THE GIFT OF

FLORENCE V. V. DICKEY

TO THE

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
AT LOS ANGELES

THE DONALD R. DICKEY

LIBRARY
OF VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY

A

PRACTICAL HANDBOOK

OF

BRITISH BIRDS

EDITED BY

H. F. WITHERBY, M.B.E., F.Z.S., M.BO.U.

Editor of "British Birds" (Mag.)

AUTHORS OF THE VARIOUS SECTIONS :

ERNST HARTERT, PH.D., M.B.O.U.
ANNIE C. JACKSON, H.M.B.O.U.
REV. F. C. R. JOURDAIN, M.A., M.B.O.U.
C. OLDHAM, F.Z.S., M.B.O.U.

NORMAN F. TICEHURST, M.A., F.R.C.S., M.B.O.U.
AND THE EDITOR,

VOLUME I,

WITH 17 PLATES AND NUMEROUS TEXT FIGUKES.

WITHERS Y & CO.,

326, HIGH HOLBORN, LONDON.

1920,

.*. : : .:

Itay

wvif|(

v,A

PREFACE TO VOLUME I.

THAT this volume has been completed in a shorter time than
was considered probable when we commenced publication will,
we believe, be appreciated by our readers.

In order to avoid the inconvenience of having to consult
two lists of addenda and corrigenda it has been thought best to
leave these over until the end of the work, when a complete list
will be given.

We gladly avail ourselves of this opportunity to thank all
those who have given us assistance, which shall be more parti-
cularized when our task is finished, and to state that we should
greatly welcome criticisms and information which would lead to
greater accuracy and completeness in the detail of the work.

THE EDITOR.
March 22nd, 1920.

« 6101

,'365095

The Parts of Volume I. were published as follows : —

1919.
Part 1, pp. *i-*xvi, 1-64 ... ... ... March 3.

2, 65-128 ... ... ... April 30.

3, 129-208 June 18.

4, 209-272 Sept. 26.

5, 273-336 Nov. 5.

1920.

6, 337-400 ... ... Jan. 12.

Parts 7 & 8, pp. 401-532 ... ... ... April 8.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME I.

PAGE

Method of measuring wing, tail, tarsus and bill ... ... *xm & *xiv

Topography of the nestling ... ... ... ... ... ... *xiv

Bill showing gonys. Topography of the underwing ... ... ... *xv

Topography of a bird ... ... ... .. ... *xvi

Gannet (Sula bassana), foot ... ... ... ... ... ... 1

Fulmar Petrel (Fulmarus glacialis) and Manx Shearwater (Pufflnus

puffinus), showing tubular nostrils ... ... ... ... ... 1

Wigeon (Anas penelope), showing lamellated cutting-edges of bill ... 2
Great Crested Grebe (Podiceps cristatus). Red-throated Diver (Colymhus

stellatus) and Black Guillemot (Uria grylle), feet 2

Black-headed Gull (Larus ridibundus), foot ... ... ... ... 2

Common Heron (A rdea cinerea) bill showing bare loral region ... ... 3

Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus), Grey Plover (Squatarola squatarola) and

Common Snipe (d'allinago gallinago), rudimentary 1st primaries ... 3

Wood-Pigeon (Columba palumbus), bill showing nostrils ... ... 3

Barn-Owl (Tyto alba) and Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus), heads 4

Pallas's Sand-Grouse (Syrrhaptes paradoxus), foot ... ... ... 4

Green Woodpecker (Picus viridis), foot ... ... ... ... 4

Hoopoe (Upupa epops), head ... ... ... ... ... ... 4

Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus), Nightjar (Caprimulgus europceus), and

