigation is the best mode of dealing with town sewage, let it be granted that it is so, not only in an engineering sense, but that, agriculturally speaking, it is entirely successful in raising crops of all kinds upon all soils, — points which all are by no means agreed upon, — the question here arises, Is there no difficulty, or are there no difficulties, in the way of using this method, or such means as these by which we can utilize the mass of sewage which practically we have to deal with ? Were a reader for the first time to act upon certain reports and papers, — and they are pretty numer- ous,— he would be convinced that in connection with this method of utilization all was cmdeur de rose; that there were no difficulties in the way, or rather, that there was not a difficulty in the way. Let us see if this be so or not; and here it will not be amiss to glance for a moment at one point, to which allusion has been made, namely, whether it would not serve some prac- tical purpose if, under the auspices of Govern- ment— although that we can scarcely hope for — or of one or other or all of our leading agricultural societies, a series of experiments were instituted for the purpose of getting some facts as to the results of land irrigated with water in its ordinary condition, and with sewage as it comes from towns in which manufactures and industrial processes were carried on. Those acquainted with the minutiae of the question will see that such a series might set at rest various points which have risen, not merely with reference to the effects of irrigation, with and without sewage constituents in it, but also with reference to the value for feeding purposes of the produce raised. It would add to the value of such results if the experiments were extended to the raising of the same crops on land not irri- gated at all — that is, cultivated on the usual plan. Those acquainted with the art of irriga- tion per se know that there are more than one or two points connected with it which might receive elucidation, about which we can only at present conjecture. One point, probably, would be set at rest, if, as would be essential, the experiments were conducted in various parts of the king- DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. dom, and on various classes of soils, as it is believed by many that irrigation, although well adapted for certain localities, is not adapted for all, and that in certain seasons it is required only for very few localities and soils. This brings us to the question, What is the pro- portion which land to be irrigated should bear to the sewage used for irrigation ? in other words, what quantity per acre should be applied ? The importance of the question is abundantly evident in view of what we have above stated ; and when we inform the reader, whom we suppose to be ignorant of the facts of the sewage question, that no definite trustworthy answer can be given to the question, he will perhaps agree with us that it is another evidence of what at the outset we plainly stated, that the sewage question has not as yet been thoroughly investigated. For, not- withstanding all that has been done in the way of experiments, and in the more practical work of sewage irrigation, in the neighbourhood of many towns, we cannot get a definite guide as to the quantity of sewage to be applied to a given area of land. When testimony on this point is obtained, we find it of the most conflicting character, and the general result of inquiry may be said to be simply, ' Find it out for yourself.' A remarkable example of this is to be met with in the experience of the Sewage Inquiry Com- mittee of the town of Birmingham. The com- mittee, in pursuance of the object they had in view, — namely, the investigation of the whole subject, the inspection of sewage works already in existence, and the inquiry into new plans and projects brought forward in connection with it, — visited several sewage farms, and addressed a number of inquiries to the authorities of places they did not visit, with a view to gather such information of a practical character as might aid them in coming to a decision on the plan they woidd recommend the corporation of Birmingham to adopt. Amongst other queries they put, was one bearing upon this point of the area of land required to utilize the sewage of a given number of persons, and the number of tons of sewage applied per acre per year. In this, as in all the other branches of their inquiry, they found, as we should have expected, the most conflict- ing testimony and the most discrepant results. It might at first sight be supposed that the relation of the number of persons the sewage of which was applied to an acre, and the number of tons of sewage applied to an acre, would bear a close relation; and that if discrepancy in the results were observable in the column connected with the one, there would be a similar discrepancy in regard to the other. But the information gained by the committee, and published in a condensed form as a table, showed that this is not so, but that with regard to the number of tons per acre used there was, upon the whole, a fair amount of equality. We say a fair amount, for it will be observed that there is, in fact, considerable difference in the results expe- rienced, one using 9400 tons, and another only 3324 tons per acre per year. With the results which the committee ascer- tained, the committee could only average the seven towns, and this gave 5768 tons of sewage to an acre of land. This, it will be observed, gave no rule or law of any practical value, for it is evident that the consumption of sew- age is dependent, first, upon the quality of the soil to which it is to be applied, and, secondly, upon the kind of crops grown on it. These — both land and crops — have their own special capacity, so to say, for consumption ; their appetite varies with circumstances. What the committee had to do was, first, to know the soil they had to deal with and the crops it was to bear, and then see if the experience of other towns would help them to a rule for their own guidance. We have repeatedly, in this volume and elsewhere, drawn attention to the fact, too often overlooked, and which when so gives rise to many grave errors and mistakes in practice, in connection with agriculture as a science, that it is not a fixed one ; that it did not deal with known qualities, so to say, with invariable laws and circumstances ; that, on the contrary, it had to deal with circumstances of an ever-varying character ; and that consequently — to put the matter as briefly as it can be put — the results of one trial of any particular experiment or mode of working gave no index as to what would be the result of another trial, and that this even held good very frequently where, as far as could be VALUE OF TOWN SEWAGE FOR VARIOUS CROPS. -ij obtained, all the circumstances were exactly alike. There is in connection with the operation of certain manures on certain crops, under certain conditions of soil, locality, and character, a some- thing which meir of science have not as yet been, which possibly they never will be, able to grasp, which sets all reasonable conjectures as to the result at defiance. Practical agriculturists have of late years been alive to this, but the over- looking of it has done much to hinder agricul- tural progress, and in the case of the town sewage question has done more to retard real progress than anything else. This difficult element, to be met with in all agricultural experience, will be found exemplified in the table alluded to, and as connected with the position we have supposed the committee who drew it up to have been placed in ; for, granting that they had a soil pre- cisely similar to that to be met with in the towns of Eomford and Bury, and were determined to grow similar crops, what could they have done with the answer to the question, What is the amount of sewage per acre per year you apply ? For, apparently under the same circumstances of soil and cropping, one, the town of Bury, uses 9400 tons ; the other, the town of Romford, uses only a little more than a third of this, namely 3324 tons. Wherein lies the secret of the great difference here existing ? We ask, but get no reply. Falling back, therefore, on the only avail- able data which the experience of these seven towns afforded them, and taking 5768 tons as the number per acre they would require to pro- vide for, the committee found on calculation that no fewer than 4800, nay, 5000 acres would be required for the town of Birmingham. With regard to the getting of this vast extent of land, the committee put the case very summarily out of court, stating that it was manifestly absurd to suppose that an area of this extent ' could be devoted to such a system of farming,' — this system being the cropping of the land with rye grass and vegetables, these being the crops which con- sume or require the largest amount of sewage. But the amount of land shown to be, or likely to be, necessary for Birmingham — and the point holds good for all other places — was made on an assumption that the 6000 tons were needed per acre per year ; but if experience showed that only half this quantity was necessary — as experience might show — it is clear the difficulty as to the land would be doubled. But it is not merely the difficulty as to the procuring of the quantity of land necessary to utilize the sewage of a town that is to be met with in practising irrigation, but that of obtaining the quality of land best calculated to utilize large quantities of sewage. The opinions adverse to the applicability of sewage to all crops, through the experience which has been gained in the interval of the last ten years, are now much modified, and in some cases, those who held it was not so applicable have become convinced that they were wrong. Still, just as it is true that one soil suits a certain crop better than another soil, so it still holds, and will likely ever hold true, that sewage will be more successful when applied to some soils than when applied to others. This is a point which cannot be disputed. Further, we believe that even in the case of soils the most favour- ably disposed, so to say, to stand applications of sewage, an alternation of solid manure with the liquid sewage will be beneficial. We were the first, we believe, to point this out, and that years ago, basing our opinion on the fact well known to practical farmers and agricultural chemists, that, especially in the case of strong soils, a mechanical effect was required to be per- formed upon the soil by the manure in opening up its pores and allowing it to be influenced by the atmospheric agencies. This has, singularly enough, been greatly overlooked in considering the application of liquid sewage to land ; but we are glad to observe that it has been taken notice of in a practical way at the sewage farm at Barking. In a recent report issued by Mr. Morgan, in connection with this farm, we find the following suggestive sentence : — ' We are by degrees establishing a regular system, by which the different plots on the farm will receive a good dressing of dung in succession, my often expressed opinion that such revival of land is necessary to the successful working of it under sewage having been confirmed by increased ex- perience ; and I am satisfied that, had we always followed this system, the crops would have better withstood the tedious " dropping," from which, 1 214 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. trust, we are now escaping.' Take in connection with the above, and the word revival, which we have italicised, and also with what we have said as to irrigation per se, and the practical reader will be able to gather something of importance relative to the effect upon land, either of a long con- tinued or too heavy application to it of liquid manure, without the addition, either at long or short intervals, of the solid dung or manure we believe to be essential to successful farming, whethei that be sewage or not, especially in the case of heavy or close soils. ' There is no doubt that sewage farmers have a great advantage over ordinary market - garden farmers in years of drought ; but in what we have learned to call "dropping-years," this advantage either diminishes, or, in cases of excessive rain, disappears altogether. The crops usually grown, can only take a certain quantity of water, whether it be rain or sewage water ; more than this will always keep them wet, and rot them or kill them.' We have italicised this last sentence, as it bears most closely upon what we have said on the subject of irrigation per se, and that, again, applied to the utilization of town sewage. We are most desirous that the reader should be made acquainted with all the phases of the question, and this cannot be done without giving matter which may be favourable as well as unfavourable, and vice versa, in con- nection with any particular scheme which may be under review. Courses or Channels as Sources of Water Supply in Irrigation Plans. — The kinds and forms of the watercourses used in irrigation for conduct- ing the water from one point to another vary according to circumstances and the nature of the soil, from the simplest rut or plough furrow, up to those which, passing through districts and soils of a different and treacherous character, demand works of a character so complicated, more or less, that they may be said to come under the head of the higher class of engineering work. Such illustrations as we have given will compre- hend only what may be called the simpler classes of water channels, and will be applicable alike to ordinary irrigation, and to that where town sewage is employed ; and our descriptions of these will be of a general character, the nature of our work precluding our giving elaborate details and complicated calculations as to the quantity or the volume of water passed through or along them in a given time. These are, indeed, not necessary, unless in the case of irri- gation works taking in extensive districts of country ; for under the circumstances of ordinary farming, where irrigation is carried out, one is compelled, so to say, to be content with and make the most, in a somewhat rough-and-ready way, of such supplies as may be at command. Roughly stated, however, we may here state that the quantity of water passed by any main channel of supply — for it is only with this class that calculations are made, if calculations are considered necessary — may be estimated by mul- tiplying the cross section of the channel, or rather the water taken at an average level, by the velocity with which it flows along it. This velocity can be most quickly ascertained by using a floating body of a density a little less than that of the water, so that it will give a suffi- ciently accurate indication of the current, and be, as it were, completely under its control. And this floating body should be used at a period when the water flows naturally, and is not in- fluenced by winds blowing either against or with the current. A distance of any given length is then marked off, and the number of seconds noted which it takes to float from one end of tins to the other. This velocity, of course, is but approximate, as that of the water varies at different points, not only at its surface in relation to the border or edges of the channel, but also to that of its depth ; but a mean velocity of the whole body may be calculated at four-fifths of that at the surface. The depth of any channel should always be greater than that of the water, so that a certain depth of soil will be above the former, and thus prevent any damage being done to the banks when high winds are blowing, etc. The inclination of the sides of the channels will, of course, vary according to the nature of the soil through which they pass ; the firmer and more adhesive the soil, as in clay, the sides being steeper, as, for example, in fig. 3, Plate 55, and increasing as the soil increases in lightness, as in the case of a sandy one, as illustrated in fig. 5. This gives the section of water-channels of the form of a trapezium, as in figs. 1 to 5. The WATERCOURSES AS SOURCES OE IRRIGATION SUPPLIES. 21 J inclination of the sides may be taken in degrees, or any scale of equal parts ; and as the soil may, and is very likely to, vary in any considerable length of channel, the inclination of the sides will vary in like manner, but the depth must be uniform. The depth is the guide to the breadth of the bottom of the channel, the two being equal, as the breadth a b, and the height a c, in figs. 1 to 5 inclusive. In marking out the template for cross section, from the points a b erect perpendiculars, a c, b d, and draw a line, as e f, parallel to the bottom line a b ; then from the points c and e any desired proportion of the width a b is set off from the points c d towards e and/, and lines are drawn from a and b to c and/, giviDg the inclination of the sides; the distance, as d / may be twice c e, fig. 5, or three times for light soils, and varying from the same distance, as a b in fig. 1, to one- fourth, as in fig. 3. In some cases where the breadth of channel is considerable, it may be necessary to scarp out the sides, as at f g j, or e h i, fig. 4, Plate 55. When this is done, a good proportion for the breadth of the scarp, / g, is one-third of the breadth, a b, the line g j being parallel to / b. For other parts, see paragraph entitled ' Details of Irrigation Plans.' 2l6 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY CHAPTER VI. SAVING, COLLECTING, AND STORING DP OF WATEB EMBANKMENTS FOR RESERVOIRS. The Influence of Water on Animal Life. — In the varied subjects connected with the improvement of landed property which bear upon the carrying out of what may be called the inner departments of management, such as those of domestic and live stock, there is perhaps none which is treated with such indifference by the great majority of those who are specially interested in both, as that of the water supply. So treated is it by nearly all, that it is apparently considered by them that if water is obtained, it matters little in what con- dition it is ; or, perhaps, to put the matter more correctly, they do not seem to consider that there may be good as well as bad qualities, and that it might be worth while to procure the one in prefer- ence to the other — the pure rather than the impure. There can be no doubt of the fact, physiologically considered, that the quality of the water habitually partaken of does exercise an important influence upon health. This may be at once conceded as true in the case of human organisms ; it will not be so readily conceded, we fear, in the case of the stock of our farms. Indeed, there is not a more remarkable feature of farming than the notion which many engaged in it hold with reference to the powers of endurance, and the capability to resist bad or unhealthy influences, possessed by our cattle. Assuredly the popular notion is that they ' can stand anything,' as the phrase goes ; and we see a peculiar outcome of this notion with respect to one of the animals of the farm in the phrase, ' as strong as a horse,' as if by this was meant to be conveyed an ability to undergo any trial of strength, or resist any influence for evil to which the animal might be subjected. Nor is this notion confined to the horse ; it applies, unfortu- nately, to the cattle as well ; and yet it is neither more nor less than the true statement of the fact, to say that the animals of our farms have a most delicate organization, requiring the exercise of the greatest care on the part of those who keep them. The most advanced of our veterinary authorities have for long endeavoured to indoctrinate the popular mind with this notion, that our stock are not the hardy animals they are supposed to be, but that, peculiarly liable as they are to un- healthy influences, the greatest care should be taken in their general treatment — markedly so in the case of the food they eat, and, we may here add, in the water they drink. It should never be lost sight of, that in the general organi- zation of animals there is much that resembles that of ourselves, and it is therefore reasonable to assume that they are possessed of many of our feelings, and influenced in a degree more or less by our likes and dislikes. Much might be said on this subject, and much that is peculiarly valuable as applied to the case of stock can be gathered from it ; but at present we must be content with the general statements we have advanced, only noting — what, indeed, is evident — the close bearing they have on the immediate subject of our chapter. Por, admitting, as may readily enough be admitted, that if water in the muddy and filthy state in which it is often sup- plied at our farms would be bad for us if we were habitually to partake of it, it cannot possibly have otherwise than a similar effect upon our cattle, seeing that much of their organism resembles so closely our own. But if analogy is forbidden us, we can call in the evidence afforded us by the direct inquiries of our veterinarians, M'ho tell us in language unmistakeable, that bad water, given habitually to the stock, exercises a most deleterious influence upon their health. We know well enough the danger that arises by SAVING AND COLLECTING OF WATER FOR FARMING PURPOSES. 217 partaking of putrid food, or food that may be in the stages immediately preceding putridity, caus- ing, as it does, those dangerous zymotic diseases unfortunately too widely known ; and we have no doubt that, in consequence of the rapidity with which the putrid matters are assimilated, as compared with those in the solid form, putrid or bad water is more dangerous than putrid or bad meat. Those who have had practically to deal with stock know well enough how very rapidly their secretions are influenced by the nature of the food which they eat, and by the way in which that food is prepared. Indeed, we know of no department of stock-farming so sug- gestive as this is, and we should be glad to see more attention paid to it. We have known immediate results arise from the use of a certain class of water when partaken of. Nor is the question of water supply decided by merely sup- posing it connected with the drinking purposes of the stock, nor less marked, but unfortunately much less obvious, and consequently much more neglected, is the effect of water when used in the preparation of cattle food. In view of the fact that cooked and otherwise mixed or prepared food is largely used in farm economy, it is all the more important that the water be of good quality. It is difficult to say what are the losses sustained from the habit of giving stock bad food ; and, as a prac- tical fact, it matters little whether the bad food arises from the bad nature of its solid or its liquid constituents. No matter how good the solid constituents — food, in popular parlance — may be, if prepared with bad water, it is obvious enough that the practical result is as if the food had been bad in place of good. We have said enough for our purpose — not enough, if the full import- ance of the subject could be met by a thorough discussion of it— as to the necessity that exists for a supply of pure water, as well for the pur- poses of our cattle as for those of the inhabitants of our farm-houses or our cottages. The Saving and Collecting of Water. — Much as has been written, printed, and said on this subject, and deeply apparently as this has im- pressed the minds of those directly interested in it, we have little hesitation in saying that its importance is not yet thoroughly compre- hended ; far less — and partly as a consequence of this, partly from such points not having been so much brought forward — has the public mind any fair or adequate conception of the many advantages which would accrue to farmers and those connected with estates had they at all times a command of water in large bulk, and of easy and economical management or handling, if such a term can be used in connection with such a material. For it is not merely because this would be useful, and highly so, under the ordinary circumstances of work, where the whole subject carries with it so much that is of high practical importance ; but because it can be made available in modes and under circumstances of which as yet it is only the more advanced of our engineers and agriculturists who have any adequate con- ception. As it is not the object of the present brief chapter to enter into any detail of these, or, indeed, of the subject generally, we content ourselves by having thrown out a hint or two merely, which may, by working in the minds of some, result in some of the very adaptations or uses to which we have alluded, and pass on to notice one or two practical points connected with the gathering or collecting and the storing up of the water so collected. As part of what we may have to say on these points may be applied to another department of land work, it will thus serve a double purpose, which purpose will be more fully shown as we proceed. As to the gathering or collecting of water at present allowed to run to waste, a large and useful essay or paper could easily be written, and one which could be made to abound in notes of extreme value. We content ourselves by taking up one case of supposed circumstances in connection with this, giving a few hints of a practical character. In several districts where the land at all approaches to the character of hilly, and, indeed, in many where it is known as ' rolling' or of moderately unequal surface, there are valleys or depressions through which rivulets or streams flow ; these at times being scarcely perceptible, so small and trifling is the water which passes along, but at other times rushing through the valley in the wild and tumultuous fashion of a flooded stream. In such localities, and under such circumstances, opportunities favourable for the most part are presented, by 2 E 2l8 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY which, at a comparatively trifling expense, water — and in such places it is generally of a good quality — may be stored up in such bulk as to put aside all fear on the part of the farmer, and, indeed, one may say of the surrounding neighbourhood, that times of excessive drought, which now and then come, and in which water both for man and beast is found to be indeed a ' precious gift,' will ever come to afflict the locality. Reservoir Embankments. — We have said that under such circumstances of locality this storing up can be effected at a comparatively trifling cost. This, of course, greatly depends upon the way in which the work is gone about, there being in this, as in other departments of work, two ways, — the bad, which is the dear ; the good, which is the cheap way, even although at first sight the latter may appear to be by far the most expensive of the two. But it is best not to be penny wise and pound foolish in work of this kind. The mere choice of the site at which the reservoir or storage place is to be made greatly influences the cost and efficiency of the work. The dam or embankment may be thrown across the valley or depression of the land at a point where not only will it take longest time to make, but where there may be a difficulty in getting materials to form it unless they are carted or wheeled from a dis- tance. The position or site chosen, moreover, may be such that it will require the most expensive kind of work, while another site would offer many ail vantages, and yield facilities for the formation of the bank, — form, indeed, a part of it by some natural formation, bend, or curvature of the land. All these points should be carefully attended to before the work is begun. Where obtainable, the best site for a dam, stretching across a valley or depression, is where the valley narrows to a minimum width, with high and firm banks on either side, and where the land above the embankment trends outward from it, forming a kind of basin which gradually shallows in the upper edge and to the sides. A reservoir in such a place can be formed at the minimum of expense, other circumstances being equal. A good deal of ignorance exists on the sub- ject of raising embankments to resist the pressure of water, and many have been made by professional men of standing which have not been successful ; while others have been quite the reverse, although put up by the ordinary agents of the estate, who have laid no claim to special knowledge of the subject. Much, it is right to say, of the defective work to be met with arises from the peculiar nature of the soil or site, and also from the peculiarly treacherous nature of the material the makers have to contend with. The most careful attention is requisite in examin- ing the soil of the site of the intended dam or embankment. This is all the more necessary, inas- much as it must be remembered that that part of the valley or depression in which the stream or rivulet runs forms but a small portion, or takes up but a small part, of what may be called the base of the valley or hollow, stretching between the banks on either side, which form the sides of the reservoir, and the abutments, so to say, of the embankment against which its ends press. The consequence of this is, that the soil or base of the embankment bears a very large proportion to the width of the stream which it is to dam up, even in times of flood. There may be, and are, excep- tions to this, in which the valley or depression is so narrow that the breadth of its base occupied by the stream is perhaps larger or wider than the unoccupied land on either side. But the cases met with in practice are, as a rule, distinguished by the characteristics named in the first instance ; hence the necessity of seeing that the soil on which the base of the embankment rests is of a firm and sound character. The usual way to ascertain this is to sink trial or test holes along the centre line of embankment, and generally over its sur- face. But in connection with the work of embankments, there is none which has raised such a diversity of opinion as this same sinking of test holes. At first sight it appears to be the most common-sense way in which to ascertain the character of the soil on which the super- structure is to be raised ; but, on the other hand, it should be remembered that the very sinking of these wells may be the means of causing disturbance in the strata, bringing about move- ments of perhaps shifting soils or quicksands, or, what is equally bad, if not worse, the exposing of subterranean springs, which, when thus opened up, are sources of annoyance and loss to the con- tractor, and often, indeed, test his patience to the RESERVOIR EMBANKMENTS-DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION. 2ig utmost. Hence, while there are those who hold that you ought to know the soil you are to build upon, there are others who maintain that, if the natural surface is firm, sound, and solid, it is by far the best way to use it as it is, with such pre- cautions of a simple yet useful character, as ramming or beating the ground at various parts, to ascertain if possible if the ground is hollow beneath or of a mobile character ; — an experi- enced ear can in many cases detect faults by this alone. The one, in fact, tries to find out faults ; the other says, Be satisfied with the site as it is, presenting as it does — this being the supposition — all the appearances of being sound and firm ; in short, better to bear the chances of future evil, than to adopt such plans as will bring into exist- ence those which have none now, or of which we do not dream. Still it should not be forgotten that, in many cases, the after plan of proceeding which the latter opinion necessitates, namely, putting down the embankment with its base simply resting upon the natural surface of the soil, will not suffice to secure a good foundation. For to those who know the exceedingly treacherous nature of water, how it acts, and how this action is continually going on night and day, it would seem to be a very hazardous experiment, in- volving many chances of after labour in the way of repair, or perhaps of the total destruction of the dam or embankment, to place the base simply on the natural soil. The position of the embankment being decided upon, the first thing to be done is to lay out its actual site. The line of an embankment is generally straight, although in some cases curved ones are adopted, and stretching across the valley in such a way that it will be the shortest straight line which could be adopted. But although this is the rule, there are circumstances which make exceptions to it. Thus, if one end of the embankment be opposite a part of the valley on the other side which does not offer the best ' abutment,' or butting-point, but a better being either higher up or lower down, the line of embankment should be made oblique, or stretch across the valley in a line not at right angles to it, so as to enable a firm foundation to be made, and the junction between the base of the embankment and the face of the land, in the upper side of it, forming the bottom of the reservoir, to be perfectly water-tight. The site of the foundation having been thus prepared, the next point is the raising of the embankment which it has to sustain. In this work the three principal points to be attended to are, first, ' the junction of the base with the site ;' second, ' the finishing of the ends of the embank- ment ; ' and third, ' the raising of the super- structure.' The junction of the base of the embankment with the site or trench of foundation is a work requiring the greatest care. The 'puddling clay' requires to be most particularly attended to in its preparation, so that no stones be left in, and specially no decaying matter, as turf, pieces of wood, small branches of trees, and the like. There is no ' enemy,' so to say, which works so insidiously and secretly as water, and it takes advantage of every weak point in the embank- ment , and weak points are soon made by the presence of the substances, especially the last, we have named. Subsidence leads to loosening, and thence to cracks and crannies; and these are entered by the water, the passage of which through the embankment is facilitated by foreign substances, round which it works. Hence the more solid the puddling clay is the better ; and this can only be obtained by having good clay and putting it down well. This last is seldom properly attended to, and yet there is no difficult)' in the work ; great care and honest good work are all that are required. The thinner the layers of clay put clown at a time, the more secure the puddling. In the contractor's or workman's anxiety to see an embankment rise rapidly, the clay is put down in layers of from 12 to 15 inches thick. Now it will at once be obvious that it is impossible to ram a deep mass of clay so firmly that all its particles cohere one with another, and no voids or spaces left, as when the layers are thin, and the power of the rammer felt through the whole mass. This is the great secret of puddling. Hence, lajrers of 9 inches deep or thick will give much better work than those of 12, and 6 inches better than 9. If the clay be in good condition, 9-inch layers will be a good medium thickness. The whole surface of the foundation trench should be brought DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY regularly up in uniformly thick layers, care being taken not to raise one part higher than another ; in other words, the ' course ' or layer should be laid down and finished over the whole breadth and length of the embankment before another is laid down. When the ground level of the bottom of what will be the reservoir is reached, the utmost care should be taken in forming a com- plete junction between the layer next laid down and the one below, so that the edges — the upper one obviously especially — be as water-tight as it is possible to make them. If care at other points of height in the embankment be grudged, it must not be grudged at this point, which may be called its ' testing ' or crucial point. As the embankment rises in height, it is gradually 'taken in' in width, starting from the ground level till the proper width at the desired height is attained. This taking in must be adjusted by wood sets — ' templates ' or moulds — the size and outline, with slope of back and front faces, being the same as the cross section of the embankment. The second point, ' the finishing of the ends of the embankments,' is one of great importance, when these ' butt ' up or rest against the faces of the valley. In such cases it is a question whether the ends should not simply be laid down upon the natural surface, or the face be scarped or cut in, so as to form a species of vertical trench or opening. Much will depend upon circumstances. If the face against which the end butts be smooth grass, it will be the safest way to make the junction with a trench; but if it be rough and rocky, and not very uneven on the surface, as this will afford a good ' key' or hold for the puddle, it will be best to remain as it is. Theoretically, a perfect embankment may be supposed to be a continuation of the sides of the valley stretching across the open space, filling it solidly up, so that no joints or spaces be left at the ends. The more perfect, there- fore, the junctions between the embankment and the valley sides at its ends, the better. In cases •where there is a valley side, or ' butting' point, as high or higher than the embankment at one side only, and the other side crops out till it reaches the adjacent ground level, then the outer end towards this side must be gradually reduced in height, sloping gently downwards and outwards till it reaches the ground level outside (see fig. 14. Plate 57, at c). Here, again, the question comes up, Is it better to cut a trench in the ground to receive the base of the sloping end, as in fig. 8, or simply to commence the puddling on the ordinary surface of the land? What we have said on this point with reference to the main part of the embankment will apply to this case. But in whatever way the junction between the natural soil and the base of the embankment be made, as well as its ends or terminating points, it will be of essential importance to see that the line of junction be well puddled ; this being required more especially at the upper or water side, so that the water cannot escape from the reservoir through openings to the main part of the puddling. And the facility and certainty with which this can be clone when a trench is cut to receive the base, as compared with the plan of simply resting the puddling of the em- bankment on the natural surface, is the best argument in favour of its adoption. The dif- ference between the two will be obvious. When the embankment rests simply on the surface, the water is much more apt to get below the base when having to pass merely along the surface to reach any defective part in the line of junction, than when a trench is used, as it has first to descend through the puddle before it can reach the base. And it is much more difficult to ram the puddle well up and into the junction in the first than in the latter case. We now come to the rearing of the super- structure, or upper part of the embankment above the ground level, and the method of finish- ing off the surface, etc. Much of what has to be done with this has been already given in con- nection with the raising of the ends, and the filling up of the trench of the base of the central part of the embankment, for the work is through- out very much of the same character. The puddling is to be raised in successive layers, and in the manner already described. These layers may be a little thicker nearer the centre of the embankment than those in the base ; but as the main object is to have the structure as uniform as possible, the materials forming a solid struc- ture, it will be advisable to have the whole carried up in the same style from base to top. CONSTRUCTIVE DETAILS OF EMBANKMENTS. An important part of the work of embanking is the method to be employed in finishing off its surface. A variety of opinions are given on this point. Some advocate the facing of both water and the free or lower sides throughout with stone ; some with turf, afterwards sown with seeds of grasses which have long roots ; some with wood. Some confine the facing to the water side only, with the exception of the top and a small part down from the top of the lower side ; while others merely cover the top and a part of the sides, on both upper and lower sides, with stone. On each of these we shall have a word or two to offer. First, as regards the facing of the whole em- bankment with stone. We have already alluded to the abrading or wearing down and insinuat- ing power of water. Now, as puddle at the best can scarcely claim to be a solid material, however carefully done, it is obvious that it will be dangerous to expose it too freely to the water action. Hence the value of facing the embank- ment with a material, over the surface of which the water, in time of floods, will pass harmlessly, as regards the top and lower side, and which on the water side will at all times protect the puddle below it. Great art is required to lay the stones if these be of unequal size — as rubble or undressed stones, or large pebble blocks — so that they will bond well together, and present a surface offering as few interstices as possible. In no case should one stone ride over another, but each and all should be well based aud secured to the puddle below, and present, when finished, a surface as uniform as possible, with few or no projecting parts. Where coursed rubble or tool-dressed stones are used, the laying will be comparatively easy, as they will run in courses or even lines. The top lining requires to be done with special care ; and to give a free and easy passage to the water at the corners where it joins with the side facings, wood balks or sills may be let in; although the best material, and one which could be moulded, so to say, into the best form, would be Portland cement con- crete. With some, after the stone facings are finished, a heap of stones is thrown loosely down at the base or ' toe ' of the embankment on the water side, and extending for some two or three feet inward. This acts as an ' apron,' or pro- tecting heap, to the ' toe,' and prevents the wasting action of the water on the puddle at the junction line with the ground. The plan of facing the embankment with grassy turf is very often followed, and when well done, and the joints get filled up in course of time and covered over with vegetation, it forms a good facing for the lower side, the top, and part of the way down from this on the water side, the remaining or lower part of the water side being faced with stone or wood. In laying the turf, the slices or cuts should be so placed, with relation to each other, that the joining points shall ' break joint,' as it is technically termed, — that is, the solid part of one cut or piece of turf, say in the centre of its length, should be placed next the joints formed by the two pieces next contiguous above and below. A good supply of turf will have been obtained by taking off the surface in opening the base trench of the embankment ; and as they are taken off in carefully cut pieces, they should be built up at some point within easy reach. The pieces or cuts should be rather short than long, as they will be laid more easily and uniformly. When laid, the surface, or, at all events, the parts near the joints, should be well rammed down with a broad-faced rammer. Turf-faced embankments present generally a very smooth surface, over which the water glides very easily, without much of a tendency to wear it down or penetrate into holes or crannies ; this last being greatly prevented by the grassy blades covering over and lying upon, and being pressed down upon the openings by the force of the water itself. One great objection, however, to turf- faced embankments is the ease with which vermin, as rats and mice, rabbits, etc., burrow their way through it, and, what is worse, into the very centre of the embankment. There is no remedy for this, and all that can be done is to examine the surface frequently, get the vermin out, if possible, and make good the holes they have made by ramming them well up witli puddle. To give the turf a good hold of the face of the embankment, some recommend the sowing of the surface with grass seeds having long, DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. penetrating, and reticulated roots, such as the 'couch ' or common twitch grass {Triticum repens). This is a doubtful plan, for the roots have a tendency to loosen the puddle, and when they die, their decay allows of settlement. In view, indeed, of the importance of keeping all decaying matter out of the puddle forming the embank- ment, some engineers keep all vegetation as much as possible from embankments ; and there can be no doubt that the standard of efficiency to be carried out is the having the whole bulk of the embankment composed throughout of material incapable of organic changes. "We now come to wood facing. This is econo- mical, easily laid down, and, if the pieces be well laid down and secured, and previously ' Bethel- lized,' or soaked in coal tar or some other preservative, will last some time. The pieces or planks require to be laid carefully down, and to break joint, and laid so as to have their length in the direction of a line from top to bottom of the embankment. It will be a question merely of expense as to whether the facings we have described will cover the whole or only part of the embankment surface ; as to the question of efficiency of the first-named plan there being no doubt. If only part be covered, then the part must, as essential to the safety of the struc- ture, embrace the top and part of the way down of both sides. In such a case, ' aprons ' of loose stones will be required at both outside and inside ' toes ' or feet of the embankment. The appliance to be made for leading off water from the reservoir to any other point, more or less distant, must be carried out with the greatest care, especially if this be a pipe passing through the embankment from the water to the lower side. The water, however, may be led off by ail open dam, the sluice opening being made, not in the embankment itself, but at the side of the reservoir, some short distance from the embank- ment. To ensure the safety of the embankment in times of sudden and heavy floods, when the mere running of the water over the top would not be sufficient to relieve the reservoir, or be too deep or in too large volume to be safe, it will be necessary to have a culvert or pipe near the base of the embankment, passing completely through it, and provided with proper sluices and valves. Tliis will also be useful in emptying the reservoir when it is required to be cleaned out; the deposit, being exceedingly useful in the formation of compost heaps, should be saved. Of the two methods named above, the cul- vert of brick, and the pipe of cast iron, by far the safest is the culvert. It is exceedingly difficult to lay a pipe so that it will not be the means of forming crevices and allowing of settle- ments in the embankment. The difficulty is such that it can scarcely be overcome, and not a few accidents have happened by the employ- ment of iron pipes supposed to be perfectly laid. There is scarcely a possibility of bedding the pipe in the puddle so that the water cannot pass between the two. If pipes be used, they should be laid in a small brick drain or culvert, the outside of this affording a good band between the bricks and the puddle, and admitting of little or no settlement. Description of Illustrations of Details of Con- struction and Fittings of Embankments. — Fig. 1, Plate 57, illustrates a general form in section of an embankment, with a puddled centre, abed. This, however, is not always provided, although it greatly adds to the security of the bank. It may simply rest on the natural surface, as in fig. 1 , or be stepped or benched in, as at fig. 7. In some soils it may be advisable to place a layer of stones beneath its base, but this may be usually dispensed with. The slope of the inner or water face, c e, of the bank, fig. 1, may be from 2 to 3 to 1, and that of the outer or lower face, / e, 1^ to 1, or 1 to 1. The toe, c, may be pro- tected with stones, as at fig. 8, the toe being benched in as shown. The water or inner face of the embankment is generally stone-faced, although in some cases, as in small banks, it is simply grass-covered or turfed. To protect the top of the puddle bank from the wash of the overflow, it is covered with stones, as at b c. The outer face, over which the overflow passes, is often simply turf-covered, the turf slices being laid so as to 'break joint,' as at fig. 11, and are frequently pegged down at intervals, as at fig. 12, till the roots get a firm hold of the face of the bank. In cases where turf is not used, the lower face of the bank is either wholly covered with stone, or partly FACING OF, AND CARRYING CULVERTS THROUGH, EMBANKMENTS. 223 with this and partly with wood planking, the latter being towards the top of the bank, as at g in fig. 1. The planking is usually set downwards, as at a in fig. 13 ; sometimes across the face, as at b ; or arranged as in fig. 1 0, Plate 5 7, the beams a a being disposed to form either square or rectangular spaces, which are filled up with stones as shown. We have said that a series of embankments may be made in a valley which admits of this disposition, beginning with a low one, as at a in fig. 1, Plate 51, and terminating at b with the highest. The spaces between each become gradually water-filled, as in fig. 2, Plate 57, the water from one passing partly, in times of flood, over the top, or led through culverts, as at a in fig. 2, Plate 57. In leading off the water for any of the purposes recpiiired, as there is always a great difficulty in getting a perfectly water-tight junction between the surface of the pipe and the material of the bank, if the nature of the land outside the reservoir will admit of it, it will be safer to lead the pipe, as in fig. 2, Plate 57, at a a, entering the reservoir at some convenient point, as b, rather than carrying it through the body of the bank, as at c. The solid natural ground being, in the first instance, above and under the pipe, as at d in fig. 3, no danger need be apprehended. It should never be forgotten that water is one of the most insidious enemies we have to contend with in such cases ; the mere confining oi the weight or bulk of it is, in com- parison, ' mere child's play,' so to say, and the most appalling of accidents have been proved to have arisen from the plan of carrying a pipe through the bank, between the surface of which and the material of the bank there is no natural cohesion. And the slightest orifice or vacuity becomes gradually enlarged, and, by the pressure of the water, lengthened, till a passage is made from end to end. If the ' leading' pipe must be carried through the bank, a brick culvert will be the safer, as the clay, b, fig. 4, Plate 5 7, etc., of the bank can be better ' bonded,' so to say, between the interstices of the bricks, a, as shown at fig. 6. Where pipes are used, — and they possess so many advantages for the conveyance of water over brick culverts, — the safest way is to carry them through the interior of a brick sub-way, as c c, fig. 4, Plate 57, resting the pipe, d, upon saddles, so that it can be got all round at the joints. It need scarcely be said that the same objections to the use of iron pipes obtain as to clay or earthen- ware ones, although not to the same degree, as the clay of the puddling, etc. adheres better to their surfaces than to those of iron. Pig. 3, Plate 51, shows two methods of fixing the pipe at its entrance to the reservoir, in the inner face. Pig. 5 shows two forms of earthenware tubes for the con- veyance and leading off of the water, these being, in fact, acting sewer cr drain tubes. The sides of reservoirs are generally left in their natural condition, that is, without any artificial lining of stone or brick. Where there are projecting parts at top, as at a, fig. 5, Plate 57, as these are apt to be washed down in time, it is best to cut them down; or when the sides are nearly perpen- dicular, as at c, they may be sloped as shown by the dotted line, b c. In large, or rather long reservoirs, this work of giving a uniform slope or face to the sides, although an improvement, cannot be done save at considerable expense throughout their whole extent, but only at parts. But in small reservoirs, or what may be called large open tanks, such as near the steading, this may be done with useful effect. At parts where the soil is of a loose and treacherous character, puddling the sides may be resorted to with bene- ficial effect, and at very bad points it may be necessary to line them with masonry, as at figs. 9 and 10, Plate 35. This may be rough rubble, as at a b in fig. 9, or coursed ditto in fig. 10. Part of the sides, as at b b, fig. 9, Plate 35, may be of timber planking, disposed either as at a and b, fig. 13, Plate 5 7, or timber beams, as at a a, fig. 10, may be used, with the spaces filled in with stones. This kind of finishing to the surface may be used either for the upper part or the whole of the surface of the outer face of the embankment, fig. 1, Plate 57. Fig. 7 is the section of a small reservoir or tank, designed for cases where the soil of the sides is of a peculiarly treacherous character, the sides having inwardly a curve, in place of a straight slope, and are backed carefully with puddle. The line a may be sufficient to represent the gangway thrown across, from which to work the sluice or stop-valve of the leading-pipe. The regulation of the water to the pipe may be done 2 24 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. dither at the upper or lower face of the embank- ment; a 'stop' valve is the most convenient, and it is worked by various methods, one of which is shown at fig. 6, Plate 51, this being fixed to a gangway thrown across the embank- ment. Another method is shown in fig. 4, where the entrance to the pipe, and the stop-valve regulating the flow, are within a tower of brick- work carried up to the level of the gangway, the valve being worked by a rod, as at a, and at top by an apparatus such as is shown in fig. 6. Water is admitted to the tower by port- holes, as at b, fig. 4, placed at intervals in its height. Fig. 9, Plate 57, is a diagram illustrating the relative values of ' puddling ' in thick layers, as a, and thin, as b, for 4which see previous remarks on this important process. RIVER AND SEA BANK IMPROVEMENTS. 225 CHAPTER VII. RIVER AND SEA BANK IMPROVEMENTS. General Consideration respecting River Bank Im- provements. — Before commencing any work connected with the improvement of river banks, especially towards those parts which approach near to other property, or ' march,' that is, run alongside the property of an adjoining proprietor, it is essentially necessary that the agent should have a thorough understanding with all the proprietors whose lands are likely to be affected by the improvements, as these, as a rule, always bring about changes in what may be called river action. And this understanding should not be a merely verbal one ; the whole details should be recorded in what, in popular phrase, is termed ' black and white,' or in regular legal form. This will save much trouble in the future, and, at all events, it is a wise thing to have a document to refer to, as men with the best memories are apt to forget what they said, or to assume that they did say ' so and so ;' and this they may do at an after date with the most honest intention. The neces- sity of being very guarded in all matters relating to rivers and streams is all the more imperative on the part of the agent, as there is, perhaps, no point connected with landed property which is so much involved in difficulty and uncertainty as the law respecting river or water rights. The most con- flicting verdicts have been given by juries, the most puzzling opinions delivered by judges, and to such an extent that it is really difficult to say what is the law. Considering the vast interests bound up in the question, the damage done to property by floods, etc., all tend to make it one to which the attention of the Legislature ought to be directed, and that speedily, in order to place it upon a proper and satisfactory basis. Protection of River Banks. — Although work of this class comprises a very wide variety of cases, it may be classified under two heads : first, those in which the river bank or margin is above ; second, where it is about or even below the level of the water. Each of these cases embraces so many examples, one varying in kind and degree from the other, that the subject as a whole would re- quire the area, so to say, of a special volume, in order to do justice to all the varying details. We can but glance at the leading features of the whole subject. In either carrying out repairs, or in erecting new works for the protection of river banks, the great principle ever to be borne in mind essential to success is, that the freer from obstruction and projecting surfaces, or, to use a popular phrase, the smoother the surface, or rather, as it may be more clearly put, the more uniformly the surface is kept up or made of either the natural banks or of artificially constructed embankments, the more likely are the banks and works to withstand the action of swift-flowing and strong currents. All inequalities tending to arrest the flow have a ten- dency in proportion to increase its erosive action, indeed to create it ; for a stream which will flow over a uniformly smooth surface, without in the least damaging it, will, in flowing over a rough one, do hurt, more or less proportionate to the obstruc- tive points. The mere cutting down, therefore, of the faces of banks to a uniform surface, and to a moderately low level, "will, if the material be at all cohesive, often arrest destructive action, still more effectively if covered with sward. This principle applies to all work, whether it comes under the first or the second class above stated. We shall take up the subject of river margins, the adjoining lands of which are, either on both sides or on one side only of the river, below its average level, — cases such as this requiring the employ- 2f 226 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. ment of embankments. We have said so much under the head of ' Reservoir Embankments for the Storage of Water' in Chap. VI., and more will be given in the chapter treating of ' Sea Margin Embankments,' that little will require to be stated here save in a general way, as the details of embanking work are generally applicable to nearly all cases. The formation of embankments on river margins, and the difficulty or otherwise of their construction, will depend upon the nature of the circumstances. The most difficult will obviously be those in which the stream is of rapid flow, and subject to great and sudden rises in floods ; the formation of those on the banks of rivers which flow through alluvial districts, and which are not rapid or subject to sudden floods, is a simple operation. But in laying it out, it should be borne in mind that it is always unsafe to contract the river too much for the mere sake of gaining an extra breadth of land. The two objects should be carried out, so to say, pari passu, the improvement of the river flow and the reclaiming of the land. All too sudden and over contraction of the bed of the stream must be avoided, and the position and form of the embankment should be such as to facilitate its flow, this being best done by arranging to throw the body of the water into the centre. Indeed, the major portion of river defects arise from the stream being deflected to the sides, necessitating special works to overcome the difficulties thus occasioned. At the end of the chapter will be found a description of the best form to be given to the embankment, as well as various details as to its construction. In work of the first class already named, in which the river is below the level of the banks, the cases are very numerous in which the attention of the engineer is required. If of a soft yielding nature on one side of the river, and of the opposite character on the other, the stream is often deflected from the firm side, and rapidly wears down the loose matter on the opposite. In cases of this kind the soft bank should be protected from the action of the de- flected current by stones, and in bad cases by piling; while in other cases, 'groins,' such as at a, fig. 13, Plate 58, are sometimes thrown out, made of timber work and piling, and backed by stones, the object being to throw the water into the centre of the stream as much as possible. Figs. 13 and 14, Plate 58, also illustrate the use of groins in protecting valuable projecting tongues of land, which are apt to be washed away in course of time. Great judgment is, however, necessary in putting down groins, as, in place of doing good, they often, on the contrary, create mischief, by forming currents which had previously no existence. Some engineers, there- fore, discard their use altogether, and trust entirely to other methods of protecting banks which are liable to give way under the action of the water. Much also can be done by altering the forms of the banks, so as to lessen the corrosive action of the water, and thereafter protecting them by various expedients. In fig. 3, Plate 5 7, we give, by way of example, one way in which this may be done, in which we suppose the dotted lines a to indicate the bank, which projects out- wards very much. In this case the action of the water is to keep corroding the soil beneath till the upper part falls down. The better way is to cut the face of the bank till it becomes straight, as shown by the dotted line b, the foot being protected by stones at point c, and, if the current is strong, by piles in front of these. In protecting tJw face of river banks there are various modes in use. Some of these we have already alluded to, but in figs. 9, 10, and 11, Plate 58, we give illustrations of three classes of work, adapted from a paper by Mr. Stevenson, the consulting engineer to the Highland and Agricul- tural Society, in a paper on the subject in the Transactions of the Society. These methods are adapted to cases in which the average level of the water varies, and in which embankments form a feature of the construction ; but they may be used for modified circumstances which will suggest themselves to the reader. For the facing work, poles and fascines, or bundles of twigs, stones, etc., are used, these being protected in front by sheet piling, as shown. Fig. 11 is a method adopted in cases where the stream is, on the average, low, passing through an alluvial soil, the land being protected by an embankment as shown. In fig. 9, Plate 58, the method illus- trated is adapted to the case we have already alluded to, in which the strong current has formed ' an acute bend in the bank, and hollowed out a EMBANKING OF TIDAL RIVERS. 227 deep pool in the bed.' In this the bank is faced with round piles, a, and cross planking, b, with piles and faggots or fascines, c, at back ; other faggots, as d, are placed above, and at top of all a turf embankment. The piles are protected at foot by stones, /. g shows the level of lowest or sum- mer water ; the faggots at c are backed with clay puddling. Where the depth of water is not so great, the plans in figs. 1 0 and 1 1 may be adopted. In fig. 1 0 the width of turf embankment at top, «, is 3 feet 6 inches ; the slope at back, 1^ to 1 foot ; the facing planking, b, is 2 inches thick ; the cross- tie or brace, c, 8 inches by 3 ; the piles, 8 inches diameter ; the part d is to be filled up to grass line, level. In fig. 11, a is 3 feet wide ; slope of face b, 2 to 1 ; c, 1 to 1 ; d, grass level ; e, ditto of summer water. Mr. Stevenson gives the useful hint that the planting in time, before much or any damage is done, of a 'few willow saplings' may do away with the necessity of driving many ' piles of full-grown timber.' In the improvement of Tidal Rivers, indepen- dently of the value of the land which may be reclaimed, the navigation may be also improved ; indeed, as the authority we have already quoted states, the ' interests of navigation and agricul- ture ' are in such cases ' identical,' and the erection of training walls, such as we roughly indicate in the sketch in fig. 12, Plate 58, by guiding the river, and thus improving the naviga- tion, may at the same time greatly promote the interests of agriculture, by rendering such whole- sale destruction of the land byfloods and the erosive action of rivers impossible, ' and by converting reclaimed marsh land into permanent property.' Numerous examples are now happily to be met with in the country to prove the truth of this, and many thousands of acres have been added by attention to it to the property of the kingdom. In fig. 12, Plate 58, the distance from a to & shows the outer margin of the marsh land ; b to c, grass patches ; c to d, slob or silt ; d to e, sand ; e f g h, the ' training walls' confining the river, i, in a certain channel. The line a j is that of high- water spring tides ; c k, high-water neap tides. Sea Banks, running at a low level along land, are frequently protected by running out timber ' groins' at right angles to the bank. The sim- plest form of groin is that shown in fig 1, Tlate 58, in which a a are the piles, b b the planking secured to the piles. The details in the larger scale, fig. 2, show the method where the planking is double, d e, enclosing the piles, as /, by collect- ing the beach stones, shingle, etc., in front at foot, and alongside the bank on either side of the groin. In many cases these 'groins' are more or less effective in protecting the bank by gathering and depositing in a pretty uniform style banks of shingle or sea-beach stones, sand, etc., which form a species of breakwater, tending to facilitate the easy ascent of the waves up, and their propor- tionately easy recession down the face ; and also in measure more or less effective tend to throw back the waves from the bank. In Essex, where there is much sea embanking and shore protection work carried out, these groins go by the name of ' horses,' and are made generally as follows : — The piles are 6, and sometimes so large as 9 inches in section, and some 12 to 14 feet in length, and are driven into the soft mud below the bed of shingle with which the shore is generally covered, for a depth of at least 6 feet. Placed 3 feet or so apart, they are driven in what may be called zig-zag or alternate fashion, so as to admit of the placing between them of sets of planks, generally of elm, some 2^ to 3 inches in thickness. The arrangement is illustrated in fig. 3, Plate 58. It is placed at right angles, a a, fig. 4, to the line of the shore, b b, which is found to answer better than when placed oblique, as has been tried, and as shown at c c. In fig. 3, b b are the piles, a a the planks, shown in plan and section. But in many cases, probably the majority, these groins in very ex- posed situations, and especially where the wind is prevalent in one direction, and that raising the strongest gales, or where the strongest set of tides run up, do not act as very effective pro- tectors to the bank ; often, indeed, in the contrary way ; the stones, shingle, etc., of which the beach is composed, being so gathered and col- lected,— rather, in fact, more frequently so spread or unevenly distributed, — that the waves, in place of running easily up towards the bank, are drawn in and up towards the inner corner of the groin, and there act with signally destructive force in eroding or wearing and washing away the bank at that point and for some distance beyond it. DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. Even where the groins are much more elaborately constructed than as in fig. 1, Plate 58, so as to have a face of greater or less breadth up which the waves may run, they fail, and in one or other of the ways indicated, to afford protection to the bank. Mr. David Stevenson, the authority we have already quoted, in a very able and most sugges- tive paper in a recent volume of the Transactions (vol. vi. series 4th), on the ' Protection of Agri- cultural Land,' alludes to a case in the Bristol Channel, where jetties — groins of a more elaborate character being often so named — had failed to protect the land from the face and banks of which they were made to project. It was found that the best way to ensure protection was, in addi- tion to a projecting groin, to have facing work to project inland, covering or protecting the surface of the bank horizontally as well as its face vertically, as shown at a a in fig. 5, Plate 58, and in fig. 6, the plan of fig. 5, Plate 58. In this arrangement the face of the bank is at & & 9 feet 6 inches above the line of high water-mark,//, fig. 5, Plate 5 8, this being protected, as shown, by a line of sheet piling, from which stays or braces, d d, run back into the bank landwards ; these braces, again, being strengthened by, and secured to, piles, as shown in the diagram. Planking, as e e, is placed on the top of the bank for some distance landwards, the whole being backed and filled in for a distance of 40 feet, as shown. The con- struction up to this point would seem to be well adapted to resist the force of the waves, by pro- tecting the upper surface as well as the vertical face of the part of the bank across or along which the vertical piling, b b, and horizontal facing work, d d e c, figs. 5 and 6, Plate 56, was placed ; but it was found necessary to throw out groins or jetties at occasional points, of considerable breadth or width on the face, as shown in plan, fig. 6. These collected the shingle in such a way as to act as breakwaters, greatly lessening the force of the waves against the bank, and also preventing the run of the sea in high tides from overtopping the bank and deluging the land inwards. Mr. Stevenson states that in all cases along a great length of low bank and beach, where the bank was not protected by the vertical facing of piles and inland planking, as at b b e e, in figs. 5 and 0, Plate 58, the sea, during a heavy storm, invariably swept over the natural sloping bank inland, carrying drift timber far into the fields ; where, in the parts protected by the works we have illustrated, the waves were thrown back, and it was mere spray which was sent inland over the fields. The groins, with their connecting stakes, so collected the shingle, that it was re- tained within the timber work, and not scoured out by the action of the waves. In proposing to erect groins for the protection of low-banked sea-margin lands, exposed to occasional if not repeated high tides and heavy running seas, the action of the sea ought to be well studied before any great expense is gone to. For this action is exceedingly capricious, so much so that it has frequently bafHed the al iliUes and practical knowledge of our ablest engineers, and thrown all their calculations aside. Thus the ' set ' of the tides will run for a long period in one direc- tion, collecting the shingle beach stones, and depositing silt and sand in one direction only, to provide against which the engineer has perhaps only finished his work, when a sudden change in the ' set ' of the tidal currents will cause the deposits to be made in quite another direction. The same caprice, so to call it, acts also in the tidal action in certain parts of the banks of an extended line of beach or coast, so that it will be advisable to put down or erect a trial groin or two, to see their effect before proceeding to more extended works. These sudden changes in tidal action here alluded to are rarely traced to their cause, although we would throw out the sugges- tion that they arise from changes in the form and position of deep-sea banks and shoals, thus changing the direction of the currents which flow inland. In fig. 7, Plate 58, we give an enlarged sketch, showing the position of piles and timber sheeting at the points a b c in fig. 6. Protection of and adding to the Land on the Margin of Tided Rivers. — Groin work of the simple kind illustrated in fig. 1, Plate 58, in last paragraph, is very useful aud effective in tidal rivers, where, as a rule, there is little or no heavy wave action, and where the main object is to add to the land by ' warping' or collecting the muddy silt, which forms highly valuable soil with the after treatment, A still more simple 'groin,' EMBANKING OF TIDAL RIVERS. 229 used in parts of the tidal river where there is no strong current, is shown in fig. 8, Plate 58, this being but light stakes, a a, driven into the mud to a depth sufficient to give them a good hold, and between which there are smaller stakes, or rather willow withes, etc., worked in as at b b. In the chapter on the 'Reclamation of "Waste Land,' under the section ' Warping of Land,' further remarks will be found on this subject. 230 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. CHAPTEE VIII. SEA MARGIN EMBANKMENTS. Having considered the subject of embankments nsed for the purpose of forming reservoirs for the storage of water, we are now to take up those connected with enclosing of land from the sea or i'rom the margin of tidal rivers. Much of what we have given on the formation of the embank- ment used for the former will obviously be applic- able, with greater or less modification, to the latter. In some cases there is, however, a clear distinction between the two kinds of embank- ments, especially in the case of coast lands much exposed to storms, as also in the case of tidal rivers, where the warping of land is resorted to. In the first of these cases the work to be done is generally of a more or less difficult character than that required for the storage of water. Indeed, where the coast-line is much exposed, and the prevalent winds blow from those quarters which raise the heaviest seas, the work demanded requires so many expedients to provide for contingencies, that experienced professional advice will require to be had, that which can only be reasonably expected from the manager of the estate not being likely in such cases to cope with the difficulties. Of this class of work, therefore, all the necessities of the present volume will be met if we give a few general outlines, detailed enough to enable the agricultural reader to gain a fair knowledge of the principal points to be attended to. In the erection of embankments for the reclamation of land on sea margins, there are certain points to be attended to in order to have the work done in the most efficient and economical way, and so that the largest area of land be enclosed without incurring the sacrifice of any of these. Some, in their anxiety to reclaim the largest area of land, place the embankment so near to the margin or high-water line, that they are compelled, as it were, to have a foundation none of the safest, — often, indeed, of the most dangerous character, or which in- volves the necessity of future frequent repairs. A great and important object to be aimed at where land is reclaimed from the sea or from wide expansive reaches on the banks of tidal rivers, is having as wide or broad a margin of that comparatively solid land known in some districts as ' saltings,' and to which generally the name of ' foreland ' is given. This foreland is formed by the slow and gradual accumulation of silted matter, brought down either from the upland or cultivated districts at a higher level than that of the sea by the agency of the drainage water or small rivulets or streams, and also by the various solid materials brought up by succes- sive tides, and which, to a greater or less extent, are deposited and left on the surface when the tide recedes. As the rivulets, small streams, or drainage outfalls approach the area of the more or less swampy land running along the sea or tidal river margin, from the soft and yielding cha- racter of the soil which they meet, they naturally get divided into a series of small rivulets, which, as they go towards and fall into the sea, cut up, as it were, the foreland into what may be called a perfect network. These numerous rundlets or water outlets naturally have a bad influence upon the land which is to form the area of the embankment, and in providing for which no small amount of skill on the part of the con- structor is called for. Where they are numerous and of comparatively small size, they are more easily dealt with naturally ; but where they are larger, and assume more the form of streams, special means, such as culverts with appropriate sluices or valves, must be provided. Generally, EMBANKING OF SEA MARGINS— ORLANDER' S SYSTEM. 231 however, indeed as a rule, the evil which would arise from the cause here stated is reduced to a minimum by the plan adopted of concentrating, so to say, these numerous rundlets into one by forming a large cutting or ditch on the inland side of the embankment, and at some distance from it, the collected water in which is led to the sea at proper intervals by means of cul- verts. This inland ditch or cutting is known in Essex, and other parts where reclamation of land from sea margins is carried on on the most extensive scale, by the name of a ' delph.' The proper position, form, and dimensions of this will be illustrated and described in this section. We have said that the form and construction of embankments at sea margins varies according to the opinions of different authorities, and also according to the peculiarities of the site. In fig. 1, Plate 59, we give the section of a bank which Mr. Orlander, in a paper read before the Society of Engineers, on the ' Enclosure of Lands from the Sea, and the Construction of Sea and other Banks,' describes as the best form. In this the slope or inclination of the bank seaward — that is, on the line a b — is as 4 to 1 ; the slope land- ward— that is, on the line c d — 1^ to 1. The facing of the landwrard slope is formed of sods cut from the green covered part of the marsh, the depth of these being 6 inches ; the facing of the seaward slope is composed, first, of a layer of strong clay 18 inches thick, above which is placed a layer of green marsh soil, g g, or flags, and above all a layer of clump stones, h h, the depth of which is 12 inches. The hearting, i i, which rests upon the original ground or founda- tion,^' j, is composed of sand or warp material. Of the two, warp is preferred by Mr. Orlander, this being got from floor-pits cut in front of the bank. He would, however, prefer sea-marsh sods to be used in the formation of the hearting; only that, where the bank was extensive, an acre of such material would soon be cut away, so that extra expense would be incurred in consequence of the increased distance from which the material would have to be wheeled. The clay facing,//, fig. 1, Plate 59, will depend upon circumstances of locality as to its quality. In sea marshy land, the sides of the creeks formed in the saltings by the action of the rundlets or water outlets previously described are generally covered with a bluish clay, generally called ' butter - clay.' Although this is most easily obtained, it should not be used for the facing of the embankment, inasmuch as it is apt, as pointed out by Mr. Orlander, to be acted upon injuriously by the atmosphere, and to form large cracks or fissures, which are always sources of danger to the em- bankment ; and from its soft nature, it is apt to slide down to the ' toe ' or foot of it, and it is not easy to work it to a uniform surface on the slope. Good clay can be obtained generally from under the green marsh, and should be used for the hearting. The clumped stone or upper line of facing, h h, should be put on with great care by men accustomed to this kind of work, who have a wonderful knack in giving the stones a bond one with another in a very quick and satisfactory way. The importance of having good facing to embankments exposed to the action of water has been already pointed out, and by consequence that of executing every part of it with the greatest care. Some men seem to think that if the work be done well generally it is sufficient, forgetting that, as the strength of any structure lies in its weakest part, so if any portion, how- ever small, be left carelessly done, it is but a mere question of time as to when the embank- ment is injured by the action of the waves, which act in a way as quick as it is powerful in destroy- ing it. We cannot too often repeat, in connection with this subject, that there is no agency more in - sidious, and therefore requiring more to be guarded against, than water; for the moment it gains access to the interior of the embankment, from that moment its destruction begins. In fig. 4, Plate 59, we illustrate a method of forming the face of an embankment used in Holland, the clay, as //in fig. 1, being finished off with a species of straw matting, to which is given the name ' crammatting.' The method of facing embank- ments with this is as follows. Supposing that we look up the slope, a layer of loose straw one and a half inches thick is evenly distributed up and down the slope, after which straw bands are laid horizontally along the slope. ' The cram- matter, or man who undertakes the work, by the aid of a tool shown at a, fig. 3, Plate 59, thrusts 232 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. the band, in the form of a stitch in the clay, through the loose straw at every four or five inches. Before the second stitch is performed the workman will give the band a twist so as to keep it round, and then the thrust is repeated ; sixty-four stitches go to the square yard.' This crammatting, as may be supposed, is by no means a lasting material, rotting, at the utmost, in three years. Flags are very often used therefore, instead, which is a permanent facing, and con- sobdates with age. Over this a costly fascine work is used for protecting the face in lieu of stone, and which is presumed to be an improve- ment on the old faggots. The process of forming this facing is thus described by Mr. Orlander : ' The fascines are 7 feet 6 inches long, and 6 inches diameter, and 1 foot diameter at the broom end, so that when compressed they form a layer about 6 inches thick. At every 1 foot 6 inches up and down the slope, and 1 foot 2 inches along the slope, pointed stakes (as shown at a a, fig. 2, Plate 59) are driven into the clay through the crammatting, 3 feet in length and of an average of lij inches diameter, after which long twigs of about ^ inch diameter, technically called binders, and about 8 to 10 feet in length, are wound in and out of each stake along the slope (say five on top of each other), after which keys (as b in fig. 2, Plate 59) are driven through the top of the stakes, and each stake driven down tight on the binders, and, of course, tight on the loose fascines, which fastens all down on the crammatting.' As regards the best site for an embankment, one authority maintains that it should be at the edge of the green marsh land, so as to leave a foreland of 50 or 40 feet, the site being ploughed in ordinary fashion, so as to leave a rough surface affording a bite to the base of the bank. Our remarks on this point when treating on reservoir banks may here be referred to. The author describes a nursing or warping bank, which we illustrate in section in fig. 4, Plate 59. In this the slope or inclination, abed, on both sides is the same, namely, 2^ to 1 ; the hearting, j j, is composed of sand covered with clay 18 inches deep, marked h h ; above this fascines, i i, (j inches deep, and the facing composed of stones, e eff, 1 foot deep ; on the side//, crammatting 2 inches deep is used ; stakes are driven in at intervals, as shown in the drawings, and g g shows the line of original ground. ' Saltings,' or tracts of marsh land at a com- paratively high level above the ordinary tide run, — and the higher this level the better the chances of reclamation as a paying work, — are frequently intersected by deep cuttings, 'gulleys,' etc., through which the tidal waters or those of the inner drainage water or land streamlets flow with vary- ing but generally considerable velocity. Where the saltings are to be utilized as cultivable or arable land, thus involving their embankment, they may for a long time, indeed permanently, be used as partial pastures, a good extent of grass bites being obtained from saltings generally. The crossing of these gulleys is often a work of some difficulty. The best method to pursue is not to endeavour to carry the embank- ment from end to end right across the gulley at once, but to form a foundation from the bed of the gulley on which the embankment can be raised. This will be done most efficiently by using materials in the first instance as the base thiwgh which the water can freely pass. Fig. 14, Plate 57, is a diagram which illustrates the principal points in the formation and construction of a sea margin embankment such as is used in many districts, such as in Kent. The seaward facing, a, has a slope or inclination of from 3 to 5 to 1 ; generally this varies very much, and is in many cases far too abrupt. The side is faced with stones, sometimes up to the top, b ; but in many instances it stops short, as, say, at c in fig. 15, which may be taken as a fair illus- tration of the form of embankments at present existing in some districts, and the remaining portion of face up to top, b, fig. 15, is grass. In fig. 14 the top, b, is shown as finished with stone ; in fig. 1 5 with turf or mud, as in figs. 1 8 and 19. The part from a to b, fig. 15, is often called the 'swash bank,' as it receives the wash or spray of the spent waves, the full force of which only exerts itself up to the point where the stone facing terminates. The slope of the ' swash bank ' is sometimes greater than that of the other face of the bank, and in old or neglected banks this part, as c, fig. 15, becomes very de- pressed, forming quite a steep bank from the point c to b. In fig. 14 the part c is termed SEA MARGIN EMBANKMENTS. 233 the ' foreland,' and consists of the natural shore. This should be kept untouched seaward as far out as possible ; and although the mud and the clay which underlie it in many districts are very tempting to workmen and contractors, either to be used in the formation of new banks or in the repair of old, this temptation should not be yielded to, but the surface of the ' foreland ' left unbroken, especially near the ' toe ' or outer ter- mination of the bank, as this materially tends to keep the foundation of this sound and free from the inroad of water. Piles, as in figs. 1 6 and 1 7, Plate 57, in one or more rows, are driven in at the ' toe ' and a little in front of it seaward, and these are generally packed up with stones or chalk. This packing frequently extends some distance up the lower part of the bank, cover- ing the regular stone facing. The landward slope, e, fig. 14, is l.j to 1, and is almost always grass- covered. The fiat,/, between the foot of the inner slope, e, and the 'delph,' ij, ought to be a con- siderable breadth — say 30 to 40 feet. The material taken from the ' delph,' g, will be useful in forming the bank and in doing repairs, as ' top- ping' the bank, as in fig. 19. This 'topping' is, in old and neglected banks, a work which ought not to be neglected; the doing of it has saved many a district from floods. Of course it is not calculated to resist heavy storms ; nevertheless we have found it, in work done under our direc- tions, and when well executed, even in such times effectually to keep out the flood. If turf is used, the more carefully the turfs are laid the better, as at a in fig. 18, breaking joint with each other. When mud or clay or clayey mud is used, it is generally put on the top of the bank very irregularly ; but the lumps, as at a in fig. 19, soon settle down and cohere, as at b, fig. 18, together as they get ' weathered ; ' and although they form rough walking, they get so well welded together — to use an expressive phrase — that they keep the water well out. The height of the top- ping is generally about 15 inches, and costs on the average 4s. 6d. the rod of 21 yards — an expense well worthy of being laid out. Although adding to the expense slightly, the work of top- ping is all the better done if the old surface is first pick or spade worked, so as to effect a more perfect bond or junction between the old and new surfaces. Fig. 9, Plate 57, illustrates the effect of ' puddling' with thick layers, as at a, and thin, as at b. It requires no explanation ; indeed, the point is so obvious that it seems almost an ' insult to the reader's understanding ' to give it him, were it not that we have seen puddling so done that those concerned in it, although looked upon as greatly experienced in such work, clearly did not know its ' first principles.' If the top sur- face, with which the beater or rammer comes in contact, seems well and closely put together, then it seems as if all that was necessary were done, the workers being forgetful of the fact that the lower and centre portions, as really more important, were to be done rightly as well as the upper. Many a well-designed bank has been ruined by neglect of good puddling. It is a physical impossibility that the thick layer, as at a in fig. 9, can have all its particles brought under the influence of the beater as well as the thin layer in b. In leading off the inland drainage through a bank by a cast-iron pipe, as there is always great difficulty in effect- ing a perfectly water-tight joint between the out- side of the pipe, a, as in figs. 4 and 5, Plate 57, and the material of which the bank is composed, it will, where the dimensions admit of their use, be better to employ earthenware drain-tubes. The best section is the egg-shaped, as at a a, fig. 5, Plate 51. Tubes of this section are now made specially fitted up with sluice flaps to open during ebb tide, to admit of the drainage water passing off from the ' delph,' g, fig. 1 4, Plate 5 7, and to close at the flow of the tide. A tube 2 0 inches long and of proportionate width will carry off the drainage water from a considerable extent of land. Where the drainage water is led off by a brick culvert, the egg-shaped will be still the best section. In fig. 5, Plate. 51, the centres for striking the curves are shown. Our remarks as to the work connected with pipes passing through reservoir embankments (see Chap. VI.) will apply, with greater or less modification, to this department of sea banks. 2G DIVISION THIRD. SOILS LAYING OUT OF FIELDS — TOSITION OF ROADS — PLANTATIONS RECLAMATION OF WASTE LAND, ETC. ETC. CII AFTER L The Origin of Soils. — Before entering upon the details connected with the classification of soils, considered from a purely farming point of view, it will not only be interesting, hut will serve some practically useful purpose, if we glance, however briefly, at the way in which soils, to use the popular expression, are formed. If we take specimens of the various rocks which are strewed over the surface of the earth, or buried more or less deeply under it, and, after submitting them to certain preliminary processes more or less nearly approaching those which we know to be going on daily around us, analyse them or submit them to processes by which their constituents will be ascertained ; and if, taking specimens of the soils, earth, or ground lying on the surface of the soil, we submit them to like analysis or investigation, we shall find the con- stituents to be the same as that which we found in the rock materials. This is but another and more precise way of saying that the soil which covers the surface of the earth has its origin in or from the rocks. It does not lie within our province to detail the various natural processes by which rocks, which seem on examination to be so hard and indestructible that the very name has come to be synonymous with all which indicates lasting durability, are changed into soft, friable, and more or less loose soil. Suffice it to say that this change has been brought about through a long course of years, and, in fact, ages, by the action chiefly of the atmospheric in- fluences, as rain and air. These at first sight, and to a casual observer, would seem to be anything but powerful influences in reducing hard rock to grains and powdery soil, hut closer observation serves to show that they are much more so than 234 could be well supposed. Moreover, they are con- tinually at work, and when once the operation has begun, each portion operates upon those which succeed it, helping still further the process of disintegration. And, again, the action of water is very powerful in rubbing down stones which come in contact with one another, this being greatly aided where the disruption of the rocks takes place, presumably at the tops of mountains or the sides of high hills, by the friction caused by the rolling down of the de- tached parts from a high to a low level. To these causes, more or less powerful, must be added the potent one of frost, which rends large rocks asunder with amazing ease, and, of course, acts more speedily on blocks or particles of smaller size. But the debris or detritus of the rocks of the crust or shell of the earth does not alone make up the whole of what is popularly known as the ' land ' or ' soil.' Analysis, and, for the matter of that, in many instances even but a compara- tively cursory examination, will show that, along with what are clearly mineral, there are other constituents which are as obviously organic. These are the remains of various plants, which either, having found such nourishment, to use the popular phrase, in the rock detritus originally as enabled them to grow, died out in process of time, or at later stages of vegetable growth might be brought by the agency of water from other sources, more or less distant, and when the water subsided, deposited on the surface of the rock detritus. Further, as the soil thus got more and more enriched, and capable of bear- ing a wider variety and a richer and higher class of plants, the seeds of these either springing up, as some say, spontaneously, or in that strangely ORIGIN OF SOILS. 235 mysterious and puzzling way which many must have noticed, and noticing, been struck with ; or brought by birds and other agencies from a dis- tance ; — as these nourished aud decayed, the thickness of the soil would proportionally in- crease, till, as in some districts, it would form those wide expanses of richest fertility, which bear crops of wonderful value for a long course of years, without requiring the addition of what in modern parlance are called manurial consti- tuents. Various speculations of a curious and sug- gestive kind have been made as to the way in which the rock debris or detritus has been furnished with its vegetable matter ; for rock soil, so to call it, although possessing the con- stituents which plants require, and under a more advanced stage take up, is not capable, in its first stage or original condition, of being taken up or assimilated by plants. So that while in one sense it is, in another sense it is not a soil, popularly so called, being in point of fact a mere sand or powder of rock possess- ing only the constituents of the rock, whether it be the detritus of one only, or of those of several, collected together by some agency, almost invariably that of water. For, suppos- ing a plant to be placed in material of this class which requires the manurial constituents present in rock soil of the kind just described, it would die, because the soluble parts which alone the plant could assimilate, although they might and would be present in the decom- posed rock soil, would be carried away by water. It is only when a rock soil retains these soluble parts which the plants can take up, assimilate, and flourish upon, that it as- sumes the characteristics of a soil capable of supporting the higher classes of plant life, and this power of retention of the soluble parts is only brought into action through the medium of mixture of organic matter. But how comes this to be mixed with it ? As we have just said, various speculations have been offered as to the primary source of this, — that it must have been derived from plants in the first instance, the very lowest in the scale of organic growing life — those, in fact, which seem to spring from, or to be furnished and supported by, the air alone. These and other organisms, some of them of even a more advanced or higher class, may be called surface-soil plants, having no leaves and no roots which descend into the soil ; while a still higher class, the aquatic plants, which have both roots and leaves, may be called water- surface plants, as both roots and leaves simply float upon it. But however first started, the formation of a superior soil would be surely carried on, however slowly, till at each successive stage, so to say, it would be capable of sustaining and nourishing a higher class of plant life ; and each successive generation of such, as it died out and decayed, would still further enrich the soil, and provide it with those soluble substances which are capable of being taken up by plants of the higher order, which strike their roots into, and descend more or less deeply in the soil, deriving their constituents therefrom, and also, as we shall hereafter see, partly from the air. The primary origin of all soils being, then, the rocks of the earth's crust, it might be supposed that, the geological formation of any particular district or part of a district being known, the soil would have only the constituents of the rock. In one sense it would be well if this were so, for it would, at all events, greatly simplify the classification of soils. The soils met with on the surface of the earth are derived from one or other of three classes of rock, — the sandstones, limestones, and clays, all of different degrees of hardness, and mixed up together often in various proportions. We thus have from the detritus of limestones or calcareous rocks, soils of a calcareous quality, varying in kind or degree according to circumstances; from the de- tritus of sandstones, sandy soils ; and from that of clayey or shaley rock or stone, clayey soils more or less retentive. But geology teaches us, as indeed one of its first lessons, that these rocks are always placed in a certain way in the earth's crust, and assume naturally towards each other certain relative positions. The way is what we know as stratified, that is, placed in layers, or, if we may so say, plates or lamina', these being known as strata; and the positions which the rocks bear to each other are in this order limestone, sandstone, and clay, or shaley or 236 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. slatey rock. Geology also teaches us that by a variety of causes the rock strata, which we suppose to be horizontally superimposed one upon another, are upheaved or distorted, and so as to give to the surface of the earth a rolling or waving character, varying according to circum- stances. This naturally changes the relative position of the strata, and mixes them, so to say, one with another. Hence, again, we find the horizontal system of strata changed into strata lying at a great variety of angles one to another, still further changing their relative position one to another. Here, then, we see two causes at work bringing about the great diversity in the rock surface in different districts which we know to exist everywhere around us, accord- ing to the particular class of rock which is upheaved so as to come nearer to the surface ; and, at the same time, by mixing them up together, as we see they sometimes are, when, by the atmospheric influences already noticed, crumbled into soil, this possesses a correspond- ing diversity iu the characteristics of its different components. But we have other agencies at work which bring about this remarkable diversity in the nature of soils, — a diversity which is met with not merely as extending over a district, but often in a comparatively limited portion of it, nay, even within the bounds of a small field. One of these agencies, and a very powerful one, which is in continual operation, is that of water. This brings down from the higher regions continual supplies of detritus, which, along with the other agencies at work, and which we have already noticed, it helps to form, and, for the reasons just stated, a mixture, so to say, derived from different kinds of rocks. This is deposited in the lower regions in a variety of ways, and in what may be said to be an infinite variety of positions. Further, the action of rapidly flowing rivers, or of strong currents in tidal ones, upon the banks, and which they often overflow, carrying witli their waters suspended earthy matter or 'silt;' this is deposited, as the waters subside, at dis- tances more or less remote from the banks, leaving what in time dries and consolidates more or less firmly into a soil, the components of which may be easily conceived to vary not only in character, according to tire rocks from which they are derived, but in point of position or relation to one another. The reader, therefore, who comes newly to the consideration of the subject, will be able now to understand how it is that the ex- traordinary diversity in the nature of soils met with, often within the very narrowest of local limits, comes about ; and how, as a consequence, arise those puzzling circumstances connected with the cultivation of such soils, or rather of any given extent of land in which this diversity as regards their character is met with, so far as regards their produce and the action of manurial substances, — circumstances which, to those not acquainted with the true nature of the case, are set down too often as the result either of the stupidity of farmers or of their ignorance. And hence, also, arises this other puzzling thing to those ignorant of the scientific aspects of farm- ing connected with the cultivation of soils, that the result of a certain mode of operation in one season, — as, for example, the. application of a certain manure, — may, through the action of cer- tain climatic or local influences acting upon the different soils, give results in another season of perhaps quite an opposite, or at least of a very conflicting nature. We thus see how, by the agencies at work which we have noticed, and these extending over periods of varying length, and some even for ages, the wide variety of soils we meet with in practice is produced ; and how difficult it is to classify them with a rigid degree of precision, the con- stituents of one variety mixing with those of another, so that at the best but an approximate classification can be arrived at, of which we may here say that there are several, according to various authorities, but all, of course, starting from the same primary point. If this section was con- cerned with the relation of geology to agriculture, which it is not, save so far as the source and general formation of soils is concerned, we could point out some very interesting facts, — not only interesting, but also having a close practical bearing upon farming and the improvement of property ; but we must, for the present at least, defer them. While, however, the diversity of soils we have thus seen to exist in practice makes that of farm- ing somewhat uncertain in its special results, it, on the other hand, brings about a state or con- SOILS AND SUBSOILS— CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. 237 ditiou of matters of very considerable value. Thus the mere admixture of soils, which we have seen to be caused by various agencies, tends in many instances to render poor soils of a better quality ; as, for example, where a too light or sandy soil is enriched by being mixed with a clayey one which has been brought in contact with it, or vice versa, or a soil deficient in lime made good by the addition of a calcareous soil. A very important point to be considered with soils is the nature of what is called the subsoil, that is, the layer or layers of earthy matter which lie immediately underneath the surface soil. It is somewhat difficult to define precisely what the subsoil is, for in one sense it may be said to form part of the upper or surface soil. Some, indeed, hold the subsoil to be simply that part of the soil proper which is not touched by or brought under the operation of the plough or cultivating implement, inasmuch as cultivation ultimately makes it of the same character as that of the sur- face soil. This, however, makes the position of the subsoil with relation to the surface, or what may be called the soil proper, a variable one, entirely dependent upon the circumstances of cultivation. Some, again, define the subsoil to be that kind or character of rocky detritus which is essentially dif- ferent from that of the upper or surface soil, which owes its origin to another class of rocks. Others, again, holding the middle course between these two, simply define the subsoil to be that which lies quite beyond the possible reach even of the most deeply penetrating implements which could be worked by the power of steam. The second of these definitions implies that the subsoil is some- times, if not often, of quite a different character in constituents from those of the upper or surface soil. Thus the upper surface soil may be clayey, but this may rest upon a bed of gravel or of sand ; or the reverse may be the relative positions of the two. Here the element of depth is not taken into account, and here also there would seem to be a little difficulty in deciding which is to be called the 'soil' (proper), and which the ' subsoil ; ' where there is a distinct special differ- ence between the two, and which difference often introduces elements of difficulty in cultivating the soil deeply, when it so happens that there is comparatively little difference between the depth of the soil and the subsoil, so that the latter may be brought up and mixed with the former, which may be, and often is, not desir- able. This point will, however, receive further and fuller consideration under the head of ' Deep Cultivation and Deep Ploughing of the Soil,' in its special paragraph in this work. And just as we have seen that a variety of causes introduce elements of difference in the components of the soil, — considered as the soil proper, — so also do we find these bringing about differences in the components or composition of the subsoil. So that, taking both soil and subsoil together as forming one whole, which may at one time, or under a different system of cultivation, be worked together or partly so, it will be perceived how much the elements of difficulty and uncertainty are increased, not merely with regard to the classification of both, which is a matter of comparatively little, but with regard to their cultivation, which is a matter of the highest prac- tical importance. We shall see further on how this difference between surface soil and the subsoil — which latter may be, according to its position under one or other of the definitions or categories under which it is classed, work- able with the surface or soil proper — brings about some very peculiar circumstances in bring- ing the land into a higher state of cultivation. Having thus, in a very general way, glanced at the leading peculiarities connected with the origin and characteristics of soils, we shall now do so as regards their classification. The most obvious, simple, and what might be called the natural way of doing this, is ranging them under heads suggested by their popular characteristics and the crops for which they are best adapted. Classing the crops under the two leading divisions as grain or cereal and seed, and green or forage and root crops, and taking the grain crops first, all farmers know and understand that for the most important of these, namely the wheat, a heavy soil, or clay of a medium density, is better than a light and sandy one. This soil should contain certain inorganic constituents, of which silica is an important one, as also alkalies. This so far as the chemical points are concerned, the mecha- nical ones necessary being freedom from excess of moisture, — to which lands of this kind are liable, '■& DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. — and a fair degree of firm texture, so as to secure a consolidated seed-bed, which the wheat requires. The bean, which may be classed as a seed crop, also requires a heavy soil, possessed of much the same characteristics as that for wheat. These soils, in fact, are very generally spoken of as wheat and bean soils, by way of a marked dis- tinction between them and those possessed of other characteristics ; as, for example, that which is known as a ' barley soil,' which requires to have lime in its composition, and, mechanically con- sidered, requires to be dry and porous. An ' oat soil' is that having a combination of certain mineral constituents and a pretty large proportion of well- decomposed vegetable matter ; mechanically the crop requires conditions pretty closely resem- bbng that of a barley soil. ' Eye/ which as a cereal crop is seldom cultivated as part of regular rotations in this country to be ripened as wheat, barley, or oats, but is chiefly grown to be cut as a green or forage crop for spring and summer feed- ing of live stock, does best in light sandy soils, but it does well also in loamy soils (for description of which soil see further on). ' Pease ' require a moderately heavy soil, — not so heavy or retentive of moisture as that for beans, — and lime must be a mineral constituent present in it. ' Vetches,' another of the ' seed crops,' generally sown, like rye, to be cut green as a forage crop, do best in a loamy soil, although they may be grown in the same soil which suits the rye ; indeed, the two are usually sown together, the rye stems affording climbers for the vetches to grow up on, so that in one sense it is a matter of regret that the two crops require or do best in different soils. Coming now to the soils classified as root, green, or forage crop soils, we find that that adapted for the staple root crop of the country, on which stock-keepers chiefly depend, — the turnip, — in its best condition, is what may be called a friable 1 1. 1 in, easily worked to the desired depth, and rich in nianurial constituents. The soil suitable for the turnip may be said generally to be so for all the other roots and the green and forage crops, with such differences as circumstances may bring about, and of which notice will presently In' taken. The seeds of all our cultivated and cultivable crops, — a distinction too often lost sight of, — crops which have to develop roots, stems, leaves, and ultimately reproduce seeds in the case of cereals, or of ripened roots, leaves, etc. in the case of other crops, — require to find from certain sources sundry constituents, which are termed nianurial or otherwise plant constituents. These are derived from three sources primarily before man appears upon the scene, or at least does much in the way of producing his own food from the soil in which he digs his cave or on which he rears his hut. The air also supplies certain constituents, and, by peculiar processes, makes those constituents in the soil available to and by the plants which grow in it. The last source — and it is co-existent with an advanced stage in the history of man as a pro- ducer of food for himself and neighbours — is certain substances added to the soil, and which are called manures. If we take any plant which has grown to maturity, and submit it to an analytical process in the laboratory, in which heat of a high tem- perature plays an essential part, we shall find a certain proportion of its components pass off in the form of vapour or gas, which, being collected and submitted to investigation, will be found to contain certain constituents. This part of the plant, which is capable of being consumed, is called its ' organic part.' Those components which, resisting the action of heat, are left behind in the retort or vessel, are called the ' inorganic' part or 'ash' of the plant. And it is in the ash of the i^lant that analysis discovers the mineral constituents present in the soil, or which are taken up and assimilated by the plant. Before these can be taken up by the plants, they must be in a soluble condition in the soil, and in the primary condition or early stages of soil formation they are insoluble ; and it is only by the addition of organized matter to the soil, obtained from the sources we have already described, that in process of time the constituents become soluble. And being thus capable of being taken up by plants, each one of which, so to say, may be presumed to be of a higher range of organic life than the preceding one, the soil bears more valuable products, which, decaying, in time add to the richness of its constituents, so that wo thus see at once a mutual relation between MANURING AND MECHANICAL FITNESS OF SOILS FOR PLANTS. 239 them, the one helping the other. At first these soluble substances have, as it were, no hold of the soil, being liable to be, and are, indeed, re- moved by the agency of water; and it is only when, as time goes on and certain processes are completed, that the soil acquires the power or capability to retain those soluble substances and give them out to the plants, that it assumes a higher rank in soils, and may be said to become, as it does, a perfect soil, able to sup- port plants and carry them on to the point of full maturity. As the range of plant life extends, some are found to grow which draw largely from the sur- rounding atmosphere, thus yielding a supply of carbonic acid to the soil, still further decom- posing it, and adding to its power of retaining and adding to the store of soluble constituents within it. But even under the most favourable circum- stances of natural formation of soils, as here generally and popularly sketched, the amount of the soluble constituents obtained from different sources, and prepared by different processes, is unfortunately far below the amount of those re- quired by plants grown upon it for the production of food either for man or for cattle. And the diffi- culty is increased by the exigencies of the styles of modern farming in many of its phases, in which the soil is, by a forcing system, still more rapidly deprived of its manurial constituents, and which are but too often not again returned to it in the form of abundant and judiciously chosen manures. Hence it is that a large area of our soils, under management like this, is becoming year after year poorer and more poor, till at last the dream or prophecy of the far-famed German agricultural chemist, Liebig, is likely to be realized, when such soils will be reduced to hopeless sterility, incapable of bearing crops till put under a more scientific and rational system. This manuring of soils is a process of the highest importance. This is, however, greatly influenced by the peculiarities of the soils, and these very much by their mechanical qualities. But, at the same time, soils act in other ways and influence other agricultural departments, as we shall pre- sently see. Thus a soil which, on analysis, shows that it is possessed of the mineral con- stituents necessary for the support of certain plants, — analyses showing the relative fitness of both, — may nevertheless, from certain defects or peculiarities, which for lack of a better and a more accurate word we term mechanical, be found incapable of growing these plants, or grow them but poorly. It may, for example, be so close and retentive that the air does not penetrate into its particles ; or water may not be re- tained in it long enough for the requirements of the plants, through qualities of the very opposite character. These and other peculiarities greatly influence the cultural results ; and there are others, again, dependent upon the plants themselves. Some have not the capacity, so to say, of adapting themselves to the mechanical conditions of the soil in which they are attempted to be grown. As a rule, soils which may be placed at the extremes of any particular class, such as a very heavy, retentive soil on the one hand, or a very light and porous one on the other, are found to be the most difficult to deal with, alike in their mechanical, manurial, and plant-supporting or growing peculiarities ; while from this may be deduced, as a corollary, that soils coming under the intermediate class are the most easily dealt with. Hence, too, the practice of mixing soils of opposite qualities, so as to get the intermediate admixture required, — an agricultural process yet in its infancy, and to the extension of which on an extensive scale, far beyond even the dreams of most advanced agriculturists, we shall yet witness mechanical applications of a character which, while in one sense novel so far as farming is con- cerned, are not so in relation to other branches of industry, — applications which we shall hereafter notice, — bringing in their train possibdities of most extensive utility. The mechanical fitness of soils to grow a wider range of plants, and in a more economical because more productive way, is also much in- fluenced by certain processes through which they are put, such as drainage and deeper storing of its particles. To these operations, and the principles upon which they depend, we in other parts of this work refer. Then, again, the character of the rocks and the subsoil, the relation they have to the soil, especially in their powers to convey moisture to the latter, has a very marked influence 240 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY upon the produce. Rocks and subsoils differ much in their capability of conveying moisture, or, to use a more easily understood popular expression, of drawing it from the surface soil ; and in this difference lies, perhaps, more of the varying character of plants which certain soils support than is at times supposed. Considerations connected with the Chemical Condition of Sails. — We have said it is generally assumed that the value of a soil can be ascer- tained by analyzing it, this proceeding on the apparent assumption that all parts of the mass will give equal results, and that the constituents which the analysis showed to be present in it would be the same throughout, and that the plants grown in it would be capable of taking up and assimilating its fertilizing con- stituents. But the soil, in place of being in reality a uniform mass, is, as a rule, what may be called a compound, consisting of more than one class of matter. Popularly, soil may be considered in the aspect of a cultivating agent, serving three distinct purposes, — first, as a mechanical agent, for the support of vegetable growth ; second, a. medium by which the fertilizing constituents derived from various sources can be applied to the plants ; and, third, a vehicle by which such manurial substances as are artificially applied to, and more or less intimately mixed with it, can be conveyed to the plants, or which may be de- rived from sources external to the mass of soil, as from rain and the atmosphere. In this way the soil, in the second of these characteristics, may be said to give to the plants what it always possesses naturally in itself; and by the third it gives to the plants what has been supplied to it by external means. This definition is accurate enough so far as it goes ; but it is apt to convey the idea that the soil, acting in the second way, is, as we have in another sentence above said, of a uniform character, whereas it exists in three conditions, which we now notice. As stated elsewhere, all soil is derived from the rocks forming part of the earth's crust. These, through various causes, are broken up, and ultimately arrive at that pulverized condition which is popu- larly known as the ground, land, or soil. This process of disintegration is not the result of a single operation, but of several operations, the consequence of which is that there are several stages, so to call them, before the mass of material can arrive at that point when it can be said to be of uniform consistency. The result of scientific investigations has shown that the consequence of these successive stages of disintegration is, that soil is divided into three classes, each of which differs from the others in condition. The first of these is the result of the preliminary operation of the causes which are constantly at work in breaking down, so to say, the original rocky bodies, from which all soil is derived, into a state more or less rough, and which derives its name from the mechanical property it possesses, and is there- fore called the ' gritty ' portion or class of the three conditions of soil. By the continuation of the disintegrating influences at work, the par- ticles of the soil necessarily get into a finer state, which, forming a higher stage in the process, has been called the ' dormant ' matter of the soil. This is so called because its particles, so to say, are in a condition not fitted to be taken up and assimilated by the plants, inasmuch as they are not soluble in water. The process still con- tinuing, this dormant matter, or part of it, is carried on to a higher stage. This, being the final one, in which its particles, being soluble in water, are therefore capable of being taken up by the plant, has received the designation of the ' active ' part of soils. The constituents of these three distinct classes of the soil, considered as a mass, are obviously capable of being again subdivided and classified according to their nature, this process being that of analysis. But it is also obvious that any analysis of a portion of the mass of the soil cannot give an accurate knowledge of its value agricul- turally,— that is, in how far it is valuable for the fertilization of plants ; in other words, its value as a plant-producing medium. For what, in fact, should be analyzed is the active part of the soil, that being, as we have above shown, the only part which can be assimilated by the plants at the time when the analysis is taken. For it is also obvious, or at all events, so far as we can judge, is likely to be so, that the other two classes possess all the elements of fertility, which only wait the expiry of the period through which tbey have to pass before they get into the condition in VARIETIES OF AGENTS INFLUENCING CONDITION OF SOILS. 