Swift (Apus apus), feet ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

Bee-Eater (Merops apiaster), tail ... ... ... ... ... 5

Raven (Corvus corax), foot ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

Roller (Coracias garrnlus) and Kingfisher (Alcedo ispida), bills ... ... 5

Raven (Corvus c. corax) and Carrion-Crow (C . c. corone), bills ... ... 9

Raven, Carrion-Crow and Rook (C. frugilegus), feathers from throat ... 13

Carrion-Crow and Rook, wing-formula ... ... ... ... ... 16

PLATE 1. — Rooks' Heads. Fig. 1, Juvenile, Fig. 2, Juvenile
Moulting. Fig. 3, First Winter. Figs. 4-7, Moult of First
Summer. Figs. 8-13, Adults. Fig. 8, Autumn moult. Fig. 9,
Moult just complete. Figs. 10-13, To show gradual wear of

" down," during winter and spring ... ... ... facing 16

Jackdaw (Colceus m. spermologus), head... ... ... ... ... 19

Thick-billed Nutcracker (Nucifraga c. caryocatactes) , Slender-billed

Nutcracker (N . c. macrorhynchus), heads ... ... ... ... 26

British Jay (Garrulus g. rufitergum), wing ... ... ... ... 28

Chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax) , head ... ... ... ... 31

Starling (Sturnus v. vulgaris), throat-feathers of <J adult and first winter 35

Rose-coloured Starling (Pastor roseus), head ... ... ... ... 37

Hawfinch (Coccothraustes c. coccothraustes), bill and 6th (curled) primary 44

Greenfinch (Chloris c. chloris), head and tail ... ... ... ... 47

PLATE 2.- — Juvenile plumages of 1, Lesser Redpoll (Carduelis I.

cabaret). 2, Siskin (Carduelis spinus). 3, Hawfinch (Coccothraustes 48

c. coccothraustes}. 4, British Goldfinch (Carduelis c. britannica).

5, Greenfinch (Chloris ch. chloris) ... ... ... ... facing 48

Goldfinch (Carduelis Carduelis), head ... ... ... ... ... 52

Siskin (C. spinus), head and wing ... ... ... ... ... 54

PLATE 3.— 1, Lesser Redpoll (C. I. cabaret). 2, Mealy Redpoll (C. I.
linaria). 3, Greenland Redpoll (C. I. rostrata). 4, Coues's Redpoll

(C. h. exilipes). 5, Hornemann's Redpoll (G. h. hornemanni) facing 64

Citril Finch (C. c, citrinella), <$ adult 67

vi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE

Serin (Serinus c. serinus), head?... ... ... ... ... ... 72

Northern Bullfinch (Pyrrhula p. pyrrhula) and British Bullfinch (P.p.

pileata), bills 74

Scarlet Grosbeak (Carpodacus e. erythrinus), $ autumn 78

Pine-Grosbeak (Pinicola e. emtcleator), wing and head ... ... 81

PLATE 4. — Common Crossbill (Loxia c. curvirostra). Male, female and

juveniles facing 84

Common Crossbill (Loxia c. curvirostra), adult, nestling, Scottish Cross-
bill (L. c. scotica), and Parrot-Crossbill (L. pytyopsittacus), bills ... 88

Two-barred Crossbill (L. 1. bifasciata), wing 89

Chaffinch (Fringilla c. cozUbs), wing 92

Brambling (F. montifringilla), wing 95

Brambling, from above ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 97

Snowfinch (Montifringilla n. nivalis), wing and head ... ... 98

House-Sparrow (Passer d. domesticus) and Tree-Sparrow (P. m.

montanus), heads ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 101

Corn-Bunting (Emberiza c. calandra), head ... ... ... ... 108

PLATE 5. — 1, Yellow Bunting (Emberiza c. citrinetta). 2, Girl Bunting
(E. cirlus). 3, Pine-Bunting (E. leucocephala). 4, Black-headed
Bunting (E. melanocephala) . 5, Yellow-breasted Bunting (E.
aureola). 6, Ortolan Bunting (E. hortulana.) 7, Meadow-
Bunting (E. c. cia). 8, East Siberian Meadow-Bunting (E.
cioides castaneiceps) . 9, Little Bunting (E. pusilla) 10, Rustic
Bunting (E. rutftica) ... ... ... ... ... ... facing 120

Reed- Bun ting (Emberiza s. schoeniclus), Western Large-billed Reed-
Bunting (E. p. palustris) and Eastern Large - billed Reed-
Bunting (E. p. tschusii), heads 136

Lapland Bunting (Calcarius I. lapponicus), head and foot ... ... 138

Snow-Bunting (Plectrophenax nivalis), $ first winter, $ ad. wings ... 142
White-winged Lark (Melanocorypha sibirica), wing ... ... ... 147

Black Lark (M. yeltoniensis), head and foot ... ... ... ... 149

Calandra Lark (M. c. calandra), head ... ... ... ... ... 151

Short-toed Lark (Calandrella b. brachydactyla), head 154

Crested Lark (Galeridac. cristata), head ... ... ... ... ... 157

Wood-Lark (Lullula a. arborea), head and wing ... ... ... 160

Sky-Lark (Alauda a. arvensis), head ... ... ... ... ... 163

PLATE 6. — 1, Juvenile Snow-Bunting (Plectrophenax nivalis). 2,
Juvenile Wood-Lark (Lullula a. arborea). 3, Juvenile Sky-
Lark (Alauda a. arvensis). 4, First-winter Richard's Pipit
(Anthus r. rwhardi). 5, Juvenile Rock-Pipit (A. s. petrosus).
6, 1st primaries of Sky-Lark (a) juvenile, (b) adult. 7, Crest-
feathers of (c) Sky-Lark, (d) Wood-Lark, (e) Crested Lark.
8, Rump-feathers (/) Red-throated Pipit, (g) Meadow-Pipit facing 164
Shore-Lark (Eremophila a. flava), head ... ... ... ... ... 168

Richard's Pipit (Anthus r. richardi), foot 172

Tawny Pipit (A. c. campestris), foot ... ... ... ... ... 174

Tree-Pipit (A. trivialis), Meadow-Pipit (A. pratensis), wings and feet ... 177
PLATE 7. — 1, Blue-headed Wagtail (Motacilla f. flava). 2, Yellow Wag-
tail (M. f. rayi). 3, Grey-headed Wagtail (M. f. thunbergi). 4,
Sykes's Wagtail (M. f. beema). 5, Ashy-headed Wagtail (M. f.
cinereocapilla). 6, Black-headed Wagtail (M. f. feldegg) ... facing 210

Grey Wagtail (Motacilla c. cinerea), head ' 203

PLATE 8.— Pied Wagtails (M. a. lugubris) and White Wagtails (M. a.

a too) in various plumages ... ... ... ... ...facing 192

Masked Wagtail (M. a. personata), head 212

British Tree-Creeper (Certhia f. britlanica), head, tail and foot ... 215

Wall-Creeper (Tichodroma muraria), wing and bill 219

British Nuthatch (Sitta e. britannica), head and foot 222

British Great Titmouse (Parus m. newtoni) and Continental Great

Titmouse (P. m. major), showing difference in bills 227

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Vll

PAGE

PLATE 9. — 1. Continental Blue Titmouse (Parti* c. cceruleus).
2, British Blue Titmouse (P. c. obscurus). 3, Continental Coal-
Titmouse (P. a. ater). 4, Adult, 5, Juvenile of British Coal-Titmouse
(P. a. britannicus). 6, Irish Coal-Titmouse (P. a. hibernicus). 1,
British Marsh -Titmouse (P. p. dresseri). 8, British Willow-
Titmouse (P. a. kleinschmidti) facing 232

Scottish Crested Titmouse (Partis c. scoticus),'' adult and juvenile heads 238

PLATE 10. — 1, Northern Long-tailed Titmouse (&githalos c. caudatus).

2, Adult, 3, Juvenile of British Long-tailed Titmouse (JB. c.

roseus). 4, Adult, 5, Juvenile of British Golden- crested Wren

(Regulus r. anglorum). 6, Fire-crested Wren (R. i. ignicapillus).