241 which they also can be taken up by and minister to the growth of plants. It is chiefly for certain convenient purposes that three divisions have been named of which soil consists, for it may be divided strictly into two, — first, the dormant, con- sisting of two sub-classes; second, the active. And from what has been said, it will be seen that the object of cultivation is to bring as rapidly and economically as possible the dormant into the active part of the soil. Dr. Daubeny — to whom we, in common with the agricultural world, are so much indebted for our knowledge of the scientific points connected with soils — simplifies the classifi- cation, and puts the dormant and the active under one class, which he names the ' available ' consti- tuents. And as there are other constituents or particles, which ' from their state of combination in the mass can never be expected to contribute to the growth of plants,' he designates these the ' passive ' ones. This, however, does not exclude the possibility of so treating the soil that the particles of the third class, which we have stated to be called the 'gritty,' may be brought ultimately to form part of the available constituents. We have said that the soil is formed by cer- tain agencies from the original rocks, and that of these agencies the atmospheric influences play an important part ; it is therefore obvious that the more we can expose such particles of any mass of soil which has been hitherto closed or shut up, so to say, to these influences, the more quickly will we bring them into the condition of avail- able constituents. It is in this way that all the operations of culture or tillage, such as ploughing, grubbing, harrowing, etc., are so valuable, but it is only the recent expositions of science which have made known the principles on which this value rests. Thus rain, which has access through the interstices between the particles of soil brought into existence by the tillage operations, carries along with it certain volumes, so to ex- press it, of the ordinary air, and also of carbonic acid gas, which it has found in the atmosphere of the upper regions, and which it has dissolved. This carbonic acid gas and the oxygen of the air, which the rain has carried down into the soil, per- form certain chemical functions, the result of which is the changing of its gritty portions into the avail- able constituents, and enable also such plants as may either be growing naturally, or purposely put there by the farmer, to assimilate these latter or available constituents. The action of those agents which we have above noticed is further promoted by the changes of temperature in the air, the alternations of which have a very powerful influ- ence,— the best known of which, because the most easily observed, is that of frost. This will help to pulverize a soil and form it into a good seed- bed generally much more quickly, and certainly more efficaciously, than can be done by any of the tillage operations performed by man. Only it should be observed, and it is but fair to man to note it, that by his tillage operations he opens or can open the soil up, and place it to be so exposed as to allow the frost to operate in the most direct and efficient manner. Hence the value of autumnal cultivation of the soil by ploughing or grubbing, leaving it in a rough and open condition, exposed to the action of the winter's frost, etc. We have said at the opening of our remarks under this head, that the soil may be considered in the light of a vehicle for holding certain organic substances, or those capable of decay. These may be either given to the soil through the agency of manures specially supplied to it by man, or as the result of the presence of vegeta- tion, planted there, so to say, by nature, or of substances conveyed to and deposited by birds or animals, etc. The decomposition of these organic matters in the soil is effected by the action of the atmospheric influences, the rain, etc., putting them into that condition in which they can be assimilated by the crops. But a double advantage is obtained by this decomposi- tion, for it also aids the conversion of the dormant matter of the soil into its active or available con- dition ; and it will be obvious that the more perfect its tillage, the more readily will the atmo- spheric influences act upon it. But the advantage of such does not rest here alone, valuable as the results are, but they further prepare the soil to take from the atmosphere fertilizing matter con- tained in it, and to store it up amongst the soil's particles, to be available for future use by the crops. We have already stated that carbonic acid gas and atmospheric air, with its 2 11 242 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. oxygen, are carried down and lodged in the opened up soil, which act upon its particles so as to increase the amount of available constituents. But the atmosphere contains or has present in it nitric acid and ammonia, the latter of which, as it is the most expensive, is the most valuable of all our manuxial agents ; but by so treating the soil we can gain supplies of it from the atmo- sphere, supplies at all times available. The atmo- sphere gives up these to the soil, and the nitric acid referred to above, first through its absorbent properties, and by the rain passing into it and dissolving them. The rain plays an exceedingly important part, for it not only acts as a direct agent in collecting and bringing down the fer- tilizing constituents of the atmosphere ; but if the soil be so prepared that it can gain entrance to it, so to say, it places them in the position in which its absorptive powers come best into play. Here we see the value of drainage, which, although popularly supposed to be useful only as a means of conveying away the stagnant water from the soil, or such superabundant sup- plies which it may receive from surface drains, etc., is here seen to act also as the means by which the atmosphere conveys or carries into it supplies of fertilizing agents. We have thus shown in what way the soil can not only be increased in value as regards the amount of its available constituents, but rendered still more valuable for the production of crops by the addition to it of manurial matters. Of these, either present in the soil naturally or supplied artificially, some play more than a single part; as lime, for example, which increases the absorbent powers of the soil, separates ammonia from the rain and the atmosphere, and stores up these till they are required by plants. It does not come within the scope of our work to enter into a detail of the chemical processes carried out by the combined action of the soil, the manure of the air, and that applied by man, but we may direct the attention of the reader to the import- ance of studying the action of the double sili- cates. Of these, the silicate of lime possesses the power of separating ammonia from the air. But although certain fertilizing constituents may be said to be gained for nothing by merely taking advantage of the stores contained in the atmosphere, and of such as may be present natu- rally in the soil, it is nevertheless necessary to apply other manures, inasmuch as we know that each separate crop requires its own fertilizer, which may not be present in the air. Of the various manures at the command of the farmer, the most important is that of the farm-yard, or dung. One of the principal objects served by this, or of some other artificial manure, is to supply the constituents which are present only in small quantities naturally in our soils. Of these the phosphates are most important. Hence will be seen the importance of collecting and storing up, in order to preserve in the best possible way, the supplies which the farmer by careful manage- ment can secure of organic substances, whether obtained from animal or vegetable sources. In another section of this work we have shown how this can be done in describing dung stances, liquid-manure tanks, and compost heaps. As to the importance of this saving and storing up of organic matters as manures, Dr. Daubeny has the following pregnant and suggestive remarks : — ' Such substances, indeed, contain the products which nature has, with so large a consumption of time, and by such a number of complicated operations, elaborated from the raw materials contained in the soil, and has at length brought into the condition in which they are the most soluble, and therefore best fitted to be assimilated by the organs of plants.' To waste them is therefore to undo what has been expressly prepared for our use by a beauti- ful system of contrivances, and to place ourselves under the necessity of performing, by an expendi- ture of our own labour and capital, those very processes which nature had already accomplished for us without cost, by aid of those animate or inanimate agents which she has at her disposal. Before dismissing the subject of manures, we again refer to the point already noticed, that one object in supplying the above organic matters to the soil was to make up for the deficiency of phos- phates in it. But Dr. Daubeny is of opinion that these phosphates exist in certain soils to a much larger extent than is generally supposed, and points in proof of this to the advantages which we all know are derivable, especially in heavy soils, from the method of fallowing, or allowing the CONDITION OF SOILS REQUIRED FOR DIFFERENT CROPS. land to rest for a period without bearing crops, — ' a method which,' as he says, ' would be absurd if the alkalies, phosphates, and other of the more scanty ingredients were absolutely wanting, but which would be likely to prove efficient if they were only locked up within the recesses of the soil, and required time to call them into activity. . . . At any rate, it may be important for the farmer to be assured, that at the very time he is ransack- ing the most distant quarters of the globe for certain of the mineral ingredients required for Iris crops, he has lying beneath his feet in many instances an almost inexhaustible supply of the same. For there seems no reason to doubt that the whole mass of rock which constitutes the subsoil in the secondary and tertiary districts of this country, is nearly as rich in phosphates and in alkalies as the vegetable mould derived from its decomposi- tion. And although the soil in which the experi- ments in my garden were conducted possessed a depth perhaps three times as great as the average of those in which farm produce is generally raised, yet, on the other hand, the amount of phosphates and of alkaline ingredients reported to be present in the latter appears in many instances greater than that determined in the case before us. . . . We need not therefore resort to South America for bones, if means could be found for extracting this ingredient economically from the rocks of our own country.' This last remark of this able exponent of agri- cultural science will naturally suggest to the mind of the reader the importance of the most recent improvements connected with the preparation of the soil, namely, deep culture. To this we have drawn special attention in a sejiarate part of this work, to which we refer the reader for details. In carrying out this deep stirring of the soil, which these remarks we have now presented to the reader on its dormant and available consti- tuents show the universal importance of to the farmer, it is fortunate for him that, knowing this, he has in the system of steam cultivation the precise power wlrich is necessary for him to carry the system out, and without which it would have been hopelessly unavailable. "We have thus seen how certain processes and operations all tend to increase the value of our soils as crop producers. These are not indepen- dent, but are linked together, so to say, in a continuous chain, the neglect or overlooking any one of which is sure to be attended by loss. Xo doubt there are varieties of sub-classes in some of these, as, for example, in tillage operations; still it rests with the farmer to consider which of them he will adopt as best suited to promote the object he has in view. As regards the actual condition of the soil itself, it is obvious that the points which we have brought before the reader open up new subjects for the consideration of the farmer, which he cannot now, if alive to his own interest, overlook ; for it by no means follows that, although a soil may apparently be deficient in certain constituents, these may not be actually absent from it, but be merely, as we have shown, in that condition which has been designated as ' dormant ' or ' passive,' and to make them ' avail- able ' the farmer has but to employ one or other or all of the methods we have pointed out. Mechanical Condition of the Soil required by or suitcdjle for different Crops. — Having now dis- cussed the ways in which soil may be improved, which ways we may, for convenience sake, class under one head as chemical, and by which the soil can bear richer crops, we have now to take up the consideration of the points connected with the mechanical condition in which it should be placed to suit the habits of growth of the different classes of these crops. In treating of the mechanical condition of the soil required by the various crops of the farm, space, unfortunately, is not at our disposal to enable us to enter into the consideration of the points bearing upon and influencing the germi- nation of seeds. We have therefore to refer the reader to works in which these form a more special and appropriate part than the present. Suffice it to say that there are three conditions of soil necessary to germination, — air, moisture, and warmth, to which some add light. But of the value of this agency there are various opinions; indeed, the majority of facts would go to prove that, in place of possessing a value, it on the contrary exercises an injurious or retarding in- fluence on the germination of seeds. Leaving these points with regret, for interesting and sug- gestive to a high degree they are, and passing on to our special subject, we take up wheat, the most 244 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. important of all our farm crops used directly as food for man. The mechanical condition of the soil required for this crop may be said to have two charac- teristics,— depth, and firmness of soil. The depth of stirred soil is required to enable the roots of the plant to penetrate far down in search of food, present there as mineral constituents chiefly ; while the firmness may be said to be confined to the upper part or seed-bed, both aiding the peculiar habits of growth of the plant. "Wheat cannot do well in a soil, however favour- able to it otherwise, ' unless it can root firmly ; and it is for this reason that, where one ploughing will do, it is always desirable to avoid a second immediately before the sowing.' Where wheat is sown on the heavy soil best suited to it, as, for instance, on clays, it is comparatively an easy matter to secure the necessary firmness. Per- haps the chief exception to this in such cases is where vetches have preceded it, these having a tendency to open up the soil. When not cut for green forage food, the best way will be to feed them off the land with sheep, the treading of which will give the necessary consolidation. Where wheat is grown on light soils, the crops which precede it being often common turnips or rape, the difficulty of having the firm seed-bed is decidedly increased, and special care is necessary in preparing the land. The best way is to con- sume the crops on the land by sheep, following up v ith the land presser, allowing the soil to remain for some time to settle down. Of course it is scarcely necessary to be said that the plough- ing precedes the pressing. Even then, however, the soil fails to have the necessary firmness, and in this case by far the better way is to change the cropping ; and of all, the crop best suited for the purpose in view is clover. When this pre- cedes the wheat, there is no better seed-bed obtained for it on light land than the clover ley, this not only giving a firm furrow, but the roots of the clover tend also to consolidate the soil. When wheat is grown upon very light lands, which, however, are really unfitted for it, the difficulty of getting a firm seed-bed is still more increased. The mechanical condition of the soil required for barky is essentially different from that re- quired for wheat. The root-growth or develop- ment, in place of taking the long vertical direc- tion of wheat, assumes a lateral one, spreading out and taking the form of what may be called a flattish bunch of rootlets. The soil must there- fore be free to admit of this development, the best being loams easily worked into a condition of fine tilth. The methods of preparing the soil vary, of course, with its nature, general qualities, and the crops which have preceded it. As regards the latter point, however, a root crop is now almost universally taken off the land before the barley. The preparation of the soil for the roots is precisely that which favours the mechanical condition necessary for barley, while the heavy manuring gives the necessary richness to it. Great care is necessary to prepare the soil for barley so as to have a fine tilth ; many farmers, in their anxiety to get the seed in, neglecting its proper working in spring, and thus losing the chance of having a superior crop, through not having time to give the land the extra work- ing which it requires. In strong loamy soils, from which the preceding root-crop has been eaten up by sheep, which necessarily consolidates the land too much, it is advisable to adopt autumnal cultivation, so that the soil will be acted upon during the winter by the atmospheric influences. But this must be done in the best way ; for if the land be ploughed so as to be closed rather than opened up, thus preventing the frost, etc. from acting upon its particles, a large amount of extra tillage work is necessitated in the endeavour to bring the soil into good, free, and open tilth, — an endeavour which, as a rule, does not meet with the desired success. A barley soil, we again repeat, must have these characteristics, otherwise the crop will be con- fined to feeding purposes, the high quality for malting, which obtains the best price, not being secured. The habit of growth of oats closely resembles in the root development that of wheat. The condition of the soil required to favour in the best way the germination of the seed at first starting, and its after development, is one ' well charged with vegetable matter, firm beneath, yet easy of penetration for the rooting of the plant, with the surface light and free.' The crop is CONDITION OF SOILS REQUIRED FOR DIFFERENT CROPS. 245 generally taken either after roots, or upon a turf of grass or of clover ley. As the great authority on soils remarks, ' Nothing suits the oat better than a turf ploughed down ; and conversely, as a general rule, there is nothing preferable to the oat than strong turf. In the north of England, where the turf even of a clover ley becomes too rank for wheat, the oat conies in as the substi- tute ; and cases are very rare in which either wheat or barley can displace the oat from old and rich turf newly ploughed up. I do not here include clover leys, and such artificial grass turf; but I think, with these exceptions, there is no corn crop which will penetrate and break up an old turf as well as the oat. The reason is, be- cause turf presents just that condition of soil which meets the requirements of its roots ; and if the seed requires a light covering, this is gene- rally produced by an exposure of the soil to frost, and a light tillage of the land. To favour this result, the turf should be ploughed whilst moderately moist, but the surface should not be broken down for sowing until it is in dry work- ing order. The same degree of moisture which favours the solidity of the turf woidd, if the sur- face be cultivated at the same time, render it close and adhesive, and quite unfavourable to the germination of the seed.' Wheat soils are usually spoken of also as bean soils ; and as the habit of growth of this crop is also very similar to that of the wheat, the mechanical condition in which the soil is required to be placed is also very similar. Beans are almost always grown upon stubble land ; and from what we have said, it will be seen that this should be put under autumn cul- ture, so that the land be left in a rough condition to be pulverized by the action of the frost, etc., to form the upper part of the soil into a good tilth for the seed-bed, while the under part will be firm to suit the root development. Should autumn culture not be carried out, and ploughing delayed till spring, this should be done as early as possible, in order to admit of the soil settling down and consolidating. To secure this, some prefer to sow in this early-made furrow without breaking it up. This plan may be adopted also in soils of a lighter character than those which are considered true bean ones. These remarks apply to spring-sown beans, and also to winter-sown, the difference being only as regards time. The ploughing must be done in September, or as early as possible after the grain crop is taken off the land, the sowing being done some four weeks afterwards. In these two, as, indeed, in all other cases of soil and cropping, the object is to have the firm seed-bed which is essen- tial to the crop. As barley is in relation to the wheat as regards the soils and their mechanical conditions, so pease are to beans, this crop requir- ing a free, loose soil, deeply stirred and well manured. The best system of preparing the land involves the adoption of autumnal culture ; and as the crop generally follows a cereal, the ploughing should be done as soon after the corn crop is taken off the land as possible. Of the root crops of the farm the most im- portant is the turnip, and of the varieties grown the Swede. The preparation of the soil for this crop forms, therefore, one of the most important departments of farm work; and although the details vary in different districts, the mechanical condition of the soil best suited for the habits of the crop is the same in all. These habits necessitate a very finely wrought and pulver- ized condition, to allow not merely the numer- ous rootlets which the bulb sends out to gain access to the stores of fertilizing constituents present in it, but also to facilitate the lateral, or what may be called the circumferential, de- velopment of the fleshy part of the bulb in its natural or normal form. This latter point is one of greater importance than is supposed ; for the parts of all abnormal growths are in quality of flesh greatly inferior to true growth, being either hard, woody, or fibrous, or diseased ; or both of these conditions may be at the same time the result. Hence it will be seen that heavy, close, and adhesive soils are not capable of yielding the best crops, but that those are got I out of land in the fine and deep state of tilth above described, and which therefore is known as turnip soil. This latter, obviously, is nunc easy to cultivate than the heavier. Cleanness, or freedom from weeds, is absolutely essential, so that where the land has been allowed to g< t into a foul condition, the workings necessitated are both varied and frequently repeated until the 246 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPER TV. requisite cleanness is secured. There is great diversity of opinion as to whether turnip land should be worked so that the final seed-bed be left in a moist or dry condition. The balance of scientific investigation into this point seems to be in favour of having a dry soil for the deposit of the seed. If the weather be dry, it will thus remain uninjured ; and when the rains come, both soil and seed will be placed in the most favourable condition for quick germination, and that rapid pushing on of the plants into that condition of rough leaf in which the attacks of the turnip-fly need no longer be feared. Another important root-crop is the mangold wurzel. Although the form of this root obviously points to such a mechanical condition of the soil as to admit of its penetrating deeply into it, and therefore requiring a loose, friable state, still it is found that it will do with stronger and more adhesive soil than will the turnip. Nevertheless, while this is so, a good tilth is essential, which may be secured without involving the repeated workings of the soil which the . turnip demands. In the case of this latter crop, as, indeed, may be said of all other crops, autumn cultivation will give the best results. The carrot does best in a very deep and friable soil, but well manured and kept thoroughly free from weeds, to secure which they best follow another root-crop, as turnips, the culture of which involves the necessity of attending to these points. If a corn crop precedes the carrot, great care is required to have the land thoroughly cleaned and deeply stirred. A root-crop which is too seldom grown, considering its value as a food for live stock of all kinds, is the parsnip. Although this in form is similar to the carrot, it may be never- theless grown in soils stronger and more adhesive than that root; but, in fact, the, parsnip has singular powers of adaptability to any class of soil, and generally the mechanical condition and general culture, etc., may be taken as that required for carrots. Another point in its favour is, that it may be sown at almost any period of the year. The mechanical state of soils required for grass seed may be conceived, from their light, small, and weak constitution, as something very different to that demanded by the seeds of other crops already noticed. If deeply sown, germination would not take place, so that a thin covering or stratum is only required ; indeed, some merely placed on the surface, covering them in with a light bush-harrow. In other cases the roller is used after sowing, to secure the somewhat delicate condition of seed- bed. Should the surface of the soil be encrusted, as after rain, it should be opened up with a light turn of the chain or the bush-harrow, before the seed is sown. Where the roller is used, it must be very carefully, and only when the soil is dry. Grass seed is usually sown down with corn crops, barley, or oats. It is a disputed point whether they should be sown at the same time as the corn, or after the corn has reached that condition at which the plants are well rooted in the soil. The balance of opinion seems to point in favour of the latter plan. The Influence of Soils upon the Health of Stock pastured on them. — Up to a certain period in the history of agriculture, and, indeed, prevailing to a very large extent now amongst those connected with its practice, so little attention was paid to the subject of soils, and their relation to what' grew upon their surfaces, that the graphic phrase, ' Oh, soils are soils, and grass is grass,' may be taken as an exposition of the general ignorance on the subject, and indicating the general in- difference to the fact that there might be a law or laws regulating the relationship above alluded to, and which was therefore possibly of first practical importance. Of late years, and especi- ally within the last eight or ten, special attention has been directed to the subject, and a large amount of information connected with it has been collected, showing that there does exist a very close and intimate relation between soils and the herbage which grows upon them, and, further, which is the most important point, upon the health of the stock pastured thereon. In one sense it is somewhat surprising that this investigation had not been entered into long before. Not but what hints had been thrown out and suggestions offered upon the subject ; for so thoroughly had the constituents of soils and of grasses, natural and artificial alike, been analyzed, — with special reference to the latter as containing the chemical constituents upon which their nu- tritive qualities depended, — and further, and not less important, so well had the relation of those INFLUENCE OF SOILS UPON THE HEALTH OF STOCK. 247 qualities to the animals fed upon tlieni, both from a chemical as well as a physiological point of view, been investigated, that one would have felt sure that investigations into the relation which soils bear to the crops they produce would have been pushed as far as these others we have alluded to. But although what may be called the necessary dependence of all the three links of the chain — the soil, the food, the animal — would have been so clear that the one could scarcely be well thought of without involving the thinking of the other, still it was not done, at least to the extent it ought to have been. It is not always easy to account for those lapses in scientific investigations of which this is but an example out of many, but they often occur, and greatly to the loss of those immediately concerned in the solu- tion of the problems which they include within their range. It is satisfactory, however, to know that the investigations are now going on, and have been taken up by those well calculated to place their results before the public intelligently, and to deduce rules or suggestions from them of practical value. What we have here to say upon the point must, from what has been already stated, be seen to be of a very general character, and more by way of pointing out that the facts, scanty as they are, all go to prove the very great importance of the landed proprietor or farmer having a thorough knowledge of the geological formation of all parts of the estate, and this in addition to a knowledge — the more profound the better — of the sister sciences of chemistry and physiology, as applicable specially to plant and animal life. When this knowledge becomes wide-spread, and applied with judgment to the soils, etc. of the properties of the country, such a mass of facts will be brought to light as will enable farmers to predict with wonderful accu- racy what the soils of their farms are capable of producing, and what the value of this produce as applied to their live stock is likely to be. The more closely we find this system carried out, and the more extensively, the more shall we find our- selves approaching that period in the history of agriculture, long ago prophesied, long looked forward to by the most earnest of its followers, when every step in the working of farms will be taken with an accuracy and precision as far removed in its phases from the ' happy-go-lucky,' ' rule of thumb,' ' let us do as our forefathers did' system, now so prevalent, as the pecuniary results of the new will be as far removed by their striking increase from those of the old plan, with all its varied and uncertain, because unknown, chances of loss. And just as we know that the proprietors of large chemical manufacturing estab- lishments keep for each a chemist of ability to look after their products, and find the large ex- penditure abundantly justified by the larger profits arising from the system, so do we believe that it woidd in every sense pay, if a large landed pro- prietor engaged an ' expert' thoroughly capable of making known the various conditions of the soils of the property, etc., and their relative values. And the expense might be lessened by proprietors of adjoining properties joining in securing and paying for the services of such a great help in making known the hidden value of the soils, etc. This will be deemed as but a specimen of the propositions of the 'most advanced of advanced ' agriculturists ; we nevertheless venture to believe that the time will come when it will not be an unusual thing to witness. Societies might, but in truth societies could not, do this work ; for to obtain satisfactory results, the ' expert ' would require to reside on the property being thus examined into and reported upon, so that he would have a thorough knowledge of its whole peculiarities of soil, climate, locality, etc. What societies could do, and what they should begin to do now, would be to train up, or assist in training up, under their auspices, a class of men who could be sent where their services were required ; and we believe that if one only was put down within a large district, so marked would be the advantages flowing from his labours, that demands for his services would come rapidly in from other parts. As yet we have, so to say, but merely had the name of ' agricultural chemists ' amongst us ; and able as these have been and now are, and enormous as has been the value of their contributions to the science, still they have not had the field open to them which it is most desirable to cultivate, closed as it has been by a variety of circum- stances, not the least potent of which lias been that this outlying work cannot possibly be so 243 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. remunerative in tho first instance as that wider one in which they have hitherto laboured. But such outlying districts would be the fields in which young men of ability would win their spurs, and make knights, yet untitled, to undertake work of higher value, if such indeed could be. The principle of the investigation of soils, with reference to their influence upon the herb- age and the health of stock feeding on them, may be briefly stated thus : — Analyses of the herbage which is known to be good and health- sustaining food indicate the presence of certain constituents, these being classed generally under two great divisions, the organic or vegetable, capable of being wholly burned or consumed ; and, second, the inorganic, which leaves on com- bustion an ash residue ; this ash residue indicates on analysis the presence of certain substances, as saline, iron, phosphates, etc. Analyzing the chief parts which go to make up the body of an animal, the analysis indicates the presence of certain constituents which find their prototypes, so to say, in, or are in fact identical with, similar constituents found on analyzing herbage. Al- though the point might easily have been guessed at from mere common-sense observations and considerations, still this conjecture, while it showed the close relationship existing between animals and the food they lived upon, and also between these and the soils which produced them, gave no precise indication of the relative values of some soils as compared with others. Another step had to be taken, of which presently. Going on to note that the relationship was fairly enough indicated by what had been done, and what might safely be conjectured, a series of rough and ready investigations in the produce of different soils was entered upon. From these, as an important result, it was deduced that the herbage grown upon certain soils was in every respect superior to that grown upon other soils, not only for feeding or fattening purposes, but for sustaining the health of the animals. Classify- ing in the same ready way the facts based upon, the first general deduction made was that the soils formed from — in the manner described in preceding paragraph on soils — what are called the primary formations or igneous rocks, of which the granitic and trappean rocks are well-known examples, give better food than that produced by soils from the secondary formation, such as clay, old red sandstone, etc. Here was a most important fact established, and it was amply corroborated by a series of observations made in different districts, and scientifically proved by analyses either of the soils of certain districts themselves, or by analyses long ago published by various agricultural authorities of rocks of a corresponding character. These showed, taken in conjunction with the other analyses already referred to, a clear chain of connection between soil, produce, and the condition of the animals consuming this. We have already shown in paragraphs on soils, that the character of the geological formations or rocks of a district which underlie the surface soils gives no correct or trustworthy data by which to estimate that of those soils. We have there pointed out that from various agencies at work, operating through long and unknown periods, and often in ways at which we can but guess, a soil will overlie the lower formation, the origin of which is from rocks of quite a different character from those upon which they rest. Hence will be seen the importance, nay, necessity, of not trusting to indications of what is the lower formation of the districts in which the fields, etc. are, but to a special examination of the lower formation of soils themselves. Otherwise grave errors may arise. But this fact also brings up another of importance bearing on the subject, namely : The Influence of the Water passing through or over the Surface Soil upon the Animals pastured thereon. — Singular to say, and it is now some- what difficult to comprehend how it could be decided upon, when the analyses of foods used by cattle were thoroughly entered upon with a view to support the theories of animal nutrition, water was set aside, and in these analyses treated as valueless from a feeding point of view. Brought forward under the cover of theories of nutrition, which were so brilliantly elucidated, and which, on the whole, were won- derfully accurate, this quiet relegation of the water in agricultural produce to a point of utter uselessness was accepted quietly. But in pro- cess of time there were those who began to question the accuracy of such a proceeding from INFLUENCE OF SOILS AND WATER ON LIVE STOCK. 249 scientific points of view, while others came more easily, but just in the main as accurately, to the same conclusion, basing it upon what they be- lieved to be common-sense and incontrovertible facts, derived from everyday experience and ob- servation. This is not the place further to pursue the subject from a scientific point of view ; those who wish to go into this will find in our volume, in the series entitled, Outline of Modern Farming (London: Crosby Lockwood & Co.), a fully detailed resume' of all the opinions pro and con on the subject, with some remarks of our own thereon. Suffice it here to say, that we know water to be an important element in the food of all animals ; that, in one respect, it may be considered a food itself, or may be the vehicle of conveying certain constituents absent in solid foods themselves. This can be proved in a variety of ways, and is strikingly so in connection with the subject of soils, now under discussion. Water being very much influenced in its character and quality by the nature of the rocks from which it springs, or from the rocks and soils over which it flows, it follows that we ought to find, as in practice we do find, that water will contain constituents of the like character, so that one may predicate almost the sods or rocks over which water has flowed by the constituents found in it. It also follows that the constituents of water flowing through a field may possess those of which the herbage of that field may be destitute ; as, indeed, from the short extent of flow in some cases might easily be conceived. But the water so flowing may have passed over rocks or soils, so that it will contain the very constituents of which the herbage of the field through which it passes is deficient. Hence the wants of the herbage may be made up or sup- plemented by the supply of the water. That water, djspite the dicta of some authorities who still maintain the theory we have already alluded to, is not merely an aliment, nourishing and supporting animal life, is true; but it wdl have been deduced from what we have said, that being so ready a medium or vehicle by which good and healthy constituents may be conveyed in it, it must be no less potent in the way of conveying or containing constituents which may be noxious. Hence the necessity of looking after this impor- tant department of water supply to live stock of the farm pastured on fields. We have little more to say on a subject so interesting and practical, than that it seems estabbshed at once by the facts of experience and the teachings of science, that soils do exercise a remarkable influence in the way we have shown. But while admitting this, we have said enough to warn the improver of property of the danger of rushing to rapid conclusions from generalizations as hastily made. The remarkable diversities in the natural peculi- arities and characteristics of the sods, not only of a district, but of a single field, and the way in which these are brought about, should induce caution as to deciding the nature of a soil from the rocks on which it lies, and indeed vice versa ; for accurate examination can alone decide to which certain peculiarities of herbage, water, etc. are due. Then, again, the effects of any particular cause may be and are greatly modified by local circumstances, such as climate, exposure to un- healthy winds, and also the mere way in which work is carried out ; so that one has to be guarded in coming to a quick conclusion on any point of farm management before he has thoroughly taken into consideration all the circumstances. As we have again and again pointed out, agriculture is not a fixed science, with its rules and axioms which cannot be denied, and which can always be depended upon ; on the contrary, if there be one on winch little dependence can be placed, so far as the results of the workings of to-day will allow us to decide with certainty those of to- morrow, agriculture is the science. It is in its practice subjected to so many disturbing elements, that it is not easy to say to which of these any particular circumstance owes its origin, how they are produced, and how they may be controlled and modified. We would counsel the reader who desires to know fuller details on this sul ject than the scope of our work adm;i: ox, to examine carefully two admirable papers in the 7th volume of the 4th series of the Trans of the Highland Society, which are full of sug- gestive and practical matter on the points merely opened up. Although both papers have special reference to sheep as affected by soils, the facts given embrace within their scope, it 2 1 250 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. need scarcely be said, points referring to live stock in general. The first paper is by Mr. John M'Culloch, Agnew Crescent, Stranraer ; the second, which is the more extended of the two, and goes fully into many details — to some of which we own our indebtedness — is from the pen of Mr. John M'Millan, Halketheaths, Castle- Douglas. We have thus shoAvn how the soils which constitute the cropping part of the earth's surface are exceedingly varied in their chemical con- stituents, as well as in their physical or mechanical characteristics. It is in the way in which these various characteristics are, so to say, blended together in what is known as the ' seed-bed;' in the working of them by various operations, so as to reduce the hard, unyielding clods of heavy clay soil into the condition known to all as a ' fine tilth;' or to raise it, as in the case of light, shifting, sandy soils, to the necessary degree of firmness and compression ; to mix the soil thus prepared with the proper supply of mammal substances ; — it is in all this, and much more than this, that what is called ' cultivation of the soil' consists. Deep Culture and Stirring of the Soil. — Of all the recently introduced methods of preparing our soils for crops, and for putting them into that con- dition best fitted to enable them to draw from it those manurial constituents the value of which agricultural chemists have in modern times so clearly proved, and which experience in many forms has so fully demonstrated, that of deep culture is perhaps the most important. This, in conjunction with the system of autumnal culti- vation or rather preparation of the soil, and the two aided so powerfully by the recently intro- duced forms of steam cultivating mechanism, lias brought about a change in the farming operations connected with the soil, so remarkable in its scientific phases, and so striking in its practical results, that it may be said to have completely revolutionized the work of soil pre- paration for crops. It would, however, be per- haps the more correct way to say that it will, or bids fair to revolutionize this department of farm practice, inasmuch as, unfortunately, although the theory and the facts gained from experience of the new system are established beyond all dispute, the practice has not been extended so rapidly as certainly those interested in the pro- gress of agriculture would like to see. But it has ever been thus, alike in agriculture as in other arts. New things are but slowly taken up ; and it only remains to be hoped that this one will form an exception to the rule, and be quickly spread over all the districts of the kingdom. The sooner this is done, the more fully developed will the resources of the soil be, and its pro- ducts largely increased both in quantity and quality. One reason, — and it is well always to see whether there be a reason, or the working of mere prejudice only, why a new and a good thing is not quickly adopted, — one reason why deep culture has not been so extensively adopted as it deserves to be, is that with it is associated in many minds the idea that more harm is done by its adoption than good, and in this manner. Soil, agriculturally considered, may be divided into two zones or strata, — the upper soil, or that which is placed and maintained from year to year under cultivation, either as bearing a succession of annual crops of various kinds or of grasses, which under the alternate husbandry system may be two, three, or four years on the ground, or in the case of regular meadow and pasture land permanently so, and is generally known as the soil, popularly the ground. The second zone or stratum is the subsoil. Both soil and subsoil originally con- tained what are called the mineral constituents, in varying qualities according to circumstances, as the nature varies of the rocks or geological formations which gave or yielded the materials or particles of which they were composed. The mineral constituents are withdrawn from the soil by the plants which grow or are cultivated upon it, and this more quickly or slowly accord- ing to the number of crops taken within a certain period from it, and the nature and amount of extraneous or added manurial substances ap- plied to and along with the crops in order to increase their produce. This addition of ex- traneous manures, which contain fertilizing sub- stances of various kinds, is for the purpose of keeping up the fertility of the soil, which would otherwise fail from the withdrawal of its original DEEP CULTURE, OR STIRRING OF THE SOIL. !5I constituents, which are only of a fixed or deter- mined amount. The depth of the soil or upper stratum is very limited, this being determined by the depth to which the cultivating implements, as the plough, go in preparing the soil. This depth has not been easy to increase, in consequence of mechanical difficulties in the way. The lower stratum or subsoil contains, of course, manurial constituents valuable for and available by plants, if only their roots and rootlets could get access to them. This, however, is prevented by a variety of cir- cumstances; and knowing the fertilizing richness of the subsoil, the idea occurred to some think- ing men, — if the difficulties in the way of so pre- paring the soil that the roots of the plants may get down to the subsoil, to draw from it the fertilizing riches which it possesses, are such that they cannot with the mechanical aids at our com- mand be overcome, there might be some way of reversing the condition of the problem, by bring- ing the subsoil nearer to, or to mix with, the soil or upper stratum, thus affording an exemplifica- tion of the old saying, ' If Mahomet cannot get to the mountain, the mountain must be brought to Mahomet.' This was tried, and although in some instances with signal and marked success, yet in others with results so precisely the reverse, that grave doubts were thrown upon the whole scheme of deep culture; and as men's minds seem to have an inherent attraction towards difficulties, these, of course, were made more of than the methods by which they were to be overcome, so that, as we have already stated, deep culture was, to borrow an appropriate simile, ' deep buried in the soil,' and was for long but seldom spoken of, or if so, only to be condemned with strong censure, or 'damned' with equal potency 'by faint praise.' The difficulties arose from the fact that the sub- soils of various lands varied in composition as well as in mechanical or inherent peculiarities ; some were good, some were crude and sour, and could only be rendered beneficial to the plants by being brought under the ameliorating in- fluences of cultivation. But still the fact that the upper and all too shallow stratum of soil was every year becoming more and more ex- hausted of its mineral constituents — large areas of it, indeed, utterly destitute of them, unless supplied by large and expensive additions of farm-yard or artificial manures — haunted the minds of men who thought at all on the subject; nor less the other fact, that below this exhausted soil lay a stratum of subsoil, filled, so to say, to repletion with the riches of untouched fertility. And the result was, that at last the system of a compromise of difficulties — that grand principle by which difficulties in many things are over- come— was thought of, and finally, as now, this took form in the method of so working, that the subsoil was deeply stirred, and its hitherto close bound and root and air fast particles, so to say, opened up to the passage or entrance of the roots and rootlets of the plants grown in the upper soil. And further, by a gradual system the subsoil was brought up to and mixed with the upper soil in a series of what might be called instalments, thus enriching it with a supply of fresh soil, as yet deprived but to a small extent of its mineral constituents. This system of working solved the difficulties, and deep culture became an established fact, and only awaited, as it awaits in too many instances and on too many farms, to lie taken advantage of when undue prejudices shall give way to truths which are now incontrovertibly established. Nor was it a less remarkable, as it assuredly was a most fortunate circumstance, that coincident with this discovery, as it may well be called, — the full value and importance of which to the nation, as bringing with it a power which can and will largely increase the produce of our farms, is }*et to be appreciated by the public, — came the introduction of improved mechanical -appliances. These, worked by steam, enable the subsoil to be stirred to a depth which by our ancestors, nay, even by those who but a few years ago were considered by farmers generally as but ' dreamy enthusiasts,' as indeed they were called, would have been set down as a work impossible to be achieved. Two feet, and even two feet six inches, can be got of thoroughly stirred subsoil, by the use of one of John Fowler & Co.'s patent knives or grubbers ; and by the subsequent use of their subsoiler, this soil can, in proper time and judicious quantities, be brought up to and mixed with the soil or upper stratum, thus giving ultimately a wonderful depth 2$2 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. of fairly stirred soil, in which plants can be grown and developed fully, and from which they can draw large supplies of mineral constituents. And this without involving any of the objections, con- sidered by some to be so great, of bringing up and at once mixing the subsoil with the surface soil. Nor does the mere addition of this large supply of mineral constituents, valuable as it is, exhaust the benefits which this new system of deep culture brings with it in its train. To gardeners the advantages obtainable from so working the soil that it will be exposed as much as possible to the action of sun-heat, air, rain, and light, or to what we now know as, and is summed up in the term, ' atmospheric influences,' have been long known and fully made use of; these being all the more decided in their action when the soil is so worked at the latter end of the year that it can lie ex- posed all the winter, and have in addition to these influences above named the further and greater advantages of being exposed to the action of frost, and manured, so to say, by good layers of snow. Yet, strange to say, fully as has been established the value of the atmospheric influ- ences-— and amongst these very remarkably that of frost, which breaks up and disintegrates the soil into fine particles — by the practice of gardeners, farmers have been so slow to adopt the same system, modified, no doubt, as it must be, by the difference in methods of working, that if they are really convinced of the truths concern- ing the influence of the atmosphere, etc., they show comparatively few symptoms that they desire to reduce them to practice. And still more striking is the apathy of many, displayed in their neglect of the system of late or ' autumn cultivation,' as it is called, by which the frost can so operate upon the soil as to bring it into the condition known to farmers as a fine ' tilth.' Now, although there are certain degrees of openness of texture or ' tilth ' of the soil required, — for example, for wheat a firmer soil than for turnips or barley, — still all are agreed upon this, that openness of soil is in every way desirable ; and this not merely to enable the roots of plants to descend into the soil, but also the atmosphere. The advantages of this descent of the air into, and its mixture, so to say, with the particles of the soil, cannot be overestimated. For it is not merely the disintegrating effect of the atmospheric influences upon the soil, which we have already stated to be so beneficial, but, as is well known, there is a species of manurial agency, so to say, carried on by them — to such an extent, indeed, that some earnest advocates of deep culture, or deep stirring, rather, of the soil, go the length of saying, that with this system nearly the whole of the manuring required by the crops will be effected by them alone. And those who hold this opinion have certainly some experience to fall back upon to support them in it. Although deep culture and autumn working of the soil have made but comparatively slow pro- gress amongst farmers, still it is gratifying to note that that progress is being gradually quickened, and the practice of both systems becoming dady more and more extended. In working lands in the autumn, advantage should be taken to get as early into the fields as possible after the removal of the grain crops which have been in the land. And here a caution is required ; for we cannot sufficiently impress the young and inexperienced farmer — or, may we mildly suggest, the old and experienced one, who may be just a ' leetle ' tied to his owu opinions and prejudices — with the loss which is sustained by ploughing or working his land in any way when it is not in good condition, and the great gain there is in patiently waiting till it is, and then going at it heartily. It is difficult to overestimate the injury done to succeeding crops by turning over soil which is wet, ' lumpy, and bird-limey ; ' and there is really no time gained ultimately by this kind of working, independently of the state of the crop, for the seed-bed in such soil is quite unfitted to push on the germination of the seed, and to aid the subsequent growth of the young and tender plants. The attention paid to the mechanical condition of the soil is, as a rule, by far too greatly unheeded ; indeed, it is a point rarely thought of by many. Farmers have got or get into a jog-trot, rule-of-thumb way of doing things, and if they look as if they were well done, that seems to satisfy them. Now it is worth knowing, what every one does not know, that each of our crops has got its own seed-root POINTS INFLUENCING DEEP CULTURE OF THE SOIL. 253 peculiarities, one seed developing its rootlets in a way quite different from that of another: as the wheat, with its long, vertical, descending roots, which require a firm and compressed soil ; or the barley, with its lateral or wide-spreading horizontal rootlets, for which a lighter and more friable soil is required. Then, again, the crop which has preceded that which is now or shortly to he put in, influences greatly the condition of the soil, and also that of the method of working it. Thus the clover is a good crop for bringing the soil into good condition for the wheat, which, as above stated, requires a firmisli soil, so that in working it and preparing it for the crop this must be borne in mind. Turnips, again, are a good preparatory crop for the barley, if the land is not in very high condition ; mangold-wurzel if it be. And to show that farming is a calling which requires some thought, it may be here noted that the way even in which the turnip has been cleared off will influence the mode of work- ing it this month ; for if sheep have been folded on, and the turnips are then wholly eaten off by them, a shallower furrow slice should be taken in than where the roots have been pulled up in the usual way. Although deep stirring of the soil is so ad- vantageous, it must nevertheless be done with judgment. An eminent authority, who has had perhaps greater experience than most in carrying out the system, states that he would not recom- mend it to be done thoroughly — that is, to the utmost or greatest depth to which the improved implements can go — oftener than once every four or five years, and then only for green or root crops. And as for the soil for cereals, only a very shallow seed-bed is afterwards required, these requiring, as we have already stated, a firm seed-bed, or rather under-surface soil. Still this must be done with care, for it is possible to err in giving too much solidity to the soil ; for it ought to be borne in mind that the root-growths of the cereals vary very much, those of the wheat, as already pointed out, having a vertical growth, and those of the barley a horizontal or lateral one. The nature of the soil ought also to materially modify the character of the working to which it is subjected, light soils requiring a different treat- ment from those of a dense, heavy, adhesive kind- It is, indeed, in the working of the latter that the value of the system we have been describing and advocating will be best shown. We have, indeed, no hesitation in avowing our belief, that in its application in conjunction with steam power, lies that future of our heavy clay lands to which our farmers have so long, and apparently so hopelessly, been looking forward, — a future in which the difficulties of working wdl be over- come, and the full amount of the rich fertility of these clay lands will be obtained. In the heaviest qualities of this kind of soil, our readers, of course, are aware that it was formerly, and is in the old system still necessary to work them upon the bare or summer fallow system, — a system which required the land to be the whole year under the cultivating or preparatory processes, as grubbing, ploughing, harrowing, weeding, and cleaning, so that a large proportion of the working period was, so to say, lost so far as crop-raising was concerned. Now, by the use of the improved steam cultivating apparatus and the implements we have alluded to, these heavy clay lands, if early got on in the autumn as soon as the preceding crop lias been removed, can be stirred to such a depth, and so effectually, leaving large interstitial spaces below into which the air can descend, that all the old operations connected with summer fallowing can be dispensed with, and the land so brought into that desirable state of tilth that little else save comparatively light harrowing work, or a turn or two of the grubber or the plough, is re- quired in spring to make it fit for the nest crop. Heavy clay soils thus treated can be cultivated at one-half the expense as compared with the old method, and this to say nothing of the large increase of produce obtained from them from the superior style of preparing the soil. But important as the subject of deep culture of the soil is, and great as are the benefits which correct theory shows to be derived from it, as well as the results of what is now a widely extended practice, our readers will not be surprised to leai'n that there are some, and these even thoroughly practical men, who take exception to it. Others — and these certainly have far more reason on their side — maintain that, while valuable in some cir- !S4 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. euiustanees, it is not so in others. Thus, while for root crops they believe deep ploughing to be good, they have not found it so for the cereals or leguminous crops, for which, they say, they find shallow ploughing the best, as producing the best crops. Again, under the new system of autumn culture, while the general opinion is that the earlier the land is ploughed the better, even in the case of the heaviest soils, some maintain that they get the best results from deep ploughing, but only if done in the spring. Still further, while deep cultivation would appear, from what we have said in the earlier part of this section, to be valu- able for all soils, there are some who maintain, and against extended practice, that while it is good for some, shallow ploughing is the best for other kinds of soils. These facts all point to this, that there are circumstances, peculiarities of soil, climate, and locality, which may materially affect even the soundest theories, so that it behoves the manager of landed property to take all these into consider- ation before any plan based upon it, and which may have proved in other districts eminently successful, is decided upon in a particular case. Because, as modifications may be found necessary and beneficial where doubt exists, and where such a mode of proceeding can be adopted, it is certainly the safest way to introduce the new system cautiously, giving, of course, the benefits of this to such parts as may apparently be similar to those about which any doubt has been thrown in the history of improvement. Soils considered in their relation to Drainage Operations. — We have glanced at the various peculiarities of soils in their chemical and mecha- nical features, and these connected with crops which they are best calculated to produce ; we have now to do the same as briefly as may be for the point named at the head of this paragraph. A well-known authority on agri- cultural engineering classifies the soils in respect to draining operations under three heads, — first, soils through which water percolates or flows according to the laws of gravitation ; second, soils in which capillary attraction counteracts that of gravitation ; and, third, where affinity counteracts both the other two, gravitation and capillary attraction. Without entering into the minute details which make up the characteristics of these three classes, — a task beyond the scope of our work, and for which reference must be made to works treating of drainage specially, — we may state roughly that the soils of the first class are those which are known popularly as sandy or gravelly. Much of these soils is diy, and scarcely requires draining ; the greater proportion are, however, more or less wet, and imperatively demand it. They are the easiest kinds of soils to drain. The second class are popularly known as sandy clays, or clayey sands, or w7hat are called in some districts ' dead sands,' and are more or less mixed with vegetable matter. They com- prise many varieties, are of all depths, and possess diverse chemical and mechanical peculiarities. The various soils of this class are, as a rule, difficult to drain, possibly more so than even the soil of the third class, known generally as heavy clay or impervious soils. THE POSITION OF ROADS, ETC., ON A FARM. 255 CHAPTEE II. LAYING OUT TIIE FIELDS OF TIIE FARM —THE POSITION OF EOADS, STREAMS, SIIELTER PLANTATIONS, ETC. The conclusion would be very readily arrived at, that this department was of little practical importance, if we were to judge from the pro- minence, or rather, to write more accurately, the lack of it, given to it by some practical authorities, and in works which are either devoted specially to this, or partly to it and partly to farming considered generally. Nor would the conclusion be more definite and de- cided if the observation were extended to the fields of many farms throughout the country, which are laid out on most erroneous principles, if indeed, in many of them, such a matter as a principle which should guide the practice has been thought of as at all likely to exist ; and the contrast between such farms and those on which a principle has been acknowledged and acted upon, is well calculated to show the importance of the department. We are far, however, from concealing the fact that it is by no means easy, if indeed it be possible, to lay down a principle applicable to all circumstances, — and this much may be safely conceded by way of excuse, if excuse be necessary, for those who neglect to trouble themselves about the matter at all, — for here, as in other departments of farming, such a diversity of circumstances exists that it is impossible to define a principle which could be applicable in all circumstances. But still here, as in farming generally, certain broad positions may be stated and conclusions arrived at, the application of which to practice will give fairly valuable results. Before stating these, and giving a few plans which will setve to illustrate their application to varied circumstances of locality, etc., it will not be altogether useless to glance at some of the leading considerations which lend importance to this department of landed property economics. Thus, the mere waste of time — and time is money — involved in having to go over lengths of roads leading to or bounding fields, which, if better planned, would be shorter, is a serious item in the yearly ex- penditure, more especially if the roads lead to fields — as pasture fields — in daily or at least frequent use. In this latter case the repetition of the unnecessary going over of the road adds enormously to the labour, and, by consequence, to the cost ; for although at first sight it may seem to be but a matter of no great moment to have an extra length of road along which to drive the cows to pasture, when this is multiplied by so many times a day, and this by so many times a week, and so on, and the yearly aggre- gate summed up and committed to paper, and its pecuniary value estimated, the matter assumes a totally different aspect. So also with the carting of manure to, and of produce from, the fields under arable culture. The mere passing along a road unnecessarily long, once or twice, is perhaps by some not worth naming as adding to the cost of horse labour and men's time, but comes to be a serious item when repeated very frequently in the year, as it must be. Then, again, as to the mere form or shape of the fields. This comes to be a very serious matter when one considers the cost of fencing originally, and the keeping of it in good repair ; and fencing may be reduced to a minimum by proper forms being given to fields, and a due relation of these one to another. And, as we shall presently see, the size as well as the shape of fields under arable culture influences to a great extent the cost of their cultivation, the expenditure of horse power being greater in fields of certain size and form than in those where 256 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. these are different. This relation, above alluded to, has also an important bearing upon the system of cropping the farm, for when this is attended to the cost of working is greatly reduced ; and so also when fields of the same quality of soil are brought if possible near to each other, or within what may be called the same range of operation, — as, for example, heavy lands under fallow, or lighter lands under turnip culture. Further, the position of the fields devoted to pasture, so as to obtain the best shelter for the stock, will obviously have a decided influence for good upon their condition, and in like pro- portion increase the profits to be derived from them. The ' water privileges,' moreover, of a farm may be nearly wholly lost, or their value reduced to a minimum, by lack of attention to certain points by which their advantages will be made the most of. The relation of such parts of the farm as are or may be devoted to plantation, to other parts, exercises also a clearly important influence upon its value as a whole ; and so also that of such tracts not yet brought into culti- vation, but which may in process of time be re- claimed, and made to form part of the cultivated land. All these, and other points which will readily suggest themselves to the thoughtful reader, will show that this department of Landed Property Improvement Economics is not the least important one with which the agent is con- cerned. We shall, in as few sentences as possible, en- deavour to place before the reader some general principles and diagrams which may serve to illus- trate the principal points just alluded to. Thus in figs. 1 to 4, Plate GO, some of the points con- nected with the laying out of fields for plough- ing are illustrated. Experience has shown that the most economical length of furrow which a horse can turn without distressing him is 250 yards, taking the average of soils; this length allowing him, when he reaches the headlands, as at a or & in fig. 1, a breathing or brief resting time as the plough is turned to go along the headlands, in order to take the next succeeding furrow in the next succeeding 'stretch.' This length, as above stated, will vary as the soil varies, — the lighter that is, the longer may the furrow be, and vice versa; and it may be laid out in a square, as in fig. 1. But for several obvious reasons fields are more conveniently set out 111 rectangles or parallelograms, as in fig. 2, the shorter length, as a b, being that of the line of furrows; and these, if possible, should run in such a direction that the growing crops will receive the largest amount of sunlight. It is obvious that even in a field laid out with such regularity that the furrows are of uniform length, there will still be a large amount of time lost in turning at, and going along, the headlands. The most eminent agricultural authority, Mr. Stephens, the author of TJie Book of the Farm, estimates this at one- fifth of the time of ten hours to the working day. It is evident, therefore, that when fields are laid out as in fig. 3, Plate 60, a very large increase in this otherwise great loss of time will result from the turning at such points as a a, and in going along the headland at b and c. In such a case, perhaps the best way to dispose the field is shown in fig. 4, by placing, say, a clump of trees at the east side, as at a, which will serve as shelter to the crops ; and, as we shall see in the chapter on plantations, shelter even to arable fields is a point desirable to be attained in many cases. Or, if shelter of this sort be not desired, on the less exposed side, not to be planted, the corner, as b, may be devoted to some permanent crop, useful as forage food for cattle, as say gorse. By some such arrangement as this a well-formed field may be obtained, as shown. Fig. 7 shows the disposition of irregular fields, indicating how much is lost in ploughing, as well as by the form of the road, as a a. Thus the field b c d e may be improved in form by making the road go from c to d, as shown by the dotted lines, thus effecting a very considerable saving in going in the direction from a to /, either north or south. The corner at b, if laid out with some permanent crop, will still further improve the form of field. The fields g and h, if circumstances are otherwise suitable, will best be laid out as pasture fields, affouling a change of bite. A good deal of land is often lost by the laying down of roads, leaving such unappropriated parts as at i in fig. 7, Plate GO, or as at /. By a little thought a better arrangement could be obtained ; thus, by adding to the first-named alteration of the road, from e LA YING OUT OF THE FIELDS OF A FARM. 257 to /, another road as from e to k, it is obvious that the same purpose will be served as by the original road, a a a, while the awkward-shaped field, h, would be got rid of, and a fairly well proportioned one obtained, c I m d. Fig. 5 shows auother disposition of badly-formed fields, the buildings being at a, and the main road at b b. It is a very bad arrangement to have the buildings of a farm divided, so that they will be on two sides of a public road, as shown in fig 5. In this, a a b b is the public road, which nar- rows going south at c, part of the buildings being on one side at d, and the other at e. A worse arrangement than this could scarcely be ; only in this case it was made still more faulty by placing the farm-house at/, so that no super- vision could be had by the farmer over his buildings. The loss with such an arrangement is often very heavy, especially when the farm is a suburban one, — as the particular one here illustrated was, — in the neighbourhood of a manufacturing town, inasmuch as depredations of no small amount are committed, especially during the ' quiet hours.' The offices are placed at g, the fruit and flower garden at h h, the kitchen garden at i «'; entering from this was a small paddock or pasturing field,//; k, d, and /, m, and n, meadows ; while 0, j), and q are the fields devoted to arable culture, which, it will be observed, are the worst formed for this purpose on the farm. Fig. 8, Plate 60, shows a much better, indeed a very fair disposition of the fields of a farm, in which a a is the public road, b that leading to the main farm or accommodation road, c c. This divides the farm into two parts, so that the pasture and arable land can be ar- ranged on either side for the convenience of working. Thus the arable fields are mainly on the left-hand side of c c, and so near the build- ings, d, as that the least time will be taken up in carting out manure and bringing in the produce. Thus, e, f, g, h, i are arable fields ; / and k, mea- dows ; while the pasture fields are the farthest from the buildings, as at I I, m in, 0, and p ; the four latter being made purposely small in order to secure a change of bite, 0 and p being small paddocks near the steading into which to turn calves and young stock ; g is the farm-house, with flower and fruit garden at front and back ; r the kitchen garden, both being sheltered from the north, and screened by a row of shrubs and trees. It will be observed in this plan that the best formed fields are those allotted to arable culture. Fig. 6 illustrates the disposition of a farm in which there is a hill or rising ground of considerable extent, as at a a; a rivulet or large stream, as at b b ; an extensive plantation, part of which is shown at c c, towards which the ground rises from the stream ; d d the main farm road, which turns round the rising ground a a at one point, and crosses the stream, b b, by the bridge at c ; / shows the position of steading, (j that of house and garden. The arable fields are all placed at the lower part of the farm, near the steading, the rising ground being also under arable culture at its lowest point, the highest being devoted to a gorse plantation for forage ; the only exception being a small paddock at h, opposite the steading, for calves and young stock, and the field i, devoted to green forage crops. All the pasture fields, /, k, I, and meadow lands, m, n, are on the rising ground behind a a. As the land slopes from north to south, the part of the stream b b is used to irrigate a field laid out on the ridge-and-furrow system (see chapter on ' Irrigation '). Figs. 1 and 2, Plate 61, illustrate other dispo- sitions of farm fields, fig. 4 being a modifica- tion or rather an improvement of fig. 2, Plate 61, in which the road is altered so as to save time in going to and fro over the farm, while the forms of the fields are also altered. To make the difference between the two observable, the original disposition, as in fig. 6, Plate 60, is given in dotted line in fig. 2, Plate 61. Fig. 1, Plate 61, shows in like manner how part of a farm, in fig. 5, Plate 60, can be altered. The water from the stream, as in fig. 2, Plate 61, should be made available to work the machinery, as shown by the water-' lead,' b. This plan of putting down the lines dotted is recommended in the case of improving badly arranged farms, and in the case of those with rising ground or uneven surfaoes, as in fig. 6, Plate 60. It is also recommended as a good method to sketch out the grounds as if flat, and thereafter to plan the proposed improve- ments. In figs. 4 and 5, Plate 6-1, we show two plans illustrative of a few points in the laying •2 K 258 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. out of farms with uneven surfaces. In fig. 4 a broad hill is situated at a a, at an angle to which another range, b b, stretches along ; to avoid going over the hill a a, the main road, e, of the farm crosses the valley, b c, at an angle, and then rises gradually up to the plantation, /, crossing by a bridge at g. The hill a a is laid out as one field, and ploughed with the one-furrow plough. The farm steading is at h, the farm-house and gardens at i, kitchen garden and orchard at j, and main or public road at k k. In fig. 5, a ridge, a a, extends across the breadth of the farm, nearly parallel to the stretch of the public road, b b ; the house and offices are placed near the end of the ridge, so as to avoid passing over it. The road c enters, therefore, nearly at the side, passing by the house and the steading, d, and entering the main farm road, e, on either side of which are fields laid out rectangularly, as shown. In fig. 3 we give the plan of a farm badly, and in fig. 6 the same properly laid out. In fig. 3, a a is the main public road ; b the house, stead- ing, and garden ; d, farm road ; // are marsh lands, chiefly of black mud, divided by a ditch, e e. In fig. 6, which is the improved arrangement, the farm road entering from the public one is curved, as shown, leading to the steading, n, so as to get a meadow, j, from the upper part of the marsh. The road from the steading, n, goes round the garden, k, so as to reach the lower fields, d, i, b, b, a, c, e, and /, two fields, g and h, being at the upper side ; i is the drained mud marsh devoted to haymaking. For these three illustrations we are indebted to an American authority. In fig. 7 we give the plan of a farm, the fields of which when laid out assume a rectangular form. In this, a a is the public road, b that leading to the farm-house and gardens, with a back road, c, joining the mam farm road, d, leading to the steading and farm-yard, e, behind which are pad- docks, e and/, for calves and young stock. The arable part of the farm is on the right-hand side of the central road, d d ; the heavy soil is at the fields g g, the medium soil field being at h h ; the arable fields are arranged to suit the rotation adopted. The pasture and meadow fields are on the right-hand side, being intersected by a small rivulet, i i ; j shows the kitchen garden, fenced off from the steading ; and k a large poultry run. The Phmning or Setting out of the Fields, or General Disposition of Hilly Moorlands. — In the chapter on the ' Beelamation of Waste Lands,' under the special paragraph headed ' The Ee- clamation of Hilly Moorlands,' some remarks of a general character will be found. What wTe have to concern ourselves about at present is the laying out or distribution of the lands of this class, de- signed to be formed into a farm capable of yield- ing a good return. In place of making a series of remarks of our own on this important subject, we conceive we shall best be serving the interests of the reader by giving those of the late Mr. Eobert Smith, as published in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, vols, xvii. to xxxviii., one of our best authorities, and possessed, possibly, of the largest amount of prac- tical experience in connection with work of this class. The following are Mr. Smith's remarks on the arrangement of a hill farm : — ' The foregoing remarks as to the arrangement of a hilly moorland farm are illustrated by the sketch plan given in Plate 62, fig. 2, of which the following explains the principal parts. The public roads are indicated by the broader parallel lines, thus ; the farm roads by the narrower ones, so ' The divi- sions between and the forms of the fields by the single lines The portion of plantation for shelter, etc., by the black parts, such as a or b. That of the original bogs, springs, and watercourses by broken, dotted, and parallel lines, such as The lines of " watercourses " or " gutters " by dark dotted or broken lines, thus . - - — - ; the direction of the water or stream in these by the arrows point- ing thereto. The pools or ponds for collecting surplus water, etc., to be afterwards used for irrigation purposes, are indicated by black circles, thus O- The position of shelter-sheds — locally termed " linhays " in the hilly districts of the south-west of England (see par. on " Shelter- sheds ") — is indicated by the dark crosses, thus +, the farm-house and offices by the mark at c. The head of the brook is indicated in the plan by the letter A ; and the course of this and of brooks on adjoining farms by meandering thickish lines. C C I) 1) indicates the extent of rough hill allotment of 248 acres; the general position ADVANTAGES OF THE SUBDIVISION OF PASTURE FIELDS. 259 of hilly or rising grounds being shown by light, clotted, -waving lines. This rough hill allotment, C C D D, dips to the north-east. The farm lands dip south by east, thus giving the two great essentials for irrigation downwards and onwards, as also the full benefit of the early rays of the sun, as also shelter from the prevailing winds.' Subdivision of Pasture Fields. — What has been said under the head of steam culture as to the advantages of having the fields, to the working of which the system is applied, as level in surface and of as large an area as possible, does not apply to lands under grass, for pastui'ing or for meadow. Although, as we have seen, the power of steam has been very recently applied to the reaping of corn, we may yet see it applied to the mowing of meadow grass, so that the same advantages obtain- able by having large and level fields under arable culture may be found desirable in the case of meadows under this advanced system of working. At present, however, meadows are of moderate area in extent, although some prefer to have them very large, as being more economically worked dming haymaking time, where the mowing and haymaking machines are used. At one time, and, indeed, largely prevalent at the present, the notion was held that pasture fields could scarcely be too large. Many, how- ever, who saw the advantages of the system, cut their pasture fields up into smaller plots ; and so marked were those advantages, that the system is being gradually extended, and many now carry out and advocate the subdivision of their pastures who but a short time ago, if not opposed to, were certainly not in favour of the principle. That greater economy in feeding, arising not only from the saving of grass in the manner yet to be noticed, but from the superior value of the grasses, was the result of the system, experience rapidly and conclusively proved. We have else- where in the present volume remarked upon the good effect of a change of food, carried out at judicious intervals, upon the health and the feed- ing capabilities of the cattle, whether they be fattening stock or dairy cows. This had long been observed in regard to artificial foods, and in green or forage crops, but it was some time before many practical men saw that it was equally applicable in the case of pasture grasses. Of course, so long as the pasture fields were large, this change could not be carried out, and it was only by having smaller fields that it could be adopted. It is well known to practical men that the herbage, both in kind and in feeding quality, varies very much, even on the same farm, and, for the matter of that, even in the same field ; so that by cutting off one portion or several, making thus many where before there might be only few fields, perhaps only one or two, the cattle, taken from one after the expiry of a eertaiu period, could at once have the desired change of food by being taken and put up in another. Nor is this all, for even in cases where the grass in large pasture fields was of good and of fairly uniform quality, by keeping the cattle perpetually in it, it was gradually deteriorated, so that both the quantity and the quality Avere lessened. This arose in more ways than one. Thus the droppings of the cattle got so multiplied over the surface of a large field even, that a large propor- tion of its more productive area was lost ; for, of course, as our readers well know, where these droppings fall, if they are not removed or broken up, which they not often are, the grass grows rank and strong ; and to this the cattle have so great a natural repugnance, as a rule, that they will not eat it unless from dire necessity, so to say. The same repugnance is shown by them to the eating of grass on which their liquid exuvise have been discharged. To those evils, moreover, are to be added this, that in conse- quence of the continual trampling of the cattle over the land, much of it gets into so parched and 'trashed' a state, that comparatively little growth of grass takes place ; while in more favourite spots, such, for example, as near the watering ponds or troughs, or near walls under which they take shelter, the land is so thoroughly broken up and trampled into mud or dust, that no grass at all grows upon such spots. There are other causes of loss which will suggest themselves on consideration to the reader who is at all ac- quainted with the subject, and which may by some be thought of little value or importance; but grant- ing this to be the case, taking each individual case by itself, the matter becomes a much more serious one when the whole are put together, and 260 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. the aggregate loss ascertained. We feel sure that to any oue who has fairly and deeply con- sidered the matter, it must have frequently pre- sented itself as one, not of small, but of great importance. For it is not merely the loss sus- tained of feeding power, so to say, on an individual farm, but that extending over the whole farms of the kingdom, — a loss which thus assumes such dimensions as to make it one of really national concern. It need not, therefore, be matter of surprise to those who have not had their atten- tion as yet much, if to any extent, drawn to it, to be told that the most advanced of our farmers perceive the necessity there is of overcoming these causes of loss by introducing, if not a new system, at least cne which will greatly modify the old one. Such a modification we have already indi- cated as given in the system of subdividing the pasture fields, eating them off in some kind of successional order, as may suggest itself to the farmer, or may be rendered advisable by circum- stances of locality, soil, climate, nature of the grasses, condition of the pastures, etc. The divi- sion may be made by using one or other of the new methods of fencing which possess the ad- vantages of portability, if the term may be applied to them ; or at least of being taken up from one, and put down again on a new line, with no great expenditure of time, labour, or money. (See chapter on ' Irrigation,' note on Brown's system of steam ditto.) Another modification of the old system is not the alteration of the dimensions or area of pasture fields as they are at present laid out, but the way in which the cattle are com- pelled to pasture in certain allotted spots ; when these are eaten off, the cattle being removed to fresh ones, thus perpetually changing the feed- ing ground, till the whole field is gone over in what may be called a rotation of plots, the process being repeated as long as the cattle are out at pasture. This modification does away with the necessity of using dividing fences, and saves, therefore, the expense of providing them, as well as of fitting them up and changing them when required, the retention of the animals being pro- vided for in the necessary spots by a simple method named after the introducer of the system, Mr. Dumbreck, which consists simply in tethering or tying the animals to stakes driven in at certain parts of the field, so that the cows have only a certain area to feed over, after which the stakes are altered in position to give the animals a fresh bite. A full description of this method will be found in our work, entitled Outlines of Modern Farming. Another system, which we have already alluded to as obviating the necessity of using fencing, at least to a large extent, is the soiling or house-feeding one ; as the details of this are purely farming, we refer the reader to our volume, entitled The Complete Grazier, for a full account of them. Both of these works just named are published by Messrs. Crosby, Lockwood, & Co., of London. Fig. 1, Plate 62, illustrates the sewage farm of Mr. Mechi. In this, the broad parallel lines, thus Z^^. indicate the roads ; the narrow parallel ones, thus = the open ditches ; the dotted lines the sub- terranean pipes conveying the liquid manure ; . . . O • • • the hydrants ; stopcocks are pro- vided at various points, to which the hose for distributing the manure over the fields is con- nected, the supply to the various divisions of the farm being regulated by the hydrants. Figs. 3 and 4 are other examples of sewage farms, in which the dotted lines show the liquid-manure pipes ; the black parts at various points the hydrants ; the full lines indicating the form of the fields. In fig. 3, a is a stream ; in fig. 4, 5 b and c e are railways. BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF PLANT A TIONS. 261 CHAPTEB III. PLANTATIONS OF VARIOUS KINDS, FOR VARIOUS CIRCUMSTANCES OF SOIL, LOCALITY, AND CLIMATE. ial Effects of Plantations upon Land and Soil. — To those who are at all acquainted with the subject the title to this paragraph seems unnecessary, begging as it does the question, or involving a doubt as to the truth of the state- ment ; but to those who have heard the freely expressed opinions of many, who from their posi- tion ought to know better, on the opposite side, it is essential to say a few words under the head- ing as we give it. The wonder, indeed, is, that any should doubt the benefit to be derived from judicious planting. Possibly the doubt has arisen from forgetting that there is, as the French would say, planting and planting, or in other words, good and bad planting, just as we have heard of one who objected to all trees on farm land, because he had noticed that nothing grew, or did not grow well, under a wide-spreading heavy tree in a garden. It would be well, however, if the really good effects of planting were more thought of by many connected with the land. The first of the many beneficial effects of planting is the equalizing of the seasons, lessen- ing the fierce heats of the summer's sun, and mitigating the intense cold of the winter's frost. The second is the effect upon the soil as regards its moisture, not only in drawing supplies from the clouds, but in preventing its too rapid eva- poration and the consequent drying up of the soil. The records of remote as well as those of the more recent periods in the history of many countries of the world, have abundantly proved that a country desolate of trees is a country desolate indeed, often to the extent of not being able to produce food in sufficient quantities and of such varied kinds necessary to support the population. The streams and rivulets which, rising from a thousand sources, flow through the land, permeate the soil, and add to its fertility in happier circumstances, in those unfortunate ones dry up, and in a large number of instances totally disappear, giving rise to a bare and wdd sterdity along their course. And coming down to more recent times, we see the same influences at work, bringing about the same unfortunate results. Nor is it the least suggestive of the circumstances connected with this question, that some of the most important improvements in modern agricul- ture have acted as powerfully predisposing causes in bringing the evil about. The desire to extend the area of land under cropping has caused many clumps of trees in plantation belts to be grubbed up and to disappear ; and the consequent loss of the power which the trees yielded to retain the rainfall and the exhalations from the clouds fall- ing or being condensed by and dropping from the leafage, has been rendered all the more obvious and its evils increased by the greater rapidity with which the modern system of drainage carries the water thus produced off the surface of the soil to the outfalls, and from thence to the rivers and the sea. But it is not only in retaining in the soil the water of rainfalls, preventing it from being too quickly dried up by currents of warm air, or by strong winds, or by the action of the sun's rays, but by allowing it to be slowly and gradually shed off from, and percolated through the soil to lower localities; but it also, by attracting clouds, much in the same way as mountain and hill ranges attract them, which deposit then- moisture on the leaves, and which, reaching the ground, is retained and slowly distributed as above; in equalizing the tem- perature of districts; in affording shelter frombiting blasts to crops as well as to cattle in pasture fields, — it is not only in these, and in some other ways 262 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. ■which will presently he shown, that plantations are beneficial to lands and soils ; there is still another which claims to be and must be noticed. This is their iutluence in. increasing the agricultural value of soils of poor or comparatively poor quality. Where lands of these kinds are planted, even where the results of the planting in the kind and quality of the timber produced are of no great pecuniary value, the other results agriculturally are such as to make it well worth the labour of having such soils covered with timber trees of some kind. The benefits arising from the processes which we have seen to go naturally on where trees are grown, in themselves tend to improve the quality of the soil ; but a still greater, at least a more obvious and direct benefit, is obtained by its enrichment, arising from the supply of decayed vegetable matter, leaves, small twigs, etc. And the intelligent reader will observe, that if at first the soil be so poor that but little hope can be entertained that timber grown upon it will be of much value, each succeeding year of growth adds to the soil its supply of this vegetable or organic matter, and in like proportion to its value, so that each year finds it better adapted to produce more luxuriant growth of the trees, and a higher class or quality of their timber, thus completing the links of the chain of cause and effect in a somewhat striking manner. Thus, when the time comes for the removal of the timber, it will be found that from these causes named, from the opening up of the body of the soil by the rain, fractures of the roots of the trees, and — which may in one sense be likened to a species of deep stirring and opening up of the soil — the mere grubbing up and displacing of the trees with their roots and rootlets, — it will be found that a very marked and valuable increase in the quality and value of the beforetime poor soil has been brought about by the system of planting it with trees. AVe have said enough as to the beneficial results of plantations on lands and soils, and are now prepared to enter somewhat fully into its chief practical details. Various Kinds or Classes of Plantations. — Plantations and forests are often considered as one and the same, and the terms used as synony- mous. A forest is a collection of trees chiefly, if not wholly, of natural growth and increase, stretching over wide tracts of land, embracing within its limits hundreds and often thousands of acres, and of which the most striking examples are to be met with, not in this country, but on the Continent, especially in Germany, where the subject of Forestry has been raised to the dignity of a science. A plantation is an artificially formed assemblage of trees, which are supposed to be chosen, as to kind or variety, with a special view to the soil, climate, and locality or position of the plantation. As there are various circumstances connected with pro- perty on the large scale, the localities chosen for the placing of plantations, their extent, form, number, and kind of trees selected, will also vary ; so that in practice we find plantations ranging from the extensive areas embracing many acres in surface, and running along for perhaps miles, down to the small clumps of but a few trees formed at certain points for the ornamentation of the park or grounds surrounding the mansion, and even to the still more diminutive assemblage of three or four trees placed in a field which may form part of the prospect as viewed from the house. This arrangement naturally classifies plantations under two heads, — first, those put down wholly or chiefly for the purpose of orna- ment ; and second, those for the purposes of direct utility. Of the first of these little need be said, as its treatment comes more, if not alto- gether', within the domain, so to say, of landscape gardening ; the second it is which now concerns us. This class has numerous subdivisions, of which the principal are — plantations for the sheltering of exposed lands ; plantations for waste lands, which last have a double object in view, — first, the altera- tion and amelioration of the soil, fitting it for future and more advanced operations when the trees are removed, if deemed the best, and finally to the formation of land suitable either for arable culture or for pasture or meadow land, which latter may or may not be placed under irrigation ; the second object in view in these waste land plantations being the growth of timber for purposes of the farm or for sale. The last sub-class is the planta- tion proper, put down solely with a view to profit from the sale of the timber, although at various points it may obviously act as a plantation shelter POINTS INFLUENCING THE SETTING OUT OF SHELTER PLANTATIONS. 263 to exposed lands, either arable or pasture. There are other kinds or classes of timber-growing plant- ations, which, however, are generally considered separately, not coming strictly within the defini- tion of a plantation. These are small woods or woodlands and coppice, although these are some- times classed together as one under the general term of coppice. These it will be necessary to consider, as being often a part, and not seldom if well managed a remunerative part, of property on the large scale. Having now indicated the various kinds of plantations, we shall take them up for consideration in the order in which we have named them ; and first, then, as to Plantations for Sheltering Exposed Lands. — While treating of the general subject of planta- tions (see par. ' Beneficial Effects of Plantations'), we have said what was necessary to show the benefits derived from them in various ways, amongst these the important one of yielding shelter to land and crops. We have therefore little need to say more when we come to plant- ing on lands exposed to keen, cold, and strong winds, whether blowing directly from the adjacent sea, or from a land surface stretching far inland. If shelter be good in more favourably situated lands, it must be still better in lands of this exposed character. In point of fact, out of many lands so exposed, a large proportion of them would not bear cropping at all worthy of the name without the benefit of the shelter of a plantation belt. It is, indeed, worthy of special notice how quickly the value of the crops in- creases after shelter has been obtained ; the soil is also greatly altered for the better, being less exposed to sudden changes ; the very atmosphere within the plantation belt seems changed, and is quite different both in temperature and ' feel '■ from that prevailing outside. As regards the latter point, there is something very suggestive in the influence which the air receives, seeming quite to change its character by merely being sifted through the leafage, or passing between the branches of trees. We have yet to learn a good deal in what may be called the physiology of plant life, and this point may be one which will receive attention. That tree leafage has some power, ameliorative and beneficial, there is no doubt, and it is exceedingly probable that the characteristic action of each species of leafage differs from that of another. These conjectures are by no means devoid of practical value. The advantages of shelter to land under cropping cannot be derived wholly from or in strict propor- tion to the thickness or depth of the belt ; or, as one might put it, the shelter cannot be wholly ' mechanical,' as merely offering a resisting power to the force of the wind, for we often find that remarkably good effect is obtained from a mere strip of plantation. This is exemplified more clearly, perhaps, in a garden, where a thin hornbeam or beechwood, or even a privet fence thinner still, will make a wonderful difference in the value of the crops on its inner or shel- tered side. Where a plantation is put down purely for shelter purposes, without any or at least not much reference to its value as timber, this consideration may perhaps lead to an alteration in the mode of planting. Much, of course, depends upon the judgment of the planter in his choice of trees to suit the situation, soil, etc. ; for it is obvious that a thin belt formed of trees so well chosen that they grow vigorously, and are able to withstand the severity of the most biting blasts to which they can be exposed, will be of much greater practical value as a shelter than a belt of trees greatly deeper in thickness, but so injudiciously selected that they, not being able to resist the effects of even average winds, never prosper, but decay, and yield little or no produce. In short, to paraphrase the French proverb, ' There are trees and trees.' It is this point, then, upon which the future value of a plantation for shelter chiefly depends, — what are the best trees which we should put down ? Now, as each locality has its own peculiarities of climate, position, soil, etc., tliis question will be quickest and most prac- tically answered by as extensive a series of observations as can be made in the district upon other plantations set down in simdar posi- tions. To do this well, not only is a thorough knowledge of trees required, but a quick and ready observation to pick out and detect faults and indications pointing either to the adaptability or otherwise of the trees for the locality and soil ; for many will walk over and through a plantation, and, while gaining a fair general knowledge of its 264 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. condition, will fail altogether to perceive any of those indications which to the more experienced and readier observer would afford valuable hints from which practical deductions could be made, leading to decisions pointing out clearly the trees fitted and those not fitted for planting in the locality. Such knowledge as this is of immense value to its possessors, and there are compara- tively few who have it. Plantations are rarely composed of one class of tree only, a variety giving variety of tone and colour to the leafage, which adds much to the external beauty when viewed from a distance, as well as variety in form and height, which, again, tells upon the general mass ; viewed more closely, or even at a distance, the contour of the belts of trees is more effective. As trees — even those well adapted to stand severe climates — have different habits of growth, and are calculated to yield in varying proportions resisting powers to strong and cold winds, judgment is necessary to decide as to the positions which the various trees are to occupy in the plantation, so that the hardiest will take up that most exposed, and a gradation of shelter be secured, without, at the same time, involving the necessity of laying them down in strictly uniform lines. The outside trees, or those nearest to the exposed edge of the plantation, being of the hardiest, form a sheltering or nursing belt to those behind them ; and much, indeed the whole of the success of the plantation, will depend upon the accuracy of knowledge and judgment with which the species of tree best calculated to serve the important object in view is selected. Inexperienced foresters, or those who take the work of plantation in hand, are often deceived by appearances in deciding upon the hardiest and best trees for this sheltering or nursing belt ; for, judging only from look, and often biassed also by certain popular notions which are afloat every- where and in connection with every subject, he may select a tree which, so far as appearance goes, seems to be the best adapted to the circumstances, but which will prove a decided and disheartening failure. It is only by knowing the ' behaviour,' so to say, of any species during its growth, and under similar circumstances, or at least closely resembling them, of locality and soil, that the choice can be made with the necessary degree of certainty that it will turn out a good one. Then, again, there are various important points connected with the soil, — whether it will best be thoroughly worked before the trees are planted, or whether it should be left undisturbed ; then the best mode of planting out the young trees is also to be con- sidered, their clearing, after management, pruning and thinning, etc. We have said enough in a general way to show how the plantation of shelter belts is not quite the simple thing some seem to think. It is one which demands on the part of the forester not merely a thorough knowledge of the different varieties of trees, — a knowledge which many, by dint of study, etc., may gain, — but the higher range of faculties to which we have already alluded. As to its importance as bearing on the interests of the property, there can be no doubt. Testimony, as unbroken in its chain of evidence as the facts are strong which support it, is to be had in abundance sufficient to enable any proprietor to decide on the point ; for so marked are the advantages arising not merely to the crops and cattle, but to the general atmospheric amenity and climatic characteristics, that, while the letting value of the land will be considerably increased, the selling value of the property, if it came into the market, would also be increased, but in a much higher ratio. But the work is clearly that which falls under the landlord's department. Other and minor im- provements may be undertaken by the tenant, he finding the money, and waiting to be reimbursed by possession of the land for a given number of years. But no tenant would undertake the laying down of plantations on any such terms, as he could have no reasonable hope, under general circumstances, of such an occupancy as would be long enough to reimburse him for his outlay. There is therefore every inducement for the landlord to undertake that which would confer a double benefit on the property. We have, however, supposed that the plantations were laid down with the primary idea that they were to serve the purposes of shelter and improvement of the climate of the district only ; and while be- lieving, as already stated, that this would pay alone, there is another source of revenue which ought not to be kept out of sight, namely, the VALUE OF SMALL TIMBER. 265 timber. The value of home-grown timber has advanced, and is still more likely to advance in the future. There are so many uses to which timber of small scantling can be put on the farms of the property, — the thinnings of young plan- tations and the cuttings of the more matured timber, — that this alone will be found to be of greater value than many would be disposed to admit; while for the larger timber, prices unknown in olden times are to be had readily in the present times. But the work must be judiciously done, and under the care of a thoroughly experienced man. There is ample scope for work throughout the country ; for, applicable with singular benefits to exposed lands, which have long been badly cultivated or depastured with results such as could only be obtained from land placed under adverse circumstances, no work of reclamation of waste, or of the renovation of old and utterly neglected land, should be considered completed, nor will they yield the best returns, until proper shelter plantations are put down to ward off cold winds, dashing rains, or driving snow. The subject is one of truly national importance ; and seeing this, it is very pitiful to know how little the nation or the nation's Legislature seem to know or care about it. The position is all the more painful when we contrast what is done by other people in the matter of forestry. It were well for us if our Government were to take the subject up, and treat it as heartily and practically as the Governments of other countries, such as Ger- many, for example. But, failing this help, there are other sources open. Our societies could do much, and it is gratifying to know that they have already done a good deal. Notably, the Highland and Agricultural has done good service in directing attention to the subject by offering- prizes for practical essays, many of which, so drawn out, are specially valuable for the large amount of practical information they contain. But it is to individual effort we must mainly look ; and if the landlords of property, having lands which could be so improved, were to work upon some such scheme as we have already pointed out, an enormous advance would soon be witnessed in this highly important department of rural economy. Renovation of Decayed, and Substitution of injudicioiisly chosen Trees by good ones in Plan- tations for sheltering Exposed Lands. — The im- portance of attending to the proper setting out of shelter plantations, to the examination of the locality and soil, and specially to the nature of the trees to be planted at different parts, is per- haps best illustrated and enforced by examining those instances, not too seldom to be met with, unfortunately, scattered here and there over the face of the country, in which almost the briefest survey will suffice to show how utterly the planta- tions have failed to perform the duty, and to yield the shelter and all its concomitant advantages, for which they were put down. Nothing, indeed, can be more melancholy than such a sight, espe- cially when it meets one in a district somewhat wild or bare. Some of the trees have utterly died out, their leafless and decaying branches contrast- ing with those which are still spared to throw out wood and leafage. Some even of these are fast suc- cumbing to the destructive influences under which they are placed, struggling for life ; and of the best, so many have given in to these, that gaps are left, giving the whole that weird and rugged look which perhaps only decaying masses of trees present, of which poets have sung, and which painters have depicted with striking effects. All this has had its origin in neglect or ignorance of the proper mode of planting, and of the trees best suited for the locabty, soil, and climate ; although after the expenditure which has already been made, and with, perhaps, a latent notion that things might change and the trees start forth into new and vigorous life, it seems rather a severe strain upon the landlord to become at once recon- ciled to the notion that it will, after all, be the better and most economical plan to do away altogether with the wretched plantation, and substitute another laid down by one thoroughly acquainted with the subject. And yet this is the only alternative ; and it is better to put up with the first loss, and not to increase it by further delay, but to get recouped by the superior shelter and higher value of yield of properly laid out plantations as quickly as possible. Nor need the doing away with the old plantations be a total loss, for it will be a very bad case indeed in which a goodly quantity of timber cannot be got, — valuable, if not for sale, at least for use on the 21 266 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. property, on which it can he worked up profitably for a variety of purposes. By way of showing how such unfortunate cases as we have alluded to are brought about, and, better still, to illustrate how the failure of the first instance can be made good by the success of the second, and this by the exercise of sound practical knowledge of all the details of planting, aided by skilful observation, and the no less skilful use of this, we believe we cannot do better than give, in a very con- densed form, some of the principal points of a very able paper by Mr. Andrew Gilchrist, forester, Urie, Stonehaven, KB., in which he explains his mode of procedure. The paper is entitled, ' On Successful Planting, Exposed Land,' and had a prize awarded by the Highland and Agricultural Society, in whose Transactions it is published, vol. viii. 4th series. The soil of the plantation referred to in the paper derived its origin from the disintegration of the rocks, chiefly greenstone or whinstone, as it is termed in Scotland, a trappean rock. The depth of this varies considerably, the average being some three inches, this resting upon a bed of decaying rotten whinstone ; the soil in quality is light and dry, having the appearance of a brown earth mixed with stones. In some instances it rests upon the whinstone, hut this is of a hard, dense character, with few fissures ; in others the subsoil is gravel, and some parts are mossy, with a clayey gravel subsoil. The trees planted were principally larch, with a number of Scots and spruce firs, with here and there at irregular distances a few of the common kinds of hardwood trees, the whole in number far below that which should have been planted to form a permanent crop of trees. The plantations, M'heu taken in hand by Mr. Gilchrist for the purpose of renovation or replacement, had been in the ground for forty years, the extent of the various parts running from two to thirty acres. The trees were very unhealthy, many of them stunted in growth, many decayed and decaying, and rapidly dying out. The first cause of this state of matters to be noticed was the fact that the trees put down as nursing, sheltering, or out- side trees, on the side exposed to the keen winds, had been selected in ignorance of their unfitness for this important duty. These trees for the most part were of the spruce fir {Abies excelsa). Now this tree, although, to judge from its exter- nal indications and apparent habits of growth, it seems well calculated to act as an efficient nursing or shelter tree, as it affords a dense mass of branches and foliage, still, notwithstanding, is an exceedingly delicate and sensitive tree, quite unsuited to withstand strong and cold cutting winds, more especially where the soil is shallow, affording little root-hold. But the tree is not one which, even in deep soils, sends out long and firm holding roots and rootlets, being what is termed a shallow-rooted tree ; hence the ease with which it is overturned by strong winds, as was the case in the plantations in question. At a very early stage of their growth, these trees at the outside had quite succumbed to the winds ; and even where sheltered, although the lower parts put out branches and leafage, as soon as the shelter had been passed by the growth of the tree, it began to give way and decay. It was only on the least exposed side of the trees that growth was anything like fair ; but even here the evil influences at work at other parts affected these, and the branches were open and the leafage poorly developed, and brown and withered in colour and appearance. In some parts the larch had been put down as nursing or sheltering trees on the exposed side of the plantation ; but although this is a hardier tree than the spruce fir, it also had been influenced by the keen winds. Many on the most exposed parts were dead, and all were undeniably affected by the rot. Of the best, the appearances were most unsatisfactory, boles or trunks bent before the wind, and covered more or less with mosses and lichens, with no leading shoots, while the branches were short and twisted, covered with spray, and, as a rule, dead at the extremities. Of the ' hard- wood' trees planted, the elm, where exposed to the full blast, showed that it was quite unfitted for exposed places ; the branches and bole seemed unable to grow in their natural upright position, being contorted and bent in the direction of the wind, while many were dead and rotten. The ash showed a better capability to stand exposure ; they had done moderately well, and by judicious treatment it seemed likely to be a fairly profitable tree. The oaks had not thriven, and gave no promise of ever growing to good timber THE RENO VA TION OF A DECA YED PLANTA TION. 267 trees. The beech, although a hardy tree, had not withstood the blast so well as might have been expected ; the growth was almost one-sided oppo- site the wind quarter, while the tendency was to grow into a ' huge, one-sided, wide-spreading bush, its weight of branches making it liable to be uprooted by the wind.' The birch had withstood the blast better than the beech ; it had main- tained its tree-like appearance, and in places where the soil was more moist, it showed that it was the most suitable of the hardwood trees planted. The alder may be ranked as about equal to the beech, above named, while of all the hardwood trees the sycamore seemed to be the one best likely to withstand the effects of stormy winds and all the evils of exposed situations. Such was the condition of this unfortunate plan- tation— a type, we fear, of too many, or portions of many, throughout the country — when the reporter took it in hand. The first step taken was to decide upon the tree best calculated to withstand the effects of the exposure, and to act as outside nursing or shelter trees to the others, and it seemed to be beyond all doubt that the best for this purpose was the native Scots pine. For bleak exposures and thin soils, when planted in the first instance as outside trees, and not sheltered by others, as by spruce or by larch, they thrive well, and are rarely uprooted or overturned by the force of the wind. The great point to be aimed at is to accustom the tree from its earliest stages of growth to be acted upon by the wind ; this enables it, or rather, we might say, forces it, to take the necessary firm hold of the soil, — a power which it seems to possess in a remarkable degree, and which it does not put forth so fully when sheltered by other trees. The larch requires to be well sheltered from the wind, and unless it be so it does not prove a profitable tree. The next thing done was the cutting down and clearing of the old plantations, leaving here and there a few hardwood trees and such Scots pines as were growing at suitable distances. The outside belt was of Scots pine, with a few syca- mores interspersed here and there to give variety to the foliage — 20 yards broad on the most exposed side. The sj-camores were placed at distances of 12 feet apart, the Scots pines between at distances of 3^ feet. When the ground was dry, the remainder of the surface to be planted was filled in with 2500 Scots pines, 800 larches, 200 spruces, with a few silver firs, Austrian pines, and some hardwood trees put in where the ground was suitable. This made the total number of plants per acre 3500, distributed to suit the peculiarities. In places where the soil was thin, and the situation more exposed, the number of Scots pines was increased and few larches planted ; and where the soil was of the best quality and the position well sheltered, the Scots pines were reduced and the larches increased in number. The dampish and mossy soils had no larch planted, Scots pines and spruce being the only trees, the pines being double the number of the spruce trees. The plants used were larch — two years seedling, one year transplanted ; Scots pines — small two years transplanted ; the whole being well rooted, and the height from 9 to 12 inches. The planting was done at once, it not being deemed necessary to adopt the plan, which many consider essential, of leaving the ground implanted for a number of years after being cleared, and grazed with cattle. This plan, which, if not necessary, is just a waste of so many years, the reporter does not seem to think so essential as some do, and the success which has attended his operations neglecting this plan, and planting immediately after clearing, certainly bears out the supposition. If correct, it is tantamount to being so many years in advance with the growth of the plantation trees. "When woods are cleared, there is often a thick, matted, close-growing sward found to cover the ground more or less completely ; this injures the soil very much, and if left it prevents the proper planting of the young trees, as they have to be set too deep before they can pass through the thick layer of sward and be put securely in the soil. Although some objected to the plan as subjecting the soil to the chances of drought, the reporter decided upon clearing off this upper thick sward to the extent of 12 inches square at each point where a tree was to be planted, taking care to have the roots well secured in the natural soil. The putting in of the plants was by a double cut, L fashion, 8 or 9 inches wide ; the first cut is made perpendicular, the other, or horizontal cut, is done in the usual way the soil is turned by depressing and turning 268 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. up the side of the spade, this turning the angle formed by the two cuts ; the plant is ' driven sharply into its place, with its rootlets below the spade, and the straight part of its root set against the perpendicular cut.' The clamper portions of the ground had not been satisfactorily drained for the first plantation, neither as regards the depth nor the straightness of the lines of drains. It was deemed, therefore, more economical and better to cut new rather than to attempt to alter the old drains. The new drains were laid out, as far as possible, so as to be at right angles to the planta- tion road, this facilitating the removal of timber. The distance between the drains was 25 to 30 feet; the depth of drain, 20 to 24 inches; the width at bottom, 8 inches ; at top, 30 inches. The soil taken out was thrown back and spread over the ground before planting was commenced. The success of the plan of renovation now described has been beyond all expectation, and affords an admirable example of what can be done by care- ful thought and practical knowledge. Plantations for Timber-growing Purposes. — This is the class which we have distinguished as the plantation proper, the main object in tow being the raising of timber as a direct source of revenue, although these plantations perform several other useful functions (see ' Beneficial Effects of Planta- tions'), often affording direct and immediate shelter to adjacent lands. No doubt all the other kinds of plantations which we have classed sepa- rately might, and in the opinion of some should, have come within the present class, inasmuch as they all produce, to a greater or less extent, timber which yields some revenue ; still, as will be seen by glancing at the paragraphs devoted to the treatment of their various details, this is not the primary, but rather a secondary object, the direct objects and end aimed at being either shelter for exposed lands, or the bringing in of certain waste or useless lands into a state fit for the higher range of cultural operations, the timber obtained being just so much additional gain or profit. Hence we have deemed it the best arrangement for the purposes of our work to treat them as independent classes ; this advan- tage, if no other, flowing from it, that it admits of the cutting up of what otherwise would have been a long disquisition into comparatively short sections, easily referred to and quickly read. Not merely from the extent of land which they cover, but from the varieties of trees grown upon them, either designedly to meet certain industrial requirements or the demand made for particular classes of timber, or from necessity, as where the soil demands certain kinds of trees as the only ones suitable for it, plantations proper are those to which the best efforts of the forester are directed, and in the management of which there is the widest scope for the exercise of his knowledge, skill, and energy. The differences in cliinate, locality, and soil, and the peculiarities of the positions of plantations in the localities embracing classes of land so widely different in external characteristics as hilly inland ranges and sea-side margins, and soils of every variety, all claim from the forester his most earnest considera- tion in order to adapt his planting operations so skilfully to each particular case, that the maxi- mum of yield of produce will have been obtained by the minimum outlay of time, labour, and money. All these varying circumstances neces- sitate so many modifications in position, form or outline, and general characteristics of plantations, that no one rule can be set clown as applicable to all circumstances ; each case must be decided by its own peculiarities, and these, as we have said, call forth on the part of the forester the exercise of no small degree of far-seeing, thoughtful care, and practical knowledge and skill in working out the various details of the plan of operations decided upon. Varieties of Soils suitable for Plantations. — It is a happy circumstance connected with planta- tions proper that they may be established in almost any soil, and, with the exception of high mountainous ranges, may be placed in almost any position ; this arising from the fact that the trees offered to the forester are so numerous, and each possessed of its own physical and physiological characteristics, that he has no difficulty in selecting a class or classes of trees suitable for any variety of soil which may tun up to be dealt with. The mutual adaptability of trees to soil, or the converse, is in itself a strong argument in favour of the extension of plantations to localities and positions which would be greatly ameliorated TREES SUITED FOR DIFFERENT SOILS AND LOCAL PECULIARITIES. 269 both as regards climate and soil. The varieties of soils met with in which plantations may be put down may be classed as follows, beginning with the best and ending with the poorest. The numbers given with each refer to the trees most suitable for the soils, and of which a list will be given in a succeeding paragraph: — (1) Rich and comparatively deep and dry loamy soil ; (2) ditto, resting upon a subsoil of clay more or less reten- tive ; (3) clayey loam of good quality ; (4) clayey loam of poor quality ; (5) sandy loam of the best quality ; (6) sandy loam poor ; (7) sandy soils ; (8) rocky or nearly barren soils; (9) sandy silicious; (10) damp or wettish soils of various qualities; (11) damp or moistish loamy soils; (12) soils of all kinds, but varying as regards moisture from the driest to those most encumbered with water. Varieties of Trees suitable for Different Soils. — The trees grown, or which are capable of being grown in our climate, for timber useful in the industrial arts, may be classed as (1) evergreens, the most important of which are the pines, and of these the best for general purposes is the native or Scots pine, the spruce and silver fir ; to which may be added what may be called the shelter or ornamental evergreens, as the yew, the holly, and the box, although this latter is now but seldom grown. (2) The deciduous trees, or those which shed their leaves annually; the sub-classes of which are («) the softwood, some- times classed as the aquatic trees, as the poplar, alder, birch, the hazel, the willow. The larch is coniferous, and the only one of this class of deciduous trees which is so. (V) The deciduous hardwood trees, comprising some of the most valuable trees of our plantations, of which the oak stands at the head ; the sycamore, often confounded with and called the plane-tree in Scotland ; the elm, the ash, the beech, and hornbeam, which is often mistaken, especially in the form of fences, for the birch, which it closely resembles, the leaves of both of them remaining on the branches through the winter and often far on into spring, hence making them specially valuable for shelter-fences or belts, as they afford leafage nearly all the year round ; the chestnut, Spanish and horse ; the lime, maple, wild cherry tree, the mountain ash, and the hawthorn, the two latter being favourite trees as ornamental additions to plantations for timber or of belts for shelter, as they give flowers which yield a delicious perfume, and red berries which give colour to the mass of general foliage. The following is a specific detail of the trees suitable for the soils named in preceding para- graph, and numbered (1), (2), etc. For the soil marked (1), walnut is a tree specially adapted ; but if the loam be heavy and more or less gravelly, with a subsoil of chalky or calcareous or clayey soil, (2) the oak, the chestnut, the ash, and the linden or lime will grow well upon it ; (3) the ash is well adapted for this soil ; (4) hornbeam, — if the loam be gravelly, with a gravel, chalk, or clay subsoil, the ash, the willow, and the chestnut may be grown ; (5) the beech, the yew, elm, spruce, and Scots pine, and the Weymouth pine ; (6) the silver fir and Scots pine, the laburnum and horse chestnut; (7) the pines are best suited for this soil, as also for (8) ; (9) if soils of this class be in elevated positions, the larch will grow well; it and also the ash will do for a gravelly loam which rests on a subsoil of clay or cal- careous earth; (10) the willow is specially suited for this class of soils, as also the alder; the poplar flourishes in most soils; (11) if mode- rately moist, the lime tree will do well, as also the sycamore, only for this there must be no stagnant water ; (12) the birch, the poplar, the lime or linden, the sycamore, willow, alder, moun- tain ash, plane, maple. The willow and alder will grow in almost the wettest soils ; the white poplar and the willow in soils a degree or two drier ; and all the others in the different gradations of wet soil up to moist or dampish, but all free from stagnant moisture. Trees suited for Various Positions or Local Peculiarities of Land. — Land presenting such a varied surface, from the level lowlands up to steep hilly parts and elevated ridges, and with infinite ^variations of ranges between those ex- tremes, from what we have said in preceding paragraphs in this chapter, and from other con- siderations which will be obvious on reflection, it will be seen that trees of different kinds have a habitat, locality, or position in which they flourish best, — some doing with the most exposed and bleak positions and the poorest soils, some DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. requiring the finest soil and the most sheltered positions, and even then succeeding only mode- rately well and with the greatest care. Some do best on moderate elevations, some on the lowest and most level of all ; some flourish well in the driest and apparently the most unfertile of soils, others demand a soil in which there is an excess of moisture ; some do best inland, some give their best development on the shores of the sea, or on the banks or adjacent lands of tidal rivers. All these circumstances demand on the part of the forester the exercise of care to select for certain localities and positions the trees which will be best suited for them. Thus, for low-lying marshy or moorland situations, the willow, the alder, the ash, the birch, and North American pitch pine will be the most suitable; each, again, being grown on the soils most according to their habits, as the willow in the wettest part, for example. For situations of an opposite character, — that is, elevated and exposed to cold and strong winds, — the native Scots fir or pine, the spruce, the birch, the mountain ash, and the larch are the best. For the sea-shore or lands adjacent, the sycamore, the yew, the laburnum, and the alder ; and for low-lying, well-sheltered soils of moderately good quality, the oak, the beech, the elm, Spanish chestnut, horse chestnut, walnut, and the lime or linden ; while for boggy, swampy, and wet soils in low- lying positions, the willow, the alder, ash, and birch are most suitable ; the sycamore and the ash for steep banks on river or hill sides. For trees capable of withstanding cold winds and strong or exposed situations, to act as nursing or sheltering trees to less hardy kinds, the Scots or native fir, the spruce, the mountain ash, the willow, the alder, the black poplar, the birch, and larch will be the most valuable. Preparation of Plantation Lands for the re- ception of the Young Trees. — (1) Laying and Staking out the Form or Outline of the Plantation. (2) Fencing. (3) Clearing off the Brushiuood and Vegetation. (4) Draining. (5) Digging, Bridg- ing, Trenching, and Ploughing of the Soil. — The first operation to be gone into is the best outline to be given to the plantation (1), or what may be called its general design. If the ground to be occupied by it is very extensive, the probability is that it will present a considerable amount of variety in local features, — hilly, rolling or undulating, or land nearly level, with breaks and high banks. A skilful forester, in setting out the form or striking off the outline of the plantation, will take advantage of this variety of surface to procure shelter for the more tender trees, and also to economize to the greatest possible extent the cost of fencing. And if there should be arable or pasture lands within the vicinity of the best line for the plantation to take, it may be advisable so to alter or modify it in order that the plantation may afford shelter to those lands. All these and other points, which will be obvious, will be taken into consideration by the careful forester before staking out the line of fence by which the whole plantation must be enclosed and made secure from the inroads of live stock (see a note on this point in paragraph, ' Plantations for Sheltering Exposed Land ' ). The line or form of outline of the plantation having been decided on, the next work to be done, and it is an important one, is enclosing the whole area by fencing (2). As the cost of fencing plantations of even moderate acreage will necessarily be considerable, and in the case of plantations of the first class as regards extent will amount to a very large sum, it behoves the forester to take into very serious consideration the best form or kind of fence to be erected (see chapter on 'Fences'), that which will give the maximum of efficiency at the minimum of cost. Plantation fences require to be not only strong, in order to resist the attacks of heavy cattle and leaping sheep, but also durable ; seeing the length of time that the plantation will of necessity occupy the land, till the trees become matured for selling purposes. And even then, in place of wholly cutting down the trees, and converting the land into arable or pasture land, it may be judged the best to replant the area and raise another crop of timber trees ; in which case the more durable the fence will have been constructed in the first instance, the more likely will it prove to be the most economical, although the cost may have been large. By far the most durable fence, and in nearly all other respects the best, is the dry-stone wall; if this be well laid out, good and sound foundations secured, VARIETIES OF WORK TO BE DONE IN PLANTATION LANDS. 