7, Adult male, 8, Adult female. 9, Juvenile of Bearded Titmouse
(Panurus b. biarmicus). 10, Adult male, 11, Juvenile of Red-
backed Shrike (Lanius c. collurio). 12, Juvenile Spotted Fly-
catcher (Muscicapa s. striata) ... ... ... ... facing 256

Lesser Grey Shrike (Lanius minor), showing difference in wing-
formula as compared with Great Grey Shrike ... ... ... 260

Great Grey Shrike (L. e. excubitor), head 263

Great Grey Shrike, wing - 264

Corsican Woodchat Shrike (L. s. badius) and the Woodchat Shrike

(L. s. senator), wings ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 268

Masked Shrike (L. nubicus), head 272

Waxwing (Bombycilla garrulus), head and wing ... ... ... 279

Pied Flycatcher (Muscicapa h. hypoleuca), head and wing ... ... 289

Collared Flycatcher (M. albicollis), head and wing 293

Red-breasted Flycatcher (M. p. parva), tail 295

Chiffchaff (Phylloscopus c. collybita) and Willow-Warbler (Ph. t.

trockilus), showing difference in wing-formula ... ... ... 299

Greenish Warbler (Ph. n. viridanus), showing difference in wing-
formula as compared with Eversmann's Warbler ... ... ... 308

Wood-Warbler (Ph. s. sibilatrix), showing minute 1st primary ... 309

Eversmann's Warbler (Ph. b. borealis), showing difference in wing-
formula as compared with Greenish Warbler ... ... ... 312

PLATE 11. — 1, Chiffchaff (Phylloscopus c. collybita) winter. 2, Siberian
Chiffchaff (Ph. c. tristis) winter. 3, Adult summer, 4, First
winter of Willow-Warbler (Ph. t. trochilus). 5, Northern Willow-
Warbler (Ph. t. eversmannij adult summer. 6, Greenish Warbler
(Ph. n. viridanus). 7, Wood-Warbler (Ph. s. sibilatrix) juvenile.

8, Eversmann's Warbler (Ph. b. borealis) first winter. 9, Yellow-
browed Warbler (Ph. h. prcemium) winter ... ... facing 312

Dusky Warbler (Ph. fuscatus), head, wing and tail ... 318

Radde's Bush- Warbler (Herbivocula schwarzi) and Dusky Warbler

(Ph. fuscat.us), bills 320

Cetti's Warbler (Cettia c. cetti), tail 322

Moustached Warbler (Lusciniola m. melanopogon), tail ... ... 324

PLATE 12. — 1, Savi's Warbler (Locustella 1. luscinioides). 2, Grass-
hopper-Warbler (L n. ncevia), $ summer. 3, Lanceolated
Warbler (L. lanceolata) £ summer. 4, Barred Warbler (Sylvia
n. nisoria), 1st winter. 5. Orphean Warbler (S. h. horten-
sis) <J. 6, Garden-Warbler (8. borin). 7, Blackcap (S. a. atri-

capilla) <J facing 328

Pallas 's Grasshopper- Warbler (Locustella ccrthiola), tail 329

Great Reed-Warbler (Acrocephalus a. arundinaceus), head ... ... 335

Great Reed-Warbler and Eastern Great Reed -Warbler (A. a. orientalis)

showing difference in wings ... ... ... ... ... ... 338

Reed-Warbler (A. s. scirpaceus), head 339

Reed-Warbler (.4. s. scirpaceus), Marsh-Warbler (A. palustris) and

Blyth's Reed-Warbler (A. dumetorum), wings, showing differences 342
Moustached Warbler (Lusciniola m. melanopogon), Sedge-Warbler