271 especially on ground much inclined or sloping, and the wall built with great care, so as to secure the best bond between the stones, it will last during a long course of years without requiring much repair, and that only at points which have been injured either by cattle, or, what is often the case, the careless way in which the servants of the farm go over walls. In a line of fence of such great length as that of an extensive plantation must be, different kinds of fences may be eligible or necessary at different points. Thus, where the plantation skirts pasture land, the sunk fence with earth wall, either topped or not with a quickset hedge or with gorse, a wood, or iron-wire and wood, may be used (see 'Park Fence' in paragraph in chapter on 'Fences'). At other points, where flat stones of pretty large dimensions can be had easily, these may be used for fencing, as well as largish boulders from common or moory land. And if there be no other way of disposing of the thinnings of other plantations, loppings of large trees cut down, etc., then it may be considered whether it would not be advisable to put down, at least at certain points, — such as those least liable to be injured by cattle, etc., — timber or wood fences, either wholly of such, or combined with turf or earth, if such can be had in abundance, as the former may be from the paring of common or heathy waste lands. The fencing being decided upon, the next operation is to (3) get rid of the brush- ivood and undergrowth of small trees or coppice wood if any, which, if allowed to remain on the ground, would injure the young plants by pre- venting the access of light, air, and rain to them, and, moreover, would draw uselessly from the soil much of those constituents which would otherwise go to aid the development of the young trees. In cases where the brushwood is pretty thick and close towards the edges of the pro- posed plantation most exposed to the cold and strong winds, a belt of it may be preserved to act as a nursing shelter for the young trees. In this case there should be some distance between the trees and the belt of brushwood. When the young plants have got beyond the period at which they are liable to be blown out or twisted by the wind and injured by its low temperature, the belt of brushwood should be cleared off, the fence having been placed inside the belt. As to the thick, matted grass which sometimes covers plantation land, the brushwood, etc. taken off the land, this should be burnt, and the ashes well mixed with the soil, if this be capable of being ploughed or otherwise worked ; or, if not, be used at the ' pits,' if ' pit-planting ' be adopted. These ashes add materially to the fertilizing value of the soil. The next operation is the draining (4). This often follows immediately upon the fencing, before the grubbing up of the brushwood is done ; but it is obvious that not only the course but the cutting of the drains will be greatly easier in cleared land than in that the surface of which is encumbered with a dense growth of vegetable matter and small wood. The drains used in plantations are open or surface drains, the ordi- nary agricultural tube or tile drains not being admissible, as they are apt to be filled up with the small rootlets of the trees, and even to be displaced and thrown out of line and contact with each other by the roots, the action of which is exceedingly powerful. The drains vary in depth and distance according to the peculiarities of the soil ; in wet and marshy places they will require to be deeper and nearer each other than in drier land, and main drains and subsidiary ones will be required (see paragraph on ' Plantations in Boggy Lands,' for remarks on the style of drains required for lands of this description). The drains will all take into outfall or main drains, these being placed according to circumstances of locality. In some cases a rivulet or stream, in others the ditches on the sides of sunk or other fences, may be the outfalls. The drains should be placed in relation to the ' roads ' or ' drives,' as they are usually termed, so that the haulage of cut timber will be facilitated, this being best secured by having the drains at right angles to the ' drives,' affording parallel spaces for laying the trees, lopping, and hauling them along to the ' drives.' If the drains are parallel to the ' drives,' the trees would have to be dragged across them, and this would throw down the soil of the sides to the bottom of the drains. The drains will require to be cleared out to their full depth at intervals, as they get rapidly filled up with leaves, small branches, etc., and often overgrown with vegetation; as surface drains 272 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY only, they cannot be left too open and free from all obstructions. When draining is completed, the land must next be prepared by (5) digging, trench- ing, ridging, plough ing, etc. The preparation of the soil, or rather the mode of doing tins, depends altogether upon circumstances. In wild and waste lands, as commons, heathy or moory lands, or steep banks, and in soils greatly encumbered with fast-set stones, boulders, and small rocks, and where the soil is very thin and poor, and on the surface much broken and irregular, the regular working or preparation of the soil is out of the question, and all that can be done while planting the trees, ' slit-planting ' being adopted (see 'Different Modes of Planting Trees'), is to break up at the same time the soil near the place where the tree is to be planted, this being done by the implements used, or by means, where more effectual work is wanted, of the spade, fork, or the mattock or 'pick' in very difficult and obstinate land. It is only in lands of a better quality that thorough digging and trenching, and in regular soil that ploughing or grubbing by horse power, cau be done. The most effective, although it is the most costly, is spade trenching and subsoil stirring by the fork. This should be done in soils of good quality, especially if the early maturity and healthy development of the trees be desired, or where the trees are very valuable, as the oak. It is, as above said, a costly operation, but the expenses will be reduced considerably by taking a crop from the trenched soil before the trees are planted. The best paying crop, for the majority of good soils, will be root crops, such as mangold-wurzel, carrots, or parsnips, having long tap roots which will open up the soil and prepare it for the reception of the young trees ; or if potatoes be preferred, a crop of these may be taken from the land. It is in exceptional cases that the system of pre- paring the soil by liand trenching is adopted, and even in some of these it may be found on examining the soil closely that it will not be required. The wide range of implements at the command of the forester will often enable him to break up and put even some of the worst lands nearly — such as heathy land with a thin, poor, generally sandy soil, with a subsoil of gravel or of pure sand — into something like a good working condition, better, at all events, than can be effected by the slow process of slit-planting. Of the implements here alluded to, probably one or other of the many forms of the grubber may be found to be the most efficient, and this in con- junction with a paring plough to break up the surface sward, which will probably be found use- ful on much of the land of this heathy moorland class. Where the soil is anything like what is usually put under arable culture, it may be pre- pared for planting either by the plough or the grubber, or by both used in conjunction. Land of this sort, so prepared, should have a crop — say of oats — taken from it before the trees are planted. In some cases, two crops may be required to bring the soil into the best condition for the tree planting, especially if it be heavy soil. The first crop may be oats, and the second, after the soil is well worked by the plough and grubber to clear it from weeds, a root crop, as Swedish turnips, mangold, beet, carrots, or parsnips, or potatoes. It is scarcely necessary to say that the manuring which the soil receives for the root crop, if that is desired to be a paying one, will be of great service to the plantation trees. The system of preparing the soil, to which the name of ridging is given, is adopted in the case of those soils which may or may not be of good quality, the object being to render them deeper, in order to give the plants a good bed for root- hold and development of rootlets. It is pre- pared by working the land in breadths, say, of six feet, and taking up the soil of each alternate breadth and throwing it on the top of the breadth which intervenes, thus deepening the soil to the extent of twice its nominal depth ; but more, in fact, than this depth is thus obtained, inasmuch as the breadth which receives the soil should, in the first instance, be dug itself before the other soil is thrown on it, and this digging will raise the first soil. Digging always opens up the pores or particles, so that it may be said, in one sense, to expand. This may be proved by trying to get the soil into any hole from which it has been taken. It will be found an impossibility, unless it be tramped or pressed down, there being always a surplus of soil left after the hole is filled. This is one of the great benefits obtained by digging, or otherwise SETTING OUT OR PLANNING OF PLANTATIONS. 273 thoroughly working the soil. In an extensive plantation, such a variety of soils and of land surfaces may be met with, that all or nearly all the different methods of preparing the soil above noticed may have to be used, and considerable judgment will have to be exercised by the forester in deciding which will be the best to adopt under certain circumstances, or whether a modification of more than one may be advisable. In finally setting out the prepared land, the position or place for the drives or roads should be decided on, and the lines staked to show the direction in which they are to go. Where the plantation is on ground much broken up, or in such parts where this is the characteristic of the land, some very picturesque points often occur. A forester possessed of taste will take care so to arrange his drives or roads, that while he does not sacrifice the main object of utility, he will at the same time take in those points, or secure, as he may often do, some extensive and striking view at certain turns or changes in the line of plantation or of breaks in the ground. Plantations are often placed at points not very distant from the mansion, so that healthy and pleasant walks may be obtained at no great personal fatigue. To make the drives all the more attrac- tive to the proprietor and his family, seats with rustic timber work may be put clown at the points commanding some extensive view or picturesque point of the land. The drives are generally made in very simple fashion, but little attempt being made at carrying out anything like regular road work. If a covering or rather bottom- ing be given, it will be small stones or gravel; but in dry soils all that is done generally is to cut out the drive in the soil somewhat like a wide, open, shallow trench, with its surface well rammed or beaten down. In wet, clayey soils, however, a little more care is demanded in finishing the surface. This is generally made higher at the centre than at the sides, to admit of the water draining off on each side to an open drain cut there — the upper side drain communicating with the lower side drain by cross drains or channels, with sides well rounded off to meet the drive surface. If the drive be cut or branched out on the side of a hill or rising bank, in place of making the drive in heavy soils in the above way to drain to both sides, it is often made to drain from the upper to the lower side by giving the surface a slope in the direction of that of the bank. The drives, at the points where they lead out to the general lands of the farm or estate, should be provided with the usual form of swing gate with curved guard fence, admitting of exit or entrance of passengers, but preventing that of cattle, sheep, or dogs. Periods for Planting. — Whatever be the period of the year chosen for the planting, one point should if possible be secured, namely, the getting the young plants into the soil as rapidly as pos- sible after being taken up out of the nursery bed, so that they will be got into their final place of deposit as fresh as they can be. Hence the value of the plan which, in a succeeding para- graph (see ' Plantations for Boggy Lands '), we have recommended, of having on the estate where planting on an extensive scale is contemplated a special ' nursery/ in which to raise the plants of the various trees which it is designed to have in the plantation. This, if not the most economi- cal,— but with good management it will be so, — will certainly be a system possessed of many advantages, in addition to the one just noticed of having the plants fresh and free from the damage almost inevitably dependent upon or caused by transportation from a distant nursery. Thus the forester, starting from the very beginning of operations, can select seeds, prepare the soil of the nursery, and watch through all their early stages of growth the various kinds of plants grown. The periods usually chosen for planting out are the autumn months and the early spring ones. But it is often done in mid-winter, care being taken not to plant them out at a time likely to be followed by or during a frost. But, in truth, the time for planting out has rather a wide range, being, according to one authority, ' all the intervening time ' between that period when the bud at the top has opened or is about to open and when it has closed, care being taken not to touch the plant till this bud has ' quite closed, and not to move it after it has opened.' If the autumn months are chosen, October and November are those in which gene- rally the planting is done ; but it will be the safer plan to get the planting done in September, 2 M DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. so that they may have got a pretty fair start, and a hold of the soil, before the cold and wintry weather sets in. The hardier the trees, the later may be the period for planting. The oak and ash, for example, may even be planted as late as December. If the spring months be chosen, the planting should not be extended beyond March, certainly riot later than the first week of April, beginning, say, with the later days of February. These opening months are the best for planting the deciduous trees of a less hardy species, and for evergreens, which have too much leafage to withstand the heavy winds and gales of the late autumn and winter months. Condition of the Plants for Planting. — We have said in last paragraph that the first essential in the condition of the plauts is, that they be as fresh as possible, the least interval between the taking up out of the nursery and putting them in the plantation bed being secured. The next condition is that the plants be not injured or damaged, either in root or stem or leafage, by transportation. But it is right to state that while these essentials will be best secured by having a nursery near the plantation, damage, if not given by transportation and all its rough usages, may be so by the careless way in which the plants may be taken out of the nursery and handled between that and their final planting, and also, indeed, during the actual planting itself. In those operations the utmost care and delicacy in handling the plants are essential. The best con- dition for the plant to be in, after being lifted from the nursery bed, is that in winch a plant grown in a pot or tub would be when this was inverted carefully to release the plant. This, under these circumstances, would leave a large mass of soil surrounding, adhering to, and mixed up with the roots and rootlets of the young plant. This should be the condition aimed at; and every care should be taken to remove the plants thus possessed of root-soil to the plantation without disturbing or destroying this, and also keeping the stem and branches whole and un- braised. In removing plants from the nursery bed, the larger they are, the greater the care demanded for the operation. The forester will see that this work, as well as that of planting (see par., ' Different Kinds and Modes of Plant- ing '), be entrusted only to experienced hands : it will be money 'ill held in,' as the phrase is, to exercise economy in this department. Order, Disposition, Number of, and Distance between the Trees in the Plantation. — While some authorities insist upon the trees being planted out in a certain unvarying order or disposition, and with fixed distances between them, it is obvious that, advantageous as this regularity is, there will be circumstances which will prevent its being carried out. As regards the disposition or order in which the plants are placed in the soil, that which is very generally followed is the square, this being obtained by the intersection of lines, as a a, drawn parallel to and equidistant from each other (see figs. 1 and 5, Plate 63), with other lines drawn at right angles to them, as b b ; the intersecting points are c, d, e, f and at those points the trees are planted. All the lines, it is scarcely necessary to say, are equi- distant from and parallel to each other, the dis- tance in both sets of lines being the same. But while this is the case as to dispositions most easily set out in the ground, it does not admit of the greatest possible number of trees being planted upon equal spaces or superficies of ground. This can only be done by adopting the system of planting in hexagons, as shown in figs. 2 and 6, Plate 63, the trees being planted at the points of the hexagon a b c d cf and one in the centre at g, fig. 6, where a central point is obtained by drawing the diagonals b c, a d, or b c, a d, these intersect- ing as shown. No matter how numerous the hexagons are, they all fit into or dovetail with each other, so to say, so accurately, that no space is lost, while the distances are equal through- out, and the margins or outer borders round the fences work up to these, and finish off in a per- fectly straight line, as shown in fig. 7, where the fences are indicated by the lines h i, j /,', the termi- nating points of the hexagons making with these bines a series of triangles, as/ c I, I m n, a c o, o p q, these being the points at which the trees are planted, giving the disposition as in fig. 9, showing upper and lower fences. Some have recommended the pentagonal system of planting out, as in fig. 8 ; but while the lines of these are even more difficult to lay down than those of the hexagon, figs. 2, 6, and 7, and infinitely more DISPOSITION OF TREES IN PLANTA TIONS. 2/5 so than those of the square, fig. 1, they do not fit in as do the hexagons. The choice for regular disposition, then, must lie between the ' square ' and the ' hexagon,' often, but erroneously, called the ' quincunxe.' which is, in fact, but a number of squares disposed in diagonal order, as in fig. 10, Plate 6 3 ; but in a plantation of large area there will be kinds and conditions of soil in which no regular disposition can even be attempted to be carried out, the plants being put down wherever they can best be placed, all that can be done being to keep the required distances between the plants as regular as possible. As regards the distance between the plants, this also varies accord- ing to circumstances, but the average distance adopted is 4 feet. The number of plants to the acre is obviously dependent upon the distance between them. Thus, in regular planting in squares or parallel lines, a distance of 4 feet gives 2722 to the acre. At a distance of 3 feet, which is exactly a square yard occupied, the number of plants to the acre is the same as that of square yards, or 4840 ; at a distance of 3 feet 3 inches, 4124 ; 3 feet 6 inches, 3555 ; 3 feet 9 inches, 3097; 4 feet, 2722; 4 feet 3 inches, 2411; 4 feet 6 inches, 2151 ; 4 feet 9 inches, 1970 ; 5 feet, 1662; 5 feet 6 inches, 1440; 6 feet, 1210 ; 6 feet 6 inches, 1031 ; 7 feet, 889 ; 8 feet, 680 ; 9 feet 6 inches, 482 ; 10 feet, 435 ; 11 feet, 340; 12 feet, 302. Of distances under 3 feet— 2 feet 9 inches, 5760; 2 feet 6 inches, 6669; 2 feet 3 inches, 8604; 2 feet, 10,890. These distances and numbers are cal- culated for the method of setting out in squares with parallel lines. The following shows the increased number of plants per acre which can be put down on the hexagonal plan, fig. 7, Plate 63, taking the above measurements in the order as given. With a distance of 3 feet apart, in place of 4S40 as given above, for the square plan of setting out, the number on the hexagonal plan will be 5588 ; 3 feet 3 inches, 4765 ; 3^ feet, 4112; 3 feet 9 inches, 3585; 4 feet, 3148; 4 feet 3 inches, 2787 ; 4 feet 6 inches, 2491 ; 4 feet 9 inches, 2234; 5 feet, 2015; 5 feet 6 inches, 1667; 6 feet, 1399 ; 6 feet 6 inches, 1193; 7 feet, 1028; 8 feet, 787; 9 feet 6 inches, 558; 10 feet, 503; 11 feet, 416; 12 feet, 350. Of distances under 3 feet, the fol- lowing:— 2 feet 9 inches, 6669; 2 feet 6 inches, 8042; 2 feet 3 inches, 9992; 2 feet, 12,592. The table, of which we have given several figures suitable for certain distances, generally in use for calculating the number of trees per acre at given distances, is often found to give erroneous results in cases where the trees are placed or desired to be placed at equal dis- tances from each other, inasmuch as the table is calculated on the supposition that the trees are planted so as to form squares, as in the diagram, fig. 3, Tlate 63. Xow it will be observed that while the distances along the sides of the squares in any direction, as in that of the line e f or the line / g at right angles to it, are all equal, as b d, d c, the distances, when measured in the direction of the diagonals, or parallel to g 2, a, or as in the small square at the left-hand corner of the diagram, fig. 3, Plate 63, are not equal to the distance of a length of one of the sides, as a b or a c. The land so planted is therefore ' not equally taxed,' to quote the words of a writer on this subject. Hence the proposal to plant trees, as already described, in the form of hexagons. This was first done, and the principle explained and illus- trated, and contrasted with the square method, in a paper from which we have taken the illus- trations in figs. 3 and 4, Plate 63, by Mr. James Craig, land surveyor, Lochwinnoch, given in the Transactions of tTie Highland Society of Scotland in July 1855. By adopting the hexagonal plan of planting (fig. 4, Plate 63), a given space of ground will contain a greater number of trees than the same space would admit of if planted on the square system, figs. 1 and 3 ; and all the distances will be equal, all the angles being equal, as shown by the lines a b, a c, a d, etc., in fig. 1, trees being supposed to be put down at the points o, c, d, j, f, and c, and also in the centre of the hexagon at «. Thus, as Mr. Craig points out, supposing the distance between the plants is to be 3 feet in the square system of setting out, the distance between the rows will also be 3 feet, giving six rows in a certain space ; while by the hexagonal method, as in fig. 4, the distance between the rows will be 2 feet 7 inches, less fractions, and seven rows in place of six will be 2;6 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. got in the same space, — a clear gain of one-sixth. Again, if at 3 feet apart on the square system, 4840 plants will be used, on the hexagonal, 5588 ; thus showing to how much greater an extent the land is utilized by the hexagonal than by the square system. The following is part of a table given by Mr. Craig, so far as ' im- perial ' acreage is concerned, showing the exact geometrical distribution of trees per acre on the hexagonal system in fig. 4, Plate 63 : — Distance in Feet. Number per Imp. Acre. Distance in Feet. Number per Imp. Acre. 1 50,300 12 349 li 22,355 12J 321 o 12,575 13 297 k 8,047 131 275 3 5,588 14 256 3* 4,016 141 239 4 3,143 15 223 41 2,483 15J 209 5 2,011 16 196 51 5,602 161 184 6 1,397 17 174 61 1,190 171 164 7 1,026 18 155 71 894 181 146 8 785 19 139 81 696 191 132 9 620 20 120 91 557 22J 103 10 502 24 87 10£ 456 26 74 11 415 28 64 111 380 30 55 Different Kinds of Planting. — Properly speak- ing, the operation ought to be designated trans- planting, this being in fact what it actually is. In gardens, one kind or method of transplanting is almost universally adopted, that is, by the well-known process of dibbling ; but in tree planting, as the soils are not uniform either in quality or in surface peculiarity, like what garden soil generally is, and which, therefore, admits of a uniform plan of transplanting being carried out, the methods of transplanting are somewhat numerous. The first, and what may be called the rudest or most elementary, is in its general features like the garden dibbling process, and is known as ' slit-planting! There are different kinds of ' slit-planting,' and each has its own particular implement. For heathy or moory land, the simplest, most easily performed,^ — one man only being required, — cheapest, and what may be called the rudest method, is that done by the aid of an implement or tool in form and principle of working almost identical with the garden dibble. The moor or heath slit-planter is, of course, much larger than the garden dibble, being some 15 inches long in the dibble part or prong, which tapers from a dia- meter of some 3 inches nearly to a point. The dibble is not straight, but slightly curved along its whole length, and is fixed in a shaft or stem some 3 feet long, the upper end of which has a cross handle or bar to give the workman suffi- cient leverage. The tool is driven forcibly into the soil, the handle being at the same time depressed, so as to loosen it and allow of an opening being made, into which the root of the plant is inserted, the plant being fast- ened by a stamp of the heel of the man. A man can plant some 3000 plants a day, or an average nearly of an acre ; but this depends upon the soil, which regulates the distance be- tween and the consequent number of plants in an acre. For sandy and light soils, where the surface is nearly free, or has only a thin covering of herbage, a different form of dibble is used, known as the ' diamond,' from the shape or section, which is triangular, some 4 to 5 inches in the side at its upper part, and tapering to a point. The mode of using it is very similar to the last-described tool. The spade, old or partially worn out, so as to have a very sharp edge, is used for different kinds of ' slit,' or, as it is often called, ' cross-cut ' planting, chiefly on grass lands, or those covered with a sward more or less deep, or thick and close and tough in texture. One method very commonly used is to make two cuts like the form of the letter T, inserting the spade, and by depressing its handle so to open up the cuts in the soil sufficiently to admit of the roots of the plant being inserted, which when done by an assistant, — a sharp, intelligent boy may often with advantage take the place of a man, — the spade is withdrawn, and the elasticity of the cut surfaces enables the rootlets to be grasped more or less firmly, and the operation is finished by the workman pressing tbe cuts down with his foot. These methods, especially where the soil is covered by a grassy sward, have the great defect that a firm hold of the soil by the roots of the plant is not always MODES OF PLANTING— ■' SLIT' AND 'PIT' PLANTING. 2/7 secured ; indeed, in some cases it is difficult to know whether this has been so or not. The consequence is that the plants may either die for lack of proper nourishment, and from not being root-fast, — an essential point in planting of all kinds, — or if they live, they do not develop healthily or quickly, many of them getting moved, and some, being so loosely set in, are blown out by high strong winds. In all cases where at all possible, the soil itself should be reached by the tool or implements employed, and all the better if this be moved or stirred at the same time, even if this be carried out only to a limited extent. To secure the advantages here referred to, a modification of slit-planting as follows may be adopted. The sward is cut clean out to a diameter, say, of a foot or so ; this is to be laid aside with the grass surface down- wards, and while in this position divided by the spade into two equal parts. The workman with the spade then loosens the soil within the circle exposed by the removal of the grass sward and turf, so as to give as great a depth as possible, in the limited time at his disposal, of broken up or pulverized soil, in which the plant rootlets are extended as nearly in their natural position as can be attained. The turf is then taken up, one half being placed at one side of the hole, the other at the other side, their two edges embrac- ing the stem of the plant. The turf may be pressed down with the foot, so as to give the plant a firm root-hold. Where the plants are on the outside of the plantation, and therefore exposed to the winds, it is considered a good plan to in- sert them in the soil with a bias or inclination towards the wind or quarter from which it blows. This position will enable the plants to resist better the force of the winds than if placed ver- tically in the soil ; and by the end of the second season they will have been blown, as it were, back into their vertical position, and in such a condition of strength and firmness of root-hold that no fear need be entertained as to their being blown out from or loosened in the soil, or blown back the reverse way. There is another method of slit- planting, which may be called the L method ; this the reader will find described in the paragraph, ' Plantations for Exposed Lands.' The method of slit-planting last described has a close resem- blance to the next method, known as ' pit-planting] which is the best and most certain of all methods of planting in ordinary ground not specially prepared by digging, trenching, ploughing, or grubbing. The method is very simply and easily carried out, involving, however, more labour than the modes of slit-planting just described. The pits are dug at distances from centre to centre corresponding to the distance at which the trees are to be planted ; they may be either square or circular in plan ; generally they are dug square, the sides varying from 18 inches to 2 feet, and depth from 15 to 18 inches. The pits are dug either in the late spring months, as April or May, if the planting is to be done in December or January. If planting is to be performed in the spring, the pits are dug at the end of the summer or the beginning of autumn preceding. This is done in order that the soil taken out of the pits, and which is laid by the side of the pits, and the soil at sides and bottom of the pit itself, be weathered and pulverized by being exposed to the frost, etc., during the winter. When the pits are opened, the turf and grassy sward are cut up into small pieces by the spade, and thrown into the bottom of the pit, to be weathered throughout the autumn and winter months. When the period of planting arrives, a man and a boy are set to work. The first thing the man does is to break up and loosen the decomposed turf and weathered soil at the bottom of the pit, and then work it about till it becomes loose and friable. Wet weather, or if there has been much rain previously, will obviously be a bad time to prepare the pits for planting. A portion is then taken out in order to make a seat for the plant. This the boy inserts in the pit, holding it vertically and firmly, while the man covers the rootlets gently with the pulverized mould at the side of the pit, the boy moving the plant verti- cally up and down, so that the soil gets worked in between the rootlets. The soil is then filled wholly in, and the man then leaves the boy to fix the plant firmly in by treading with his feet, while he proceeds to prepare another pit. Although 'pit-planting' possesses many advan- tages over the other systems described, it requires to be carried out with judgment. For example, the plan almost universally adopted of digging 273 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. the pits, and allowing them to be ' weathered ' by exposure to the atmospheric influences during a large proportion of the year, may be, and is under certain circumstances, a plan which will likely in its results defeat the object in view. Thus, if it is deemed better for one class of soil than another, that soil is a heavy, adhesive clay ; and at first sight it is perfectly correct, for weathering does more effectually than any other known means reduce the heavy, cloddy soil to what is known as a good ' tilth' or pulverized state. But there is weathering and weathering ; and whether that is the best plan which makes a pit or hole to allow the soil taken out and laid aside, as well as the sides and bottom of the pit itself, to be weathered, is at least open to doubt. True, it is good for the weathering of the soil taken out and laid aside ; but what of the pit itself ? A good authority, and an able as well as a prolific writer on agricul- tural subjects, puts the matter very pointedly when he says that the result to the pits and from the pits is what certainly is not wanted, — ■ namely, in consequence of the rain and snow getting access to it for so many months, the bottom gets into the condition of a regular puddle of moist clay, often, indeed, forming small stag- nant pools of water, or a semi-fluid of weathered clay and water. And although he says that they may appear dry when the planting is carried out, they may not be, and often are not, really so ; while, after the soil is put in, it is at the best so loose that the pit, to a certain extent, may be said to exist for some time, thus giving access to rain, which cannot pass through the retentive clay of the bottom, but remains there, to act most deleteriously upon the young plant, struggling to ' establish itself in life,' which in many cases it does not succeed in doing, dying out soon and rapidly. This authority, therefore, recommends what certainly appears to us to be the better plan of preparing such soil for planting, and that is to turn over the soil with the spade or grub it up with the fork to a good depth at the points, and for some distance round where the trees are to be planted. This, being done in early autumn, will allow of the soil itself being weathered in its natural position and condition, and be fitted to receive the plants in spring. Where the land has been put under what may be called ordinary modes of preparation, as ploughing or digging and trenching, the planting is done by opening up the ridges — in the case of land so surface finished — with a double mould- board plough, or by opening a furrow on flat land with a trenching plough, the spade being used to finish the planting with, or it may be used alone to make the holes for the reception of the plants ; but in all cases the greatest care should be taken to give ample space for the rootlets, and to see that the soil be well pressed in, so as to give the plants a firm root-hold. As to the work which may be done by the different methods now de- scribed, it may be reckoned that in ordinary ' slit-planting,' where only one man is required, he will be able to put in on an average from 3000 to 3200 plants a day. In the T and L methods, or what is otherwise called ' cross-cut planting,' the man and boy, or the two men required for this method, will put in between 2000 and 2500 up to 3000 plants a day, according to the nature of the soil and its grassy covering. In 'pit- planting,' the man and boy should, on an average, plant from 300 to 400 a day, according to the condition of the soil, plants, etc. The number of pits which a man can dig to receive the plants may be set down at 100 a day, more or less, according to circumstances. After Treatment of Plantations — (1) Weeding and Clearing of the Ground; (2) Keeping of Drains in Good Order ; (3) Pruning of the Trees to aid the Formation of Selling Timber ; (4) Thinning of Plantations. — (1) However carefully all the points which have occupied our attention, as discussed in preceding paragraphs, have been carried out, it is obvious that upon the after treatment of the plantations depends the ultimate profit which ought to be realized from them. For if the details of these be so far neglected as to be partially and inefficiently done, or altogether overlooked, as in some instances has been the case, the result will be the partial or nearly total loss of all the preced- ing work. There is such a thing as navigating a vessel with the utmost degree of care on the open sea, or through tortuous, difficult, and dangerous channels, and bringing her up to within actual sight of port, yet, by carelessness at the last moment, wrecking her on some rock near to, or driving her up against the very stonework or piles of the harbour. And just so with planta- KEEPING PLANTATIONS IN GOOD ORDER— WEEDING, DRAINING, ETC. 279 tions, and, indeed, many other departments of farm work. Work should not be praised till absolutely completed. These remarks are not uncalled for, in view of the fact that in a few — or shall we say not a few ? — instances the pre- liminary work is done excellently well, but the later stages wofully and wastefully neglected, or considered, apparently, to be a matter of such trivial moment that it may be safely overlooked altogether. Where this turns out to be the ulti- mate result of the preliminary costly and laborious work, it requires no elaborate statements to prove that the wiser course would have been to have refrained altogether from entering upon the work of forming the plantation. If, then, the most satisfactory results are desired to be obtained from the formation of plantations, it will be essen- tial to see that the details of after management are as carefully gone into and executed as were the preliminary details already described, and which we have supposed to have been thoroughly and honestly attended to and carried out. The first of the details of after treatment of the plan- tation is the weeding and clearing of the soil hetuxen the plants. If the reader will consider the sub- ject of ' Weeds,' and the way they act injuriously upon the soil, and by consequence upon the plants or crops which grow upon and derive their nourishment chiefly from it, he will see that they not only take from the soil — and that in many cases in a much greater proportion than the regular crops or plants — the constituents which nourish the plants, but, by overcrowding the space between them, deprive them of the ah- and light, and, in fact, of nearly all the atmo- spheric influences which go far to develop the plants and maintain them in full, vigorous, and healthy growth. There is thus a double rea- son for getting rid of the weeds which infest plantations ; and the same remark applies in like manner to all kinds of undergrowth, no matter what they may be. The only plants which ought to occupy the soil are those of the trees, for which, indeed, the plantation was put down, — a very commonplace way of putting the point, but one, with all its important consequences, very often for- gotten. In going over the land for the purpose of clearing it from weeds and undergrowths, another important work should be attended to, — seeing to the condition of the young plants or trees. Those which have failed to take root must be taken up and replaced by strong and vigorous plants from the nursery. Those which have not failed wholly, but have not taken kindly to the soil, and are dwindling away, or likely to make but poor progress, should also be taken out ; they will never be worth the soil they occupy. Those which have been blown out by winds should also be replaced. In brief, the whole should be care- fully looked over, and all defects and deficiencies made good. But while attention must be paid to the keeping of the young tree plants free from the inroads of weeds and all foreign or extraneous growth, no less important is it, although in another direction, to keep (2) the drains in good working order. The very form of these, or way in which they are made, together with the conditions under which they are placed, require and demand a more than usual degree of care in keeping them in order ; for, open as they are, and liable to have their sides, etc. destroyed or injured by vermin burrowing in or near them, and exposed, more- over, to the fall of the leaves, — a source of filling up which increases yearly with the increase of the growth of the trees, — they very rapidly get filled up. There is perhaps no department of the after management of plantations so neglected as this ; the drains are allowed to remain for years without the slightest attention being paid to them, and so completely does this neglect fulfil its work, that many, especially of the smaller or subsidiary drains, are quite filled up, and their very course or position obliterated. If drains are worth put- ting down, — and they are a necessity, — they are surely worth being attended to, all the more that, as open drains are, as a rule, only admissible in plantations, the full effect of drainage proper can- not be obtained ; the greater the need, therefore, to keep up to the highest point such lesser effi- ciency as they are possessed of. We come now to the important department of the after treat- ment of plantations, namely, the (3) pruning of the trees. While we have shown that other de- partments are apt to be greatly and sometimes wholly neglected, of this it may be said that danger too often arises, and much mischief is done to the trees, from the overdoing of it. And in view of the evils arising from excessive pruning, 2 SO DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. some writers have rushed into the opposite extreme, and counsel foresters not to prune at all, or prune so sparingly that, compared with the old and still generally adopted plan, it may be said that pruning scarcely holds a place in the work to be done connected with the after treatment of plantations. Certainly some very striking examples have been brought forward of late to prove that where trees are let alone, — care only being taken by judicious thinning to give them ample space to grow in, — or at the most receive but an exceedingly small amount of pruning, they do remarkably well, and yield abundance of timber. If, however, we closely examine some of the physiological points of trees, and their habits of growth, it seems scarcely possible that the requirements or results looked for in trees, the timber of which is to be sold for industrial purposes, can be obtained with- out pruning. But there are two kinds of pruning, the good and the bad, under which latter category may be classed over or excessive pruning, as well as careless or bad pruning, by which a tree may be greatly injured, or perhaps totally ruined for the purposes of a timber tree. Pruning should have for its primary aim the encouraging of the tree to throw all its productive powers into steady addi- tions to the bulk of the stem, all top shoots which do not minister directly to this, or, what is worse, are antagonistic to it, being pruned or cut away. Those shoots or leading branches appear at the top of the tree, as just hinted at in the name we have given to them, ' top shoots ;' and the object is to preserve that one whicli decidedly and clearly will form the most direct and natural continuation of the main stem or ' bole ' of the tree (the latter term being that which is applied to a tree stem when it attains to and goes beyond a diameter of eight inches ; before this it is not reckoned a timber tree or timber, but is known as a 'sapling' or a ' young tree,' the latter being more generally used, a sapling having a diameter of six inches at a height from the ground of four feet). Two shoots often occupy the top part of the tree, and are so nicely balanced as regards condition and vigour, that it is difficult to choose between them as to which is to be cut off and which is to be left. But if these two be tied together, and allowed to remain thus for some time, the ' weakest will have gone by the wall' so decidedly, that choice will be by no means difficult. As regards the other lower and subsidiary branches not ' leaders ' or ' top ' ones, there is only a general rule to be followed, which is a safe one, but which requires the exercise of some judgment to carry properly out, and that is, so to prune or cut away that they will grow, forming what may be called a well trimmed or balanced, not a lop-sided tree, having more branches on one side than there are on the other. This is done best by commencing at the top or with the leaders, and gradually pruning downwards, leaving a branch on one side as nearly opposite as possible to a branch on the other side. These form what may be called the successive grades or tiers of branches, and gradually increase in length as they approach the root. The intermediate spaces should be cleared of all branches, as they only draw off the sap which otherwise would go to the nourishment of the bole or main stem. The same should be done with the smaller branches on the leading side grades or tiers. These are the leading points to be observed in tree-pruning; but the best way in which to do them will depend upon circumstances, and upon the skill, judgment, and quick, ready glance of the forester. As regards the best period for pruning the trees, this also is greatly influenced by circumstances, the period which suits one class or kind of tree, and, indeed, the sub-varieties of the class as well, not being suitable for another class ; but generally the best period of the year for pruning is when the tree is in its dormant state, that is, when the sap is not flowing, or has nearly ceased to flow, in the stem and branches. Hardwood trees, as a rule, may indeed be pruned almost at any period of the year, although the above rule holds good with them as with the others. The time in the age of the tree at which pruning is best begun varies also with circum- stances, but a general rule is from the fourth to the sixth year of their being in the ground. We now come to the thinning or ilie 'weeding out' of the, trees of the plantation. Just as we have seen that as weeds and undergrowths, crushing and crowding in upon plants, tend to stop or injure their development, so in like manner do trees act upon one another, when, after gaining a certain size or bulk of development, they crowd upon one another. Hence the necessity there is for thin- NURSING TREES— PLANTATIONS ON PEAT OR BOGGY LAND. 28 I ning out trees at certain intervals, so that those which are left standing will be in the best con- dition as regards space in which to grow and increase steadily and healthily. To thin properly requires the exercise of no small knowledge and judgment, and much also depends upon the dis- position of the trees, especially in the relation which the nursing or shelter trees bear, both as regards their number and disposition, to the hard- wood and more valuable trees. The kinds or classes of trees forming plantations depend, as we have stated more fully in preceding paragraphs, upon a variety of circumstances ; but stated here broadly, they are made up of hardwood trees, varying in class, which are to form the timber- producing part of the plantation, and coniferous trees or pines, which are chiefly, if not wholly, planted to serve as nursing or shelter trees to the above. These nursing trees are disposed in two ways : where parts of the plantation are exposed to high and cold winds, the nursing trees are made to form a belt, of greater or less depth, out- side of all, while other nursing trees are disposed throughout the mass of the plantation generally. To deal with the outside belt as regards thinning, this is comparatively easy; but those in the interior ought to bear that relation to the hardwood trees above alluded to, and this so that the valuable trees, being placed at wide intervals apart, have the inter-spaces filled up with the nursing trees, or in some similar disposition, but so that the thinning or weeding out is confined solely to the nursing or coniferous trees. This arrangement (see paragraph on the ' Disposition of the Trees in Plantations') will enable the valuable hardwood trees to be retained on the land for such a period that they will have so far advanced to maturity, and thus be useful for selling purposes when the time arrives at which thinning them out is neces- sary. If trees other than coniferous be used as nursing trees, in thinning out, care should be taken to cut down or ' weed out ' the least valuable first, so that the most valuable will have a longer period to grow, and thus produce a larger yield of useful timber. As regards the time at which and the extent to ivhich the thinning should be carried out, much will obviously depend upon circumstances ; but a rule, easily remembered, will be found applicable to cases generally, and this is, that it ought to be begun so soon as the trees begin to press upon each other, crowding their branches and interlacing them more or less with one another, and to that extent that may interfere with the growth of one another. Plantations on Peat or Boggy Land. — In the section treating of reclaiming waste lands, we have explained the methods generally employed in bringing under cultivation tracts of those wide ranges of peat or boggy soil which are met with in all parts of the country, but especially in Ireland. But while there are portions of these tracts of peat or bog, and large ones too, which are capable, under proper management, of yield- ing profitable crops, there are other parts — and in some districts forming, unfortunately, if not the whole, certainly a large proportion of the peat, bog, or moss — wholly unfitted to become agriculturally useful, except at an outlay far be- yond that which can be reasonably hoped to pay as an investment. Still, in view of the large, indeed we may say enormous, acreage of lands of this kind — if such they can be called — here and there met with, it seems little better than a national reproach to us to say that nothing whatever can be made of them. There is one use to which portions of them may be put, and usefully so, namely, planting trees upon such portions as can be made solid enough by drain- ing, etc. The trees, even if they do not attain full growth, yield so much timber and smaller pieces in the thinnings, that the amount received will form no inconsiderable item. At all events, it will be got for a very trifling expenditure. There is, however, another advantage obtained from planting trees in those wet mosses, namely, the gradual improvement of the soil itself. This arises from more than one way in which the trees act ; in the first place, they draw no inconsider- able amount of water from the peat or bog, and by their branches and leafage distribute it to the surrounding atmosphere ; in cases of rain, the same leafage takes up no small quantity, and tends to distribute it slowly and equally for some distance round their boles. The leafage, also, in the case of deciduous trees, dropping to the ground gradually, forms a species of mould, and even in the case of pines there is no incon- siderable amount of vegetable matter shed from 2 N 282 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. them on to the soil. Further, this soil, as it is gradually formed, is ameliorated and improved by the shelter which the trees afford. Thus, in course of time, when the trees begin to be re- moved, the peat will be found to be of a character very considerably changed for the better, to such an extent that by the processes elsewhere described, part at least, if not the whole, which has been under plantation may be prepared to bear cropping in the usual way. In preparing the land for the plants, the first process through which the peat, bog, or moss is to be put is drainage, which is the first essential in the preparation of land of this kind, no matter what may be the ultimate objects in view, cropping or otherwise. The great arterial drain or outfall will be large, its dimensions depend- ing upon the circumstances of the soil, locality, etc. There may also be great difficulty in cutting it, on account of the watery, semi-fluid stuff through which it passes. The water may collect so rapidly that it cannot be carried away with sufficient quickness to enable the proper depth to be obtained, and to form the sides, which should slope outwards very considerably. These, \inder the action of the water in the out- fall drain, may slip down in lengths, or gradually subside into the trench. These and other diffi- culties inherent in the situation may be, and generally are, overcome by hard work and in- genious expedients ; but in some few cases the first step rendered necessary will be to get rid of the superfluous water settled round the edges of the moss, or spread out in pools over its surface. Some districts are so bog-infested, that the patches and masses are so numerous that it is difficult to get land sufficiently firm to form a road, or rather path, by which the bog may be traversed. In some cases the peat or bog may be compara- tively isolated, being surrounded with ground more or less solid. In this case an outfall drain may be cut from the margin of the peat to the point of final outfall, some rivulet, river, or the sea. If this length be too great, it may happen that another bog lying at a lower level may be so hopelessly bad that the addition of the drainage water of the higher bog to its contents cannot make it worse. Suppose, however, that the main arterial drain or ditch — which is to traverse the whole breadth or length of the bog, or which, if circumstances compel it, may run along the side of the bog — has been cut; although it is expe- dient to lose no time in cutting throughout its whole length, it may be expedient to cut but a comparatively shallow trench in the first in- stance— of course the full width it is to be when finished. This will enable the surface water to be carried off, and tend to consolidate the land somewhat. Subsidiary drains are then to be cut at right angles to the main drain, these being placed at distances from each other varying according to circumstances, con- dition of the bog, etc. The plan of cutting the full depth of the sub-mains by degrees only will be found a good one, for the reasons stated above in reference to the arterial drains, as the surface water will then be led off, and the bog consider- ably consolidated. Next to be cut are the smaller or cross drains falling into the sub-mains. These are of still smaller dimensions than the sub-mains. We have now the bog provided in various direc- tions with drains or channels of varying depth, into which the surface and under-soil waters drain and percolate. But it must not be sup- posed, although there is thus a sequence in the operation, that as regards time they are all to be pushed on and finished at once, preparatory to planting ; on the contrary, long intervals may elapse between the cutting of the larger drains and the smaller, these vaiying according to the wetness of the peat, and the rapidity with which it is drained and dried. The great object is to have this done as effectively as is possible under the circumstances, so that an upper crust of what must be called soil, but which, at the best, will be little worthy of the name, be formed. This will, by having its pores opened more and more as it dries, allow the atmospheric influences — as sun, light, air, frost, etc. — to work upon it, than which there are few better agencies for amelior- ating any soil, no matter what its nature may be. It is not easy, if indeed it be safe, to set down dimensions under circumstances which are per- petually changing, or rather in which those of one case are very different from those of another. But the following, if they do not give the actual sizes of drains, etc., to be cut in the bogs, will give — what is of some value — the relative pro- TREES SUITABLE FOR PLANTING ON PEATY LAND. 283 portions. Thus, if the main drains or outfalls are 6 feet wide at top, 2 at bottom, and depth 5 feet, the sub-drains will be 3 feet wide at top, half this at bottom, and 3 feet deep. The smaller drains may, if necessary, be about a third less. If to these a larger outfall is added, this may be from 7 to 8 feet at top, 3 feet or 2 feet 6 at bottom, and 5 to 6 feet deep. All the drains having been completed, and the boggy surface brought into something like a solid surface, quaking and treacherous at the best as it will be, the peat taken out in cutting the drains should be wheeled on the bog to be planted, — planks as broad as possible will be re- quired to support the barrow, and prevent its wheel from sinking into the yielding bog, — and spread uniformly over the surface, yet as lumpy as possible ; this being done in autumn, so that the winter's frost, etc. may act upon it, and sweeten and ameliorate it. As the bog in the case we are supposing will be of the poorest, crudest, sourest quality, contain- ing little or nothing at all calculated to promote and keep up the growth of the trees which are to be planted in it, it will be a good thing to take advantage of the time during which the drainage, and gradual and often, as before said, very slow drying of the bog, to make an abundant supply of compost, to serve as a soil, or species of soil, in which the trees are to grow. As a basis for this, bog soil will form a good one, especially if it has been well weathered by exposure to the air on dry land ; or bog soil from a bog of better quality, or from bog land which has been under cropping for some time, may be used. If clay can be had, it should form part of the heap, and lime and salt ; everything which can decay, as weeds, sea-weeds if at hand, and the thousand and one things which lie about a farm — rendering it too often untidy and disorderly in look — may be added to the compost heap. The more varied its contents the better, the great object aimed at in its formation being to secure a manure as nearly approaching to farm-yard clung as possible — the ' universal manure ' — and therefore con- taining all the constituents of plant life. Accord- ing to the nature of the bog, the special substances added to the compost heap will vary. Lime is scarcely ever present in bog soil, especially of the poorest quality, and this when added to it tends to reduce its acidity; and so also are the other constituents awanting, as the analysis of the bog soil will show, and which ought always to be taken, and which will, or should if possible, be supplied to it by adding special substances to the compost heap, such as clay or marl, salt, etc. The kind of trees to be planted is a matter for most important consideration, considering further the very peculiar character of the soil which has to bear them, a soil in itself so destitute of the elements of plant life, that even when these are partially supplied — which, at the best, can only be hoped for — by the addition of compost (see paragraph on ' Compost Heaps '), or of some sub- stance such as clay, the trees will be carrying out for a long time a ' struggle for mere exist- ence.' In selecting trees, several things have to be considered ; if the object be to make the bog available for growing crops by preceding these by trees, which alone seem to possess the ad- vantage of producing something from the soil, — which otherwise, as stated at the commencement of this section, would be utterly useless, — then the object should be aided by selecting trees which come to maturity in a comparatively short time, such as the poplar, the black Italian being the best. The next point to be considered in selecting the trees is their capability of resisting or overcoming the cold tendency of the super- abundance of water at the roots and rootlets, by themselves being of such habit of growth as necessitates and enables them to take up a large portion of the moisture in the soil, and thus tending to improve its condition materially. Amongst the suitable trees of this class is the willow and the native Scots fir (Pinus syl- vestris). The former is specially adapted for wet, over-moist soils, and when a proper kind is selected — such as the White or Huntingdon — to be grown for timber, not for basket-making pur- poses, it forms a handsome addition to the look of the plantation, and affords, like the poplar, a timber for which there is such a growing demand that it may be considered a remunerative tree to plant. The larch has been so long and exten- sively grown, owing to the great demand for its timber for railway purposes, — a demand, however, lessening rather than increasing, — that it forms a 2S4 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. large proportion of nearly every modern planta- tion ; but the tree has such a liability to be attacked by disease — acres many a one having been destroyed — that in many cases, even in soils and localities well adapted for their growth, pro- prietors are now becoming chary in planting it, substituting others, — such, for example, as the poplar, already referred to. It is a tree certainly not adapted for over-wet, cold, and poor soils, such as the bogs we are now considering, as its habit of growth does not admit of its drawing up from the wet soil large supplies of its moisture ; and when planted in such places, it is necessary to start the plants in a good rich soil, a small portion of which is put into small pits dug in the bog at the regular intervals required to fill the land with so many to the acre. This soil affords nourishment to the young trees when they require to make a good start, and brings them up to that point when they can make the best of such soil as the bog affords, which by this time will be considerably improved by the agencies at work, after plant life begins to appear upon it, and which we have already noticed. One great ad- vantage to be obtained from the presence of larch trees in bog soils is that the droppings from the tree of leaves, etc., change the soil on which they fall into a very rich decayed vege- table mould or humus. All trees do this more or less, but the larch yields, perhaps, the richest products in this way. Whatever be the kind of trees, then, selected for planting, regard must be had to the various points we have now indicated. Another favourable thing for the plantations will be shelter; bogs, unfortunately, are so placed that shelter from some rising ground near them is but seldom obtained, so that the winds have an un- broken sweep across them. The trees selected should be so disposed that the hardiest ought to occupy the position of ' nursing trees ' to the more tender varieties in the interior ; and if the prevailing wind be accurately noted, a good deal of shelter will be obtained by judicious selection and planting of such nursing trees. It would pay in many instances to put down an outer belt of quick-growing, well-leaved trees, not so much with a view to obtain timber from them, as to serve as shelter to the timber trees inside. In bog lauds, a belt of willows might be the best to use in such cases ; it is of rapid growth, does well in over-wet soils, and if allowed to occupy the ground only till the inner trees are well developed, if much solid timber be not got from them, they will have yielded a fair supply of ' wands ' for industrial purposes. We now come to the planting of such trees as have been selected. And here we would remark that, as a rule, the art of transplanting is little understood by a great many who undertake it. Many of the failures in plants not ' coming forward' may be set down, not to the many causes which are named, but to the bad way in which transplanting has been done; we should be inclined to say, in the proportion of three instances out of every five. This stricture applies to all transplanting, including that of trees. To ensure successful transplanting, more than one point has to be considered. The first, if not the most important of these, is to have the plants as fresh and full of sap as possible. To secure this, where bog planting is contemplated, there will be ample time afforded by the pre- paration of the land to form a special nursery on some adjacent part of the property, in which to grow plants from seed. When seedlings are sent from a distance, however carefully packed and quickly transmitted by rail, — the first may be got, but the speedy 'delivery' will not, — the plants cannot possibly arrive at the ground where they are to be planted out in anything like that con- dition necessary to give them all the chances of taking to the ground kindly and quickly ; at all events, their condition cannot be compared to that of plants brought from a nursery near at hand. One cannot ensure the best weather for transplanting, and the result often is that plants, put into the ground in a condition already half deprived of their natural juices, have for the first periods to struggle for life ; whereas a fresh, vigorous plant, not crushed, bent, and distorted, taken from a nursery near at hand, being placed in the ground properly, is in a condition at once to strike its tender rootlets into the soil ; and should that be deficient in moisture, the plant has a good store of its own sap to aid its taking root. Many other advantages will be found to arise from having a nursery to rear plants from ; these are so obvious that they need TREES SUITABLE FOR PEATY LAND— MODE OF TREATMENT. !8S not be named here. The trees or young plants selected for transplanting should be the best and shapeliest in the nursery, care being taken not to have them too high, as they are apt to catch the wind too readily and to be loosened in their hold on the ground, and thus to derive a twist or set which must be retained to the end, and will greatly deteriorate the value of the timber. Some limit the height in case of larch to 20 inches, but if the bog be exposed to very high winds this is too great ; and plants lower, but thicker in the stem, should be preferred, the height being from 15 to 17 inches. The height of Scots fir {Pimm syhcstris) about 10 inches, which will not admit of being much lower than this. Willows are propagated by cuttings taken from two- or three-year-old trees ; they should be cut about two feet in length, and have rather less than half their height out of the ground. In point of fact, so readily does the willow take to soils, especially moist ones, that cuttings or slips from much older trees may be set, and they will rapidly begin to shoot out branchlets and leaves. They would thus very soon form nurses for the slower-growing inner rows. But a great deal of the resisting power of a young plant to the force of the wind depends, perhaps, as much upon the way in which they are transplanted as on any- thing to be gained by a mere change in the height of a few inches. Again, due regard should be had to the direction of the prevailing and strongest winds, and that the rows of plants be so placed in relation to this that they will be in the best possible position to resist the wind ; and when placed near the margin of the smaller drains, as they must necessarily be in many instances, this position should be such that the plants will not be blown against with a force calculated to blow them into it or towards it. The age of the plants must also be considered, this not exceeding three years as a rule. Some prefer to allow the seedlings to remain in the nursery soil till they are wanted ; others, again, prefer plants which, after two years as seedlings, are taken up and allowed to grow for one year, making up the three years. Transplanted seed- lings are found to yield plants with a good ball of rootlets and a vigorous stem — two great desiderata. By far the best time to plant is the early spring, about the beginning of March, so that it will be finished in the same month if enough of hands be put to the work. To plant in autumn in such waterlogged stuff as an unre- claimed bog is simply throwing away time, labour, and plants, — it is impossible iinder such circum- stances that the latter can take hold of the ground, and make some growth before winter sets in, and thereafter struggle through the cold and wet successfully. If autumn be bad, winter, we need scarcely say, will be worse. As there is no soil worthy of the name in bogs such as we are now considering, in which some of the usual modes of setting the plants in the ground can be adopted, the only one available is the hole or pit-planting system. The pits, at intervals varying from 3 to 4 feet apart, according to the plants and their number to the acre, should be dug in the autumn, so as to allow the sides and bottom to get well weathered by the frost, as well as the bog soil taken out in forming them. The size of the pit will depend upon circumstances, but as a rule, 12 to 16 or 1 8 inches on the side of square will do. If soil is to be put in in spring, they will require to be a little larger than if this were not used ; if so, this soil or clay or rich loam of the first class should be laid at the side of the pit, to get weathered during the winter. For further details as to the modes of setting in the plants, see the paragraph ' Planting and Transplanting of Seedlings for Plantations.' The thinning and pruning should be done with judgment, and not therefore left to be performed by any labourer or other person who is ignorant of the subject (see paragraph on ' Thinning and Pruning Trees in Plantations'). The trees which are left standing should have sufficient room and but little more in which to grow freely in their further development. All these details, but merely glanced at here, as their nature admits of nothing more definite being given, evidently point to this, — that the forester in this, as in other departments of his labours, will have to exercise no small amount of careful forethought, skill, and judgment before full justice can be done to it, and the most valuable results will be obtained only with the most economical management and outlay of labour and money. Small Woods — Coppices. — On many properties there are here and there considerable stretches of :S6 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. plantation, or woodlands as they are sometimes termed, of small trees, underwood, or brushwood. These are useful, not only as affording shelter in exposed situations to adjoining arable or pasture lands, but as yielding a supply of small pieces of timber, which ' come in handy,' as the phrase is, for many farm purposes — fencing, making of hurdles, gateways, etc.; and at the same time also affording a small but ready-money source of revenue from the demand there is for small wood of the varieties generally grown for various trade purposes, such as bobbin-making for the cotton trade, clog-making, etc. Much more might be made of these small woods than is generally the case by attention to sundry points, which in the majority of cases are almost wholly, if not cpiite neglected. Amongst these may be named the general lack of proper enclosure, so that the woodlands are quite open not merely to the depre- dations of tramps, vagrants, etc., but to what is worse, the damage done by cattle, etc. straying from the pasture fields. The cattle not merely crush and break the young and rising plants and the smaller brushwood, which is useful for many purposes of the farm, but they greatly injure the trees which are more advanced in growth ; indeed it may be said nearly the whole of the trees, as these are generally of low growth, and are nearly, if not wholly, within the reach of cattle, who in feeding upon the leafage do more damage than merely stripping this, although this is bad enough, by breaking off branches and otherwise injur- ing the tree more or less. Trees subjected to this treatment cannot, and never do, thrive ; and any gain, the value of which at the best is doubt- ful, which may be supposed to flow from the food the cattle get there, is greatly overbalanced by the heavier loss sustained by preventing the trees from gaining their full and most luxuriant growth, and in destroying much of the undergrowth. To obviate those evils, fences should be put up (see 'Fences'). Another great source of loss arises from the custom in some districts of mixing large timber trees with the smaller ones constituting the woods. The evil done is manifest on slight consideraion, and it acts in a twofold way, to the injury alike of the large timber trees and of the smaller ones ; for as the small trees and the brushwood and underwood act upon the growth of the large timber trees, causing them to produce more branches and leafage at a compara- tively short distance from the ground, the bole or trunk of the tree is stunted, and rarely arrives at its full height and healthy maturity ; while, on the other hand, the leafage and wide-spreading branches of the large timber trees thus produced react upon the brushwood and smaller trees below, pre- venting them from gaming their full and healthy development. The two systems are thus seen to be quite antagonistic, and ought never to be on the same ground ; the large timber trees ought always to be outside the belt or stretch of small woods, and if judiciously placed and disposed, they will add to the appearance of the woods as a whole, while they will also act as shelter to the young plants of the woodlands. Another evil con- nected with the general management of woodlands is neglect in cutting the timber at the proper periods. As a rule, the trees are allowed to remain too long before they are cut, the result of which is that the old branches kill the new ones, and if the process be not stopped, will eventually de- story, or at least greatly injure, the whole tree. Attention, moreover, is but seldom paid to the condition of the young seedlings or other plants which may be put in to replace the old ones cut down ; these are frequently smothered and crushed oi;t of existence by the rank under- growth. This should be removed from about the young saplings and plants, so as to give the light and air free access to them. The last point we here notice is the want of proper drainage. This keeps the land too frequently in a perpetual state of over-moisture, in which it is impossible for the trees to grow healthily. On this point we need say no more here, as the necessity for drain- age will be obvious, and we have already gone somewhat fully into the subject. Should a Change in the Kind of Trees grown in Plantations oe not now adopted ? — The question here put is worthy of the most earnest con- sideration of the landed proprietor. At present plantations are made up wholly of forest timber trees, but in view of the enormous demand for fruit of every kind, — a demand which has in- creased, and is daily increasing, to an astonish- ing degree, — the question above put has been mooted with reference to the putting down of a EFFECTS AND VALUE OF FRUIT TREES IN PLANTATIONS. 287 certain proportion of plantation ground with fruit trees. This may appear to some to be what, indeed, in many respects is a startling innova- tion in plantation practice ; but this arises chiefly from the novelty of the proposition, taken in conjunction with the idea that a planta- tion must of necessity be composed wholly of timber forest trees, and cannot well be any- thing else. But a very slight consideration will suffice to show tbat there is really nothing to be brought forward of any moment against, but very much in favour of, the plan. The main object in view in putting down a plantation on landed property is to derive from it a source of revenue, and hitherto this has been supposed to be best if not only got through the medium of trees, for the timber of which there is the largest demand for industrial purposes. Now, this being the main object of plantation work, it matters not to the proprietor from what kind of tree the revenue is derived. If otherwise, then he might as reasonably object to the planting of any particular kind of timber forest tree in favour of some other kind, and this apart altogether from the relative value or demand — which regulates the value — of the different trees, — prejudice, or the mere expression of ' I wish it ' principle, being the chief if not the only motive in the matter. Now it is a fact that prejudice does affect the question of fruit as against timber forest trees. This is seen very markedly in the case of ornamental gardens, or in landscape gardening, so far as the trees therein employed are concerned, it being apparently an axiom with those who have the laying down of such work, that no fruit trees are admissible ; or, as a landscape gardener more forcibly than accurately put it on the occasion of the propriety or otherwise of cutting down a very fine fruit tree which happened to be growing on a piece of land which was about to be arranged as an ornamental garden plot, ' Oh, a fruit tree is out of place in ornamental garden work.' Why it should have been so there, any more than it was in a clump of trees put down in landscape gardening on an extensive scale, as in the grounds surround- ing the mansion-house of the property, or even as forming one of the rows of trees in a planta- tion proper for timber growing, is, we confess, somewhat hard to see. If beauty per se is a point of any value, — and it is equally hard to see why it should not be of some, — then one would think that the whole argument, or rather the points of the question involved, would be in favour of fruit and against the pure timber forest tree. Not only beauty of form does a fruit tree possess, but there is the beauty of flower and fruit, each at different periods of the year, giving the rare charm in the variety of shades and tones of colour, which is ever a delight to the culti- vated taste. Those only who have travelled much abroad — with 'the observing eye which sees,' and the mind which takes note of all — at different periods of the year, and who have gone into the fruit-growing districts, can form any idea of the really strikingly beautiful effects produced by fruit trees in mass. We have travelled along a district of this kind for miles, and through acres upon acres of fruit trees in fidl bloom in the spring-time, and in full fruitage at later periods of the year, and have in it been pecidiarly struck with this, that our forest trees would have an additional source of beauty given to them by the interspersing here and there of fruit trees, either singly or in clumps, this being done with judgment, so that the full effect of variety in form, tone, and colour would be secured. We say additional beauty would thus be given to forest-tree masses, for assuredly we are not of those who, because they advocate an improvement which is so great an innovation upon established practice as this might be, therefore feel bound to admit of no merit on the other side of the question. Far otherwise ; for only those who have studied trees in detail and in the mass, as in the latter case presented in our plantations, can have any idea of their beauty and the con- trasts in colour, light and shade, which the dif- ferent varieties of trees give rise to. But while forest trees, as a ride, yield only one source of revenue, namely, the timber, — the exceptions being those few forest trees which grow bark useful and valuable for various industrial processes, — fruit trees, as a rule, yield a double source of revenue, their fruit and their timber. As to the revenue which a judicious planting of fruit trees would yield, or the chances, we should perhaps rather say, of a market being obtained for the fruit, some idea may be formed from the 2S8 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. simple statement that the value of fresh fruits imported last year from the Continent was over the large sum of £6,000,000 sterling. But while the supply of fruit abroad may be said to be unlimited, its importation here is limited by the distance of many of the fruit- growing districts there from the markets here, the result of which is that the importations, great as they are, by no means supply the demand here ; and as this demand has greatly increased of late years, and is rapidly increasing, the time is all the more favourable to the chances of a greatly increased revenue being obtained from fruit trees planted in this country on a much more extensive scale, and over the widest possible range of country, than has yet been witnessed. So much for the fruit as a source of revenue. As to the timber, it is well known that that of many fruit trees is valuable for industrial purposes. And as regards the labour connected with the planting and after management of fruit trees, as a writer in the Garden has recently and well remarked, ' it is no more trouble to grow an apple tree than it is to grow an ash or a lime tree ; and the apple tree, when in fruit (and we may add in bloom), is certainly far more attractive than either of these.' Some may think that the pruning of fruit trees will be an almost insuperable difficulty in making up at least large portions of ordinary plantation with them ; but this diffi- culty is one chiefly of imagination, for it is but little more, if indeed any more, difficult to prune fruit trees than to prune forest trees ; — no doubt knowledge, skill, and judgment are requisite, so that the future fruit-buds be not ruthlessly cut away, but so also are those essentials requisite in regard to the pruning of forest trees. Further, some recent experience seems to point to this, that fruit trees seem to do best when simply let alone, — that, for example, of the now somewhat celebrated fruit farm, as it may be called, of Mr. Webb of Calcot, near Eeading. This gentleman has been remarkably successful as a general fruit grower, — chiefly apples, pears, nectarines, plums, cherries, and peaches, including a vine much larger than the celebrated one at Hampton Court. The soil in which the trees grow has not once been dressed since 1854 with any manure, the only thing done in this way being to allow the leaves of the trees to lie on the ground as they fall The trees never receive any pruning, but grow quite like a thicket, care, however, being taken that they do not crush or crowd one another too much. Nothing is grown under them but flowers for the market, as primroses and polyanthuses. The hazel-nut trees are remark- able for their size and for their extraordinary yield ; they are grown in rows, and allowed to attain a height of from 12 to 15 feet. When they become too overcrowded, one row is cut half-way down, and two years afterwards the next row is cut down, the first cut down row having by this time grown up again. Should fruit-tree cultivation not be extended to plantations of forest trees in the way here pointed out, although, in addition to what we have said, much more might still be said in favour of the system, there cannot, we conceive, be any remark- able objection to its extension to the clumps and belts of trees, or ' jottings here and there ' on fields of two or more trees in the neighbourhood of the mansion, and seen therefrom, as forming part of what may be called the ornamental or landscape gardening part of the property. There is every- thing in their favour for such situations, and their well-known beauty, to which we have specially referred, will have a fine field for its best display, while it will add in turn to the beauty of the landscape. For apple trees, says the writer in the Garden already quoted from, to be planted in such situations and in shrubberies, the best varieties are ' the Hawthornden, the Emperor Alexander, the Lord Suffield, and the Beauty of Kent. These are all trees of vigorous habit and fine foliage, and produce large clusters of bloom, and bear abundant crops of large, handsomely coloured fruit, which is unsurpassed for culinary purposes.' Another good situation for fruit trees will be the hedgerows, in which trees here and there are already permissible or existent. They will look very much better than pollard trees of ash or elm, with their ugly, gnarled, and stunted stems. In the chapter on ' Waste Lands ' will be found a few remarks as to the cultivation of fruit trees in small plots of waste or unproductive land. Taking the whole of our remarks together, we trust we have shown that this system — not by any means new or a MANURING OF TREES : ITS NOVELTY AND VALUE. 2S9 ' whim of the present day,' for the first known publication advocating it was published nearly two hundred years ago — is one which, if not in all respects applicable to all cases, is so to a large majority of them, and is at least worthy of having that consideration given to it which every system has a right to demand which promises to open up new sources of wealth, and to extend into new areas the great advantage of a variety of trees capable of being grown in the same soil, thus obviating such risks as are always attendant upon the cultivation of one species or but a few varie- ties, or, to use the homely phrase, avoiding ' the putting of all one's eggs into one basket.' Application of Manures to Trees. — Amongst the varied operations of plantation work, even in those distinguished by the highest class of management, that of manuring the trees has seldom, if ever, a place. It is not that this operation is not performed because it is not always, or rather, as a rule, easy to carry out, — and in some cases the difficulties in the way are such as to make it almost practically impossible to do so, — but because it does not seem to be considered necessary to the healthy develop- ment of the trees. How this has come about it is not very easy to say, but possibly it has ori- ginated from the point just alluded to, namely, the difficulty, even in the most favourable circum- stances, of applying manure as readily as it is done to the general or ordinary crops of the farm. But seeing that the same laws which influence and regulate vegetable growth in the case of those farm crops must also influence and regulate — although with modifying circumstances, accord- ing to position, soil, and climate — that of trees, it is difficult to see how they should not have the benefit of them. Like ordinary crops, they no doubt draw somewhat of their manurial sustenance from the atmosphere, through the agency or medium of their leaves ; but, like farm crops, they also derive much of it — the greatest proportion, in all probability, of the manurial constituents which they require — from the soil in which they grow. And just as in the case of farm crops, so in that of trees, if the constituents they require are not present in the soil naturally, or by long and continuous cropping become exhausted, and are not supplied to it, then the crops and trees alike languish more or less, make small development, and ultimately fail — if they do not previously altogether die out — to yield the produce which under more favour- able circumstances they would have yielded. It is not easy to controvert these statements, for they are founded upon scientific truths, which, in the case of crops at least, are daily confronted by striking and palpable facts. And if this be not the case with trees, it arises not from the truth that they are suffering from want of manurial constituents, but rather that while it is acknow- ledged that they are suffering from some cause or another, — this being so patent that it cannot well be denied or overlooked, — this cause is said to be something or other, but certainly not the true one. No doubt trees, as ordinary plants do like- wise, do suffer and languish from causes other than want of manure; but if investigation were instituted, and trials made, it would be found that the mischief was often caused by want of manure, and that to an extent which would surprise many. A few instances are on record of the truth of this. Some trees which showed symptoms of decided decay, or of loss of vital power, re- covered their energy, put forth fresh and healthy leaves, and began rapidly to develop sound branches, and this very shortly after liquid manure had been applied to the soil immediately surrounding them. In another case, where the trees gave still more decided evidence of going back, solid manure was applied, and the beneficial results were not long of being realized. The difficulty of applying manure to the large number of trees which make up an extensive plantation is no doubt great, but some means could surely be hit upon by which the difficulty would be so decreased as to make the manurial application more easy than it is now. The difficulties will obviously be greater or less according to circum- stances, and where these are of the easiest kind, there, at least, manure might be applied. In cases where the trees were languishing for the want of something, the application would soon show whether it was for the want of that. Failing direct application of manure to trees, there are indirect ways, so far as human agency is con- cerned, but very direct so far as the trees them- selves are so ; for, under favourable circumstances of growth, they manure themselves through the 2 0 290 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. agency of their own leafage. This has long been known to be a powerful source of healthy life and development in trees. We could cite one case where, in an orchard famed for its enormous yearly produce, nothing whatever has been done to the trees for many years, but simply allowing the leaves to he as they fall. But in order to gain the full advantage of this self-manuring, as it may be called, it is necessary to give the trees ample space to grow in ; for the more they have, the fuller and freer is the development of the leafage, thus affording another example of the mutual dependence of one operation upon an- other. But while, independent of human agency, trees manure themselves, there is another way in which they are manured, — by an extraneous agency, but which still is not human. In an- other paragraph we have said that it is beneficial to the young trees for all undergrowth on the soil to be taken away, so that the trees alone should have the benefit of the mauurial constituents in the soil, and not be robbed of them by the under- growth. This may be taken with a reservation, at least in some instances; for while tall and strong undergrowth would be hurtful, as a rule, to the young trees, excepting in so far as they might act as shelter, the mere herbage or coarse undergrowth of grass in its decay provides a supply of manure to the trees. The whole subject here opened up is worthy of special study. Trees which are evidently decaying — and of this the most obvious and perhaps tbe best sign is the change in the colour of the leafage, which changes from the bright fresh to a sickly green, the difference between which is detected at once, almost, even by an inexperienced eye — may have quite a new and a long lease of life given to them by simply taking up all the old mould or soil for some distance around the tree, and to some depth below the surface, and re- placing it by fresh mould, well manured either with dung, compost-heap matter, or good peat soil. Many trees which are beginning to decay owe their decadence, in many cases, simply to having the atmospheric influences shut out from the soil in which they grow by a dense under- growth of vegetation, and also by the clinging to the bole and branches of parasitical plants, of which ivy is the worst. All these should be thoroughly and ruthlessly removed, and the soil round the tree dug up to some depth, and it will be all the better if manured. However pictur- esque, in the case of pleasure-ground or park trees, parasitics as ivy may look, their presence there is ultimate and certain death to the trees to which they cling. A very old plan of reviving decaying trees, but said to be an exceedingly effective one, is to cut a trench all round the tree root not less than three feet out from its circumference, — the depth to be such as to go quite down to the subsoil, which should be stirred and opened up, but not brought to the surface. All the soil near the surface, and that which seems worn out and exhausted, — and air experienced eye can soon distinguish this, — must be taken away. It need not be lost, for it can be added to the compost heap, the good soil being put aside to be relaid in the trench along with fresh soil, compost, manure, dung, and peat soil. In cutting the trench, the roots and rootlets must be cut fearlessly, though taking care that of the strongest roots those will be left which will serve as ' anchors ' or supports to the tree chiefly against the prevailing winds. When the trench is filled up with the prepared soil, as above stated, and the whole finished off, the dead wood of the tree must be sawn off, all moss, lichens, parasites, removed from bole and branches at spring-time, and the lower part of the bole or stem washed twice or thrice during the summer with soap and water laid on with a brush. The end of the month of February or beginning of March is the best time to cut the trench. Within two or three months from the cutting of the trench and the severing of the old roots, etc., an extraordinary development of roots and rootlets takes place, the roots in this short space often reaching to a length of twelve to fifteen inches. These throw out an infinite number of rootlets, which penetrate the fresh-laid soil and manure, and some give a new start to the vigour of the tree, which enters upon a second life. In the planting of trees in the ornamental department, or those situated near the house, a great deal of their effect as trees is lost, as one able authority well remarks, by planting them too deeply, so that they appear when planted as if they were ' so many poles with no base to stand upon,' — ■ SELECTION OF TREES FOR ORNAMENTAL PL ANT A TIONS. 291 an effect which gives a remarkably poor appear- ance to trees, which are better seen than those in a plantation, and which many of our readers must have taken notice of. In a plantation where natural growth is allowed to go on, this pole or ' Venetian mast '-like appear- ance does not exist, or if it does, it is only in excep- tional cases. There the ' collar ' of the tree allowed to grow above ground is, of course, seen ; and the ' root limbs ' spread out, or develop from the bole or stem all round, dying away imperceptibly into the surrounding turf or soil. This form of natural growth always adds to the look of a tree, being natural ; and in lawn planting, or in parks near the mansion, where the trees are ob- served, this effect should be aimed at. It is best obtained by planting the trees in the first instance very shallow — so shallow, indeed, that a mound of soil may be required to be put round the tree at first, in order to cover the roots, which would otherwise be exposed. And an advantage is gained by adopting this plan other than that of beauty, half of which, in lawn and park plantations, is lost by the old and general method in which the stem rises abruptly from the soil. And this advantage is one of utility, as, when the collar is allowed to rise above the soil and show its finely developed and sometimes most singularly- shaped root limbs, the tree is so much more firmly fixed in the soil that it is able to withstand strong winds, — an advantage of no mean order, especially in isolated positions, which are more exposed than trees in plantations, where a mass of trees in one position shelters another in a different one. In the selection of trees for ornamental clumps within the near vicinity of the mansion or farm- house, where the latter is of such a class as to demand ' grounds ' of its own, due regard should be had to the seeming of as much variety as possible, not only in the form of the tree, but in the colour or tint of the leaves, and that, more- over, in some cases, of the bole and branches, as the beautiful silvery sheen of the silver beech. Some prefer the clumps, where there are several to be formed, each of one kind or class of tree only, giving variety by having each clump of a different class, the variety desired by having different trees in the same mass being confined to belts of wood or small plantations. It is, after all, a matter of taste ; but we incline to think that the claims of a higher standard of taste will be met more decidedly and effectively by having the variety as named in the first sentence above given in each clump, no matter how many the clumps are. If these are near each other, both clumps should not have the variety secured by the same but by another class of trees ; when the clumps are wide apart, they may be mere repetitions of any one. The variety here recommended is fortunately easily obtained, as each class of tree has its own peculiarities of shape, conformation, and altitude. A recent writer on the subject of ornamental grounds classifies the forms thus : — (1) ' Colum- nar,' this being exemplified in the ordinary or common cypress, the Irish yew, and the pyra- midal oak ; (2) ' Rigid,' this having its exemplars in Araucariei imbricata and Comus mas. ; (3) ' Free,' the common beech and the Abies Douglassii illustrating this class ; (4) ' Pendulous,' — the weeping birch and the Abies dcoelara exemplify this class ; while the ivy, the carpet-juniper, the honeysuckle, and vines are exemplars of the fifth and last class, (5) the ' Prostrate.' As regards the form of the leaves, the needle-shaped leaves of the pines and firs exemplify the characteristic described as ' linear ; ' those of the oak, elm, etc., are characteristic of the 'simple' leaf, or that which is in one piece ; while the ' compound ' leaf, that is, one composed of several leaflets, is seen in the ash, walnut, etc. As regards colour, the ' purple ' is seen in the leaves of the purple beech and the purple nut ; the ' dark green ' in the yew and in the common holly ; the ' light green' in the lime or linden tree and the arbor vita? ; ' gold ' in the golden holly, golden yew, and in the variegated Spanish chestnut ; ' silver,' Abelc poplar, Lavender cotton, and some of the varieties of the Abies dcoelara. As regards colour, ' green should in all cases be the predominant colour ; the silver, gold, and purple figuring sparingly, the two former (silver and gold) contrasting with the dark, the latter (the purple) with the light green.' By judicious distribution and interspersing of the trees in the clumps, so that while each tree has abundance of room not only to develop itself fully and freely, but to display the peculi- arities of its characteristics, form, etc., at the 292 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. same time the whole mass will be one which conveys a sense of repose and thorough aptness for the position, very striking and beautiful effects may be produced, which will add much to the charms of the objects surrounding, and put down to aid in the adornment of, the house and its grounds. Finish or Form of Stone Walls or Turf Banks as Fencing and Shelter to Plantations. — Where, for the double purpose of serving as fencing and shelter, on the side exposed to the coldest and strongest winds, to the young trees of a planta- tion, stone walls or turf banks are erected, much of their efficiency, if not indeed the whole of it, depends upon the way in which the upper part or coping is made. Mr. Bain, who may be said to have made the subject of shelter his own, so complete and systematic have been his remarks upon it, was the first to draw attention to this important point, — a point so obvious after being stated, that it resembles somewhat the case of Columbus and the egg. If the coping of the wall or last layer of the bank be made flat, tliis is the worst ; or if made with an angle, or ' wea- thered on both sides,' as the technical term is, this is the best form which can be given to it ; and how, we shall at once see. Let us consider the wind, as it comes sweeping along, being placed in a series of layers, so to say, all of them parallel to the horizon ; when they meet and come in contact with a wall, those below the coping or top are bent back, creating an eddy more or less strong, which may take a variety of directions, according to the nature of the wall. Those at or above the level of the tops of the trees sweep over them with little or no damage to or influ- ence upon them ; but those layers, so to call them, which are at the level of the coping are the mischief-makers — that is, if the coping of the wall or upper surface of the turf bank be not properly finished. It was to the remarkable in- fluence of this part that Mr. Bain directed atten- tion. If, where the angle of the wall coping or bank is sharp or much inclined, the blast is deflected sharply upwards, it is only one or two of the outer rows of trees which are affected by it ; where it is less acute or lower, the deflec- tion upwards of the blast is much less, and the number of trees exposed to its influence is in- creased, the blast going farther in towards the interior, cutting down a greater proportion of tree-top at the level ; while, if there be no coping to the stone wall or sloping top to the turf bank, then the blast is not deflected upwards at all, but goes right in a direction parallel to the hori- zon, cutting off the tree-tops ' as with a knife, so that hardly anything of value rises higher than the wall.' We have, of course, made use of a somewhat fanciful illustration as regards the wind sweeping along in layers ; but still it is to a large extent true, and it affords perhaps as easy a mode of understanding its action as any other which might have been used. And cer- tainly varying depths of wind action are observ- able, one being arrested as by a wall, another at a higher altitude passing over this and going forward. We see the influence of angular surfaces in deflecting currents of air in a great many ways, and they are made sensible to the sight if smoky particles be mixed with the air. And the value of attending to this influence may be gathered from observation of their action. Thus we believe that down-draughts in chimney- flues would be, if not wholly, at least in great measure prevented if the flue top was furnished with angularly deflecting surfaces. But as regards plantations, there can be no doubt whatever that where shelter-walls or banks are put up, if they are finished flat, ' the entire value,' to quote an authority, ' of the shelter is lost by inattention to the mere form of the top of the wall.' ' Some magnificent timber flourished,' says Mr. Mechie, in an admirable paper in the Transactions of the Highland Society on the ' Plantation of Exposed or Barren Tracts ' (No. 5, 1870), 'in bygone days, through the advantageous effects of shelter ; and similar results may be expected still by obedience to the same laws. A hill of high altitude and much exposed may be clothed with timber from base to summit by planting it in zones, encircling the hill at such distant inter- vals as to allow each zone to rise sufficiently high to shelter the succeeding one before it is planted. An exposed hill planted all at once does not succeed, because the plants most ex- posed assume a form of habit of growth dwarfed, stunted, and so crooked, that when shelter is afforded they cannot afterwards recover. Soft- DISTRIBUTION OF TREES IN PLANTATIONS. 293 ■wooded and fast-growing trees are those best adapted for maritime planting, of which are elder, poplar, briar, etc. Such plants are certain in course of time to make headway, when favour- able influences combine ; whereas those plants of stiff and sluggish growth, having assumed a stunted habit, are little influenced or excited to growth by one or two good seasons. In planting moss, especially when the surface is flat, hillock planting, the plan previously described, should be employed. Stone walls have a bad effect in pro- ducing a good margin row behind them, from the circumstance that the plants are too much sheltered and tender for the sudden exposure winch they meet with on protruding their heads above them. All bare, smooth, bleak surfaces should be rendered rough and broken, as with the plough, spade, or mattock, that the plants (which are presumed to be small) should have shelter till fairly rooted. ' Extreme exposures should be planted by using very small, hardy, well-rooted plants, planting them closely together, and thinning early. Boggy ground or deep sand is best planted with old wood, cuttings of willow, poplar, and elder. The difference of hardiness among trees and shrubs of one species, as the thorn, beech, etc., is so great as to render one plant sufficiently hardy, and the other not so. The silver fir and Scots pine are the hardiest amongst coniferae ; while the syca- more, ash, black Italian and aspen poplar are the hardiest of deciduous trees.' Selection of Trees to he grown on the Property, and their Distribution thereon. — Although very desirable, for obvious reasons it is not always — indeed, we might say it is not often — that the trees which it is most desirable for busi- ness reasons to grow upon the property can be grown; or if the attempt be made, greater or less loss will be the likely result, and this, as we have seen, arising from the peculiar cir- cumstances connected with the land, such as locality or position, climate, and the character- istics of the soil. But while selecting the trees which will, under the circumstances, yield the greatest ultimate profit, and while determining upon their distribution upon the soil, care should be taken to see that that distribution aids most effectually the realization of that profit. The relation of the distribution — that is, the position and consequent number of trees per acre — to the class of trees which are to remain longest in the ground, and form the ultimate or last stage of the plantation's growth, and also the relation which those bear to the nursing or shelter trees, must be carefully considered. These points are not always so, as may be conjectured from what we have said, and from what will be gathered more specifically from the paragraph under the head of 'Plantations as Shelter for Exposed Land.' This neglect or overlooking of such an essential point brings about no small loss, and sometimes the total failure, or nearly so, of the trees planted. Where the plantation is made up — as planta- tions are generally made up — of certain pro- portions of hardwood to nursing trees, the space given to the hardwood trees is frequently too limited. This applies more particularly to those trees which, from their habit of growth, are to form the ultimate trees of the plantation, that is, those which are to remain longest growing. "When these are placed too near each other, thinning out, even at a pretty advanced period of their growth, is necessitated, in order to get rid of the evils of overcrowding. Now this in the case of valuable trees, such as the oak, is a loss, for, by allowing them to remain on the ground till they arrive at maturity, they produce the highest quality of timber ; the converse, of course, also holding true, that those, through the distance between the trees being too limited in the first instance, which have consequently to be thinned out are cut down before they arrive at that age at which they produce the most valuable timber. And the same remark applies to the nursing trees placed in the intervals be- tween the hardwood trees, for if these be planted too closely, some of them will have to be thinned out at an earlier period of their growth than would have been the case had they been less overcrowded ; and thus those thinned out will be much less valuable for timber purposes than if they could have been allowed to remain till they had approached nearer to the period of their maturity. These points are obviously of great importance, and should not be overlooked. No rule suitable for all circumstances can, however, be given for the guidance of the forester as to how best to secure them ; ho will have carefully 294 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. to investigate what the special circumstances are of the plantation with which he has for the time to deal, and thereafter decide upon the plan of operation to he followed up. We may, for ex- ample, point out, however, one instance ; thus, if oak is to he the ultimate class of tree for the plantation, the soil, etc., heing suitable for this, the distance of 12 feet or a little more advo- cated by some wrill not yield the same ultimate profit as the distribution which gives a distance of at least double this, up to, say, 30 feet, with corresponding positions for the nursing trees of larch and Scots native fir between them. "Whatever be the distances decided on, it is essential that these should be regular or uni- form. Some, to suit certain better spots of soil which may be met with, or for no reason at all, certainly not so good as this one 'prima facie appears to be, put down the trees at irregular distances without any fixed rule or plan. This may be allowable, and in some qualities of land, as rough common or moorland, is indeed forced upon one, but should not he so in lands of better quality and finer surface. For if the distances be irregular, and the side of a tree he nearer to the next contiguous tree than the opposite side to its next tree, it is clear that the tree will be lop-sided in its development of branches, having a more luxuriant growth on one side than another, thus giving rise to serious evils in its after growth, if not attended to in time as regards pruning ; but which operation, after all, is but a lesser evil, or a choice of evils. The more uniform on all sides the growth of a tree is the better, but that uniformity ought to be the result of natural growth in a proper position, in which it is at liberty to develop on all sides equally. In thinning out this is a point amongst others to be attended to, but it is right to state that this cannot be always so certainly, or at least so easily, secured on the square as on the hexagonal system of planting, — this last system compelling, so to say, a uniformity of position, whatever be the extent to which thinning out is performed ; and this, perhaps, constitutes an advantage greater than the others which this system possesses, and to which we have elsewhere in this section alluded. Estimating the Cubic Contents of Timber Trees when felled and lopped. — In estimating the value of rough timber as it is cut down and the branches cut off, it is usual to make an allowance for the bark. As this varies with the kind of tree, the allowance varies also ; but a mean is generally decided on, as, for example, in thick-barked trees, such as the elm, one inch per foot of the fourth of the mean circumference ; for thin or smooth- barked trees, such as the ash, the allowance is half the above. Another system, which is per- haps more simple, is to allow 2 inches for all pieces the mean circumference of which begins at 12 and ends at 24 inches, 3 inches being the allowance for from 24 to 36 inches of circum- ference ; 4 inches for 36 to 48 ; 5 for 48 to 72 ; and 6 inches for all above the latter. In estimating the cubic contents of rough timber which tapers pretty uniformly from the thick to the small end, a usual rule is to ascertain the mean girth or circumference between the two diameters, divide this mean by 4, multiply the product by the length of the piece, and from the quotient deduct the allowance for bark as above. For hewn or dressed timber, find the area of the base or thick end, that of the top or small end of the piece, as also of a section taken at a point equidistant from the two ends. This third area is to be multiplied by 4, to which are to be added the areas of top aDd base ; then multiply the product of these by a distance equal to one- sixth of the length of the piece. In cases where the contents or cubic bulk of standing trees is required, the rule adopted is first to ascertain the 'quarter girt,' which is done by measuring the height of six feet from the ground up the vertical bole or trunk of the tree, allowing for the taper between this height and the middle of the hole, and then find in the usual way the sizes of the girt in square inches, square the result, and multiply the product of the square by the length of the tree in feet, and divide the product by 144, which will give the number of cubic feet. It is usual to deduct from the quarter girt an allowance for the bark ; this allowance we have given in another sentence in this paragraph. It may be remarked, however, that this for elm and ash, and the chief of the white-coloured woods, is too much, some authori- ties giving only for these one-half of the usual or standard allowance. THE RECLAMATION OF WASTE LANDS. 295 CHAPTER IV. THE RECLAMATION OF WASTE LANDS. Of the numerous subjects at present engaging the attention of those interested in the present position and future prospects of landed property, considered as a source of agricultural wealth, there is perhaps none which possesses so varied an interest, and occupies such an important position, as that which forms the subject of the present chapter; and very marked, as our prac- tical readers know, is the diversity of opinion which characterises all subjects in which agri- culture is concerned. This, perhaps, is one of them in which this diversity is even more de- cided. This, however, need scarcely be wondered at, when one considers that the discussions con- nected with it have been carried on by no means from a purely agricultural view, nor by parties having much of agricultural knowledge, but have had imported into them elements which may or may not be rightly connected with the subject, but which, nevertheless, have tended to compli- cate very materially its various details. Need we say that these elements have been almost purely political, and have been brought into ex- istence by those who at least may, without any breach of charity, be presumably conceived, if they have had any farming knowledge, to have had it only of the most limited character, and that acquired within as limited a period. What we have said, therefore, at the commencement of our remarks may by some of our readers be taken with a reservation, inasmuch as they may conceive that those who have introduced these political elements into the discussion of the sub- ject have, perhaps, had more of an interest in the furtherance of their own peculiar views than in that of the improvement of landed property, for which they professed at least so great a regard. Be this as it may, — and we are far from saying that the subject has not, or should not have, its political as well as its agricultural aspects, — it is unquestionably unfortunate that so marked a prominence has been given to points which, from the very character of our work, we are compelled to consider, if not in some respects altogether foreign to the subject, at least comparatively un- important; and attention has been withdrawn very much from those which are, on the contrary, of the highest value. Where opinions so diverse have been promulgated, and where the true facts of the case have not been closely kept in view, it is exceedingly difficult, within what is of necessity at the utmost but a limited space, to place before our readers a full and fair view even of the leading details of the subject. What we can give, however, we shall endeavour to give in a fair, dispassionate way, holding the balance between the divided parties and their opinions as evenly as we can ; and the reader will probably find, as we have found in nearly all discussions, that the middle course is the safest to be followed, for it would be hard to suppose that vital elements tending towards its practical settlement would not be found on both sides. From what we have said, the reader not thoroughly practically acquainted with its details will by this time have arrived at the conclusion, which is the true one, that its discussion has been and is carried on by two great parties. One of these — and its members are those who have certainly taken the greatest pains to give publicity to their views — brings forward a wide array of statistics, showing the enormous acreage of land existing throughout all parts of the United Kingdom, and which, it is maintained, can all be cultivated so as to yield, if not the very highest, at least a 296 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. very large amount of agricultural produce. Again, many members of this party maintain that these wide tracts of unproductive are prevented from being changed into productive land in conse- quence of certain obstacles thrown in the way, by legal enactments and personal prohibitions and hindrances, which are persistently upheld by the aristocracy and landed proprietors of the kingdom. We have little desire, as we have as little space, to discuss this latter point. But we will not surely, by either party, be charged with taking aught but a common-sense view of the subject, when we say that in this, as in all simi- lar cases, the landed proprietors would only be too glad to see their rent-roll enlarged, and their incomes increased, by the cultivation of lands which are at present producing them nothing, or at the best but a trifle, scarcely worth taking into account. Leaving this point, therefore, as one of no great practical importance, we proceed to state that the party we are now considering have another point in what may be called their creed, which is, that if not in every sense only just, certainly the best way by which these waste lands can be brought into cultivation is to allot them, or portions of them, out amongst a number of individuals possessing a practical knowledge of farming, the allotments in each case being recommended or suggested to be of small extent. This point is urged for two reasons, — first, that the lands would give employ- ment to a large number at present out of work ; second, that they would by these be more quickly brought into a condition of productive utility ; nay, further, that this would be higher than if the lands were cultivated on the system now generally carried out by farmers. We do not care to inquire whether there be other motives for this proposal. We have now to turn our attention to the other great party concerned in this question ; and at the outset we have to note that between it and the one whose opinions we have just described, there is one point on which they agree. This second party, which is mainly composed of landed proprietors and practical farmers, does not object to the accuracy of such statistics or state- ments which are brought forward by the other party with reference to the existence of large tracts of uncultivated lands in the kingdom. The term uncultivated here, however, is not the accurate one, for a large proportion — some good authorities estimate it at as much as one-half — of the land or so-called land brought forward and named as waste is truly enough named so, inas- much as consisting of waterlogged spaces, barren mountains, rocky surfaces, and soils which by no process known at present to agriculture can by any possible means be made fertile, so that the term cultivable can in no practical sense be applied to such tracts. While agreeing, therefore, so far, it will be seen that the two parties differ, but differ on a very practical point ; but we put it to any reader, however strong his predilections may be in favour of what we may call the popular view of this subject, whether it is not a common- sense view to take, that men who have been all their lives engaged in the work of farming, or who are specially interested in its true progress, are not much more likely to know the practical part of the subject, than others who have come to it so very recently, and who certainly cannot lay claim to the possession of thorough knowledge of its details. We shall see as we proceed that the reclamation even of the best class of waste lands is by no means so easy a matter when conducted on the small scale, while the profits are long in coming, and by no means great when they arrive ; but we have above given expression in another way to the simple fact which we here explicitly state, that there are large tracts of land which, as far as we see at present, cannot possibly be reclaimed. The commonplace phrase, that ' we may buy gold too dear,' conveys a practical lesson, even in such an important question as this ; and when we are told further that even the worst land can be reclaimed, because there are abundant evidences around us throughout the country that large tracts of land have been reclaimed in times before us, it should be re- membered that the circumstances of these times, as regards the social condition of labour, etc., were vastly different from those under which we now live ; and the element of time, or the period required to do a certain work, which exercises great influence on the paying point, held a very different position in the economics of labour then from CONSIDERA TIONS CONNECTED WITH RECLAMA TION OF LAND. 297 what it does now. But we shall see, however, presently, that it cannot even be ignored now, and that it makes ' rather queer work ' with the calculations of those sanguine people who seem to think that all our reclaimed lands have only to be handed over to what is called our surplus or under- paid population of labourers, for comfortable livings and money to be made out of them. As already said, and what must be in itself very evident, the opinion of practical men is the only safe guide by which one can arrive at a right conclusion on a point such as this, — that of one of this class outweighing the dicta of scores of other authori- ties, no matter how confidently they may be, as indeed they generally are, put forward. It is not possible, in the space at our command, to bring forward practical evidence in anything like the abundance which we could otherwise easily do ; we must content ourselves, although with great regret, by placing before our readers one or two examples only. The first we deal with is that of one who knew the subject inti- mately in all its departments ; and dealing with the statements of one who may be looked upon as the leading authority of the other or popular view of the question, as opposed to the practical, he met them in the following fashion. After pointing out, by way of clearing the ground of one of the leading fallacies of the subject, that the acreage of waste land which could be re- claimed was very far below the estimates put forward by the popular party, our practical authority proceeded to show that fallacies also existed as markedly in the minor details. The plan proposed by the popular exponent or ad- vocate was to appropriate to each labourer an extent of 20 acres, of which he was to make the best he could. Obviously, dealing with land which from its very nature would be placed in a locality calculated in anything but a practical way to minister to the comfort of parties living on it, a comfortable cottage was the first necessity, all the more that it would not have been con- sistent with the views of these philanthropists to start their ' improvers ' with a hovel to live in. Taking the very lowest estimate, then, of a cottage, we shall say, but a degree or two above the style of the hovel, the cost could not be placed at a lower figure than £50 ; and as prices rule now, 50 per cent, might be added with safety to this. Here, then, on a farm or allot- ment of 20 acres, we meet with an expenditure of £50 at the very first. Taking the expense of reclaiming the land, the estimate giving the highest quality of work capable of producing arable crops was £18 an acre, and the lowest £6, which latter would alone admit of the growth of grass, — taking this latter estimate, which of course gives the poorest chance to make the most of the land, we find the expenditure with cost of cottage to amount to £170 on the 20 acres. This ex- penditure does not include the cost of tools, which, even of the simplest possible character, would bring the outlay close upon £200, which, indeed, would be made up, and more, if we add the cost of purchase of seed ; and if to these items we add what certainly would in some fashion be required — furniture for the cottage — we make the sum total above the amount named. "We have, however, to consider the fact to which we have but recently alluded, that agri- cultural operations demand time for their per- formance, and during that time, before the land can be productive so as to yield an income, the labourer must be provided with a fund on which to live ; and it has been calculated that on the average of waste land, this time would amount to a minimum of four and a maximum of six years, before it would yield a rent of 15 s. per acre for pasture land, while it would not yield a single quarter of wheat or barley. To deal, then, with even the vastly reduced acreage of land shown by our authority to be capable of reclamation, the enormous sum of £200,000,000 of hard cash would be required ; but if the acreage estimated by the popular party was to be taken, a very much larger one. Some idea may be formed of the enormous capital required to give to our surplus population — al- though where that is we have somewhat of a difficulty in seeing — the allotments of waste land which is said to be their right, and of which it is further said our laws or our aristocratic legisla- tors deprive them, or debar them from having. Nor is the difficulty, which most business men would say is likely to be an insuperable one, made the less so when we consider, as our prac- tical authority well puts it, that there would be, in 2 P 2Q3 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. view of the high wages which now rule in every trade, and the abundance of work which it has long possessed, some difficulty in getting men who had been accustomed to this condition of living to take in hand the cultivation of land which, after four or six years of incessant labour, and even with the pecuniary assistance we have named, would only produce an estate worth £20 or £22 an acre. And as to the kind of 'in- cessant labour' required to produce this result, those only who know what small farming is can form any conception of it ; and sure are w7e, that if those who have formed opinions as to farm life of this class or character were to enter practi- cally into it, even but for a month or two, they would find that they had been very much misled by the pictures which well-meaning, but unfor- tunately all too unpractical, philanthropists had drawn for them. And, as if not satisfied with these, they have gone to the Continent to find the materials for still brighter portraitures of peasant life. We venture to say — and on this point we have some of the advantages of a practical acquaint- ance with this department — that it would be exceedingly difficult to find almost the very lowest class of our labouring men, accustomed to English hours of work and to English styles of living, to change their trade or calling for such labour as a Continental peasant willingly under- takes. Well, then, may another authority say, that to attempt to bring waste land into cultiva- tion through any system in which our mechanics or farm labourers are to be the agents is a perfect fallacy. When treating in another chapter on the subject of small farms as against large, and their relative influence upon the agricultural progress of the country, we shall take occasion to explain this point more fully, and to show that even in the case of those who have a practical knowledge of farming in some at least of its details, that is, the class known as small farmers, even they can have but a miserably poor chance of making well out of the reclamation of waste land. What chance, therefore, remains for the mechanics and labourers of our towns in this much-talked-of department of national economics, we leave our readers to say. Indeed, although our ablest tenant farmers are in every way capable of knowing how best to reclaim land, it is the opinion of our highest practical authorities that the work of reclamation should be that of the landlord and not of the tenant ; and that the reclamation of waste land would tend largely to increase the value of their property is obviously beyond all doubt. Innumerable instances might here be quoted in proof of this, but we here satisfy ourselves with the mere statement of the fact. Cases in point, and striking enough, will come duly up as we proceed to describe the details of our subject. Although what we have as yet given has had reference to the question as to whether the reclamation of waste lands can be undertaken by the particular class of the com- munity for wdioni a certain school seems to be of opinion that they are specially designed as an outlet for their labour, and although we have endeavoured to show that there are such diffi- culties in the way of this hope being reaMzed, and, further, while we have stated decidedly that there are large tracts which cannot under any known system of treatment ever be reclaimed so as to pay, the reader must not suppose that we are of opinion that there are not tracts, and large tracts, moreover, of land in the various parts of the kingdom which can be reclaimed. On the contrary, there are but few districts, and, indeed, it might be said comparatively few properties, in and on which tracts of land of greater or less extent and of different qualities may not be found which are capable of being greatly improved. It is to the leading classes of these that we now direct attention. The subject is so wide, and the various details so very numerous, the practice of one district varying so much, according to circum- stances of locality, climate, etc., that to do justice to it space would be demanded far exceeding that we have at command. We can only, there- fore, take up the leading points ; and these must obviously be treated of rather in a way which will be suggestive than in that which can lay any claim to being considered exhaustive. A point of very considerable importance bearing upon the reclamation of waste lands is the relationship subsisting, or which ought to subsist, between the landlord and the tenant as to the relative share of the work which they ought to DIVISION OF THE WORK OF RECLAMATION. 