(A. schcenobcenus) and Aquatic Warbler (A. aquations), heads ... 346

Viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE

Icterine Warbler (Hypolais ictcrina), bill 352

Icterine Warbler, Melodious Warbler (H. polyglot (a) and Olivaceous

Warbler (H. p. elceica), showing difference in wing-formula ... 354

PLATE 13. — 1, Whitethroat (Sylvia c. communis) ? adult. 2, Lesser
Whitethroat (S. c curruca) ? adult. 3, male adult, 4, female
adult Riippell's Warbler (S ruppelli). 5, c? adult 6, ? 1st
winter Sardinian Warbler (S. m. melanocephala). 7, ^ adult,
8, ? juv. Subalpino Warbler (S. c. canlittans). 9, <J adult, 10,

juvenile Dartford Warbler (S. u. dartfordiensis) facing 376

Rufous Warbler (.4 grobates g. galactotes), tail ... 386

PLATE 14. — 1, White's Thrush (Turdus d. aureus). 2, <J adult
Fieldfare (T. pilaris). 3, British Song-Thrush (T. ph. clarkei).

4, Hebridean Song-Thrush (T. ph. hebridcnsis). 5, <$ adult
summer, 6, Juvenile, Rock-Thrush (Monticola saxalilis) ... facing 392

Redwing (Turdus musicus), head ... ... ••• ••• ••• 404

Dusky Thrush (Turdus eunomus), head... ... ... ... ... 407

Black-throated Thrush (Turdus r. atrogularis), head 410

PLATE 15. — 1, Juvenile Mistle-Thrush (Turdus v. viscivoruv). 2,
Juvenile British Song-Thrush (T. ph. clarkei). 3, Juvenile Ring-
Ouzel (T. t. lorguatus). 4, Juvenile $ Blackbird (T. m. merula).

5, Juvenile British Dipper (Cinclus c. britannicw). A, Inner
greater covert of juvenile Redwing (T. musicus}. B, Under tail-
coverts of Ring-Ouzel and Alpine Ring-Ouzel facing 414

Wheatear ((Enanthe ce. cenanlhe), tail ... ... ... ... ... 426

Western Desert-Wheatear (CE. d. homochroa), tail 432

Western Black-eared Wheatear (CE. h. hispanica), tail 435

Western and Eastern Black-eared Wheatears, heads ... ... ... 439

Pied Wheatear (CE. p. plexchanka), adult male, summer, head ... 441

Isabelline Wheatear (CE. isabellina) and Greenland Wheatear (CE. as.

leucorrhoa), bills ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 444

Black Wheatear (CE. 1. leucura) and North African Black Wheatear

(CE. I. syenitica), tails 446

British Stonechat (Saxicola t. hibernans) and Whinchat (S. r. rubelra),

adult females, heads ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 450

PLATE 16. — Juveniles of 1, The Wheatear ((Enanthe OR. oenanthe).

2, The Whinchat (S. r. rubetra). 3, The British Stonechat (Saxicola

t. hibernans). 4, The Redstart (Phcenicurus ph. phcenicurus). 5,

The Nightingale (Luscinia m. megarhyncha). 6, The British

Robin (Erithacus r. melophilw) ... ... facing 452

British Stonechat (S. t. hibernans'], adult male, summer, head ... 454

Redstart (Ph. ph. phoenicurus), winter and summer, heads ... ... 459

Black Redstart (Ph. o. gibr altar ie.nsis), adult male, wing ... ... 464

Nightingale (Luscinia m. megarhyncha) and Thrush-Nightingale (L.

luscinia), showing differences in wing-formula ... ... ... 468

Norwegian Bluethroat (Luscinia s. gaelkei), female winter, head ... 473
Norwegian and Lapland Bluethroat (L. s. svecica-), showing longer

" wing-tip " in former than in latter ... ... ... ... ... 475

Alpine Accentor (Prunella c. collaris), head ... ... ... ... 485

Continental Hedge-Sparrow (P. m. modularis) and British Hedge-

Sparrow (P. m. occidentalis), showing difference in wing-formula 488

British Hedge-Sparrow, wing and bill ... ... ... ... ... 489

PLATE 17. — 1, The Wren (Troglodytes t. troglodytes). 2, The

St. Kilda Wren (T. t. hirtensis). 3, The Shetland Wren (T. t.

zef.landicus). 4, The Black-bellied Dipper (Cinclus c. cinclus).