299 perform. This divides itself into three classes, — 1 st. Work which may be done mutually, or with the two in combination ; 2d, Work which ought to be done wholly by the landlord ; and, 3d, Other work wholly by the tenant. It must be admitted that the points involved are of a some- what delicate character, or have been made and are continued to be so by a series of circumstances perhaps peculiar to this country, which have been in operation during a long period of 3-ears. It is thus that what appear at first sight to be very simple matters to be settled, have become environed by such a train of circumstances, social and legal, that this settlement is by no means in many cases the simple matter it appears to be. This point will be further alluded to in the chapter in which what may be called the legis- lative department of landed property is taken up ; meanwhile we may briefly note that in the work of reclamation of waste lands, especially those parts surrounded with special difficulties, and requiring long periods to elapse before pecuniary returns can be expected, the landlord, in addition to doing certain parts of the work at his expense, should grant liberal agreements, under which the tenant will be encouraged to do his part thoroughly and well. It need scarcely be said that the landlord will erect all necessary build- ings, lay out and construct roads, and fit up the necessary fences, etc., to which will be added any drainage work which may be required ; the tenant on his side paying a percentage in the shape of an increased rental. But there are some parts of the work which it seems only fair and reasonable that the landlord ought to perform, as those now named. Thus, for example, where poor soils, deficient in certain constituents, require to have these added in order to make them pro- ductive, as, for instance, claying or marling, — this appears to be a work which should be done by the landlord as much as drainage, for it is one which might be called a permanent improvement ; as a practical man puts it, this would appear to be 'an equitable course.' Then, again, it is a point open to fair discussion between landlord and tenant, whether the cartage of materials, which is usually thrown wholly upon the tenant, should not be done by the landlord, at least in part, considering the heavy work, where, in the rough and rugged districts of some kinds of land undergoing reclamation, the tenant has quite enough to do with his horses in the work of improvement. As regards agreements, these, as we have said, should be of the most liberal character. Mr. Smith suggests, for example, that the plan of a scale, or, as we should call it, a sliding scale, of rents shoidd be adopted, com- mencing at the lowest possible in the outset, at which point in the work all is outlay or nearly so, the amount of rent increasing every four years to the end of the term, the farm improving — or at least it ought by the tenant's skill and labour to improve — in value. The term should be a long one, and have breaks in it, allowing the tenant to quit at these should he desire it. He also claims a tenant-right for unexhausted im- provements at the end of each break in the lease, in order to prevent the farm from being 'run out.' Thus in the term of twenty years two breaks would be allowed in the lease, one at the end of the eighth, the other at that of the six- teenth year. Then, as regards the sliding scales of rent, it is suggested that, taking the average value for the whole farm at 10s. per acre, and the rise in rent being every fourth year, the scale would run thus : — the first four years, 6s. ; the second term, 8s. ; the third, 10s. ; the fourth, 12s. ; the fifth, 14s. ; — thus, should the tenant quit, say, at the end of the first term of his lease, he will only have paid the lowest rents during the period while he has been laying out the largest amount in capital and labour. It does not fall within the province of our work to enter into the fidl details of the cvdtivation of reclaimed lands of different classes, save in an exceptional in- stance or two of special importance, nor, indeed, to take into consideration all the classes met with ; the principal object we have in view is to notice, as briefly as may be, those which may be said to come under the head of leading classes, and which, if taken in hand, promise to pay well, and add the most largely to the exchequer of the property. Reclamation of Hilly Moorland. — What are called waste lands situated at elevations or alti- tudes of greater or less height above the sea-level are composed as a ride of two classes. First, those which are situated at the highest level are of 3oo DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. necessity more or less exposed to heavy, keen, and cutting winds, and are usually more or ,less diversified in surface, rocky, and for the most part barren, so far as a capability to grow- any of the higher class of plants is concerned. Such lands are, although unfitted for what is generally termed cultivation, well or moderately well adapted for the formation of plantations ; and if a due regard be had not only to the general improvement of the appearance of the property, — a point which all men of taste will never fail to appreciate at its true worth and endeavour in the best way to secure, — but to what is of chief importance as regards the economic value of the land, this planting should never be neglected. For, as has been shown in another paragraph, planting, if judiciously done, — and the reader will find in the chapter on plantations all the points on this fully detailed, — pays as a good investment, yielding a fair return even under ordinary, and a good return under favourable circumstances. But it improves, as we have also shown in the above-named chapter, the climate generally, and affords shelter specially to the lands which, lying on a lower level, are generally of such a character as to be put under cultiva- tion of some kind or another ; and to all, shelter is of the highest value in largely adding to their productive capabilities. The sccoiid class of elevated waste lands, often known as hilly moor- lands, is made up of marshes, peaty moss land, bogs, and other diversities of moorland, the peculiarities of which are so considerable in number, and so run into each other, that it is difficult to name them all here, if indeed it be necessary to do so. This class of hdly or elevated waste land is not as a rude likely to repay the cost of reclamation and improve- ment if covered with stones, benty or rough grasses, although they may serve more or less satis- factorily, in a degree, as feeding-grounds for the hardiest of our live stock. Where, however, the fern, the broom, or the heather grows, cultivation of a certain class can be earned out with greater or less success, even, indeed, in some of the more favoured spots at a lower level, to the growth of turnips. But all the waste moorlands of the class now named are capable of being so improved that they will yield an extensive acreage of grass land, the chief agent in forming and improving this being irrigation, of which the ' catchwater ' system is obviously the one adapted for the peculiar local features of such land. In deter- mining to improve such lands, attention must be paid to the natural or indigenous plants which they produce, the general climate, the position of the various points which are influenced by ex- posure, the prevailing winds, their vicinity to marshy parts not easily or cheaply capable of being cleared, and, indeed, all the climatic and local peculiarities which affect or are likely to affect the improvements contemplated. As stated in the title to this section, we shall confine our remarks to the reclamation of elevated moor- lands. Of these there are what may be called enormous tracts in various parts of the kingdom, which, while a considerable proportion is, as we have already stated, fit for nothing else but the pasturage ground of rough, hardy stock, pos- sess still a very wide acreage capable of such improvement as will convert them from the ' useless wastes,' which so many of them now are, into lands which, if they are not highly pro- ductive, will be so to such an extent as to make them yield a fair return for the outlay expended on their reclamation. It is scarcely necessary to say that this return will be yielded, not in the form of the produce of arable farms in more favoured regions, hut in the live stock which they wdl maintain. From this point of view it is impossible not to look upon the improvement of such lands as a point of the highest importance to us as a nation ; for while we are now in no sense dependent upon ourselves alone for the produce of cereals, we still take the position, and are likely long to keep it, of being not only the best breeders and feeders of live stock in the world, but are mainly dependent upon our own herds and flocks, what we receive from other countries forming but a miserably small per- centage of the total consumption of the United Kingdom. And while our best lands, under the able management of our first-class graziers, pro- duce largely, and may yet by further improve- ments be make to produce more, still it is to the reclamation and improvement of our poor lands that the hopes of the grazier for wider and still RECLAIMING HILL Y MOORLAND. 30 r wider areas on which he can rear increased herds and flocks must look to be realized ; and although some consider this reclamation and improvement as affording, if not quite a hopeless, yet not a very hopeful prospect of increased wealth in the live stock of the country, and while we have pointed out in the introduction to this chapter the difficulties which lie in the way, the fact nevertheless remains that in the large tracts of now valuable land, which not long ago were in truth dreary wTastes, there is ample ground for encouragement and hope. The late Mr. Smith of Emmett's Grange, Molton, Devon, who may be looked upon as one of the great if not the greatest authority on this departs ment of farming, divided hilly moorlands into three classes, which we cannot do better than adopt. First, the hill-top and other rough land, useful for the summering of young cattle, store sheep, colts, ponies, etc. ; second, the middle division, lying immediately below the rough wet ground, or having a southern aspect, and which, being usually dry, is suitable for arable culture ; the third class is made up of the marshes in the valleys with some portion of the hill-sides, which is capable of being laid out for pasture lands and meadows. This division constituted, in fact, the arrangement of a moorland farm as recommended by Mr. Smith, and keeping in view the point we have just alluded to as regards our live stock. Mr. Smith stated that ' the practical bearing of such an occupation is that of stock producing returns, consequently an eye must ever be had to this particular class of farming.' After thus dividing the moorland into what may be called blocks comprised in three classes of land, Mr. Smith, in an admirable paper on the ' Cultivation of Moorland,' in the Journal of the Royal Agri- cultural Society of England, proceeds to describe his system of treatment. This he arranges under separate heads, as follows : — First, the detailed arrangements of the three blocks or classes of land ; second, the buildings of the farm ; third, the fencing ; fourth, the drainage ; and last, the general cultivation of the whole, with special details of treatment to suit different localities. Under the special chapters on the subjects of the first five divisions, the reader will find a brief note or two, with illustrations of the leading features of Mr. Smith's system under those heads. What we have now to deal with is the general review of the cultivation. As Mr. Smith observes, the land put under operation first will be that situated near the house and buildings ; and from the character of it, the first thing to be done will be paring the surface and burning the herbage, weeds, etc., which will be turned into the soil in the after operations. The usual workings of the land for a root crop then follow. The addition of lime to the ashes which are the produce of the thick, matted coating of indigenous plants, power- ful as these are as manures, is essential ; and in order to have this and the soil well incorporated, the former should be thoroughly worked in order to pulverize it. Part of the land thus prepared for turnips must be devoted to oats, the sowing of which should not be done later than March ; and on farms in which a considerable portion of reclamation work has been done, the oats should be sown on the turnip land the crop of which was first cleared in the preceding autumn, those turnip lands cleared at a later period being devoted to the sowing down of artificial grasses without a corn crop. This omission of the usual corn crop is done in order to enable the new- turned-up fibrous soil to get consolidated suf- ficiently for the growth of cereals. In sowing down the grass seeds, another dressing of lime, at the rate of one and a half tons to the acre, will be found well to repay its cost and that of the labour, at a time when so much work is waiting to be performed. The turnips preceding the grass crop are generally folded, that is, ate off by sheep hurdled on the land, after which the land is care- fully ploughed and cleaned. The artificial grasses and rape seed being sown the first week in April, they will be ready for stock by the end of June, and if well taken to the land they will fatten fully ten sheep to the acre ; and if cleared occasion- ally from stock so as to allow the grasses to recover, they will ' prove of infinite value up to Christmas. If they remain clear from the end of September for the ewes and lambs, which is a still better plan, they give a help over the in- clemency of the months of March and April, after which they become first-rate pastures, and maintain their comparative goodness for several years.' And as time goes on they may be safely 302 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. and profitably cropped with corn, especially oats ; and by taking after these a turn of the turnip crop, the lands will be renewed for a fresh sowing of grasses and succeeding years of pasture. We have said that these pastures will remain com- paratively good for several years, but they should he broken up at the end of the fourth year, which may be said to be the termination of their real goodness. On breaking up, the oats are sown, which completes the rotation. Tliis rotation is a seven years' one, the second year being grass seeds with rape ; the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth years being pasture ; the seventh year, corn, which finishes the rotation. The grasses to be sown should be such as grow quickly and yield heavily. Mr. Smith adopted the following mixture : — 3 pecks of Pacey rye grass, 1 peck Italian do., 4 lbs. Timothy grass, 2 lbs. cow grass, 4 lbs. white clover, 3 lbs. rib grass, and a small quantity of parsley seed. In subsequently improving grass lands, there is no manure so simple and effective as a compost formed of vegetable mould mixed about six months previously to use with lime or salt, 'This plan of farming in an elevated country goes very far to conquer the climate, and to enable the farmer to keep a large and healthy flock of sheep ; in fact, it may be said to form the keystone to the whole structure.' Mr. Smith was so convinced of the plan of seeding out those newly reclaimed lands without a corn crop, that he adopted it even in the case of old land, reserving the corn crop till the end of the course ; and when it was absolutely required, he preferred taking two white crops after breaking up the grass land, just previously to the subse- quent fallow, to sowing the usual corn crop in rich land in a moist climate. There is another class of hilly moorland which, when broken up, affords first-class soil for after culture under a liberal lease, to which we now briefly direct attention. This class of land is toler- ably dry, but from producing strong heather, furze (gorse, or whins), and other coarse, hard-rooted plants, is too powerful for the paring plough or spade. This class of land requires patient dealing with ; it will never pay to be forced into cultiva- tion ; it should be taken in hand, therefore, one year, previous to the turnip crop. The land is thoroughly grubbed up, so as to relieve the roots and set free all plants and herbage, which are col- lected into heaps and allowed to remain until suffi- ciently dry to be burned. Ploughing to the depth of 6 inches is then done, and as the turning up of the soil proceeds, the ashes are thrown over the land and allowed to remain for months, until the sod gets so weathered that other processes of ordinary cultivation, such as grubbing, harrowing, cross ploughing, etc., can he carried out for the production of a fine tilth, these being begun about the beginning of March. Turnips are sown the next summer, care being had to avoid taking a corn crop, as oats, — a plan which, whde apparently profitably followed by some, will in fact ultimately kill the 'goose which would otherwise have pro- duced them golden eggs.' There is another class of moorland, of which there are extensive ranges in the country, growing stunted heather, and about the same class of dry land weeds and plants as in the class last named, which are lying waste from other causes, namely, want of depth and an excess of large stones. This class of soils possesses the advantage of not requiring drainage, but the difficulty is how to deepen them with the best effect. But even this deepening sometimes is not necessary, as some lands are found to yield the best crops with what may be called the shallowest of ploughing. "Waste lands which have a preponderance of stones on their surface are not generally adapted for tillage purposes, as the stones attract the solar heat. But by deepening the sods, thus exposing them to atmospheric influences, by changing the kinds of plants grown upon them, and ploughing under green crops as manures, and by compressing after pulverizing by heavy rolling, or by the application of heavier sods or of marl, or by folding sheep upon them, these dry sandy lands ' may be in- finitely improved at a not very large outlay.' Following the laying out and erection of the fences (for which see the chapter on ' Roads and Fences '), comes the subject of drainage. This is of necessity a very important department ; bnt as much depends upon the geological character of the land, each district naturally having its own peculiar geological features, we cannot here, for obvious reasons, enter into a detail of the methods to be employed. Some remarks will be found bearing upon the particular class of land now DRAINAGE, ETC., OF HILLY RECLAIMED MOORLAND. 303 under consideration, in the chapter on ' Drainage.' In connection with the cultivation of this class of land, Mr. Smith draws attention to what he calls a very nice point in subsoiling on some kinds of moorland, even with porous subsoils. These have a fixed bed of thin clay or iron sedi- mentary deposit lying between the subsoil and the surface of the land, and which have been allowed to remain so long unimproved from the fact that although drainage may have been carried out, as the only thing necessary to be done, this drainage will not effect the purpose without a proper breaking up of these strata ; this alone can be done by deep subsoiling or trenching. When within a reasonable distance from the surface, say 1 5 inches, Mr. Smith's plan has been to pare and burn the upper grasses as the first operation, the paring being done as deeply as possible ; the rough herbage, etc., thus removed from it is allowed to lie all the summer on the surface, and then burned as it lies. This slightly chars the soil below, and no further cost is incurred in spreading the ashes. The land is then ploughed to a depth of 4^ or 5 inches, the ridges being thrown over on the uncut land, thus forming a number of them throughout the field, and effectually covering up the ashes. The land is next subsoiled to a depth sufficient to reach the bottom of the stratum already named, break- ing up and disturbing this without mixing it with the upper soil. This work is done after that of the ordinary turnip crop is got rid of, thus releasing the horses for this heavy work. The narrow ridges of the first ploughing which are left undisturbed by the subsoiler are allowed to remain till spring, when the land is ready to be prepared in the usual way for ordinary cropping, the best crop being turnips. This subsoiling naturally produces a quick change in the under- current of such passing waters as may be at or beneath the under strata, and these show them- selves by the water breaking out at some new point of obstruction, and which must be carried away by appropriate drains. This subsoiling effects quite a revolution in the state of the soil. When the moorland is too deep for subsoiling, and yet of too good a character to be allowed to remain as waste, trenching is adopted. The first operation is to skim the surface with a paring plough ; weeds, heather, etc., are removed by baud, in order to ad- mit of the working of the common plough, which takes as deep and yet as narrow a furrow as pos- sible, after which the trenching is proceeded with. This is begun at the lowest range of the field, and when well opened and started the furrows are chopped across and turned downwards, after which the trench is opened to its desired depth, so as to break up the pan or stratum of clay or iron deposit already alluded to. The paring furrow, composed of rough grasses, heather, etc., is carefully thrown under, each man having a stipulated portion of the work to do, following each other and completing it as he proceeds. The operation of trenching is done and finished before Christmas, or earlier if possible, so that the land may have a long weathering during winter, after which it will be in sufficiently good heart to have a crop of roots taken from it, and the culture of which will prepare it by breaking up and mixing the different soils. It is, of course, impossible to give a detailed description of all the varieties of hilly moorland within the limits to which the scope of our work naturally confines us ; but we believe the reader will coincide in our opinion, that, making allowances for differences in soil, locality, and cliinate, the plans recommended by Mr. Smith, to which we have given marked prominence in our pages, comprehend nearly all the points which have to be attended to in the reclamation of this waste land, or, if not so thoroughly com- prehensive as this, it is assuredly suggestive of what should and can be done. We might quote example after example of lands of this class treated with marked success ; but for the reason named above, we can only refer to one as evidence of what can be effected by very simple means in raising land from the lowest condition of useful fertility up to a fair paying point. This example is afforded in the case of the prize offered by the South Tyne Agricultural Society for the greatest improvement in unreclaimed mountain or hilly land, and which was awarded to Mr. T. Little, Watch Cross, Carlisle. The land is at an elevation of 1000 feet, having an ex- posure sloping to the north-west. The quality of the soil is a peaty hazel, with a clayey sub- soil of good quality resting on freestone and 304 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY limestone. In its original condition it was very wet, its chief products being heather, wire bent, and rushes, and its probable value ranging from Is. 6d. to 5s. (3d. per acre. The operations were very simple, being draining and liming. The drains were 4 feet deep and 27 feet apart. The lime was applied in the proportion of 120 bushels, Carlisle measure, to the acre ; and in the spring a portion of this was well salted, in order to quicken the lime. The proportions of costs were — draining, £5, 5s. ; liming, £4. After draining, the lime was spread on the surface, without burning the heather. The lime was laid in heaps on the land, and allowed to slack before being applied to those portions where the land was hard and heathery ; but where soft and grassy it was spread at once. The result of the operations was the springing up of a close-set sward of natural grasses. We refer specially to this last point, inasmuch as some reclaimers go to considerable expense and trouble in sowing down the land with grasses, whereas in the majority of instances, the superabundant wet being removed, and lime or blme and salt alone used, the natural grasses at once spring up. Indeed, we should suggest that it would be well for those who doubt what nature is so ready to do when helped, to try by way of experiment a limited surface of land on the two plans here alluded to. Flow Mosses and Feat Zand in Hilly Moorland Districts. — The treatment of this land, if land it can be called, where water is the principal element, in hilly moorland districts, is, as may be supposed, a matter of no small difficulty ; the boggy land or flow mosses being, of course, the worst to deal with. The peat land, or that from which fuel is ordinarily cut, is generally met with on the summit of the hill lands. This class of soil may be much improved by the cutting of open surface-gutters, in conjunction with a proper adjustment of the levels and out- falls. These gutters may even be made avail- able, as they pass down to the lower level, for the taking in of occasional lull springs, and the united stream carried down and along some convenient slope for the purposes of irrigation. These tributary streams empty into others of larger dimensions, and these, again, into a Minuting gutter,' which latter spreads the accumu- lated water over the mossy dry hill-sides ; and if care has been taken to exclude the black or dark peat water from the irrigatory channels, in process of time the weeds and poor herbage of these are destroyed, and their place taken by grasses of a richer and more nutritious character. Such is the system, briefly described, adopted by Mr. Smith in his treatment of hilly moorland, for which see the appropriate paragraphs in this chapter. The mosses or morasses at the foot of hill land, where clay deposits abound, involve work of a more tedious and difficult character than in cases in which there is greater regularity in the upper and lower strata ; thus, for example, where sandy deposits and clay formations having no communication with each other are met with, and ordinary drainage used, each bed requires its own separate drain, so that the system becomes very complicated. The reader desirous to enter into the details of the system of treatment of such cases pursued by Mr. Smith, is referred to his paper given in another part of this chapter. We proceed, therefore, to describe his method of cultivating these morasses. A main feature in this is the adoption of his plan, else- where in this work described, of using the power of water for carrying to and distributing over the surface of land, soil and manure of any desired class. The deposit of soil of any kind procurable in the neighbourhood of the bog, carried down and made by this ' water-carrier ' system, is placed thickly upon the mossy peat, and by the addition of lirne the growth of a superior class of grasses is promoted, while the inferior herbage and the sedgy moss decay, and thus add to or form a manure which promotes the growth of better herbage. Of course, drainage of a simple character — that is, open drains leading up the centre of the bog to the head of the spring, with subordinate, upright, and side springs leading into the central one — is at the same time carried out. On the land, when it is moderately consolidated, a crop of rape seed is taken, which is fed off by sheep, which tend still further to consolidate the surface. The land is then winter ploughed to the depth of the settled part, aud cleaned in the spring, CLA YING OF STONY MOORLANDS, ETC., BY IRRIGATION, 305 previous to being sown down with grasses, which form the ultimate water or irrigated meadow. In cases where the superior advantages of the water-carrier system for the transportation of soil cannot be carried out, it will even pay to cart it on to those uncultivated bog lands. Treatment of the Soils of Hilly and Stony Moorlands by ' Claying ' and Depositing a Good Soil by Irrigation. — Poor soils on land of this class have been wonderfully improved, where irrigation has been part of the plan of laying out, by conveying by means of the water, silt and earthy deposits of good quality, or by using water in which these naturally are, and which, by settling, deposit their contained matter on the surface. The washing down of earthy matter in this way from the high lands — a process which is always going on — to those lands lying at a lower level, can be made available in improving land to a surprising extent. Mr. Smith, the great authority on lands of this class, has done great things in this way. He also notes that where soils of hilly moor- lands have been brought into moderately good condition, they have been wonderfully improved by the use of compost matter of vegetable mould mixed with lime and salt, the vegetable mould being obtained from bogs, which, as Mr. Smith observes, thus become sources of manu- rial wealth rather than altogether objectionable swamps, looked upon as unhealthy morasses. By the use of this vegetable mould, Mr. Smith has wrought most surprising and beneficial changes in grass lands on hilly moorlands with- out the use of any artificial manure whatever. Another method of improving these moor- lands, which grow indigenously in England, such as furze, poor stunted heather, and other dry land weeds, when situated in good climates, is by deep culture and the removal of the large boulders and stones. Ferny and marshy land has been much improved by the operation of claying, which is thus described : — ' Perpendicular pits (in line) are sunk at a distance of say 14 to 15 yards apart between the rows, and on reaching the clay (which varies in depth from 3 to 6 or 10 feet) the workman " casts out " some two to four draws in length, part on each side of him ; and in sinking the succeeding pit, the upper black earth is thrown into the last one, to fill it up, and so on. The object in sinking pits for this purpose is to prevent the sides of an open long cut coming together, as they were accustomed to do before the plan of " pits " was adopted. Still there are many lands that are advanced in cultivation so far as to be free from " bear's muck," and these are found to stand the work of open trenches, and the clay (from the settled state of the peats) is found to be much nearer the surface ; the greatest obstacle being that of old roots and trees, which have to be removed from the surface of the clay bed.' Those farmers who have unreclaimed waste land on hilly moorlands, within reach of their cultivated land, would do well to take in hand the gradual improvement of the waste, treating it in such a way that the minimum of expenditure would yield the maximum of results. From what has been said on the subject of reclama- tion of waste land, it will be seen that to carry it out on an extended scale requires a large expenditure. Any plan, therefore, by which a farmer can gradually take in adjoining land of this character, and while doing so receive an immediate return, even though that be of small extent, is worthy of special notice. The system proposed by Mr. Smith in this direction is, perhaps, the best which could be adopted, and to a brief description of this we shall devote a sentence or two. To this system Mr. Smith gives the name of ' summering farms ; ' these farms being set out so as to afford facilities for a stock farm, little or no corn being grown. The following is the course to be adopted so as to make the most of the summer, and to lighten the difficulties incident to a long and profitless winter. The breeding and the feeding of sheep is the feature of the farm, the summering of cattle and colts forming merely an adjunct, which might pay something. A goodly number of working oxen should be kept, these requiring no extra or but little attention during the summer, which would be the only period when cultivation would be going on. The fences being put down, the plan of intended fields laid out, the first enclosure made, the native turf is then pared and burned ; meanwhile, the oxen having been collected, the first crop of roots is 2Q 306 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. well in by the end of June. On this land, two and a half tons of lime per acre should be spread. Such of the rougher lands as cannot be pared may in July be ploughed and well drag - harrowed for burning, ploughed up, and allowed to lie for tillage in the spring for Swedish turnips. During the winter months the oxen are rested and fed cheaply, or some of them only may be retained, the others being sold, and their places refilled in the following spring. By March the turnip lands will be ready for the first ploughing, coincident with which will be the paring and burning of new tracts taken in; and by the first of April, the turnip lands are to be sown with grass seeds and rape, without corn, which will be ready to be fed off by fattening sheep in July. The operations of the preceding summer are again to be repeated thus as the farming proceeds, with a coincident extension of grazing lands ; and it may be well, after a time, to place upon these a few young cattle during the summer months, while on the yet unreclaimed land, summering cattle, ponies, and store sheep are kept. By this plan of farming, a provision of roots is made for the winter and spring use ; young grass, one or more years old, will follow for the early graz- ing, and the rape and young seeds for the fattening of all sheep required to be sold, or the growing of such, sheep as are to be removed to an inland farm for wintering. This principle of gradual extension of reclamation works is obviously applicable to classes of land other than that we have now been considering, and is one well worthy of attention. The great mis- take too often made, and it is one made also in connection with old cultivated lands, is to undertake too much at once ; it is infinitely better to take in a small extent only at first, and do the best possible with that, gradually adding to it as means are provided by the profits arising from the first portions reclaimed. Reclaiming Moss Pits. — We are compelled to use this novel and therefore little known name for lack of a better to designate those depres- sions in the surface of cultivated land which are often met with in certain districts. These are of varying forms, often very nearly circular ; but of whatever shape, are formed by the upper land coming in on all sides, and, meeting at certain points, stopping there, thus making the cup or pit- like depression alluded to. The bottoms of these being so far below the drainage level of the sur- rounding land, and having as a rule no outlet.retain the water, which becoming mixed with vegetable matter blown in or carried from above, a species of moss or bog is formed, which well repays the cost of draining off the superfluous water and preparing the soil to bear crops. The margins of these hollow mosses being the nearest to the land coming down from the higher and better land, and being comparatively dry, are generally brought under cultivation first ; indeed, reclamation stops here as a rule, as the operations necessary to be done are more costly than can be repaid by such crops as the ' drained margins' yield, and for which the tenants pay, or should pay, no rent during their tenancy — the heavier cost of the whole moss running over precisely the same period. In reclaiming the whole of those deep moss pits, the first step to be taken is the same as done with reclaiming all land of this class, namely, to thoroughly drain the whole area from its contained water. Circumstances render this work in some cases comparatively very easy ; in others so difficult, that it sometimes taxes the knowledge and practical skill of the most experienced. In some cases there is great diffi- culty in securing a proper outfall for the drains without tunnelling or building a concealed cul- vert, so as to reach the lower level from the edge of the moss. Then, again, although in many cases the upper surface of moss herbage is suffi- ciently compacted to bear the load of carts con- veying soil, gravel, etc. to form a good bottom, still, on opening up this herbaged surface for the drains, the water will be found in great quantities, and the moss for a great depth is simply boggy water and boggy silt, in which it is difficult to cut drains. This was the case in a work of reclaim- ing a hollow moss pit, described in a very able paper in the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, on the ' Agriculture of Kirkcudbrightshire and Galloway,' from the pen of Mr. Thomas M'Clelland. Here the moss pit was deep and with a top of light flow, the RECLAMA TION OF PEA T OR BOG LAND. 307 whole extent of the hog being about an acre and a half. The moss was surrounded by ridges of gravel, the lowest point being 14 feet above the level of the surface of the bog. The outlet being determined on, the first step taken was to dig out all along its course the soil and gravel, this being carted off to and laid over the surface of the moss pit. This tended not only to give a firm bottom, but also to keep the level of the surface as high as possible ; with this latter object in view, the herbage was not cut, pared, and burned, but allowed to remain, which also aided the consoli- dation of the bottom. Notwithstanding all this, when the operation of cutting the lateral or open drains was begun, the bottom soil was found to be of such a treacherous boggy character, that when a 12-feet pole was pushed down it failed to find bottom. It was obviously absurd to attempt to lay drain-tiles on a bottom soil — if such it could be called — like this. To secure, therefore, a firm bottom which would keep the levels and inclines of the drains with as little change as possible, timber boarding was used, on which the drain-tiles were laid. This operation proved so thoroughly suc- cessful, that the following winter the soil was so dry and consolidated as to enable the plough- ing to be done for the first crop, which was oats, and which brought in the sum of £10. As the cost of the whole work of reclaiming was only £15, this instance will suffice to show how well such work pays. In view of this encouraging fact, it does seem a pity to allow thousands of acres of moss-pit land to remain waste and profit- less, or, at the best, here and there only done partially by reclaiming the margins. But the more thoroughly the history of reclaiming work of this kind is gone into, the more completely is this lesson taught us. Reclamation of Peat or Bog Land formerly an Estuary of the Sea and traversed by a River. — A case of this kind in the county of Galway, described by Mr. Mitchell Henry, M.P., possesses some features of practical interest, inasmuch as the successful reclamation has been effected by much humbler and consequently less expensive methods than those carried out by the Duke of Sutherland, hereafter to be described, although the classes of soil are very similar. At one period the bog was covered with trees, which have now wholly disappeared, but the trunks and roots of which are still existing in the soil. The case is worth recording here, if for no other purpose than to serve as a contrast, and it is a suggestive and practically useful one — with which purpose, in- deed, Mr. Henry cites it — to the extensive but much more expensive operations of the Duke of Sutherland. The cost of the works of reclama- tion of these come to something like a rent-charge of 39s. an acre, a charge which, Mr. Henry justly remarks, would be strictly prolubitory in the majority of districts ; but when the works, as in those of Mr. Henry, can be done so as to keep the rent-charge— plus the ordinary rent of the farm — down so low as 15 s. to 18 s. per acre, excellent profits may be realized for the expen- diture. The works, however, cited by Mr. Henry were lower even than 15s., being done for 13s. per acre, this including the cost of farm buildings and roads, and all the necessary works connected with the reclamation. In the case cited, the bog rested on a bed of gravel, as bogs often do, or upon beds of clay. The first thing done, then, was to cut the main and the secondary or subsidiary drains right down to this gravel, this being done by the implements much used in Scotland, by which a triangular or wedge-shaped piece of the bog or peat is cut out, — two men cutting the drain, while a third replaces the peats taken out in such a way that a vacant part is left below, this forming the drain, the wedge-shaped peat being well pressed into its place. The smaller or cross drains (see another paragraph on 'Plant- ing on Peat or Boggy Soils' for some remarks on the formation of drains) were, of course, not nearly so deep as the main and subsidiary or secondary drains. These drains last a long time; some made on the same principle in Chat Moss, between Manchester and Liverpool, over twenty- five years ago, are as good now as the day they were first made. The great point to be aimed at in draining the bog or peat is to free it from all caress of moisture, but not to render it absolutely dry, for in this case it would become mere dry turf. After the drains have been made for a time the bog sinks considerably — this from the quantity of water taken from it — hence allowance must always be made for this subsidence in making the smaller or cross drains 3oS DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. deeper at first than they are required. With the depression of the bog there comes about a very considerable degree of consolidation in the mass, a very important and valuable point, for it admits of the after processes being carried on, the first of which is digging or ploughing. If the latter operation be done, oxen are better to be employed than horses ; if the latter be used, their feet must be shod with broad superficial pattens, to prevent them sinking into the soft bog. When the bog is broken up, the first and most important opera- tion in the reclamation of bog land is gone through. After the lime has performed its work so far as to neutralize the acids in the bog — which is its most important agency in such soils — and reduce it to a condition somewhat like a good soil, it is chain-harrowed. At this point, if designed for grass, this will be found to grow excellently, but in the case under notice it was deemed the better plan to put as much as possible of the land under roots, with farm- yard manure for turnips and potatoes. If lime be unsparingly given, the crop, even the first year, will be a paying one. But the land in this case was put under a proper rotation as follows : — Boots, followed by oats, which were seeded down with clover, the clover occupying the land for two years after the oat crop was taken off, this making a five years' course. By breaking up the soil a second time after a judicious interval of cropping as above named, it is materially improved. It is right, however, to state that Mr. Henry does not think that the reclamation of bogs more than four feet deep will repay the cost of reclamation. Some very striking and successful examples of the reclamation of peat lands are to be met with on the Continent, where large tracts of this abound, as, for example, in Holland. A journal gives recently an account of some very extensive work of this kind in the province of North Brabant, carried out by a wealthy Amsterdam merchant. Some idea of the task this enterprising gentleman undertook may be conceived from the statement of the fact that the area he undertook to reclaim, of some 1400 to 1500 acres, was chiefly under water, and bore by way of produce a single miserable birch tree. This area was a thoroughly peat one, this being in some places as deep as two yards, but principally only a sixth of this. The land, if the term could be applied to such a watery domain, was bought simply at its fuel- producing value, costing some £10,000. Exten- sive peat lands in Germany having been cultivated with striking success, the proprietor determined to follow the method there adopted to bring into cultivation the unpromising place he had pur- chased. The German method consists in the first place in cutting across the peaty surface, ditches 1 5 feet wide, and at intervals of 2 5 yards ; underlying the peat is sand, and this is taken out in digging the ditches and laid on the surface in heaps. As the surface of peat between the ditches is levelled, this sand is taken and spread over it to the depth of 4 and 5 inches. This so consolidates the peat that horses can walk over the surface, so that ploughing can be done with a subsod plough, so as to move the under layer of peat, but without mixing the upper layer and the sand wdiich lies upon it. The land is next dressed with manures, of winch only three are used, namely, nitrate of soda, dissolved bones, and the now well-known manure kainit. In the use of this has lain the whole secret of the successful reclamation. Of this, the following quantities per acre : — 176 lbs. of dissolved bones, the same of kainit, and about a half of this weight of nitrate of soda. This dressing must be applied to the land previous to the sowing of the seed, the first crop best fitted to be taken being oats and rye, but in the course of a year it will grow almost every kind of produce. Thus the gentleman who visited the farm found as farm crops, wheat, barley, beans, pease, oats, rye, Indian corn, clover, and grass land, with turnips, mangolds or field beet, and sugar beet. It should be noted, that while the kainit and the dissolved bones require to be used in the same quantity season after season, the nitrate of soda is dimin- ished as the peat becomes weathered and broken up. The crops, which we have shown to be numerous as grown upon the land thus treated, are exceedingly heavy ; moreover, farmers claim for the system another great merit, namely, greater regularity of crops than on other systems. Reclaiming Land encumbered with Boulders and Rocks. — In many districts there are fields, or what is, perhaps, the more correct designation, tracts or expanses of land — these not yet being TREATMENT OF LAND ENCUMBERED WITH LARGE BOULDERS. 309 divided off into fields — the surface of which is more or less thickly strewn over with large rocks and stones. These are not, as is supposed by many, indications of poor or sterile land in all cases where they occur, being, in fact, often deposited over the surface of what is soil of excellent quality by one or other of the geo- logical agencies which were at work in remote ages, as, for example, that of the glacier. It is a mistake, therefore, to come to the conclusion that land is poor because its surface is more or less rock-covered, — a mistake probably arising from the fact that such rocky soil is met with in moorland hilly districts. They were dropped in all districts and on all qualities of land, some- times numerously, sometimes sparsely, just as the glacier process — for that we presume to be the operative one — was placed in situations and climatic conditions favourable or otherwise. Nor does the absence of boulders in good fields now prove that they never had an existence there. By the exertions of our ancestors, in times now long gone by, they may have been removed by labour of which, with our improved appliances, we can form no conception ; whde even here and there, in fields of the first quality of soil, large boidders are still to be met with in the line of fences, proving that these were either removed to form part of the fence, or allowed to remain in their original position, the fence being arranged to suit their position. That much can be done in im- proving land by removing boulders and large stones, not only in hilly moorlands, but in lower and more favoured districts, there can be no doubt ; and for, perhaps, the most remarkable and successful examples of what can be done, we have to go to other countries, as the Conti- nent and the Colonies, and the United States probably, more especially where rocky land is met with, which, like everything else there, is on the grand scale, in wider expanses and in more wdd confusion. As there, so here, the difficulty in the way of getting rid of large boulders is perhaps the reason why the land which they encumber has not been as yet even attempted to be improved ; and as there, so here, in many cases this difficulty has not been overcome, because the question has never been asked, Is it possible to do it ? In such cases, as in America, for example, where it has been gone about in the right way, success decided and satisfactory 'has crowned the work.' To attempt to loosen — for the large boidders have, in the lapse of ages, got more or less deeply imbedded in the sod — the boulders, to lift and remove them to their new position by the mere power of manual labour or brute force, is neither more nor less than what the savage would do ; and to continue doing it in this, the age of mechanical improvement, is, if not going backward, at least standing stilL There are now various forms of apparatus — indeed, it is no difficult matter to design one, with very simple appliances — by which large stones can be raised with great ease, removed, and deposited where required. The most obvious primary work to be done is forming the fences with the large rocks. We dlustrate in figs. 10, 11, and 12, Plate 37, three forms or methods of erecting fences of this kind. Where the boulders are large and very numerous, it will be a good plan so to take the position of these that they wdl be in the line of proposed fence, or rather, that line should be arranged to suit the lying position of the boidders. Where these have to be specially removed, it will require some discretion on the part of the foreman in the selection of the boulders. The largest in the wall (fig. 10, Plate 37) go into the bottom tier, and are laid with their longest diameters across the wall. The next tier is made with smaller boulders, laid upon the top of the first so as to break the joints. In this style of wall no trench is necessary to make the wall substantial. But upon most farms the surface earth is valuable as an absorbent in the yards ; and if the field is within a moderate distance of the barn, it will pay to skin the surface with the plough wherever a wall is to be placed. Indeed, in clearing such a field, so much subsoil is dis- turbed, and so many holes need filling, that it wdl generally pay to take the surface soil from the bed of the wall. The third and last tier of stone is still smaller than the second. A section of the wall is completed by the laying of three stones ; and the stones are to be laid in the order indicated, according to their size. In laying each stone, the forward and hind wheels of the machine — if one is to be used — are to be 3i° DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. placed on opposite sides of the wall. The inter- stices, where they occur, are rilled with smaller stones. Plate 37, fig. 11, shows another style of wall, which is desirable where the smaller boulders are more numerous than the larger ones. Stones, weighing from 1 to 2 tons, are laid in double tier for the bottom. These are made firm by filling in with cobbles ; and upon this bottom one or more tiers of boulders are laid, to make the wall of the requisite height. Plate 37, fig. 12, shows a wall made of single boulders set on end; and where the rocks are of suitable size, this style of wall is the cheapest and best. The above is an American method of building boulder walls. Reclamation of Land by Steam Power. — Much as has been done in the reclamation of land by the power ordinarily at the command of the farmer, and much as will yet be done by it, there is no doubt that the future of this, not the least important department of the improve- ment of landed property, lies in the application to it of that power which has wrought such wonders on the soils of more favoured districts than those which we have been in this chapter considering. In another part of this work, while treating of the general treatment of soils, and in alluding specially to that of the heavy lands, we have endeavoured to show that much as has been done by submitting them to the operation of the system of deep culture, aided by that of autumn working, a vast deal more yet remains to be done before the treasures of these lands can be made available to raise the splendid crops which they alone almost of all our soils are capable of pro- ducing ; and this we also pointed out could only be done when, to the two systems above named, is added that of steam cultivation ; and, as stated at the commencement of this paragraph, so also the case rests with the reclamation of waste lands. It seems invidious, in tracing the history of what has been done in any of the departments of agriculture, where the doing has been on an extensive scale, to single out from the necessarily large body of workers one or two for special note, or perhaps for special praise. But in the case of the subject of the present paragraph, we are spared the awkwardness of this position, inas- much as there has been but one instance, at least on the large scale, where steam power has been applied to the reclaiming of waste lands in this country. This example is met with on the estate of the Duke of Sutherland, in the county from which his Grace takes his title. On the estate of the Duke there has been an enormous tract, amounting nearly to 200,000 acres of peat, moss, and other waste lands, which were at one period deemed to be wholly incapable of improve- ment. They were therefore left for a long series of years literally to themselves. But of late years the Duke, than whom no one is more impressed with the necessity of utilizing the waste places of the iand, impressed, doubtless, also with the improve- ments which had been made on the estate by his predecessors, provided only with the facilities — all too limited — which were then at the command of agriculture, and possessing in himself mecha- nical abilities of a high order, and knowing well, therefore, what steam had done in the fields of the modern farmer, determined to take in hand the attempt to make it applicable to the reclama- tion of at least some portion of the vast area of 200,000acres (correctly, 176,000), of which what might be called the old-fashioned appliances and modes of working had not been able, as we have seen, to utilize any appreciable amount. The quality of the land, moreover — at least a large portion of it — made the power of steam all the more essential, so to say ; for it consisted of heavy clay, underlying, as a rule, moss land of a pecu- liarly difficult character to deal with. This moss varied in depth, but in some places it was exceptionally deep, and therefore added to the difficulties to be encountered. It is scarcely necessary to say that the first process undertaken was that of draining — one, as we have elsewhere stated, which is preliminary to nearly every class of land-reclaiming work. Then followed trenching, after which the ordinary processes were carried out. At the first, horse power was used ; and although the results were satisfactory, it was only when that of steam was employed that it became evident the new power was to bring about new results, and these so astonishing that a new era in the practice of land reclamation, even of a most difficult character, was about to be introduced. For it was not only the fact that steam could be used with great precision and amazing rapidity, RECLAIMING LAND BY STEAM POWER. 3" but that it was applicable to circumstances so difficult that horse power, however skilfully adapted, could not be made at all available. Nor was the economy of the new power a less satis- factory feature ; for, while comparing it with the work done by horses in cases where this was available, the cost of preparing the land by the old system was never under £5 an acre, that of the new was as low as 33s., while expe- rience showed that even under most difficult circumstances that would not exceed £2. But while the land under reclamation presented the cultural difficulties of a mossy surface and a clayey subsoil, a third difficulty of a very for- midable character presented itself in the twofold form of heavy stones and massive boulders, and tangled and huge tree roots, the remains of the forest which in olden times had covered the surface of the land. These obstructions, as might be supposed, not only greatly hindered the full power of the steam plough being developed, great as that power showed itself to be, but it caused breakages of a most harassing and costly cha- racter— so costly that it soon became evident that, unless some means were discovered and adopted of overcoming the difficulties tlras pre- sented, they would greatly retard the work of reclamation, if not, indeed, prevent the scheme proposed from being realized. But at this im- portant point in the history of this remarkable national undertaking — for in its results and their lessons it was truly worthy of the designation — the mechanical abilities of the Messrs. Fowler, ■ — or to put it perhaps more accurately, their talented manager, Mr. David Greig, — joined with those of the Duke himself, succeeded in introducing a form of plough or machine which, in its great success, completely mastered the diffi- culty. This was the now celebrated ' marsh-land plough. Were this the place, we might, to the great interest of many of our readers, describe this remarkable invention. Suffice it to say, that by its mechanical arrangements massive stones and boulders present no obstacle to its onward progress ; it glides smoothly and easily over them as it meets them, while, by an ingenious applica- tion of the common anchor, it does not leave them still to encumber the soil, but moves them, tears them up, throws them aside on the surface of the land, ready to be removed therefrom ; while, at the same time, it leaves the land thrown over in rough furrows, admirably adapted for the carry- ing out of the succeeding operations of cultivation. Scarcely anything is left for manual or horse labour to perform ; the very stones and boulders, which we have above stated as being left by the marsh-land plough on the surface land, are, by an ingenious application of a tilting sledge, lifted from it and hauled along from off the land, and tipped on to that which is not under reclamation. The very trees, indeed, growing on land which is to be reclaimed, are grubbed up or torn out of the soil by steam power, and removed to any part required. To record all that has been done by his Grace during this work would be simply the writing of the history, which would be somewhat volu- minous. When the results are more numerous, although those which have already been attained are eminently satisfactory, we trust that this his- tory may be written, so that it will not only record facts, give details, and illustrate points in agricul- tural practice of the highest value, but will show a right-spirited landed proprietor, with abundant means at his disposal, and a disposition to use them nobly, what he can do in inaugurating an efficient system of working and of overcoming difficulties of no ordinary kind, in realizing a scheme calculated to be of the highest service to agriculture generally, and therefore to the people at large who are dependent upon its products. Tlic Reclamation of Zand at the Margin of the Sea. — We have in a special chapter taken up the consideration of embankments at the margin of the sea, and on the banks of tidal rivers. Of course, the object of these works is the keeping out of the water from the lands which have been reclaimed from the margin. The way in which such lands, after being thus enclosed, are formed, constitutes a very interesting chapter in agricul- tural economics; and if the scope of our work permitted of it, we should very gladly devote some pages to its details. Suffice it to say that, so far as the lands or soil on the sea margin is concerned, it is chiefly, if not wholly, formed by the action of the drainage wains of the uplands on their passage to the sea. These bring down varying quantities of soil, which in a variety of ways is arrested before it reaches the 312 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. sea, and is spread out, so to say, in layers or deposits of varying thickness, which are inter- sected by streams running in almost every conceivable direction, causing the formation of islets and deltas of soil. These in process of time become covered with rough, rank, and scanty herbage, the roots and leaves of which, by pro- cesses obvious to our readers, add to the depth and consistency of the soil. "Where these operations are continuous, the formation of land which could be put under cultiva- tion would be one of comparatively rapid growth. But another element comes into operation, which retards the formation of solid land, as well as materially deteriorates its value. This, we need scarcely say, is the action of the tides. These, as they flow inwards, bring up with them various materials, some of which, as weeds, are fertilizing; others, in time of storm, such as sand, of the opposite character. On the other hand, at their recession at the ebb, they carry with them fre- quently, in the form of silt, greater or less portions of the finer particles of the better qualities of the soil brought down from the uplands. But another evil arises from the action of the tides, namely, adding largely to the salt qualities of the soil. To get rid of the saline substances in various forms of chemical combination thus brought upon the land, is the first operation in its agricultural treatment. Land on the sea margin is also formed by the well-known tendency which the sea has, at certain parts of the coast, to recede from the land ; and where this is flat, in combi- nation with the land drainage already alluded to, the formation of soil goes steadily on. It is, how- ever, naturally a slow process, even at the quickest, and during it the action of the tides causes various changes in the surfaces and parts of land which have been formed, which, when the land is taken under reclamation, cause the cultivator consider- able trouble in dealing with them. Deriving its origin from various sources, it may be conceived that the soil thus formed at sea margins varies very much in its chemical constituents as well as its mechanical characteristics. In some cases it may be sandy, light, and poor ; in others, enriched by soils of the first quality brought down from the uplands, it may be such as will ultimately form a loamy soil of the first class ; and in other cases it may be of a heavy, close, and retentive character. All these varying peculiarities bring about the necessity of various modes of treatment, and it rests with the manager of the property to decide which of them will be most applicable to the circumstances. In some instances the soil will be of that doubtful character, and present such mechanical and cultural difficulties, that it will be a question with him whether it will be worth while to take the land under reclamation ; but, as a rule, it will be found that land at sea margins will amply repay the cost of their en- closure and cultivation. Many circumstances, however, will have to be taken into consideration before this can be finally decided upon. An important element, so far as the cultural points are concerned, is the character of the lands, taking them at their average, through which the drainage waters pass in the land bordering the sea, and, so far as the structural ones are concerned, the nature of the soil on which the embankment is to be formed. Nor must the character of the coast itself be kept out of view ; on the contrary, it is of vital importance, for, if exposed to violent storms, for example, it is obvious that considerable difficulties will be thrown in the way, not only of erecting the embankment, but of keeping it in good order afterwards. Nor must the character of the soil, and the materials which are at hand useful in the construction of embankments, be lost sight of ; for if these be poor or deficient in quantity, and so necessitating their being brought from a distance, the cost of the works may be such as, taken along with other circum- stances, to render the general work of reclama- tion such a costly one that it would not pay to undertake it, or, at the best, involve such expenses as not to repay the labour, trouble, and cost involved. The legal rights, also, of neigh- bouring proprietors is an element to be taken into consideration ; for not only may these involve the cost of compensation, but they may afterwards raise awkward questions in case of accidents hap- pening to the embankment, causing floodings not only of the land reclaimed on the estate, but on adjacent properties. All these are points which show that the decision as to whether land at sea margins should be reclaimed is one involving considerations of great importance, and which, if TREATMENT OF RECLAIMED LAND AT SEA MARGINS. 313 neglected by the agent, may involve the pro- prietor in heavy loss. In bringing land of this class under cultiva- tion, the first work to be done is to enclose the area intended to be reclaimed by a broad and deep drain or ditch, which may be said to be a continuation of the ' delph ' (see chapter on ' Sea Margin Embankments '), and about the same dimensions. The depth allows of about 3i? feet of water to stand on an average in the ditch, which will thus give a depth of 18 inches below the level of the soil or general surface, the object being to drain or freshen the soil to this depth ; less may of course be done. With a fall of a foot and a half to the mile, with a width of 10 feet at the level of the water, and a depth of this of 2 feet, the drain or ditch will discharge about 1193 cubic feet per minute. To bring the soil of the enclosed area within the influence of the drainage, it is cut up, so to say, into a series of compartments, these being arranged, with the ultimate cropping or cultivation kept generally in view, by small drains. The distance between these is also regulated according to the nature of the soil, heavy soils requiring closer, lighter ones less frequent drains. As in the case of the drainage of peaty soils, bogs, etc., these drains should be deepened gradually, the period varying according to circumstances before they reach the depth of 18 inches, or that named above to which the enclosing ditches go. In process of time the different areas or compart- ments of enclosed land become consolidated, and, by the continued passage of fresh drainage water from the uplands, as well as by the rain falling on the surface along the drains, and the consequent drainage of the parts between the minor drains at the same time, it is in time deprived of its saline constituents. The level, moreover, of the surface has been raised more or less by the sdt or mud taken out of the drains in the process of origi- nally deepening, and afterwards keeping them in good order, this soil being thrown out and spread over the spaces between the ditches as uniformly as possible. On many parts, natural herbage — referred to in the first part of this chapter — will have appeared, and will afford ' bites ' of pastur- age to sheep, and in some cases, where the land is most consolidated, to young stock, which are gradually fed off them, the droppings of which will tend to enrich the soil, as their going to and fro will tend still further to consolidate it, and render it fit to be cropped. As a rule, it will be the better plan to make this cropping serve for pasturing purposes, which will pave the way, so to say, for arable culture at a later period in the reclamation. The grass seeds sown down will depend upon the soil and upon other circumstances, and it will be well to test a plot or two, to make sure of the best system of seeding to be adopted. The succeeding arable crops will also be dependent upon soil, etc. ; but some soils of a heavy character are so rich in manurial constituents, that crops of wheat and beans may be taken off for a long course of years without requiring the addition of extra manures, although this practice is not to be recommended for adoption as a general rule. While these operations of regular culture or crop-raising are going on within the area enclosed by the banks and the inland ditches, what may be called irre- gular or natural culture is being carried slowly out, where the nature of the coast, etc. admits of it, outside the main embankment seawards. These plots, as we have explained in a separate para- graph, go by the name of ' saltings,' and where the foreland is favourable, no small amount of good pasturage both for sheep and cattle may be ob- tained from them, on which the cattle thrive well, and of which they are very fond, from the salt flavour naturally imparted to the grass, which all live stock like so well. The only objec- tion to allowing stock to get on the saltings is that from them they have access to the sides and top of the bank, to which they do much damage — so much that it may be safely said that they cause the bank to require repair very much sooner than it would otherwise do. Although somewhat expensive in the first instance, it is unquestionably the most economical plan in the long run to fence off the embankment, so that the stock cannot get upon it from either side. Inland, the ' delph ' forms a water fence between the interior enclosed compartments or ' marshes,' as they are generally termed, and the bank ; but as the space between the delph and toe of the bank is soon covered with good natural herbage, farmers cannot resist the temptation to turn stock upon 2 K 3'4 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. it, hence this side should be fenced also if this practice be followed. In some cases the ' levels ' do not admit of the drainage water of the enclosed area pass- ing off from it naturally through the culverts, etc. to the sea, but machinery has to be em- ployed to lift it from the low level, and pass it over the embankment to the sea. Sir William Fairbairn invented an excellent form of scoop wheel, which has been used with great success, a modification of the well-known mechanism of that name used so extensively in Holland. The centrifugal pump, such as the kind made by the celebrated firm of the Messrs. Gwynne of London, who have fitted up many for drainage purposes, is also largely used. We might cite numerous instances of drainage of reclaimed land by steam- wrought mechanism, but the following description of that used at the well-known Martin Mere, near Southport, in Lancashire, will give a fair idea of the general arrangement of such methods. The embankments were made more than usually steep, with a slope uniform on both sides of 1^ to 1, the width 16 feet, the height 4 feet, and width of top 2 feet. For a width of 2 feet the centre was puddled with clay, the puddling being continued below the foundation-line a distance of 2 feet. The watercourse for conveying the waters to the scoop wheel was placed at a distance of 1 9 feet from the embankment ; the soil taken from the watercourse was used to form the em- bankment. The dimensions of drainage ditch or delph were as follows : — The width at top 1 1 feet, the width at bottom 4 feet 6 inches, and the depth 9 feet ; to form 20 cubic feet of the embank- ment, it took 25 cubic feet of excavation. The engine working the scoop wheel is 20 nominal horse power; the diameter of scoop -wheel is 30 feet ; the width in breast of floats, 1 6 inches, working in a wheel-race of 1 6^ inches wide ; the length of floats is 8 feet 4 inches, and they are set as tangents to a circle of 9 feet diameter ; the extreme dip of the wheel is 4 feet 4 inches ; the speed at which it revolves is 4 ^ revolutions per minute, giving a velocity at the periphery of 400 feet ; this is found to be the best speed. The following mode of calculating the water lifted by a scoop wheel may be useful. The following are the data required : — ' The speed of the wheel, its width, and the " dip " or depth of the water through which it passes. To show the application of these, let us assume the depth of water to be 2 feet. As the diameter of the wheel is 30 feet, the diameter of a circle the arc of which passes through the centre of the water will be 28 feet. Then, the diameter being 28 feet, the circumference will be (28 x 31416) 87-9048 feet. From this deduct 10 feet for the space occupied by the 40 float-boards and framing (being 3 inches for each), which will leave in round numbers 78 feet. Next multiply this 78 by the number of revolu- tions per minute (in this instance 4^), and we get 331^, which, again multiplied by the width of the float-boards or scoops, 1^ feet (the exact width is 1 6 inches, but half an inch on each side up to the walls is considered unavailable), makes 414^. This multiplied by the depth, 2 feet, is 828f nearly, say 829, the number of cubic feet discharged per minute. Then 829 divided by 36 (the number of cubic feet of water in a ton) gives 23 tons.' Warping of Land. — As irrigation is a method of passing water over the surface of land wdiich is either naturally covered or artificially provided with a grassy surface, in order by the action of the water to increase the quantity and quality of the herbage, warping of land may be said to be the converse of this process, being the formation of land or soil on surfaces not previously provided with it, but which may be devoted to the general purposes of agriculture, not specially to that of the production of herbage. Warping is carried out on the banks of tidal rivers, the waters of which contain large supplies of silty matter or soil, which is brought down from the upper lands ; and as these are chiefly alluvial deposits, this suspended silt or soil is as a rule of a highly fertilizing character. Simply described, warping .is just the arrange- ment of certain simple contrivances which collect or arrest the onward flow of the water so as to bring it into a state of quiescence, in order to admit of the suspended matter being deposited, so that when the water recedes through the action of the tide, a certain thick- ness of soil is found deposited on the surface. This principle, simple as it is, is carried out in OBTAINING TRACTS OF CULTIVABLE LAND BY WARPING. 315 practice in a variety of ways more or less com- plicated, according to the character and extent of the operations. Possibly the simplest of the plans adopted for warping — and its brief description will give a very fair idea of its general principles — is the carrying out of structures, if the term may be applied to such rudimentary appliances, composed of a series of stakes stuck into the bed of the river at or near its margii ; and these, intertwined more or less closely with twigs or fascines, de- crease the rapidity of the inward flow of the water, causing more or less deposits of solid matter on the surface of the river bed. As these deposits increase in thickness, the water naturally assumes a less and less depth, till, under ordinary tides, in some cases it recedes and does not overflow certain portions. These in time become more and more con- solidated, and vegetation, derived from one source or another, begins to appear in small patches, the extent of which gradually increases, as well as the solidity of the land, till it is able to bear the weight of an occasional sheep or two, the manure of which tending still further to increase the fer- tility of the soil, and also, by obvious processes, to add to the variety of the vegetation, land is gradually produced. It is in this way, although the simple appliances of stakes described are not used, but the small deposits of soil caused solely by the action of rivulets or rivers passing to the sea from the interior land, that the tracts of land known by the name of ' polders ' are produced on many parts of the coast of the Continent bordering the North Sea and the English Channel. The soil of these lands is of such amazing fer- tility, that — more especially, however, those known to us as wheat soils — the richest crops of all kinds are grown for a succession of seasons ranging over a period even so extended as little short of half a century, without the addition of any manure whatever. Warping on the large scale, as executed in this country, becomes, however, a process involving many details of a complicated character, and also an expenditure more or less great, accord- ing to circumstances, but in all cases consider- able. The first work to be done is the erection of a river bank, enclosing an area which is to be warped, the height of which must exceed that of the highest spring tides, so that the river water shall be kept from overflowing. At a certain convenient part of this river bank a sluice is formed, the object of which is to allow the water of the river, as it flows upwards, to gain access to the enclosed area, and after remaining therein for the period necessary to allow its suspended matter to be deposited, during which the sluice is kept closed, the sluice is opened on the ebb of the tide, to allow the water to be drawn off. The withdrawal of the water from the enclosed area, it need scarcely be said, is done slowly, so as not to disturb the deposited matter. This operation is repeated again and again, until the necessary depth of soil is formed, which is, of course, uniformly level throughout its surface. In conjunction with the main bank and enclosed area, a series of drains or channels are formed within the area, these being so distributed, arranged, and worked by means of minor stops or sluices, as to divide it into a series of compart- ments, which aid materially the regular deposit of the soil, according to the requirements of the cultivator. The area of land enclosed from the river by the bank is on the land side provided with another bank, which has openings at certain points by which the drainage water of the interior district is passed into the area, and what may be called minor banks are formed along certain of the interior channels previously alluded to. All these interior banks are, of course, of the same height as the river bank ; and although well and sufficiently formed and strongly constructed, are not so strongly made as the river bank, which has to resist greater pressure. Such may be taken as a general description of the system of warping ; but the details vary according to the nature of the land enclosed and the nature of its surface. reclamation of Neglected Land. — In many dis- tricts there are considerable tracts of land, as alluded to in the opening remarks to the work, which, having been well or moderately well culti- vated, have, by a variety of circumstances, been allowed to fall into a condition of neglect, in some cases approaching to that of land which has never been reclaimed. In improving land of this kind there is a wide field for the labours of practical men who know their business, — a field which is sure to yield highly valuable and satisfactory results. ii6 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. We can but glance in the briefest fashion at its points, for it is obvious that the practice will vary considerably, according to the conditions of soil, locality, and climate, and also as to the point of neglect which the farm may have reached in the descending scale. The following is an example of successful reclamation of waste land, which, when first taken in hand, was in such a wretched condition that any attempt at its improvement seemed, even to the sanguine enthusiasm of the farmer wTho was concerned with it, to be almost wholly hopeless. The arable land, bad as it was, had been made infinitely worse by a system of overcropping and by general gross mismanage- ment ; while the bad land under pasture, if such it could be called, had been made worse through its soil having been to a large extent denuded by paring, not for burning and returning to the soil as manure, but for the purpose of serving as fuel, thatching the wretched hovels on the farm, and for various purposes in which turf is required. The surface was thickly strewed with stones, and with many boulders of large size. The whole came under the class of moorland overgrown with heather. The soil of the arable land was heavy black earth, resting on a clay subsoil. The following was the system adopted for improving this wasted land for arable culture. The first operation was to trench-plough the land to a depth of 10 inches in the late summer or the early autumn months, the opportunity being taken to remove such stones as could be removed by the crowbar from the soil. After the ploughing the land was gone over by a strong iron brake-harrow, in order to tear up the heather, break up the turf, and to loosen as well the sur- face stones and those lying immediately below it. The land thus prepared was left all winter to lie weathered by the action of the atmospheric in- fluences. In the spring and during the summer and autumn months a course of operations was begun and carried on, consisting of the removal of the stones, drainage, and trench-ploughing a second time, this being done now to the depth of from 12 to 14 inches, and liming, at the rate of 24 bushels to the acre, being the last operation, this being done in autumn. Left thus all the winter, the first work done in the following spring was turning into and mixing the lime with the soil by means of the brake-harrow, this being succeeded by a finer harrow, still further pul- verizing the soil and bringing it to a condition of good tilth. The land was next manured with farm-yard dung at the rate of 40 cart-loads to the acre, each cart-load averaging a ton weight, from that clown to, say, 18 cwt., or a cubic yard of manure. This manure was then well harrowed into the soil. Thus prepared, it was sown down thickly with oats. The rotation adopted was the five-course system, wheat being excluded, as the soil and climate were not suitable for this crop, — the course being, first year, oats (as above ex- plained) ; second, rye-grass ; third, pasture ; fourth, oats or barley; fifth, green crop. The average cost per acre of the improvement was within a trifle of £19. DIVISION FOURTH. EXTRA OR EXTERNAL SOURCES OF REVENUE OF THE PROPERTY DERIVED FROM OTHER THAN THOSE PURELY AGRICULTURAL— STONE AND LIME QUARRIES— MARL PITS— CLAY BEDS— LIME KILNS— BRICK AND TILE YARDS AND KILNS— BURNING OF CLAY— REFUSE OR AVASTE WOOD OF PLANTATIONS— REFUSE OF PONDS OR MUD, AND FROM THE UTILIZATION OF WASTE OR NEGLECTED MATERIALS OF THE PROPERTY— ICE AND SNOAV HOUSES— PARTS OF THE PROPERTY ADAPTED FOR GENERAL BUILDING PURPOSES— LAYING OUT OR DISPOSITION OF THE SAME FOR VARIOUS CLASSES OF HOUSES, ETC. CHAPTEE I. STONE AND LIME QUARRIES, MARL PITS, AND CLAY BED3. Introductory.^ Hitherto we have been considering landed property as a source of revenue derived from the cultivation of the land, and the various modes by which it could be directly improved, noticing such cognate operations and structures as tended to that end. Some subjects, although apparently coming within the above, have, for reasons con- nected with convenience of consultation, been purposely omitted, but will be found in the last division of the work. All these come under what some may designate as the legitimate or regular sources of revenue of the property ; but even a comparatively slight consideration of the whole subject will show that there are other resources from which this may be improved. Several of these will be seen by a glance at the head of this division ; but even in addition to the subjects there named, there are others which must not be omitted in summing up the total sources from which the proprietor may increase his income. It will be seen as we proceed that some of those have been greatly overlooked, many of them, indeed, considered as too insignificant to be thought of. But we trust to be able to show, that even from the most insignificant of the de- partments named, or what may be considered as such, no inconsiderable amount may be realized by careful management, and that, when all are added together, a sum will be produced which no careful agent will deem unworthy to contribute to the general funds of the property. Nor are we hope- less of being able to show that the mere attempt to make those neglected sources of revenue avail- able, will result in introducing such order as will enable the property to be looked upon as one in which completeness of management of every, even the most minute, department is a marked and grati- fying feature, and one worthy of general imitation. There is little fear that such important sources of revenue as plantations, quarries of different kinds, marl pits, clay beds, shootings, fishings, etc., will be neglected or overlooked as bringing in funds ; but there is some chance, to say the least, that other sources, such as we have just alluded to, will be almost wholly forgotten. "We proceed, however, on the assumption that it is wise to make available every source of income, to admit of no waste or un- necessary loss in any department of the property. There is scarcely a farm, to say nothing of the property itself as a whole, which does not as a general rule abound in materials allowed to lie here and there in much disorder, but which, if collected and properly used, would be of no small value in one or other of its many depart- ments. To allow them to lie unutibzed is not merely a waste of means, which a careful agent will avoid, but they form, as above hinted at, eyesores to those who have the love of order developed. This order has always a reflex in- fluence of a valuable kind upon the mere labourers of the farm or property, making them more care- ful in every way. But it may be urged that one 817 3i8 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. does not know very well liow such waste materials, as they are generally called, can be used. But in truth, in view of what is now done in almost every other branch of industrial work, it is diffi- cult to say what is waste ; and we trust to be able to show how what is now regarded as such on landed property may be turned to excellent account. Having offered these, we hope not unsuggestive, remarks as introductory to an important depart- ment of our work, we now proceed to take up its various details in succession. Quarries. — The first we have referred to is the quarries of the property, such as stone and lime, and in which may be included slate. Of course it is not to be supposed that every property is so for- tunate as to possess quarries of all those materials. Some, indeed, either from their limited extent, or from the geological formation of their soils, locality, etc., may be destitute of them all, or a property may have but one class only of the materials named ; but where they are met with, considerable judgment will be required to make the materials so available as to yield the largest amount of revenue. A property may be exceedingly rich in the materials named, but their distribution or locality may be such that they cannot be made available in this way. Quarries may be opened and worked at considerable expense, but it may be found that, save in their immediate neigh- bourhood, and for the comparatively limited amount of work which the property there will itself require, no extra sources of demand will exist. It is possible to buy gold too dear; the quartz which contains it may be very rich, but the process of crushing may cost more than it realizes. "When, therefore, a property is found to possess even extra abundant and good supplies of such materials, it will be necessary to examine carefully all their conditions before deciding upon going to any great expense for working. Nor, under curtain very favourable circumstances as regards extent and quality, will it be money thrown away to secure the opinion and advice of a competent mining engineer, who may be able to show that a large amount of revenue may be obtained from the quarries. The best situation for these will obviously be that near to or within a reasonable distance of a town, a railway station, a canal, or a seaport. But the engineer may be able to show that it might pay well to put down a tram rail or way, leading to one or other of these outlets, should the quarry he situated at some distance from them ; and it will be in deciding upon the various circumstances that the nous of the agent will be called upon for its display. The varieties and sub-varieties of building stones are very numerous, the classification being the ' granites,' the ' limestones,' and the ' sand- stones.' Sometimes the granites and the sand- stones are classed together as the ' siliceous,' while the limestones are known or classed as the ' cal- careous ' and the ' argillaceous.' There are only two varieties of granite — the grey and the red ; of the limestones there are many varieties, which are classed generally under three heads — ' oolitic,' the ' magnesian,' and the ' shelly.' The first of these classes furnishes the most valuable of building stones, such as the ' Portland ' and ' Bath ' stone. Of ' magnesian,' that of Bolsover in Derbyshire has a high reputation. Of the ' sandstones ' the varieties are also numerous, the best in Scotland being the ' Craigleith.' In Eng- land, the ' Darley Dale ' and the ' Mansfield ' are highly thought of. Of the argillaceous class, the only practically useful representative is slate. Stones vary exceedingly in quality, some being practically everlasting, as the granites, whilst others, such as the sandstones, are almost worth- less for building purposes. Hence, as in the case of the limestones, will be seen the advantage of having professional advice as to the building stones of the property. It is right, however, to state that we know comparatively little both of limes and of building stones, although professional men, of whom it is only just to state that the Continental scientists have taken, if they are not now taking, the lead, are now paying close atten- tion to the whole subject. Of slate we need say but little, save that if of good quality, and the quarry be extensive, there is a mine of wealth lying in it for the proprietor. For stone there will obviously be compara- tively little outlet on the property itself, unless the quarry be so favourably situated that its materials can be distributed economically over a pretty wide area where road making and build- ing, etc. are going on : and should there be no LIME QUARRIES— MARL BEDS— PROPERTIES OF LIME AND MARL. 319 other demand for the product, working will of course be of proportionate extent. But where a quarry is situated in a locality from which it may be easily transported to places at which there is a good and regular demand for the stone, — as, for example, in a suburban district where building is going on, for which see a chapter in the present division, — its value will rise in proportion, and its regular and extensive working will then be- come a matter of the utmost importance. A good lime quarry may be considered a most valuable acquisition to any property. There is always a large demand for this material for various industrial operations ; and if the product be extensive, it will come under the category shortly before named. But lime plays such an important part in farming, that it will be in the generality of cases worth while to have a kiln or kilns erected for its burning, a description of which will be found in Chap. II. With some it is popularly believed that lime shell, as it is called, is the same form in which limestone is found naturally. It is scarcely neces- sary to say that this is altogether erroneous ; what is really limestone is the combination of lime, such as is found in ' chalk,' ' marble,' etc., with ' carbonic acid.' When this carbonic acid is driven off by heat, then the result is ' lime shell,' or ' shell lime,' or frequently ' quicklime.' This ' quicklime ' or lime shell has a remarkable affinity for moisture ; so then, when slaked or slacked with water, or even by absorbing the moisture from the atmosphere, it crumbles or crackles into pieces, and finally assumes the form of a fine powder, which is chemically known as a hydrate of linie. If water be added in sufficient quantity, together with a certain proportion of sand, what is called mortar, or, more popularly and univer- sally, ' linie,' is formed, which has the property of hardening in time. If to the powder or hydrate of lime, water is added till it becomes a thin paste, and if left in this condition for some time, it hardens by again taking up the carbonic acid from the air. Hence the absurdity of allowing lime which is to be used for manurial purposes to lie exposed on being brought from the lime-kiln, for it becomes, simply by process of time, which enables it to absorb moisture from the atmosphere, .1 hydrate of lime, which in turn hardens, and be- comes as incapable of being absorbed by the soil as old or hard mortar will be. Limestones are, so to say, very capriciously distributed through- out the country, in some parts being met with in small bulks, and these widely separated, while in others whole districts are formed of it, and to such'an extent — as, for example, in Derbyshire — that they are often termed limestone counties. Its position in the soil also varies very much — in some cases cropping up to and capable of being worked directly from the surface, while in others it lies more or less deeply, and quarrying has to be resorted to. Limestones are of different qualities, and the mortar made from them possesses essen- tially different properties. They are generally classed as ' common,' or ' rich and fat,' and ' hydraulic ' or ' poor.' The common limes have not, while the hydraulic have, the property of hardening under water. The hydraulic limes, which are exceedingly valuable in proportion to their quality, are comparatively rare, the most valuable in the country at present being that known as the ' Blue Lias,' which is found at Lyme Eegis, Barrow. The ' Dorking ' and ' Hail- ing ' are also well-known hydraulic linies. From what we have thus said, the advantage will be seen, of the proprietor or his agent having the benefit of professional advice on deciding to work the lime quarries of the estate. Marl Beds. — While a bed of clay can be used both for the purpose of making drain tiles and tubes, bricks, and flooring and roofing tiles, as well as for manure when burnt and applied to heavy soils, a marl bed is used wholly for manurial pur- poses, and is highly valuable in improving soils when applied as top-dressing and gradually mixed with them ; and some varieties of it, as shell marl, is peculiarly valuable as a top-dressing for grass lands, both in its natural state or when burnt in the same way as lime. Marl is often confounded with clay, to which in many instances it bears so strong a resemblance that it is often exceedingly difficult to decide which is marl and which is clay. It is not easy, therefore, to define what marl is, or to explain its physical charac- teristics, without going into a close detail of the different kinds met with, which is foreign to the purposes of this work. Generally, it may be said to be an earth or soil capable of becoming pul- 320 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. verized or changed in physical characteristics by the action of the atmosphere, and is composed of earthy materials more or less varied in kind, and with which is mixed carbonate of lime in greater or less proportion. It seems to have had its origin in the gradual decomposition of the cal- careous rocks, or of shells either of marine or inland formation, and generally is made up of substances partaking of the characteristics of these, as well as of argillaceous or clayey sub- stances. Mechanically or physically it is distin- guishable from clay, to which, as already stated, it often bears externally a close resemblance, from the tendency it has to pulverize when exposed to the air, or to become under the same influence, or of that of rain or water, a loose material, capable of being easily spread over the surface of, or mixed with soil, which forms one of its valuable characteristics. In the improvement or alteration of the mechanical as well as what may be called the manurial condition of soils by means of the application of marl, judgment will have to be used as to the kind to be employed. Thus, in the mixture of light and sandy soils, a clayey marl will be required ; as, on the contrary, in the case of heavy soils, a sandy marl will have to be employed. The quantity applied must be also carefully considered, for over-marling is calculated to do, as it has not seldom done, a large and, in some cases, a permanent amount of mischief. As before stated, it does not form part of this work to enter into details of uses of manures, or of such applications as marl, clay, and lime; all that we have to do is to point out in a general way their characteristics, varieties, and sources, etc. from which they may be obtained. With this object in view, we have to glance, then, at the leading varieties of marl. Perhaps the most valu- al ile — indeed it is classed as the most valuable — of all the marls is that which is generally known (1) as 'shelly,' and to which allusion has already been made. It is found in drained marshes, bogs, lakes, and deposits of water in alluvial districts which have been stagnant for a long period. It owes its formation to the deposit, through long periods, of the remains of minute shell-fish and of the organisms of the infinite variety of insects, etc. which abound in stagnant waters, mixed with sand, mud, and silty matter composed of various earths. It is a bluish-white in colour, somewhat resembles in appearance the well-known deter- gent fuller's earth, and, although close and reten- tive like clay when dug up, pulverizes on being exposed to the atmospheric influences, and is capable of being spread as a top-dressing for pastures, for which it is exceedingly valuable, as well as for clover, or being mixed with soil under arable culture. (2) Argillaceous or clayey marl is sometimes classed as a subdivi- sion of what are termed earthy marls, in which sand (siliceous constituents) and clay (argil- laceous constituents) are predominant over the chalky (calcareous constituents). The clayey marls are exceedingly useful for mixing with sandy soils, rendering them more compact, and adding to their richness and capability to bear crops, which sandy soils per se are not calculated to produce, or but poorly. Clayey or argillaceous marl, as its name imports, resembles clay of a close, adhesive character, somewhat softer, and being more oily, so to say, can be worked like paste ; but, like all other marls, on being exposed to the atmospheric influences, pulverizes or falls down. It is often found underlying peaty or mossy soils, and when brought up and mixed with the upper layers of peat, it forms with this a dark, unctuous substance, reducing in some way the humus or vegetable matter very much after the manner of doses of mild lime. All the clayey marls are, as already stated, valuable for mixing with and improving light soils, in which there is an excess more or less of siliceous or sandy particles. (3) Sandy or siliceous marl is valuable, on the other hand, for lightening heavy, adhesive, clayey soils ; it is less pasty than the clayey marls. It varies in colour from dark brown to a bluish tint ; it feels to the touch in working in the hand more or less gritty, and exposure to the atmospheric influences slowly pulverizes it and breaks it up. It is found chiefly in connection with limestone gravel- pits. (4) Stony marl, as its name indicates, is harder than the other marls, and is exceedingly variable in quality, — so much so, that, abounding in shelly matter, it is almost as rich as shelly marl, or so poor in calcareous constituents as to hold a very low position amongst the earthy marls. Stony marl of an average quality, like the sandy marls, is useful in mixing with and lightening VARIETIES OF MARL. 32r heavy clay soils. (5) Chalky or calcareous marls closely resemble in external appearance nodules of soiled chalk, which, on exposure to the air, crumble away, so as to be very readily mixed with soil. It is scarcely necessary to say that they are rich in calcareous matter. That all the marls are composed, in varying proportions, of carbonate of lime mixed with various substances, is proved by their behaviour when subjected to the action of acids, effervescence in such cases taking place with greater or less vehemence, according to the proportion in which the car- bonate of lime is present. As this constituent gives to marls their chief value as manurial agents, at least greatly adds to it in the case of many, this 'behaviour' with acids affords to the farmer a rough-and-ready means of ascertaining the character of any marl he may happen to meet with on his farm. Some marls do not effervesce under the action of acids, yet are they marls, popularly so called ; but they are of that class which occupies a position very difficult accu- rately to be defined, between a true clay and a true marl, and yet they may be found useful in certain circumstances. Nevertheless, it will be well, before largely applying marl of this class, to have it analyzed, so that its character may be closely ascertained, and the farmer may be able to know how best to use it, and to what soil and crops. In addition to the uses of marl in its natural form as a means of changing the character of soils of certain fixed peculiarities, — sandy marl with heavy clays, clayey marl with sandy soils or light loams, shelly marl with peat soil, which it soon changes into a rich, loamy soil, — they are also specially valuable in the formation of compost heaps, in conjunction with various kinds of organic substances, peat soil, and liquid manure. To conclude, all the marls perform highly im- portant functions in improving soils and the crops which they bear, and those functions are of an exceedingly varied character; still they require to be used under or with a correct knowledge of their characteristics, for, improperly used, they do harm rather than good, or at least by no means yield the benefits which they would do if applied under circumstances calculated to make the most of their useful constituents. 2s 322 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. CHAPTER II. KILNS LTME-TUT.NINr! KILNS BRICK AND TILE KILNS CLAY-r.Ur.NINO KILNS. The subject of kilns is one which embraces so many points, and includes such a variety of forms, — those ' patented ' alone being numbered by dozens, or rather scores, — that a volume of no mean bulk could easily be written upon, without fully exhausting it. For the general purposes of the estate, however, it is only necessary to give descriptions and illustrations of the simplest forms, so that these be efficient and economical in construction and working. The first class which we shall take up is that of Lime-Burning" Kilns. The simplest and cheapest form, and that which is indeed the most general in use, is that in which the furnace or calcining chamber is excavated out of the solid limestone rock, and near one of the outer faces of the most con- veniently situated part of the quarry, the upper or open end being so placed that the limestone can be wheeled on the shortest route from the point at which it is quarried, and ' tipped ' into the body of the furnace below. The shape of the excavated part is that of an inverted cone, as illustrated in the section in fig. 1, Plate 47, this being drawn to a scale of l-8th of an inch to the foot. The diameter of the cone at top is usually between 12 and 15 feet, and the height equal to the diameter — as a b, fig. 1, Plate 47. The conical part at its lower and smaller end terminates at the level of the fire-bars, c d, which rest upon cast-iron bearing bars, e e, which are so placed in the brickwork of the lower part that they can be removed at pleasure. This lower part, c e f f, is about 3 feet in diameter and 4 feet high, forming the ash-pit, h, the floor of which is on a level with the floor, g g, of the store shed in front of the kiln, the front wall and roof of which are shown at i j. The front wall, a c, of the kiln, a b c d, is built of brick, either 9, 14, or 18-inch work, according to size of the kiln and other circumstances, and siipports an arch, k, forming the roof or top of the open- ing in front of the ash-pit, h. The height from under side of the arch to level of floor, as k I, should be such as easily to admit a man standing when withdrawing the lime. This withdrawal is performed by pulling out the middle or central bars of the fire-grate, c e, which bars are provided with eyes at their outer end, to admit of a crow- bar being inserted when the bars have to be pulled out. When this is done, the calcined lime-shells then fall into the ash-pit, h, and are withdrawn by the man standing under the arch, k. As the lime-shells are apt at times to get jammed or adhere together, the front wall, a c, of the kiln should be provided with an opening just above the level of the fire-bars, this opening being supported by a wrought-iron frame some 3 inches wide : by means of this opening the jammed shells can be released so as to drop into the ash-pit. The opening is also useful in light- ing the fuel used to calcine the lime. The back part of the kiln, excavated out of the solid chalk or limestone of the quarry, is lined with brick- work, as b d ; this being backed with blocks of fresh solid limestone or chalk, m m, set in good mortar. It is scarcely necessary to say that the brick used for the back lining and front wall of the kiln must be of the very best quality, cal- culated to withstand the strong heat ; and if fire- bricks can be had, so much the better constructed will the kiln be, and the longer will the lining last without repair. This form of kiln is gene- rally known as the ' perpetual,' as, from the fuel and the limestone or chalk being mixed together, or rather placed in alternate layers of about a foot in thickness, and consumed in the furnace LIME-BURNING KILNS, FOR COAL AND WOOD AS FUEL. 323 or kiln, it can be carried on as long as may be desired. It is obvious, however, that from its form much of the burning material is placed near the top, and that, therefore, a large percentage of the heat flies upwards and is lost ; while another disadvantage is that cinders, etc. get mixed with the calcined lime, and thus render it unfit for building purposes, as coal must be used as the fuel, wood not being admissible. Where, there- fore, the lime is required to be burnt for purposes otherthan agricultural, — for use on the land, where cinders, etc. are no disadvantage, but in some soils, as heavy clays, are rather the reverse, — another form of kiln has to be used. This is known as the ' intermittent,' and a simple form of it closely resembles the rectangular brick or tile kiln. In this the chamber in which the liine is burned is heated by two or more furnaces, arranged with arched tops, with openings as in the brick kiln, through which the heat passes up to the limestone packed within the rectangular chamber. A usual size is 14 feet long, 12 broad, and from 9 to 1 0 feet high, inside measure- ment. This form of kiln, like that of the brick kiln, is often an independent structure, as it cannot be built against the side of the quarry, like the perpetual kiln already described — one of the advantages of the latter form — although one end may be built up against the wall or solid rock of the quarry, as at a a in fig. 2, Plate 47. It also requires greater attention than the perpetual kiln, but, on the other hand, it admits of a superior quality of burnt stone being obtained, and in small quantities as desired ; whereas in the per- petual kiln the quantity burnt at a time is large, and to work it most economically it must be kept going for a length of time, as its name implies — a circumstance which makes it avail- able only in a district or on a property where a large demand for linie-shells for manurial pur- poses exists. Lastly, the intermittent kiln is much less costly in fuel than the perpetual, as the heat is economized almost to a maximum. On many estates where land is to be reclaimed, on which there is a vast number of roots and parts of wood trees, etc., taken up in the course of putting old forest and similar land under cultiva- tion, an intermittent kiln is of great use, as the timber may be used as the fuel to calcine the limestone, as well as to burn bricks, tiles, and the like. In fig. 2, Plate 47, we give a longi- tudinal section of a form of one, which, however, may be modified as desired. The number of furnaces will vary according to the size of the kiln, but for one of the dimensions above stated these will suffice : each furnace is 1 8 inches wide, with a fire-bar surface of like width, and 3 feet long ; the height from the floor level of the kiln, as c d, fig. 2, Plate 47, is 18 inches to the under side of furnace bars, and 21 inches from top of bars to under side of the arch, as e f, and as shown in cross section in fig. 5, Plate 47. These arches are tinned in 9 inches deep brick- work— if of fire-brick so much the better, as, indeed, should be the lining at the back, g, fig. 2, and the inside lining of front, as ij. The fire- bars rest upon cast-iron bearers let into the brickwork, and the usual dimensions of the fire- bars are 2\ inches deep by 1^ thick, and placed with intervals of J inch between them. If not buttressed, the walls of the kiln are 3 feet thick, but at ends and front, buttresses, as a b, fig. 4, Plate 47, projecting 3 feet outwards, may be constructed, adding to strength of inside wall, as c d, fig. 4, Plate 47, while the void spaces, as e, may be filled in with small blocks of hard lime- stone rock, rubble-work fashion, set in mortar, as shown at/, fig. 4, Plate 47. The best mortar for inside work to stand the heat is fire-clay, although a mortar made of light loamy clay hardens into good mortar resembling fire-clay, and without cracking. To allow the heat from the furnaces to escape upwards into the body of the kiln, the arches are not solid, but are provided with apertures, as shown in section at a a, fig. 5, Plate 47, and in plan of top of arch at a a, fig. 6. The distance between these apertures along the length of arch is 14 inches in brick-and-half work, as b c, fig. 6, Plate 47, the width across the arch at top, as a b, 5 and 3 inches on the under side, as b, fig. 5 ; they, of course, widen out as shown towards the upper side of arch. Courses of brickwork are built up between the arches so as to leave a series of apertures, converting the floor of the kiln into a series of apertures or holes, of dimensions and spaces between as above stated, arrayed ' chequer ' fashion all over the floor. The limestouu is packed in layers, in the first instance 3^4 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. above the iloor about 6 inches thick, taking care to leave spaces as nearly above the apertures in the arch and floor as possible, as shown at a a, fig. 7 ; the solid packing being at the parts be- tween the apertures, as at b b. By this arrange- ment there are openings left, up which the heated air of the furnaces passes, and escapes finally by the openings in the roof of the kiln, as at k h, fig. 2, Plate 47. Brick, Tile, and Drain-Tube Kilns. — Where there is a good and extensive field or pit of clay, advantage should be taken of it to make the bricks and drain-tubes or tiles required at the various parts of the property. It does not form part of the scope of this work to enter into any description of the methods of making those im- portant articles, so essential in the improvement of land, and useful in the building of various structures, further than with the kilns in which they are burned, of which more presently. What we have at present to concern ourselves with is the plan of the brick and tile yard. The name has got so established, that although tubes are used nearly universally for drain- age, the word tile is retained, these tiles having been used for drainage purposes at one period ; although, of course, the name tile may refer to flooring and roofing tiles, which also may be made on the property. In addition to the plan of yard showing the disposition of the various parts, we shall illustrate and describe a kiln which may be adopted with such modi- fications as may be necessary. The plan of the brick-yard, etc. is shown in Hate 49, the drawings of the kiln in Plates 48, 49, 50, and of which the following is a description. In fig. 2, Plate 49, a a are the clay heaps laid up for tempering, dug out from what we suppose to be the bank of clay in the field behind, as indicated by the wavy b' b' line above the sheds, situated at b b, placed at right angles so as to enclose the lain, c, and flats, d d, on which the bricks are laid out for drying ; c c are extra sheds for storage, or for drying sheds, when there is a push of work. The machines and steam-engine to work them are placed at /. Should the upper range of drying sheds be used as a hot-air drying one, the chimney shaft, g, may be moved to the posi- tion h. Fig. 2 shows an arrangement for a tile and drain-tube yard, of which a a are the drying sheds arranged in parallel rows, b b extra store or reserve shed ; the kiln is placed at c, the machine- room in a shed, d, behind which are the boiler and engine sheds, c f. Another arrangement is shown in fig. 3, which is connected with the improved double kiln for drain-tubes, a descrip- tion of which will be found at the end of this present section, and the drawings of which we have adapted from a number of that excellent journal, The Artisan, which we regret to say has for some time been discontinued. In fig. 3, Plate 49, a a are clay sheds, 16x12 feet in the central ones, and 15x10 in the side ones ; b is the pulp mill for working the clay, in front of which is the drying shed, c c ; on either side of c c are depots or stores, d d e c, for the manu- factured goods, 120 feet by 25, capable of hold- ing about 400,000 tiles. These are surrounded by the tramway or rail, finished at ends circularly, as shown, and so that the tiles can be brought down from the sheds, c c, to the kilns, g g, and from thence taken up to the depots, d d, c e ; f f are coal stores, 16 by 12, and h and i are sheds for a tool-house and office. The following is a brief abstract of the specification of a kiln used by a well-known manufacturer on the large scale, and which differs but in minor particulars from the kiln illustrated in Plates 49 and 50. The length of the kiln over all is 30 feet, the width or breadth 1 0 feet ; the height from ground level to the top level of walls, from which the covering arch springs, 10 feet, the arch having a rise of 3 feet 6 inches, which, with a thickness of the outside walls of kiln of 3 feet, would make the arch semi-circular, which is the best form, producing little or no lateral pressure on the walls, but chiefly vertical. The number of fire- places on each side is 11. As above stated, a thickness of wall of 3 feet would give a semi- circular arch with a rise of 3 feet 6 inches ; but although in the present instance the thickness of walls at low parts and up to the level of fire- places is 3 feet, the thickness above these and up to springing of arch is reduced to 2 feet 4 inches, thus giving an arch less than semi-circular. We should in this case increase the rise of arch, so as to obtain a semi-circular covering arch, for the reasons already stated. The gables of the kiln CONSTRUCTION OF KILNS FOR DRAIN TUBES AND BRICK BURNING. 325 are 2 feet 4 inches in thickness from top to bottom, no set-off being used in these ; they are provided with buttresses, two at each end, and with a base the width of outside surrounding shed, and tapering up to meet the top of end walls of kiln. These buttresses are placed to counteract the tendency of the end walls to bulge out. This tendency is very great, being caused by the intense heat to which the brick walls are subjected. To provide against this in the case of the side walls, ' flying ' or ' arched buttresses' are built, 7 to each side ; these are built of brick, the lower base being 10 feet, inside measure- ment, from the side walls. The width or breadth of face of each buttress is two and a half bricks ; the depth on side of buttress one and a half brick. The upper end of each buttress butts against and is well keyed into or bonded with a stone butment, let into the side wall of kiln at top ; the length of this butting stone piece is 4 feet, its thickness or depth 15 inches, and its width or breadth 10 inches. The sheds at sides and ends are, of course, in width regulated by the outside line of buttress base, and the walls may be of brick, 9 -inch work, or wood shedding. Open- ings shoidd be provided by which to supply coal to the sheds, but closed with shutters when necessary to protect the furnaces from winds when at work. The outside of covering arch of kiln is to be covered with a mixture of clay and sand well tempered, to the depth of 2 to 3 inches, so that the heat may be retained as much as possible in the kiln. The chimneys of the kiln pass through the arched covering, and are 40 in number ; they are about 6 inches square, inside measurement, project above top of arch at centre about 13 inches, the side chimneys being finished off to same level. All the chimney's are provided with rain flap-valves or covers, wrought by rod and lever so as to be easily closed and opened by the work-people below. With 11 furnaces or fire-places at each side of the kiln, the 40 chimneys are made up as follows : — 12 on each side, 1 2 along the centre of the covering arch, and 2 at each end, placed equidistantly between the side and centre chimneys. There is a door at each end of the kiln, arched at top, by which entrance to and from it is obtained. The end door, or lower one, is 5 feet high from the level of the floor, and 3 feet wide ; the sill or step of the opposite door is also 0 feet above floor level, but 6 feet high and 3 wide. The building of kilns requires to be done with the greatest possible care; no mortar of the ordinary kind is to be used, as it would be destroyed by the intense heat, and thus cause such unequal settlement in the walls as to tend soon to destroy them. The inside of the kiln shoidd be lined with fire-bricks, well bedded in finely-ground fire- clay, for the first brick length in ; the heart or interior of the walls has the bricks bedded with a mixture of common clay and sand, while the outside course may be set in mortar, this being the only part of the structure in which the use of mortar is allowable, for the reason above named. The greatest possible care should be taken in carrying up the courses uniformly and in bedding the bricks, these being laid as closely together as they can be, and the joints thin and evenly spread ; bonding must also be specially attended to. The covering arch should be built with the bricks not set 'in bed,' as usual, but * on edge.' The fire-places are budt with fire- bricks, and the arched tops are also made with these. As these bricks are apt to get damaged and worn out by the heat, etc., a good plan to build the furnaces inside fire- places, sometimes adopted, is to make the open- ing for each in the side walls of such a width as to allow side piers or low sustaining walls to be built of ordinary brick on each side of these openings, as at b b, fig. 3, Plate 50 ; these piers support or carry the fire-brick lining, a a, fig. 3, Plate 50, of the furnace. Other piers, as c c, should be continued upwards and arched over, thus forming a ' safety arch ' of ordi- nary brick over the fire-brick arch, a a a, below or inside ; thus, when any repairs are needed either to the side or arched fire-brick lining of a furnace, the whole, for that matter, can be taken out without endangering the side walls by causing any undue settlement. The width between inside measurement of the brick piers, b b, should, of course, be equal to the intended width of furnace or fire-place, which is usually eight or nine inches ; the latter is preferable, being that of the length of an ordinary brick. It need scarcely be said that, for the purpose of easy DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. removal for repairs, the fire-brick lining of the furnaces must nut be bonded into, as with the ordinary brick side lining and arches described above. Floors of kilns are made in several ways, the chief being two, the ' solid ' and ' riddle.' The solid floor is made by filling in breeze, or with broken bricks up to a certain level, then with regularly laid ordinary bricks up to another level, this being such that when the floor is laid with brick 'on edge,' its upper surface will be at the desired height ; this upper surface may be of ordinary, but is best of fire-brick. The brick-on-edge floor is well bedded in a thick layer of sand, so that no unequal settlement giving rise to inequalities in floor level or surface will take place. Tor burning drain-tubes a ' riddle ' bottom is by some considered absolutely necessary. This riddle bottom is formed of brick on edge resting on the solid floor — d, fig. 3, Plate 5 0 — of the furnace ; a space between each brick equal in thickness to half that of the brick is left between the series of bricks forming the riddle bottom, as at a a in fig. 5, Plate 50. In order to divide the heat from the two sets of furnaces, as a a b b, and c e d d, fig. 5, Plate 48, it is neces- sary to build a wall, e e, running in a longitudinal direction along the kiln ; in the form of kiln towards the right-hand side of the central line, //, this wall is dispensed with, as the furnaces are built on a different plan, as will be hereafter described. The wall e e is carried up only to the height of the under side of the riddle bottom. The object of the wall e e is to direct the flames of the two sets of furnaces towards the centre of the kiln, or rather to diffuse their heat throughout its whole interior. The drawing in fig. 5, Plate 48, shows on each side of the central line,//, the half of two separate methods of constructing kilns of the kind now under description. The drawing will sufficiently indicate the general arrangement, the details being those in which the plans mainly differ. As the heat is very great, buttresses, as g g, are provided at the sides, and, as h h, at the ends. The side buttresses are frequently, we may say generally, in kilns built on the plan to the left of line//, fig. 5, Plate 48, of the kind knuwn as ' flying,' as shown at a a, fig. 2, Plate 50. These buttresses have outside walls, as b b, fig. 1, Plate 50, which form sheds roofed over, as at cc, and shown in plan at i i, fig. 5, Plate 48, and are used as sheds for the storing of fuel, etc. Generally the form of kilns shown towards the right of line// fig. 5, Flate 48, have no sheds, but are left exposed, as shown in the section to the left of central line d d, fig. 1, Plate 50. In this the buttress is formed as at e e ; and if a shed is adopted, which is always useful, the roof timber, / may rest on the top of this, as shown. The end buttresses in place of that shown to the left of / / in the plan fig. 5, Plate 48, are terminated as shown at h h ; thinner walls connecting the end ones of shed have doorways, j j, passing to the side sheds. The kiln ou this plan is, in its general details, constructed on the system described in the pre- vious specification, and many of these are de- scribed and illustrated. In fig. 1, Plate 50, we have shown a flying buttress formed of cast iron, the roof of the shed under being made of corru- gated plates, bent to the form of the buttress ; g g shows the door or wicket through which the materials are wheeled to the interior of the kiln, the sill of which is at the level of upper side of bottom of the same ; in this plan only one door is used, but in that shown to the left of the line //, fig. 5, Plate 48, two are given. A vertical section of the furnaces of the plan to the left of //, fig. 5, Plate 48, is shown in fig. 5, Plate 50. In this, a a is the riddle bottom, which, however, rests at once upon the relieving arches, b b ; cc, the furnaces ; d, the ash-pits. Fig. 6 is plan of same, showing how, by the arrangement of the arches and the riddle bottom, a series of cross and longi- tudinal openings, as a a b b, are made, through which the heat of the furnaces ascends to the interior and upper part of the kiln. This arrangement is effected as follows : — The arches, as c c, fig. 3, Plate 50, are nine inches on the face or brick length, as a c d, fig. 4. A space, as e e, is left between each arch, thus form- ing the longitudinal openings, b b, fig. 6. By placing the bricks forming the riddle bottom on edge, as shown in cross section in fig. 5 at a a, and with spaces between them as already de- scribed, these spaces form the cross ones, a a, fig. G, intersecting the longitudinal, b b, in the ARRANGEMENT AND CONSTRUCTION OF DRYING SHEDS FOR BRICKS. form of kiln as that to the right of //, fig. 5, Plate 48 ; and in others of a still more simple description the furnaces are built in a less elaborate form than now described. Thus fig. 7, Plate 5 0, illustrates in cross section at a, and in longi- tudinal or side view at b, a plan of building the furnaces of the unburned bricks ; the floor being also formed of these on what is called the ' chequer ' principle, the main feature of which is having bricks placed in longitudinal rows, with others disposed angularly, something after the style adopted in filling in certain forms of brick walls. Dnjiiirj SJiecls. — Drying sheds in tile and brick works are generally of a very simple character, being merely constructed of rough wooden shelving, with inexpensive roofing. We have illustrated in Plate 49, in figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9, a shed which, for its simple construction, possesses some details worthy of notice. The description of this will be found in the section in this chapter descriptive of an improved double kiln. Sheds are almost universally left open to the atmosphere, which is the only drying power depended upon ; indeed, from the rough character of many of them, sheltering the materials from the wet seems more the object of those who use them, rather than that of making the air available as a drying medium. That, however, much economy of fuel in the kiln drying would be effected by previously placing the tiles, etc. in proper drying sheds, and withdrawing by some means or other much of their natural moisture, is obvious enough. Various attempts have been made, therefore, by different manu- facturers and inventors to introduce a system of drying sheds, so arranged and constructed that the power of artificial heat could be made avail- able for the drying of the goods placed within them. The simplest of the plans of this kind which has been adopted is a structure, low-roofed, of great length as compared with its breadth, and along the centre of which runs longitudinally a flue, which rises to some height above the floor leveL A furnace is placed at one end, a chimney at the other, and as the heated products of the furnace pass through the flue to the interior of the chimney, the sides and top of flue give out heat which raises in time the temperature of the air within the room. There are two great objections to this system — first, the expense of a special furnace ; secondly, the lack of an efficient system of ventilation Prom all kilns, however efficiently they be constructed, there passes off a large percentage of air heated to a very liigh temperature, without giving any useful effect. That air so obtained can be made avail- able for many useful purposes, is shown by the great success which has attended the plan adopted at ironworks, etc., by which the heated air passed from the furnaces is made available in raising steam, etc., without the use of any fuel. That the principle could be applied to dry- ing sheds — and, indeed, to some other agricul- tural processes — is obvious, and would involve no great trouble or expense ; but with many con- structors the idea is prevalent that there really is great difficulty in dealing with the leading of heated air in different directions. But the truth is, that, given a good draught, the matter is one generally of extreme simplicity. We have ex- perienced little or no difficulty in conducting the waste heated products in various directions, and in some instances where failure was considered certain from the apparent difficulty of the posi- tion. Even the waste heat of an ordinary steam boiler can be made available for some useful purpose. Mr. Hands some years ago introduced, with great success, drying sheds for brick and tile works in which the waste heat of the kiln was made available. But great as have been the obstacles to the extension of the artificial system of drying, from the cause above named, the real difficulty arises in making the system of heating efficient, and from failing or being unable to carry out a good system of ventilation. Drying by means of artificial heat does not consist merely in subjecting materials to a high temperature ; to use a familiar expression, the materials subjected to it merely get soddened, as it were, and it takes a considerable time to carry off the moisture which the heat causes to arise from them. But the case is altered at once if means are taken to carry off the heated vapours as fast as they arise from the materials. We have, in another chapter, gone briefly into the subject of ventilation ; to that, therefore, we 3-8 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. refer the reader, and pass on to describe a few details connected with the subject. In fig. 8, Plate 50, we give the section of a drying- house which may be adapted for various purposes, but which will illustrate the applica- tion of the waste beat of kilns to drying sheds, in which the tiles, etc. may be partially dried. AVe say partially, because it should be remem- bered that there is danger in over - drying, especially if this be done quickly, and with a high temperature ; for the exterior surface is apt to get as it were baked, which prevents the interior moisture from escaping. Indeed, some manufacturers object altogether to the system of artificial drying of tiles, etc., on this very ground, maintaining that although by it they may save something in the kiln drying, the goods themselves are often very unsound and cracked. In fig. 8, Plate 50, the hot-air flues, a a, are supplied with cold air passing in by the ventiducts, b b, which, after becoming heated by passing in contact with their surfaces, passes up through the aper- tures made in the floor, c c, and comes in con- tact with the drain-tubes, etc., placed on the racks, d d. The heated air and moisture pass upwards towards the ceiling, e e, through which it passes to the external atmosphere. This may be done in one of two ways : first, by passing the products through a series of ventilating-tubes, / /, placed at intervals along the length of ceiling, and passing through the space between the ceiling and the outer roof. The ventilator, //, is provided with a cord or cap, g, while the current is regulated by a valve placed near the ceiling, as shown, and which is operated on by a cord or chain. The other plan is the well- known one of the old-fashioned louvre, passing along the whole length of the roof, which has no internal ceiling. The fresh ah is regulated in the amount of its admission to the flues, a a, by valves, i i, placed as shown ; the whole of these may be adjusted at one time, if required, by a simple bell-crank movement, as shown in fig. 11, Plate 50, the central shaft of which runs along the whole length of the shed. The ventiducts, b b, fig. 8, are placed only at certain intervals along the length of wall of shed, as shown in fig. 9. Fig. 10 gives a part section of one of the flues, a a a, fig. 8, showing how the hot air can be led by a vertical flue, a a, conduct- ing the air from the kiln ; the dotted line b shows a horizontal tube. In some cases the flues are arched at top, but it is the simpler way to cover them with flat stones or rebated tiles ; if stones are used, the outer corners should be rounded off, as in fig. 12, or splayed, as in fig. 13 at a a, Plate 50. Improved Double Kiln. — The following is a description of the kdn, plan of which is given in Plate 49 at g g, fig. 3, and referred to in last page. Pig. 1, Plate 48, is half ground plan from the central line, a b, of this double kiln, the position of which in the general arrange- ment of the yard is shown in fig. 3, Plate 49, and at d d, as in the drawing, Plate 48 (scale 20 feet to the inch). It is capable of holding, say, thirty thousand inch-and-half tdes, with collars. The contents form a cube of 12 feet, i.e. 12 feet square at the top and bottom, and 12 feet in height. To have a kiln which would hold more pipes than the shed would dry in a week would be useless, and if it held less there would be a waste of fuel. One of the items in saving coal is the size of the kiln, and for this reason it is made 12 feet in height, as not requiring much more fire than one half that height. The walls are designed as 3 feet in thickness, being built with the very best bricks, the joints being less than quarter-inch if possible, for upon the solidity and excellence of the work the cheapness of its future work- ing depends. Should you save £20 by using inferior materials and bad workmanship, it will entail a constant waste of perhaps ten shillings worth of coal per week, in consequence of the escape of heat from the sides of the kiln. The building should proceed slowly, and in regular courses, during dry weather, and fires should be kept constantly lighted, so as to dry the work very thoroughly before a kilnful of tiles is burnt. Lack of these simple precautions has often been the cause of the first two kilns of tiles being completely spoiled in what is called ' seasoning the kiln/ incurring a loss of from £15 to £20 thereby. In fig. 1, Plate 48, a a a shows the open- ings of the ash-pits under the fire-places, 12 inches wide by 18 inches in height, widening CONSTRUCTIVE DETAILS OF KILNS FOR DRAIN TUBES, BRICKS, ETC. 329 out to 18 inches on the exterior face of the wall, in order to increase the draught of air to the fire-place. They are three in number, and extend to -within 2 feet of the opposite end of the kiln, as shown in the part elevation, fig. 2. The enlarged drawing, fig. 5, on a scale of 2 feet to an inch, shows a sectional elevation of the ash-pits and fire-places. Two courses of fire- brick project each 2^ inches from each side of the ash-pit at the height of 18 inches, leaving a space of 3 inches in the clear between them, and at every third brick an additional space is left at the side. The fire-place widens out to 18 inches at the springing of the arch. It is adapted either for turf or timber, or a mixture of both ; where coals are used, a moveable iron grate could be laid on the bricks, or a wider aperture might be left, and the number of iron bars increased. The bricks for lining the interior of the fire-places, and also for both rings of the arch over it, should be made to pattern of the very best fire-brick, with joints radiating to the centre of curve, so as to avoid using much cement. The floor of the kiln should be laid perfectly level, with fire-brick 9 inches square by 3 inches thick; at the distance of every 18 inches, a cross flue is built 6 inches wide, crossing the fire-places at right angles, and running into the vertical flues in the walls of the kiln. They commence from the level of the springing of the arches over the fire-places ; if carried down lower, they would merely be filled up with ashes to that level. The vertical flues are shown in fig. 2, a a a a a, running up to the top of the kiln, 6 inches by 9 inches in depth. An enlarged plan of a part of these flues is shown in fig. 6, Plate 50; at every fourth course, a brick is inserted across the front to pack the pipes against, thus leaving a space of 4^ by 6 in the clear behind them. In ordinary kilns the fires are made merely in the thickness of the walls, so that the heat has to be transmitted through the mass of tiles from one side only (the under one) ; but in this kiln the heat is at once carried to four sides of the cube out of the six, and equally divided over the whole surface. In order to increase the draught of the fire- places when necessary, and also to make use of the waste heat from the kiln at other times when cooling, five rows of pipes are laid down 3 inches in diameter, which at the level of the fire-places pass through the wall of the kiln under the railway, and open out at equal dis- tances along the two drying sheds. The hot air from these pipes will not only assist in quickly drying the pipes in clamp weather, but in case of frost it will save perhaps £20 worth of pipes at a time from being cracked all to pieces. These hot-air pipes are shown in fig. 1, c c c c c. Opposite to the fire-places, a shed is to be built with two arches in front, see figs. 1, 2, and 3. It will serve the double purpose of sheltering the kiln men, and also be used as a platform for packing and emptying the upper half of the kiln ; the ground in the tile-yard, at the point where the rails are laid down, being level with the floor of the kiln (see fig. 2). The lower half of the kiln is filled through an aperture 18 inches square (see fig. 2); and for the upper half, the tiles are handed up to the platform, p p, and through an aperture 1 8 inches square at the top of the kiln (see figs. 2 and 3), both being bricked up when the kiln is full. They are pitched up and filled by boys, by hand, just as bricks are loaded into vessels through a hole in the bow. In the section on drying sheds in this chapter, we referred to a form of shed adapted to the double kiln now described ; the following is a brief explanation of its details. In fig. 9, Plate 49, we give an end elevation of an improved shed, showing how, while the shelves contained in it are more protected from the weather, they are more freely exposed to the action of the air than in the generally adopted shed. This latter closely resembles in end elevation the central part of fig. 9, Plate 49, but is much wider (30 feet) and lower, the roof being made to overhang considerably over the side?. In fig. 7, Plate 49, a plan of the shelving is shown. The timber is sawn up into 6 feet lengths of 1\ by 1 inch, and so placed on the cross - bearers as to leave spaces of 2 inches in the clear between them, as in fig. 4. The cross-bearers, as shown in fig. 5, are 3 inches wide, and placed at distances apart of 6 feet 330 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. from centre to centre, as in fig. 7. The shelf scantlings, ljL by 1 inch, may simply be laid on the cross-bearers, butting end to end, as in fig. 5 ; but they will be more secure if laid in grooves made in the cross-bearers, a cross section and a plan of part of which with grooves are shown in fig. 6. Fig. 8 gives part front elevation of the range of shelving with cross-bearers. The height over all is 7 feet, as shown to the left ; aud as there are to be 10 shelves — only 8 are shown in fig. 7 — this will give a distance between the shelves of not quite 7 inches. A height of 7 feet 6 inches would be required for 7 - inch intervals in the full, which will be space sufficient for 4-inch tubes or pipes. For small pipes the number of shelves may be much in- creased, or the height decreased, according to circumstances. The scantlings are laid on the cross-bearers on the flat, and in place of simply meeting with a plain butt joint, as in fig. 5, they may be made with a half lap joint to be more secure. A Kiln or Furnace for Burning Clay to be used as a Manure. — Our readers are well aware of the value of burnt clay as a manure for application to heavy clay soils, in opening up their texture, so to say, and otherwise improving their mechani- cal condition, in which way it may be said principally to act. With its agricultural features we have here, however, not to concern ourselves ; it is solely with the mechanical or rather con- structive features of clay burning. Clay burning is generally, we may say universally, done in large heaps, the fuel — generally coals of a small kind — and the clay being placed in alternate layers ; and when the lower ones have fairly become ignited, andthe variouslayers added till the required height is obtained, the whole is covered over with clay, and the burning allowed to go on very slowly. It may be questioned, however, if this is the most economical method which could be adopted, and whether a plan of kiln or furnace could not be arranged to meet the circumstances of the case, and secure the fullest economy. The following is the description of one designed by Mr. Walter Long, and given in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, vol. vii. : — ' Our soil,' says Mr. Long, ' is a thin, dry, flinty loam upon chalk ; and we suffer unless we have abundance of rain in spring and summer ; every- thing, therefore, is beneficial to our land that has the property of attracting atmospheric moisture, carbonic acid gas, etc. etc. With this object, the first point is to obtain ashes ; those that are burnt in the fields from weeds and grass round the headlands, or from the grubbing of hedgerows, being full of vegetable matter, are the best and cheapest. These, however, can only be burnt in summer ; and sooner or later, on farms that are kept clean, the materials are no longer to be found. Yet an inexhaustible supply may be obtained, and employment afforded throughout the winter, by burning clay and strong earth in kilns, protected from the rain ; the only difficulty having been that many persons, and myself at first, produced a hard substance, more resembling brickbats than powder. This difficulty I obviated by (previous to burning) well saturating the soil with water, working it and treading it to the consistency of mortar, for water will separate any particles, however adhesive ; and then the fire, expelling the water and the carbonic acid gas, leaves the particles previously separated, when burnt, in a state of very fine powder ; and if any should not at first be quite separated, it slacks immediately on the application of liquid. Having saturated the soil thus with water, as much as a spade will hold is rolled up to the size of a large cannon-ball, and is handed to a man in the kiln, who places it on the bars, or the coping of the brick arches over the furnace. He places each ball as he receives it side by side for two or three tiers, one above the other, and then lights the fuel in the furnace. In a short time the balls, wet as they are, become set or firm, and will not run into one another from the accumulated weight, as they would do if thrown in together in a rude, wet mass. These tiers of balls are then covered with a layer of small roots or wood (which become charcoal), and then over this wood the moist earth is laid on in spits as loosely as possible, till the kiln is nearly full, and finally topped up with turf, or rape roots, or any vegetable rubbish. ' If the first tiers of balls be laid on overnight, and the fire be kindled about seven the next morning, all work of continuous burning may be so forwarded as to enable the men to block up BRICK KILNS FOR THE USE OF WASTE WOOD AS FUEL. 331 the mouth of the furnace with roots or stools by five o'clock P.M., leave it to burn, and go home ; and the next morning the whole will be found burnt out. In this way, there being three kilns, and one lighted every morning, one will be coobng, one will be unloaded and charged again with balls, and one will be burning out, and so on in rotation. And by burning off two kilns any one day at the close of the week, and leaving them to cool, seven kilns may be burnt in each week, each containing about 160 bushels, and thus 1000 net bushels may be obtained weekly. When the ashes are taken out of the kiln, they are sifted very fine, and made free from stones, chalk, etc., and wheeled to a covered shed, 50 feet long, and there laid out in beds or pools, embanked by themselves all round, about two feet deep ; a portable cask and pump annexed then continually brings from various tanks the overflowings of the farm-yards, the liquor from the stables, cow-sheds, piggeries, the house, and the laundry, and discharges it into these beds of fine ashes, which, when they have absorbed the liquor, are covered with a coat of gypsum. They are then repeatedly turned and repeatedly flooded, until they have thoroughly imbibed the moisture, and remain fully charged with valuable matter. It is then packed away in another close shed or store, and then trodden down by men, as hard and close as you may fancy guano to lie in its rocky bed ; and so it remains, piled up to the upper tie-beams of the shed, and covered over with boards and hurdles, until dug out with a pickaxe for use. We thus have always a large store of manure, ready to drill for turnips, swedes, and roots of any kind, and a most excellent top-dressing for grasses and meadows ; and in the kitchen garden and flower gardens it has been found a perfect substitute for farm-yard manure, and less productive of weeds. In its process it heats a good deal, and sends out crusts of saltpetre.' In fig. 3, Plate 18, we give the plan of the kiln or furnace, in which the length, a b, is 12 feet in the clear; the breadth, c d, 4 feet 2 inches ; the parts as 0 are of solid brick, the intervals or air spaces, x, 3 inches wide in the clear. The kiln at its upper part slopes off on both sides, as shown in the vertical section in fig. 4, Plate 18 ; the width at bottom, a b, corresponding to c d in fig. 3, being 4 feet 2 inches, the width, c d, at top (fig. 4) being 6 feet 3 inches. The front view is shown in fig. 2, Plate 18, in which the width of furnace opening, a b, is 2 feet, the height of ditto, c d, 3 feet. The kiln is built in a dell or hollow, so that a roadway or gangway, as e, fig. 4, can be constructed on the level or thereby, so that the kiln can be emptied and filled with the least labour, while the road, /, in the lower level is used to gain access to the furnace entrance, as in fig. 2, to feed it with fuel, etc. The thickness of the sides, g, fig. 4, is 9 inches, or brick length thickness. The great advantage of this system of Mr. Long's, so far as the burning of the clay is concerned, is that it produces it along with the wood ashes in the form of a powder, or small lumps capable of being easily reduced to this state. In the ordinary heap system, the clay, as pointed out by Mr. Long, is apt to harden in too large pieces, and these very hard. Brick Kiln for Burning Waste Wood as the Fuel. — The following is a description of the form of kiln introduced by Mr. Johnston of Culross for the consumption of waste wood in place of coal. The dimensions are those suited to what is technically called a ' twenty-thousand kiln,' that is, one in which 20,000 bricks can be burned. The construction has, of course, to be such as to meet the peculiarity of the fuel, which burns with great quickness and fierceness as compared with coal. The kiln is started, therefore, from a foundation the level of which is 8 feet below that of the ground. This position checks the free admission of the air, and makes the com- bustion of the wood much slower than it other- wise would be. There are three fire-holes to the kiln, but open on one side only ; they pass, however, right across the whole breadth of the furnace. The height of the fire-holes is 3 feet, and the width 2 feet. These dimensions, it will be observed, are greater than those of coal-consuming kilns, but this extra size is given in order to make the firing more easy. In order to prevent the flames from passing through the flues and coming in contact with the bricks, the flames are allowed to expend themselves, so to say, before they reach the actual interior of the kiln, so that heated air only passes into the 335 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. interior of the kiln. This is arranged for, by extending the fire-holes for a distance of some 7 feet beyond the outside walls, taking care to load the arched tops with clay, and buttressing the extended lire-holes with the sides of the kiln. In order to distribute the heat in a manner as uniform as possible over the whole interior of the kiln, to regulate the draught, and to shield or protect the bricks or tfles from the too fierce dame and heat, the flues in the interior of the kiln require to be smaller and more numerous than those required in coal-consuming kilns. As the combustion of timber is very unsteady and uncertain as compared with coal, great care is required to maintain the necessary degree of uniform heat required for the drying of the bricks or tiles ; this process preceding the actual burning, when the full heat is sent into the kiln. The drying heat has not only to be uniform, but of a gradually increasing temperature ; the point is reached when the vapour or steam at first issuing from the kiln is changed into a smoke, or vapour resembling it. The wood used for the drying process is or may be of different quality and condition from that used for the burning ; for drying heat the timber must be as free from moisture as possible, as this passing into the kiln adds to the dampness of the bricks or tiles. Roots of trees, such as the ash, elm, maple, and hazel, are well suited for the drying wood; but any kind may be used for burning, a convenient length for firing being eighteen inches. In firing there is some art necessary ; immediately after pushing forward the previous charge, a fresh supply of dry roots should be pushed into the mouth of the fire-hole. This is done so that they serve not merely to lessen the draught, but to become partially consumed, so that they can be pushed forward with greater ease at the next stoking or charging. The mouths or charging apertures of the fire-holes should have sheet-iron covers, in order to enable the fireman to regulate the combustion. When these points are attended to, the heat produced is very little inferior to that of coal. As regards the relative cost of the two systems of heating kilns by means of refuse wood and coal, Mr. Johnston found a decided balance in favour of the wood, and this under what he considered unfavourable circumstances, inasmuch as, for example, the kiln was too large to yield the most favourable results. No com- mercial value was put upon the refuse, the clearing of the land, and any trifle that accrued from it, being considered as its value. The estimate of burning per thousand bricks by means of wood being 3s. 9|d., that of the coal system being 5s. l^d. ' The small balance,' says Mr. Johnston, 'of Is. 4d. per thousand in favour of the wood, together with 3s. per acre saved in the clearing of the land, was considered sufficient to warrant the application of such refuse to this purpose ; but it would have resulted much more profitably with a 22,000 kiln instead of a 35,000 one.' UTILIZATION OF POND MUD, PEAT, AND BOGGY MATTER. 333 CHAPTEE III. UTILIZATION OF SUNDRY MATERIALS. This chapter might be extended to a much greater length than our space admits of, so numerous are the materials lying, as may be said, almost everywhere, varying more or less in value, but all having enough to make them worthy of attention, and to repay that by utilizing them in the best and most economical way. What we give, however, must be taken more as hints to the observant reader, rather than by any means as an exhaustive treatment of what is really a most interesting and suggestive subject. The first we take up is upon — The Use of Pond Mud, Peat, and Boggy Matter as additions to the Manure and Compost Heaps. — We have elsewhere shown that the increase in the productive powers of our farms depends largely upon the increased supplies of manure which we can obtain, and that, again, depends upon the increase of our live stock ; and have shown the cycle or circle which all the operations of the farm make, these revolving, so to say, on central points. Now, although this refers chiefly to farm- yard dung, the mainstay of the manorial resources of the farm, still there are other ways in which manure of greater or less value can be added to the general stock at little cost. Thus, in another part of the work, we have offered some remarks on the value of the compost heap, and how this can be greatly added to. One source from which material for this can be got is the horse-pond, water-filled old clay pits, marl pits, etc. These are allowed very often to remain, as a rule, for years uncleaned, evidently, in the case of the horse- ponds at least, deteriorating the quality of the water, and in so far prejudicially affecting the health of the horses and cattle partaking of it. Now the deposits in these ponds, clay and marl pits, are exceedingly valuable as manure, con- taining as they do, in addition to the earthy matters which are in themselves of no mean value when applied to certain soils, a large amount of vegetable matter in a more or less advanced stage of decay. Again, in some districts there are swampy parts, in which are deposited vast supplies of this material. As a ride which has but few exceptions, we may say that these rnanu- rial deposits have been wholly neglected in this country, and we have to go to other countries to learn their value, and how best they can be made avadable; and of these, perhaps America has done most in this way. Should the reader be possessed of Professor Johnson's work on agricultural chemistry,1 he will do well to con- sult its pages for some practically suggestive remarks on the uses of this mud, or ' muck,' as it is called in America. Another writer suggests that the muck swamps so frequently met with in America, containing such vast supplies of vegetable matter, the slow deposit of centuries, are the incipient states of future fields of coal ; but failing this chauge, he says, 'they seem to have been reserved by a kind Providence to supply the rapid waste of vegetable matter going on in dry cultivated lands.' The coal-fields are the great wood-houses of nature, so the ' muck or mud swamps' are the great manure beds, at one time dreaded, and justly so, as the hotbeds of malaria. Drained, they have been transformed into rich pasture and corn fields, while their mud, at the same time, has contributed to restore the failing fertility of other fields placed at a higher level. The experience of American farmers 1 The reader must note that this is an American work,— not the admirable volume he ought to possess, if a Proprietor or Farmer, on the sanio subject by Professor Johustone, published by Messrs. Blackwood of Edinburgh and London. 334 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. has shown that, as a hasis for compost heaps, nothing cau equal the mud obtained from the sources we have indicated. In a dry condition it is an admirable deodorizer, which, indeed, has been well proved by what Mr. Moule, with his earth-closet system, has shown us. Thus a dead horse or a cow, thoroughly embedded and covered over with the dry porous mud, and allowed to remain qiuescent for about a year, and then well turned over and mixed, will produce six or eight loads of a rich manure. From this our readers may obtain a valuable hint, not only as to utilizing animals which unfortunately die on the farm, but a wide variety of animal substances which they can obtain if situated in the neigh- bourhood of a large town or village. The application of the mud itself directly to land requires some judgment. To soils of a sandy or gravelly character it may be applied directly, but to heavy clay and cold land it should be applied in the state of compost, or when dried ; but the best and quickest way to gain the advantages of the mud is to use it in conjunc- tion with farm-yard dung. The ways of treating it thus will suggest themselves readily to the practical farmer. Thus a good method is to place occasionally a layer of it on the top of the manure in the dung stance, and it may also in its dried state be spread in the lair of the live stock. Mixing with the dung of the animals, it exer- cises a remarkable influence on it, acting, as an American farmer says, as a kind of leaven, causing the manure speeddy to ferment and decay. When used as a compost heap along with farm-yard dung, the best proportion of mud to the dung is two-thirds. With lime, also, mud forms a good compost, and salt should always be added. A good way to add the salt is to slack the lime with a strong brine. But while the mauurial or chemical value of mud is great, its mechanical must not be lost sight of. Mixed with sods of a light and dry nature, it renders them more dense, moist, and compact, and with clay soils, stiff and adhesive, it opens them up and makes them more friable. Another addition to the mauurial resources of the farm is peat ; indeed, where peat in moderate extent is on a farm or estate, it may be looked upon as a mammal mine. Dried naturally or artificially, — or, if a kdn be avadable, made into charcoal, — it forms a most valuable deodorizer, and, mixing readdy with farm-yard dung and the ordure of animals, it can be used in a variety of ways which it is not necessary here to specify. We may note, however, one way of using it when in a dried condition — that is, by placing it in front of the cattle or cow stalls, or making layers of it in the pig styes, the liquid will be absorbed by it ; and the droppings of the animals, if covered up from time to time by it, will form a rich manure, and be at the same time deodorized. The litter may also be cut into short lengths, and sprinkled, when taken from the styes, etc., over the dried peat. The resulting manure, when taken to the covered dung-pit, will very speeddy form a black, unctuous, rich manure. It has been estimated by an eminent agricultural authority, that manure made with dried peat, in the proportion of three loads to one load of the live stock droppings, is equal to three loads of the same quantity of pure or unmixed droppings. Assuming this to be correct, the reader will perceive how large a saving will be effected by using peat, which only costs what is expended in carting it from the place of deposit and the labour in drying it. Whatever the condition in which peat is — whether in an advanced stage of decomposition or peat mud, as it may be called, or solid enough to cut for fuel — it may be equally made avadable as a manure. The best quality is to be found in the deposits between ranges of hills, more especially if the uplands, or part of them, have been under cultivation, and which drain into the deposits in the valley. On the Utilization of Tree Roots and Waste Timber. — Where there are tracts of wooded land on the estate which are to be reclaimed and brought under cultivation, a vast accumidation of waste timber for which no market can be found is generady the result. The roots of trees are, perhaps, the most unmanageable, as they are the most unwieldy parts, and they are found to be a nuisance which, under ordinary circumstances, cannot well be got rid of. They are of little use, for example, as firewood for the cottagers on the estate, from the difficulty of transporting and distributing them to the various localities ; and when transported, they could not be easily cut up. To allow them to remain as waste incurs USE OF WASTE TIMBER— CLAY BURNING FOR ROADS. a double loss, for, from their number and bulk, they occupy a considerable space of ground ; while, properly used, they are of considerable value. Thus one use which may be made of them is to collect them into a heap and burn them, as they lie, for the mere ashes they pro- duce. Although this is the least economical way, still the ashes are of no small value to be mixed with the upper materials of the compost heap, or used as top-dressings for grass land and for the various arable crops, either simply by themselves or mixed with lime and salt. The value of such a fertilizing material is considerable ; on the Con- tinent it is highly esteemed. Another method is to make charcoal of the roots ; this, either in the shape of small nodules or crushed into a coarse powder, may be used, as we have shown in the chapter on the ' Cultivation of Clay Lands,' as a manure. Another use to which both ashes and charcoal can be put is spreading on the stall floors of live stock. They absorb the liquids, while in some measure they act as deodorizers, and the manure formed will be a beneficial addi- tion to the dung-heap. Perhaps the best way to use the roots and waste timber is the method introduced by Mr. Johnston of Culross, and de- scribed by him in the Journal of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. Mr. John- ston had to deal with an enormous number of roots, and it struck him that, as drain tiles were required for the reclamation of the land which had produced them, they could be used for the heating of the kilns erected for brick and tile burning. In the chapter descriptive of kdns of different kinds will be found a notice of Mr. Johnston's system. On properties on which there is a consider- able extent of acreage under timber, there is of necessity a large amount of comparatively small pieces of timber, much of which may be said to be literally wasted. This is produced from the priming, thinning, and cutting down of trees. We have repeatedly seen huge bonfires made of parts which would have sold freely, and at a good price, if selected, assorted, and made up into faggots ; to say nothing of the good which might have been done by adding to the comfort of many a poor man's hearth by judicious dis- tribution of some portion of it. There is scarcely a district but in which there are towns and even villages of moderate extent, where there is an absolute dearth, so to say, of timber for house- hold purposes. Such, indeed, is the demand for firewood, that prices are readily given greatly in advance of its actual intrinsic value. Mr. Johnston, above referred to, shows in his paper how much can be made of the waste timber of plantations ; and it will be well worth devoting some time to a perusal of it, as full detads are given as to the way of making the most of this source of revenue, which certainly shoidd not be neglected by carefid managers. TJie Burning of Clay for Road-making and other Purposes. — In the preceding chapter we have given a description of a kiln for the burning of the refuse or waste clay of regular clay banks, or tile-making yards. We now give a few remarks on a simpler method, which is also available for burning clay on the fields. In the remarks there given we referred chiefly to the uses of burned clay as additions to soil ; but it is useful for other purposes, such as the making of concrete, or filling up foundations, or for treacherous or defec- tive parts of the sites of buddings. And in defaidt of broken bricks, stone shivers, or other hard and durable materials, lumps of burned clay may be used for forming concrete walls, along with Portland cement. Again, in districts where more appropriate and generally used mate- rials for road-making are not to be had, or if so, at a heavy cost for transport from a distance, the burnt clay nodules will be found to form by no means a bad substitute. Indeed, where the clay is burned in a kiln, as described in the preceding chapter, so that its quality is rendered more superior than when burned in the ordinary heaps, it is often harder and more durable than some kinds of stone. We should, indeed, have no hesitation in classing it as a superior means for road-making to the generality of sandstones. But even if made in the ordinary clump or heap, the clay nodules ought to be used rather than allow the roads to get into bad order ; for the loss sustained by this state of matters in horse- power and in time will be vastly greater than that brought about by the lower durability of the clay pieces. The easiest way of burning clay is the clump or open heap, above referred to. 336 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. The process is identical with that of lime-burn- ing in an open kiln, the material used for burn- ing being small coal. The heap is formed with alternate layers of the coal and clay arranged as a series of circles, the diameters of which are regu- larly decreased as the successive layers increase, a conical or rather rounded heap being formed. The lower layers of coal being once fairly ignited, the heat is communicated to the upper ones through the interstices of the intervening layers of clay, till the whole becomes a mass highly heated. As too rapid a combustion, however, would not only waste the fuel, but would injure the quality of the burnt clay, it is necessary to cover over the surface of the heap with soil. This should be increased in thickness gradually, as the inten- sity of the heat increases. When finally com- pleted, the heap is left alone till ignition ceases, and the whole mass is gradually cooled down. If the soil for covering is of a light and friable nature, it may be used with excellent effect in compost heaps, as all weed roots and seeds will have been effectually destroyed ; if of a close character, or the clay itself has been used to cover the heap, nodules will have been formed, which, although of a less hard nature than those in the interior of the heap, may still be used for concrete, or for mixing with clay soils, or for side walks of roads, etc. Where refuse timber from plantations is plentiful, it may be used for burning the clay in place of coal ; and it will certainly pay, in districts where stones, etc. cannot be had for road-making, to put down a kiln adapted for this fuel. The reader is referred to the appropriate para- graph in the preceding chapter for a description of a kiln for wood, introduced by Mr. Johnston of Colross. It is worthy of notice that Mr. John- ston states, that of clay used for forming no less a length of roads than thirty miles, part of which had been burned along with coal, and part with wood, he could trace no difference between their respective qualities. We have thus indicated some ways in which a clay pit or bank on the property can be utilized ; and after the banks or pits have been exhausted, and become, as they will become in process of time, filled with water, we have in another paragraph shown how these naturally-formed ponds can be utilized by trans- forming them into permanent fish-ponds. And should such ponds crop gradually out to the level of the surrounding land, they may be still further utilized by growing on their banks belts of greater or less width of willows, for which there is always a great demand at good prices, while at the same time the aspect of the landscape will be improved. In brief, as in other departments of the management of property, so in this, by a very little observation and thought, places and parts otherwise and too generally left waste, can be made sources of revenue, which, taken singly, may be despised, but in the aggregate form no small item in the receipts. The Utilization of existing Ponds, Reservoirs, etc., and the Formation of new Collections of Water for tlie Breeding, Collecting, and Storing of Fish. — To many the mere reading of this heading will be the cause of creating a smile, as thoroughly out of what may be said to be the popular notion of work connected with the improvement of landed property ; and although we are free to admit that at first sight it does seem so, yet we venture to think that, after its points are duly considered, those who are disposed at first sight to treat it lightly will be convinced that there is ' some- thing in it after all.' Viewed in the broadest and most practical aspect, the great and important subject of property improvement embraces every- thing which can add to its value, and, by conse- quence, to the income of its proprietor. Little things, therefore, in their place and way, are sometimes of importance, which promise, even however slightly, to aid in this, if, indeed, it be not worth while remembering that the greatest are made up of an aggregation of little things. A great deal has been done of late years, our readers are aware, in the improvement of river fishing, by what may be called artificial stocking ; and the success attendant upon that plan shows what can be done in a humbler way, such as we have indicated in the heading to this paragraph. And although the subject may have struck many, — for we can scarcely conceive that the lessons and hints of the larger system have not directed attention to the smaller, — it is probable that little or notliing has been done in connection with the subject, because the opinion is held that its practical working out involves not only much labour, but also the possession of great UTILIZATION OF WASTE PIECES OF WATER AS FISH PONDS. S37 scientific knowledge and manipulative skill. But that this is not so, very little consideration will suffice to show. In a very able, although all too brief a paper on the subject, published in the New York Times, the writer points out that really very little is required to lead one, in order to ensure success in what is not merely a higlily interesting pursuit, but one also highly lucrative. For, as bearing on the latter point, it is worthy of notice that the carrying out of the system of farm fish-ponds in many cases effects a double good. Thus, in utilizing swampy pieces of land, or rather marshy water, which, as the writer of the above-named article says, are at present quag- mires, useless and dangerous, they might be dug out to a depth of two or three feet, and the mud profitably used for fertilizing fields, and these swamps thus be changed into ponds, every acre of which would furnish nutritious and acceptable food at least three times a week for a family of ten persons ; and he cites the case of a farmer in Pennsylvania, who in this way utilized three- quarters of an acre of bog, obtaining from it over a thousand loads of most valuable manure, and in three years after he stocked the pond with cat-fish, the cost of which was but a shilling of our currency per hundred ; the pond which he had thus formed from a quagmire was swarming with fish. We ourselves had at our own place a small reservoir, worth a trifle for the splendid fish it contained, and which reservoir had been formed at a very trifling expense by throwing a dam or embankment across the lower end of a natural valley. The supply of water for this was obtained from the drainage of the uplying districts, so that a higlily ornamental feature was added to the grounds, in addition to its being an excellent fishing place. We have known, also, even old marl and clay pits utilized by being stocked with fish, a mere trifle only being required in order to make the ponds have a running stream through them. These facts, and others which we might cite, indicate with sufficient suggestiveness that a wide field of utility can be opened up and worked at a very small expenditure either of money or labour ; what is chiefly wanted being the exer- cise of a little common sense, judgment, and observation, so as to take advantage of the sources of water supply, which are much more numerous thau the majority of people have any conception of ; and their conversion into the neces- sary collecting, breeding, and preserving ponds is by no means a difficult matter. Thus the writer in the American paper we have named, who evidently has a thorough practical knowledge of the subject, says that the requisite care and pre- cautions are very simple. For trout, for example, ' the necessary requirements are pure water, a temperature not over 60° in the summer time, a gravelly bottom in places where the fish can make their spawning beds, and a few deep holes in which they can hide during the hot days. All these conditions are met with in a swamp with a subsoil of sand or gravel, through which occasionally springs break, or such a swamp through which the water of a spring brook can be turned by means of a dam and gate. The muck (Anglice mud) may be dug out in places to expose the bottom, and the borders of the pond should be sown with grass and aquatic plants, and planted with willows. The portion of vegetable matter left in the pond, and the grass and neigh- bouring trees overhanging, will encourage the pre- sence of numerous insects, upon which the trout will feed. It is necessary to provide against over- flow by freshets, by permitting only a certain quan- tity of water to flow through the pond, and making room for any unusual quantity to escape by the original bed of the stream. If there is no danger of freshets, the stream itself may be dammed, and the adjacent ground flooded. As soon as the pond is made, a thousand or two of young fry may be purchased in November or December, and patience for two or three years will accom- plish all the rest. The great danger is over- stocking, but with a pond of an acre, to which a few farmers' boys have access once a week, there will be little danger of crowding the fish. The next danger to be avoided is overfeeding. If the pond is stocked with minnows or other small fish, and a few roots of the water lilies, or the common water flag, be planted on the borders or shallow places, and some watercress be sown in the places where currents exist, a large growth of aquatic insects and anirnalculffl will take place, sufficient to support a large number of fish. Bass and perch will flourish under less favourable circumstances than trout. Thev will not object * 2 u 33S DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. to a muddy bottom, nor to water whose tempera- ture for a part of the year may rise above sixty degrees, nor to water without any current passing through it for some time. Temporary streams may be dammed for these fish, or ponds in which there is only spring water enough to supply the evaporation will meet their needs. A consider- able supply of food may be gathered from the offal of the farm for these fish, and in a short time insects and worms will accumulate in the pond, which will furnish food.' In cases where the most is made of these water deposits, by planting willows, etc., in addition to stocking them with fish, such easy work as will be necessary to keep them in order may be undertaken by some old and faithful servitor on the property, who is past the labour of regular and heavy work. A double good will thus be done at once to the proprietor or farmer, and to the old servant ; for the latter will be gratified, as all good servants are, with the knowledge that he is of service. And it is not a trifle, as some may think, to add to the gratification of even the meanest and poorest of our dependants, but it is that which will afford more mental satisfaction than employers may at first sight think Ukely. Indeed, it is perhaps one of the advantages attendant upon the utilization of the waste materials of the property, that ninch, and in some cases all, of its work may be done by those who are past, or nearly past, the period of active service. We make no apology for thus throwing out a hint which will be ser- viceable, and gratifying when followed out, as we bebeve it will, to right thinking men. ICE-HOUSES. 339 CHAPTER IV. ICE-HOUSES. In" the chapter on dairies, we alluded to the extensive use of ice in the new modes of work- ing them, and referred to the consequent neces- sity of a means of preserving ice so used. But it is not alone in reference to dairy- working that this material is employed, for one of the peculi- arities of the present day is the extensive use made of ice, and this not merely as one of the luxuries, if indeed, under many circumstances, it be not a necessity of life in its ordinary condi- tions, hut as forming a highly useful and effective substance in many branches of industrial calling. But while this is so in those which may be called external to that of farming, this one which is so little popularly esteemed is supposed by many to be quite independent of the use of such a substance, as not having any branch or department of it to which it apparently can be applied. But this is a mistake — one of the many mistakes which are made and obstinately maintained by those who place farming as an advanced or scientific calling very low in the scale. No doubt the value of refrigeration as a process, useful in the preservation of edible sub- stances, has been more widely understood and appreciated, and its use, therefore, much more extended in other countries than in our own. Of these America offers the most striking ex- ample, although other examples are met with in several countries and districts of the Continent. Nor need this be wondered at, when we consider the nature of their climates, long periods of high temperature constituting one of their marked characteristics ; the result of this being that the use of ice, merely as a necessity of living, has been from a pretty early period of their modern history almost universal. In process of time, however, its value for industrial purposes became recognised ; and, looking only to the aspect in which it is most interesting to us at present, the one which first came in for its most direct and extended application was that of dairy farming. As will be seen from other and special paragraphs treating of the subject, American dairymen have long been famed for their practical knowledge of the various details of dairy- working, as well as for the readiness with which they availed them- selves of what science showed as likely to be of service to them in carrying these out in the highest state of possible perfection. Amongst the many methods and appliances of working, the introduction of ice has not been the least marked. And although it has long been occa- sionally used in this department of farming in this country, it is only recently that attention has been called to it as an absolute necessity, brought out by the peculiar circumstances connected with the supply of our markets with certain edible sub- stances. For the making of butter, and for its pre- servation when made, it is specially valuable; nor can it be made less so in the cooling of milk, now recognised as a specially necessary process to be gone through when that milk has to be transported to a distance, or even used in the dairy. On dairy farms, therefore, means of storing up and preserving ice may be said to form an essen- tial part of those appliances which modern expe- rience and science have opened up for us. But in truth, while ice can be made thus useful, its utility may be even more extended on farms. Thus, for mere family use in the household, if only esteemed a luxury, it is at least a healthy one ; while it may be made to serve in a most effective way the claims of economy in the pre- servation of meat, etc., kept for family use, or 34Q DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. stored up till it may be sent to market. Having thus, then, shown the value of ice, we purpose devoting a few sentences to the points connected with the best way of storing it up and preserv- ing it. And that the appliances useful in tins way will repay the cost of their construction and fitting up, is abundantly evident, especially on farms so situated with reference to towns that they produce various kinds of food, as milk, butter, poultry, and the like, to be sent up to their markets, where, in these days of high wages and more enlarged means and desires, they fetch the highest price. Now, it is established beyond all doubt that such edibles bring a far higher price when they are sent to market in a state as closely approaching the condition in which they are when first prepared, killed, and dressed for it, than if sent as they may be said generally to be sent, in a half-melted, partially decomposed, or trashy, ' not fresh-looking ' condition. The appliances and constructions required in employing ice for the varied purposes we have indicated, are divisible into three classes : first, those in which the ice is preserved for use in structures above the ground ; second, those which are subterranean ; and, third, those which are called composite, part of which are above and part below the ground level. These are illus- trated in Plate 22, in figs. 1 to 8 inclusive. But however arranged and constructed, one prin- ciple affects them, or must be applied to all, and that is the packing or placing of the ice in such a way that it will be as little subjected as possible to the influence of conducting materials. In some cases, as in Sweden, for example, they keep ice without a structure of any kind, simply by placing it upon a foundation of sawdust, and surrounding it with a non-conducting material, as tan-bark, sawdust, dried peat, or the like; and so effectually that the annual loss of the mass so covered does not amount to more than 25 per cent, of the whole. But however small this loss may be considered in a country like Sweden, where ice can be had in great abundance, this percentage of waste represents a loss which, with us, would be considered a heavy item in the keeping of a material which is certainly not cheap in this country. Special structures, there- fore, must be made in which to store it, and every means taken to keep the waste down to a minimum. Fig. 1, Plate 22, illustrates an ice- house of the first of the three classes into which we have divided this kind of structure, in which the whole is above the level or surface of the ground, a b, fig. 4, which is a suggestion for an elevation in which rough timber and branches of trees are used to give effect to the whole. Fig. 1 is a plan which shows the principle of constructing a hollow wall of timber posts, either round and rough, as boles of trees of suitable diameter, — pine being the most lasting, — or dressed off to dimensions about 4 by 6, or 6 inches square, which are placed at distances of 3 feet apart, in two rows, — an inner, a a, and an outer, b b, — the distance between the rows being about 1 8 inches. The space thus made enclosing the desired area, cc, of the ice-house, is filled with the best non-conducting material which can be obtained, and which has, at the same time, the least affinity for damp or moisture. The only opening to the interior space is by a door c, fig. 4, placed in the centre of the side, the posts being so arranged, as shown by the dotted lines in plan in fig. 1, that the door, while in the centre of the side, is between two posts, the width between which regulates the width of the door. The door is made double, the casing being com- pleted by filling in the parts between the rows of posts, as at a a in fig. 3, leaving a vacant space, as b. The two doors open outwards, as shown by the dotted lines c and arrow, being supposed to be the outside face of the house, the double dotted lines representing the doors. The floor, as shown in plan, is dished, sloping from the four corners of the house to the centre, e, at which point there is a grating, giving entrance to the (dissolved) ice water, to the drain which is underneath the floor, and which is led to some convenient spot. As this water is very cold, it might be preserved for drinking or other purposes, by passing through carefully laid and cleanly made glazed earthenware tubes, and led to a well, from which it might be pumped at inter- vals. We shall see presently how this can be carried out in the second class of ice-houses, in some of which it may be absolutely necessary, from the difficulty of having a drain cut at a moderate depth from the surface. In fig. 2 we CONSTRUCTION OF ICE-HOUSES. 341 show part of vertical section of the posts aa, — fig. 1 b being one of the rustic (tree branch) brackets, c c the ground level, d the wall-plate to support the timbers of the roof. The house should have either a double roof, with a space between, or a ceiling, the space of which should be filled with the non-conducting material. In fig. 3, d d shows part of the dished or sloping floor of house in fig. 1, leading to the central drain trap or gully, and e e small grooves or gutters, made at inter- vals in the floor, to conduct the water quickly down and concentrate it till it reaches the drain. We suppose in this case the floor to be of con- crete, which readily admits of the formation of these small surface grooves. In fig. 6, we illustrate an ice-house of the second class, which is formed at the side of a hill, which will admit of a comparatively easy drainage, the drain leading off to the valley at the left side. Still, even in this case it will be expensive work, from the depths of the drain from the surface a ; and it would be better if a site could be obtained so that the ice-house, bb, could be near the face of the hill or cliff, as shown by the dotted line c. The main body of the house, b b, is conical, or rather an inverted cone, this being the form adopted, as it enables the ice to pack closely together, as the blocks have a tendency to slide down the sloping sides ; the form, also, facili- tates drainage, and the filling and emptying of the house. The upper part of the house is circular, and is approached by a covered gallery or subway, d, closed by an outer door, e, and having, in order still further to isolate the ice and prevent all access of the outer air, an interior double doorway,/, the doors of which open out- wards. During the process of taking out the ice, the outer door, e, is closed. The outer door is supposed to be reached by a narrow gangway or bridge, ii, crossing the valley, the dotted line representing the hand-rail of same. An important part of the construction of an ice-house is the drainage, as already stated. That in fig. 6 is shown as surrounded by a vertical drain, g g, which conveys the water to the gully trap, h, at bottom of ice-house, and from thence to the drain, i I. The same drain carries off the dissolved water of the ice-house, b b. "We have already said that the drainage of underground houses is often very difficult to be effected, especially where they are made on sites the declivity of which does not admit of the shortest possible line by which to lead the drain, it obviously being a costly work to cut a subway through solid soil, rock, etc. Hence the utility of the well already alluded to, and the mode of forming it, which is shown in fig. 7. In this the bottom of the ice-house is provided with openings between the bricks, lead- ing to a space b, into which the dissolved ice water, as well as the drainage water of surrounding ground, as in fig. G, is led, and collected in a small central well, c, from which it is withdrawn by the pipe of the pump, the latter being placed on the ground level above. To prevent the water or soil surrounding the ice-house still more com- pletely from entering it, it is a good protection to puddle the well all round with clay, as in fig. 8. An example of what we may name as a third class of ice-house is shown in fig. 5, in which it is partly in and partly out of the ground ; the ice-house proper, as a a, being subterranean, and covered either with a brick dome, as shown at b, on one side of the central line, or a timber roof, c. The closed gallery, d, with its double door, gives access to the ice-house. 342 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. CHAPTEE V. LAND ON TITE PROPERTY SUITABLE FOR SUBURBAN DOMESTIC STRUCTURES THE POSITION, SETTING OFF, AND LAYING OUT OF THE PLOTS. There is no circumstance connected with the social progress of the times we live in more re- markable, striking, and suggestive, than the extraordinary rapidity with which all our towns are adding to the variety and numbers of their buildiugs. That their populations are increasing is no doubt true, and this might appear to be the reason why new buildings are necessary. We do not here, of course, refer to the public build- ings. But this is not the only reason, for private buildings, or, to call them by their more specific title, new domestic buildings, are increasing and have increased in a far higher ratio or proportion than the population. We must look, therefore, for another reason for this extraordinary develop- ment of building we see everywhere around us, and from which not even the smallest village is wholly exempt. The reason, in truth, is not very far to seek ; it is found in the change in the habits of living of the better and well-to-do classes, chiefly those engaged in business or commercial callings of one kind or another. In times not long gone by, tradesmen, for example, thought it not unbecoming their wealth or posi- tion to live either at or not far from their place of business ; and the higher classes of com- mercial and professional men also lived in the towns, although, of course, in houses of a supe- rior class. Now, however, it is the fashion to leave the town after business hours; and it is the ambition of every one either to have a house wholly in the country, or so far out in the suburbs that by a slight stretch of imagination it may be called a country house. The general wealth of the country has also increased vastly of late years; and with this increase of riches has come an increased desire for luxuries and comforts unknown to, or at least uncared for by, our an- cestors. This has not stopped merely at personal or household increase of expenditure, but has almost as a matter of necessity extended itself to that of the houses. Hence has arisen a class of domestic structures in many respects altogether new, not merely in the general style of their ex- terior, but in the kind and character of the internal accommodation which they afford. These are now known as villa residences, and are subdi- vided according to the accommodation they afford into villas proper, and villa cottages and man- sions. They are also further classified according as they are situated. If standing isolated from other buildings, surrounded by grounds or gardens of greater or less extent, they are called ' detached villas,' or villa cottages. If two are built to- gether, they are called ' semi-detached ; ' and if built in numbers, of which the lines are straight, they are termed ' terraces,' or the like ; and if the lines are curved, 'crescents,' or quadrants. But while the desire to have house accommoda- tion of a superior kind has increased to a wonder- ful extent amongst the wealthier and well-to-do classes, and has prompted them to go from the interior of the towns in which their ancestors were content to dwell, to the suburbs and even to greater distances in the country ; many causes have brought about a new system connected with the classes immediately below them. These causes have been numerous, not the least forcible in its influence being the enormous destruction of houses of the old style by railway companies and also by corporations. There has also been, although in a less marked degree, of course, the same desire on the part of the working classes to improve their condition of living, as has been THE LAYING OUT OF SUBURBAN LAND AS BUILDING PLOTS. 343 evinced on the part of the classes above them. Taking, however, the whole of the circumstances into account which we have either specifically named or less obviously hinted at, the result is, that what may be called a revolution in the building trade has of late years taken place. But while there has been, and is now, an enormous extent of building going on, it is open to grave doubt whether improvement, either in the style of the exterior decoration or in the conveniences of the interior accommodation of the houses, has kept pace with this rapid extension of construction. Domestic architecture is not the simple art or science which some seem to think it. It is not merely the placing together of the materials, so that the minor details and the general tout ensemble shall form an object pleasing to the eye, although in sober truth this effect is by no means often attained, even after the outlay of a lavish expenditure of money ; nor is it the giVing of large and lofty apartments, — 'enter- taining rooms,' as with a kind of covert sarcasm they are called. Domestic architecture, consi- dered in its higher and broader aspects, involves points of infinitely greater importance than these, important to some as these may be. The houses which come under its range, and which should be designed in accordance with its correct principles, are meant to serve a higher end than merely as objects to look at and admire, or be admired by the owners or occupiers, or the passers-by. They are designed to be lived in, to minister at call to the health and comfort, and to add to the conveniences of the inhabitants. Yet the investigation of not a small percentage of the houses of the present day shows that they scarcely come up to this, the true and only standard by which, as houses, their value can be judged. Although these latter points ought not to be left out of account when the subject of the pre- sent chapter is considered as a whole, still they are but of secondary importance, as coming more within the domain of the architect than of the agent, surveyor, and builder of the property ; the primary points being those connected with the decision as to what parts are best suited for buildings, and how they can be so arranged for this purpose as to yield the largest amount of revenue. As stated in our introductory chapter, it is only or chiefly those proprietors who have either de- tached properties abutting, so to say, upon tbe lands which are essentially urban, or the boundary line of which is conterminous with mere city or borough properties, that are concerned, so to say, in the sale of certain parts of them for the purposes of building. The circumstances, then, to which, in the beginning of this chapter, we have alluded as giving rise to a demand — which is certainly one of the features of the age — for dwelling-houses of all classes in the neighbourhood of towns, cannot but have tended to raise, as they have indeed raised to a greater or less extent, the value of suburban parts of properties. In view, however, of the fact that for land possessed of good quali- ties of soil suitable for the peculiar class of farming known as suburban, high rents are asked and as readily obtained, the agent must care- fully consider whether and where it might not be more advantageous to retain the suburban parts of the property for such farms than to cut them up into plots of varying size, suitable to the wants of building speculators, or of indivi- duals who may wish to build houses for their own special wants. To decide how best to proceed for the true and permanent interests of the property, a number of points will have to be taken into account, and these may vary in number and importance according to circumstances. They will in all cases, however, be of such importance as will demand from the agent the exercise of no small degree of judgment, skill, and acute observation. For example, he will have to consider in what direction building — using the generic terrn here — is likely to go, and whether there are causes exist- ing, or likely to arise, which will change that direction, or bring about a change in the peculi- arities of the neighbourhood, such as the spread of factories or industrial workshops, which, when present in a neighbourhood studded over with houses of a good class, cause them to deteriorate rapidly in value ; next to which, or rather, we should say, worse than which, is the spread and rapid rise of the cottages of the workmen, which go along with or follow upon the erection of those factories in which they are engaged. Even worse I still is the rise of that peculiarly low and de- 344 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. graded class of houses — if, indeed, they are worthy of the honoured name — winch seem to follow the building of factories and workmen's cottages, much in the same way as those wretches who track soldiers to the battle-field, in which they will mercilessly strip the fallen, and often kill the wounded in their eager lust for spoil. But just as some districts will fall in value as sites for domestic structures of a superior kind, — or, where these may be built at some future time, may at a remoter period be deteriorated by some such causes as those we have named, — other parts of the property may rise in value through some cause or other, which may bring about what is called a ' run ' on it for building sites. While, on the other hand, it will be noticed that through the operation of what may be called a ' law,' the tendency to increase of building will be invariably in some towns in a definite direction, in others it will be in one entirely opposite. The direction, however, — in perhaps the great majority of towns, ■ — taken by or for superior houses is the west. The term ' West End ' is well known. All these and other circumstances must be taken into account by the agent or the surveyor and valuer, in lay- ing out parts of property for building sites ; and care must be taken to watch the probable results of certain movements, as well as to decide whether such movements will or will not take place. The value of building sites may be greatly lowered. For what in every respect offered such superior advantages that wealthy men would be tempted to erect their dwelling-houses there, may at once and for ever be utterly ruined by the land- lord permitting a mixture, so to say, of different classes of structures to be erected in the same locality. We have known part of one property being laid out for houses of a superior class, for which in every respect it was admirably adapted, and on which some fine houses were erected, with every prospect of many more plots being taken up by well-to-do and wealthy people, thus making it a superior quarter of the town, when in an evil hour, why or for what reason done it was difficult to say, the proprietor was tempted or his agent permitted to allow a number of cottages to be erected on the very best part of the land laid out for buildings, and in the immediate vicinity of some of the finest dwelling-houses which had been erected. This proceeding was, strictly looked at, a breach of faith on the part of the landlord, or his agent acting for him ; for those who had erected large houses had done so, if not on the positive, at least on the implied under- standing that the ' amenity ' of the neighbourhood would be preserved, that being one of the rea- sons, if not the main reason, why those parties had elected to build in that particular locality. • But the breaking through of this implied under- standing effectually stopped all further progress so far as the erection of superior and good paying houses were concerned, with the exception of one or two built by a ' speculator ' ignorant of one phase of human nature, but who soon and to his cost was made aware of its existence by the im- posing structures which he had erected standing for years unoccupied. Nor was the proceeding successful so far as cottages were concerned, as no other offer was made for their extension. The fact was here obviously forgotten, that classes of domestic structures situated at the two extremes of the line, so to say, occupied by rich and poor, do not coalesce ; like oil and water, they may be mixed up with each other, but they do not mingle permanently, but ultimately separate. So it was in the case now under notice : the land was spoiled for both purposes ; the ' mansion people ' would not go where the ' cottage folks ' were, and the latter did not care — not feeling at home — to go where the former were. We note this case specially, inasmuch as it is one which is likely to occur, and is one, indeed, which has not seldom spoiled the paying prospects of good building land ; at all events, it may be suggestive to the agent of some points worthy of consideration in the portioning out of parts of property for the object now under discussion. We have referred to the existence of a special class of farms, for which there is generally a good demand, in properties ' marching' or coming close up to that which is strictly urban. There is another class to which, in our introductory chapter, we have also referred — namely, that of small or amateur farms. On the special points of these we have yet somewhat to say ; meanwhile we are noticing them chiefly as forming part of the property designed to be laid out for building purposes. Such farms BUILDING LAND FOR DIFFERENT CLASSES OF STRUCTURES. 345 may be situated in a locality on the property which will come strictly under that class popu- larly said to be ' in the country ; ' or they may be placed near the town. Generally, those who like amateur farming, being possessed of means, prefer to be, for obvious reasons, within as easy reach of the town as may be. To meet the varying wants or wishes of Various classes of purchasers, the land to be let out — which, as a whole, may be said to be suburban — might be set out into zones or circles, more or less concentric, or as part of such zones. Thus the land devoted to houses alone might be placed nearest the town ; the small farms, with their houses, next ; while the sub- urban farm proper would be in the zone, or part of the zone, farthest from the town. This ar- rangement would be one obviously decided by the fact that the nearer the town the more valuable would be the land, which naturally, as it were, ranges itself under the class or variety known popularly as ' building property ; ' while that farthest from it would as naturally range itself within that class designated as ' farm land.' As already stated, no small judgment will be required in arranging the building land into plots or portions calculated to suit different purchasers. We do not here refer merely to the size or extent of the plots, but to the class of purchasers. There is always existing a certain degree of exclusive- ness in the well-to-do classes, ending in the formation of what are so well known as ' cliques,' ' coteries,' or ' sets ' — the phrase ' our set ' being admirably illustrative of this peculiarity ; and these ' sets ' are not confined to merely social developments, but they extend their principle to and exercise their influence upon even the houses which the ' sets ' inhabit. Hence, one of a certain class or set, who builds a house in a certain locality, does not care — indeed, it may be said, strongly objects in many cases (in so many, that possibly it may with safety be said that it is the rule) — to have a house of a cheaper kind built in close contiguity to his. And so strongly does feeling operate, that if one first- class house, for example, is erected at a certain part of the ' building land,' others follow the example, so gregarious are those who make up the ' set ' — or rather, to put it more correctly, so anxious are its members to keep up the exclu- siveness which they call ' keeping up the select character of the neighbourhood.' However much this feeling may be deprecated, from one motive or another it exists, and has a potent influence in many ways, and not the least marked perhaps in the department of social economics now being considered. Indeed, investors or speculators in building land, with tact or worldly wisdom, avail themselves of the feeling in many instances, and so far minister to its weaknesses — or legitimate expression of its wishes, if this term be preferred — by having certain districts or parts of their land placed under such restrictions, that not only must a certain extent of land be taken, but a house of a certain value built upon it, a mini- mum being in both cases named in the terms of agreement. It is thus that we see certain dis- tricts exclusively occupied by houses which, however they may vary, — as they do vary in architectural design, — are pretty uniform in the one respect of value as buildings. But this, viewed from another point, is an arrangement on the part of the proprietor of the land — whether he be the original owner or ' lord of the manor,' or a speculator who has invested in the purchase from him of a certain extent of land, with the avowed purpose of letting it or selling it for building purposes — which is quite legitimate. For it is obvious that by this precaution — for precaution it is — he hedges himself round, so to say, by the requirements of a provision which keeps out or prevents from building those who would erect structures of inferior value, thus deteriorating those of a superior kind which might have been previously built. To this we have already alluded as a point of importance, influencing, as we have shown, the selling and letting value of building land ; and it is one to which the attention of the agent of the property must be specially directed. This may in many cases almost of necessity compel him, so to say, to carry out the principle of dividing his building land into zones or districts, to which we have already referred, setting out the part most likely to be adapted for houses of the first class, another to those of the second class, and so on, down to the cottage and factory plots. Here 2 x 346 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. — so far, at least, as those buildings inhabited by people who are ' independent/ even if in but a limited degree, are concerned — he will find the spirit of ' exclusiveness ' existing in such force as will make his otherwise apparently invidious and difficult duty to be one of easy attainment. For it is quite a mistake to suppose that the ' sets,' ' cliques,' or ' coteries' do not exist amongst those of small but still independent means; it exists even amongst cottage occupiers. Indeed, it may be reasonably doubted whether they are not more strongly developed amongst these two classes than amongst those immediately above them. He knows but little of the various phases of society who imagines that exclusiveness is confined to the upper classes only ; let him mingle amongst what are called the ' lower classes,' or even the ' working classes,' and he will be somewhat rudely disabused of his notion. In laying out the land for buildings of a superior class, care should be taken to have the various plots as attractive as possible, both in position and as to form and dimensions, and to have as much ' front land ' — that is, nearest the road, and that which has the finest prospect — as possible. ' Back land,' for obvious reasons, is much less valuable, and so much a ' drug in the market,' so to say, that where, owing to bad disposition of the plots, there is much of it, the agent has a difficulty in disposing of it for building. No one cares to build in such a position that his house looks out upon the back of another man's building, and overlooked also by the back rooms thereof. It is in the zone or district set apart, or what seems best fitted to be set apart, for cottages for the working classes that the factory or workshop building plots are placed. This is a natural arrangement, as the nearer the work-people are to the places in which they are employed the better. Indeed, in view of the great incon- veniences to which many workmen are put by having to walk great distances because their ' shops ' are far from their houses, it is worthy of consideration whether, in setting out plots of suburban properties for building, it would not be a paying — assuredly it would be a philanthropic — arrangement to set out a zone or district in which cottages and factories, etc., would be placed in near, but yet regularly arranged, con- tiguity. The price or value of land for building pur- poses will vary not merely with the varying locality, but with circumstances which may be called, for lack of a better word, a fictitious, or rather conventional, value. These may arise from a number of causes — a 'run' upon a particular part of the property, making it an object for parties proposing to build, to build there rather than on another part ; a fashionable whim or prejudice ; certain presumed or real advantages, making the site particularly suitable for a certain class of property, as factories or the like, and so on. It is often difficult to account for certain parts of the property being considered by the public as more valuable than another, as not seldom is it seen that choice is made of sites by no means so advantageous as others ; but, how- ever arising, an agent possessed of tact will take care to make the most of such peculiar circum- stances tending to raise the value of the land. Nor, indeed, has it been quite unknown that an agent of this class has been able by clever diplomacy to get a part of the property to be looked upon as good or fashionable — with many the terms are quite convertible — which in reality possessed no great claims to the first named of these. It is doubtful, in brief, whether there is any department of the management of property which calls forth on the part of the agent so much of business skill, tact, and knowledge of human nature as that connected with the sale or letting of land for building purposes on property, part of which is bounded by the neighbourhood of towns. Suburban land, when well managed, gives a value to a property far in excess of that which it would possess considered merely as farming land ; and where it is situated near a manufacturing town especially — coming close up to, or, better still, cropping out or merging into land already occupied or begun to be occupied by buildings on land belonging to other pro- prietors— this value is so increased that the proprietor becomes exceedingly wealthy. We could name more than one proprietor who has founded a ' family ' and taken rank amongst the wealthiest of the kingdom simply from being fortunate enough to possess land situated as now LEGAL ARRANGEMENTS CONNECTED WITH BUILDING PLOTS. 347 stated, and which, of course, is much more valu- able than when situated near towns or villages in strictly rural neighbourhoods. Land for building is disposed of under various systems, and the customs of one district are different from those of another. Generally, how- ever, the systems may be classed as three: first, ' freehold,' in which the land is sold to the pur- chaser ' out and out,' as the phrase goes, he becoming actually the owner of the plot he so buys ; second, ' copyhold ' — that is, in which the land belongs to the purchaser for a certain term of years, — generally ninety-nine, — on the expiry of which it and all the buildings erected upon it revert to the proprietor or his heirs : in some cases ' copyhold,' so called, is extended to nine hundred and ninety-nine years, which case is one virtually equivalent to a " freehold " purchase ; third, by the payment of a certain rental for the plot, based upon a charge generally of so much per square yard. This in the south of the kingdom is known as 'ground rent,' and in the north as ' feu-duty.' So long as this is paid — the payments being annual, with certain terms or days of ' grace ' — the purchaser, so to call him, retains possession of the land. But should he fail to pay, the landlord can then take possession of it and the buildings thereon, the claim for ' ground rent ' or ' feu-duty ' taking precedence of all other debts, no matter how contracted or to whom they are due. The landlord being always secured (see next paragraph on ' Contracts or Agreements'), the buildings can be sold or trans- ferred by the original purchaser or occupier of the land to other parties, the landlord claiming his rental from the then occupier of the land and buildings. There are other modes of holding land, but to these, as they are now seldom if ever carried out, — being relics, so to say, of other and older times, — we need not refer. The agreement or contract between the pro- prietor of the property on the one hand, and the purchaser or party proposing to build upon a certain portion of it on the other, is an im- portant document, and requires to be drawn up with considerable care. There is no model con- tract; each one must be drawn up on its own basis. This is obvious, as there may be a necessity to introduce certain restrictions in one contract, which the circumstances under which another is drawn do not demand. In all con- tracts, however, there are certain clauses which may be called standard ones : amongst these is the important one, and which has the first place, that the buildings shall begin to be erected within a certain period from date of agreement, and shall be of a value when finished not less than a certain specified sum. This is necessary in order that they shall be of such value as to ' secure the ground rent ' to the landlord. The purchaser or his architect must present plans, specifications, and estimates, or at least plans, to the agent of the property, who must examine and pass them before the purchaser can begin to build : this precaution is necessary to enable the agent to judge of the value of the intended buildings. In some cases, the party purchasing is bound down to build according to a certain plan of arrangement of the building land ; this, however, is chiefly if not only in cases where the buildings assume a certain form, as streets, crescents, or the like, so that uniformity be secured. In land situated more completely in suburban districts, or those more approaching to the character of rural, and in which the build- ings are of the class known as detached or single, or at the most semi-detached or in pairs, such restrictions as the above are seldom made ; the only ones generally insisted upon on the part of the landlord being that the house shall not come nearer the main road than a certain speci- fied distance, this applying also to the boundary lines of the plot, — these last being necessary in onler that the value and the amenity of the next contiguous plots shall be preserved. An- other restriction, almost always made on the part of the landlord, in districts appropriated to domestic structures of a superior class, is that the purchaser is not to erect on his plot certain structures named, which are or could be used for carrying on certain manufactures, processes, etc., likely to create a nuisance to or detract from the value of the land in the neighbour- hood. The 'agreement' is the document which is first given to the purchaser, and it contains the statement of the terms upon which the land is to be sold or let, and attached thereto is a plan 34S DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. of the plot, the area of which has been ascer- tained by a certified or proper professional land- surveyor. The agreement is followed by the ' deed,' drawn up in proper form, and engrossed on parchment, duly stamped ; and it is only the possession of this document by the purchaser which enables him to raise, if necessary, money on his building by mortgage, and to transfer it by sale to another party. But while the proprietor of the property takes care to secure his interests, the purchaser must look to it that his own are not neglected ; and just as we would counsel him not to be his own architect, so would we advise liim not to be his own lawyer, but to secure the services of one upon whose integrity and ability he can rely. This gentleman will look over the deed before it is signed, and will likely be able to draw atten- tion to some points which should be altered or inserted in the interests of his client. These, we need scarcely say, may not have been omitted by design, they may have been over- looked ; but in either case, if not attended to, and made right, the practical and unfortunate result is all the same. We have known, for example, the case of the purchaser of a plot which was bounded on one side by a private road belonging to the proprietor, and the use of which was granted to him, he placing his entrance-gate leading therefrom, in preference, for obvious reasons, to having it on the main and public road. But in the draft of the deed, which should always be seen before it is engrossed, no provision was made for the right of use of the private road for carriages or vehicles con- veying goods, as coals, etc., to the house of the purchaser, so that virtually and legally he was restricted in its use to walking only. The practical inconveniences of such a restriction are clear enough. Take one example only : when coals had to be brought to the house, they must have been carried in piecemeal, so to say. The matter was at once set right on being pointed out to the agent, who saw the reason- able nature of the case, so far as the pur- chaser was concerned. We note this to show that what appears to be a very simple restric- tion or provision may act very inconveniently, if not prejudicially to the interests of the party building. But mistakes are not always against the purchaser, so that it behoves the agent to look more to the interests of his employer in all points, however trivial, if any point indeed can be called so in business arrangements. We cannot, of course, be expected to run over every point, not even, indeed, all of the more important points, connected with the management of that part of the property. But we have, we believe, said enough to show in what direction attention should be given, in order to secure from it the largest amount of revenue. As we have already said, the manage- ment of this department is one which calls forth the exercise of no small amount of busi- ness skill, tact, and energy, and of knowledge of 'men as they are.' The Laying out or Disposition of the Land for Buildings of Different Classes, and of Single Plots. — As regards the first of these subjects, we have already named some of the points which re- quire to be attended to, but these have had reference to the general disposition of the build- ing land as a whole. We have therefore now briefly to draw attention to some of the features of more special plots or parts, designed to have erected on them domestic structures of various classes. The subject is one on which much could be written, but it will be sufficient for the purpose we have in view if we glance only at its leading features. The land in the immediate vicinity of a town will have the method of its laying out decided more or less by the class and style of houses already erected near it. These, indeed, afford a pretty safe indication of the direction in which certain classes are taking, as mere street property, or that devoted to factories, etc., or that which is taken up by domestic villa structures. But the different classes vaiy as to their value, so that even streets, or rows or lines of houses erected continuously, may be made up of struc- tures of a highly expensive kind. But superior houses, however arranged or disposed, wdl be found, as a rule, to be erected in one or in cer- tain parts only of a town. Thus a very general direction, as we have already stated, is the west, — the 'West End' being a distinctive term not applied merely to London alone, — although the ' upper ten' of society sometimes migrate to other quarters, LA YING OUT OF THE SITES OF BUILDINGS. 349 as the east. Much, of course, depends upon cir- cumstances, and these act, as we have said, in a very eccentric way, so that no law can be laid down as that which dictates the direction of locality. Another rule, pretty generally met with, is that, so far as the superior quarter of the town is concerned, the streets or con- tinuous rows, as terraces, crescents, etc., — and which have, as a rule, no garden ground attached to them, unless, indeed, that term can he applied to patches of land in front, and drying - grounds for clothes at the back, — give way gradually to other classes of build- ings, such as what may be called broken-up or partial streets, consisting often of short rows of houses, four in number as a pretty general rule. Next come another and more distinct class of structures. These belong chiefly to the semi- detached or pairs, and detached or single, but all of these classes have garden grounds of greater or less extent attached to them. These grounds are so arranged in the latter, that considerable space is left between each pair of houses or each house. And as the true country or rural district is reached, the houses become more and more sparsely dotted over the land ; this being por- tioned out to them in increased and still increasing areas, till mansions, with what really deserve the term of ' grounds ' attached to them, form the feature of the part of the property devoted to building land. And as the houses become more and more broken up, and the extent of the land given to each increases, so also does the necessity increase of giving greater attention to the way in which the land, as a w>o«s, is laid tastefully out, so that it will form an attraction to purchasers. Here the skill of the agent may not be such as the exigencies of the case demand, nor is this at all derogatory to his value as an agent considered generally; so that it may be necessary, and we may say it will be prudent and politic, to call in the aid of a professional gentleman to lay out the land to the best advantage. In the dis- position of this for crescents, etc., in which the classes we have named as rows of four or more, or semi-detached and detached houses, may be arranged in the zone, so to call it, immediately beyond that occupied by street houses proper, there is a wonderful difference displayed between the work of one man and that of another. A portion of land really possessed of most attrac- tive natural features may be utterly spoiled, or greatly so, as we have known, by one man ; while by another these may be positively added to. Natural and really beautiful features are taken in hand by some in order to ' improve ' them, which literally means spoiling them, while the object in view ought to be to make the most of these, adapting the peculiarities of the plan to them, rather than attempting to alter their features to the necessities of a preconceived plan. It is not easy to improve upon nature ; the site should, in brief, decide what the plan of laying out should be, not the plan the site. If the land on one side only of the public road be given to building purposes, the other being devoted to farming or other purposes of the pro- perty, the north side of the road should always be chosen for the building land, as then the houses will have a southern aspect. Although an extraordinary indifference exists as to the aspect of a house, some thinking that a north out- look is as good as a south, it is the fact, never- theless, that a south aspect is not only healthy, as we have elsewhere in this work shown, but in making a house look cheery and pleasant adds positively to its selling value. For, however much people when living in a house may shut out sunlight, few indeed would care to purchase a gloomy -looking house, with gloomier-looking rooms, which one having a northern aspect is, and is sure to possess. The point is perhaps even of much greater importance when, as above hinted at, the health of the inhabitants is con- cerned. The proprietor of the property often enters upon building speculation himself. This is frequently done, not so much with a view to carrying it on for profit, but to act as inducement to other parties to build in the neighbourhood. Opening it up thus, it behoves the agent to see that every attraction possible be given, not merely by the class of houses built upon the plots, but by the way in which these plots are themselves laid out. There is a great deal to be done in this way in adding to the value of a house. Many an inferior building, which would bring but a low price in the market, has really DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. a high value given to it by the attractive way in which the grounds surrounding it are laid out. Much, indeed a great deal, of the attractive- ness, and therefore, as we have just said, of the value of suburban and rural dwelling-houses, depends upon and can be obtained by the way in which the grounds about them are laid out, and in the way in which the peculiarities or characteristics of the surrounding scenery, or even the irregularities of the site itself, are taken advantage of, to add to the general effect of this ' laying out of the grounds.' It is amazing how little progress we have made in this department of house arrangement, as we hold it to be. We have travelled again and again through districts in which nearly every house, however good or expensively constructed, stood bald and bare on its site, and many a site most beautifully adapted for laying out attractively; and even where attempts were made to lay out the sur- roundings, they were poor in the extreme, and gave rise to the idea that an attempt to do something had been begun, but suddenly stopped in the despair of the worker at finding him- self able to do nothing. On the other hand, we have travelled through districts in which nature had not been so bountiful in her attractions, yet almost every house, however humble, was placed amidst most attractive sur- roundings, gained wholly by a fine taste in designing and skill in laying out the site, and in taking advantage of such natural advantages as it might possess, few and poor as these might be. Much of the neglect observable around us in making a home attractive by its surroundings arises, we believe, from this notion, that to lay out grounds properly is a very difficult thing to do, and as skilled labour must be called in, that this is very costly. This is quite a mistake. Much if not all of the work can be done by common labourers, and the work of design by the master of the house, assisted by the lady part of the household. Indeed, not much knowledge of design is required ; for if Ave start with a general notion of what the whole should be, it will be found that as one portion is done, it leads to a suggestion for the doing of another portion, and so on till a very good and effective whole is obtained. Again, the very nature of the site dictates how it should be laid out. It will not be expected of us that we shall here enter into anything like a full detail of the principles involved, and illustrations of the prac- tice of laying out grounds attached to dwelling- houses, as it is a very wide subject, and would require the space of a treatise of considerable length to do ample justice to its details. We can at best glance at a few of its leading features, explaining these by a few simple illustra- tions. We have just said that it is surprising how little is done in this department, and have named one reason which may urge some proprietors to pay a little attention to it ; another is the very general notion which is prevalent, that nothing can be done in the way of making attractive the compara- tively small plots which the majority of houses have, but that large and extensive surfaces are re- quired in order to find ' room ' for the display of taste in setting them out. Of course finer effects are undoubtedly obtainable on large than on con- fined ground; but we venture to say that the skill of the designer will be more shown in setting out a small space to the greatest advantage, than even when he has larger space at command. We have seen, not seldom, the ' tiniest ' plot so laid out that it formed a little paradise. In the laying out of the plot, the chief point to be aimed at is getting as wide a variety as possible, bald uniformity being carefully avoided. This may be illustrated by the case of a house of moderate size set back, as is usually the case, for some distance from the road, leaving a clear space of land to the front. Now the house may be approached in two ways. First, where the object is what some people delight in calling the ' absolutely useful,' the ground is laid out with plots, most of which are taken up with vegetables ; a central walk leading from the gate to the house divid- ing the plots on either side. The walk will be straight, and as narrow as possible, in order to carry out the economy of the system. And if any concession be made to a taste for the beautiful, it will probably be by laying down a narrow flower border along the front of the house. The second plan of laying out the same ground LA YING OUT THE GROUNDS OF SUPERIOR BUILDINGS. 351 will possess different features ; utility will not be lost sight of, but it will be so treated that it will add to, rather than detract from, the general attractiveness of the grounds, of which the main feature will be the variety we have already noticed. This will embrace several details, but all of which will go to make up the complete whole. The walks, for example, will, as a rule, be curved; and the forms of the curves adopted will obviously influence materially the shape or contour of the intervening spaces, so that some attention should be given to the best line of curvature. By varying the direction of the walks and filling up the spaces with shrubs here, a standard tree or two there, knolls or rising grounds put clown, so as to mask the continuity of a walk, the whole will give the impression of a much larger plot of ground than it actually is ; while with the minor accessories of vases, flower- tubs, masked by rustic woodwork, sunshades, etc., together with tastefully arranged plots, filled with flowers of various colours, a little gem of a place may be arranged, which will be a delight not only to its owner, his family, and their visitors, but must of necessity add largely to the value of the property. The Laying out of the Grounds of Villa Plots on the Suburban Land of the Property, and their Exterior Structtires and Garden Appliances, as Stables, Cow, Poultry, Pig, and Wash Houses, Greenhouses and Conservatories, etc. — We have already very briefly alluded to the influence of the way in which suburban land is laid out for building purposes in adding to its value, — a point which the agent will take care to keep in view. This refers, however, more particularly to the general distribution of the plots, in order to suit different classes of property. But there is another department, which comes more under the head of detailed work, and this is indicated in the head- ing of the present paragraph. In one sense it is difficult to overrate the im- portance of this, inasmuch as it tends, as we have already hinted at in another part of this chapter, to raise the value of building plots in a much higher proportion than some will be dis- posed to admit. It will be the care, therefore, of the agent or manager to see that the most is made of this ; we shall therefore give a few hints, which may be of service to those who have not hitherto closely considered the sub- ject. Leaving for the present our remarks on the laying out of the grounds attached to villas, we shall draw attention to the fact that the external accessories, although generally consi- dered to be confined to the ornamental struc- tures, such as greenhouses and conservatories, and those more useful ones attached to the fruit and vegetable gardens, we place in our category other structures which, although in no sense thought to be ornamental additions to the property, but are simply useful, may also be made in some degree to add to the attractive- ness of the grounds as a whole. These may be summed up as wash-houses or laundries, small stable and coach-house, to which may be added a poultry-house ; and in the districts which approach more closely those of a rural character, where a paddock or small field forms either part of the property or the use of which can be obtained separately, and where a cow is desired to be kept, to the classes already named will be added a small cow-house and dairy, with the probable addition of a piggery, when beyond the bounds or influence of that police supervision which prevents the keeping of such places. Taking up the subjects thus named in due order, the first claiming our attention is 'the laying out of the grounds immediately surround- ing the villa.' In connection with this, it is obvious that the taste of the owner is displayed very much by the way in which the grounds surround- ing his house are laid out. But it is a very general mistake which is made, that in order to display this taste, large space of ground, extensive operations, and expensive modes of laying out and of fitting up the various accessories are absolutely essential. On the first of these little need be said, so obvious is the truth conveyed by it. Indeed, some have gone further than what it conveys, and have held that a man's character may be judged of by the way in which his grounds are laid out. Be tins as it may, and all such theories can be pushed to absurdity, on the second much more can be said,— so much, that there is room for a pretty fair treatise upon it, which may some day engage our attention. 352 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. While stating that large and extensive grounds are not essential to the display of taste in laying them out, we do not mean to imply that finer effects are not obtainable when larger spaces are at command, hut simply that good taste can he displayed to wonderfully great advantage even on very small plots. Nay, it may almost be said that the smaller the plot the finer the taste, inasmuch as its exercise is much more fully taxed than when greater facilities are at command. These remarks are hut very commonplace, or are mere truisms after all, yet, like many truisms, are very apt to be overlooked or forgotten, the practical result of which is that much is neglected to be done which might be done, simply because the means are considered too limited to do anything at all with. Thus opportunities for creating around a house much in its surroundings that would not only be beautiful in itself, but add greatly to the attractive value of the house, are neglected to be taken advantage of. It is, at all events, worth the trial to see what can be done with the space at command ; better than allow it to be neglected and ' waste,' and to do little because more is not within one's reach. We have seen the 'tiniest' spots so artistically laid out, every inch of ground so utilized, and all made to work one part with another, that the whole was quite a ' thing of beauty ;' while, on the other hand, we have known large spaces so treated that they were the opposite of this. Some may object to great — or indeed much, if any — attention being paid to the external sur- roundings of the bouse, merely because they do not care for such things. But another view may be taken of the matter, and it is one which may possess greater weight than that just named, viz. that the grounds of a house, however limited in extent these may be, if laid tastefully out, always improves the look of the house itself, and doing this raises its selling value materially. We have known many instances where the laying out of the surrounding grounds, and the acces- sories with which they were supplied, have been so admired by intending purchasers, that, having taken such a ' fancy to the place,' they have not hesitated to give a 'fancy price' for it, far, indeed, above its value ; so that atten- tion to matters of taste are not always and altogether thrown awa}T, or lost money to the proprietor. In the laying out of the grounds attached to a house, the great point to be aimed at is the attaining as much variety as possible, and the avoidance of the bald uniformity, than which nothing is to our mind more unsatisfactory. Take the case of a house of moderate size, set back, as is usually the case in suburban villas and villa cottages, some distance from the road. There are two methods of setting the front ground out, which will be followed according as the owner or occupier belongs to one or other of two classes. If of the strictly utili- tarian class, of whose members Buskin says that they ' think,as far as such men can be said to think, that the meat is more than the life, and the rai- ment than the body ; who look to the earth as a stable, and to its fruit as fodder;' the ground will likely be laid out on that vaguely expressed principle of ' making the most of it.' That is, there will be a walk to reach the house, — that being a necessity scarcely to be dispensed with, although some may go the length of grudging the land it occupies, as we have heard of one who did so grudge it, as so much that was wasted. This walk will go straight up to the front door of the house, and on either side will be plots laid out for the cultivation of the ' plainly useful crops ' — potatoes, cabbages, and the like. Not an inch will be spared to lay out in plots for those lovely flowers which at once delight the eye with beauty of form and colour, and fill the air with fragrance. No, not a flower will be there ' to waste its sweetness in that desert air !' If there be those who think that such a style — if style it be worthy of being called — cannot be, or never is, adopted now-a-days, we assure them that it is so, and much more frequently than one would be disposed to admit, who believe that the old and ugly style is a thing of the past. If the taste and aspirations of the owner be a grade above the last named, the laying out will display some improvements. The prim and straight walk may still be seen, bordered on either side by the plots of the kitchen garden, but the ground nearest the house will show some desire on the part of its occupants to look out upon other than potato plots or cabbages. An attempt to form a lawn will likely be made, and LAYING OUT THE GROUNDS OF SUPERIOR DWELLING-HOUSES. 353 in which some flower plots will be seen. Still ascending in the scale, we get to the first stage of the work of the second class of owners, who deem ground not wasted which adds merely to the attractiveness of the house, and pleases their eye and gratifies their taste. Shrubbery now begins to be seen ; and upon the judicious use of this, and the relation it is made to bear to the walks and to the house itself, depends much, if not all of its effectiveness. We have said that variety should be aimed at in the laying out of the grounds, and if it be not attained the main object will be lost. This variety should embrace not one but all the details, — the walks, as well the way in which the inter- vening spaces are filled up, as with knolls, clumps of shrubs, trees, pieces of ornamental water ; and in the minor accessories, such as the vases, flower -tubs, sunshades, summer-houses, etc. The small sketch plans shown in Plate 66 will give the reader a fair idea of what can be done in the way of obtaining variety without much expense, and with comparatively small or limited spaces of ground. It is to be understood that those sketch plans are given as suggestions merely. The filling up of the various parts where flowers, plants, and shrubbery are required, will be done by, as it ought to be left to, the gar- dener; but all details of a structural nature should be within the domain of the architect or builder. True, they are generally supposed to be so now ; but although it may be, not seldom, to their own chagrin, and to the hurt of the good taste of visitors who know the principles of the art, the most incongruous fittings have been put down by ' somebody,' equivalent to the ' nobody ' who is always doing mischief and is never caught in the act of doing so. By employing the architect to aid the gardener in fitting in the parts of the grounds with accessories in keeping with the style of the villa, much may be added to the beauty and completeness of the whole. The spaces of ground left open or unoccupied, for the purpose of being filled in with flowers of different varieties, require, therefore, to be treated with skill and judgment. The effects obtained in these parts by means of colour must be of course left to the gardener, who will know best how to secure them by his choice of flowers of different hues, tints, and tones. The effect obtained by means of form is usually looked for from the gardener also as part of his peculiar de- partment, and he does his best to give them. But that best is often what is not wanted, inasmuch as the forms which he assigns to his various plots, in place of being in, are often sadly out of keep- ing with the style or design of the house and its structural accessories, such as the conservatory. Nor can he, or ought he, to be blamed for this, as the matter is clearly beyond his province. A little consideration only is required to prove this. But while the architect and he alone can arrange the position and define the forms of the plots, which in their turn will be influenced more or less by the intersecting walks and alleys, mounds for shrubs, sun-dials, pieces of water, or lawn ground, he will be none the worse, but likely much the better, for taking the gardener into his counsel. A combination of the knowledge and skill of both will give better results, or ought to do so, than if one alone were to work out the plans of ground plots and walks, etc. Landscape gardeners, who occupy a higher position in the art, bearing the same relation to ordinary gardeners as architects do to builders, are, in the majority of cases, quite competent to design every detail both connected with the laying out of the grounds, the formation of the flower plots, and the design of the conservatory, etc., so as to be thoroughly in keeping with the style of the house. But skill, of course, of this kind must be well paid, although it is well worth paying for if the extent of the ground and the number of the garden structures, etc., will justify the outlay. In cases even where the grounds are of small extent, they should not, however, be laid out, and such buildings as are to be erected should not be designed, out of keeping with the style of the house ; so that the advice we have already given had best be fol- lowed, that the architect should himself design the whole details, where style and form are to be maintained, according to correct rules. The designs for flower plots may be said to be endless, as it is difficult to place any limit to the combination of lines which the taste, skill, or eccentricity of the draughtsman or designer can produce ; but it is, or should be, obvious that the 2 Y 354 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. limit should be placed somewhere, up to a point below which every design shall have the charac- teristics of the ' fitness of things/ beyond which all will be mere eccentricity and bizarre grotesque- ness. To hit this happy point, it must be con- fessed, is a difficult thing, but it is worth attempt- ing to hit it ; and some do succeed with remark- able good fortune in doing so. There are certain principles which will aid the designer in getting good work, such as having a consistency in the style of the plots with that of the house ; but this is not always attainable, inasmuch as there are not styles of gardening adapted to all the styles of architecture, — at least, not always re- corded or published examples, or of gardens actually laid out, to be easily met with. And where the house, as regards its design, comes under that singularly repulsive class as ' no style,' there is no help for it but making the garden plots to possess the same happy or unhappy characteristic, — a task, by the way, infinitely more easy than to adapt the garden style to that of the house where that happens to be designed after a known style, and where the style has been well carried out or adopted. A ride gene- rally applicable, is to keep the designs of the plots as simple as possible, although this by no means excludes those which may be truly classed as elaborate. And it is just here that the skill of the designer will best be shown ; for, while giving designs which may truly be classed as simple, being composed of but few parts or com- binations of lines, he may also give others wdiich have many Lines, and yet so skilfully regulate one to the other, that the eye will be pleased with it as being in one sense very elaborate, and yet very simple. And the most pleasing designs of an elaborate kind are those in which the eye can follow all the lines, no matter how numerous they may be, with ease, following them up so as to take in the whole design without the feeling of having the ' eye distressed,' as it is called, and yet upon any single part of which it can also look with ease, — a sense of ' repose,' in fact, being that which distinguishes the act of ex- amining the design either in detail or as a whole. Simple designs, that is, composed of few lines, are more easily dealt with by the draughtsman, and more readily comprehended by the spectator ; but the same sense of ' repose ' should be felt in examining even such simple designs, and wher- ever this does not exist, it may be taken as the most unfailing sign that the design is faulty. Where the lines are partly straight and partly curved, the greatest care is necessary to have their junction effected in easy flowing parts. Hitherto we have been considering plots as single ones ; but often a combination of several plots or figures, so to say, is adopted, the whole forming, however, one design, of which the main part is external, enclosing the smaller figures or plots. This is exemplified in the case of lawn plots, — an external figure or boundary line being cut out in the grass enclosing a space of dug soil, which is again occupied with figures, small or subsidiary plots with flowers. In such cases care must be taken to have a congruity between the internal or small figures and the external one which bounds or encloses them. This congruity is not always observed, and such fanciful designs are sometimes to be met with, in which the outer figure is made up wholly of a circle, parts of circles, or curved lines, the internal plots being all with straight formal lines. The two parts should have a distinct relation to each other, the inner flowing out, as it were, from the outer, and vice versa. Where the plots are large, affording space for shrubs or tall growing plants, judgment must be exercised in the placing of these, so that they shall harmonize with the general design. Very popular accessories of the garden are the greenhouse and the conservatory. Those struc- tures are frequently considered as one and the same, and this is true in the case of extensive gardens and large mansions, where there is a full complement of garden structures, embracing vineries or graperies, peach houses, etc. etc., the greenhouse and conservatory being often named one for another, and both used for the reception of choice flowers and plants. But in smaller gardens, where the structures are very limited in number, the greenhouse is devoted both to useful purposes, as for growing grapes, and ornamental, for enclosing flowers and plants. But where means allow of it, the two structures are essentially different, the greenhouse being of a much plainer character as regards design, com- paratively limited in dimensions, especially in SITE AND FILLING UP OF CONSER VA TORIES. 355 those of breadth, length only being unlimited and defined by circumstances. The conservatory, on the other hand, is the garden structure on which the greatest amount of money is expended, in. order to obtain the finest display of architec- tural design and large and striking dimensions, in which the effects of rare and large flowers and plants can best be displayed. The greenhouse in such cases is therefore placed in that part of the garden where useful structures and opera- tions are carried on, the conservatory occupying a position where it can be seen to the greatest advantage. It may either be completely isolated from the house, or be so arranged as to form part of it. In this latter case, it is generally arranged so that access can be had to it from the interior of the house, the part chosen for this being one of the principal rooms, as the drawing or dining room. As a rule, this arrangement is rarely made the most of. To judge, indeed, from the ex- amples too frequently met with, we may say that, as a rule, its capabilities for striking and beautiful effects are overlooked. In this the gardener is just as much, or perhaps more, to be blamed than the architect. The method too often adopted by some gardeners, in arranging the materials in the interior of the conservatory, is simply placing here and there certain plants ranged in pots placed on shelves, or in tubs resting on the floor. The whole are so arranged that not only is confusion and want of system prevalent under ordinary circumstances ; but when the doors are opened between the conservatory and the room with which it is connected, the view presents little or none of the effects of a fine open and striking vista, which is capable of being im- parted to the whole. Now, by the exercise of no great amount of care and skill in design, the objects placed near the doors of communication may be so arranged in relation to those beyond, that when these are opened the mind and fancy are set to work as to what there is to be seen, and the desire is at once created to go in and ex- plore. Not only should the gardener endeavour to arrange each section of the conservatory so that it shall be complete in itself, and all its parts go to make up, for lack of a better word, a tasteful collection, but he should aim at making each part one of a general whole ; this, as viewed from the drawing-room, for example, to which it is attached, when the doors are thrown open, or before entrance, conveying to the mind the idea of a much larger vista, and a much wider and larger space than in reality exists, — to aim, in fact, at creating ' perspective.' This is some- times done with great judgment and with ex- quisite taste, and at no greater expenditure than where the opposite system is carried out ; but it is not so often done as it might be, for lack of examples of it, arising chiefly, we believe, from people not thinking about it, not from the absence of ability to do it. The central space of a conservatory should not be wholly filled up. This prevents at once all attempts being made to secure the perspective we have above alluded to; but by having the plants arranged so as to leave a space more or less wide in the centre, this is much more easily obtained. Tine effects can be secured also by other adjuncts, such as arched work, vases, ornamental brackets, pendant vases, and the end or further extremity finished off with some arrangement of exquisite ' greenery,' such as ferns or the like, these arranged also so as still to convey the idea of farther and prettier spaces beyond, by filling in the back with mirrored panels, some flat, some at angles. A great deal could be said on this subject, and it is a tempt- ing one on which to say much, but space, and illustrations, which require more, would be neces- sary, and that we have not here to give ; but the object of this ' note ' is suggestive, and that we hope we have to some degree made it. One word as to the interior fittings. These are generally the shabbiest of the shabby, and all the more conspicuous in this unfortunate direc- tion, from being often so immediately near to the handsome furniture of the drawing-room close at hand, and indeed to the beautiful flowers which they support. Why should the shelving, for instance, on which the flowers are ranged, be such miserable affairs as they too often are ? And why should the plain ugly boards be sup- ported by brackets — the name, indeed, is too good to be applied to the carpenter work put iip — uglier still ? Very pretty effects could 1 >e obtained by adaptations of what the French call 356 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY ' bois de coupeV or wood cut into fine outlines, and these often again perforated at their solid parts with beautifully designed scrolls. Those who have travelled much abroad must have had their attention frequently directed to the very beautiful work of this kind met with in gardens, conservatories, etc. etc. In this department the architect can do much to aid the gardener, in- dependent of others which a little consideration will suggest to him. More, also, can be done by him in external work than he may be apt to sup- pose at first sight. Thus, for example, should it be desired to make the conservatory enter from the drawing-room, and this be placed on the second floor, very striking and novel effects may be obtained by raising the conservatory on cast- iron pillars, etc. etc. The space under the con- servatory may be made available by the gardener to produce effects which will aid those of the archi- tect, so as to render the wThole an arrangement which, from its novelty as well as beauty, cannot fail to increase the selling value of the property. The relation which the kitchen should bear to the flower garden and the ornamental parts of the grounds, is a difficult problem to solve, — difficult, if the true aesthetic points be considered. Some solve it very simply, by relegating — as the fashionable word now is — the kitchen garden to such a part of the back ground that nothing is seen of it ; and in case any one should even suspect its position, high fences are put up to secure this desideratum. All this proceeds on the assumption that the kitchen garden is a tiling to be ashamed of so far as seeing it is concerned, and that nothing can be made of it artistically. We have long held the opinion that this view is erroneous, and that, by the exercise of skill and judgment, it might be made to form — partly at least — an important feature in the general orna- mentation of the grounds. How to attain this end, the skill and judgment noted above would require to be of a passably high order; and as this is not to be had without being paid for, and that at a moderately high rate, this is probably why it is not employed, and why it is that so seldom we see the kitchen garden treated as it ought to be. While, no doubt, the most beauti- ful objects of the garden should be so placed that they will at once be visible from the best rooms of the house, the plain vegetables should not be wholly and designedly shut out from view. Many of our useful vegetable plants are ex- ceedingly beautiful in the gracefulness of their foliage. Some are taller, some of brighter hues than others. Now, by a judicious arrangement of the different varieties, bringing those the most beautiful and graceful to the front, and keeping those of a more lowly kind to the back, very fine effects might be obtained. There is, for example, not a more delightful vegetable, or a more economical one, in virtue of its extra- ordinary prolific qualities, than the tall scarlet runner, and few plants, at the same time, that can vie with it in the elegance of its foliage and the exceeding brilliance of its variegated flowers, which are, moreover, ' out ' for many months. Now we have known an ugly fence converted into a ' thing of beauty/ which was the admiration of every one who saw it, — and more than that, a thing of utility, for endless were the dishes of delicious vegetables obtained from it. This is named here as a hint to show that to gain beauty much money need not be expended, for the seed cost but a few pence. The ' beauty of the thing,' as the man said, ' lay in its application.' What we have here said as to the relation between the kitchen garden and the other parts of the garden and the house, will show that at least there is no necessity that it should form an ugly feature in the general arrangements ; rather, indeed, by the exercise of taste, skill, and judgment, that it can be made an ornamental one. That we have yet to learn something in our treatment of the utilitarian part of our gardens, that it may, in combination with flowers, etc., form an ornamental feature as beautiful as novel, may be seen in some parts of the Continent — in Germany, for example. Prom what the gardeners there do with the simplest of means, and certainly in no way with the largest or even a moderate amount of pecuniary means, we may derive some notion of what could be done amongst us with our wealth unbounded, and practical skill in turning things to the best account. The only thing apparently awanting is the will to introduce an innovation in practice, which, at the first at least, would be certain to draw down censure and severest criticism. But KITCHEN AND MARKET GARDENS. 357 courage and perseverance would overcome all this. We honestly believe that the innovation promises so much, that it is worth the trouble of some one to risk the performance of it. One has almost a positive pleasure, or at least a pleasurable degree of excitement, in braving public opinion, more especially when that is against an innovation which promises to be useful. But this goes a step farther, as we have hinted, and secures, if judgment is exercised, the beautiful as well. Only those who have seen the combination of flowers with vegetables, and those with fruit trees — dwarf or trained espalier or cordon (French) fashion, of course, only in such case being admissible, large fruit trees being relegated to the orchard proper, if there be one — can have any conception of the suggestive loveliness of the variety of beautiful organic life displayed. Much of it, however, especially amongst the vegetables, must be looked for to be appreciated. It is surprising how much one loses in life from lack of having the habit of observa- tion. The leafage — to cite only one case — of nearly the whole of the garden vegetables affords most lovely examples of form and outline. Some most exquisite designs could be culled from the foliage of a small plot of cabbages even, or of turnips, parsnips, and carrots ; that of the latter crop is most beautiful in the lace-like delicacy of the foliage, if it may be so called. We have said enough, we trust, to prove that something can be made of the kitchen garden as an orna- mental accessory to the villa or country house. Of the remaining classes of villa accessories which we have named, — the laundry, etc., — little requires to be said. The extent of the accommo- dation will obviously depend upon the size of the house, and the situation should be chosen with a due regard at once to the convenience of the domestics, and to the requirements of taste, etc., of the occupier of the villa. As regards accom- modation, we give in Plate 67 the plan of a laundry comprising nearly all the points which that of a first-class villa will require. Market Gardens. — A department connected with the laying out and the letting of suburban land, which is of great importance, and which when judiciously done adds largely to the revenue of the property, is connected with market garden- ing. The same objection which obtains to land devoted to this when situated in the near vicinity of superior dwelling-houses, does not exist in the case of inferior buildings so placed. At least the same reason ought not to exist ; as certainly the prospect from the windows of a mansion or villa cannot be said to be much injured which takes in the varied products of a market garden. To these if objections be made, the occupiers must be most fastidious, or exceedingly ill to please. At the same time, there is a right and a wrong way of setting out or disposing of even land most pleasant to look upon; and some attention ought to be paid to the way in which market garden land is laid out in relation to building land immediately contiguous which is devoted to houses of a superior class. One point, at all events, ought to be looked after, but which is, nevertheless, strangely neglected — that is, the style and position of such buildings as may be required on the market garden land. These are generally, we may almost say universally, of not only the plainest, but even of the most ugly character, frequently indeed wretched, tumble- down-looking structures, 'knocked up' — if erected de novo — of the poorest and flimsiest materials, or the remains, ruinous and decaying, of the more substantial structures of preceding times. If buildings such as these are on the land, they should be pulled down and replaced by neat if not picturesque-looking structures, or altered — as they can by a skilful man be altered — -so as to be a decided attraction. Market garden land generally brings a high rental; but if near a town, as building land brings even a higher rental, even market garden land is in many districts being rapidly budt over. Hence we find the market gardens are now often placed in districts which are strictly rural; but the apparent difficulty of distance from town is over- come by the facilities of railway transport. When so placed, it is obviously a necessity to have the market garden as near the station as possible. It is worthy of note that there is a growing ten- dency to combine with ordinary farming some of the special departments of market gardening, this being, of course, wholly confined to those farms in the immediate vicinity of towns, and which are classed as suburban farms. 