5, The British Dipper (C. c. bri(annicus). 6, The Irish Dipper

(C. C. hibernicus) ... ... ... ... ... ... facing 496

Swallow (Hirundo r. ruftica), adult and juvenile, tails and foot ... ... 503

Red-rumped Swallow (H. d. rufula), tail 507

Martin (Delichon u. urbica), tail and foot ... ... ... ... 510

The Sand-Martin (Riparia r. ripan'a), head and foot 513

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

TO

PART I.

NOTWITHSTANDING the innumerable books on British birds, an
up-to-date Handbook containing reliable information, so arranged
as to be easily accessible, seems to be required. It is this require-
ment that we endeavour to meet in this book. Our aim has been
to produce a work of real practical utility not only to the professed
ornithologist, but also to the beginner.

The plan of the book may here be briefly explained.

KEYS TO THE ORDERS, FAMILIES AND GENERA. Identification by
the Keys alone must never be attempted — they are intended as
guides to identification, and not as means of identification. If
used conscientiously in conjunction with the characters given
more fully under each ORDER, FAMILY, and GENUS, they will, we
believe, prove of real practical use and, it may be suggested, of
some educational value. It must always be borne in mind, however,
that the greater systematic divisions are chiefly founded upon
anatomical characters, most of which the ordinary student of
birds cannot appreciate. Consequently many of the characters
used in the Keys (especially the Key to the Orders) are super-
ficial and have been chosen merely for purposes of differentiation.

KEYS TO THE SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES. These give only salient
characters, which may not be always well marked in every
individual. These Keys must not be relied upon alone for certain
identification, but must be used as a guide to the description
and " characters " sections.

NAMES OF SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES. A binomial appellation for
each species is given in large black type. In cases in which a

*II INTRODUCTORY NOTE

species has been divided into two or more geographical races or
subspecies this name may still be used when it is not desired to
particularize the subspecies. The precise appellation of each
species and subspecies which we admit to the British list is preceded
by a number. The nomenclature employed is that of " A Hand-
List of British Birds" (1912), revised and brought up to date,
and is in strict conformity with the " International Rules of
Zoological Nomenclature " and the " Opinions " published by the
International Commission. Explanatory notes are given where
considered necessary.

SYNONYMY. In every case a reference to the original description
i« given and the date and typical locality are added. A reference
quoted as " Yarrell " is also given to Yarrell's " History of British
Birds," 4th edition (1871-85), edited by A.Newton and H. Saunders,
and to "An Illustrated Manual of British Birds" by Howard
Saunders, 2nd edition (1897-9), quoted as "Saunders." When a
bird has been added to the British list since the publication of the
latter work, we have given a reference in the synonymy to the
first record. References will also be found to names given
specially to British birds, whether now considered distinct or not.
"" British Birds " (magazine) has been quoted throughout as
" Brit. B." A full bibliography will be given in the last part of
this work. Every reference has been carefully checked, and we
are much indebted to Mr. E. E. Riseley for having performed
this most useful task.

DESCRIPTIONS. These are more complete than any hitherto
published in a book on British birds. A description giving the
sequence of plumages and moults from the nestling to maturity
and from season to season of each British bird has for long been
a keenly felt want. This we have endeavoured so far as possible
to supply. The difficulty of such descriptions is that, beyond
the great labour involved, very large series of skins collected at all
times of the year must be minutely examined. The task would
have been impossible had not those responsible for this section
been given every facility by the generosity of the Hon. Walter
Rothschild in making use of his magnificent collection. The
British Museum collection has also, by the kindness of the

INTRODUCTORY NOTE *HI

authorities, been freely consulted whenever necessary, and thus
two of the three largest collections of bird-skins in the world have
been available. Notwithstanding this, the private collections
of the writers have been found invaluable adjuncts, because they
contain many moulting birds and young birds which are
unfortunately still considered by most collectors to be hardly
worth preserving.

It will be found that the various parts of the plumage are
described in a uniform order throughout, which should make
reference easy. The different plumages of each species are also
described in a definite order as follows : — Adult male (and female
if different), winter, summer, Nestling (i.e. as soon as hatched),
Juvenile (i.e. the first covering of true feathers), First winter (i.e. the
plumage following the juvenile), First summer, Second, third, etc.
Winter and Summer, if different from the adult. The adult winter
plumage has been taken first for the full description, because this
is usually the most perfect plumage in that it is acquired by a
complete moult. Other plumages of the adult are usually ., a
modification of this plumage either by wear or else by partial
moult. All British birds have one complete annual moult, many
have a second partial moult, but few have two complete moults.
A special point has been made to give details of the periods and
extent of the moults of each species.

MEASUREMENTS AND STRUCTURE. Under this heading it will be
found that all measurements are given in millimetres and centi-
metres, not only because the " International Rules " so advise
but also because one-tenth of an inch does not provide a small
enough division for scientific accuracy (especially in eggs), and a
smaller fraction in inches is clumsy. The comparative length of
the primaries given in every species will, it is thought, be found
useful, and this has never been systematically done before.

Figures showing the various parts of a bird's plumage, and
how measurements are taken are given below, as well as a glossary
of terms and a millimetres and inches table.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. In this section an indication
is given of how various subspecies differ, and their approximate

*IV INTRODUCTORY NOTE

breeding-range is noted. These brief details will, it is thought, be
found useful by those who are travelling out of the British Isles.
There follow the chief characteristics of the species for the purpose
of distinguishing it rapidly from any other on the British list with
which it might be confused. This section may be used conveniently
with the Keys, and it is hoped that it will be a useful assistance
to identification.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. In this section a discriminating analysis has
been made of the bird's appearance, flight, notes, and song, and
other characteristic habits observable in the field. Comparative
notes are also given to show how it differs from other birds which
might appear similar, unless the distinguishing characters were
observed. It is often not possible to give an infallible guide to
identification in the field : moreover, different observers note
different characteristics, and it is often very difficult to put into
words exactly how one identifies a bird in the field. The chief
aim of the writers of this section has been to indicate the points
on which attention should be concentrated.

BREEDING-HABITS. Here the salient facts have been briefly
summarized, but owing to exigencies of space, only the more typical
nesting sites and materials are described. Similarly with the eggs,
it would be impossible to give details of each variety, but the
usual types are described ; and where known some details as to
breeding-season, incubation period and share of the sexes are added,
as well as the number of broods reared in the season.

FOOD. For this section, besides the modern works of Newstead,
Collinge, Florence and others, which treat of the subject from the
economic point of view, the results of post-mortem examinations
which have been published in various zoological journals during the
last seventy years have been tabulated and briefly summarized.

DISTRIBUTION. This is divided into two sections, one devoted
to the British Isles, and the other "Abroad." The latter is in
general terms, while the former is detailed, especially in species
which are local, rare, or limited in their distribution. Refer-
ences are given to the original records of " vagrants " which have
been observed on only a few occasions, while in other cases a more

INTRODUCTORY NOTE *V

general reference prefixed by the abbreviation cf. is given. These
sections have already appeared in " A Hand-List of British Birds,"
but have since been thoroughly revised and brought up to date.

MIGRATIONS. The accounts of the migratory movements are
based on those given in the " Hand-List of British Birds," but have
been thoroughly revised in the light of fresh material that has been
gathered since in the " Reports of the Migration Committee of the
British Ornithologists' Club," the annual " Reports on Scottish
Ornithology," and Mr. Eagle Clarke's " Studies of Bird Migration."
In some species new sections on this subject have been added, and
in most cases extreme dates within which the various movements
have been known to begin and end have been added, and it is
hoped that these will prove useful. Owing to exigencies of space
much detail cannot be given, so that the accounts must not be
taken as indicating more than an outline of the chief movements
undertaken by each species.