35S DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. CHAPTER VI. THE LAYING OUT OF TART OF TIIE PROPERTY FOR AMATEUR FARMING. To this department of the management of pro- perty, situated in its suburban and partly rural districts, the attention of the agent will be fre- quently called. We have, in our introductory chapter, alluded to the causes which have brought about the remarkable changes in the development of the resources of landed property. One of these causes, and in some respects a powerful one, was the extended and extending desire on the part of men engaged in other businesses, who, having either retired from their actual labours, or realized a fortune, to use a popular phrase, ' have a hobby to gratify/ gratify it in the form of amateur farming, and, having abundance of means, gratifying it regardless of cost, by this means give altogether extravagant or purely conventional rents for the farms they take a liking for. This very frequently acts to the detriment and exclusion of those who are legitimately, so to say, dependent on farming for a living, and who cannot afford to stand against competition such as this. But this is not by any means the ride, although we have heard farmers more than once complain as if it was, and that it acted very prejudicially against their class. This, however, is certainly making the most of the matter, the fact rather being that amateurs prefer, as a rule, to have a small acreage under their care. What they chiefly aim at is the carrying out possibly of a hobby or two in farming, while the supply of dairy and other produce for the family is another and important consideration with them. No doubt there are not a few cases of men who have been very successful in other classes of business, who do take to what may in every sense of the term be called farming on the large scale. Pos- sessing abundance of means, such farms are so conducted that lessons of value in one way or another may be and are frequently derived from them. Nor are the amateur farms of small extent without influence in this way. It will be well, therefore, to glance briefly at the question how far and in what way this system or custom exercises an influence upon the progress of practical farming, and of course on the improve- ment of landed property, throughout the country ; for it is a custom which extends over the whole kingdom, although in some districts — as, for ex- ample, the seats of manufacturing and indus- trial callings — it is more extensively carried out. As a rule, amateur farmers have a real taste for farming, and this may be safely premised, other- wise they would not take to it as an amusement, or merely to gratify a whim. They therefore take what may be called a natural pride in having every- thing done in the best possible way, to aid which they are lavish in expenditure for machines, appliances, and materials ; and, generally speak- ing, even where the farm is very small, they secure the services of an overseer thoroughly acquainted with farming. Many a good lesson is therefore to be learned, even by practical farmers who have been all their lives at the business, from their amateur neighbours. And although this influence may not be acknowledged, there is no question of the fact that amateur farms, managed in the way we have stated, dotted here and there over an estate, must be productive of good. The amateur farmer, being a man of edu- cation generally, is likely to be a reader of all the new things which come out in agricultural literature, and is almost certain to be a member of the leading societies, or an attender at their shows. Every recent improvement and sugges- AMATEUR FARMS AND FARMING— RESTRICTION IN CROPPING. 359 tion will therefore likely be adopted and tried by him. Even although the motive be but one of curiosity, the result is the same as regards his observant neighbour; for if the trial be a failure, he will learn as much from it possibly as if it had been a success. It is the custom to say of such amateur farmers that they are not practical men ; but it is difficult to define very clearly, so far as certain departments of farming are con- cerned, what a practical man is. He may be more successful than those who are trained to the business, and live by it, in rearing a cer- tain class of stock, for example, or raising a certain crop, and his system in doing so may be worthy of adoption by others ; so, although de- pendent in no degree upon his farm, he has so far shown that he can do something practical. And there are more examples than one in the country to prove that men who are eminent for their business qualities in their own particular calling, have made themselves as eminent for the like practical qualities when they have taken to play farming, as it is sometimes called. It does not follow that, because an amateur farm is small, good farming cannot be displayed on it ; for if its owner or occupier, availing himself of all the resources which abundance of capital can place at his disposal, by farming ten acres, for ex- ample, so well, can produce as much as a neigh- bour can make twenty yield, the amateur is evidently ahead of the practical man strictly so called. It is not, in farming, so much the extent of land or number of stock which is worked and possessed which is the point, but the profit obtained from them. Hence an amateur farmer may make more of his small holding than his neighbour may make of his large one, so that, in addition to the profits which may accrue, there is the satisfaction arising from the fact that he may in his practice be of some slight service to the science, and therefore to the community at large. It is difficult, therefore, to say what good influences amateur farming may produce; but certain it is, apart altogether from the question whether it is carried on with profit or not, that these influences must, if notice be taken of them by surrounding neighbours, be of some service ; and certain also it is, that whoever is the gainer by the establish- ment of ' play farms,' the landlord must be one, for he may rely on this, that full justice will be done to his land. Amateur farms, to use the language of a prac- tical farmer, unquestionably ' furnish striking examples of what may be done in the field, the garden, and the stall; and their influence in improving the general style of cultivation and management around them is confessedly very great. Those who can afford to establish and maintain them are or may be public bene- factors ; but our farmers generally must be con- tent to learn what they can from them, — both the successes and failures of such high farm- ing,— and to follow at a respectful distance. They can neither put up such fences and farm buildings, nor go so largely into drainage and irrigation, nor purchase such costly fertilizers, nor own such expensive horses, cattle, and sheep,' and, we may add, display such care and skill, or give so much time to gardening. ' Nevertheless,' continues our author, ' they can see the import- ance of concentrating expense and labour on a smaller extent of land, and in and amongst a smaller number of animals.' In view of these facts, it will not be advisable for the amateur to be restricted in his course of cropping ; however much this system may be deemed necessary in larger holdings, it is quite \incalled for in the case of these small ones. As a rule, amateur farms are of small extent, and but a small proportion of their area is devoted to cropping, to which generally restrictions in farm- ing are confined. This arises from the fact that a large number of amateur farmers take to the amusement, as it may be termed, from the desire which they and their families have to be supplied with dairy produce, poultry, pigs, etc. This can be easily understood when one considers the circumstances attendant upon the town life to which they were accustomed before taking to their newer one in the country. In addition to these circumstances, which would make it politic not to restrict the amateur farmer in his cropping, it would not be less politic in view of what we have already said of the amateur farmer indulg- ing in all sorts of experiments. The results of many of these may be trifling, and almost value- less, but it will go hard if others do not yield sonietbing of practical value. Of course, in the DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. lease or bargain made with the amateur farmer, the landlord will take care to insert such condi- tions that his property shall not be injured, or its local features altered, without special per- mission. Thus, old and valuable pasture fields should not be ploughed or dug up excepting under certain conditions ; for although the amateur may be enamoured of dairying at one period of his lease, at another he may take as strong a fancy for increasing his experiments in arable culture ; or, still keeping to dairying, he may give up pasture feeding and take to soiling his cows, which will require land for extra crops. Internal or accommodation roads should also be arranged for, while fences dividing certain fields should not, without permission, be taken down, — should the farmer wish to make two small fields, for ex- ample, into a large one. Buildings, also, should not be altered without permission. Save these and other obvious restrictions, the amateur farmer should have wide scope for the enjoyment of what practical men consider his erratic or eccen- tric farming. As to what the landlord is to give him, this is perhaps a more difficult point ; and the most difficult of all to decide will be that connected with the buildings. Here, if anywhere, the eccentric character of amateur farming will display itself; for some have such very peculiar notions of what is wanted, or what they would like, that it is not easy to decide what should be given and what should be withheld. A good deal of the difficulty arises from the circumstance that it is not merely the gentleman who is to be dealt with, or rather his notions met, but the ladies of the house come in with theirs, which are very much more erratic, as far as farming is concerned. It is not so much the mere kind of buildings which they wish, as the style in which they are to be erected, — the ornate and the com- plicated figuring pretty largely in the ladies' minds. The difficulty will best be met by adopt- ing the common-sense plan of ascertaining what the general notions are of the farmer as to his style or proposed method of farming, and, if no buildings be already existing, putting down only those which a calculation will readily show are necessary to meet the requirements of the style of farming decided on, giving a slight excess, rather than a deficiency, in the extent and kind of accommodation required. The extra buildings desired by the farmer, either to suit his own peculiar notions in some direction or another, or those of the ladies of the house, will of course either be constructed at his own cost, or, if put down by the landlord, a certain percentage of their cost must be added to the annual rent of the farm. And as it is very likely — indeed, almost certain — that the farmer during his lease will take a fancy for some branch or other requir- ing new and special erections, or an extension of the old ones, some arrangement should be entered into as to the terms and way in which these are to be dealt with at the expiry of the lease. In short, nothing should be left to chance, or to be dictated by such circumstances as may arise at that period. Everything, to use a common ex- pression, should be put 'in black and white,' which is the true system to prevent disputes. It does not follow that these may arise, for however clear may be a bargain made ' orally or by word of mouth,' with the best intention to adhere to it, neither of the parties may have the best memory as to what the terms of the bargain were, especially after the lapse of the many years to which a lease generally runs. Although sometimes placed under separate agreements, it will be best to include in one the house, garden, and ornamental grounds, if there be any of the latter, including arrangements as to the garden structures of whatever kind, whether these be built at first entry of the farmer or constructed by him at any period of his lease. The same accuracy and strictness of agreement should be adhered to in all the details connected with the above department, as in the case of the farm buildings proper. Here, in this depart- ment of house and garden, the amateur farmer will be more likely to put down new structures and carry out improvements than on the farm, as the influence of the ladies of the house will likely be more felt. Altogether, the probability is that the landlord, at the expiry of his lease, will find his property as a whole greatly im- proved ; the land, roads, and fences will be left in the best condition, and the garden also will be at its highest point of culture ; while any extra buildings or structures put down during the lease will likely fall into his hands on very easy terms, BUILDINGS FOR AMATEUR FARM. 361 presuming, as we do, that the amateur farmer is an educated gentleman, which he is almost cer- tain to be. It would be easy to go farther into the treatment of the subjects we have but glanced at, but this we do not deem necessary ; enough has been given by way of hints — which was all we had in view — to serve some practical purpose,— those embracing the leading features of the subject. What few words we have farther to give will be connected with the buildings necessary for the amateur farmer, and as to which we have already hinted at. The extent and accommodation of these will depend not so much on the extent of land, as upon the wishes, and in many cases the mere fancy, of the farmer. Very frequently the buildings put down on amateur farms are greatly in excess of the land rented by the farmer, and this simply because, having hobbies of his own, they require, to do them, as he thinks, justice, certain classes or styles of build- ings. In such cases, the uniformity in extent of accommodation, observable in farm buildings where regular farming is carried on, will not be attended to, so that a certain class of apart- ments will largely exceed in number those of another class. Thus we may cite the case of an amateur farmer who took a mania, as it might be called, for pig-keeping, the practice of which, according to his own belief, he was about to completely revolutionize. The result was, he got his landlord to put down most extensive and ex- pensive ranges of piggeries, the number of which would have sufficed for the wants in this depart- ment of a dairy farm of larger acreage. And when, in due course of time, the amateur having either got tired of his experiments, or having found that his revolution was not so easy to effect, the piggeries lacked their inhabitants, it was somewhat of a melancholy sight to see them deserted, forlorn, and useless, or at least nearly so. In cases such as this, the amateur, as we have already hinted at, must make a special arrange- ment with his landlord, the nature of which will be dictated by the peculiar circumstances. It is not, however, all landlords who will agree to put down extensive buildings of some particular class only or chiefly, inasmuch as they might very probably not suit the next tenant, — who might, by the way, have a hobby of his of the same exclu- sive character, — and form also, in his opinion, an eyesore from their somewhat obtrusive oddity, as were the piggeries just alluded to, and which for a time were the talk of the country, and finally christened ' So-and-so's folly.' In general circumstances, the plan of the farm buildings for the amateur will be some modifica- tion of regular farmeries, and of which we have given various plans, details, and suggestions. In a large number of farms, the accommodation for stock will be sufficient if it comprises a cow-house for two cows, and a calf pen, a pig- sty for young pigs, a farrowing sow, and one for fattening ; a poultry house wdl also be required. An important part of the buildings will be the stable, as the amateur farmer, being presumed to be wealthy, will, as usual in such cases, be, or affect to be, fond of horses, and both for family and farm-house the accommodation will be in excess of that which would be in strict proportion to the demands of the farm. This, indeed, will not always require horse-power at all, — that is, to be kept specially, — as the land under cultivation will be small in extent, and will be ploughed chiefly by hiring the services of some neighbour- ing farmer. The case, however, will be different as regards the family horses, riding and carriage. In these the stable accommodation may not only require to be pretty extensive, but also superior as regards style of building, arrangement, and fitting up. As affording accommodation for 0, pretty large class of amateur farms, we give iu Plate 68 the plan of buildings suitable for the minimum number of live stock kept. This, taken along with the plans of regular farmeries which we have given in various plates, will enable plans of varying accommodation to be designed, to meet the varying and varied notions of the amateur under a wide variety of circum- stances. 2z DIVISION FIFTH. THE ADMINISTRATIVE DEPARTMENTS OF THE PROPERTY— DISCUSSION OF VARIOUS POINTS CONNECTED WITH THIS— LEASES AND TENANT RIGHT— SMALL FARMS— THE LABOURER, HIS POSITION, WAGES, AND PRIVILEGES IN PERQUISITES, RECREATION, READING CLUES, GARDENING ALLOTMENT, ETC., AND EDUCATION. INTRODUCTION. In commencing this important department of the work, it is somewhat difficult to decide upon its title, — fixing upon a phrase or term which exactly denotes its character. In one sense it might be called the legislative department, inas- much as it takes up the consideration of points which clearly come within this category ; while at the same time, embracing, for the purpose of convenience of arrangement and reference, if for nothing else, topics which come more within the range of social and moral considerations, it can scarcely be classed amongst the legislative work of the property. We have therefore chosen a title which, if not exactly appropriate in all respects, will at least embrace both legislative and social subjects. The administrative work of property certainly embraces every department of it, even those which have already passed under review. But from the title of the division it will be seen that we have confined its subjects to those connected more closely with the relationship which exists or should exist between the various classes who carry on the regular wTork of the pro- perty,— work which ought to be arranged in such a way that the best paying result will follow, and that all concerned with it will work harmoniously towards the common end, and each class have at the same time its own interests fully cared for by the agent or general manager of the property. All this work clearly falls within his province, under whom a staff, more or less numerous in proportion to the size of the property and the work to be done on it, is organized. He it is who ' orders' what is to be done in every depart- ment— responsible himself to one party only, namely, the proprietor or landlord — of the various sections or districts into which, if the property be extensive, it is divided. The duties of the sub-agents or managers of these districts, in fact, are very similar in detail to that of the chief agent. In some cases, each district in extensive estates, where these happen to be made up of pro- perties in different parts of the country, has got its own agent in chief, each acting quite indepen- dently of the other. In other cases there may be one chief agent only, who takes the general management of the property as a whole, — an arrangement which has many advantages, the most important of which will be obvious on con- sideration, a very obvious one being the secur- ing of a unity of management. Next to the agent or general manager comes the bailiff, who has the practical carrying out of the work of certain districts. The tenants or farmers come next in order, who again have or may have badiffs, according to the extent of their farms, to carry out their orders and see that their work is properly executed. The overseer or fore- man, or, as some call him, foresman, has the direct supervision of the last, and not the least important, of all — the labourer. It does not form part of the plan of our work to enter into any detads as to the nature of the duties, and the characteristics or requirements which enable those duties to be best performed, of the different classes we have named, and which go to make up what may be called the adminis- trative and working ' staff ' of the property. What MUTUAL INTEREST OF EMPLOYEES ON PROPERTY. 363 we propose doing is to enter at once into the consideration of some of the leading questions connected with the management of the property. One or two of these may be supposed by some to be without the range of our work, but a slight glance at the contents of the chapters taking up their consideration, will show in time that they have a very close connection indeed with the general prosperity of the property, and demand, therefore, a very close investigation as materially influencing this. Before taking up the different subjects of the division, we would draw attention to a point too often overlooked, but which exercises an impor- tant influence on the way in which the work of the property is done. The point is, that each of the various parties employed on the property may be of great service in giving hints to one another. And we would therefore impress on each of those in a superior condition, the value which suggestions coming from those even in the most inferior conditions may possess. It is worthy of remembering, that although in no sense edu- cated, they at least have a practical knowledge of the departments in which they are engaged, and may have, for aught those above them know, an aptitude to communicate that clearly and forcibly to others. In other callings, many a fortune has been made by the master deriving, from a ser- vant holding a very inferior position, a hint of great value in connection with his own depart- ment ; and the same, although in different or lesser degree, holds good in agriculture. The difficulty to be overcome is getting the men to communi- cate what they know, and this from lack of that natural confidence which ought to, but which, we regret to say, rarely does exist between those occupying different positions. But this may be overcome, as in numerous instances it has been overcome, by the exercise of tact, by studying character, becoming acquainted with various phases of human nature ; but, above all, combin- ing these and other obvious points with a thorough kindliness of manner, and displaying in every- thing a true interest in the welfare of the in- ferior parties, than which nothing is more power- ful in the way of overcoming prejudices, and in making the parties actually anxious to please their employers, by doing all they can to promote their interests, repay, as it were, the kindness which they themselves have received. A man must be very hard indeed who can for long time withstand the softening and enlighten- ing influences we have named. A property well managed should be like a family, the various members of which are as closely interested in the welfare of others as in that of their own ; not a collection of cliques, so to express it, each of which deems its own interests paramount, and antagonistic to those of all the others. This view of the management of one department of a property may seem to some to savour somewhat of the 'too romantic;' but a close investigation — the closer the better — will show that it em- bodies a hard practical fact, and one which largely influences and decides the point whether the property will, in the highest sense, be a paying one. 3^4 D [RECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. CHAPTER I. LEASES AND TENANT RIGHT. In connection with the subject of leases a very great deal has been both written and said, not always with judgment, — too frequently, in fact, with a warmth and heedless personality scarcely befitting the position and dignity of either one party or the other who engage in such discussions. No doubt it may he said that it is not an easy thing to keep very calm on a subject that con- cerns so closely one's living as it does that of the tenant, or the interest of the property as it does in the case of the landlord. But the very im- portance of the subject should make it one to he discussed calmly, and it should not be forgotten that the interests of both tenant and landlord are really identical, and not antagonistic, as some writers and speakers on both sides seem to take for granted. In beginning to treat of this important sub- ject, we confess that it is one surrounded with so many difficulties, that it is not an easy matter to see one's way out of them. And so many points have to be considered, and many conflicting interests, — at least, interests which are made to conflict, — that their reconcilement has taxed the best endeavours of those who have come to the discussion of the subject as free from the pre- judices, either of one party or the other, as it is possible to be. The crucial point of the subject is that connected with the restrictions placed upon the farmer, both as regards the system of cultivation of his farm and the selling or disposal of certain parts of its produce. What these restrictions are we shall presently see. But it should not be decided off-hand that the relation of the landlord to the tenant is entirely one in favour of the former, nor that the removal of such restrictions complained of by the tenant is to be done at once by the landlord, without his having it shown to him that it is as much to his interest as it is to that of the farmer. Taking the simplest or first view of the matter, it would appear that the easiest way would be to allow the tenant to farm the land in any way he liked, without restrictions of any kind, inasmuch as he would be likely, as a rule, to farm in the best possible way for the sake of his own pocket ; just as a manufacturer is permitted by his landlord to adopt any system he deems most likely to yield him the highest profits. But the cases, although they have been cited as exactly parallel, ' do not run,' so to say, ' on equal legs.' Self-interest does not always enable a man to decide upon doing that which is really the best for it. As human nature is con- stituted, its doings are sometimes erratic ; and as there are two ways of doing things, the right and the wrong, some will do the wrong, either through ignorance or prejudiced self-will. We could cite from experience, even in the practice of manu- facturers, instances in which some have persisted in carrying out a system of working which could not possibly pay, although it was contrary to established practice, and yet persisted in it not- withstanding the advice of friends interested in their , welfare. In this case the landlord does not interfere, as the loss is simply that of the tenant. But it is wrong to say that the manu- facturer is altogether free from restrictions ; as regards the buildings, for example, liis lease or covenant does place him under certain restrictions, and that because the landlord is therein interested. But farming and manufacturing are essentially different things, and although it does appear at first sight that it would not matter to the proprietor of land whether his tenant farmed to make money or to lose it ; but just as the manufacturer LANDLORD'S AND TENANT'S VIEWS OF CROPPING RESTRICTIONS. 365 is restricted from doing certain things with the building, on the ground that it would injure the property of the landlord, so is the tenant of a farm restricted from doing that which will injure the property. In the case of the manufacturer, no doubt, the restrictions do not affect the work to be done within the buildings, as the landlord's interest is in no way affected by the way in which that is done ; but, as we have said, farming is different to manufacturing work, for the tenant on landed property may so farm as to greatly injure the productive powers of the soil, and thus largely reduce its value as a property. All those who know what agriculture is, know how this can be done. The landlord, therefore, in order to prevent the fertdity of his soil being deteriorated, either by the adoption of a certain course of cropping which is or may be exhaustive, or by the disposal of produce which, under a certain system, yields manure, which, if not given to the land, reduces its productive powers, places the tenant, by means of the lease, under certain restrictions, to prevent him from following those systems destructive of the value of the property. There is another reason why the landlord deems it in his interest thus to restrict his tenant, and this is, that those interests on his side are per- manent, the land being his in perpetuity ; the tenant occupying the land for a period only more or less limited, his interests are limited also. If the tenant, for example, had his farm let to him in perpetuity, or, which would come to the same result, if it was sold to him freehold on the payment of an annual 'ground rent' or 'feu duty,' and on terms with which both parties would be satisfied, it is obvious that it would be a matter of supreme indifference to the landlord whether the tenant exhausted his land or not. If he did not, it would be clearly to his own gain ; if he did, the loss would be entirely his own, the landlord being secured from it, as he would get his rent in per- petuity, which rent would be satisfactory to him. But even in this case, on the side of the landlord it may be said that a certain restriction was required, inasmuch as he might say, ' On the first view of the matter I cannot lose, but would I have the payment of the rent guaranteed to me in a secure way ? Your bad farming may land you in bankruptcy, so that you could not pay me your rent, and I would thus not only lose my money, but I should have my land thrown upon my hands in a condition infinitely less valuable than when you got it.' This is, of course, putting the matter in an extreme point of view ; still, it goes to show that it is one, as we said before, which cannot be decided in an off-hand way from one point alone, while it shows that there is at least a fair and reasonable ground for placing some restrictions on farming in the interests of the landlord. A very strong point, however, in favour of the tenant's view, that he should be left free to farm as he liked, seems to lie in this, namely, that the restrictions generally adopted in leases are those which, being founded on the style or mode of farming many, many years ago, are by no means adapted to that now in existence. It is a fact so patent to every one that it needs scarcely to be mentioned, that agriculture has, during the last thirty or forty years, gone on progressing so steadily, that the practice of to-day may be said to be an improvement on that of yesterday, so that any restrictions founded upon old are not applicable to the practice of modern times. Now, if restrictions are necessary, or continue to be claimed by the landlord as a right, protective of his interests, it appears to be no unreasonable thing that such restrictions should keep pace with, and be based upon, the improved practice of the time at which the lease is made. Nay, seeing that improvements are being constantly made, it would be as little unreasonable for the tenant to claim some provision by which the restrictions could be altered in accordance with the altered circumstances of farming. The difficulties attendant upon an arrangement like this are obviously such that it woidd be no easy matter to overcome them, so that certainly the easiest way of treating the whole question would be to adopt the plan advocated now so widely, of giving the tenant absolute freedom for the culti- vation of the soil ; but then, as we have shown, the difficulties on this side are just as great, if not greater. It appears, therefore, that the com- plexion to which things must come at last is that of a compromise, based upon the good old plan of give and take, — the best of all methods of settling conflicting claims, which, if more adopted 3C6 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. thaii it is, the wheels of everyday life would run smoother than they do. Not that compromises in themselves are easy to adjust, but fortunately the very principle carries with it that which renders its details much more easily settled ; for when two parties come together with the wish to adjust the difference, a large proportion of the difficulties are got rid of. The reader must not suppose that these last remarks are out of place here ; on the contrary, it would be well if the principles they involve were more attended to, for then the business of the estate would be more easily and satisfactorily adjusted. It is hard to place the limit to which the evils of disputes can reach ; and anything which can pre- vent them being fought out to the bitter end has really a high money value, — to say nothing of other considerations which moralists would rate higher than this one. As affording many suggestions of high practical value, and what, indeed, may prove in many cases the basis of such a compromise as that to which we have above alluded, the reader will do well to give grave consideration to a paper read by the eminent scientist, Mr. J. B. Lawes, before the Society of Arts, and published in their journal under date 14th December 1877.1 We shall do the reader a service, however, by referring to a few of the leading points of tins paper. Mr. Lawes sets out by showing that the interests of the landlord and tenant are, in his opinion, identical in every point but one, namely, that those of the landlord are permanent, — of the tenant, limited. With a view of maintaining the fertility of his land, the landowner introduces into his lease the restric- tions to which we have alluded ; and as he maintains that any profit which the removal of these would enable the tenant to obtain would be obtained at his expense, and would lessen the value of his land, and as, moreover, these restric- tions have been 'habit and wont,' Mr. Lawes thinks that the burden of the proof that these restrictions might be removed without injury to such interests, rests with the farmer. Mr. Lawes first notes the nature of these restrictions — ' 1st, 1 The paper is entitled, ' Freedom in the Growth and Sale of the Crops of the Farmer, considered in relation to the interests of Landowner and the Tenant Farmer.' Price to non-members, 6d. Published by George Bell & Sons, York Street, Covent Garden. not to grow two white crops in succession ; 2d, not to sell straw, hay, roots, or, in fact, any fodder crop, of the farm; 3d, in some districts a second white straw crop in succession may be taken in the course of a rotation, — that is to say, three in five years, instead of two in four years. In such cases it is generally stipulated that the second corn crop shall differ from the first, — that wheat shall not follow wheat, nor barley barley.' The points to which Mr. Lawes directs himself are : 1st, Are the restrictions ' necessary for the pro- tection of the landowner ? 2d, If once necessary, are they equally so now ? 3d, Does a comparison between past and present prices of agricultural produce, or our increased knowledge in regard to the action of manures and to the exhaustion of soils, or the fact that large external sources of supply of fertilizing materials are now at our command, justify us in concluding that these restrictions might safely be modified, or even in some cases removed ? ' The arguments for and against such modification and removal Mr. Lawes classifies under two heads — 1st, on behalf of the landlord ; 2d, of the tenant. We, of course, do not intend here to state what those arguments are ; but the sum of them, so far as the land- lord is concerned, is that, all things considered, restrictions are as beneficial to the tenant as they are to himself; while the sum of the argu- ments on the tenant's side is, that the restric- tions, while injurious to him, could be removed without being so to the landowner. Certainly, so far as considerations bearing upon the improve- ments introduced into agriculture of late years and their influence on systems of farming is con- cerned, no one can come to the full and accurate investigation with higher claims than Mr. Lawes. And when he, therefore, sums up the whole case by concluding that it would be to the interest of the nation at large as consumers, to the interest of farmers as producers, and not injurious to the interest of the landlords as proprietors of the soil, it would appear that the time has at length arrived when the latter should take the whole subject under consideration, with a view, if not to remove, assuredly to modify, the present system of restrictions in covenants or leases. We confess, however, to feeling that while this is the case, and that all the departments of modern LEASES— LORD COKE'S SYSTEM— TENANT RIGHT. & farming indicate it to be correct, their modi- fication would be more the tiling that is required in absolutely strict justice to the landlord than their positive removal. In a preceding para- graph we have shown one or two considerations bearing upon this which we think fair. At the discussion which followed the reading of Mr. Lawes' paper, a modification, such as might be adopted, was explained by Mr. Clare Sewell Eead, M.P., as being the system adopted by the present Lord Leicester, a descendant of the cele- brated Mr. Coke of Holkam. Lord Leicester grants leases for twenty years, the first sixteen years of which he does not insist upon the tenant following the four - course system of cropping, which the reader knows was intro- duced into Norfolk by Mr. Coke, and which may be said to be the basis of the modern improved system of agriculture ; but during the last four years of the lease Lord Leicester insists upon the tenant carrying out the four-course cropping. Further, of course, if a renewal of the lease was granted, this cropping would not be insisted upon. Further, Lord Leicester had a reservation in his leases, that, to quote Mr. Bead's words, 'in case he saw during the first sixteen years that the tenant was going to the bad, and farming his land in an exhausting way, he should be able to pull him up and insist on the four- course system being adopted at once. ' This method of modifying the restrictions in covenants appears to us to be one which would meet the circumstances of most farmers — would constitute, indeed, the compromise which we have alluded to. Mr. Eead has such a good opinion of it (and he is one of our highest authorities), that he says if all landlords would follow Lord Leicester's example, ' a great deal of the agriculture of this country would be improved, and they would not hear of so much agricultural distress as at present.' On referring to what, in an early part of this chapter, we have said on the subject of the condition of the farmer during his lease, it will be observed that it comes closely on the principle insisted upon by Lord Leicester just described, only that we have gone farther, and shown that the financial condition of the farmer will exercise — cannot fail, indeed, to exercise ■ — an influence on the condition of his farming. Hence, in fairness to the landlord's interest, one would be inclined to say that there should be a reservation in the covenant bearing on this point, where a man is actually insolvent. The matter is not of easy solution ; for it is unquestionably one of extreme delicacy where his condition is only clearly pointing in that direction, although he has not actually reached its end. How to deal with the case in this condition without injuring the credit of the farmer, and thus bringing about the very thing which it is desired to avoid, is no easy matter. But the solution of the problem is certainly worth attempting, for there can be but one opinion, that a farmer can do no justice to his land where he is short of the necessary funds. It might be said that some of these family lawyers, evidently no great favourites of Mr. Bead, might devote some of their time to as good a purpose in attempting to solve the problem we have pointed out, as in perpetuating those antiquated leases so complained of by Mr. Bead. We think we have thus gone over the principal points connected with the important subject of leases, and we now direct attention to one, if not equally important, at least one which has received perhaps a larger amount of discussion, and un- questionably a greater demonstration of warmth and personality ; and this subject is Tenant Right. — Some readers will say that leases themselves, without restriction, form the all- important part of tenant right ; we prefer, how- ever, chiefly for the sake of clear arrangement, to treat the subjects separately. From what we have said as to the way in which tenant right has been discussed, the reader may gather that a large amount of information connected with it has been presented to the public. We have, however, no intention to do more than glance briefly at some of the leading points of the sub- ject,— one which, at the outset, we may say, what indeed our practical readers know too well, is surrounded with great difficulties. It is too much the case with some writers and speakers on the subject to represent those difficulties as arising mainly from the position which the landlord takes in reference to the whole question, — a position antagonistic, they sny, to any attempt to get rid of them ; rather, indeed, as if the land- 368 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. lord, either from prejudice or on principle, was determined not to concede tenant right at all. But a fair investigation into all the points in- volved will, we think, show that the difficulties which surround the subject really arise from the practical points of farming. Certainly the land- owner cannot object to have his land improved, for that would be clearly to his gain ; nor do we think that, if it was shown to him that a part of the cost of this improvement, treated on fair commercial principles, should be repaid to the tenant, he would object to do so. But when we come to inquire what really constitutes an im- provement, and as to the method by which such improvement can be estimated, we find such a diversity of opinion on these all-important points, and this, too, held by practical tenant farmers, that the landlord may well be excused for granting off- hand, a principle as to the working out of which practically those who make the demand are not agreed amongst themselves. Nor are the land- lords as a class the more likely thus to concede it, when they read what is said or written of and about them, — in some instances matter which seems to savour more of the demagogue's appeal to mob passions, than of the quiet, manly discus- sion which ought to be given to a subject bear- ing so closely on the most important interests of the country. On the other hand, desirous to hold the balance fair between the two great parties concerned in it, we do not conceal from ourselves the fact that the tenant farmer, whose very living is, as he con- ceives, injuriously affected by the lack of what he deems essential, is in the best position to treat the matter calmly ; and further, it is only just to the great body of the mass to say, that while some of its members do, as above named, deal more in recrimination than reasoning, as a rule the subject is discussed from the tenant farmer's side with wonderful fairness and calmness. The truth is, as it appears to us, that if ever this ex- ceedingly knotty point in fanning economics be ever settled satisfactorily, it can and will only be by the adoption of what is graphically termed the 'give and take' principle already alluded to. Concessions and allowances must be made by both sides, with a due regard to the interests of each. It will not do for one party to say to the other, 'come;' there must be some ' going,' — at least a mutual approach must be made. There is, however, a third party to the settle- ment of this long and hotly-disputed question, namely, the general public ; and when they read or hear decided opinions as to the low condition of farming, even with all the admittedly great improvements of the past few years, they are naturally disposed to ask, ' Cannot this be altered ?' and when, further, they hear it said that it can be so by the establishment of what is called ' tenant right,' they at once assume that it ought to be at once carried out. For example, as representing the tenant side of the question, a well-known practical man states that ' many cases may be quoted where the fee-simple of the land has been doubled in value by improvements, and where large tenant capital has resulted in increased profits by increased production. We should never forget that improvements both by landowner and tenant not only afford additional employment for labour and machinery, but they also provide better customers for agricultural produce.' And, on the other hand, as repre- senting the landowner's side, a well-known noble- man, who has the reputation of being one of the most cautious of speakers, states 'that the land of England did not produce more than one- half the food which it might do if it were pro- perly cultivated — if all the capital were laid out on it which it was capable of receiving.' When such statements as these are made publicly, and wide circulation given to them, one can scarcely feel surprised at the general public feeling that they have a direct interest in the settlement of a question which they are led to believe would introduce such vast increase in the produce of land ; and not knowing the difficul- ties which beset the case, they jump to the con- clusion that, if improvement is hindered by any obstacle, it should be at once removed ; and if improvement could be made in one case, it ought to be in all Beverting to the opinion given above, that land is kept unproductive owing to capital being, as it were, diverted from it, the question arises, How is this unfortunate state of matters brought about ? From the tenant right point of view, this question is very easily answered. It is right, DIFFERENT MODES OF HOLDING LAND IN ENGLAND. 369 however, to say that some who may be called the extreme men, class under the causes of this certain points, while the more moderate confine themselves to two, chiefly, if not altogether, these two, namely, ' security of holding ' to the tenant, and secondly, ' payment to him for all unex- hausted improvements.' For obvious reasons, we shall confine ourselves to these, refraining from considering all points connected with what is called broadly the ' land transfer' or sale system, and the 'game laws.' The security of holding above alluded to is evidently one of very great importance, and many arguments brought forward in favour of it are not easily refuted ; certainly it does appear but common sense to suppose that a farmer will be much more likely to do full justice to the working of his land, by adopting all improved methods, when he holds his land for several years, than when he holds it under yearly tenancy, which involves the risk of his being turned out at six months' notice. At this stage of our remarks, it would be well to state the different terms or modes in which land is held in England. The first we name is the yearly occupation or tenancy, which terminates at the same period of the year as that on which it com- mences, and the ' notice to quit' at six months must be so stated that the six months terminate at the same date ; so that if the notice be given any time after the day which determines the occupancy, whether by landlord or tenant, the notice is legally null and void; if the tenant, there- fore, for example, wishes to leave and neglects the above precaution, the landlord can compel him to hold on for another year, and vice, versd. Hence it has been said that a yearly tenancy is only so in name, so far as the liberty to give six months' notice to quit on either side is concerned, for this notice cannot be given, as some suppose, any day within the year ; for if so, the notice might be given the last day of the year, thus making the occupation practically an eighteen months' one. The reason, therefore, is obvious for making one day only in the year the legal point, so to say, de- termining the occupancy ; this, however, does not preclude the notice on either side being given any time he/ore this particular day. It is necessary to make this point clear, for many have been misled, to their loss and inconvenience, by supposing that a six months' notice legally meant that this could be given at any time before the year actually acpired, dating from their entry. It is necessary, or at least a wise precaution, to draw two copies of the notice (for it must be given in writing), one of which must be delivered to some person on the premises, the other retained by the party giving the notice, both being endorsed with the name of the party, principal, or servant to whom, and the date on which, the notice was given. A yearly tenancy commences at various periods of the year, according to circumstances or the custom of various districts. So far as the farmer is con- cerned, the best period is the autumn, for reasons elsewhere stated. Another form of tenancy is an extension of the term under lease varying from eight to twenty-one years, including terms of twelve, fourteen, and sixteen years, those granted generally by corporations, as city or collegiate, and based pretty generally upon the system of rotation adopted. These are the chief methods so far as tenancy is concerned. We do not deem it necessary to allude to other methods by which land is held, and wdiich approach to and include the actual possession, as ' copyhold' and ' free- hold.' In Scotland, yearly tenancies may be said practically to have no existence, the nineteen years' lease being the general method of holding farms. Long-term leases in England are decidedly the exception, yearly tenancy may be said to be the rule. Security of tenure or holding may be said to be the first and leading point in the question of tenant right. Various are the modes by which this security is proposed to be obtained, but the simplest of all methods open — short, of course, of the actual possession of the land under one 01 other of the forms in vogue, as copyhold or free- hold— is that of a lease of pretty long duration. We have said that nineteen years is a term very common, or rather general, in Scotland, and this has worked wonderfully well ; indeed, in the Lowlands, for example, where the system may be said to be universal, the splendid farming which distinguishes that district is admitted by all competent authorities to owe its existence entirely, or almost wholly, to it, inasmuch as the tenant, knowing that he is sure of the possession of his 3 A. 37Q DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. farm, is not only encouraged to carry out all the improved methods of working, but is enabled to adjust them, with due regard to his own interests, with a fair degree of accuracy, proportionate to the length of his occupancy. This last point, in the absence of arrangements between landlord and tenant as to compensa- tion for such unexhausted improvements as will obviously benefit the landlord at the expiration of the lease, is clearly one which closely interests the tenant, and affects the whole question of the length to which leases should extend. Short leases, such as we have shown to exist in England under corporate bodies, obviously restrict the tenant in carrying out improvements, the effects of which can only be exhausted, so to say, by having a certain number of years to run over. A tenant farmer, who is a great advocate for ' tenant right ' as being the one thing necessary to remove, as he thinks, all the burdens under which farmers labour, advocates a twenty-one years' lease, and for the reasons as follow : — ' Seven years will just enable him to put his farm in good trim for a rise of rent ; and a renewal (fourteen years) would allow him, clock fashion, to run his farm up in condition, and then run it down again, but putting just as much capital in the soil the first seven years as he can extract in the last seven, thus leaving his farm as he found it. Twenty-one years is more tangible : it gives a man a firm foot ; he looks upon his farm as his home ; the improvements are his own creation ; his parish shares his regard ; and with himself and his landlord there exists a more kindly feeling. He is looked upon by him as part of his estate, like his ornamental trees, not to be parted with.' But in all leases the ques- tion of restrictions comes up of necessity in cases where the farmer is not allowed to exercise what is called free farming, which we need scarcely say are exceedingly rare. The arguments pro and con on the subject of restrictions have been glanced at in preceding paragraphs, to which, therefore, we refer. But we may here draw atten- tion to one objection to restrictive leases which affects the interest of landlord and tenant alike. This is, that in the case of a farm which has been allowed to run down, or one which has never been brought into good condition, and is therefore beyond all dispute one which requires improvement, the difficulty is to know what really are the improvements required, and to foresee all the obstacles which may arise in the course of the lease, modifying materially the course of proceedings considered to be best, and upon which the restrictions named in the lease are based. Enough, certainly, is given in the pages of this work to show the uncertainties which surround and are connected with the details of farming ; so much so, that the more fully a man knows what farming is, the more readily he will admit that the plan which he may to-day consider the best to be adopted, may, by unforeseen circumstances and occult causes, wholly or greatly alter the results he anticipated. In a case like this, no doubt, the restrictions as to certain methods of management to be adopted, may be modified or set aside by the landlord, when the necessity for doing so is obvious. Still, as it is difficult to predicate what men may do, even when it opposes their own self-interest, it would appear to be the safest way not to have restrictions at all ; and, as the great majority of our practical farmers suggest, as the best security for the landlord, he may protect his interests by taking care, in the first instance, to have for a tenant one whose known position as regards character, capital, and farming skill affords the best guarantee for his doing every justice to the land. There is, however, of course, the points connected with the possible deterioration of a farm by the tenant's bad or peculiar mode of management, against which it is obvious the landlord should have some security. But these points we have fully gone into in the preceding paragraphs. So much, then, for such security of tenure as can be obtained by leases ; but it is in the case of farms which have been really im- proved that the next point of tenant right claims to be considered. This point involves several details, all based, however, on the general principle that the tenant ought to be compensated for such improvements as he may make during his lease, and of which a proportion, greater or less as the case may be, goes to the benefit of the landlord, and which justifies him, or appears to justify him, to demand a higher rent from the farmer should he wish to COMPENSATION FOR IMPROVEMENTS MADE BY THE TENANT. 371 remain on the land, or from some other party, who may he preferred. So many opinions are prevalent upon this department of tenant right, so much has heen 'written and said in connection with it, that even a resuand of the briefest possible character would extend to a much greater length than our space would admit of. A pretty fair view, however, of the points as put by a tenant farmer, and which will be amply sufficient for our purpose, will be found in the following statements : — ' 1st, Permanent improvements ; 2d, Unexhausted improvements ; and 3c/, Unex- hausted manurings. Under the first head, such as improvement of premises, bringing into culti- vation waste lands, moors, and bogs, stubbing up old fences and woods ; under the second head, such as draining, marling, chalking, liming, and steam subsoiling ; and under the third head, such as manurings, consumption of corn and cake, green crop feeding during the last year. This law would allow people to let and hire upon what principle they please, except that the tenant could by law get compensation for what has hitherto been refused, except in some few remark- able instances, and by custom in some part of Lin- colnshire. I go further ; I would, by lease of not less than twenty-one years, with power to renew at the end of fifteen years, establish free farming upon the tenant right principle, with an inventory taken of the farm premises, the state and condi- tion of each field and meadow at the time of entry ; if the farm is left in an improved con- dition, compensation should be given, and if deteriorated, damages should be awarded upon Lord Leigh's principle of umpirages.' We next give the statement of another authority on this side of the question : — ' 1st, That, in the interest of landowners, tenant farmers, and consumers alike, it is desirable to encourage the application of capital to the development of the resources of the land, by granting to outgoing tenants, whether leaseholders or yearly tenants, a legal claim upon their landlords for the unexhausted value of their improvements. 2d, That the amount due for improvements should be settled by valuers, their decision, or that of the umpire they may select, being final ; and that the same means should be adopted for the settlement of the landlord's claim on account of deteriorations and dilapida- tions, now recoverable only in a court of law. 3d, That, in order to protect landlords and tenants respectively against unjust demands, the term improvement should be defined to mean anything that increases, and deterioration anything that diminishes, the letting value of the farm. 4th, That although it is preferable that building, drain- ing, and many other durable and permanent im- provements should be executed by the landlord, yet, if he neglects them, after having been recpiested by the tenant to execute them, and the tenant carries them out at his own expense, the latter, on quitting his occupation, should be entitled to the unexhausted value of those improvements, whether made with or without the landlord's consent. And if the valuers decide that any buildings or works thus carried out by the tenant are not improvements according to the definition given in the preceding resolution, the tenant should be allowed to remove the materials, making good any damage occasioned by such removal. 5 th, That any agreement between land- lord and tenant, nullifying any of the aforesaid provisions, should be legally void.' From these conditions, which we may take as being con- sidered necessary by tenant farmers— at least by many of them — in order to secure what they deem to be their right, we can gather enough to prove, what we have already stated, that the whole subject is one surrounded with difficulties. The mere answer to the question, ' What are improvements ? ' is one by no means easy to be arrived at. Those who know farming well, and as generally practised throughout the kingdom, are sufficiently acquainted with the fact that what some farmers consider a good method of treating their land, is decidedly the reverse. For example, as has been well pointed out by a practical autho- rity, certain ploughing, which, carried out in con- junction with other processes, is beneficial, in some instances actually injures the land where those are neglected. Again, the difficulty of estimating the value of the improvement actually made in many departments is very great, — indeed, in some cases may be said to be insuperable. Deep culture of the soil, to which we have elsewhere referred as effecting a very remarkable change for the better in arable land, may be carried out thoroughly by the tenant ; but as it takes some IT- DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. time to yield its best results, he will very likely do it at the early part of his lease only, and if a yearly tenant, he may not do it all. If, however, he determine to do full justice to his land, irrespective of any contingency, and should he have to give up his farm before he receives the full benefit of the process, and as, there- fore, he thinks he has a good claim to be paid for that which he has not received, and hands it over to his landlord, upon what principle, and by what standard, is the value to be decided ? It may appear a very easy thing to do, having to measure the extra depth to which the process has been carried, and compare it with the known or admitted depth at the period of entry. If the standard is the inch, we should like to know what is to be taken as the value of the improve- ment which that inch of deep culture has brought about. We suspect that, if the question were put in this way before a congress of farmers, the diversity of opinion elicited would somewhat surprise the agricultural world. So with com- pensations for manures unexhausted, or said to be so, draining, etc. etc. The great difficulty — we were about to say the great mistake^ in connection with this subject is the assumption that the results of all the processes of farming are so obvious, easily ascertained, and well known, that they can be estimated and valued with precision, like cotton and other pro- cesses ; whereas the very opposite is the fact, nearly every process or method met with in practice operating differently, according to differ- ences in soil, materials used, and climate ; nay, even under what are precisely the same circum- stances of soil, etc., the results of one season will be markedly different from those of another. All this is well known ; and the very uncertainty which characterizes the various processes of fanning certainly causes, to say the least, no small amount of difficulty in valuing their results. This specially so where what may be called the chemical points are involved, which are occult ; but even in certain departments which are purely mechanical, difficulties arise thus. Who can tell what is the actual condition of underground drains, or any one which is not visible ? and failing this knowledge, who can estimate their value ? We need only refer to the well-known fact, elsewhere in these pagf alluded to, that all work concealed, or when finished is covered up, runs the risk of being badly done, if not at some parts left wholly undone, by careless, incompe- tent, or dishonest workmen. We consider it necessary to draw attention to these points, as they may clearly influence practice, and show at least that the valuation of improvements, acknow- ledged to be such, is not really the easy thing which some seem to think. Before concluding this subject, we would draw attention, as corrobo- rative of the advantages which many insist upon as being derived from proprietorship as opposed to limited tenancies, to the peculiar institution existing in Holland known as the Becklemrning. This institution constitutes theoretically a species of proprietorship, but practically, actually one over and above the original freehold. It gives the right of working the land in perpetuity at a rental which is fixed and unvarying, and over which the landlord has no control, and in which he can exercise no right to dictate as to any one point connected with the working of the land. Nay, further, he cannot prevent the holder from selling his right to any party he pleases ; or he can will it if he chooses, and in no such contracts can the landlord at all interfere. This singular institution originated in the province of Groningen — the only part of Holland where it exists — at an early period in its history, when large tracts of its land were literally deserts. In the graphic language of M. Havard, who describes it : ' Two men appeared upon the scene, the original pro- prietor and the cultivator. "The soil is of no value," said the latter ; " it brings you in nothing : give it up to me. By my labour I will fertilize and make it productive. But as it is not just that you alone should profit by my efforts, let us stipulate that all improvements I effect upon your property shall be for my benefit ; and for the payment of a fixed rental, which shall never be increased, I alone shall for ever have the right to work your land. This right, at my death, shall be transmissible to my heirs. During my life I must have the right to dispose of it in any way I may think fit, — to sell it, concede it, or give it to whom I please, — without you having the power to interfere, and this on the sole condition that my heir or grantee shall undertake to pay DUTCH METHOD OF LAND TENURE— THE GRONINGEN SYSTEM. 373 you the stipulated rental." ' This institution has had a remarkable influence on the welfare of the province. The second proprietors, as we may term them, or Boers, are very wealthy, and by their exertions, no doubt, through a long course of years, have transformed the once desert lands into a perfect garden of fertility ; but not only so, the antagonism which at one time existed between the landed proprietors and the farmers no longer exists, but it has been transferred to the farmer and the labourer. From this some of our present agitators will likely draw the con- clusion that, to stop this antagonism, the labourer in his turn should have an interest in the land. On this point remarks will be found in the next chapter. We have thought it right to draw attention to this institution, not merely for the reason already assigned, but because it might possibly afford a hint as to dealing with and bringing into cultivation the large tracts of land in this country which are at present apparently doomed to a perpetual sterility. We conclude this knotty subject by expressing the hope that some means will be found of settling it in such a way as will get rid of the disagreements to which its further and long discussion cannot fail to give rise, and also by reiterating our belief that this can only be effected by friendly and mutual concessions on both sides. Tlw Agricultural Holdings Act of 1875. — Some of the difficulties connected with the above points are met by the provisions of the 'Agricultural Holdings Act ' for England, which was passed in 1875; but this Act has its defects and omissions, and is framed in such a way that, in the opinion of many, in place of satisfactorily deciding the questions we have alluded to, and adapting its provisions to the peculiar circumstances of different districts, it is likely, in course of time, to give rise to difficulties not more easy of solution than those which its professed object is to do away with. On the other hand, it is only right to state that, in the opinion of others, — and these we incline to believe the majority of those who have really studied the question, — its pro- visions are steps in the right direction. At all events, it indicates a desire on the part of the Legislature to remove difficulties which have long pressed on the tenant farmers ; and if it has done nothing else, it has certainly shown that those are now admitted to exist, which formerly many refused to admit at all. Legislation having once begun, the probability is that it will further be carried on, till, under the pressure of public opinion, it will at last succeed in placing matters on that footing which will be satisfactory alike to landlord and tenants. One immense advantage which the Act unquestionably has yielded, is the alteration of the principle which, previous to its passing, affected all land in England. Thus, to use the words of a paper, the principles of English law 'were against the right of a tenant to any interest in the soil farmed by him, even though created by his own capital, labour, and skill. The pre- sumption was that all things annexed to the soil, or indistinguishable from it, belonged to the landlord.' The only security which the tenant possessed, or rather the only ameliorating influence in his favour, was the establishment, in course of time, of local customs favourable to his interests, and which induced him to lay out manure and to expend labour on the improvement of the soil and its resulting crops. This custom varied with varying localities and influences ; the county most noted for its local customs favourable to the tenant being Lincolnshire. The fact that, from this circumstance, the farming of the county be- came celebrated for its high status, is perhaps as good evidence as can be adduced in favour of the tenants' right to unexhausted improvements. An- other ameliorating influence in favour of the tenant was what is known as the 'law of emblements,' which gave him the right, if dispossessed of his land before he could get his crops off the ground, to enter and reap these, etc. Although called the 'law,' it really was not part of the statutes of the realm, but grew up out of decisions and precedents, the English courts being disposed to concede favour to agriculture, as that clearly influenced the public weal. In addition to the value of the Act as having established the prin- ciple that the tenant should have an interest in the improvements made by him during his tenancy, it exercises indirect influences upon the progress of agriculture. Thus, in place of vague and too often mere verbal or orally made agreements, — 374 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. understandings' which gave rise to too many mis- understandings,— the tendency of the Act is to increase written agreements. This alone will have a most beneficial influence upon the future of English farming. Again, the ' customs ' of loca- lities may be expressly excluded by the agree- ment, otherwise they would have the 'force of law.' Further, landlords are encouraged to give tenants liberal agreements for unexhausted im- provements, as the Act gives them the right to charge their estates with the amount of compen- sation. The Act is permissive, not compulsory. For a most able paper on ' English Land Law,' see the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, voL xiv. part 2, No. 28, second series, 1878. THE SMALL FARMING SYSTEM. 375 CHAPTEE II. SMALL FARMS — GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS CONNECTED WITH THE SUBJECT COTTARS, CROFTERS, OR LABOURERS' SMALL FARMS. Although the subject of the present chapter is one which, in the opinion of some, is of such minor importance that they will deem it quite unnecessary to have their special attention drawn to it, we trust that we shall be able to show that it is one, nevertheless, which exercises a marked influence on the interests of landed property, so much so that it would be unpardonable to leave its treatment out of the pages of a work treating exclusively upon it. The subject is important no less for the influences it exercises upon the general management and arrangement of the property, than it is for the social influences it has upon those who work upon and are con- nected with it. This is shown clearly enough, if in no other way than from the large amount of discussion which has been given to it, especially during the last few years. And as this has in many instances been carried on with a too marked disregard of the actual facts and circum- stances, it is only right that we should attempt, as briefly as possible, to put the matter in its true light. All the more is this necessary, when we consider that, as popularly discussed, it has a tendency to impress the public mind with notions which are but too well calculated to throw odium upon landlords and farmers alike, who are, we venture to say, wholly undeserving of it. It is certainly a matter greatly to be regretted, that subjects which are truly concerned with social, and what may be called commercial con- siderations, should be discussed not merely with undue warmth of feeling, for which there may be an excuse offered, but with the introduction of elements almost purely political, for which none can be brought forward. It may be said, how- ever, that these political elements are inseparable from this subject; but, granting this, even that is no reason why the practical agricultural points should be wholly or nearly ignored. This is certainly, we think, reasonable, seeing that the subject is an agricultural one. On this point we shall have a word or two further to say presently ; but we cannot refrain from remarking that it is unfortunate, therefore, for the future progress of the question, if progress will or can be made in this country to the extent which many think desirable, that these foreign elements should have been introduced. It may be impossible to discuss it without those, but we venture to hold that the only element not strictly agricultural which should be taken into account is tbat bearing on the social condition of the small farmer or agricultural labourer. While viewing it in this aspect only, it will be found that there are so many points to be con- sidered, and so many difficulties to be overcome, that not a few even of those most anxious to promote the well-being of the labourer fail to see how that can be effected to any great extent by increasing the number of small farms throughout the country. It is easy, for example, to say that a labourer farming his own land is more likely to have that deep interest in the work which is the best guarantee for success, than when lie is simply labouring for an employer at stated wages. No doubt the principle is correct, but there are practical facts which will and do come up which very materially affect its working out. Before this can be done, the small farm holder must be put in possession of certain privileges, and have at his command a certain amount of capital, no matter how small the amount of that may be ; but it is in the obtaining of these 3/6 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. that the first difficulties to be encountered are met with, and in such a way that, in many- instances, some, if not all of them, are found to be beyond his practical reach. Thus, the first of the privileges alluded to which presents itself, and which, in the opinion of all those who have studied the subject practically, is considered essential, namely, that the small farmer shall actually be the possessor of the land he culti- vates, is precisely that one which many landed proprietors would be very much indisposed to grant, and this because it would or might ma- terially lessen the value of his laTger farms, by materially affecting the laying out or disposition of the same, or by reducing the value of the small farms themselves in consequence of the style of fanning adopted on them, and which seems, as a general rule, to be inseparable from the system of small farming adopted in this country, — in some parts of it remarkably so. On this latter point, which has such an important influence on the whole subject, we shall have more to say further on. Closely connected with this essential privi- lege is another not less so, namely, that the extent of land so sold by the proprietor to the small farmer should be as exactly proportionate as possible to the condition under which he is best calculated to do full justice to its working. This, although not necessarily so insuperable a difficulty to be overcome, or a privilege to be granted, is nevertheless obviously one which presents practical difficulties which all connected with land will at once see. Taking it, however, as a point admitted, that both of those difficulties are overcome, the next one which presents itself is one which many a small farmer would have a difficulty in dealing with, — we need scarcely say that it is finding the necessary capital. This would obviously repre- sent so large a sum, that many under the ordinary circumstances of the labourer's condition would have a difficulty in finding it. True, he might borrow the amount on the security of the land ; but it is not merely for the purchase of this for which capital is required, but he has to have wherewith to work it productively. These two items, before they were realized, would leave the labourer in that condition too often, we fear, where he would find the truth of the proverb, ' that he who goes a borrowing goes a sorrowing.' Nor must it be supposed that the amount required to work the land judiciously is small. We shall presently show how this is. Meanwhile, we go on to note another point which has been made very much of, namely, the injustice said to be done to the agriculture of Great Britain by having a system which prevents, as is said, the number of small farms from being increased. It will be seen, from what we have said, that it is very doubtful, to put it in the mildest way, whether the agriculture of the kingdom would be better if this increase actually took place. It is of little practical use to refer to the small farms of the Continent, more especially those of Belgium, because the system there adopted does not exist in this country, nor, so far as present circumstances indicate, is it likely to exist for a long time, if ever. It would be well, indeed, if, for example, the Flemish system, in its general principles, could be introduced among us. But this would necessitate a complete change in our style of farming, and not a little in the way of disposing of its produce. But this system re- quires, further, a degree of painstaking care, and the exercise of such close and steady habits of industry and order, that we fear it is vain to look for, at least in the present, and we may with safety almost say the succeeding generation, of those who would be likely to devote them- selves to the cultivation of small farms. We do not see, therefore, how the difficulties which we have noticed in the way of small farmers having what may be called the best chances of success, can be overcome. This has never been attempted, so far as we know, to be shown by those who advocate the extension per se of small farms, without taking into consideration all the circum- stances connected with its practical carrying out. They simply content themselves with general statements, which, we are compelled to say, are as a rule somewhat of a vague character, chiefly made up of the assumed advantages to be derived by the nation from the system, while others introduce political considerations which have in reality little or nothing to do with the practical subject. If the writers who have ex- pended so much time in thus descanting on the system, had devoted some portion of it, at least, to DIFFICULTIES CONNECTED WITH SMALL FARMING. 377 an attempt to explain how the difficulties in the way could be overcome, the nation would have been vastly more indebted to them. It serves little practical purpose to be continually making a certain round of assertions, and appealing more to the sympathies, which tend rather to foster prejudices than to get rid of them. Further, those writers of the class to which we are now specially alluding, assume at once, as a result of the extensive establishment of small farms, that they would be cultivated in the best possible manner. Hence they are mourning so much over the loss sustained by agriculture through the want of a large body of small farmers. This, however, is an assumption which, so far from being correct, is shown, by the actual cir- cumstances of farming as it is, to be the very opposite. The whole tendency of the improvements in modern agriculture is towards the requiring of such a wide variety of appliances, and the command of such means, as can only be within the reach of well-to-do people ; and further, it demands on the part of the farmer such a wide range of knowledge in various branches of science, together with business habits of such a high order, that a special education is now more and more demanded. The keen competition, moreover, with which the farmer has to contend, not merely in this country, but from what is being done by other countries, makes it every day more and more imperative that he shall adopt the newest improvements, and use the most elaborate appliances and materials, best calculated to yield the highest results. In short, the process going on at present in British farming resembles very closely that which went on for a long time in manufactures, and which for many years has been completed. This was the gradual extinction of the hand- loom weavers and spinners by the introduction of improved processes and new machines. As the extension of these increased more and more, the concentration of the work of spinning and weaving into large factories became a necessity, the establishment of which created a new class, which had at its command large capital, commer- cial knowledge, and business skill and energy. Now, at one stage of this process, which extended over many years, there were those who raised woful jeremiads over the gradual decay and ex- tinction of small workers who carried on their business in their own houses ; and bitter things were said of the large manufacturers, as if they were the men who deliberately ruined the home workers, by preventing their trade being carried on at a profit. But it was found that the new system of concentrated mechanical working on the large scale, instead of decreasing the demand for labour, increased it enormously, while the wages paid were infinitely higher than the amounts earned by the home workers. We have said that the process is completed, but in reality it is not so, for when the mill system was fairly established, many small mills arose ; but the ten- dency of every period of depression in trade, and, indeed, of the whole system of modern business, is the doing away with the existence of those small millowners, and the absorption of the work they do by the large ones, whose works are increasing daily in size and in the perfection of their appliances. The same course is that which is at present going on in farming, — the same in kind, although, of course, not in degree. Large farms are increas- ing, but the moderately-sized ones more so ; but the remarkable feature of the process of change is what we have already alluded to — namely, the introduction of a system of working infinitely superior to that which has preceded it, demand- ing, as we have said, a wider range of knowledge on the part of the farmer, the use of a larger number of materials, the employment of machines greater in number and more elaborate and effective in construction and working. All this is clearly beyond the reach of the small farmer; so also the requirements of what is called modern high farm- ing. And, just as we saw in the case of manu- factures, the more thoroughly this high farming is carried out, the more complete and complicated the machinery and appliances used, the greater becomes the demand for labour, and the more highly valued is the skilled and intelligent work- man, while his work is rendered much more easy than it was under the old system. Neither is there any need to deplore the increased practice of high farming, so far as the wants of the nation are concerned, because the more fully it is carried 3 B 373 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. out, the more productive does the land become, and the greater the number of live stock that can be kept. These are facts which cannot be disputed, and they are borne out by an examination of the condi- tion and results of the small farms of the kingdom. It is perhaps in Ireland that the system of small farms can best be studied, because the minor hold- ings in that country are in greater proportion to the large ones than in England or Scotland, although in these countries they are much more numerous than some writers would lead us to suppose. We shall do the reader a service by briefly directing his attention to some facts given by Professor Baldwin — to whom the progress of agriculture in Ireland is largely indebted — in an article contri- buted by him to the Journal of the Royal Agri- cultural Society of England (see ' The Prize System as applied to Small Farmers in Ireland,' vol. xiii. part ii. No. 26, 1877). These facts are very suggestive, and indeed melancholy, as showing the wretchedly low condition of small farms as a whole. Mr. Baldwin, at the very outset of his article, says that the agricultural practices of most of the small farmers in Ireland are very defective. ' In some places they are quite primi- tive. Vast numbers of the occupiers are very poor, while wide areas of land are not yielding a fourth of the produce which could be obtained from them. While many large farmers and graziers partake of the general progress of the kingdom, little or no improvement has been effected in the condition of vast numbers of the small holdings.' He shows, also, that while they have received lately increased prices for their store cattle and their dairy produce, which have enabled them to pay their way better, their dwellings and social condition have not improved in like proportion. The reader who may be aecpaainted with the worst of the bad kinds of cottages and small farmhouses in England and Scotland, will find it difficult, we should say im- possible, to find a parallel to the class which Mr. Baldwin says he has seen more than once, where the manure-heap was in the middle of the apart- ment, while very many were found in which the cattle and pigs lived on amicable terms with the families. In every department of farming the defective practices named by Mr. Baldwin are observed. The grass lands are in the very worst possible condition, little or no attention being paid to them ; iu all, nearly, but a trifling degree of this would increase their produce largely. Nor is the condition of the land under arable culture a whit more satisfactory. Good, deep, and early tillage, which alone would increase the produce largely, is almost wholly neglected, and the in- ferior work with which the farmer is contented, even that is done in the most slovenly fashion. Weeds grow apace, and to such an extent that it is no uncommon thing to see ten tons of weeds in a single acre of potato land. We might run through every department as pictured by Mr. Baldwin, and each and all would show the same pitiable state of matters. From what we have thus said, we do not wish the reader to infer that the condition of the small farms of England and Scotland is similar; but while here and there in every district examples of moderately well cultivated small holdings are met with, it may be accepted as a fact that the small farms, taken as a whole, are far below what may be called the lowest grade or class of high farming ; nor need this be wondered at, when one considers the circumstances we have already named. The truth is, that from want simply of means, the small farmer has no chance of doing justice to his land, however willing he may be to do so. But even willingness would not meet the case, inasmuch as we fear that his antecedents and present condition would not admit of his gaming the knowledge necessary to enable him to carry out the improvements which modern science has indicated. We fear, therefore, that however much it might be and, as some hold, is desirable that small farms should increase over the kingdom, as long as farming goes in the same direction as it is now taking, this increase will not take place ; and if it did, unless the circum- stances of the small farmers themselves are materially changed, the condition of agriculture throughout the kingdom would not by them be materially improved. That we are not singular in this opinion, which, in truth, is that of most prac- tical men, we may cite here the very decided and indeed remarkable expression used by one not at all likely to take an unfavourable view of the interests of the small holders. This expression COMPARISONS BETWEEN SMALL AND LARGE FARMING. 379 is to be found in a paper drawing attention to the statistics of the question, which, he says, goes to prove that, ' if the object be to employ the people in agriculture, and thus produce dear food, that object will be accomplished with small hold- ings with small capitals.' This opinion is cer- tainly very strong, but it is not stronger than the statistics justify. Statistics or figures are said to be capable of that nice adjustment which a writer requires when he wishes to prove, or ap- parently to prove, any particidar view he enter- tains. But setting aside figures, and appealing to facts, a few of which we have given, and to the general circumstances and tendencies of modern farming to which we have alluded, the above strong statement can be amply justified. We have already alluded to Flemish farming, or Belgian, as it is better known. Now this system has been again and again appealed to as affording evidence unmistakeable that small farm- ing, in place of being the cause of a bad or low condition of agriculture, is, in point of fact, more largely productive than farming conducted on the large scale by men possessed of capital. Now those of our readers who may have done us the favour to read sundry papers of ours published in the Journal of ' Agrictdture and the Transactions of the Highland Society (republished with large additions in a separate form), will know that we are the last to undervalue ' Flemish farming,' or understate its general agricultural results. We have, indeed, the highest opinion of it as farming per se, and it would be well if some even of our advanced farmers were to profit by the lessons which it teaches ; but when comparisons are made between it and any other system, and deductions drawn from it, care should be taken that the conditions of the comparisons are cor- rect, and the deductions based upon actual facts, not upon mere assumptions. But this common- sense way of treating the subject has not been generally followed by writers and speakers, who, anxious to show that small farms would be pro- ductive of vast service to British agriculture, take us to Belgium, and point to the small farms there as affording indisputable evidence of the correct- ness of the views. In a preceding paragraph we have alluded to the principle that if a man has only secure posses- sion of a small farm, or, in other words, is the owner of it, he is certain to cultivate it in the highest possible style ; or, as Mr. J. S. Mill, the great advocate of peasant proprietorship, puts it, as against limited tenancy, ' Give a man a secure possession of a rock, and he will turn it into a garden ; give him a nine years' lease of a garden, and he would turn it into a desert.' Now, when we think of all the high-flown sentiments which have been uttered in support of this principle, and the influence which it is said it must have in raising the condition of small holders, and also, on the other hand, the severe and bitter de- nunciations of the landlords for their preventing its being carried out extensively, — a somewhat striking commentary on all this is the fact that Belgian farming, always brought forward as prov- ing the correctness of the principle, proves the very opposite. Some of our readers will be sur- prised to learn that the fine, and indeed wonder- ful results of the small farming of Flanders are produced, not by peasants who are proprietors of the land so highly cultivated, but who, on the contrary, sit under rack-rents, three, in some cases four, times the average value per acre of the English farms. The accuracy of even a name is something in such a discussion, and while the advocates of small farming continually refer us to Belgian agriculture, they ought to know that some of the worst farming in the world is to be met with in the small holdings of certain districts, while it is chiefly if not wholly in the provinces of East and West Flanders that the productive small farms so frequently referred to are to be found, and that even in these provinces there are small farms in certain districts which certainly are not models to be referred to. We say in certain districts. Now this fact and term carries with it elements of no small importance in the consideration of the general subject, which, we fear, have been too much lost sight of by the advocates of small farms cultivated by peasant proprietors. We refer here to the great influence which the mere position or locality of the small farm has upon the success or non-success of its cultivator. Thus, if the small farm be nearly situated to a market where its produce can be quickly sold, more especially if that be in 3So DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. a manufacturing town, in which there is always a great demand for the articles small farms best produce, and for which the highest prices are given, it is obvious that the small farmer will have a much better chance of being successful than when located differently. In such a case, as regards the part of his land under arable culture, for which the spade and fork will be the imple- ments almost generally employed, such crops will be raised only as will meet with the readiest de- mand and bring the highest price. And also as to the raising of food for the live stock he will keep, this will, or ought to be, such as will yield pro- duce which will also be in the greatest demand in the market, such as the milk and butter from a couple of cows — pigs and poultry — the latter fattened for the market as well as for their eggs. For all these there is a never-failing demand in large towns. The small farmer, therefore, under such circum- stances, if a man of energy and possessed of a moderately fair amount of knowledge of his business, would be able to adapt his style of farming to the peculiar and possibly varying cir- cumstances of this market ; while the cultivation would obviously — that is to say, if the farmer was at all intelligent — possess more of the charac- teristics of market gardening than of farming as generally understood and practised. Now we know very well that market gardening, if carried out with even a moderate degree of skill, pro- duces per acre much larger produce than the same land would do even under the highest style of farming. For while in the latter the land bears but one crop in the season, by the successional system in market gardening several crops can be got from the land in the same time ; and a further advantage is gained by the market gardening- style of cultivating, that its various crops yield in proportion to the land they occupy a much higher money return than ordinary farm crops. This successional system of cropping is, indeed, one of the features of Flemish farming. Change, however, all those conditions of the small farmer into others the opposite or nearly so, and the reader will at once perceive the influence which the circumstances would have upon the chances of the success of the holder. We may safely predict that the results would be very similar to those we have named as characterising the small- farm system generally. The reader will now see the bearing of what we have previously said as to comparisons being fairly instituted, so that the small farm cultivated under the most favourable circum- stances, such as we have just now named, must not be compared as regards its productive results with a farm cultivated under the ordinary system, but the status of which is only an average, or perhaps below the average. To make the com- parison fair, the best of the one class should be set against the best of the other, the average and the worst on the one side against the average and the worst on the other. If the comparison be made in this way between small farms and large farms generally, we have little doubt but that the small-farm results would bear out what we have presented to the reader respecting it. Again, the important influence of climate has been alto- gether overlooked by those who have taken us to the Continent for evidence of what small farming could do ; but climate cannot thus be put out of court when the object is a just comparison. This is so obvious, that more need not be said on this head. Besides, the painstaking industry in work- ing the land, and the careful, almost penurious, personal and household economy of the Con- tinental peasant farmer, is a factor in the general sum, so to say, of the discussion which cannot be left out of account. In an early paragraph of this chapter we hinted that it was not likely that the small farmers of this country would ever as a rule display these Continental habits. It cer- tainly may seem hard to say never, but assuredly all present facts indicate that it will be a long time before they do. It has been repeatedly stated, that in conse- quence of the action of the landlords in this country, the number of small holdings are miserably few. Statistics, however, tell a different tale. We have not space to enter into these, but the reader, we trust, will take our statement that England alone has, out of her four hundred and odd thousand holdings, no fewer than one hundred and eleven thousand small farms. If there was any country in which small holdings would preponderate, or at least be very numerous, one would say that the United States of America CO-OPERATIVE FARMING. 381 would be that country, — the paradise, in fact, of peasant proprietors. Now, how stand the facts ? While the average extent of each holding in England is fifty-six acres, in Scot- land the same, in Wales forty-six, and in Ireland twenty - six, the average extent of American holdings is actually so high as one hundred and fifty -three. The advocates, therefore, of small holdings cannot go to America for facts in favour of their arguments. The whole conditions of American farming, in fact, are in favour of the system of farms so large that all the modern appliances of machinery, etc. etc., can be applied to their working, this, of course, involving the necessity for large capital ; and the success of a large number of the best farmers is owing, as Mr. Hoodie points out, ' to the abundant use of animal and mechanical power rather than of human labour. And referring to what we have said as to the increase of large farms in this country as a marked feature in modern British agriculture, the same eminent authority says : ' As this steam-enriched country becomes more and more wealthy, so will the demand for larger farms, or the absorption of numerous smaller ones, continue. We know that many farmers now hold several small farms, the ancient farm- houses being occupied by bailiffs or labourers. We have in our county of Essex a farmer who holds a number of detached farms, and farms them admirably. His total holding exceeds 6000 acres, mostly arable ; several others farm 1000 to 3000 acres each.' With this opinion of one so well qualified to give it, and who cer- tainly would be the last to forget the interests of the poor man, we conclude this chapter. What further is to be considered in connection with small farms for those possessed of large means, wdl be found treated briefly in the chapter on ' Amateur Farms,' already given. Co-operative Farming. — We can scarcely dis- miss the general subject of the letting or disposi- tion of farm land without referring to the working of farms on the co-operative system. This has been applied, as our readers well know, to other industrial callings — mainly, however, that con- nected with the textile manufacturing districts — with varying success. Where success has been most decided, it is precisely that in which those who had studied the question deemed success to be most likely secured, namely, in the supply of provisions and household necessities. The reason for this is not far to seek, and will be obvious on consideration. Space, however, does not permit us to enter into a detail of all the points of the system of co-operative working ; but to the principal of these we must refer, as they have a very special bearing in considering the applica- tion of the system to agriculture. These are — (1) a population concentrated within a compara- tively small locality likely to avail themselves of the advantages of the system; (2) a more than normal density or number of people so concentrated ; (3) and last, and not least, the possession of such wages by this concentrated and numerous population as enables a large proportion of them to accumulate savings. All these are met with in the manufacturing districts, to which may be added a fourth and obvious reason for success, namely, a desire on the part of this population to use materials which, with those of other callings, would be considered luxu- ries, and also a tendency to what might be called extravagance in the use even of ordinary articles of household consumption. Finally, the articles sold, and especially when sold in large numbers, yield a profit which, in many cases, is handsome, and, on the average, good and paying. When, therefore, it was proposed to apply the co-opera- tive system to farming, so as to enable the labourer to have a direct interest in the working of the farm by sharing in its profits, we were not of those who believed that it would be so success- fid as likely to create a revolution in the condi- tion of the labourer. And we had no difficulty in so deciding, when we considered the conditions of success named above, all of which were want- ing, or very nearly so, in rural districts and amongst rural labourers. To allude to no other reason than this, it will be seen how small the chances are of the system being successful in such districts. The profits of farming are but small at the best, and are subjected to many contingencies likely to bring about failure in working, and thus to destroy all chances of profit. To many, if not all of these, we have alluded in their proper place. But the difficulties they bring about are so great that they cannot be practically overcome. Even 332 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. -where the system has been applied in manufac- turing districts to the carrying on of working or manufacturing establishments, competing with those carried on by private enterprise, and com- peting in the ordinary way, — that is, with all the risks of loss, a point too often lost sight of by those so enamoured of the co-operative system, — the co-operative system has not, as a rule, been a success. And it has been found markedly to lack that valuable feature which enables private manufacturers, so to call them, so to arrange their business during times of depression, and even of panic, that they survive them as a rule. But it is just at such times that the co-operative mills fail, and fail often so completely that they are ' wiped out,' and cease to exist. Most melancholy ex- amples of this — and sadly too numerous — are to be met with in the manufacturing districts at the very period in which we write. If these working establishments are not successful under the most favourable circumstances of trade, locality, and capital, it is not at all likely that they will be so in rural districts, and applied to farming, the circum- stances of which are so peculiar, that, if not abso- lutely antagonistic to the co-operative system, their application to it is very difficult. We think we may safely appeal in proof of this to farmers, and to the experience of those who know what farming is. We also appeal to the pregnant fact that in the few, the very few, cases in which the system has been endeavoured to be applied, decided failure — not even, as we believe, the re- motest approach to success — has been the result. The failures would have been more destructively complete, and the lessons they taught still more pregnant with meaning, had the labourers been called upon to partake in the chances of loss as well as those of profit. But, in truth, this could not be, as they have had, as a rule, no money to invest. WAGES OF THE LABOURER— PERQUISITES, ETC. 383 CHAPTEE III. WAGES OF THE LABOURER PERQUISITES, ETC. Ox this subject, which is one of the most im- portant in which the farmer is interested, what we have to say will, for the most part, be con- cerned with circumstances which have only as a rule come recently into existence, and which will exercise an important influence on the future connection of the labourer and his employer. Some of these circumstances have been, and are still apt to be overlooked. Nor is the proprietor less, although not so directly, influenced by these ; for whatever ministers to the welfare of his tenants, and enables them to conduct their work more economically and in better style, must of necessity be beneficial, although indirectly, and perhaps remotely, to the landlord. Wages are an important factor in the expenses of working a farm, and must be taken into account by the farmer in making his offer for land. "Wages, or rather, to give the more correct name, the amount of remuneration given to the labourer, may be classed under three heads : first, the direct payment in cash to the full amount agreed upon ; second, part cash and part perquisites, the principal of which will be presently named ; third, part cash and part estimated by the value either of maintenance and lodging in the farm- house, or lodging in the bothy or a separate cottage, also with board or food. Taking up the first, namely, wages in full in cash, we remark that the notion, held too widely in districts other than rural, that the agricultural labourer as a rule has for a long period been very poorly paid, and therefore to be looked upon as an object of commiseration, as compared with his more so-called fortunate fellow-labourer in towns and manufacturing districts, is to a large extent a popular fallacy, the persistent maintenance of which by the public press and by platform orators is neither more nor less than a gross injustice done alike to land- owners and farmers. We do not deny that there have been too many exceptions to this, but taking an average, our statement is correct. Nor do we refer here to the condition of the labourer now merely, but to that period also in the history of British agriculture anterior to the recent rise in labourers' wages. Comparing, in fact, the general domestic condition of the farm labourer and that of the town workman, we have little hesitation in saying that the former is almost in every way the most comfortably situated of the two. In considering the subject of wages, the recent agitation carried on in agricultural districts, con- nected as it is with a feature altogether new to farming, namely, the introduction of the trade- union principle, cannot be overlooked. For long, and up to a comparatively recent period, trade unions were confined altogether to towns ; and we are of those who cannot but look upon their application to the relationship between farmers and their servants as exceedingly pre- judicial to the interests of both, for the principle tends directly and quickly to the total disruption of that kindly interest which, whatever may be said to the contrary by certain parties, has existed to a large extent between the farmers and their labourers. The principles of trade unionism, although they may have apparently for the time been successful in raising the wages of the labourer, will nevertheless ultimately be seen to be an unmixed evil — at least a very grave and potent one — so far, at least, we venture to say, as the farm labourer is concerned. But, in truth, his interests cannot be affected without, in a greater or less degree, affecting those of his master. If the mutuality of interests were more 3U DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. thoroughly understood and acted upon, it -would he much hetter for the ultimate henefit of the labourer than any rise of wages brought about by such questionable means as that of a trade union, which, beyond a doubt, cripples industry of all kinds ; and from the very nature of that of agriculture, its operation is especially inap- plicable to farming. The interference of any organized body between master and man would be bad enough if confined only to the question of wages, but it is infinitely worse when it attempts to take away the right of any labourer to work when, where, and how he likes, and upon such wages and to what master he chooses ; still more mischievous, and in fact absurd, when it attempts to place all on the same dead level of equality, ranking the idle and the ignorant to be worthy of as high wages as the industrious and intelligent. The marvel is that the labourers should place themselves under the tyranny of a system which demands an absurdity such as this, for the very slightest effort of their intelli- gence would show that it is an absurdity which any schoolboy could see through at once. But the tyranny of the union does not end with this, for when it insists upon its right to dictate to the labourer whether he shall or shall not work to any master who offers it, it becomes so plain and striking, that the marvel is still more increased that any man should so consent to sell the birth- right of his liberty for so miserable a mess of pottage as the union offers him ; nay, no mess of pottage at all, for the union offers him nothing but discord and strife, against which the only set-off is the chance of getting a rise of wages. But this, we venture to say, is indis- putable, that if the loss occasioned by strikes be set off against the gain obtained by any rise of wages, one conclusion can only be honestly arrived at, namely, that the labourer would be a loser in the long run. The history of all strikes proves this, and to that history we can safely appeal. If the men were but left to themselves, and not be the dupes of those who really have no connection with or knowledge of farming as it is, they would very speedily see that the contrast between the condition in which the union places them, and that in which they formerly were, would altogether be in favour of the latter. We have said already that the bond of interest between the master and the servant is of enor- mous value to both. Not merely from a moral point of view is it so, but also from a material one, as closely affecting the rise in position of the labourer; for whatever tends to increase the work and value of the produce of the farm, tends to increase the value of his labour. Of course this is quite antagonistic to the teachings of trade unionists, but it is nevertheless true that the better the style of farming is, or, to use the term now adopted, the more completely the farmer can carry out ' high farming,' the larger the amount of work to be done on the farm, and, by conse- quence, the greater the demand for labour. Although contrary to the statements so rashly made by the unionists, farmers as a body are not rich men. Unlike those of other industrial callings, the farmer cannot turn over his capital several times a year, but for the most part he can only do so once, while the capital he has to invest in his working stock is high in proportion to his profits. Moreover, in addition, he has to run a variety of risks unknown to other callings, from causes over which he has no control, such as adverse seasons and the like, losses from diseases in stock, etc. Further, he has to learn at considerable cost the niinutia? of his business ; and this is to be per- petually carried on, as new methods of working are being continually introduced, and new ap- pliances required. It will be seen, therefore, that a bad season must of necessity demand less labour, just as much so as when the farmer, either from lack of capital or from ignorance of his business, does not carry out the best style of farming. The losses caused by strikes — a new feature, unfortunately, in farming — prevent him, moreover, from carrying on farming up to the highest productive capability of the land. In the case, therefore, of a farmer who knows his business, his prosperity is the measure of the prosperity of the labourer : the better the land is worked, the higher the profits of the farmer; and the greater the amount of work to be done, the higher, therefore, the profits of the labourer. All this has been proved by the history of farming during the past few years. The more advanced its progress has become, the more advanced has become the posi- GENERAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE CONDITION OF THE LABOURER. 3S$ tion of the labourer. Not only have his wages increased, and his home and household position improved, but his labour has been materially lessened in intensity by the application of a wide range of mechanical appliances, which have reduced processes, which at one time demanded the heaviest exertion on the part of the labourer, to what may be called the minimum point, and have altogether done away with others which were positively hurtful to the health of the labourer. It has been said by his so-called friends that his position has been injured by the introduction of this same machinery, but the very reverse of this is the truth ; for the more it is used, the greater does the necessity for extra and intelligent labour become, for new work and new methods are introduced which necessitate its larger employment. The position, therefore, of the labourer has been in every way improved by the improvement in farming. This could be easily proved by facts, but it is so obvious and patent to all who look honestly into matters for themselves, that we need not take up any space by going into them. "We have said enough to show that the interests of the labourer are thoroughly bound up with those of the farmer, and anything which tends to bring about a rupture between them can only be pro- ductive of mischief. So valuable, indeed, is the bond of interest which has so long and so widely existed between the farmer and his servants, that many object to the mode of direct payment in cash in full, simply because it has an inherent tendency to destroj-, at least to weaken, that interest. If such be the case, how infinitely greater must their regret be when such a system as that of trade unions has been introduced, — a principle which, we confess, appears to us to give the most melancholy outlook to the future of agriculture which recent times have produced, unless, indeed, it be — as for their own sakes we trust will be the case — that the labourers will see the folly of their present course, and decide upon returning to that of older and better times. Or, if this be not their decision, unless the masters see some way of overcoming the evils which trade unions have brought about. In the wide distress which, as we write, reigns iu so many districts in which trade unionism has had the finest opportunities to show its powers for evil, the farm labourer may see enough, and more than enough, to convince him that the system can ultimately do him no good. One consideration ought to weigh with him, which, unfortunately, has never been thought of by other classes of workmen, that it is not he alone who suffers from the effects of strikes and lock-outs, but those innocent ones, his wife and children. In connection with the system of paying wages directly in cash, another system of overcoming the difficulties caused by trade unions is to have long engagements entered into, the minimum sug- gested being six months. In this case, to pre- vent disputes, it is essential that a proper form of agreement be drawn up and duly signed by both parties, the terms of which could be made to be fulfilled by the ordinary legal course, should any dispute arise ; although we should recommend its settlement to be attempted in the first place by compromise, as legal proceedings have a bad tendency in the case of employers and employed alike. So important and so peculiar is the work of the farm, and it is that in which the nation generally is specially interested, that it is greatly to be wished that some system could be found by which such difficulties as will now frequently arise in practical farming, owing to the action of trade unions, could be neutralized, or at least greatly lessened. We have said that farm work is so peculiar that nearly all its departments are such that only one chance in a year is afforded for their being carried out ; further, some work, — that of harvesting, for example, or haymaking, — if not done at the exact time when it ought to be, a whole season's produce may be, if not lost entirely, at least partly lost or injured to a great extent. Now, if a trade union in any district should at such times issue an order for its members to demand some extravagant price, and on not receiving it to strike, some idea may be formed of the loss sustained, — a lnss sustained by the farmer in the first place, but which must also be shared in by the general public. Such facts as these are not recognised by many, who, if they do not advo- cate the introduction of trade unionism into 3c 3S<3 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. rural districts, are certainly very indifferent on tlie subject, as if it in no way concerned them. We now come to the second system, of paying the labourer by cash and partly by perquisites. These vary in different parts of the country, for details of which we have not space here ; but the reader, by turning to vol. ii. of our work, Outlines of Modem Fanning (Crosby Lockwood & Co., London), will find them there given on page 257. By referring to this, they will find that, while goods in kind, valuable in the house- hold, and such equally valuable perquisites as cottage gardens, potato ground, and the like, are given pretty generally, beer and cider allow- ances figure pretty freely. Now, whatever may be said in favour of the system of remunerating farm labour partly by perquisites, certainly much cannot be said in favour of a part of these per- quisites being in the shape of drink allowances. The giving of these is, from almost every point of view, essentially wrong in principle, and pro- ductive in practice of a large amount of evil ; for not only do they encourage those who have acquired the habit of drinking in a continuance of it, but not seldom act as an incentive to some, who have not the habit, unfortunately to form it. If refreshments are required, as they certainly are at certain seasons and classes of work, there is abundance of materials of an innocent character, such as coffee or tea, to choose from, better calcu- lated to support the labourer than beer is. We say this, not that we hold extreme views, and object to beer per se, but if given in moderation we would not object to the custom. But we con- fess to seeing a practical difficulty of enforcing this moderation, so that we, on the whole, con- clude that such encouragement to do extra work, which the beer is supposed to yield, would be infinitely better given in the form either of cash payment to the labourer, or, what we think would be better still, as being likelier to do more good, the giving to the wife of some present, either of food or some article useful in the household. Some labourers would object to this, but not all, for by no means do all care for drink, and even the objectors would, by the second or third season, we believe, fall pleasantly into the arrangement. To the bestowal of perquisites of a useful character, such as ' giving in kind.' as the term is, of allowances of food of a certain kind, fuel in the shape both of coals and firewood, or one or other of the many forms in which this may be done, the same objection cannot be made as in the case of drink, above noticed. Indeed, a great deal can be said in favour of the former system as carried out, as it must tend in greater or less degree to the establishment and the keep- ing up of the kindly interest between master and servant, to the value of which we have already alluded to. Another valuable and highly esteemed perquisite, as it would be sure to be considered by the labourer and his family, would be the giving of a cottage rent free. In this case it would be necessary to have some form of agreement, as elsewhere alluded to in this chapter, the labourer being hired for a certain period to do certain duties, one of the terms being that at its expiry, or on the labourer leaving his employment, the cottage would be given up. Of course, it need scarcely be said that the cottage should be a good one, and its occupancy by a valuable servant would be all the more esteemed if a good garden was attached to it. Of course, the system of perquisites is not applicable to unmarried men, who must there- fore be paid directly in wages, or by the third system stated at the commencement of this chapter, namely, part wages and part board. When the board is given in the kitchen of the farm-house, one can easily conceive how true may be the objections raised as to its demoraliz- ing effect, both on the male labourers and the female servants of the house. This would have but comparatively small place in olden times, characterised by so much simplicity of manners and style of living, that the farmer and his family, as a rule, lived chiefly in the kitchen, and pre- sided at the meals ; for in this case a supervision over the conduct of the servants, farm and house, could obviously be so exercised as to prevent demoralizing influences exercising much evil. But now things are so much altered as regards the farmer's style of living, that the system, with all its obvious advantages, cannot be carried out so that these can be secured. Not the least of these advantages were such as the establish- ment not only of a kindly intercourse betwei-u PIECE OR TASK WORK ON THE FARM. 387 master and labourer, but also, as was very often the case, a direct teaching or inculcation on the part of the master and mistress of advice and example calculated to be of service to the young men. In brief, the family tie, so to say, in many, probably the majority of cases, had then so decided an existence, that the labourers may be said to have formed part of the farm- house establishment, in the welfare of which all were interested. In some districts the plan may yet be carried out, but we conceive these will be few, and certainly not amongst the class of farmers holding even comparatively small farms. That part of the third system of remuneration now under consideration, in which the accommo- dation of the board allowed is given in a separate building, — often, indeed, the stable loft, but in the majority of cases in what is called the bothy, — finds more objectors than praisers. No doubt the bothy, which obtains chiefly in the northern districts of Scotland, has been so much improved of late as to get rid of the many objections which have been raised to it. Nevertheless, it has to the minds of many so much of the soldier barrack system connected with it, that they cannot see how it can be carried out without certain moral deterioration being incurred on the part of the young men. But the whole system of dealing with the unmarried young men of the farm is so surrounded with difficulties, that it is hard to condemn off-hand any one plan by which it is proposed to meet them. In view of the evils connected with the in- troduction of trade unionism into farming dis- tricts, more attention is being given to the importance of introducing the system of piece or task work on the farm. This system is by no means new, for it has been advocated for years as the best possible for farming work, as it has been maintained by many, and proved by not a few, to be the best for other branches of industry. By far the best statement of its advantages which we have met with in published form is a paper read before the Central Farmers' Club by Mr. James Howard, the senior partner of the celebrated firm of agricultural engineers, J. & F. Howard, Bedford. At first sight, the system appears to be based on the thoroughly common-sense principle of paying a man accord- ing to the amount and efficient value of the work done by him, a standard or rate of cash value for a certain amount being fixed on and agreed to by master and servant. The system, in short, puts a man on his mettle, so to say, and he takes his place in the rank of workmen by a rule which may be said to be his own making ; if a good workman, it enables him to make more money than he otherwise would do, while the larger amount of work also is likely to be done just at the time wanted — two conditions evidently to the benefit likewise of the farmer. There is this, however, to be said, that the system demands close supervision, either on the part of the farmer himself or a trustworthy overseer; for it is plain that if a man be tempted to do as much work as he can in order to increase his pay, he is in proportion tempted to hurry the work over and do it more or less carelessly. It is therefore essential, in the interest of the em- ployer, to see that he has not succumbed to the temptation, and that the work he does, if increased in quantity, be of as good quality as it ought to be. On some of the points connected with piece-work, the reader will not be surprised to learn that there is a diversity of opinion ; and as it is a good motto to follow, in considering any subject, ' Hear the otlicr side,' we give the following remarks by a well-known writer on agricultural subjects, who has taken the labourer under his wing specially : — ' This ought, as far as possible, to consist of piece-work. I say as far as pos- sible, because I am well aware of the difficulty there is in bringing many agricultural operations under the denomination of piece-work. Never- theless, many of those difficulties may by per- severance be overcome, and for his own sake, as well as in the interest of those who work for him, it is well worth the farmer's while to over- come them ; for, until human nature is very much changed from what it is now, labourers will be found, even without reference to age, to differ very widely from each other. Physical strength and power of endurance, skill, industry, a desire to do an honest day's work, and many other particulars, are points in which there is sure to be an immense amount of difference. Yet, unless the amount of a man's earnings depend upon the work done, it is difficult to see 3SS DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. Low to avoid paying all those various characters of labourers exactly the same amount of wages, and so inflicting on the farmer both a present and prospective loss, by getting now a less amount of work than he ought for his money, and discouraging improvement in the class for the time to come. It is very important, also, for all parties, that in every case in which a system of day-work is adopted, the number of hours constituting a day's work should be definitely settled and understood, and that an account of all after-time employment should be accurately kept and paid for, not by beer or cider or other refreshments, except perhaps in time of harvest, but in money, and in the proportion it bears to a day's work. Now that thrashing is almost entirely" done by machinery, it is very difficult to provide wet - weather work for agricultural labourers. Yet, when the immense loss of in- come which, in the changeable climate of Great Britain, and specially in the western counties, accrues to the labourer from bad weather, unless paid by the week with no deduction for wet days, and the difficulty in which the loss involves him, are considered, it will be obvious that a farmer who wishes his labourers to have well- nourished, powerful bodies, and minds free from anxiety, will do liis best to secure them against the possibility of many7 days' forced idleness in the course of a year, involving, of course, short commons for themselves and families.' A practice obtains in some districts of allowing at certain parts of the season, such as harvesting, when it is important to do the farm work in a short space of time, a higher rate per week than is allowed during other parts of the season. This practice, however it may appear to suit the farmer, is, to say the least of it, of questionable utility as regards the labourer. But, in truth, this system of extra payment at extra seasons is no gain to the farmer, for, as a rule, while the rate of wages is increased in a high proportion, the amount of work done is considerably below this ; in some cases the difference between the wages given and the work done is as much as one-third. In view of this, the above statement that the system is of questionable utility to the labourer seems of doubtful accuracy, as the labourer is clearly the gainer of 6s. 8d. in the pound: of doubt- ful accuracy, therefore, at first sight, as regards cash : not so, however, as regards its moral influ- ence. Labourers accustomed to receive a com- paratively low rate of wage during the greater part of the year, receiving at another a very much larger amount, are greatly tempted to spend the extra sum in a foolish if not in a vicious way; and it tends also, in many instances, to be the first cause of lowering his morale, which be- comes permanent with some. Now thus reducing, as it does, his value as a workman, — for all vicious habits have this tendency, — he cannot be said in any way to be a gainer by the system which is the cause of this. On the whole, there- fore, we consider that in districts where it is at present carried out, it would be much better for both parties if it were done away with, and a rate of wage uniform throughout the year substituted. Further, another objection to the system is, that being applied, as it is in many districts, to har- vesting and summer work alone, the labourer receives the heavy7 flush of monej7 at a season when it is much less useful to himself and family than it would be during the severe months of winter. Such considerations as these may appear to some to possess little practical value in con- nection with the work of the farm, but to the thinking man nothing is unimportant which influ- ences in any degree the moral and social status of the labourer, as that must have a reflex influence upon his working capabilities. THE RECREATION OF THE LABOURER. 389 CHAPTER IV. THE IJECKEATION OF THE LABOURER — VILLAGE CLUES, HEADING ROOMS, ETC. Some may think that if the labourer be supplied •with allotment plots or gardens, as advocated in the preceding chapter, enough will have been done in the way of providing for recreation for the farm labourer ; while others may think that recreation is a matter which did not con- cern those connected with the improvement of landed property. As regards the last of these objections, it should be remembered that, just as one would advocate the employment of good buildings, machines, etc., as important helps towards this improvement, so in like man- ner it may be held that good and well-con- ducted labourers — 'living tools,' as some one has called them — are great helps also. Anything, therefore, which tends to raise the status of the workman, and maintain him in good working condition, — this involving his moral as well as his physical qualities, — is of importance to our general subject. From this point of view — and it will be somewhat difficult to prove that it is not correct — it is, we think, very obvious that those interested in the right working of the property must or should be interested in the well-being of those who, after all that may be said, constitute the ' power,' so to call it, by which that working is carried on ; the better and higher, therefore, their condition in every respect, the better for the pro- perty with which they are connected. And as regards the first of the objections above named, it should not be overlooked that men cannot be always working in their gardens during their spare hours ; for if they wished to do so, the seasons and the weather would in turn prevent them. Besides, a love of change seems to be an essential part of the human constitution, and men cannot always be doing the same thing, even although that be amusement. The necessity, therefore, of supplying them with healthy-toned recreation is evident. This may take many forms, but we concern ourselves only with that of clubs or reading rooms. We confess that there is more difficulty attendant upon the establishment of these than in that of allotments or gardens, and this mainly on account of certain peculiarities which arise from a variety of causes. In the allotment system, each man, having his own plot, meets with no interference from his neighbour, or, if he does, it is of that kind which is very easily dealt with ; but in the case of clubs and reading rooms, num- bers of men meeting together, have more or less to do with their organization and management, according to the system on which they are estab- lished, and, as a necessary result apparently in all such undertakings, jealousies more or less decided arise, which interfere materially with the har- monious working of the institutions. These may be organized upon a variety of systems, — they may be established by the proprietor of the estate, or by a number of individuals interested in the social progress of the labourer, the expense of establishing and maintaining the institution being wholly provided by them. In this case the management, as a rule, is carried out by those who have established them, the labourer simply having the free use of the rooms, books, etc. On another system, the institution may be partly supported by subscriptions from the well- to-do, and partly by the payment of a small fee exacted from the members. The management in this case may be made up from the general sub- scribers, the members, as in the preceding case, having no concern with it ; or, as in some cases, a joint committee of the two bodies may under- take the conduct of the institution. 390 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. Of the two systems, the ' club' with its read- ing room and other recreative attractions, and the ' reading room' pure and simple, we prefer the club, and this ou the ground that, just as we have said a man cannot always be gardening 01 cultivating his allotment plot, so he cannot always be reading by way of amusement in his spare hours. In fact, reading is to labouring men generally not very attractive; really hard work is it to them ; partly, indeed, mechanical, as they do not take in at a glance the subjects treated of in the ready, almost intui- tive way of educated people accustomed to read- ing much. The working man has too often to spell out his reading, and many of the words and phrases convey no meaning to him ; the result, therefore, is the soporific tendency not wholly unknown even to educated people. When to the labour of intellectual conception of what is being read, is added the mechanical labour, so to call it, of — in many cases paiufully — spelling out the words and sentences which con- vey it, this soporific tendency is so enormously increased, that we need not feel surprised at work- ing men not showing a very keen interest in what some call the ' pure and never wearying pleasures of the reading room.' We fear those who so use this expression have not taken into account the circumstances we have named. But in the case of the club, in the diversity of attractions which it offers, changes can be made according to the taste and inclination of the members. They may read, may have a game at draughts or chess, or, if judiciously organized and managed, may go to the smoking room to sit and rest, or chat with a neighbour, or, as in the case of some clubs, may have their glass of beer the wlnle. Some, probably many, of our readers may object to our supposing that a club can be judiciously managed where either tobacco or beer is allowed, especially the latter. But where the management in such cases is judicious, we strongly incline to the belief that no fear need be entertained of any evil results arising from these indulgences. The whole point lies in the words judicious management. Indeed, very little knowledge of human nature is re- cpiired to show that the withholding of such privileges is the very reason why so many clubs have been either partial or total failures. At the same time, another cause of this fadure arises from the members being too much kept in leading-strings, so to say, having little or nothing to do with the management of the club ; and when they have this entirely to themselves, jealousies are apt to arise, and quarrels result, which are highly prejudicial. This state of matters is, however, gradually mending itself, and this mainly in consequence of the growing intelligence of the labourers as a body throughout the country, — an intelligence arising from the various means put in operation during the last two or three decades to raise the social and moral status of the class. Hence they are beginning now to see, not merely the great material, but the moral advantages obtained from education and study, and also how much these can be aided, and other agencies for good established, through the operation of conjoined efforts in managing their own con- cerns, by the application of common sense, kindliness, and consideration for one another. Much has been done in this direction, but still more remains to be done; and it is gratifying to know that progress is steady in the right direction. A very good and striking example of what can be done in the way of overcoming difficulties of the kind just noted, and the removal of the prejudices of the better classes as to the estab- lishment of clubs with certain privileges as we have described, is furnished by the 'Allotment Club,' established at Bothamstead by the well- known J. Bennett Lawes, F.E.S., who has carried on the series of long - conducted and costly agricultural experiments which have made his name and reputation world - wide. The experiment now to be briefly noticed has had a twenty years' successful career. When first started this was not anticipated, judging from the strictures passed upon it by friends, who feared the use of tobacco and beer would be simply a nuisance ; but Mr. Lawes, — being one of those valuable practical men of the world who do not wait to follow the work of others, but begin the work themselves, allowing others to follow them, — not heeding the strictures of his friends, simply erected a building consisting of one lofty room, with skylight and two side windows, a thatched roof to be cool in summer. FARM LABOURERS' CLUBS. 391 a roofed verandah going all round the building, provided with seats, for the open-air enjoyment of the men during the same season. For the winter warmth, the large room had both an open fire-place and a stove. Having thus provided for the house comfort of the club members, — an essential point in such undertakings, — Mr. Lawes placed a barrel or two of beer in the large room, and invited the members of the 'Allotment Club' to meet him there on a certain evening. A large meeting was the result, to which he explained the object of the club, to which all those having a garden would have free admission ; and stating that for the first year, under simple rules, he woidd manage it himself for them, after which it would be handed over to the members, to make the best of it they could. The beer was to be sold to the members, and although he had been advised to restrict them in its use, this he would not do; merely observing that if tbey indulged in it to excess, the consequent disgrace would extend to him as well as to them- selves. Having thus, as a conclusion to his brief address, enlisted their manly feelings, he left them to discuss the matter over their beer and pipes, and for the rest of the year rarely, if ever, went near the club. The place, as we have said, was a success, but not at first ; for, as explained by Mr. Lawes, some jealousies arose, but these gradually disappeared. The following brief his- tory of these contretemps and subsequent success is given by Mr. Lawes, in some remarks so pregnant with meaning that we give them here, as being likely to afford a good guide to those of our readers who may be disposed to try a similar plan : — ' Labouring men are rather apt to imagine that if any one does them a kindness, his motives are not altogether disinterested. If they had thought one of my objects was to know more about their ideas and acts — if, in fact, they had fancied that they did not possess entire free- dom of action, they would not have abandoned the public-house for the club. At the end of the year a dinner took place, and by universal suffrage twelve committee-men from amongst the members were elected to manage the club and make rules for the ensuing year. At first, some little jealousy existed between the agricultural labourers and the owners of gardens, who were somewhat above them in social position ; and as the day-labourers were necessarily in a large majority, the committee was entirely composed of that class. The result of this was mismanage- ment, and generally a clean sweep of the whole of the committee-men at the end of the year. The day-labourer is somewhat of a politician, and is fond of making laws, so that at one time the club was rather overloaded with rules. But, having made those laws, he is by no means anxious to enforce them, and on one or two occasions I had to point out how important it wret hay, which only a farmer or one who has made hay knows is the best test of its superior quality. ' How to account for this effect may be difficult ; but if I might hazard a conjecture, — for it is only an able chemist and vegetable physiologist who can do more than this, — it may arise from the influence of the sulphurous acid gas — not sulphuric acid vapour, a totally different thing, though the two are popularly supposed to be identical — present in the products of combustion. Sulphurous acid gas, it is well known, has a 544 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. potent action as a deodorizer, not only removing with unerring rapidity all bad smells, but also bringing out their original odour, and this so powerfully that they are often better than before being subjected to it. But, further, sulphurous acid gas is a powerful antiseptic — preservative of organic substances — from which latter property I am inclined to conjecture that hay treated by your process will be less subject to fermentation, and will keep longer, than hay not so treated.1 ' But I have also previously stated that you drove this highly heated smokeless air through the grass in a peculiar direction. My estimate of the value of this may be wrong, or I may be overvaluing it ; but I nevertheless look upon it as at least one of the many valuable points your apparatus possesses, and which makes it, as I think, such a singularly successful one. In brief, you here again adopt the diagonal principle. And in place of driving the air from the furnace at right angles to the hue of motion of the table on which the grass lies, you have the hot-air ducts placed at an angle to this table, so that the air is driven through the grass in a direction the same as that in which the grass moves along the table. Now I would point out here one effect of this simple arrangement which con- stitutes, as I think, its chief value. By the action of the reciprocating table on which the hay or grass lies, as it is moved along and subjected to the heated-air currents, and the stirrers in con- junction with the tines, the grass gets opened out with its fibres placed longitudinally in the direc- tion of the motion of the table. And as the angle of the hot-air ducts is also in this direction, the heated air is driven through the fibres the long way, in place of the short way, which it would be if the hot air was driven in the direction of right angles to the motion of the table, so that the grass is subjected to the hot air in the best possible position for obtaining the maximum of drying effect. ' Concluding, then, my description of your 1 ' Professor Voekker's conclusions strongly confirm Mr. Bum's conjecture. Both in his Treatise on Hay (reprinted from the R. A. S. Journal) and in his analysis of artificially- dried grass from Gillwell Park, this eminent chemist found a larger percentage of nutriment and a less percentage of woody fibre when grass is dried rapidly than in ordinary hay.' — Note by Mr. Gibbs. machine or drying apparatus, I look upon it as combining a number of mechanical arrangements and one or two chemical principles, which renders it the most thoroughly successful of all the forms of apparatus I have yet seen, or which have as yet been introduced for the purpose of drying farm produce. And of those arrangements and principles, the most original is the plan of using as the drying medium the heated products of furnace combustion directly, without the interven- tion of any obstacle between the air which is being heated and the fuel which heats it. It is like getting a supply of high-pressure steam without the use of an expensive boiler. This, as I have stated already, is an entirely original mode of obtaining air heated to a very high temperature at a very cheap rate, and in the easiest way ; and by using coke as the fuel, I apprehend that you obtain other advantages of a very valuable character. ' I might, were it not that I fear to lengthen a letter already far too long, — for some reasons far too short, considering the importance of the subject to which it refers, on which I could say much more, — refer to other ingenious contrivances you have adopted ; amongst others to the one by which you economize the heat of the furnace by "jacketing" its exterior surface, so that the air drawn in by the fan is raised considerably in temperature before it is driven into the grass. This has other advantages to which I cannot further allude. ' I conclude by expressing my belief that there is a future of utility before, and a potentiality of application to a variety of purposes, in your apparatus, which will yet be availed of for many processes other than that for which it was origin- ally designed. I wish heartily that this may be the case, and that you will shortly see its realization.' At all times it is best to arrange work, much of which, from the necessities of the case, has to be done under circumstances which may cause loss both of time and material, that one may be prepared for the worst. But it is specially wise and forethoughtful, if one may coin a word for the nonce, to arrange for this when there are around us indications of a somewhat too certain character that this ' worst ' will happen. Nearly HIRING OUT, ETC., OF GRAIN-DRYING MACHINES. 545 every season brings this before us very forcibly. But certainly the past few seasons, and specially the last season, have given enough to make the most careless thoughtful. And beyond all doubt it is difficult to gainsay the statement, that as there is nothing so valuable to a people as the food upon which it depends for existence, so there should be nothing so important to their interests as means by which such food should be so dealt with by all classes that none of it shall be wasted. In dealing with the food which our own fields produce, it is obvious that the first work of doing it, either carefully or carelessly, rests with the farmer. That too much of the dealing- comes under the category of ' waste ' is a matter unfortunately of too much notoriety. But while the farmer ought to exercise the utmost care in this vital department, and avail himself of all appliances by which this can best be ordered, we do not overlook this fact, — that the bad seasons, in which, while he may be not only willing to do, but actually does all that per- sonal care and labour can do, are precisely those in which he has not the means to purchase these appliances, simply because the seasons are those of loss. Hence, in view of the importance of the department, it is to be hoped that something may be done to help him in this direction. Not spasmodically, but systematically, as by the adoption of the hiring-out system so specially successful in the case of thrashing machinery ; or by the establishment of public companies, who themselves would act either as the suppliers of these appliances to such farmers as desired them for the season, or who would do the work at so much per acre. An extension of the work of such companies might lie in this direction. In many seasons, and this one in which we write (1879) offers but too many and too striking examples not to be put down on the black-letter calendar of farming history. There have been tons upon tons of produce so spoiled by long-continued rain, that under ordinary circumstances the pro- duce was only fitted for the manure-heap. So far from being useful as food, it cannot now be made so for litter or bedding-down animals with. Yet such is the efficiency of the apparatus we have described, that what is thus worthless may be made highly valuable. Of this eflkiency we could, if need be, offer evidence in abundance. In the one district alone in which we write, so great a weight of spoiled produce lay on the hands of the disappointed, almost despair- ing farmers, that any one with a good ' dryer ' would have netted a very handsome sum. Nor under such a system would the farmer be deprived of all its benefits. There are more ways than one by which this can be done. To name one only, the farmer may so make his bargain with the company, that a certain propor- tion of the resulting good produce may be given him at a certain moderate cost, covering merely that of working, wear and tear of the machinery, etc. Of course, it would be considered as Utopian, altogether absurd, to suppose that some such scheme as this could be carried out : the Govern- ment to purchase or make at their works a goodly number of these machines, and to send them out to distressed districts where produce is lying rotting on the ground, the farmer hopelessly knowing that he can do nothing to save it. This produce is dried and handed over to the farmer good and sound. Would this be charity 1 paternal government or wn'-s-govern- ment ? Or would it be wiser, and a little more like the practical people we so pride ourselves to be, than one or other of the many ways in which Government help has been given in times of great distress? — help which, even though it may have in some cases done good, has in others left the recipients with their working morale much lowered, certainly not raised. There are some — shrewd business men withal — so silly as to think that there would be worse ways of giving Govern- ment grants for public works than by lending out — good interest could well be paid— sums for the making and hiring of machines fitted to save the food of the people, otherwise lost beyond ' recall.' It may look as if we had a purpose to serve in thus putting so strongly the case of this apparatus and the work it can do. It is surely unnecessary to say that we have no such purpose, — no other than that of doing what little we can to forward the general use of an apparatus so well fitted to do such vitally important work. We have deemed it right, therefore, to lie somewhat particular in our description of the 546 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. apparatus ; and to make that more complete, and as giving an item or two of the evidence of what it has done, we append the following : — ' TO THE EDITOR OF THE " FIELD." ' Sir, — On Tuesday in last week I lent one of my hay-dryers to Mr. Ashcomhe, of Sewardstone, a practical farmer of long experience and large " holding." He started it at 9 a.m., and in ten hours had dried and stacked the produce of 10 acres, estimated at one and a half loads per acre. This was unripe, rank, weedy grass, which had heen mown about twelve days, and left on the swath quite untouched ; it had been rained upon more or less every day, and the condition of the weather and the land prevented all possibility of dealing with it in the held. The drying process was carried on, without any instruction or guid- ance from me, by his own men, under the direc- tion of his son, who had had no previous experi- ence in the matter. The hay-dryer was wholly uncovered, and heavy showers fell at frequent intervals upon the hay as it was brought in from the field and whilst it was being dried ; it was furthermore exposed to the same showers whilst being carted to the stack, which was also un- covered. I think it will be admitted that these conditions were as unfavourable as they well could be, and that this season is as bad as we are ever likely to have again. The cost of saving it thus is as follows : — Engine and man, as hired Hay-dryer and stoker, ditto . Coal for engine — 6 cwt. at Is. . Coke for dryer — 22 cwt. at Is. Two men to feed in and one to take a at 3s. 6d Extra man in field to pitch Extra man in field reloading . Extra carting — Is. per acre Total . . . . £5 10 6 110s. for 10 acres — lis. per acre. I am told this is rather less than it would have cost to make it in the field, even had that been possible ; and by working a long harvest day of fifteen hours, this cost would be still further reduced to 8 s. per acre. I have letters by every post from noblemen and gentlemen farmers saying that they have large quantities of hay, ranging £1 5 0 1 10 0 0 6 0 1 2 0 0 10 6 0 3 6 0 3 6 0 10 0 from 20 to 90 acres, cut and spoiling in the field, and all wanting to borrow hay-dryers ; but what more can I do ? . . . — Yours very truly, ' W. A. Gibes. ' Oillweli. Pake, Ceingfosd, Essex, July 16. ' P.S. — The sole remaining objection urged against the general adoption of this process is that it would not be wanted in fair average seasons. Against this is the concurrent testi- mony of all large hay-farmers, who tell me that in every season they lose a pound or thirty shillings a load by the inferior quality of one or two of their stacks, averaging fifty loads each ; here, then, is from £50 to £100 to be saved as interest on the £350 first outlay. And when it is remem- bered that this same machine will save all damage to the corn crops, and finally to the " aftermath," it will be admitted that there are very few seasons indeed in which it would not pay for its possession. ' This form of hay-dryer has been adopted by the Duke of Sutherland, Sir G. W. Broke Middle- ton, Sir William Bagge, H. Strickland Constable, Esq., R. H. Ainsworth, Esq., and is in constant use by Messrs. East & Co. Similar machines have already been ordered by the Duke of Man- chester, Lord Ashburton, Colonel Buchanan, J.P., and G. E. Fuller, Esq.' The Administrative Departments of the Pro- perty.— Since writing the Division in the body of the work under this head (see Division V. ; also Introduction, chaps, i. and ii.), sundry sug- gestions have come to us as to additions which would render it more complete, and therefore more useful. Amongst others, one has been pressed upon us with all the authority due to high position and a thorough knowledge of the wants of agriculture. This is a full exposition of the education and practical training of the vari- ous parties concerned in or connected practically with the working of the estate. "While readily conceding the value of details in this department, the limits of the work will prevent our carrying out this suggestion, however willing we are to do so. The line of limit must be drawn at some point, and this we have at last reached. But the scheme and scope of the work, no less than ADMINISTRATION OF LANDED PROPERTY— AGENTS. 547 its limits, prevent this in itself valuable sugges- tion being carried out in its entirety. Moreover, the general subject of the primary education of the various parties connected with an estate has met with the fullest and the ablest discussion in works in which they are in every sense appro- priately dealt with, and to these we refer the reader. For some information on this subject we may be permitted to refer to our little volume on the Outlines of Landed Estate Management, and also to a forthcoming work, now at press, on the subject of Outlines of Farm Manage- ment, and tlie Organization of Farm Labour, the Farm - house and Cottage. In the latter the whole subject will be found detailed. Both works are published by the Messrs. Crosby Lockwood & Co., Loudon. What we purpose now to give, so far as the various parties employed on an estate are concerned, is not an exhaustive statement of all the details of their preliminary education and practical training, but rather, on the understanding that the various parties have already had these essentials, to give if possible a fresh aspect to points in their practice which may be useful to theni ; to draw again to recol- lection sundry points of importance which, under the pressure of business, they may have almost forgotten, or at least frequently over- looked ; to bring forward prominently points which the ever aggressive and advancing spirit of the times has given rise to, and which are likely to exercise an important influence upon the future of estate management as a whole and of farming in detail ; and finally and chiefly, to point out the new relationships, brought about by the new circumstances of the times, which exist between the various parties employed and the work which they have to do, — relationships in many, perhaps the majority of instances, of a character wholly different from those of former times, or of times rapidly passing away, and which owe their existence to a wide variety of causes. Many of those points have been already dis- cussed, and fully so, in the text ; and what has been deemed essential as supplementary has been given in the present Division. Of those points which remain to be noticed in carrying out the suggestion alluded to at the beginning of this paragraph, the first place is given to a notice of some closely connected with the acquirements of estate agents. This will consist chiefly of a brief consideration of the relation- ships to which we have just alluded as now existing, or almost certain soon to exist, between those interested in agriculture on the one hand, in their various positions of landlords, tenants, and labourers, and the general public on the other. It is not easy to discuss several of these points without in some way coming across what some call prejudices, but which we prefer to believe are principles. Those who maintain them conceive them to be of the highest importance. We shall therefore endeavour to give them all due and candid consideration. Agents for tlie Property. — It is not too much to say that almost all that affects not merely the material interests of the estate, but the welfare of those who make their living out of it, origi- nates with and is carried out by the Agent. The connection which exists between the various parties employed, from the rich tenant farmer, who in many respects maintains a social position but very little different, so far as its external aspects are concerned, from his landlord, down to the poorest labourer, is such that conflicting interests are sure to arise. It would be vain to hope that this will ever be much different from what it is now, despite all that is said as to the march of material improvement and increase of intellectual knowledge. For human nature is not likely to be changed, and what has been in the daj's of old, and is now, is pretty sure to the end of time to be. Those conflicting interests, and those specially individual, result from a social system which more now than ever, notwithstanding all that has been said to the contrary, compels each one amongst us, like ' Hal o' the Wynd ' in the Fair Maid of Perth, ' to fight for his own hand.' It need not, therefore, be wondered at that the agent of the estate is not, as a rule, the most popular person connected with it. With no breach of charity, we may, indeed, go farther, and say that he is the most unpopular man in it. This fact is but too well known, however much it is to be deplored. If one seeks for the reason of it, one is met with the very vaguest of statements and conjectures. But it 548 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. is not difficult to find when looked for ; and when found, it will, we think, be seen that the agent, as a rule, is in this matter unfairly treated. We do not say designedly, but un- fortunately, and this because too often unthink- ingly so. It is good for us, in discussing the merits of an individual, to project, or try to pro- ject ourselves into the position he occupies. If this were done in the case in point, we venture to say that the opinion generally held would be very materially and favourably altered. We should find that much of the unpopularity of the agent arises not so much from what he ought to do in the true interests of the estate, and all concerned in it, but from what every one on the estate thinks he ought to do. The two are very different, although they are, as a rule, considered to be one and the same thing. If this view of the case were considered in the case of agents, it would be found, in the great majority of instances, that his position is a most difficult one to maintain, and to maintain with the result of pleasing all parties, who do not know all the circumstances of every case. It is also possible, we suspect it is more than possible, that much of the unpopularity of many agents arises from the fact that they belong to the legal profession. We need not, of course, disclaim having any prejudice against lawyers. Popular opinion is not favourable to them ; it remembers too vividly all the evils which the unprincipled amongst them have done, but it forgets too easily the vast services those — and they are the great majority — who are at once conscientious and able have done to the com- munity. No one who knew the conditions of the case would ever dream of calling in question the abilities of the agents of the latter class. These abilities are as a rule of the highest, and those who know them best, know best their wide and comprehensive range. Even with all their ability, the wonder felt by those who know them is not that they do so many things well, but that they can do many of them at all. But it is nothing derogatory to one who is able in one department, which he has made his own, to be told that he is not able in another which is not his — that, in fact, he knows nothing about it. No man of common sense would feel that such a charge detracted in any way from his value in his own department. Quite the reverse result would be the case so far as those connected with him in business were concerned ; for the less pretension he made as to his knowledge of them, the more highly would he as a business man be esteemed. Now this lies at the root of the prejudice, which prevails amongst so many farmers, as to legal gentlemen being agents or managers of estates. They are not prejudices, as such are called, but real objections founded upon what the farmers deem to be a sound principle, and one which regulates all well-conducted business. And farming, they say, is no exception to this rule — the very last, indeed, fitted to form an exception if one were needed. And they feel that they can scarcely with reason be blamed for conceiving that their business interests cannot possibly be managed, certainly not managed well, by gentle- men who plainly confess that they do not profess to know what farming is in all its details. In other departments of business, they argue, it would certainly not be considered a fair passport to the conduct of its details if at the outset the applicant confessed that he did not know what those details were ; or, knowing them but slightly, could not see them carried out efficiently by others. This is, however, or may be taken as a somewhat exaggerated view of the real position occupied by agents who belong to the legal profession. For amongst their varied accomplishments, it has to be confessed that they not seldom number a know- ledge of agriculture which surprises many, even of those practical farmers with whom the agents are not as agents favourites. Landlords as a rule are fairly alive to their own interests, and great advantages, therefore, must have arisen, it may be presumed, from a system so long and so widely adopted. Nor is it very difficult to make out many reasons in favour of the system, under circumstances in which there is so much to be clone requiring a sound knowledge of law. And assuredly lawyers have as a body, by their knowledge of human nature, their habits of observation, their general ' quickness of wit,' and their special knowledge of commercial law, made out on the whole a splendid right to the title by ADMINISTRATION OF LANDED PROPERTY— FARM MANAGERS. 549 which they are more generally known than by any other, that of ' men of business.' And it may well he argued by those who employ them on estates, ' Surely, where there is so much busi- ness to be done, we do rightly in employing " men of business." ' Even in a jocular remark like this there may be much serious wisdom. But, as we have said, the prejudice against agents of this class exists ; and it is a prejudice which exercises beyond doubt an influence of one kind or another on the relationship existing between agents and farmers. It is illustrated by the other equally well-known fact, that the most popular agents on estates are those gentlemen who are in fact farmers by profession — ' one of themselves,' as the farmers phrase it. That much of the prejudice can be overcome there is no doubt, and overcome it is in many instances by admirable tact, indomitable good nature, right feeling, and pluck ; and the possession of this latter attribute alone tends mightily to make a man a favourite. But there is also no doubt that the prejudice would be more quickly and generally overcome, if agents as a body were known to have made farming a special branch of their study. And it might be well worthy of consideration whether a special ' chair ' in our universities should be created, by which legal gentlemen could add to their acquirements those connected with estate management. There are even now, however, many sources from which this knowledge could be drawn. There are many gentlemen who, following the legal profession, have also a decided taste for rural work. These might do worse things than add to their strictly professional study that which would qualify them, in a specially practical sense, for taking the responsible and influential position of estate agent. Those who now occupy it live in times which give abundant reason for at least anticipating great changes in all matters connected with land. And it will assuredly be nothing lost, where agents have hitherto neglected it, to begin to con- sider in what direction these changes are likely to be, and how best they can be made in the true interests of all concerned. The relationship between the several parties connected with estates also deserves, and indeed by the force of circum- stances demands, attention. The mere knowledge on the part of farmers, etc., that some points are being considered by the agent, and this with an earnest desire to carry out changes which are suggested and desired by many, is almost certain to act beneficially. There is nothing in social and business relationships tending so immediately and strongly to raise hitter feelings, which bode no good to any of the parties concerned, as the feeling on one side that the other is absolutely indifferent. The majority of men will bear dis- appointment cheerfully, at least they will take it quietly, when they know that their claims have been at all events considered ; and with still more of contentment if the reasons are given why the claims have not been conceded. Changes in landed property are likely to be made. They are, at all events, loudly and widely demanded. It cannot be lost time to consider whether they should be conceded. Con- cession may by some be considered a loss ; but, on the one hand, time may prove, and that speedily, that it has in some cases at least been a gain ; and certain considerations, on the other, may prove to the satisfaction of both that con- cession would not be in the interest of either. Take, for example, the question of ' restrictions in farm cropping.' This for long has been dis- cussed, but the peculiar circumstances of the times have given it such very great prominence that everything points to the necessity of having it decided one way or another. This, then, is one of the subjects which will repay the careful thought of the high class of estate agents we have chiefly considered. For even if the demand for freedom of cropping be considered as too much to grant, ' covenants ' or ' contracts ' will still be required, and on some points of these change may be deemed desirable. Farm Managers. — As to the education of the farm manager, much could be here said if the scope of the work admitted. To all the theo- retical knowledge derived from a sound scholastic and a judicious course of study, either when talcing courses of scientific lectures or when attend- ing a university, there should be added as an essential a thorough practical acquaintance with farming and estate management in all its branches. On these points we direct attention to some re- 5 So DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. marks given farther on, when considering the education of the farm bailiff, a manager of a lower grade than the manager in chief. But in addition to those elements of education which are of course essential to the farm manager, there are other departments the careful study of which is not less essential ; none the less so that they have hitherto been considered as lying quite beyond the limits of what is considered to be estate and farm management. While, however, circumstances have been for long gradually draw- ing attention to their importance, it is only of late that they have assumed that position which places it beyond all doubt that they are in reality essential factors in solving the many problems connected with the land. The general condition of the labourer, his cottage accommodation, his wages, mode of doing his work, and his recreations, using this term in its widest -sense as comprising all concerned with the employment of his spare time, require close attention. These were not so long ago almost universally looked upon as wholly social and moral, not practical questions affecting and affected by the interests of the estate as a pay- ing investment. There are others immediately connected with the estate, comprising such as leases, tenant-right, freedom of cropping, compen- sation for improvements, and small farms. To all these the most earnest attention is directed. And the circumstances too obvious to all con- nected with the land question now render some solution of the various questions connected with these points a matter of primary necessity. They cannot now be placed aside. The farm manager proper, with his previous practical education, will come to the consideration of these questions fully impressed with their importance as thoroughly practical elements of farming. Farm Bailiff*. — Dwelling for a very brief space on the farm managers of a lower status, those generally designated as farm bailiffs, it is only necessary to state that a much higher range of qualifications is now, under the changed and rapidly changing circumstances of agriculture, demanded from them than, formerly. In addition to what has been already given, the following from a good authority will be useful. Some, if not much of it, applies to the education of all those connected with the estate, either as farm managers or as farmers : — ' A good plain education is the first requisite for a farm manager. He should be well versed in figures, so as to be able to keep accounts correctly. A well-kept book is something to be relied on, but a badly-kept one is worse than none, and can only tend to render confusion worse confounded. He should have a knowledge of land-surveying, levelling, and making plans and sections. I do think he should have a session at college, to teach him something of natural philosophy and agricultural chemistry. A little knowledge of farriery would also be useful to him. With all these at his finger ends, the theoretical part of his education should be pretty complete. The next, and I think more important part, is a good sound practice ; and before he can acquire that, he should have several years under the best stock farmers in the country, and the like period under an improving farmer, where all sorts of the most modern improvements in agriculture are carried on. I do not mean him to serve those appren- ticeships, as many young farmers do, without participating in the labour, but to learn to work properly at every branch of the business, and to have his hands well hardened with the plough and the dung-graip. He can never know the why and the what for, unless he can do the thing himself. With such a course of theoretical and practical training, well picked up, the young farm manager may be considered sufficiently acquainted with his business. But his practical knowledge should be before his theoretical; a third of the latter to two-thirds of the former would no doubt make an excellent proportion. Beyond what is above mentioned, his further qualifications need be few and simple. He should be honest, steady, civil, and obliging, and scrupu- lously punctual to all his appointments — even- tempered and firm to his purpose — seldom in the way of changing his plans. He should also be a man with a natural turn for business in marketing all kinds of farm produce ; and last, although not least, should have a due share of that valuable commodity, common sense. ' The powers with which a steward should be entrusted should always depend on the integrity EDUCATION OF FARM MANAGERS, AND OF FARMERS. 551 and qualifications of the man, which, with the training already referred to, ought to be of a pretty high cast, unless he happens to belong to the class of scholars spoken of by the Scottish bard, " wha gang in stirks and come oot asses." And in that case his powers should be limited indeed. It is quite clear, however, that no farm manager, even with good abilities, can conduct his business with propriety without a wide latitude of discretionary power. The safest way, perhaps, is to limit him at first, and give him powers by degrees, as his merits deserve. ' Most proprietors farm partly for the con- venience of their family, and it is the duty of the manager to see that convenience attended to, in so far as the farm produce is concerned. Hay, corn, meal, milk, mutton, pork, and poultry, with other little odds and ends, are always wanted in a gentleman's establishment ; and it is part of the manager's duty to supply them, when wanted, of the best sorts. Everything about the farm should be kept neat and in good repair, the roads frequently cleaned, and the farmyard swept with a broom twice every week.' The Farmer. — As to the education of the Farmer, a treatise could be written, as, indeed, more than one has been. So numerous are the points it involves, that to these we must refer the reader. Several of the remarks we have just given in connection with agents, etc., are obviously applicable to farmers. But to those given, we would merely add a few sentences on one or two points of some importance. Those are chiefly connected with the financial department of the farmer's business, and specially on the importance of systematically keeping his books, and on capital, a department which has not as yet received the wide attention which its importance demands. That a knowledge of ' accounts ' or of ' book- keeping' has been imparted to the young farmer in the course of his preliminary education is a matter of course. In common language, when he finishes that education he is said to be familiar with accounts. In one sense, and that too much of the scholastic, this may be and is likely in nearly every case to be true. But it is a fami- liarity which concerns itself more with a theory than with a practice ; as a ride, certainly not a familiarity with the sound principles which underlie all useful practice. Few, indeed, com- paratively of those at present in business, for example, have a clear knowledge of a complete system of accounts as an essential feature of a soundly conducted business. At least we may judge of this from the perfunctory way in which the accounts of the farm are kept. For, as we shall see, it is not merely that good account- keeping enables farmers to see at any time pre- cisely ' how they stand ;' but it brings other advantages, of a kind which, if more generally thought of, would be secured by the adoption of a well-conducted system. Many consider that all that is necessary to be done in this way is ' lumping,' as they call it, the receipts together on one side of the account, and the expenditure on the other, and striking the balance between them, and are satisfied or dissatisfied according as this rough-and-ready process shows a profit or a loss. But a very little consideration will show that this system is not that calculated to give what may be called, if the phrase be allowable, a plan or chart of the farmer's position. He should be able to tell precisely the condition of any one department of his farm, so that by making a comparison of one season with another, should it happen that there was a deficiency in its produce, he would be able to decide what should be done to bring that produce up to the paying point. Every department should have its own particidar position in his books. Thus a very brief inspection of the whole will enable him to take out any particular one and see pre- cisely the amount expended in connection with it ; the opposite side showing the cash he has received for produce or stock sold, or the valua- tion of that which remains still on hand. But he should not be satisfied with this general statement of the condition of leading depart- ments, such as crops, live stock, etc. He should have the system so complete, that the sub- divisions or classes of each department shall have their accounts also stated with the like precision. Thus, for example, it is not enough that he 'lumps' stock just simply as such, and be satisfied with the mere fact that the disburse- ments are so much, and expenditure so much. He ought, for example, to know precisely what his fattening stock have yielded as against the 55 i DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. amount which has been expended on their account. So also with all the other classes of live stock he has to do with. In addition to detailed accounts of the separate classes, it would he well if another account was opened for stock as a whole. This should begin with the value of the animals at the commencement of his business, with columns for additions made to it, a fair valuation of such food as the farm itself has produced (which, of course, will be deducted from the crop or produce account or balance - sheet), with cash given for purchased food, and for such other items of expenditure as may have been required. On the other side of the account will be shown the credit for sales of animals, for milk and dairy produce sold off the farm, with a fair valuation of that consumed by the family ; together with a like valuation of the stock on hand. Nor will the results be less satisfying should the farmer, not content with the forms of accounts thus briefly described, add another giving a summary of the results of what may be called the ' daily work-tables ' of each department of live stock. Thus, to take the dairy department, this work-table will show in detail what may be called the individual history of each cow, including the feeding system employed. This would have its own stall indi- cated by its own familiar name, and also by its special number, and the daily produce of which is duly registered by the foreman. The same de- tailed style of keeping the accounts of the arable part of the farm should be adopted, each field having its own particular history registered, the cost of its working, and the value of its produce. .So, in like maimer, all the departments should be gone through. And if it be objected that such an elaborate system of account-keeping would involve labour which no farmer could be expected to give, it may be met by the statement that, if farming is to be conducted as a business, this account-keeping is just as much a part of its work as that of any of the departments which are looked upon as those of pure farming. For it would be just as reasonable to hear a merchant complain of having his various books to keep, in which every department, even the most minute, has its place. Now this work every one expects a merchant to do, otherwise he would be held to be anything but a good business man. Just as reasonable would it be for a farmer to object to keeping his accounts in the same methodical way upon the ground that doing so was trouble- some. But in addition to the mental ease and satis- faction given to the farmer by having a system of accounts so elaborated that he knows precisely his relation to the outside public, from whom he derives his revenue, and to whom he may or may not be indebted, we maintain this, — that farming in all its details, and in the highest sense of the term, cannot he carried out satis- factorily without this detailed system of account- keeping, which gives him the history of each department and each separate section of it. By this system he knows at once where faults exist, through losses incurred or through deficiencies in produce, and is thus enabled to decide how best to overcome and remedy them. It acts, in point of fact, as an incentive to him to make the most of his farm. For it may be taken as an axiom, that the more intimately one is acquainted with the history, so to say, of each department of his business, the more likely is he to take that practical interest in its conduct and management which will best tend to bring about its highest pecuniary results. Indeed, if there be one busi- ness more than another which demands a care- fully detailed system of account - keeping, we should say it is that of farming. Some kinds of businesses there are which have only one de- partment, the details of which are also simple, so that account-keeping is reduced to a matter of comparative simplicity. But farming, at least in several of its classes, may be said to be the con- duct of various kinds of business constituting a general whole ; each business requiring its own particular account, while the results of the whole are summed up in a general balance-sheet. In conclusion, we would note that the family and personal accounts should not be omitted. There are many who think these unnecessary, satisfying themselves with the general statement, ' If we have had them, and used them, and paid for them, there is no more to be said.' But this should not, and will not satisfy any one who takes a right view of the matter. Indeed, it is more than probable that carelessness in this IMPORTANCE OF A GOOD SYSTEM OF ACCOUNT-KEEPING. 553 department is the very rock on which many split. How often do we hear the remark made, ' I have received a deal of money this year, but I can scarcely tell where it is gone to ' ! And, blame being often attached to members of the family not deserving of it, unpleasantness is likely to be the result. We have known farmers' wives making every effort to be economical, and yet to be blamed for an expenditure over which they had not the slightest control. To an ignorance of where the money goes which he receives, how and in what departments it has been expended, not a few farmers have had to attribute their ruin. Lastly, to meet the objection as to the trouble which account-keeping involves, we could say, for the comfort of the farmer, that it is sur- prising how small an amount of time is actually required to keep even the most elaborate system of accounts. When the work is done with unvary- ing punctuality, the entry of each item does not involve much labour, and the items as a whole are not very numerous, so that a few minutes are only required for their due entry. Moreover, by a very little teaching, the overseers or foremen of the different departments can be taught to make the several entries in their books in such fashion that the farmer will only have the general results of each day or other period of time to look over and to enter in their proper place. On the value of keeping a system of accounts as part of the organization of farm labour, the following brief remarks by Mr. C. 0. Perkins in a paper on the Elements of Success (iu farming), published in the fifteenth annual report of the Board of Agriculture of Massachusetts, U.S., are so pertinent that we give them here : — ' I think an accurate account kept by the farmer of all farm transactions would put him on a track of thinking which would do more to raise the standard of farming than any other one thing. You may say you cannot afford to go through all that process. Allow me to say, there is not a farmer in this house who can better spend ten minutes of ea^li day, and one whole day at the end of the year, than in just such business. Just try it, and at the end of the year compare notes ; review your accounts, and see which pays the best ; see where you would have saved money where you did not; see where you have spent money that you need not. Farmers have no business to be guessing at conclusions all their Lives. There is an old adage, that " figures won't He." One reason why farmers are so little inclined to keep accounts is, because they have not been educated to it. Book-keeping should be a branch taught in all our district schools. Its study would be vastly more useful than the study of algebra and higher mathematics. To be able to add, subtract, multiply, and divide rapidly and correctly, and a knowledge of keeping accounts, together with a knowledge of fractions, is of vast importance to the practical man.' The Ccqntecl of the Farm. — This is a subject so fertile of points for consideration that a treatise could be written upon it, and yet, even if fairly voluminous, it would scarcely exhaust its discus- sion. Nor need this be matter of surprise. For capital is the very foundation of all farming, as it is of all other business. Yet trite as this saying is, it would seem to be often overlooked, immensely important as are the interests involved in it. For not seldom are opinions held which run counter to it, as if farming was a business unlike other kinds, and could dispense with capital ; or, greatly dispensing with it, find ways and means — other than the true ones — of going on, and that successfully. What these ways and means are, but too many know to their cost. The system of banking is now so widely extended, that even the remotest of our rural districts are brought within its influence. No doubt this has its advantages, and most valuable are they for farmers who carry on their business on thoroughly sound principles. But it has its disadvantages, if in nothing else, in this, — in frequently indoctrinating young or restless farmers with the idea that the bank is a never-faibng resource in time of need, when cash is scarce, and credit in the outside world not very readily, if at all, available. This may, and does, arise from the facility with which at an earlier stage of their career such farmers may have received an ' advance' from the bank manager. To a thoroughly prudent man ' advance ' is often essential, and it is always valuable if it he obtained under legitimate circumstances. For it by no means follows, because an ' advance ' is required by a prudent man, that he is therefore without means, and only gets the advance to 4 a 554 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. slave ruin off for a time. The bank manager knows that this is not the case, and knowing it, advances. It is very different, however, in the case of the young or careless farmer, who, at the time when he gets his advance, does not act •wisely and use it like the prudent man ; but who, either from reckless indifference, ignorance of his true position, — which a thorough system of accounts would have given him a knowledge of. — or from the lack of careful business habits, finding himself soon again in need, fancies that he has only to apply again to the bank manager for help in order to obtain it. Fortunate for him — certainly for others with whom he is connected — should the bank manager refuse the advance. But it is not always easy to predict what bank managers will do, or to know the reasons why they do ; so that an advance may again be made, and that even be followed up by other advances. The end is easy to foresee : there can be only one, the fatal terminus of the road to ruin, which this system of bank advances is in reality. It will be well if the young farmer early learns the lesson which the proverb teaches, ' He who goes a-borrow- ing, goes a-sorrowing.' It may not be so at first, but assuredly he will find that visits to the bank manager's room will not always be pleasant. Thousands can date their ruin from the first pleasant visit they have made to it. No business can be begun and carried on without capital. Capital is needed, and capital must be had. The young farmer without it of his own, may, if of the ' right stuff to make a successful man of business,' be taken in hand by some rich friend. And many a fortune has been made by timely help of this kind. But wher- ever and however obtained, cash must be had. If, from this source or from sources of his own, the young farmer finds himself possessed of a capital but only of moderate extent, there are two ways of using it. Only one of these can lead to ultimate success. This way is to be content with such a small farm that the amount of his capital will not only stock it well, but leave him a surplus, which he will find as useful as in fact it is absolutely essential in carrying its work out. This brings with it another advantage — he will be better able to farm the small holding thoroughly than if he was perpetually harassed through want of means. For a small acreage thoroughly worked pays infinitely better than a larger one half worked. The usual estimated amount of capital required for farming land on the mixed husbandry system is £10 to the acre. But this wdl better be exceeded than reduced, which, of course, is in the supposed case done by having fewer acres to begin with. The true system is to begin with small tilings, and keep on adding or extending as God blesses one's efforts with success. It is fashionable to sneer at the old-fashioned ways of our forefathers. They passed on their way, ' creeping up the hill of difficulty,' but always up, rarely falling down. The sooner this fashion is revived, the better for us as a people. It is, after all, easier to ascend than descend. We need no well-known classic saying to remind us of this. One gains in self- respect by going up, loses it by going down; and many a farmer has bitter reason to regret that he began in too large a way. And so beginning, finding it a hard matter to come down and to show his neighbours that his castle was but a child's card-built house after all, he began to prop it up by the system of borrowing, getting advances, which ended, as it could only end, in his ruin. One word more. Limited capital, how- ever, will require unlimited labour and pains- taking care. This is too often overlooked, and with disastrous results. No ' sleep to the eyes, no slumber to the eyelids,' when work is to be done ; and endless work his farm will find him. We should be the last to deprecate recreation. But this must, with the beginner with small capital, be legitimate ; and it is not uncharitable to say that much, too much of the recreation of the present day is not so. It may not be wild, reckless dissi- pation, but if it be any one of the ways, or more than one of them, in which now-a-days young men spend their time in amusement, though morally not wrong, it will be none the less illegitimate. It is hard to do, and duty is always hard, but success can only be gained by the patient, plod- ding system of farming practised by our fore- fathers, so sneered at by many of us their sons. Such a hard-working life brings with it solid satis- faction, secures friends, and, better than all, the friendship with oneself — the friendship founded on self-respect. We should perhaps hear less of NECESSITY FOR SUFFICIENT CAPITAL— SPECIALTY IN FARMING. 555 the * badness of the times,' certainly of fewer in- dividual losses and failures, if the good system of carrying on business we have briefly advocated was more in favour than in many quarters it is. Specialty in Farming. — This is in close con- nection with the subjects we have been con- sidering. The system of mixed husbandry farm- ing is, as our readers know, the most extensive, and is largely carried out when the locality, soil, etc. are favourable, if for no other reason than that it is an unusually safe one, in so far that it does not risk the success of the season upon one branch only. As a system it embraces nearly every branch of farming ; it takes up, under the head of arable culture, the cultivation of almost every crop grown, the management of pastures, anil meadow-grass fields ; and under the head of live stock, the rearing of nearly all classes of animals, the breeding, rearing, and fattening of cattle, and sheep husbandry; and in addition to all those departments, that of dairy farming. All these involve, of necessity, not only continual supervision and assiduous care, but the possession of a wide range, not only of practical but of theoretical knowledge. So that it has been questioned whether any one man can find time to acquire these, and at the same time carry on his business to produce the maximum of results with the minimum of time, cost, and labour. At least this is the view taken by many, and it finds expression in the remark of a writer who holds that greater progress would be made in farming, if farmers followed the system carried out in other professions, — that is, of each one having a ' specialty', devoting himself to one branch only, or at least having not quite so many branches to attend to. There certainly does appear to be a good deal of sound business common sense in this view of the matter, for a man is much more likely to excel in any department when he devotes himself exclusively to its practice. He gains a wide range of experience, and acquires a wide variety of facts and circumstances, all of a special kind. These he could not possibly have secured under a general system, in which he would be called away from the duties of one de- partment to undertake those of another. In the special system he may carry his work up to the highest point of its efficiency. As the writer we have alluded to says, ' farming is a compre- hensive term, including many distinct pursuits,' the majority of which we have already named. ' Now the trouble with many,' he continues, ' I might say with most farmers is, they undertake to ride too many horses at once. As science and civilisation advance, there comes a greater division of labour, and consequently greater excellence. . . . If farmers desire to keep up with the times, they must study this division of labour, and by con- centrating their energies on some specific branch rise to eminence. We have among us some notable examples of the success attainable by this concentration of effort.' Tims a young farmer is named by this writer, who, making a specialty of breeding stock, and though young, scarcely out of his teens, has made a reputation so high that he stands almost, if not quite at the head of the breeders of shorthorns. So well bred is his stock, that a single animal is worth more than a large herd of the common grade. ' We do not all have the facilities for special farming which this young farmer possesses, but we all have taste, which inclines us to one branch of farming more than another ; and I am sure that if we cultivate this taste, and bend our energies in this one direction, we shall have more satisfaction in our- selves, and consequently do more good to society, and stand higher in the estimation of our fellow- men.' Our readers will be able to recollect many similar instances of success in specialty farming, even in departments not generally attended to or considered money-making ones. Thus we know of several who have gained a wide reputation and secured a profitable return by attending to the breeding and rearing of pigs, those despised Ishmaelites of the farmyard ; another, out of the still more despised poultry ; and so on, for instances can be extended ad infinitum. And those men were practical farmers of high reputation, capable of managing success- fully any system. This writer, however, while advocating a system which certainly carries much that is suggestive with it, does not insist upon exclusive attention to one branch of farming, which, as he says, ' would be like putting one's eggs all in one basket.' He merely insists upon the necessity of 556 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. having at least one leading branch, to which all others are to be subservient, so that, with common skill and industry, we may excel in this one branch, and make for ourselves a name and a place among our fellow-men. As tending con- siderably towards the attainment of success in farming, the same writer draws attention to the importance of the farmer taking a thorough pride in his profession. There is a great deal in this, more, in fact, than many would seem to think of, for they act as if they were ' ashamed of their business,' which had something degrading about it. Why this should be so it is difficult to under- stand, for, to our mind, farming, as it is the oldest, is the noblest of all pursuits, bringing as it does one in closer contact, so to say, with the great Creator of all things, than any other; rais- ing thoughts and feelings in all well-regulated minds calculated to elevate and dignify. Any farmer ashamed of his business may, as our author well remarks, ' expect to be an inferior one, and to hold an inferior position everywhere.' A man is valued in society much as he con- tributes to the good of society and excels in his calling ; and in order to the attainment of excel- lence in any occupation, he must have a love for it. Enthusiasm may sometimes lead to failure, but never to inferiority. ' AVe cannot all be the head of our profession, but it rests with our- selves whether we wish to rise towards that position or remain satisfied with a much lower one.' These are weighty points, which are well worthy of the careful consideration of practical farmers. Present Position and Future Prospects of Farm- ing — Pressing Questions connected with Landed Estate Management. — We have thus glanced at a few of the points connected with the education and practical training of the principal parties connected with the management and working of the estate. What has now been given, taken in conjunction with what will be found in the main body of the work (Division V. chap, i.), must be considered more in the way of suggestions on the various points than as their exhaustive treat- ment. This, for the reasons we have stated, does not come within the scope of this work. In what we have given we have endeavoured to draw special attention to some points we deem of considerable importance, which in many cases have had comparatively little attention bestowed on them. And, as forming the conclusion of our labours, which, if arduous, have been pleasant withal, we have now some remarks to offer on the various important points of the subjects named at the head of this paragraph. Although not thought of by many, it is never- theless true that there are peculiar circumstances attendant upon the way in which farmers are placed in relation to the other classes of the com- munity. This relation in its outcome, and the terms in which this is given expression to by perhaps one class of the general public more than another, is by no means complimentary to the farmer. That which may with all safety be called a ' school,' — accepting one of the terms of a phraseology not the least striking of the cha- racteristics of the times we live in, — has taken farming and farmers, among other things, within its care. Under its teachings and influence, farm- ing and all connected with it has been repre- sented to the general community as a thing of small account. In reckoning up the resources, and in estimating the productive or money-making value and powers of the nation,agriculture is by this class placed in a wretchedly low position. This state- ment may be considered by many as the merely prejudiced view of those who hold, as may be said, exaggerated views of farming as a pursuit. But it needs only to be corrected or tested by the results of observation, and by those of published opinion through press or platform. And this we may with all becoming deference venture to say, that those who doubt its perfect accuracy, or more plainly aver that it is not the truth, must have lived to little purpose, must have exercised their powers of observation and of hearing in a very loose, ineffective way, if they have not had abundant evidence afforded them of the low esti- mation in which farming is held by those classes concerned in other callings. Is it or is it not the fact, that on 'Change, in counting-house, in bar parlour, and in smoking-room, farming, as a business adding to the national wealth, is of no great account ? To use a question and its ready answer not seldom heard, ' What is farming ? A mere flea-bite ! ' Is all this the fact or not ? To those who know tie true position of matters, POPULAR ESTIMATE OF FARMIXG. 557 and who mix with the class or classes who hold such opinions, there can be but one answer, and that we need not say is wholly in the affirma- tive. The misfortune of the position is that those classes embrace men of the highest business position. They possess all the means which this gives them to influence public opinion, and iu a way not distinguished by the accuracy of the facts on which it bases its opinions, or for its logical accuracy. For the curious inconsistency of the position thus held by so many, crops out in strange and striking fashion, as thus. They deplore in no measured terms, and we confess with cogent reasons, the state of trade, and that it is not worth speaking about, or has gone ' spark out,' to use a phrase familiar to those who mix with the trade classes in certain districts. But yet, notwithstanding, in the midst of all this de- ploring despondency, the inconsistency of the opinions thus held may be gathered from such a saying as this, almost word for word as we have often heard it : ' "Well, if we could have a revival of the home trade, all would be right. But what is the use of expecting that ? If we could have a good harvest, or even yet ' but the prospect only of at least a fairish one, then we might expect, ay, and we would have, a good brisk home trade.' And this uttered by the same men who, in the same place and time, gave the dreadfully derogatory estimates of the position of farming as they looked at it, to which we have referred. Nor need the value of a home trade be won- dered at. Although that consideration is but seldom given, rarely by the very classes who are so much influenced by it, still but little is required to show the enormous influence of agriculture taken as a mere branch of industrial economy. Although not rich men in the sense in which wealth is considered by those engaged in manu- factures or in commerce, although not rich as actually having realized and possessing wealth, still the amount of money passing through their hands is something enormous, far in excess of that popularly believed. The transactions of farmers are very numerous, again far exceeding in number the popular estimate of them. "When, therefore, their transactions become fewer in number, and 1 This was written in tlie autumn of 1879. the amount of money they represent very consider- ably less, the influence exercised upon trade begins at once to be felt, and it is felt severely and by all classes. The farmers in bad times begin at once to reduce their general and house expenditure. This tells upon the tradesmen of the town near the farm ; these in turn reduce in time their ex- penditure, and this tells upon the classes under and largely dependent upon them. And thus the influence goes down the social scale. But, marked and of great value in the aggregate as is the loss thus sustained, it is in one sense as nothing com- pared to the general farming transactions, which are of a purely business character; and the number and extent of these in which the farmer is concerned, we have said the popular mind has not yet grasped. For these transactions include not only those with trades specially agricultural, but have a direct in- fluence upon almost every branch of trade. For the farmer, it may be said with literal truth, fleets of vessels are continually traversing the seas, and penetrating far into the country by its tidal rivers, — railway trains continually running to and fro, — in a word, all the vast and complicated system of trade and commerce in operation by which products are conveyed and materials of all kinds produced for their necessities. Mixed up thus with all classes of industry, when bad times come their transactions with those classes become less numerous and less valuable, so that all classes feel the influence. The country tradesmen feel it the first, and they in turn give out fewer orders, and have less cash to meet those which have been already given, and which remain unpaid. Of course, like every tiling else in our industrial system, as farming acts upon other branches, they iu turn act upon it; and such is now the involved complication of interests, that a panic or ' uneasiness ' on the London Stock Exchange is felt even in the remotest districts of the country. The close connection of farming, and through it of necessity of landed estates, with general trade and commerce, will be seen, although many at first may have conceived them to have but slight connection with each other. It is not so ; the bonds are of the closest and the most enduring. But more than this, the low esti- mate which at the commencement of this section we pointed out as being taken of farming by 55S DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. certain classes, connected almost exclusively with manufacture and trade, tells upon farming as a branch of our industrial operations in a way most disastrous. Possessed of large social and legis- lative power, powerful, if from nothing else, simply from their mere numbers, those classes exert an influence on the laud question, taking this in its most comprehensive meaning. This, whether it be active or whether it be merely passive, is very great and striking indeed. Did space permit, it would be very easy to give specific examples of this. Analogies from the life we in common lead may be had also, not a few, in proof of it. We hear on all sides that farming is but a synonym for everything that is 'slow;' that it lags behind the times ; that it avails itself in no way, or but to a very slight extent, of the advanced state of science; possesses none of the energy, and but little of the speculative go-ahead characteristics of other callings. And although facts are to be had everywhere and always by those who care to look for them, to prove the fallacies upon which such opinion is based, when it is still persistently held, and as persistently made public, it needs but little acumen to perceive the prejudicial influence exercised by all this upon farming as one of our national industries. Nor less easy is it to trace the character and the direction of the influence brought into play by another opinion generally held, that ' any one can be a farmer,' this finding expression in such graphic if not very graceful phrases as that to farm 'is as easy as winking.' To quote the words of a recent writer, ' Everybody thinks he can teach the farmer. The chemist, the grocer, the broker, the banker, the wine merchant, the lawyer, the doctor, the clerk, the mechanic, the merchant, the editor, the printer, the stockbroker, the colliery owner, the ironmaster, the clergyman, the Methodist preacher, the very cabman and railway porter, policeman, and no doubt the crossing - sweeper, and, to use an expressive Americanism, the whole "jing-bang" could teach the ignorant jackass of a farmer.' This, though an exaggerated way of putting the matter, is in the main absolutely correct. And no matter how nu- merous the failures are of those who, although not brought up to farming, nevertheless go into it, and fail to be successful, they seem to have no influence in changing this opinion. And the way in whicli it is backed up by examples of what those who hold it think farmers ought to do, is certainly not the least striking part of all this. And the way in which this opinion is so com- placently held by the majority of people, as if it was based on incontrovertible facts, is suggestive. Nor is fault-finding with the poor farmer spared even amongst those from whom a more logical and dignified course might reasonably be expected. From those who so generally and widely talk of farmers as — not to mince matters — 'little better than fools,' — for it pretty nearly comes to this, — it is not to be wondered at that amongst other charges made against them, comes the one that they have failed to take advantage of the great advances in science. All the more blameworthy farmers are, they say, seeing how closely our scientific men have devoted them- selves to the investigation of agricultural phe- nomena, and how as a result they offer great help to the farmer. This, it is said, and truly enough, is calculated to make their work infinitely more successful than it has ever been. But it is something more than serious, indeed it is less, for it is ludicrous, when they go farther and say, that what science has done is also calcidated to render them nearly, if not indeed quite, indepen- dent of natural difficulties, and of the vicissitudes and mutations of the seasons. Not a few of our farmers — not the stoUd, easy-going men, whose faults and failings are so popularly dwelt upon, but the most advanced and the most scientific so called of the country — do think it strange that some men of science, by their silence if by nothing else, lend themselves to the propagation and perpetuation of opinions such as these, so wide of the truth as they must know them to be. Not a few amongst our most scientific farmers have thoughts of their own on the subject, if they do not always give expression to them. Amongst these is this one, that some modern scientific men have not the characteristics of the Bacons, the Newtons, and the Faradays. These great men, truly scientific, were characterised by their patient collection of facts, the studious avoidance of all assumptions or conjectures, and the form- ing of theories which are based upon facts only. To these, the attributes of true science, they CHARACTER OF POPULAR ADVICE GIVEN TO FARMERS. 559 added the graceful modesty which is not always a feature in some of the so-called scientific men of our day. The arrogance — for it is felt keenly by shrewd thinking men to be such — which distin- guishes some of the scientists of the present time is not, and never can be, a characteristic of true science, which is in reality, to put the matter somewhat paradoxically, the science of knowing, not conjecturing. Science is much, but it is not all ; far, indeed, from that. And points although there are — shall we say innumerable ? — upon which science can give forth no uncertain sound up to a certain line, but beyond this they are as helpless and as ignorant as babes, every true agricultural scientist knows further that there is no calling so characterised by points about which all we know is that we know nothing, and, so far as past and present experience tells us, about which we shall never know anything. Apart from this fact, which every observant farmer and all really true agricultural scientists know well, there are unknown and most puzzling characteristics in the soils, the crops, and the animals of our farms which baffle and set aside as worthless all attempts to get rid of them or to understand them. If this be, as it is the case, what is to be said of the seasons ? It is all very well glibly to talk of the ' unvarying laws of nature.' We fearlessly claim for farmers as a class the dis- tinguishing characteristic of being reverent in a manly, thoughtful, not a slavish way. They have, therefore, enough in the everyday of their working lives to tell them that there is One greater than the laws, namely, the Law-maker. Men there are amongst our farmers who, truly scientific, yield to none in their high estimation of the value of the true science, yet know well that there are many points connected with their calling which they would be but too grateful if scientific men would clear up, but which they feel no science of men will be able, certainly as yet has not been able, to do. Considerations such as those we now give will serve, we trust, in some slight measure to clear up much that has long been and is still puzzling to some of our readers as regards the relation- ship of other classes to the farmer ; and the way also in which that relationship acts upon the estimation in which farming is popularly held, and the manner in which, as a consequence, it is socially and legislatively dealt with. These considerations are of high importance, and cannot be turned aside — ought not, indeed, till in some way or another the relationship is changed, and for the better. It cannot well be worse. This explains how theories have been advanced of late years through press and platform utter- ances, which, if attempted to be carried into practice, would be most disastrous to the interests of agriculture. And what is disastrous to this will be so in greater or less degree to all our national interests. Trite as this is to many, it is nevertheless wholly overlooked, as we have shown, by a vast number, if not the majority of the people who hold agriculture to be a thing of no or very small account. This is true, how- ever much some may be disposed to, as we have shown many do, question it. The mere number of the plans proposed by which the con- dition of the landed interest and farming is to be changed, and changed so effectually for the better, as it is said, that all difficulties are for ever to be removed, is in fact bewildering. Not less so the character of the advice given to, or, perhaps as we should rather put it, the way in which the propositions are expounded and enforced for the special benefit of farmers. Of the style and manner of this advice all we remark is, that it is scarcely that calculated to conciliate, or to win the ear of those for whom it is designed. This more especially, that they have more than a suspicion that those offering the advice are not in all respects fitted by their knowledge of the practical points connected with the very difficulties they are so anxious to free the farmer from. And of more than one of these difficulties it may be said, that they exist in the imagination of the propounders of the various propositions as much as in the region of fact. Their clearly defined forgetfulness of the common-sense principle, that they should know what the difficulties really are before they bring forward their schemes to get rid of them, has in fact given rise to diffi- culties greater far than almost any of the real ones they have taken in hand to clear off. This way of putting the point seems paradoxical and almost absurd, so commonplace is the principle they have forgotten ; but the absurdity rests with, and is 560 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. in fact created by them. The mode of treating a subject of the greatest importance to the country at large, simply as if it affected or could alone affect those connected with the landed interests, and by no means those of other classes, has done great harm. It is likely to do more if it be not at once set aside, and a more reasonable and business-like method adopted. The mischief lies not in the way it affects the landed interest, for they know how to estimate it at its real worth, but in the bad influence it has upon the general public, in placing before them wholly erroneous issues. The practical outcome of the matter is, so far as we are con- cerned, that we may put aside as really not worthy of any consideration many of the proposi- tions made, and much of the advice offered to landlords and farmers. For they lie wholly without the region of practical facts. The propositions made and plans offered for the consideration of landlords and farmers, by which difficulties really known and felt to be so by both, or by one or other of them, are to be got rid of, will therefore alone concern us. Of these, nearly all have been briefly discussed in their proper sections under the Fifth, along with the supplementary remarks given in the present Divi- sion. It remains, therefore, for us to give in like manner a few additional remarks on those not yet taken up. The first to which we refer is Farm Covenants or Contracts chiefly as affecting Freedom in Cropping. — This subject has been incidentally referred to in the section on ' The New Crops of the Farm,' in this Division. It is also fully described in chap. ii. of Division V., under the head of ' Leases of those classes of which Covenants or Contracts affecting the System of Cropping forms in fact a part.' The terms, indeed, may be considered as convertible, as a lease may be called a covenant or contract, or the converse. In discussing the subject of leases in the chapter above alluded to, we attempted to show that what is now demanded by many — namely, absolutely free farming — is that which cannot possibly be conceded, or is not likely to be conceded, by those owners of land who have any regard for their own just and in every way perfectly legitimate interests. "What many mean when they demand absolutely free and unre- stricted farming is certainly characterised by a charming simplicity. It is simply this, that all that the landlord has to do is to permit the tenant to take possession of the farm, and that the tenant can therefore deal with the land and its produce just as he likes. It is not stated whether the landlord has even the poor privilege left him to ' covenant ' that the tenant must give up possession at the expiry of a certain period of time. But, judging from the extreme character of the ' general demand,' it might not be unreason- able to conclude that, within the exceedingly wide range of its claims, the right to go when he pleases is also included. He may go at the end of a year, or of two years, or three years, just as it suits himself ; or he may not go at all, but, like the rivulet of which the poet sings, he and his heirs may just 'go on for ever.' It is scarcely possible to allude to this demand for absolutely free farming, with no restriction, without con- sidering it in a ludicrous point of view; for in one way it is, and would be so in every way, were it not for the very grave issues connected with the demand. No doubt, and it is only fair to name it, such a demand is put forward much more fre- quently by those who, by some strange perversity of belief, call themselves the farmer's friends, than by those who are farmers themselves. And assuredly it is imperatively demanded of us that we should state that, by the very highest and the most practical of our farmers, shrewd men of business withal, such a demand as that we are now considering is not for a moment thought of as either desirable or attainable. Not attainable, for being business men, they see at once that it proceeds upon the assumption as correct of a principle which is wholly antagonistic to the interests of all classes of property. Certainly we fail to see why owners of pro- perty in land should allow that to be occupied and worked without some guarantee that the value of their property should not be reduced by the occupier and his system, or no system, as the case may be. What is good for one class is good for another; and if farmers are allowed to take and occupy land on this principle, the cotton manufacturer and those of other trades would be entitled to take and hold buildings in which to cany on their callings without the landlords having FREEDOM IN CROPPING— COVENANTS OR AGREEMENTS. 561 any security whatever that their property would not be lessened in value either by wanton and wilful destruction or by careless indifference. Such a proposition has never been made, certainly never been publicly put forward as a just claim by tenants. If absolutely free, unrestricted hold- ing of buildings were advocated, it would be laughed out of all serious consideration. The lease for a large mill, for example, is some- times often of a lengthy, always of a more or less stringent character, — what is not to be done as well as what is to be done by the tenant. The same principle of operation, in fact, goes through every class. What is meant by a ' re- pairing lease ' when a dwelling-house is taken for a term of years ? As we have said, we fail to see why, on just principles, owners of landed property are to be deprived of all those guarantees which protect the interests of those who have property of other kinds. But it is one of the unfortunate outcomes of the relationship between some of the general community and the landed and farming interest, that land is now proposed by not a few, and even by one or two statesmen of repute, to be dealt with in an entirely ex- ceptional way. In reading what we are now to give on the subject of farm covenants or con- tracts, we trust it will be distinctly understood that we consider it purely from the point of view of what the requirements of modern scientific agriculture demand ; that we hold opinions very far removed from those who advocate free, un- restricted farming in the way we have been now considering. We may repeat that our views will be found in chap. ii. of Division V. Considered from this, the scientific point of view, the subject of freedom in cropping is of the greatest practical importance, as it is intimately connected with the future progress of farming. This is the conviction of all prac- tical men and the highest scientific authorities. There is scarcely any of the subjects occupy- ing or likely to occupy the attention of the landlord and his agent, which demands such careful consideration, and, as most men think, immediate attention. It forms for the agent, if he be of the legal profession, one of those vitally important subjects for earnest study to which we have already referred in this Division, It is the almost invariable experience of practical farmers and scientific agriculturists, that many covenants with certain clauses now existing therein, would never have been drawn up by any one knowing what farming now really is, its requirements and its necessities. That they have a tendency to militate against fuller justice being done to the land, nearly all practical men agree. And so, of necessity, they must militate also in regard to the estate as the source of the highest possible income. We know well enough that the legal agents, in the stern uprightness and sense of what is right which distinguishes them as a body, would do nothing wilfully at all likely to damage the interests of the estate. Why they do that which at least appears on but very slight consideration to be damaging, is to many a difficult thing to understand. The difficulty may easily be got rid of when the circumstances under which the agent acts are considered. Such forms of 'covenants' as we have alluded to were drawn up years and years ago, when agricultural knowledge and practice were alike at the lowest point almost possible to be reached. And such covenants have got stereotyped, so to say, for a variety of reasons, and, being good upon one ground, are acted upon as if good for any other. The same peculiarity in many of such covenants runs through a wide variety of operations in which the farmer is interested. Without taking in any way an extreme view of the case, it may therefore be set down as cer- tain that there are covenants now existing, the terms of which are such as, when worked out, bring about serious loss to the estate ; and this simply because the near as well as the remote influence of the mode of working which the terms of the covenants brought into existence was not understood by those who drew up the covenants, — covenants the forms of which would not have been followed by any one having a knowledge of what modern practical farming really is. We do not ignore the difficulties attendant upon the change of the system of covenants, restricting cropping of the farms to certain methods, nor of the specially great ones which are connected with legal matters. For of all the profes- sions, that of the law is admittedly the most jealous of innovations in principle and changes 4 u 562 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. in practice. Nevertheless, the interests involved are of such momentous consequence to us nation- ally, that the mere fact of there being difficulties in the way of changes ought not to bar the way to these being made. And after all, why should im- portant interests be imperilled on account of diffi- culties, which are but things to be overcome. And even as a matter of policy, it would appear to be the wisest course to do away with a system which by no means meets with the approval (to put it in the mildest terms) of the great body of farmers throughout the country. It may be that they have no sound reason for objecting to the system, but the practical evils resulting from it are none the less existent. We have to deal with facts in this world, and the result is much the same in de- ciding his action whether one has a grievance or believes he has. And it comes close to the point to say that what is the interest of the farmer is that of the estate ; for he is the raison d'Stre of its existence, considered as a source of income. Harmonious working is better for all classes than the opposite. These are not the times to keep up grievances, be they fancied or be they reaj. And of all the reforms we have had laid before us by various parties, by which a new lease of prosperity is promised to landed property, we venture to believe, and are by no means singular in the belief, that the subject we have been con- sidering may be found, when carried out, not altogether the least practically available and valuable. Connected with the subject of the im- provement of landed estates, many circumstances, such as the advance in scientific farming, have arisen of late. These have modified, and are likely still further to modify, systems which, with the advance of farming science and the changes in farming practice consequent thereupon, have been shown to be in many respects antagonistic to this progress being fully availed of. Other circumstances also have come into operation which ought to, and must in time, and probably that very shortly, be the means of modifying much of the relationship between landlord and tenant. These circumstances, it is perhaps scarcely necessary to state, are chiefly those brought into existence by the ' bad times,' from which the landlords alike with all other classes are suffering. Too abundant proof of this has been afforded of late. Nor will a mere resumption of 'good times' avert the changes in the relationship between landlord and tenant now looming in the future. And of those changes, we have shown that to be of vital importance which will enable the tenant to crop his land as best he deems its interests demand. Certain restrictions are absolutely necessary in the interest of the landlord, and to those in the special section on this subject we have referred. And why the owners of landed property are to be debarred, as some affirm they must be debarred, from the right to look after their own interests, — the right exercised by owners of all other kinds of property, — we have a diffi- culty to conceive. But however opposed now some landlords may be to the system which enables the tenant to add largely and effectively to the crops useful to him, they will not be long in concluding that what is the interest of their tenants must also be theirs. Observant and thoughtful, and, as a body, singularly anxious to do their duty to all connected with them, to an extent far beyond that which is popularly accorded to them, we feel assured that this will be the case with the landlords. Man}', even of those who have hitherto given no practical consideration to this subject, are now giving earnest heed to the matter, with an anxious desire to do what is right. Others, and not a few, have already conceded the change, seeing that to this compromise the class must come at last. As we write, there is an announcement in the journals that a certain landlord has not only lowered his rents, but has allowed his tenants full right to adapt their rotation in what they deem the best way to meet their circumstances. This combina- tion of concession is very suggestive. We have said that the mere resumption of ' good times ' will not do away with the necessity to modify systems of leasing and letting land, so as to enable the farmer to extend his crops and to cultivate his land in any way he deems desir- able. The signs of the times we live — have in fact for some years lived — in, have been read to little purpose, if they have not afforded the lesson that the land question in its practical features — we say nothing of its political, though some hold that they are inseparably connected — has entered upon altogether a new phase. And that demands RELATION OF THE FARMER TO FREEDOM IN CROPPING. 563 a change in the routine of farm practice. And this change, again, is rendered imperative by cir- cumstances to which we have elsewhere in this Division referred. The farmer, therefore, may sooner, and more extensively than is at present anticipated, be at liberty to crop as he pleases ; always with such reasonable, common - sense bargainings or conditions as we have in another section alluded to. Nor to a large extent is he precluded now from doing so. The truth is, that not a little now depends upon himself as to the terms upon which he takes his farm and on which he is allowed to crop it. In the stirring period of agricultural prosperity, there was such a de- mand for farms that the landlord or his agent had a difficulty, so to say, in his choice, so numerous were the applicants. A tenant, there- fore, who desired any concessions to be made him, had little or no chance of acceptance as compared with offering tenants who were ready, nay, eager to take the farm on the agent's own terms, or indeed almost on any terms, so far as cropping or management of the farm was concerned. But now matters are so changed that the conditions may be said to be quite the opposite of what they then were ; and landlords or their agents, in lack of offering tenants for farms in numbers, will be but too glad to consider those offers made by any tenant proposing which are fairly reasonable. And as new light has been brought to bear on farm management, agents will be much more disposed to look at any alteration in style of cropping, etc., in view of the fact that the best authorities in the science decide that free- dom in cropping — but this carried out on scien- tific principles, be it observed — is calculated to improve rather than to injure the land. The more deeply one investigates the subject, the more convinced is one likely to become that those are right who maintain that there is in reality no necessity for any violent or stringent legislative measures in connection with this ques- tion, or, indeed, any of the other questions now \inder discussion in connection with agricultural depression ; the fact being that the getting rid of any of the difficulties or evils which can be proved to be prejudicial to agriculture is within the power, and easily within the power, of the contracting parties — namely, the landlord and the tenant. And a very little consideration will show that this is likely to be so, and that it is after all but the common-sense view of the question. Indeed, this is proved by the general condition of matters now existing, and which has been brought about by the action of the land- lords and tenants alone, without any direct, im- mediate, and stringent action of the Legislature. Like the ' law of the road,' the rule or custom of which, referring to land or sea, has all the force of a written law without any of its actual legal power, so also the custom of much that is con- nected with landed, commercial, and trade in- terests. The very fact that such visionary and dangerous schemes have been gravely proposed of late as the best settlement of the difficulties of agriculture, has made business men more than ever convinced of the vital importance of main- taining the ' freedom of contract ' (see in succeed- ing section — Revision of the Land Laws). Hence it is that, in view of the still further extension of the plan of settlement of difficul- ties and disputed points on the land question by arrangements entered into directly by the two interested parties, all systems or plans which come before the public having the settlement of such points in view are of great public service. Especially is this so when these plans emanate from influential quarters, and to which the ad- vantages of a thorough knowledge of the subject have been brought. We have in the text re- ferred to some of these plans or systems, and markedly to that introduced in Norfolk by Lord Leicester. In this, known now as the ' Leicester Agreement or Lease,' more than one of the diffi- culties or questions of the day in farming is attempted to be overcome. And specially we have referred in the text to the way in which freedom in cropping is secured to the tenant, while the rights or interests of the landlord are maintained. This form or system of agreement has created considerable attention, and has done good service in this if in no other way, by suggesting to parties in other districts a method by which their difficulties may also be got rid of. Another system of farm agreement or contract, to which considerable attention has been recently attracted, is that introduced in Scotland by Lord Fife S64 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. amongst his tenantry. This is of far too great a length to be given here, and so numerous are the heads and the details under each, that even the briefest resumi cannot be here given. Suffice it to say, that its heads comprise the following clauses, some of them, it will be perceived, being what are called the ' burning questions ' of modern agriculture. Clauses 1 to 4 inclusive deal with the general features of the leases —duration, terms and times of payment, reservation of minerals and woods. The 5 th clause deals with that most vexed of vexed questions, the ' game law.' The 6 th to the 10th clauses inclusive deal with the right of the landlord to make roads, resume lands for planting, reclaim marshes, etc., making compen- sation for losses arising from such operations — this to be in the form of abatement of rent ; residence on the farm a condition of tenancy. Clause 11 deals with the important questions of the management of the farm, its cultivation and cropping ; while the following clauses, up to and inclusive of the 14th, detail the penalty for breaking through the terms of cropping, the conditions relating to weeding, and with the tenant making clear that he understands the condition of the farm at the time of his entry thereon, and as to its boundaries, etc. The 15th clause deals with one of the claims of tenant right to which we have elsewhere drawn atten- tion, namely, the compensation to be paid the farmer for unexhausted manures. The 16th clause concerns itself with the buildings and fences of the farm, which the tenant is to accept in the condition in which they are at the time of his entry, unless there be some express arrangement 'made between tJie landlord and him as to repairs, alterations, or additions- The 17th clause em- bodies the terms relating to ditches and drains, while the 18th concerns itself with the deduc- tions due to the tenant, and how they are to be made; and the 19th is the important clause, of which much has been said, by which the land- lord renounces all rights as given him by the law of hypothec, and as preferable to other creditors. After this important clause, referring to a law about which more has been said in Scotland than has been said in England as to the cognate law of distraint, come a series of clauses or stipula- tions as to fire insurance, damage done by floods, and various minor yet important details of farm management. Then come, in the 25th clause, the points relating to the delicate and not always easily settled question of the tenant's inability to pay his rent, falling into arrears therein, or, what is worse in every way, becoming bankrupt. Then follow clauses stating how dis- putes between the landlord and tenant are to be decided by arbitration, and how the document is to be preserved by registration if required by the tenant. In this statement, giving merely the clauses or heads, it will be seen that a farm lease, con- tract, or covenant, even when dictated by a desire on the part of the landlord to be liberal on almost every point, and considerate as far as possible to be attained of the wants and claims of the farmer, is by no means the simple document which it certainly, in the interests of both landlord and tenant, would be desirable to see, and which some maintain it ought to and can be if only the parties would consent to it. It is scarcely neces- sary to say that this latter opinion is held by those chiefly who are not remarkable for their practical knowledge of the subject. But compli- cated, at least many-sided, as this agreement appears to be from its general clauses, it is when these are fully read that the difficulties surround- ing the various subjects are seen in all their number and force. They compel to the conclu- sion that it is not possible to draw up a farm contract or lease without being at least somewhat lengthy. But it does not follow that, because so, it arises from inherent difficulties in recon- ciling the claims of landlord and tenant, or that these must necessarily be antagonistic. Some contracts may be lengthy from these very causes ; but apart from this, the very nature of farming necessitates a somewhat complicated detail of its work, and the respective duties relating thereto of landlord and tenant. Nor need this be matter of surprise to those who consider what farming is in all its varied and varying circumstances. It will be no surprise to those who practically know what it is, and what the details of its work are. For, however valuable as are such systems or agreements as contributions to the solution of the difficulties now attendant on the practice of agriculture, at the best they can be contributions MODEL LEASES? FARM COXTRACTS OR COVENANTS. 565 only to the general practice of the kingdom. They may serve as guides as to what may be done in other and special districts, but not guides as to what must be done there, unless, indeed, all the circumstances of both districts are similar. For it is only in and for the one district in which they were first established that such farm leases or contracts are valuable, and this because they are precisely suited to its farming characteristics, and all the details have been drawn up with a special view to meet these. As we have said elsewhere, we do not believe in what are called model farm buildings, on the broad ground that the arrangements which suit one class of dream- stances— —those embracing locality, climate, soil, cropping, and live stocking — will not suit an- other. In other words, as the wants or necessi- ties of one district differ, or are likely to differ, from those of another, the buildings which suit one will not suit another district. The accom- modation required in one may be more than is required in another district, or the reverse may be the case, while the arrangements may be wholly different in both. Just so in the case of so-called ' model leases ' or ' farm contracts,' and it will likely be ever so. For what we have just alluded to should here also be borne in mind, how the farming of any one district is altogether dependent upon the agricultural characteristics of the district, such as soil, climate, locality, etc. It is therefore easy to see that a system or example of farm lease or contract very suitable for one, will not be suitable, without greater or less modification, for another district. But the value of such examples as we have given here and in the text as contri- butions to the general stock, so to say, of agri- cultural knowledge in all its details, practical as well as theoretical, must not be under-estimated. If it were possible to collect all the agreements or contracts thus specially made since the agri- cultural depression has roused men's thoughts to the way of overcoming it, and place them where they could be got at by parties interested, we can easily conceive the practically useful pur- poses to which such a collection could be put. The store of suggestions they would contain Mould be very complete, nor would they serve a less practical purpose in showing how what was conceived to be a great boon was not quite the great thing it might in one district be passed for, as greater privileges under the same clause could be shown to be given by a landlord to a tenant holding a farm in another district. The farm lease of Lord Fife's, which we have just described, is a case in point, for under one clause a smaller concession is made than is made in farms in other districts. A tenant, therefore, who might be disposed to think the concession a great one, if he had the opportunity to become acquainted with forms of leases or contracts in other districts, would in all probability claim a like concession from his landlord. But, in point of fact, the whole matter resolves into what is explained in a succeeding section in treating of the revision of the land laws, and pointedly referred to a few sentences before this ; and this is, that the difficulties as existing between landlord and tenant are capable of being got over by them, and by them alone, without any necessity for legislative enactments. Under other circumstances this was not so easily carried out; however, when ' farms are going a-begging,' as has been said, and tenants no longer come up in numbers bidding one against each other for farms which they were ready to take upon the land- lord's own terms, many of them on any terms, so that they got the farm, landlords, if careless before to listen to the claims of worthy tenants, are not so now. Landlords of this class have, we believe, always formed the exception ; those really willing to concede claims, if only they could see that these were just, forming even then, as be- yond all doubt they form now, the great bulk of the body. But while the landlord is quite justified in looking legitimately to his own interests, so also is the tenant ; only, while the landlord is by no means likely to be ignorant of what his interests are, it behoves the tenant to be sure that he knows what are his. This he cannot know, so far as the farm he proposes to take is concerned, unless he knows something about the farm. The more fully he knows its agricultural charac- teristics, the more certainly will he know what privileges he ought to have in order to avail him- self to the full of those characteristics, so that he will make the most of them ; and in so doing, 5 66 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. while he ministers to his own prosperity, he will do so to that of his landlord. On this point we have already offered a few remarks. But if, on the contrary, the tenant be ignorant of the farm, and of the farming of the locality, he is not likely to know what privileges he ought to have, or what concession to claim from his landlord, nor likely to farm so completely to the satisfac- tion of himself or his landlord, — certainly not so well as he would do if he knew all the circum- stances thoroughly. Such common-sense views are too frequently overlooked, and not seldom do we find cases of a farmer — sometimes one only in name, not in knowledge or experience — here and there failing utterly, and blaming as the cause of his failure what he talks of as the ' landlord's influence,' or the ' operation of our land laws.' He need not have gone so far afield to trace the cause ; he might have found it nearer home. It surely is not unreasonable to say that a man ought thoroughly to know what it is he is undertaking. On the other hand, the landlord generally will do well by timely concession, and the kindly consideration which so many have given, to retain tenants who really know their farms and what farming is. Under such condi- tions there ought to be no practical difficulty in overcoming most, if not all of the difficulties which now oppress, or are said to oppress, agricul- ture. In the one case they will get rid of them ; in the other they will find that they are the mere creations of the fancy of those who seem to have a delight in raising difficulties where none exist. The Position and Prospects of tJie Farmer in relation to Improved Covenants and Freedom in Cropping. — This points to his doing his best to extend the number of his crops, to which we have already referred. And further, to a due consider- ation on his part, whether with greater freedom of cropping he could not give greater scope to his farming, to supply products now supplied by others, of whose competition he complains. In this forgetting sometimes that it cannot well be a com- petition in any sense with him, seeing that his farm does not yield the produce sold by others. And there is more than one direction in which our farmers could extend their productions, and thus secure markets which are now occupied and monopolized by others. At present the answer to this is, that they have not freedom to do so. It might be easy to show, what with a little con- sideration on their part they know well enough, that, even under their present restrictions, they could do more in this way than they do. But it behoves the farmer carefully and candidly to ponder over the new circumstances which new systems, such as those we have been con- sidering, will place him in. He will make a sad mistake if he conceives that success has been wanting from lack of certain tilings only. But we scarcely fear that this mistake will be made by farmers as a body. They know well enough that it is not in merely getting what they wish that will bring the success they have so long and are still patiently waiting for. They know that if the landlord will do his part, they have none the less to do theirs. And their duty carries with it interests of the most momentous character to the nation at large, and to the future position of their profession, as one paying, and paying well, for the labour its work demands. But although this work will, when the real necessities of the position are fully comprehended, be wider in its scope and more complicated in its details than it is now, we are of those who believe that it will be successful in the highest business sense. We cannot force our minds to the conviction that the determined energy, the enter- prise, the patient and painstaking care to do the best of work, which has ever characterised our people, are now to fail ; nor that the success which has as yet invariably been given to them, and which has assuredly raised us to the first rank of peoples, is now to depart from us. We have all along preferred to hold the opinion that the ' glory has not departed ' from our grand old race connected with the land. Not because we held lightly or have thought little of the depression which has so long and so seriously affected them. Bather, indeed, because, taking this in its gloomiest aspect, we felt assured that its gloom was precisely the condition calculated to bring out the best features of the English character, — characteristic features which have always as yet secured the successful combating with difficulties of the gravest kind. It would be absurd to suppose that but few only have all along held such views. THE FARMER'S POSITION AS REGARDS AMERICAN COMPETITION. 567 That a very large number have held them, we believe ; the only matter for regret being, that of this class who have position and influence at command, many have not availed themselves of these to make their opinions widely and publicly known. But this grave error is now being atoned for. A healthier and, if we may say so, a manlier view of the position is being laid at intervals — all too wide, unfortunately — before the farming public. And this will have a specially good effect. Hope is the mainspring of action, and all legiti- mate means of increasing and strengthening this bond on legitimate grounds, it ought to be the duty of all who can to aid. This is being done, it is satisfactory to note, in the case of perhaps the greatest difficulty which has been agitating the farming mind. Tins is the competition with America. Serious as it has proved in its actual work, it has been thought almost universally that it was certain to become more serious still as the work was more fully developed. Here again we took a more hopeful view of the case. What the main elements of that view are, the reader will find in the first chapter of the Seventh Division of this work. The careful reader will have gathered from these that we considered the competition as based on wholly exceptional circumstances. "VVe pointed out that the carrying or transport department of the competition was a very important factor in estimating what the competition would likely be. Up till now this has been, for the reasons we stated, no difficulty with the business. But we felt that we had good ground for holding the view that the difficulty woidd soon arise. It is rising now as we write. And it will be, in the cir- cumstances of our usual or normal Atlantic carry- ing trade, such a difficulty as even it, with all its influence and wealth, may not perhaps be able to overcome. Not for a trade like this — a trade with the low freights which the steamship com- panies, in lack, and only in lack, of other and their usual business, have accepted, — not for this trade are these companies building those magni- ficent ' floating towns,' which as we write the journals of the day are so fully and so com- placently describing as enterprises to be proud of, as indeed they arc. But there is another difficulty, we believe, yet sure to come up hi the carrying department of the American competition, and it is to come from amongst the Americans themselves. The steady and in many respects wonderfully quick travelling, so to call it, of farming from the east to the west, necessitates a long transport of the farm produce by railway. The farther the farmers go west, the longer is the transport to the seaboard towns of the east, and, of course, the greater the expense and cost of transport. Hitherto, at least for a consider- able period, embracing, be it noted, the period during which American competition has come so much to the front, tins peculiarity has distinguished the railway transport : it has been done cheaply — so cheaply that the rates have been far below the paying point. This arises from a circumstance which Mr. Brassey, in his paper hereafter re- ferred to, has explained. Those interested in the laud question are under great obligations to Mr. Brassey for adding another fact to those we have named, and have still further to name, in proof of the belief that our farmers have not so much to dread from this American competition as they have been and are greatly still fearing. ' The canal and railway companies between Chicago and New York have for some time past been competing against each other for the conveyance of agricultural produce, till the cost of carriage has sunk to a point at which it cannot possibly remain. The rates have now fallen to threepence-halfpenny a bushel by canal, and sixpence a bushel by rail- way. According to Mr. Brassey, this system cannot last, for the simple and sufficient reason that it does not pay the companies to maintain it. And " it remains to be seen how long the shareholders will give their sanction to a rivalry so prejudicial to their own interests." Hitherto those who know the subject thoroughly maintain that the American shareholders have been greatly indifferent to this loss which they have sustained, inasmuch as they have drawn the means to meet it largely from British capitalists, who have not, to put the matter mildly, always had their interests attended to. But signs are abundant to show that this source of help will not be long open to the American shareholders, so that, driven to rely upon their own resources, they will be compelled to raise their freights. If, then, the cost of carriage be increased, the American exporter at once loses 56S DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. one of his principal sources of profit. Nor is there any ground for fear that if competition slackens in the west, it may be taken up by the farmer in the east ; for the tillers of virgin soil on the farther side of the continent could always under- sell every other American producer, if no longer able to compete with European rivals.' Further, the reader will find in the section we have above referred to, a brief statement of the very characteristics of American farming itself. From these we arrived at the conclusion, at least suggested the probability of this being likelyarrived at, that the competition, now so keen, and feared to be keener still, could not be carried on with profit. And to the absolute necessity of having this profit, no one is more thoroughly alive than is the American. We have explained the peculiarities of American farming, peculiarities which absolutely enforce the widening of the space between the locality of production — ' the far west ' — and that of consumption, the ' farther east' of Great Britain. Another peculiarity is the exhausting, wasteful character of American farming. It is essentially a draining process, — -the very reverse of ours, which aims at, and largely secures, if not a positively increasing value, certainly a maintenance of that high productive power which by good farming is secured. But if farms, as we have shown in the chapter re- ferred to above, so much the nearer to the point of embarkation, are so rapidly exhausted, and when exhausted left, this may be asked, Why are not these exhausted farms — cheap as they always are — taken in hand, revived, and made to yield produce for transportation to this country ? The reason is not far to seek. It will not pay. Wages are high at all times, higher still in good times. The very circumstances which bring, as a rule, good times to America bring good times here also, and render our farmers better able to meet the American competition, thus reduc- ing the demand here for, and of course lowering the value of, American farm produce. This tends still further to discourage men from improving exhausted farms. Nothing struck us more in our visit to America than the number of farms worn out by the vicious and, from many points of view, the reprehensible system of farming. These, in point of locality, soil, and indeed in everything calculated to tempt the real farmer to take them in hand, lay wasting as they waited for occupiers. To our question, oft repeated, Why should this be ? came the one reply, It will not pay us. If capital cannot find an outlet in this country, — which we do not believe, — we could with great ease show many outlets in America. At the present time, end of 1879, it has been calculated that the balance against the farmer here in the production of wheat is only five shillings a quarter. That is, if by any circumstances the British farmer, as by good seasons, good times, could raise wheat so as to get more by five shillings than he now gets, the American farmer could have no chance of com- petition. Indeed, he would lose it before this figure was reached. Is it unreasonable to sup- pose that circumstances will ere long enable the British former to restore the balance ? That the British farmer will have reasonable hope that his labour under the changed circum- stances of his holding which we have discussed will he remunerative, there are surely encourag- ing signs in what we have said. Mr. Brassey, in a paper just read (November IS 79) before the Statistical Society on the subject of agri- culture in England and the United States, drawing, of course, pointed attention to the depression here, and the effects of American competition in it, takes the same view of the matter as here explained. The paper is very valuable ; all the more so that its facts are based on the results of personal investigation, and that it is published just at the right time. It is far too long to be dealt with here, even in the briefest way ; but, as giving the gist of its bearing specially on the important point we have been discussing, we append the following extract from the article from which we have already quoted: ' American competition can he sustained only under exceptionally favourable conditions, as long as the cost of labour is nearly one-third higher than it is in this country. Wages in America are about 4s. a day all the year round ; and though provisions are cheaper, rent, clothing, and all manufactured goods are dearer than they are in England. The American grazier has followed in the footsteps of the American farmer. He is gradually deserting the middle and eastern States fur " the pastoral regions west of the Mississippi." THE FARMER'S POSITION AS REGARDS AMERICAN COMPETITION. 569 " And," says Mr. Brassey, " it is incredible that animals can be transported by rail from the pas- tures of the Rocky Mountains across the wide continent of America, and then transhipped to Liverpool, at prices sufficiently low to deprive the British agriculturist of his legitimate profit." In process of time, too, another item of expense will overtake the stock-feeder. He will have to pay for his pasturage, which at present he can get for nothing. On the whole, therefore, it does not appear that the competition which we encounter from America is established on a fixed basis, or that we have sufficient reason, as yet, to regard it as a permanent condition.' Still, notwithstanding the views here stated, and the hopes here expressed, the competition between the British and the American farmers is vastly too serious to be made light of. There is, however, not much fear of this being done, even though both the views we have stated cannot easily be shown to be wrong, nor the hope that we have expressed unreasonable. The hope most likely to be realized is that in con- nection with the transport question. For, as just stated, it can scarcely be continued, or, to use Mr. Brassey's own words, ' it is incredible ' that the abnormal and altogether unusual cir- cumstances both of railway and Atlantic steam traffic now existing can be long and thoroughly maintained. The view is stated in regard to the competition between the English farmer and his American brother, that it will gradually become less and less keen, so far as the American is con- cerned, from the circumstance that American production or yield will get less and less every year. The view is reasonable, indeed it is abso- lutely correct. But while so, it cannot be said that it breathes much of hope — certainly not of hope immediately to be realized. It will be years before the results of the reckless system of agriculture pursued in America, and which we but briefly described, will show itself in its worst features. And while thus the work of years goes slowly on, the British farmer must needs live on. All this points to what we have throughout in- sisted upon, and to which our best agricultural authorities have drawn attention during the last few years, especially since our agricultural depres- sion has assumed such a particularly gloomy position, — namely, the necessity of the British farmer endeavouring in every possible way to add to the sources of his income. How or in what direc- tion this can or is likely to be done, we in various parts of this work have attempted to explain. Meanwhile, rising from this often-stated view of the position of tins question of American com- petition,— a view which may be said to be the selfish one, — the other way of looking at it should assuredly not be forgotten. And it is this, simply stated. In place of looking upon the fact that America can supply us so liberally with wheat, or rather ' breadstuffs ' (for Indian corn or maize now assumes gigantic figures in the trans- atlantic trade), as a thing wholly to be deplored, it ought rather to be an occasion for thank- fulness that we have sources of supply for what really is the staff of life. But, further, it should be remembered, — what, however, in this question has been too frequently forgotten, — that what ministers to the prosperity of one branch of the population ministers to that of all the others. And it does so, and that in the most striking and also in the most satisfactory manner. Hence it is that when trade between this country and America is good, the farmers share in the general benefit. And this, be it noted, is not an ideal or visionary thing, but it is tangible, and realized by them more or less directly in the shape of hard cash ; so that the American competition is one not wholly of loss to the British farmer. In certain circumstances, indeed, it will be more than made up to him. Nor can it be other- wise than a matter for congratulation, that in consequence of the large supplies of food-stuffs obtainable from America, the prices here are often kept low, staving off those ' famine prices ' which bring so many evils in their train. And when food is cheap and trade even but mode- rately good, just so much the more have people to spend ; and in proportion to this, as well as to the ' orders ' which in good times the Americans freely send us for our manufactures, do the farmers share in the good things which are thus going. Further, and finally, we have shown here that there are many departments in which our farmers are completely masters of the situation, in which American competition is powerless. Small Farms. — This is another of the assumed ^ c 5"o DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. cures for all the evils which oppress and depress agriculture. And in putting it before the public, and pressing its claims upon the landed estate proprietors, those who advocate it have not always advocated it with that thorough acquaint- ance with facts and the circumstances of the country which one might reasonably have ex- pected. This is greatly to be regretted, as it raises false issues, creates prejudices, and causes many to form erroneous opinions, all of which have the direct tendency to complicate what would otherwise be comparatively simple. It tends, moreover, to raise false hopes in the minds of the very class intended to be benefited. And that, surely, is not an end to be desired by philanthropists. For of those they may thus incite to embark in small farms, there are con- siderable chances that some will not have their hopes realized, certainly not realized to their fullest extent. Under many circumstances, in- deed, there will be no real hope of success at all, but, if not immediate, certainly ultimate collapse. And of the two, it may well be questioned whether it be not better to know quickly that an enterprise is hopeless, than that many years of labour be given to the attempt to keep off the evil day. It is this point, indeed, and it could scarcely well be any other, on which the two parties who publicly interest themselves in this ques- tion join issue. The one party sees nothing but good in the scheme — one calculated to improve the agriculture of the kingdom, by adding largely to farm produce, while at the same time, if not indeed as an inevitable consequence, to raise the labourers to a far higher moral and social position than they at present occupy ; in fact, that this will not be effected till the scheme be universally carried out. The other party holds views in regard to both positions almost the very opposite. Not but what they admit that to a certain extent the position of a labourer may be raised by working for himself rather than for others. But they believe that, as a rule, this influence would operate but to a small extent, while in many cases it would deteriorate rather than improve them. But on the second point there is no doubt as to the direct and thorough antagonism be- tween the two parties. And the second party, it is of essential importance to note, is almost wholly made up of practical men, and of these the great majority actually engaged or actually connected with farming. To which side does the weight of correctly stated facts and evidence incline ? We do not hesitate to say, to that of the practical party. Indeed, it would scarcely be an exaggeration of the statement now made, to say that the opposite party has scarcely got a single practical fact to support their opinions. The practical party, as for distinction we name it, has been charged with numerous faults and shortcomings. Amongst others, that it has a strong desire to keep down the class who would take, or are supposed to be ready to take, small farms if they could get them on fair terms, or on their own terms, — two very different things, it may be remarked in passing, or modes of looking at the subject, as we shall presently see. Now this is a grave charge to make against any party. But it is not true, neither is it supported by the facts of experience. The charge is supported by apparent pecuniary interests, inasmuch as many of the practical party are themselves farmers, and the small farmers might form a serious element of competition. But apart from what we know to be the characteristics of farmers as a body, facts can be appealed to, if facts be really wished for. As for keeping down their labourers or others, we know of no class so desirous to raise up their workpeople as farmers are. And few instances indeed could be brought forward to show that to prevent their men from farming on their own account was any desire of theirs. Much more easy would it be to show that they help them whenever a good chance offers to push their way in the world. The question has been asked, ' Are masters in the manufacturing districts peculiarly remarkable for the help they give their workpeople to be- come masters V ' Two blacks,' to use a familiar phrase, ' can never make a white ;' and because Tom does wrong, that does not absolve the wrong done by Jack. Therefore we dislike exceedingly the tu quoque style of argument, although very likely points could be made out of its particular application as above suggested. The truth is, that the reason why the practical party is so opposed to the establishment of small farms on POSITION OF THE SMALL-FARM QUESTION. 57i the extended scale proposed by some, and demanded in no measured terms by others, is simply this. From the practical experience gained in cultivation, either of their own land and farm or that of others, they believe that small-farm cultivation would not add to the produce of the country ; that is, taking the system of small-farm cultivation as it has been hitherto, and seems likely for the future to be carried on. Experience, gained on large and on moderately large farms, shows but too clearly the difficulties of availing of all the improvements of modern farming to be great. But in the case of many, the difficulties of procuring the necessary capital to carry on farming even on the ordinary or routine system will be greater still. Hence they know that small farmers would as a rule have but a struggle, a perpetual struggle, to make ends meet ; a straggle kept up, and never getting beyond the point of simply meeting demand and no more, and this only with good health and more than the average strength and activity ; but a struggle consequently which, when sick- ness came or strength failed, would be hopeless. In fact, the experienced men of the practical party know that their labourers are infinitely better off as labourers than they would be as small farmers on their own account, — that they wTould have much less work to do, and that of a much easier kind, and that their living would be as good. And over and above, and perhaps even more important, they know that the labourer would be saved the most harassing of all the cares of life — the finding of the ways and means, or the never-ending trouble of trying how to find them. This is perhaps the most important consideration, for it is patent to all who have their living to make, no matter how, that it is not its work but its worry which kills. If, then, to secure a com- fortable and, on the whole, easy life, and to keep them from one which is at the very best a struggling and therefore a hard one, be not kindly and philanthropic, one would like to know what these terms really mean. That this view of the case is in its main features correct, facts are again appealed to. We have noted several of these. Space cannot here be given to the recital of mure, but they lie ready to hand for those who desire to have them. They are, unfortunately for the class of small farmers, but too numerous. They will be met with not only with us, but also on the Conti- nent, that paradise for small farmers wishing to save ; and very striking facts they are, though not quite in support of the views held — not by the practical party. But the practical men can, and do also, go to the Continent, and draw from the system of small farming there some of their strongest arguments in support of the view above named, that its general adoption here would not add to the comfort of the labouring population. For, as we shall see presently, there is a wide difference between small farming as practised on the Continent, and small farming as practised here, — a difference not yet observed by the party who advocate the small farming system as a cure for all, or nearly all, the ills which agri- culture seems now heir to. The most striking, perhaps, as it is the most recent evidence in support of the above position, is that just published (winter of 1879) in the Official Eeport of the Irish Local Government Board. This shows that beyond all doubt the greatest suffering prevails amongst the small farmers. Those who are surprised at this, need not feel any if they will read what we have given in the second chapter of the Fifth Division, in our notice of a paper by Professor Baldwin. Those who know Mr. Baldwin, know well the accuracy of all the facts he brings forward in illustrating any paper on agriculture he under- takes, no less than the ' soberness ' and essentially fair-sided conclusions he draws from them. But a child could draw but one conclusion from the facts as stated by Professor Baldwin (which see as above). Continually between *the hammer and the anvil,' — a French proverb most suggestive of a wofully crushing position in life, — we felt sure from what we knew of the case, that when any period of distress came, suffering would at once come to the class, and suffering most severe. This is certainly matter for deep regret. But it will be well if the lesson it conveys be taken to heart. Assuredly it is not in favour of the general extension of small farms, as advocated by some. But facts of the same kind — though not perhaps in degree — can be met with everywhere through- out the kingdom. 572 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. Since writing the section in chap. ii. Divi- sion V. on this important subject, everything which has been advanced by both the parties we have described goes to prove the correctness of the conclusion we arrived at. It is not that much new experience has been gained, for the time has been too brief for any amount of practical work to be done. But experience, or rather the facts which it affords, was not needed ; it was there, has been there for long. It is only that the facts are being brought more and more to light. And this work has been done by the practical party, who are becoming daily more and more convinced that the time for ' speaking out ' has come. And this in view of the new phase which the question has assumed — a phase or position which carries with it matter of the gravest importance to all classes of the com- munity. The interests of landed property as a property are being attacked, and will be materially and permanently injured should the wishes now openly held, and as wildly as openly advocated by many, be realized even in the most modified manner. It is not this fact which alone gives importance to the question, hut it is that the principles advocated are utterly subversive of all those which constitute the very tie which binds society together, and bestow upon every man the right to retain property he has become possessed of. It is with good reason that many express the hope that the fact that an attack made upon vital principles in connection with any one class interests all classes alike, will be understood before long by the nation. It will only be then that this question of small farms, and other questions which have been raised in connection with landed property, will be seen to possess a vital interest to the nation vastly more important than if they concerned the landed proprietor only. It may be humbly stated, with- out fear of the statement being contradicted on sound principles, that the opinions generally held on this small-farm question are nearly wholly erroneous. They are based upon one-sided state- ments, with which many have been but too liberally supplied, the whole facts of the case never or rarely having been placed before them. But all the facts are easily obtainable ; those against the wide and general adoption of the small-farm system as a cure for all agricultural evils being as easily got as those which are in favour of it, or presumed to be so. We regret that space prevents us going fully into a state- ment of all the facts. To many of them we have in Division V. specially referred. Much of the matter given in the present Division has a close bearing also upon the question, while to one or two others we now devote some paragraphs. The difficulties connected with farming on the large or comparatively large scale, or what may lie called ordinary farming, are well known to practical men. When the farmer is unfortunate enough to have an unkindly soil ; or which, if good, demands the expenditure of much labour ; or if his farm is in a locality with a variable and generally bad climate ; and above all, if he be short of the necessary capital, his position is such that it almost precludes all chances of great success. Even under the most favourable cir- cumstances as regards capital, and even with a fine soil, the difficulties he has not seldom to contend with are such as would not induce many business men to confront them for the chance of such profit as can be obtained even at the best. Lowering markets, foreign competition, bad seasons, all tell with painful force upon the posi- tion of the farmer. And, as is the case at the time we write with too many, even of farmers in the first rank of their calling, the losses of a few disastrous years may sweep away the profits of twenty. But if the difficulties connected with large or ordinary farming are great, they are not less in the case of small farms, and this even when placed under the average of favourable circumstances. But should the small-farm system he widely ex- tended throughout the kingdom, as is advocated by agitators, so that it will form an important feature of the institutions of the country, all the difficulties, as each day's experience shows more and more clearly, will be greatly increased. We have glanced at some of the leading points affect- ing the question in very brief fashion — all too brief, considering its great importance. The point, however, to which we have drawn special attention in the brief space at our command, is that which is perhaps the most practical of all those connected with the question. A party SMALL FARMS— DLFFLCULTIES INCREASE AS NUMBERS INCREASE. 573 distinguished, if by nothing else, at least by the persistency with which it claims to be heard as the only true exponent of the evils which afflict agriculture, and of the methods by which these are best and most quickly remedied, insists that the great evils are, first, the large acreage owned by landed proprietors, and second, the desire of well-to-do farmers to concentrate a number of small farms so as to form large ones. These evils, they maintain, are chiefly those which depress agriculture and keep down the produce of the farm. The consequent remedy, according to this party, is the subdivision of the land, the complete doing away with the system of large farms, and the substitution for them throughout the whole country of small farms under peasant proprietor- ship. Apart altogether from other difficulties — and surely they are great enough — in carrying out a scheme which can scarcely be called otherwise than revolutionary, its advocates do not tell us how they are to overcome the difficulty attendant upon the distribution of the farms, or how, when allocated, the parties are to be made satisfied with it. For all the farms cannot be of equal value, cannot be all favourably situated. Neither are we told what is to be the limit or maximum of acreage of small farms ; or how some of the new race of proprietors are to be satisfied, if some of them believe, as many will, that they should be made smaller still. Nor is it very clear whether the enormous number of small farms thus created are to be peopled wholly by ' peasants,' or whether the town workers who may have a desire also to get a slice of the land are to be gratified or not by it. And if so, it is not made clear how men who have not the slightest idea of anything con- nected with land and its culture are likely to aid largely in the production of food for the people, which we are told is to be one of the happy results of the establishment generally throughout the kingdom of the small-farm system. AVe have said there are other difficulties ; some of these we have named, others can easily be guessed at before this system will be established. But the difficulty of locality is one which we take to be insuperable. For, as we have said, it can be easily proved that the small farmer who has the best chance of being a successful one is he who is placed in exceptional circumstances altogether favourable. The most successful small farmer — we might almost safely say that the only success- ful farmer, successful in the true practical sense of the term — is he who is located near a large town or village, or in the centre of a thickly or even fairly populated district of detached hamlets or collection of houses. These create a never-fading demand for farm produce ; and the more varied in character that produce is, the better the chances of success. Such districts, moreover, give to the small farmer much in the way of manure, as well as not a little of what serves as food for his pigs, rabbits, pigeons, and poultry. True, these have to be collected, but the cost of this is generally amply repaid by the cheap rate at which he can purchase these materials. Nay, it may be stated as a rule that they are found for nothing, being considered by the occupiers of the houses rather as nuisances gladly to be got rid of, than as sources of income. And should the collecting of these materials cause the small farmer to keep a pony or a donkey and small cart, this again may, by a clever fellow always looking to his business, be made a source of income ; for it is surprising how many little odd jobs he can pick up, and good paying ones, if he has a conveyance, however humble. Care- fully studying the wants, and the ever-varying wants, of the people amongst whom he is placed, he will direct his attention to those which are not only in the greatest demand, but for which many, in their desire to have them, will pay high, fancy prices. With never-flagging industry, watchful attention to all around him, a small farmer thus situated will find that there is more than a mere living to be picked up. He is in fact a ' Jack-of-all-trades,' ready to turn his hand to everything by which he can gain an honest penny. Much of all this is not farming, it may be said. True, but it is precisely that which makes small farming pay. For small farming proper, even in favourably situated circumstances, does not as a rule do so — that is, farming in which the usual system of cropping is followed. To this ready adaptability to take advantage of every chance, the small farmer must, it is scarcely necessary to say, be a sober and, more than a sober, a prudent num. Money can make 574 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. money, but cannot save it. And if to a fairly good knowledge of farming, gardening, poultry and ' small fry ' keeping, he can add a knowledge of some mechanical trade, or be able fairly well to do some of the work of more than one, his chances of success are greatly increased. It is unnecessary to depict the results of cases the circumstances of which are the opposite of all this. We are again and again referred to the Con- tinent for proof of the value and the success of small farming. But we have in Division V. chap. ii. shown how different in many respects the small farmers abroad are from those amongst us. We say nothing here of the very different soil, climate, and market systems, and the per- sonal circumstances of the small farmers them- selves. This point has been already alluded to in Division V. But we may say in passing, that it will be long before our labouring popu- lation will exercise the self-denial of the Con- tinental farmers in the method of personal living, equal them in their careful and prudent management of money matters, their economy in every department, and vie with them in the exer- cise of a laborious and painstaking industry, which is the wonder if it be not the admiration of those who know what constitutes Continental small farms. In nothing do the small farmers abroad differ so widely from the small farmers with us as in the variety of produce they contrive to raise. They are farmers iu the one ordinary sense of the term. But they are something more ; they are fruit-growers, market gardeners, and almost in- variably poultry-keepers. These are the success- ful ones, we might with almost perfect accuracy say the only successful ones. For it is not to the small farmers of the Continent who farm in the ordinary way — corn-cropping, again to use the term — that we have to look for success. The chances of success, then, amongst our small farmers, we repeat, will be greatly increased by the adop- tion of a plan based upon the principle of change or a variety of produce. An eminent statesman has recently pointed out what can be done in the way of flower culture, and this might be added with reasonable prospects of success to the work of our small farms. Reasonable prospects ! for, no matter what the system of farming may be, it must be influenced by circumstances such as those we referred to, and these every practical farmer knows must be existent before the highest possible success can be secured. It is a rare thing to find a farm in which all the circumstances are met with favourable to such success. And as the natural peculiarities of districts vary much throughout the kingdom, from those which are most favourable down to those the least so, all the small farmers cannot, therefore, possibly be alike favourably situated throughout the king- dom. And if the small-farm system is to be made universal in the country, those truly interested in the social progress and national welfare of those who are to cultivate them may safely be left to infer what are the chances of fair and reasonable success. Natural circumstances cannot be treated in the same precise, definite way in which circum- stances connected with any artificial arrangement of our own formation can be treated. We may, so to say, compel nature to change her circum- stances, but this can only be done up to a certain point and within certain limits. Beyond this we are powerless. And we have shown that these limits are extremely narrow. And our modifica- tions are liable to be rendered greatly inoperative by changes which come in a way we know not how, and at a time we know not when. This is very unfortunate so far as the realization of the wishes are concerned of those who so earnestly desire to see the small-farm system universally extended. But it is a circumstance which they cannot control. It must therefore be accepted, with all its consequences. What these are we have endeavoured to show, and we believe them to be correct ; if not, we shall only be too grate- ful to be shown how they are not. For we have a desire, as ardent as any of the most ardent advocates of the system, to see any one system adopted which, while it secures the material im- provement of the working classes, is not secured by the sacrifice of the just rights of others. And no system can be right or can succeed which is based upon principles essentially wrong. We say this in view of the fact that the new phase into which the advocacy by many of the small- farm system has entered, carries in its first principles a subversion of all social rights and order. A few sentences will show the main features of this new phase. RELATION OF LANDLORDS TO THE SMALL-FARM QUESTION. We have referred to the notion so persistent]}' maintained by many of a large and influential class, that the farmers are opposed to the further and complete establishment of the small-farm system, and this for reasons wholly selfish. If this were true, they would well deserve all the weight of opprobrium, at least of fault-finding, which has been laid upon them. We have shown that it is not true. But if farmers have been blamed for raising obstacles in the way of the system being carried out, what shall be said to characterise the way in which landlords have been denounced for acting in the same way, but, it is said, to an unfortunately greater degree ? To them and to their motives for so acting, as it is said they have acted and are now acting, the harshest terms have been applied. But in truth the landlords do not in any way deserve this blame, this vituperation, this attri- buting to them of such degrading motives. They may reasonably be supposed to be alive to their own interests. If even only moderately so, — and this surely may be conceded to them, — it is clear that they can have no interest in preventing their land being parcelled out for small farms. Their interest is all the other way ; but all the more so if it be true, as stated by many of the advocates of small farming, that far higher rents will be obtained for them than those obtained for large farms. A high authority in matters connected with the business of the kingdom, and high in social position and influence, Mr. Brassey, M.P., president of the Statistical Society, stated the other day (November 18, 1879) that landlords have no interest in keeping down small farms. And, follow- ing Mr. Brassey, another authority still higher in social position, Lord Derby, has recorded his opinion that landlords are the best judges of how their land should be let. One would think so. This principle would be as a mere matter of course conceded to other classes, why should it be with- held from the landlords ? And knowing, as no one can possibly know better than they, the struggle which small farmers have to secure merely a good living and make ends meet, is it to be wondered at if they are chary in cutting up their land and parcelling it out into small farms ? They know that the result would be, not the difficulty to get the rent, — more is done in the way of kindly consideration on this point than is popularly conceived, — but the deterioration which the land would undergo in their hands, a deterioration at least much more likely to happen with small farms than with large ones. We have already shown how this is likely to come about. Surely landlords are fairly entitled to manage their property on the same business rules which regulate the management of all other property. We have never seen it proved yet, that there is really anything exceptional in property in land which caused it to be exceptionally treated. No doubt, if its management involves anything prejudicial to the interests of the community, that can and ought to be altered. But then it is only just that the proof that the management is prejudicial be complete. It must not rest only on the mere expression of a wish or a determined will oi a certain party that it should be so altered in their favour only, splitting up estates into numberless small farms. On this ground it would be easy to get up the very widespread expression of a wish that cotton mills should be split up, or machine shops, etc., to give little businesses to a number of little men. This wish amongst workers in the manu- facturing districts has, in fact, been expressed, and is now being so daily, and will, we suspect, be still more so should the floodgates of com- munistic ideas be opened wider than they are opened now by some of the agitators on the small- farm question, who plainly go in for confiscation of landed property, for it is impossible to see it in any other light but this. Mode of Action. — We have said that there is a great difference between the action of the labourer who gets land for his small farm on fair terms from the landlord, and the labourer who demands the land on his own terms, fair or the reverse; or, what many now do, and are being sedulously taught to do, demand it simply, — demand it or claim it as a right to be obtained or taken without any terms at all. This difference carries with it matter of much graver importance than is suspected even by many of those who have had their attention directed to it. Xor is this at all a fanciful view, which is held by so many. It is any tiling but that, as is easily enough proved by facts in daily life not difficult 5/6 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. to be met with, if one looks abroad for them. One, indeed, has not far to look. It is the open and unabashed advocacy of the last named of the points of difference -which constitutes the new phase into which the question has entered. The opinions now advo- cated, and with all the energy which charac- terises agitators who know their business well, are simply communistic, and ' go to the root ' of all those principles which bind society together. The principle of operation now proposed by the agitators for the consideration, or, as they put it, the immediate action of the labourers, is charac- terised by great simplicity. It reminds one of the pithy rhyme of Coleridge ; for it is, in fact, the ' Good old rule, the simple plan, That they should take who have the power, That they should keep who can.' No doubt it may be said, and with perfect justice, that the very absurdity of this phase into which the question has entered, so far as the labourers themselves are concerned, renders all chance of its ever being realized in future simply impossible. But it is not the fact that, however willing to ' take ' the labourers may be, they are not at all likely to 'get,' which has alone to be considered. It is for the nation generally to conceive the influence which the mere advocacy on the part of the agitators of such wild notions, and the too ready belief in them as shown by the labourers, has upon them. That this influence is of the worst character, no one holding the 'eternal principles of right and justice' wdll for a moment deny. And those who do believe that this influence has not been widely disseminated, and much more widely and deeply exerted upon the labourers, and that it has not had any practical effect for the worse upon them, give, we fear, the best proof that they know but little of the class, their modes of living, of thinking, their aspirations, and their hopes. This influence it is in our highest interests as a community to counteract and get rid of. How this is to be done it is not for us here to say. We put this point briefly here, to show how much more extended is the influence of the principle we are discussing than is believed by many, and to show also how deeply interested are all classes of the community in possession of property of any kind, however small in value it may be, in putting an end — if this can be effectually done — to the advocacy of such dangerous principles. At all events, it behoves all those of influence to speak out plainly on behalf of the law-abiding portion of the com- munity, to let their opinions be made as publicly and as vigorously known as have been those of the agitators we have referred to. These, up till now, have had the monopoly, so to say, of the attention of the labouring classes. We talk of education, but education falls far short of its duty if it fails to teach the immense importance of the principles of right and justice. In view of this, some of our leading men may find another inducement in addition to that we have just named to do their utmost to stem the flow of a current of opinion which sooner or later, in one direction or another, will be sure to lead us to a position in our national progress anything but to be wished for. Before concluding this subject of small farms, there is yet another point which ought to be noticed. We are accustomed to contemplate complacently, and that, we confess, quite justly too, the vast progress we have made exclusively in all that relates to the arts and sciences ; but it is, according to good authorities, as much in con- nection with agriculture as in any other branch of industrial work that this amazing progress is best illustrated. But while thoroughly satisfied and gratified with this material progress, the ques- tion is rarely asked, To what or to whom are we, the nation, indebted for this ? The causes no doubt are numerous, and by far the greater number and the most important of them have been referred to in these pages at greater or less length. One, however, must be noticed here, as it has a close bearing upon the small-farm dis- cussion. We are told that when, if ever, the small-farm system shall be carried completely out, as advocated by many, the farm produce will be greatly increased. We are not told how this certainly most desirable result is to be attained. All that is generally vouchsafed to us on this head is some vague reference to the fact, assumed to be really so, that small farmers are so industrious, and have such methods of work- SMALL FARMS AND AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENTS. S77 ing, that the yield is invariably larger in the case of their fields and their crops than in the case of those of farmers who farm on the large scale. And further, by way of corroborative evidence, we are referred to the results of small farms in some isolated part of the Continent. The circum- stances of the cases referred to — if, indeed, any special and well-authenticated cases of successful practice on small farms are at such times really in view — are not, however, given. If they were, a flood of light would be thrown upon the state- ments,— not, however, of the character claimed by the out-and-out advocates of the general or universal small-farm system. We gladly concede that small farms offer unusual advantages to any one capable of making the most of them, and when the circumstances of soil and climate are favourable, in the way of gaining yields larger than the average ones of large farms; and this just or chiefly because it is better always to farm a small acreage well and thoroughly, than a larger acreage carelessly or in a loose or per- functory way. The small farm admits of this being done in the most direct way. We concede also, and that gladly, that many of our small farmers have had great success ; but then it is chiefly under exceptionally favourable circumstances. Further, it is admitted, and most readily, that one class of true small farmers, that is, the yeoman and crofter, etc., that is, these who have been brought up to and been connected all their days with the land, are the most industrious, pains- taking, and economical to a degree ; all of which do not by any means, as a rule, secure to them the reward they deserve. And the practical party are not a whit less, but we should say are equally anxious with what we have called the philanthropic party, to see a moderate increase in the number of small farmers of this the yeoman class throughout the kingdom. They wish this all the more heartily, and none the less honestly, seeing as they do the advantage to the nation of a class of this kind. But it is just because they know — and here as on other points they appeal to facts — that a very large increase of the body of small farmers throughout the kingdom would do, as we have shown, harm to them socially, that they wish the class to be limited. And further, while conceding all the points we have stated above, they maintain, without the slightest fear that the statement can be controverted by facts and sound reasoning, that if agricultural im- provement generally had depended upon this class, we assuredly should not have witnessed the splendid developments of the last thirty years or so, to go no farther back. Indeed, it may be safely said that had improvement rested only with the class of small farmers, we should not have had improve- ment at all. Nor need this be matter of surprise, when we consider the circumstances under which they as a class exist, and under which, as we else- where have showed, they may be said continually to struggle, rather than to exist in ease and comfort. It is to the proprietors of landed property, as also to the race of farmers occupying farms of greater or less extent, but none of them ' small' in the sense we now are considering the term, that we owe all our modern improvements in farming, the value of which it is impossible to overestimate. Those farmers have become prosperous simply be- cause the extent of their holdings was inducement enough to them to devote their whole energies, and all the help afforded by a thorough know- ledge of farming, together with a sound, good, and very frequently highly scientific education, to the cultivation of their land in the best style. And not only so, but to draw to their aid all the external resources of scientific knowledge, technical skill, and mechanical ability which have made the present a remarkable epoch in the history of our country. But if the triumphs obtained in this way and by those two great and influential classes have been striking, what shall be said of the still more striking ones which have been obtained by not a few of our leading landed proprietors, no doubt in fewer numbers, but yet in magnitude infinitely greater, over what may be called the obstacles which nature presented, and which apparently could not be over- come ? For when we look at vast areas reclaimed from the sea now bearing the richest of crops, exten- sive marshes drained, great bogs reclaimed, and changed from almost worse than bare sterility into wide expanses of smiling meadows and richest pastures ; almost endless tracts of common and wild weary wastes of heath and woodland brought into cultivation ; hill-sides and tracts exposed to bitter winds which stop all vegetation, •iu 573 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. clothed with wide varieties of trees, all fitted to yield the shelter which is necessary to vegetation and pave the way for better and higher culture, - — when we look at all this, and more than this, as having been actually done, and at the still greater works now being done and proposed to be done, we see that a great victory has been won over the difficulties presented by natural obstacles, — obstacles, as stated above, apparently impossible to be overcome. Nor could they have been overcome otherwise than by the expenditure not merely of enormous sums of money, by the use of the most elaborate machinery, the employ- ment of the soundest scientific knowledge and the highest technical skill, but by the display of the most advanced business ability, the most daring in one sense yet in another the safest of speculations, and, above all, by an energy and patience under difficulties often of no common kind, and a high patriotic spirit impossible to be too highly praised. Few people there are who have even the slightest conception of the vast amount of work done in this way and its exceed- ing costliness, still less of the enormous benefits the nation has derived directly and indirectly from works so vast based upon schemes so com- prehensive. Nor should it be forgotten that all this work presented, at the first at least, but a comparatively poor prospect of paying. At the best, a very long period had to be passed over before a profit could be realized, while for long nothing but expenditure had to be faced. Such work, little thought of as it is. is in reality work of a highly patriotic kind. And if it be true, as is said in the well-known phrase, that he is a benefactor to the human race who has made two ears of corn to grow where but one grew before, what can be said of the beneficence of those who have done work greater far than this in amount ? And yet it has been done, is being done now, almost wholly by the very class of landed proprietors who are so much abused as those who do nothing, and never have done any- thing, for the nation. Of course this view, as thoroughly erroneous as it is uncharitable, is held by but a few, even these constituting a party by no means famous either for their number or their standing in society. Still, for what they are de- ficient in those respects, they make up by the persistency with which they keep pushing before the public their own view. A persistency which has had the unfortunate result of making many believe it to be true who really do not wish it to be so, and who would be but too glad to be made aware of how the matter stands. Where so much has been clone, and by so many, it is invidious to give names ; and yet, as in the text we have had occasion to give one name in noticing the splendid work of reclamation of wide tracts of almost use- less land which has been and is still being done by His Grace the Duke of Sutherland, it will not be considered invidious if we couple with this the representative of an illustrious southern house, His Grace the Duke of Bedford. The history of what the house of Bedford has done through decades npon decades of untiring labour, and of vast pecuniary expenditure, in reclaiming land which was worthless, has been partially written. When fully so, the nation will then have an opportunity to learn how much even one house has done to add to the true wealth of the kingdom, and to conjecture from this what must be the aggregate work done by so many other houses in other parts of the kingdom. They may also then conjecture what likelihood there is of such important national works being carried out in the future, if, for the race of landed pro- prietors who have done such good work for their country, there be substituted a race of small farmers, who, at the best, will almost certainly have a sore struggle to make both ends meet. This point, amongst others, the nation should see to before it is quite too late. But in addition to the enormous services done to British agriculture, and of course to the nation, in thus adding so much to the productive area of the land, of which we have only named two examples, — one part of the reclamation on the Bedford property actually gave to the country no fewer than six hundred and eighty thousand acres of the richest land in England, and this wrested from what was truly a ' noxious swamp,' not merely useless, but positively dangerous, — it should never be forgotten that to the landed pro- prietary is almost solely due all the improvements in breeding, rearing, and feeding of stock. To them, directly and indirectly, we owe the best and finest of our modern breeds of cattle, of sheep, PROPOSED CHANGES IN THE LAND LA WS. 579 and of pigs. No doubt we but too gladty record the fact, or rather refer to what is so well known, that no little is due to the tenant farmers of the kingdom. Of this we have abundant evidence around us. But in nearly every case the first impulse — to say nothing of later and still con- tinued efforts involving large expenditure — was given by the landed proprietors. So also largely in the case of the machinery and the implements of the farm. To a class, therefore, from which so much material benefit has been obtained, a fair debt of gratitude is due by the nation. This would have been paid long ago, or more fully than it has, had it really known not merely the extent, but particularly the nature, of the sendee it has done. But this profound ignorance of the country generally is being now dispelled : and the more it becomes so, the more clearly will it be seen how largely indebted the nation is to the class of landed proprietors, aided as they have been, and that most energetically, by the large tenant farmers of the kingdom. Proposed Changes in tlie Laws affecting the Interests of Landed Property. — For its direct and mediate, as well as for its indirect and future influence, not merely upon the interests of property in land, but those of other property of whatever kind it be, we have shown, we trust, the grave importance of the small-farm question. AVe now pass on to the consideration of other questions, which many will hold to be of even greater import- ance. Of these some have been already noticed in Division V. Of those remaining we shall first draw attention to the law of distraint. The Law of Distraint is one of those connected with the landed interest which it is proposed to repeal. That grievances exist which owe their existence directly to it, no one disputes. But grievances to some one arise out of every law we have. There is not one exception to this. That some of the grievances of the law of land dis- traint are capable of being got rid of is true, and if they can, we believe they will be done away with ; and the landlords will have no interest in preventing changes being made, only they must show them to be beneficial and capable of being got rid of. And assuredly in those cases where hardship does arise, especially to those third parties who may be said to have come innocently, as it were, under the action of the law, it will be to the advantage of the landlord should he not strain his rights under it to the utmost. No doubt it may be said that when a law is pro- ductive of hardships, the law ought to be repealed. True to a large extent, so far as its action in the line of those particular hardships is concerned. But it does not follow that the law ought to be repealed wholly. If there are numbers who maintain that the action of the law is wholly prejudicial in the interests of agriculture, it must not be forgotten that there are as many, ono might safely say more, who on the other side main- tain that such is not the action of the law per se. And amongst those, it must be noted, are some of the most practical men of the day. Certainly it only seems reasonable to say, that with those who are so anxious to see the law of distraint repealed so far as agriculture is concerned, rests, and alone rests, the burden of the proof that its influence is prejudicial to the interests of those engaged in the pursuit of the art. More than this. It is not unfair that they should be asked to show how it can be repealed, and if repealed, what further they propose to substitute for it in the way of giving the landlords of landed property as much, to say the least, security as the landlords of house, factory, or other property enjoy. But when they come to one of these reasonable requirements, they may find that repeal of the law of distraint is one of those changes which are not so easily made. Not a few, and men eminently practical, maintain that, under the present complicated system of com- mercial law, this law is not capable of being re- pealed, questionable if it can be very much altered. This view of the case may be somewhat novel to some of our readers who may not have considered the matter in all its bearings. But it would appear, on a careful consideration of all the cir- cumstances, that so bound up is the principle of the law of distraint with every other law regulating the business relations between man and man, that no lawyer, or any number of lawyers, could, it is said, and by competent authorities, devise a scheme for its repeal without bringing about a complete revolution in the whole of what is called the Commercial Law of England. It is from this that we have said that probably the 5 So DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY repeal of the law of distraint is almost impossible at present. And it is not easy to refute the arguments of those who maintain this view to be correct, namely, that if the law of distraint be bad not only in its operation, but, as they contend, in its inherent principle, as applied to land, — if this principle be found to form the basis of a law or laws affecting property other than landed, this law or those laws ought in strict justice to be repealed also. Are those who so warmly advocate the total repeal of the law of distraint as applied to land, prepared, therefore, to repeal the law of distraint as applied to property in houses, factories, workshops, in fact all the wide range of buildings from which so large a class of the community derive the chief portion of their income, some the whole of that ? If in strict justice the law of land distraint ought to be repealed, in strict justice the law of distraint for building property should also be repealed. We do not say that it ought. But this we do say, that should any agitation, from any cause whatever, be got up by tenants of house and other property for the repeal of the law of distraint, or, as it is popularly called, the landlord's law, then a list of grievances will be brought forward, as great and as numerous as those which have been and are now being brought for- ward in favour of the repeal of the law of land distraint. It can with strict truth be said further, that if the law of building property distraint was repealed to-morrow, from to-morrow would date a complete revolution in our social arrangements. For very few men would then create building property without the safeguards with which it had formerly been protected. Landlords of houses and the like may be utterly wrong in supposing that these were real safeguards. We suspect, how- ever, that they do suppose this. Is there, then, no way of getting rid of the grievances which the law brings into existence ? Or if they cannot be got rid of wholly, can they be so modified as to be comparatively harmless ? Some eminent authorities put the case thus : A man may covenant or contract himself out of whxit really are his own just rights ; but this applies as well to landlords as to tenants. Nay, a tenant may to-day be stopping all attempts of the landlord to get him out of his house pro- perty, and this although he never has paid, never means to pay, a penny of rent, and this, moreover, when he, the tenant, is allowing the property to go to ' wreck and ruin.' Nay, making- it go so, by tearing down and burning the wood fittings, and in every way doing his very best to do the very worst he possibly can to the pro- perty. We know of a farmer who kept possession of house and land for years, till at last the landlord was glad to pay him a round sum to get rid of him, as well as having to pay a still larger one to make good the injury clone to his property. When talking, therefore, of the powers of land- lords, it is well to think of those of tenants. Eacli of the parties, landlord and tenant alike, has the power to exercise those powers, the other party consenting — or, in other words, agreeing — to covenant or contract himself out of his rights and privileges. Agreeing, we say ; but this may be clone in ignorance as well as by willing inten- tion. Hence the necessity for both to make sure of what their covenant, contract, or agreement is ; in homeljr words, to be sure as to the bargain they make. To do this effectually, let no one grudge the cost of securing the best legal advice and assistance he can command. Many a tenant, just as well as many a landlord, is now com- plaining of grievances — and justly complaining, for they exist sorely to his loss — which have arisen, to put the matter plainly, solely through their ignorance of what they had each a right to demand, or of indifference at the time of making the contract as to what its terms were. If the law of distraint has to be reformed as applying to one form of property, it has to be repealed as applying to another or to all forms. But seeing, according to practical authorities, the almost in- superable difficulties in the way of repeal, it would be well if tenants would give thought to devising some means of getting rid of the grievances caused by it, and of which they so complain. Nor would a like consideration on the part of the landlords be aught but beneficial in its results. The prin- ciple of ' give and take,' or of ' compromise,' is, after all, the best way of transacting business of any kind. And this principle, we venture to maintain, will be found not merely alone appli- cable to the solution of the difficulty thus briefly discussed ; it may be found so to others of what REVISION OF THE LAND LA TVS. 581 are called the ' burning questions ' of our day, as, for example, to — The Revision of the Land Laws, which, with all the changes this term includes, constitutes one of the not least important of those being now discussed. All classes of the community are interested in this question ; no one is free from its influence. It is therefore greatly to be regretted that in its discussion so much has been brought forward in direct opposition to the principles of those laws which affect and protect the interests of property, of whatever kind it be. Much of what we have said in connection with small farms bears with equal force on the details of this question. That there are features in the land laws which claim attention, and details which require modification, and some which demand repeal altogether, is admitted on all sides. And that very considerable revision will be made, and sooner than many at present anti- cipate, seems to be beyond a doubt. But this revision will be on the present ' lines,' so to say, and the rights of landed property will be pro- tected, even although we find it by not a few talked of as if it could be dealt with, and legis- lated for, on principles and in a way wholly distinct from those which affect all other classes of property. Before property in land can be dealt witli in this exceptional way, it is only in honest fairness right to show why it is excep- tional. No doubt there is a legal distinction between ' real ' and ' personal ' property. In the case of landed property, the estate is held on the assumption that nothing can be done with it inimical to the interests of the nation at large ; in other words, that the ' estate ' can only be held, not the land absolutely which that estate represents. But this does not apply to land which is only used for agricultural purposes, as some think, and indeed maintain. It applies to land for whatever purpose used, be it for farming, or mining, or quarrying, or building. But this legal distinction here noticed may in truth be defined as a legal fiction, for we know that practically an ' estate ' is property ; this ' fiction ' being but the expression of the legal dictum, that the land absolutely is the property of the commonwealth. But there is therefore nothing exceptional in landed property consi- dered as farming land. Or, if it can be inter- fered with, it can only be so on the same grounds which render land used for other purposes — as building or mining — liable to be interfered with. This is a very different position from that held by some who agitate for a revision of the land laws, as if it could and did apply to farming land only. The attempt to show that property in land is exceptional to those laws which protect the rights of all who acquire property, has, however, often been made, but made, we regret to say, not seldom with that ready ignoring of all facts which characterizes the utterances of those who, coming to a question with foregone conclusions, based generally on pre- judices, treat facts as of no importance. All the facts go to prove the opposite of much that is advanced by those who demand the revision of the land laws. And if they advocate this with- out a knowledge of them, they are placed in a false position, totally different from that occupied by those who, knowing facts, have the right to discuss probabdities and propose plans. "We are generally told by various platform and press authorities, that all the depression which has so long weighed heavily, and stdl weighs heavily on agriculture, owes its origin to the ' monstrous system ' of the land laws ; and that this depres- sion will not be removed till those laws are altered. It would be but reasonable to suppose that the causes which have brought about that depression which has weighed so heavily also upon other branches of industry, have operated more or less in bringing about that under which agriculture suffers. But refraining from further pursuing this common-sense view of the matter, we may fairly ask those who advocate the revision of the land laws on this ground to explain the follow- ing facts. If the evils pressing upon agricul- ture were wholly, as it is said they are, in consequence of the malign influence of the land laws, how is it that those who are not in the slightest degree influenced by those laws, so as to be under what is called 'landlord's influence,' feel the ' depression ' as heavily as those of their neighbours who are under this influence ? This class, the members of which are in no way in- fluenced by the landlords or by the land laws, is a large one, very much larger than is generally 5S2 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. supposed, but which the agitators will not care, at least generally, to concede. One district might be named, famous for the high quality of its soil, in which nearly all the farmers are their own landlords, and cannot therefore be said to be under the ' landlord's influence,' as it is termed ; and yet in this district the depression is felt as badly as in other districts where the so-called landlord's influence exists. This class, as we have said, is a large one, and is not made up alone of private gentlemen, who for one reason or another farm their own property ; but both the numbers and the influence of the class are largely added to by practical farmers of the high- est standing, who, frankly avowing that they are perfectly and absolutely free to farm as they like, and are under no depressing covenants, as frankly avow that they feel the full effects of the depression not a whit less than other farmers, many of whom attribute their want of success to the operation of the land laws, or to some stringent covenant under which they farm. The inference to be drawn from this important fact is obvious enough. We have said, when considering the question of the law of distraint, that the character of cove- nants or contracts depends greatly, if not wholly, upon the parties contracting ; so that a landlord just as well as a tenant may covenant himself out of his rights. This is equally true in the case of large farms. The very highest of practical authorities on agriculture, of all shades of party, of all varieties of opinion in politics, agree in this, that all the relations can be regulated by the contract- ing parties themselves. This, in point of fact, has been that under which our whole system of busi- ness, including, of course, that connected with land, has gradually been formed, and upon which it rests. Our laws as a rule only 'confirm customs,' and render ohhgatory upon all parties alike the observance of these principles of right and justice. What these authorities maintain to be an incontrovertible fact, is stated in the familiar phrase that both the parties, tenants and landlords alike, ' have their business in their own hands,' and this conferred on them by virtue of the principle embodied in what we know as the ' freedom of contract.' And this opinion, coming as it does from men eminent for their sound business knowledge, their practical acquaintance with agriculture, and their social position and influence, is surely entitled to at least an equal degree of attention and consideration with that maintained by those who advocate the revision and, as some do, the abrogation of the land laws as the only cure for all the evils affecting farming. This, it appears to us, is not asking anything one-sided or unfair ; nor is it unreasonable to ask that it should be considered as a factor — if not an important one, still a factor — in the solu- tion of the question. In the paper read by Mr. Brassey, M.P., to which we have alluded in a preceding paragraph, we find the following. It includes a number of very striking facts connected with American farms as compared with our own, and of their production as bearing upon the question of competition. The remarks of Mr. Brassey have special reference to the influences which have brought about what may be called the law regulating the size of farms, and also to the question of small farms we have discussed. But the remarks are obviously directly applicable to the principle we referred to in last paragraph, that the relations of landlord and tenant have been in the past, and can be regulated in the future by themselves : — ' It is a most remarkable circumstance, that the distribution of land (in England) for the pur- poses of cultivation is approximately the same under the sj'stem of absolute liberty to buy and sell which prevails in America, and under the more restrictive system which has been handed down from a remote antiquity in our own country. The average size of the farms in seventeen representative counties of Eng- land has been ascertained to be 152 acres ; the average size of the farms of the United States, according to the census of 1870, is 153 acres. If smaller holdings had been found to offer greater advantages to the occupiers, no obstacle would have been raised on the part of the English landowners as a body to a more minute subdivision. The area of our farms has been determined by long experience, and has been settled, as between land- lord and tenant, by countless independent negotia- tions, each party to the bargain having looked mainly to the protection of his own interests in the transaction. Here, therefore, we find yet IMPORTANCE OF THE PRINCIPLE, 'FREEDOM TO CONTRACT: 583 another illustration of the practical ability of the English people to correct imperfections of method and of form without the aid of legis- lation.' And yet, notwithstanding suchfactsand opinions, and others patent to all who know the whole subject, we find schemes of change in the land laws of a most remarkable character warmly advocated. Those schemes are remarkable for their utter absence of those features which convey to the mind almost intuitively the im- pression that they are business-like in character, distinguished by common sense, and therefore eminently safe. It is perhaps not a matter for surprise that exceedingly wild and dangerous views should be advanced by agitators who have the ears of the labourers, and abuse it so often to their great loss. But it does, to say the least, appear to be a very depressing feature of the times we live in, that such ill-considered schemes as those we have alluded to — to write of them in the mildest terms — are maintained by men of the highest standing, and received with vigorous applauding by cultivated audiences, and enforced by ill-considered opinions, which both speakers and hearers must surely know are wrong, and utterly subversive of all that constitutes the right to hold property. No revision of the land laws, or of any other law, will or can possibly be right which is obtained by the sacrifice of a right principle. That a just revision of the land laws is competent, and that there are many features of them which it would be to the advantage of both landlord and tenant to have altered, and in some cases done wholly away with, no one denies ; and this will better and more quickly be secured by consider- ing fairly both sides of the question, as affecting those who can concede and those who claim concession. But that much can be done in getting rid of the evils which press upon many by meanwhile taking advantage of the customs of commercial law usage, and the regarding of the rights and privileges of the laws as they at present exist, not a few practical men believe. By thus simply taking advantage of a remedy which is already within the reach of all, the diffi- culties, to some extent at least, may be overcome. And this desirable end maybe still more quickly attained by attributing such generous and chari- table motives to others as we claim and expect to be given to ourselves. The latter consideration may by some be looked upon as simply sentimental. It may be this, but it is something more. For it is but another way of stating the value of the system of ' compro- mise,' of ' give and take,' which practical men who are distinguished by common sense know so well the value of. And certainly in this great question of revision of the land laws, the dis- cussion should be conducted on fair principles. This has not always been, nor is it now always done. For while all liberty is given, or proposed to be given, to those who wish concessions made to them, equal liberty is refused to those who are asked to concede. And this certainly seems to be anything but a fair way to deal with the matter, to say that the tenant, if he has ever the opportunity or chance to make a good bargain with his landlord, has full right to do so, and is to be praised for doing it ; while, on the other hand, the landlord is to be debarred from making the best bargain he can with any proposing tenant. If this mode of dealing with the case is to be conceded and admitted as the correct one of the future, it will be a most effective way of getting rid of that other and better method, which hitherto has been and now is found to be so effective, and which is alluded to in the last paragraph but one, in the words of Mr. Brassey, M.P., as a method to ' correct imperfections of method and form without the aid of legislation ; ' in other words, that system of mutual concessions and admissions which are, by the universal consent of society, held to be indisputably necessary to the just and therefore in every way satisfactory settlement of any ques- tion. But the misfortune of the thing is, that, while admitted to be so in one's calmer moods, when judgment is allowed to preside, not prejudice, so soon as the warmth engendered by opposing interests, or those which are supposed to be op- posing— the result in both cases is practically the same — is aroused, those principles often wholly vanish, and all the consequent evils follow with their disappearance. There can be, and we make, no exception to the application of those principles now stated. "Where it is forgotten by one party, no matter how deeply we may sympathize with its position, its 5S4 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. aims, and work, we are as ready to condemn its action as when it is forgotten by the party occupy- ing a different position in our estimation. Shrewd business men will not look forward to the time with anything like satisfactory com- placency, when this old but thoroughly good method of settling business difficulties is done away with. Certainly none the more satisfied when they find that it gives place to a method as regardless of the feelings of one of the parties concerned, as it is of his just rights and privileges. For how is it, — and the question may well be asked, in view of the strange schemes we find advocated by many who certainly ought to know better, — how is it that landlords are excluded, or proposed or expected to be excluded, from the privilege accorded to all other classes of managing their property in the way they conceive best calculated to promote its interests ? What is there connected with land which brings this about? Is there anything connected with it which sets it aside from all the rules of political economy, of which we certainly have heard much of late years ? There is much that is pregnant with the weightiest interests in the reply to questions such as these, bearing upon all classes of society in possession of property in land alone. Land is surely as much a property, just such an investment, as cotton mills, ironworks, shops, or the like. Do we ever hear of unjust demands being made in the case of cotton mill, coal pit, mineral property, or the like, to split up their gigantic structures or their far-reaching seams into a large number of small departments, each of which is to be worked by one of their work- men, or let off on demand to some working man who may be utterly ignorant of cotton and all connected with it, or who only knows the differ- ence between coal and iron ? Are the owners of these classes of property ever denounced in the same terms, and have the base motives been attributed to them, with which the proprietors of landed estates are so familiar ? And yet there are those who fail to see, that if the principles of interference with private rights justly founded are to be carried out in the case of owners of property in land, they should also be carried out in the case of owners of mill or of any oilier property. Surely the well-known astute- ness of business men must have failed them, if those of them who advocate the compulsion of owners of property in land to deal with it as certain parties wish it to be dealt with, — failed them, assuredly, if they do not see that if landlords are compelled — for it appears to be fast coming to compulsion — to parcel out their land for the benefit, or assumed benefit, of their labourers, other consequences will follow. Many business men appear to have overlooked this, and what those consequences are. They know but little of their workpeople, — ' their hands,' as they are called invariably, as if heads and hearts were of no moment in the reckoning, — if they suppose that they will not quickly learn what is taught them, and begin to ask — and some are inclined to do more than this — why they should not have a slice of their master's property as well. They are apt scholars enough in this school of ready reprisals. And in view of the fact that they have learned the lesson to a much greater length than many are aware of, it would be well for the country generally to take special note of, if so be that some means could be devised for getting rid of such communistic movements, so heedlessly begun by certain agitators. The main feature of all such schemes is, that the land is proposed to be taken from the landlords and from the farmers also, and given to the labourers and others, — a curious way, certainly, to get rid of agricultural distress by so largely adding to it. It is impossible to write too earnestly on this subject, more especially when schemes are brought forward each of which is said by its proposers to be a perfect panacea for the evils or assumed evils which oppress or depress agriculture. But those schemes, when looked into and stripped of the sophistical expressions by which their true character is glassed over and disguised, are at once seen to be nothing else but schemes of con- fiscation. The very terms in which they are stated proves this, and in such a way as the veriest schoolboy would understand. No doubt the proposers of such methods of dealing with the land difficulty A'ery indignantly repudiate, as is certain to be the case, any such intention on their part. But if landlords are by Act of Par- liament compelled to sell their land whether they wish to sell or not, and are further com- MODIFICATIONS IN SYSTEMS OF FARMING. 5^5 pelled to accept of such sums as Parliament in its wisdom sees fit to decide upon as the right price to be asked, what does such a proposal mean ? what can it mean but what the words convey ? No doubt the proposers will indig- nantly repudiate all such intentions on their part as to propose for the consideration of business men what all business men will at once see, on calm consideration of the important point at issue, is a complete subversion of or doing away with all those ties or bonds which make property honestly obtained sacred from all attacks. We say in calm moments, for our profouudest thinkers on ethical subjects have not failed to note how prepossessions, preconceived notions, or prejudices go very far to warp, often so far as completely to becloud a man's mind, so that he at first consents to a proposition at which after- wards his reason revolts. We feel, therefore, quite at ease as to the ultimate reception or treatment of the proposals we have referred to, or such modifications of them — but still going in the same lines — as may yet, in these days so fruitful of schemes of change, be brought for- ward. When once it is known that such schemes do away with ' freedom of contract,' business men of all classes will perceive that it is then high time to put a stop to them, as utterly sub- versive of the best interests of the country. For no one knows better than they do how this ' freedom of contract ' is the very essence of sound business. On this point men of all shades of opinion are agreed, and but a very small minority indeed would be found who, as having opinions differing from this, would be disposed to support schemes of land treatment and dis- posal such as those we have just described. Be- yond all dispute, their supporters are bound to prove four things : First, that landed property qua property is placed under such exceptional circumstances that it may be dealt with excep- tionally ; in other words, that if you have in- vested in property of any kind save and except land, the law will secure you in the posses- sion of it in perpetuity, and under all circum- stances will protect your rights thereto ; but that if you invest in land, the same law, in place of protecting your interests therein, will deem itself quite right to take it from you for a definite purpose. In the one case, any one taking your property will be looked upon as committing a felony ; but in the other he will simply be exercising a right. The second thing the supporters of those schemes are bound to prove, is (granting the first to be admitted as proved) that the class for whose benefit this change of land proprietorship is to be made will really be bene- fited and raised in the social scale, and be in every respect better off as proprietors of small farms than as labourers on large ones owned or occupied by their employers, or than when en- gaged in other callings to which they have been brought up. The third thing to be proved is, whether under the new system of small - farm cultivation the average annual increase or yield will be much higher than it is under the system of large-farm cultivation. The fourth and last is, whether under the new rigime of small farm- ing, agriculture as a science and an art will make greater progress than it does or has done under the old rigime, and whether the improvements which are beyond dispute the present characteristics of every department, crops, stock, and land, and all connected with them, shall be equally the cha- racteristics of the same departments under the new regime yet to come. When these four points are satisfactorily answered, then, but not till then, wdl be the time to consider how the new scheme or system could be carried into effect without greatly endangering the interests of the parties concerned in the retention of the present system. Should ever such a train of inquiry as we have indicated above be instituted, we confess we cannot congratulate those connected with and interested in its successful termination on the nature of the task which will be before them, or the chances that that termination will be quickly reached. It is they who have themselves raised the diffi- culty, and with them rests its solution. Modifications in Systems of Farming. — Setting aside proposals advocated by many, much of which is visionary, and some of which it is impossible ever to be attained, others there are who take a more practical view of the position. In no way ignoring the depression under which farming labours, they try to discover some methods by which that can be more profitably carried on, and •A E 5S6 DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. the effects of depression lessened, if not to a great, yet still to such a moderate extent as to be a decided relief. As may well be conceived, such methods, con- stituting as they do modifications on the usual or ordinary methods of farming, are numerous enough. They are, of course, received in different ways by different men. Some of them are sneered at as wildly absurd, and therefore eminently imprac- ticable, and are set aside as those which are not worthy of any consideration whatever. This must not be matter of surprise, — ' many men, many minds.' But when so many suggestions are made, and the results of so many actual trials of methods placed before the farmers, it is but reasonable to conclude that out of the whole as thus presented to his notice he should be able to pick up something useful to him in his own practice. He is said to be but an utterly ' poor thing of a man ' from whom nothing can be learned, no information of some value obtained. In like manner, if out of one of the modifications in ordinary farming proposed nothing can be got, surely out of the aggregate of several proposed modifications some little can be secured. Thus those most likely to meet with the most notice, and some of the points of which are most likely to be adopted in practice, are obviously those modifications which do not propose any violent change, any very great wrench to the opinions, and, as some would call them, the pre- judices of a lifetime of practice. And this is a reasonable view. For farming, unlike other branches of industry, is not capable of being so completely, and certainly not so quickly changed in the details of its system. We have in various parts of preceding sections and paragraphs drawn attention to modifications in practice which are of the character above noted. These are easily adopted, and most of them do not constitute changes so much as they form simply legitimate developments or outcomes of the ordinary methods of farming. In brief, they are rather new de- tails of the old, than parts of an entirely new system. The circumstances in which the farmer is now placed, and the conditions under which he works, are so changed and changing, that it is incumbent on him to look about in every direction to see that in which help can come to him. The wise and prudent will do this, and do it judiciously, and success will to a greater or less extent enrich him. But he has but a poor chance of securing even the smallest portion of this, who prefers his prejudices to his pocket or his purse. In connection with what we have already given, bearing and as concluding our remarks on this subject, we give the following interesting extract. It may be to some suggestive of perhaps more than one practically useful point. The ex- tract is from an article in a leading journal of the day upon Mr. Brassey's paper, to which we have in preceding paragraphs made allusion. Its opening sentence will remind the reader of a point on which much has been written of late, namely, the necessity there is for having a Minister of Agriculture as one of the Privy Council : — ' In the United States there is a Department of Agriculture, part of whose business it is to keep the farmers well informed of the condition and prospects of the crops both in Europe and America, and to give them timely notice when it seems likely that some new cultivation may be attempted with success. When corn, rice, and cotton became less remunerative in the South, the Department pointed out that sugar might be cultivated to advantage. It has lately published a manual on the cultivation of the fig ; and it has urged Congress to institute a training establishment for those who might embark in silk. It is left to private individuals in Eng- land to do what this Department does in America, and we have plenty of counsellors on the subject. All seem to agree that in producing more fruit and vegetables, more milk and meat, and in diminishing his growth of grain, lies the safety of the British farmer in the future. ' Mr. Brassey gives some interesting statistics to show the profit which may be made on orchards and on various kinds of vegetables. The average price of potatoes during the last ten years has been, in London, £5, 10s. a ton; the cost of cultivating an acre of potatoes is from £17 to £25, and the yield is from 5 to 10 tons an acre. Cabbages make from £60 to £70 an acre; onions, on an average, £35 ; cucumbers, £45. The rent of market - garden land within twenty TRANSITION PERIODS IN THE FUTURE OF BRITISH AGRICULTURE. 587 miles of London varies from £4 to £9 an acre ; the labour is a little more. Our readers, there- fore, can judge for themselves of the profits to be made by this business. . . . Fruit pays equally well when the original cost of planting has once been recovered. The cost of planting ground with apples and pears seems to average about £12 an acre; but the annual expense of keeping up an orchard is not more than £2 or £3, and as the return varies from £10 an acre in an aver- age season to £50 in a very favourable one, the profit on the annual outlay is always very fair, and sometimes very considerable.' We are at present in what some call a ' transi- tion period ' in the history of British agriculture, — that period which comes always at one time or another to every branch of industry, and some- times more than once in certain limits to some. In such transition periods the workers often seem to rest contented with what has been done in the way of improvement, careless or indifferent about, or at least not very eager to introduce, methods by which that improvement would be greatly promoted. As transition periods come to all, they may and often do serve a useful purpose, as afford- ing breathing times, so to say, in which thinking and energetic men take a quiet survey of the past, a calm outlook on the future, to see how far the experience gained by the one would serve as a guide to the work of the other. But with the majority there is perhaps too great a tendency to prolong the period ; an attempt resulting generally in falling back — losing, in point of fact, much of what has been previously gained. If it be so that British agriculture is now passing through one of these transition periods, assuredly the influences at work around those interested in its progress are not such as ought to induce the dolce far nicnte, the ' rest-and-be-thankful' feelings we have alluded to. Never at any time in the history not only of agriculture, but of other branches of industrial callings, were there such a number of influences at work as now, these in some instances distressing, but all more or less distracting and disturbing. What the result to the ' industry' of Great Britain, using this term in its widest accepta- tion, will be it is not easy to say ; but one thing is very certain, that if the difliculties brought about by the influences we have alluded to be not fairly looked in the face, grappled with and fought fairly out, the result must of necessity be dis- astrous to the welfare of the nation. It is worse than idle to ignore these influences, or, if admitting their existence, to look upon them to a large extent as but the ' creatures of a day,' which will shortly fade away and be no more heard of. What these are we have in this our concluding section but too briefly glanced at. In our remarks we have endeavoured to show what those points are, how they are acting now, and are likely to act in the future if not met and dealt with. But for the future of agriculture we have no fear, if only it be left free to develop its inherent energies. To maintain, as many do, that the life has gone or is rapidly going out of it, and beyond all hope of recovery, is simply absurd. But no better evidence could they give that they are ignorant of the whole circumstances of agriculture as existing in this country, than the fact that they can and do insist upon this absurd view as being the correct one. So far from the life having gone out of agricul- ture, we hold precisely the opposite view, and maintain that, in view of the great work which yet lies before it, it has but entered, so to say, one of the earliest stages of its existence. So true is it, as has been said of the science, that it is at once the oldest and the most youthful, — old, from the standpoint of extreme antiquity, for, going back to the times when ' hoary grey with eld,' we find agriculture then, as now, the most honoured and most honourable of all ; youthful, for on look- ing at its latest work we see every evidence of energetic action. Great as has been the advance made by agriculture during the last half-century, and truly wonderful as have been some of its developments, this may be safely said of her, — — to paraphrase but slightly the ever-memorable words of Newton, at once the greatest and the most simple-minded of men, — ' She has thus, like a child wandering on the sea-shore, picked up a pebble or two of greater value than before, but the great ocean of truth still remains unexploied before her.' It is not possible to name a single department in which there is not still a great work yet to do. Of some we have as yet but touched the fringe or outer edge, while their wide 5SS DIRECTORY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY. expanse is all but wholly unknown to us; and of others, what we do know about them suffices but to show us how little we do know. Seeing this, it may, however, be said that better evidence could not be given that agriculture is dying out, if of all this great work yet to do, all those difficult problems yet to solve, she has not yet been able, nor is now likely to be able, to master them. But does this really hold true of agriculture ? does it hold true of the other sciences, as, for example, telegraphy ? Assuredly not. This, the latest development of the sciences, has simply performed wonders, and is daily doing what in times not so long passed away would have been designated as miraculous, or as the work of another agency. There is connected with it not one, but many points, on all of which every one, even the most learned and most expert in the science, agree to confess that they are profoundly ignorant. But this, so far from being accepted as evidence of, or brought forward as triumphant testimony to the fact that the science of telegraphy is dying out, is taken in precisely the opposite sense. And it forms, in fact, the strongest inducement that can possibly be laid before the most learned in the science, the most expert in the manipulation of the most delicate apparatus, to solve those problems, to overcome those difficulties. And although it may be somewhat unsafe to predicate what will be the result of the efforts now being made to bring forward those now unsolved problems into the region of demonstrated facts, yet it may be safely conjectured that the actual result of the efforts now being made by the experts will be to solve them. A like result has been attained before ; it may be attained now — is, in fact, being daily attained, for the great difficulty of yesterday is the striking accomplished fact of to-day. This, in reality, is the position of agriculture ; it is one essentially of movement, and that move- ment is ever onward. Slow it may, nay, must be, for it has to deal with difficulties which do not admit of those rapid movements which distinguish the progress of other of the sciences. But if its progress be slow, it is none the less certain ; and although it is not distinguished by those brilliant discoveries which are so apt to dazzle the popular mind, its progress is marked by the cpiiet, unobtrusive victories over natural obstacles which give to thinking minds the most solid satisfaction. A science thus distinguished, alike by the successes of the past and by the reasonable prospects of the still greater successes of the future, is not likely to die out and be- come the effete thing which some seem to con- template with pleasure. Not likely, even if it were not a science so intimately bound up with the well-being, nay, the very existence of the community, that the prosperity of the one is that of the other. But seeing that it is in reality this, and nothing less nor more than this, to talk of the decadence and the ultimate decay of British agriculture, as some do, is, as we have said, simply an absurdity. We have therefore no fear for the future of agriculture in Great Britain. We have still a science full of vigorous vitality, which is feeling and putting forth its strength from day to day in the making of fresh discoveries and in the getting rid of old diffi- culties. And more than this, we have still with us the good old race of British farmers, whose profound knowledge, daring skill, untiring energy, and indomitable determination have enabled them to weather storms as severe, to overcome times of depression as bad, and to recover from losses as crushing as those which have so oppressed them of late years. Those who doubt this know but little of what the British farmer is, and how he is now comporting himself in the midst of his great trials. With him, at least, there is no talk, simply because there is no thought, of giving up. or of giving in to these difficulties. The only determination he has is to do his best to overcome them. Those great scientific and natural advan- tages, and those high moral qualities and business attainments we have just alluded to, will stand our farmers in good stead in their present diffi- culties, and will do so in those which may yet be to come. Not less will they be aided in their endeavours to do the good work of their duty by maintaining, alike in ' all time of their wealth ' as in ' all time of their tribulation,' that firm and abiding trust in the goodness and care of an all- wise Creator, to acknowledge whom the British farmer has never yet been ashamed. INDEX. Accommodation, Bedroom, in houses, . . 110, 111 Accommodation, I ncrease of house, .... 312 Accommodation of working staff of the property, . 362 Accounts, Importance to the farmer of keeping correct, 551 Act, Agricultural Holdings, 373 Action of lime on soils and manures, .... 437 Advances, Bank, 554 Advice, legal, Importance of having good) in the draw- ing up of contracts or covenants, .... 5S0 Agencies acting on the soil, difficulty in classifying them, 236 Agency of nature as a fertilizer of the soil, . . 242, '243 Agents for landed property, 547 Agreement or contract between the proprietor and purchaser of land, 347, 34S Agreements, Covenanting or contracting as to rights in, 5S0 Agreements for amateur farms, ..... 360 Agreements, Value of the principle of ' compromise ' in drawing up, between landlord and tenant, . 5S0 -583 Agricultural chemistry, Necessity of the study of, . 247 Agricultural College, Royal, Experimental farm at, . 450 Agricultural experiments on domestic farms, . 451, 452 Agricultural department of the American Government, 586 Agricultural Holdings Act, 373 Agricultural improvement on the large scale not com- petent under a general system of small farming, . 577 Agricultural press, Power of the, .... 447 Agricultural societies, Future action of, . . . 447 Agricultural societies' prizes confined to stock, . . 44S Agricultural wealth, Reclamation of waste lands a source of, 205 Agriculture as a science, ...... 449 Agriculture, Circumstances connected with the future of American, ...... 456, 457 Agriculture, Future of British 588 Agriculture, Minister of, 586 Agriculture not a fixed science, 249 Agriculture, Transition period in British, . . . 5S7 Air in apartments, Causes of deterioration of, . . 137 Air, fresh, Appliances for supplies of, ... 5S9 Air, fresh, Prevention of draughts in supplying, to rooms, ....... IS-1, 189 Air, used, in dairies, Appliances for withdrawing, . 59 Alkalies and phosphates, Rock of the secondary and tertiary districts rich in, 218 Allotment club lor labourers 388 PACE Allotment question, The, 392 Allotment system, Advantages of, ... 394 Allotments of too large plots to the labourer prejudicial, 394 Allotments, Small, considered as a means of bringing waste lands under cultivation, .... 296 Alternative mode of withdrawing used air, ... 59 Amateur farms, Agreements for, 360 Amateur farms, Buildings on, ..... 361 Amateur farms, Laying out of, and buildings for, . 358 Amateur farms, Restrictions on cropping of, . . 359 America, United States of, Construction of shelter sheds for cattle in, 181,182 America, United States of, Small farms in, . . 379, 3S0 American Government, Agricultural department of, . 586 American and English farms, Comparison between, as regards their size, American cattle, Transportation of, . American cattle trade, Recent decrease of, . American competition, Cost of transport affecting, American competition and the farmers, American farming, Circumstances connected with the future of, ..... . . 4.rei, American meat, Importation of, affecting the farmers' interests, ........ American meat, Prices of, ..... . Ammonia, Presence of, in loamy soil, .... Analysis of herbage, ....... Angles, sharp, in buildings, Injury done by, to cattle, etc., Animal life, Influence of water on, ... . Animals on the farm, Water an important element in the food of, ....... Annual and perennial weeds, ..... Apartments, air in, Causes of deterioration of, . 137, Apartments of dairies, Arrangements for warming, Apartments, Cellar Apartments, Working, of the farm-house — kitchen, scullery, etc., 106, Apple trees, Best varieties of, .... Arable and grass land in England and Scotland, . Arable, Change of, into grass land. Arable culture. Improvement of waste laud for, . Arable land, Conversion of grass land into, . Arable land, Conversion of, into permanent grass land, n.. i essential to a wider increase of live-stock and dairy farming 530 582 454 455 455 567 t.M 456 91 216 133 59 109 107 2SS IIS 528 316 432 590 INDEX. Arable land, Conversion of, into permanent grass land, 4-4 Arable land, Some overlooked considerations connected with the question of change of, into permanent grass land, ....... 529 533 Architecture, domestic, Range of, .... 343 Arrangement and construction of cottages, . . 115,116 Arterial drains in bog-land for planting, Difficulty of construction of, ...... . 2S2 Arterial drains, Importance of, in peat-bog or moss fur planting, ........ 282 Artificial composts for grass crop, .... 435 Artificial manure composts, 435 Artificial manures, Importance of, .... 242 Ashes as a manure for clay soils, . . . . 406 Ashes of burned weeds as material for compost-heaps, . 444 Aspect of the farm buildings, ..... 19 Aspect of the site for building, or look-out of dwelling- houses, ........ 105 Association, Suffolk Club, for labourers, . . . SCO Atmosphere, Beneficial action of, on the soil, . . 397 Atmosphere, Chemical action of the, as a fertilizer of the soil, ....... 241, 242 Atmosphere, Fertilizing matter of the, how conveyed to the soil, 241 Atmospheric influences the cause of change in the soil, 236 Atmospheric influences on the soil, . . . 234, 252 Autumn cultivation, Neglect of, .... 252 Autumnal cultivation, Effect of, .... 241 Autumnal system of culture, 254 Autumnal working of clay soil, .... 398 Bad water, Deleterious effects of, ... 216, 217 Bailiffs, farm, Education of, 550 Baldwin, Professor, on small farms, .... 377 Bank advances, ........ 554 Banks enclosing land from the sea, Form of, . . 2.31 Banks of rivers, Protection of face of, . . . . 226 Banks of rivers, Work done for, 503 Banks of the sea, Protection of, by groins, . . 227, 228 Banner's ventilating cowls, 492 Barley soil, Nature of, 238 Barley, Mechanical condition of the soil required for the growth of, 244 Barn for corn, Description and construction of, . . 32 Barn for straw, Description of, and internal con- struction, 32, 33 Barn, the thrashing, Description and construction of, . 32 Barns, Three kinds of, 32 Base of embankment, Junction of, with soil, . . 219 Bean crop, Best soil for, 238 Bean soil and wheat soil, Similarity of, . . . 245 Beauty of fruit-growing districts, .... 287 Becklemming institution for holding land in Holland, 372 Bedding of live stock, ...... 471 Bedroom accommodation, 110, 111 Bedrooms, Size and fittings of, .... 141-143 Beer in working men's clubs 388-390 Belgian small farms 378 Birdlimy and wet soil, Evil elfects of disturbing, by ploughing, 252 B' ard of labourers as a perquisite 3S5 Bog infested districts, How to deal with, . . . 2S2 Bog or peat laud, Reclamation of, and an estuary of the 307, 308 283 2S3, 284 2S1 Bog soil, Poor quality of, . Bog soils, Trees to be planted on, Boggy or peat land, Plantations on, Bogs, Drainage of, 282 Boiler-house and steam-engine room, Arrangements in 33 Bones, Crushed or ground, as manure for grass lands, . 419 Book-keeping, Importance of correct, to the farmer, . 551 Bothy cottage, The 127 Boulders and rocks, Reclaiming of land encumbered with, 308, 309 Box, Loose, system in stables, . . . . . 41 Box system of sheltering and feeding cattle, . . 39 Boxes for horses, Description of, .... 43 Breeding, ' Cross, ' of stock 462 Breeding, Curious point in connection with, . . 463 Breeding of stock, 'Cross ' and ' in-and-in,' . . 462 Breeding purposes, Weeding out of calves for, . . 463 Breeding stock, Points to be observed in commencing a, 462 Breeds of cattle for different localities, . . . . 459 Brick and stone, Comparison between, as building materials, ........ 66-68 Brick for farm building construction, .... 66 Brick kiln for burning waste wood as fuel, . . 331, 332 Brick, tile, and drain-tube kilns, .... 324 Brickyard, Plan of, and description, . . . 324, 325 Bridges on farm roads, Construction of, . . . 166 British agriculture, Future of, 588 British agriculture, Transition period in, . . . 587 British cattle farming, ...... 453 Brushwood, etc., Getting rid of, in plantations, . . 271 Buckmon, Professor, on grass lawns, .... 428 Building kilns, Care required in, ... 325, 326 Building land in suburban districts increased in value by its judicious laying out, and in that of the grounds of villas, ...... 352 Building plots, Attractive, 346 Building plots, Influences affecting, . . . 345, 346 Building plots, Judgment in arranging, . . . 345 Building plots and houses, Selling value of, increased by attractive laying out of grounds of, 352 Building plots in suburban land, Laying out of, . . 351 Building, Site of, and aspect of dwelling-houses, . . 105 Building sites, Value of, and how lowered, . . . 344 Building stones, Varieties of, ..... 318 Building walls, Concrete for 4S2-4S6 Buildings, Adaptation of the accommodation of, to special requirements of the farm, . . . 13 Buildings, Aspect of the, 19 Buildings, Cleanliness throughout the, . . .94, 95 Buildings, Constructive details of, ... 84 Buildings, Dairy, in America, ..... 55, 56 Buildings, farm, Best position or locality for erecting, . 17 Buildings, farm, Roads influencing the position of, . 18 Buildings, farm, Sanitary appliances for, . . . 492 Buildings, farm, Use of timber in construction of, 489-492 Buildings, lire-proof, Construction of, . . 146-150 Buildings, Floors and pavements of, . . . 78, 84-86 Buildings for amateur farms, 361 Buildings for pigs and poultry 480 Buildings for the gardeners ol the mansion, . . 496, 499 INDEX. 59i PAGE Buildings, improved, Advantages obtained by putting down, 12 Buildings of dairy, tbeir arrangement and general fittings, 48, 49 Buildings of farm, Comparison between stone and brick, 66-68 Buildings of the farm, Materials employed in the con- struction of, ....... 65 Buildings of the farm, Placing of the various apart- ments of, in relation to each other, . . . 15-17 Buildings, outlying, Pise or earth walls for, . . 486 Buildings, Position of, modified by site, . . . 21, 22 Buildings, Repairs of, and preservatives of outside work, 93, 94 Buildings, roads, and fences to be constructed at the landlord's expense in the reclamation of waste lands, 299 Buildings, Roads in relation to the position for, . . 21 Buildings, Sewerage and drainage of, . . . 133, 134 Buildings, Special, for ' town ' or suburban farms, . 479 Buildings, Ventilation of, S7 Bulk or weight of food in feeding, .... 467 Burned clay, Use of, on heavy soils, .... 406 Burning clay for road-making, .... 335, 336 Butcher, Fattening beasts for, 461 Butter and cheese, Factory system of making, . . 54 Butter store and cooling-room, ..... 62 Byres or cow-houses, Arrangement of, ... 43 Calves, Points indicating milking powere in, Calves, Points of, indicating fattening qualities, , Capital of the farm Carrots, Best soil for the culture of, . Cartage of materials in reclamation of waste lauds, question of expense regarding it, . Cash, Paying wages directly in, . Catch meadows or hill-side irrigation, .... Cattle, Box system of sheltering and feeding, Cattle, Breeds of, for different localities, Cattle, cheap shelter sheds for, Construction of, . Cattle curtains and courts, ...... Cattle, Damage done by, in small woods and coppices, Cattle disease breaking out during transportation, 454, Cattle farming in this country, .... Cattle farming on the Continent, .... Cattle-fattening sheds, Plans and description of, . Cattle food, Cleanliness an essential in cooking of, Cattle, Injury done to, by sharp angles, Cattle, Open court and covered sheds for, Cattle, Open court and shed system of sheltering, Cattle, Open markets for the sale of, . Cattle, Points to be attended to in the judging of, Cattle sheds, Portable construction of, Cattle, store, and young stock, Accommodation for, Cattle, The hammel system of sheltering and feeding, Cattle, Transportation of American, Ceiled rooms in stables, Ventilation of, by ventiducts, Ceiled stable warmer than open-roofed, Cellar apartments, ...... Cement, Portland, or concrete, .... Changes, Some of the proposed, in the laws aflVclin landed property Chatmoss (Lancashire), Reclamation of, Cheap roofs for shelter sheds for cattle, Cheese and butter, Factory system of making, Cheese-making rooms — vat and press room, . Chemical action of the atmosphere as a fertilizer of the soil, 241, 242 Chemical condition of soils, Considerations connected with, 240 Chemical constituents, Varied nature of, in the cropping part of the soils on the earth's surface, . . . 250 Chemistry, agricultural, Necessity for the study of, . 247 Churning-room, The, in the dairy, .... 61 Classes and kinds of plantations, Various, . . . 262 Classes and subdivisions of plantations, . . . 262 Clay, Blue, unfit for facing embankments, . . . 231 Clay, Burning of, for road-making and other pur- poses, 335, 336 Clay, Kiln or furnace for burning, as a manure, . 330, 331 Clay land, Drainage of, 526 Clay lands, Autumnal working of, ... . 398 Clay lands, Conversion of, into stock farms, . . 403 Clay lands, Treatment of, 396-406 Clay lands, Working of fallows on Clay, Layers of, how put down, Clay soil, Thorough drainage of, . Clay soils, Beneficial action of lime on, Clay soils, Cropping and working, by horse power, Clay soils, Cropping of, Clay soils, Live-stock farming on, ... . Clay soils, Manuring of, Clay soils, New methods of working and cropping, Clay soils, Steam appliances for cultivating, Clay soils, Turnip-growing on, ..... Clay soils, Use of ashes as a manure for, Clay soils, Use of burned clay on Clay soils, Use of farm -yard dung on, .... Clay soils, Use of lime on, ...... Clay top-dressings as improvers of light soils, Clay, Use of burned, on heavy soils, .... Clayey or argillaceous and other marls, Cleaning purposes, Arrangements for supply of warm water for, in dairies, ...... Cleanliness in cooking cattle food an essential, Cleanliness throughout the buildings, . . . . 94, 95 Climate, Influence of, in connection with successful small farms, 379 Closet, water, The, 134, 135 Club, Allotment, for labourers, 388 Clubs for agricultural labourers 387-391 Clubs, Labourers' medical 391 Clubs, Smoking iu labourers', ..... 388 Coal or gas tar as a preservative of wood-work, Use of sand and, 93, 94 Coal tar for preserving roof of shelter shed, . . . 183 Coast, Character of, iu reclaiming land on sea margins, to be considered, 312,313 Collecting and saving of water, 217 Collecting and storing of ra in water, .... 506 399 219 396 437 401 404 402 403 401 401 405 406 406 403 406 411 406 320 35 Collecting areas in fields for rain water, Collecting, saving, and storing up of water, . Combined buildings for pigs and poultry, Compensation for improvements on farms, . Competition, American, Cost of transport affecting, Competition, American, and the farmers, ( ktmpoaite walls, Compost-heap, Adding the ashes of burned weeds lo Compost-heap, After treatment of the, the, 507 216 480 370 455 567 487 444 AM 5Q2 INDEX. Compost-heap, Materials available for the, . . . 431 Compost-heap, Time for forming the, .... 430 Compost-heap, Variety of substances beneficial for the, 434 Compost-heaps, Salt for 429-438 Compost-heaps, Different methods of forming, . . 431 Compost-heaps, Filling or building up of, . . . 430 Compost-heaps, Formation of, . . . . 429-431 Compost-heaps, Mode of using, in preparing land for planting 283 Compost-heaps, Mr. Dixon on, 432 Compost-heaps — mud, peat, and boggy matter as manures, 333, 334 Compost-heaps, Pond mud, etc., as material for, . 431-433 Compost-heaps, Site of, 429 Compost-heaps, Soils and materials forming, . . 433 Compost-heaps, ' Waste ' substances valuable for, . 434 Composts, Artificial manure, 435 Compromise, Value of the principle of, in making agree- ments between landlord and tenant, . . 580-583 Concrete as a damp preventer, 128 Concrete floors for cow-houses, ..... 44 Concrete for building walls, Apparatus for, . . 482-486 Concrete, Formation of doors and windows in, . . 484 Concrete, Lime or ordinary, ..... G9 Concrete, Materials used in making, .... 69 Concrete or Portland cement floors for wood cottages, . 129 Concrete, Portland cement, Moulds for building walls of, 6S, 483 Concrete, Proportions of materials used in making, . 69 Condimental and cooked foods, ..... 466 Condition and constitution of the soil, Necessity of an expert to make known, 217 Condition of plants for planting, 274 ' Confirmation of customs ' by the law, . . . 582 Congruity in the working of the two systems of thrashing, 30 Conservatories and garden structures for villas, Hints on, 355 Considerations connected with the subject of leases, 364-367 Considerations, General, connected with the law of distraint, ........ 579 Considerations overlooked connected with the question of conversion of arable into permanent grass land, 529-533 Constituents, mineral, Large supply of, from deep cul- ture, 252 Constituents of plants, how ascertained, . . . 239 Constituents of roots, stems, and leaves, . . . 239 Constituents of soil, Subdivision and classification of, 240, 241 Construction and arrangement of dairy buildings, . 49 Construction and arrangement of piggery, . . . 46, 47 Construction and arrangement of stables, ... 41 Construction and fittings of embankments, Description of illustrations of, ..... 222-224 Construction and general planning of farm-houses, . 103 Construction, Fire-proof, 4S8 Construction of liquid-manure tank, . . . 100, 101 Constructions, Fire-proof, adapted to the buildings of the farm 145 Contiguous doors in room interiors, Hanging of, . . 143 Continent, The cattle trade of the, .... 455 Continental small farms 379 Continuous corn-growing on the same soil, . . . 527 Contour of roads, . . . . . . . 160 Contract defined by the parties negotiating, . . 581 Contract or covenant or lease, Terms of, defined by the local and other circumstances of each case, . . 505 PAGE Contract, Freedom of, 5S2 Contract or lease, difficulty of making a 'model' one to suit all circumstances and localities of farming, 565 Contract or lease, Lord Fife's, 563 Contracting or covenanting out of rights in agreements, 580 Contracts or covenants, Importance of having good legal advice in the drawing up of, ... 580 Conversion of clay lands into stock farms, . . . 403 Coolers for milk 60, 61 Cooling room and butter store, ..... 62 Coppice and small wood, Uses of, .... 286 Coppices and small woods, Enclosure of, 286 Coppices and small woods, Fencing of, a necessity, . 286 Corn and hay, Gibb's machine for saving and drying, . 541 Corn barn, Description and construction of the, . . 32, 489 Corn-growing, Continuous, on the same soil, . . 527 Corn, thrashing of, by portable steam-engine, Danger arising from, ....... 30 Corporate bodies, The duty of, respecting the utilization of sewage, . . . . . . . . 211 Cost of converting clay lands into stock farms, . . 403 Cost of drainage, 191 Cost of reclaiming waste land, .... 533, 534 Cottage, Accommodation of the 116,117 Cottage accommodation in England and Scotland, Com- parison of, ....... 124 127 Cottage of the labourer, Living-room of, . . . 119 Cottage of the labourer, Privies for, . . . 121, 122 Cottage of the labourer, Ventilation of, . . . 121 Cottage of the labourer, Water supply for, . . . 122 Cottage question, Present position and future prospects of the, 499 Cottage, The bothy, whip's, and huntsman's, . 127, 496 Cottages, Arrangement and construction of, . 115,116 Cottages, Dimensions of the rooms of, . . . . 500 Cottages, Economical construction of, . . . . 500 Cottages in Aberdeenshire of the second class, Descrip- tion of, 122, 123 Cottages of the farm, Condition of, . . . 112-115 Cottages of galvanized iron, 128 Cottages, old, The improvement, arrangement, and con- struction of, 130-132 Cottages, single and two storied, Relative advantages of, 120 Cottages, Timber, or built of material other than stone or brick only, . . . . . . . 127 Cottages, wooden, walls of, Variety of ways of making, 129 Country view to house desirable, .... 105, 106 Courses or channels as water supplies in irrigation, . 214 Courts, Open, and covered sheds for cattle, ... 37 Covenant, contract, or lease, Terms of, must be defined by the local and other circumstances of each case, 565 Covenanting or contracting out of rights in agreements, 5S0 Covenants and contracts, Farm, as regards crop- ping, 560-563 Covenants or contracts, Importance of having good legal advice in the drawing up of, .... 580 Covered farm steadings, 78 Covered pit for manure, Construction of, . . . 100 Cow-house aud stable stalls, Fittings of, . . .92, 93 Cow-house, Double-stall system of, in dairy arrange- ments 52-54 Cow-house, Ventilation of, 8S-90 Cow-houses, Concrete floors for ..... 44 INDEX. 593 PAGE Cow-houses, Doors of, 91 Cow-houses or byres, Arrangement of, . . . . 43 Cow-houses, Stalls of, 43, 44 Cow-houses, Window, door, and general work of, . 90, 91 Cranmatting embankments, Description of, . 231, 232 Cream or souring room, 61 Creeks, Sides of, covered with a kind of bluish clay, . 231 Crop of mangold- wurzel important, .... 246 Crop producer, Value of the soil as a, . . . . 243 Cropping adapted to yield increased supplies of food for live stock 439 Cropping and working clay soils by horse power, . 401 Cropping clay soils, New methods of, ... 401 Cropping of the farm, Covenants and contracts as regards, ....... 560-563 Cropping of amateur farms, Restrictions on, . . 359 Cropping of clay soils, 404 Cropping of light soils, 410-412 Cropping of small farms, ...... 379 Crops, An extended area of, demanded by the new system of live-stock and dairy farming, . 439, 530-533 Crops, Applicability of sewage to, . . . . 213 Crops best to be taken before planting the soil with trees, 272, 273 Crops, Classification of, and best soil adapted for the purpose, 237 Crops, Culture of root, on light soils 412 Crops, different, Mechanical conditions of the soil suit- able for, 243 Crops, grain, Stacking, storing, and saving of, . . 540 Crops, New, for the farm, 521 Crops of grass, Seed for, sown down with corn crops, barley, or oats, ....... 246 ' Cross ' breeding of stock, ...... 462 Cultivating appliances, Fowler's steam, . . . 401 Cultivation, autumnal, Effect of, .... 241 Cultivation, autumnal, Neglect of, . . 252 Cultivation of heavy land, ...... 524 Culture, deep, Importance of, in fertilizing the soil, . 243 Culture, Deep, of the subsoil important, . . . 253 Culture of clay soil, Deep, 397 Culture of root crops on light lands, . . . . 412 Culture or tillage, Operations of, how rendered valuable, ill Culture, arable, Great increase of, necessitated by new system of live-stock and dairy farming, . . 530-533 Culvert or pipe to secure embankment in time of floods, Necessity of, 222 Cupboard and scullery doors, Bad position of, . . 143 Customs, Confirmation of, by the law, . . . 582 Dairy building, Piggery of, 63, 64 Dairy buildings, American, 55 Dairy buildings, Arrangement and construction of, . 49 Dairy buildings, Isolation of 50-52 Dairy buildings, Plan of, 50 Dairy buildings, Prevention of damp in, ... 58 Dairy buildings, their arrangements and general fittings, 48, 49 Dairy, double entrance door, ..... 58 Dairy farming, new system of, Large increase of land under cropping demanded by, . . 439, 530-533 Dairy, Milk room of, ...... 57 Dairy vessels, scalding and washing room, . . .61, 62 Dairy walls, ........ 58 PAGE Dairying, its future prospects 474-476 Damp houses injurious to health, . . . . 12S Damp in walls, Prevention of, . . . . 139, 140 Damp, marshy soils, Diseases arising from, . . 114 Damp, Prevention of, in dairy buildings, ... 53 Damp-proof walls, ....... 492 Decaying fruit trees, Method of trenching round, . 290 Deep culture, Application of steam power to, its advan- tages, ......... 251 Deep culture and stirring of the soil, .... 250 Deep culture, Failures and successes of, 251 Deep culture, Importance of, in fertilizing the soil, . 243 Deep culture of clay soil, ...... 397 Deep culture of the subsoil important, . . . 253 Deep culture system, Advantages of, to gardeners, . 252 Deep stirring of the soil to be done with judgment, . 253 Definition of a plantation, 262 Depth and firmness of soil necessary for the wheat crop, 244 Deterioration of air in apartments, Causes of, . 137, 138 Difficulties connected with the repeal of the law of distraint, 5S0 Difficulties in carrying out deep culture, and how they arose, 251 Digging, trenching, ridging, and ploughing of land for plantations, . 272 Diseases and decay of timber, ..... 71 Diseases arising from damp, marshy soils, . . . 104 Disintegration of the soil necessary, .... 240 Disposition, order, number, and distance of trees in the plantation, 274, 275 Distraint, law of, General considerations connected with, 579 Distribution of trees on the property, and their selection, 293 Districts, hilly moorland, Peat land and flow mosses in, 304 Divisions or travises in cow-houses, .... 44 Dixon, Mr., on 'Manure and Compost-Heaps,' . . 432 Domestic condition of farm labourers, .... 381 Domestic farm, Importance of order in the, . . . 452 Domestic farms, Landlords', ..... 451 Domestic structures of the farm 495-500 Door leading from a small room to a large room, Hang- ing of, 144 Door of dressing-room, Hanging of, . . . . 1 44 Door of water-closet, how to be hung, . . . 144 Doors, contiguous, in interiors of rooms, Hanging of, . 143 Doors of cow-houses, 91 Doors of entertaining rooms, Position and hanging of, 143 Drain-laying, Instructions on 190, 191 Drain traps 135 Drain tubes, how laid, 187-190 Drainage and sewerage of buildings, . . . 133, 134 Drainage an important department in hilly moorland to pay for cultivation, Drainage, Cost of, Drainage for hilly moorlands, Drainage in connection with grass-land culture, Drainage of grass lands, .... Drainage oi heavy land Drainage of hill pastures, .... Drainage of hill-sides, .... Drainage of peat bog or moss for planting, . Drainage of roads, ..... Drainage of site, Drainage of the soil, Thorough, 302 191 194 426 IIS 397, 526 42fi 192-194 282 153, 154 1 9 ■M4 Transition period and future of British agriculture, 587. Transplantation of mature trees as useful in the reclama tion of cold and exposed lands, Transplanting trees, Difficulties of, . Transport, Cost of, affecting American competition, Traps for drains, Travises or divisions in cow-houses, Tree roots and waste timber, Utilization of, Trees and clumps, grubbing up of, Bad effects of, Trees, Application of manure to, ... Trees bearing fruit, Planting and management of, Trees, Best periods for pruning of, Trees, Cleansing of, from moss, lichens, and parasites and washing with soap and brush, Trees, decaying, Renovation of, and substitution of good ones decayed Trees, decaying, Method of reviving, . Trees for ornamental clumps, Selection of, . Trees, Height of, for planting in bog soil, . Trees in a plantation, Disposition of, . Trees, Judicious thinning of, ... . Trees, Kind of, for use in a plantation on bog soil, Trees, Kind of, to be planted on bog soil, an important consideration, Trees, Kinds of, for ornamental clumps, Trees, kinds of, grown in plantations, Adoption of change of, Trees, large timber, Effect of underwood and brushwood on the growth of, ..... Trees, Manuring of, by the agency of their own leaves, Trees, mature, Transplanting of, useful in the reclamation of marshy land, Trees, Order, disposition, and number of, and distance between the, in the plantation, . . . 274. PAGE 180 185 287 2S6 286 294 71 -492 265 71 335 255 392 422 411 433 479 210 202 208 383, 385 286 588 534 284 455 135 44 335 261 2S9 265 290 291 285 281 280 285 283 291 286 289 INDEX. 607 Trees, Ornamental planting of, . . . . 290, 291 Trees or young plants, Necessity of seeing to the condi- tion of, 279 Trees, Preparation of the land for, .... 282 Trees, pruning of, Mischief arising from, when overdone, 279 Trees, selected, Planting of, 281 Trees, Selection of, to he grown on property, and their distribution, 293 Trees suited for various positions or local peculiarities of land 269, '270 Trees, Thinning or weeding out of, in the plantation, . 2S0 Trees, timber, when felled and lopped, How to estimate the cubic contents of, . . . . . . 294 Trees, Transplantation of mature, as useful in the reclamation of waste land, .... 534, 535 Trees useful on grass lands, 535 Trenching of land for plantations, .... 272 Trenching round decaying fruit-trees, Method of, . 290 Turf banks or stone walls as fencing for plantations, Finisli of, and shelter, ...... 292 Turf laud ploughed down for oats, .... 245 Turning over of grass lands with the. plough, . . 422 Turnip-growing on clay soils, 405 Turnip soils, 413 Turnip, Swede, varieties of, Preparation of the soil for, important, 245 Turnips, Preparation of hilly moorland for the reception of, 302 Turnips, Soil suitable for, 238 Turnips, Sowing, on the ridge, 402 Unemployed labour, Reclamation of waste lands as an outlet for, 298 Unionism, Trade, in connection with piece-work on the farm 385 Unionism, Trade, prejudicial to farmers, . 3S1-3S3, 385 Used air, Appliances for withdrawing, ... 59 Uses of weeds, ........ 440 Utilization of sundry materials, 333 Utilization of waste timber, etc., . . . 334,335 Utilization of waste water spaces, . . . . 515 Vagrants, Damage done by, in small woods and coppices, 2S6 Value and attractiveness of suburban and rural dwell- ings, how increased, 350, 351 Value of building land in suburban districts increased by judicious laying out of the land, and in that 'if the grounds of villas, etc., ..... 352 Value or uses of weeds, 440 Varieties of soils suitable for plantations, . . 268, 269 Varieties of the Swede turnip, Preparation of the soil for the growth of, ...... 245 Varieties of timber, ....... 71 Vat and press room for cheese-making in the dairy, . 62 Vegetable life, how produced on the rock detritus, . 235 Vegetable productions a means of enriching the soil on the rock detritus, ...... 234 Vegetables and orchards, Profits in the cultivation of, in farming, 587 Ventilation of buildings 87 Ventilation of drains, 135, 136 Ventilation of milk and cream rooms, .... 58 Ventilation of stables, 88 Ventilation of the rooms of the farm-house, . . 137 Vetches, Loamy soil best suited for, .... 238 Villa grounds, Great extent of, not essential to attrac- tive laying out 352 Villa ornamental grounds and garden, Laying out of, . 351 Village clubs for labourers, ..... 387-391 Villages, Suffolk Club Association for, . . . 390 Wages, Higher, during harvest, 386 Wages of labourers, 381-386 Wages, Paying, directly in cash, 383 Wages, Paying, partly in cash and partly in perquisites, 384 Walls as fencing of plantations, Best form of coping for, 292 Walls, Composite, 487 Walls, concrete, Apparatus for building, . . 482-4S6 Walls, damp in, How to prevent, . . . 139, 140 Walls, Damp-proof, ....... 492 Walls of dairy buildings, 53 Walls, Composite, in stone, timber, and mortar, . . 487 Walls, Retaining and other forms of, for fields and roads, 170 Wanning apartments in dairy, Arrangements for, . 59 Warping of land, Simplest plan of, . . . 314,315 Washing and cleansing of trees from parasites, Necessity of, 290 Washing and scalding dairy vessels 61, 62 Waste, How to avoid, 317 Waste land, Cost of reclaiming, .... 533, 534 Waste land plantations, Pine and willow for, . . 518 Waste land, Reclamation of, for forming into grass land, 533 Waste land reclamation, relationship between landlord and tenant as to division of labour, . . 298, 299 Waste land, Trees beneficial in reclamation of, . . 534 Waste lands, Extirpation of weeds on, ... 443 Waste lands, Reclamation of, a source of agricultural wealth, 295 Waste lands, General reclamation of, by mechanics or farm labourers, a fallacy 298 Waste lands, reclamation of, Diversity of opinions re- specting, 295 Waste lands, Reclamation of, its cost, . . . 296 Waste lands, Reclamation of, not easy, . . . 296 Waste lands, Reclamation of, three classes of work to be done mutually by landlord and tenant, . . 299 Waste materials on the property, Utilization of, . . 333 Waste or neglected land, Plantations of, . . 516 Waste substances valuable for compost-heaps, . . 434 Waste water spaces, Utilization of, .... 515 Wasted land, Improvement of, for arable culture, . 316 Water, Action of, on earth and stones, . . . 234 Water a powerful agent in producing changes in the soil, 236 Water, bad, Deleterious effects of, on animals of the farm, 216 Water carriers, Conveyance of town sewage by, . . 202 Water carriers, Reconveyance of soil by, to fields, . 201 Water channels for irrigation, Construction of, . 214,215 Water-courses, Improvement of, in drainage plans, 194, 195 Water-closet door, how hung, ..... 144 Water-closet, The, 134, 135 Water-closets, Earth 494 Water-flow in rivers, Management of, and arrangement of embankments, 226 Water for irrigation of meadows, Use of, . . . 197 Water for irrigation, Qualities of, .... 198 Water, Influence of, on animal life, .... 216 Water, influence of, on the health of animals, Popular notions respecting, . . . . . . 216 6oS INDEX. Water, Influence of, on pastures and animals fed thereon, 248 Water, Influence of, passing over or through surface soil upon animals pastured thereon, . . . 248 Water, Insidious nature of, in destroying embankments, 231 "Water, its action in changing the position of the soil from the hill-tops to the valleys 236 Water, appliances for leading off, from the reservoir, Care respecting 222 Water meadow, steep, Plan of, 203 Water privileges of a farm important, .... 256 Water, Rain, collecting areas, ..... 507 Water, Utilizing existing and forming new reservoirs and ponds for collecting and storing, . . 336, 337 Water, Saving and collecting of, .... 217 Water, Saving, collecting, and storing up of, . . 216 Water spaces, waste, Utilization of, . . . . 515 Water supply by gravitation, 512 Water supply by power, ...... 513 Water supply, Minor sources of, 505 Water supply obtained from open and drainage areas, 505, 510 Water, Supply of, 18, 505 Water, Supply of, important, .... 139, 140 Water, Supply of, for the labourer's cottage, . . 122 Water supply works, ...... 505-516 Water-tight manure pits, Open or uncovered, . . 99 Water-trough and manger in cow-houses, ... 44 Water, warm, for cleaning purposes of the dairy, Ar- rangements for a supply of, 59, 60 Watering meadows, Best time to commence, . . 19S Waters, boggy or peaty, Treatment of, for irrigation, . 201 Weather, Evil of exposing manure to the action of, . 99 Weather, Protecting live stock from the, . . . 402 Weathering of the soil before the planting of trees, . 277 Weeding and manuring of grasslands, .... 419 Weeding compulsory, . . . . . . 441 Weeding out of calves for breeding purposes, . . 463 Weeds and weeding, . . . . . . . 440 Weeds, Exhaustive power of, 440 Weeds, Extirpation of, before their seeds ripen, . . 442 Weeds, Freedom from, in the land essential to the growth of good turnips, . . . . . 215 Weeds, Medicinal value of certain, in pasture grasses, . 425 Weeds on waste lands, etc., Extirpation of, . . 443 Weeds, Prolific character of, 441 Weeds, Removing and burning, in autumn, . 400, 419 Weeds, Two classes of, annual and perennial, . . 442 Weeds, Uses or value of, . . . . . 440 Weeds, Utilizing the ashes of burned, . . . . 444 Wet weather, Working of land during, injurious, . 399 PAGE Wheat crop, Best soil for 237 Wheat, how grown on light soils, .... 244 Wheat, Mechanical conditions of the soil for the pro- duction of, 243, 244 Wheat soil and bean soil, Similarity of, . . . 245 Wheat sown in heavy soils, ..... 244 Whips' and huntsmen's cottages, .... 496 Willow and pine for waste land plantations, . . 518 Window of cow-house, how placed, . . . . 90, 91 Windows in dairies, . . . . . . . - 58 Windows of granary, how placed, and construction of, 32 Windows, Position of, in dwelling-houses, . . . 144 Windows, ventilating, for cow-houses, Various forms of, 90, 91 Windows and doors, Formation of, in concrete, . . 484 Winds, high, Destruction to plantation fences by, how to ameliorate, ....... 292 Wire fencing, Varieties of, . . . . . • 173 Wire fencing, Setting out of curves of, . . . 174 Wood and wire fencing 174 Wood cottage building, First essential in, . . 129 Wood fencing and palings, Different kinds of, . 173 Wood, Sand and gas tar as a preservative for, . . 93, 94 Wood-faced embankments, how made, . . . 222 Wooden cottage, Best roofing for, . . . . 130 Woods and coppices, Small, .... 285, 2S6 Woods, small, coppices and plantations, Fencing of, a necessity, 286 Work connected with embankments and reservoirs, river banks and sea margins, . . . 216-233 Work, Plan of, and details of its subjects, . . . 5-11 Work, Three classes of, to be done mutually by land- lord and tenant in reclamation of waste lands, . 299 Work, piece, on the farm, Trade-unionism in connec- tion with, 385 Work, outside, of buildings, Preservation of, . . 93 Working apartments of the farm-house, . . . 106 Working clay lands by steam, 400 Working clay soils, New methods of, . . . . 401 Working land during wet weather injurious, . . 399 AVorking of clay lands, Autumnal, .... 398 Working of fallows, 399 AVorking of light lands, 409 AVorking or administrative staff of the property, . . 362 AA'orks, New, for protecting river banks, . . . 225 AVorms on grass lawns 428 AVurzel, Mangold, an important crop, .... 246 Yards for ricks or stacks, Covered, .... 27 Young fanner, The, and 'bank advances,' . . . 554 MORRISOH AMI GIBB, EDINBURGH, PRINTERS TO her majesty's stationery OFFICE. ^ i \ -1 ^ S > .-i .II ~i 1 1 1 1 1 1 — 1 H 11 1 N — ^ i= \ PLATE I •v - ■ ^ [ PLATE 2 1 ^m^mmmMjiHmsmi^^mJ' PLATE 3 PLATE 4 B B ^ Fl C. 4 1 <* FIG. 3 PLATE 5 iiimwmm y y r «!*! 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