AUTHORS. The authors of the various sections when unsigned are
as below, and where any other author has written a particular
section the name of that author will appear either at the beginning
or at the end of the section for which he is responsible. Each of
the authors mentioned in the following list has also revised the
proof-sheets of the whole work.

Keys, Descriptions of Orders, j

Families and Genera I E. HARTERT.

Nomenclature

Descriptions, Characters and ) „ _
Allied Forms (unsigned) j H' *

Descriptions, Characters and i
Allied Forms of Ducks, . p
Waders and probably other
groups (all signed) J

{C. OLDHAM,
except where otherwise
stated.

Breeding-habits | F c R JOTJRDAIN.

Food J

*VI INTRODUCTORY NOTE

(H. F. WITHERBY, assisted
by N. F. TICEHURST and
F. C. Pv. JOURDAIN.

; E. HARTERT, assisted by
Distribution-Abroad | R c R JoFRDAIN>

Migrations N. F. TICEHURST.

ILLUSTRATIONS. The illustrations, both text and plates (coloured
and black and white), are intended solely as aids to identification.
It is proposed to give full figures of certain nearly allied forms as
well as of those juveniles of species breeding in the British Isles
which differ considerably from the adults ; otherwise the illus-
trations will be of some part of a bird, chosen in each species to
show some characteristic feature.

ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. Attention will be drawn from time
to time on the cover to important additions or corrections during
the progress of the work, and full details of such additions or
corrections will be given in the last part, so that the work when
complete may also be up to date. Part I. was printed before the war,
but its issue was suspended. Slight alterations in the distribution
of some species are necessitated by observations since published,
and these details will be found on the cover. The Shetland Starling
has now been proved to be distinct and must be added as below.
These additions bring Part I. up to the date of January 1, 1919.

January, 1919. THE EDITOR.

i3a. Sturnus vulgaris zetlandicus Hart. — THE SHETLAND
STARLING.

STURNUS VULGAEIS ZKTLANDICUS Hartert, Nov. Zool., xxv., p. 329 (1918— Shetland

Islands. Type, North Yell).

SlurniM vulgaris Ogilvie-Grant, Bull. B.O.C., xxxm, p. 63 (1913).

DESCRIPTION. — Adults — Like S. v. vulgaris but with longer wing and wider
bill, thus intermediate between S. v. vulgaris and S. v. faroensis.

Juvenile. — Like that of S. v. faroensis, both upper- and under-parts being
black-brown and much darker than in S. v. vulgaris. Greyish-white of chin
and centre of throat and streaks on belly thus more contrasted with general
colour.

Measurements. — <J wing 130-138 mm., tail 61-69, tarsus 28-31, bill
from nostril 18-21, bill width at nostril 7.5-8.5 (12 measured). ? wing 128-132.
Wing formula and rest of structure as in S. v. vulgaris.

DISTRIBUTION. — Shetland Islands, but not including Fair Isle, where there
appears to be a mixture of the two races.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS.

ACUMINATE. — Tapering to a sharp point.

ADULT BIRD. — Strictly one which has reached the period when the body
has acquired its full development, but in this work has chief reference
to the plumage.

^EGITHOGNATHOUS. — Like the ^Egithognathae, the fourth suborder of Carinatae
(birds with a keeled sternum) in Huxley's Classification. These four
suborders are based on certain modifications in the bony palate, and
the distinguishing feature of the present one is that the vomer is
broad and truncated in front, lying between the separate maxillo-
palatines.

AFTERSHAFT. — The small counterpart of a typical feather that springs from
the inner surface of the quill common to both ; often merely indicated
or vestigial.

ALAE BAR. — A bar across the wing — often formed by the tips of the feathers
of one of the series of wing-coverts differing in colour from the rest
of the feathers.

ALBINISM. — The abnormal absence of colour, partial or total.

AMBIENS MUSCLE. — Arises from the pelvis and runs down the inner side of
the thigh, passes the knee as a narrow tendon and then forms one of
the heads of the deep flexor muscle of the 2nd and 3rd toes. Birds
were divided by Garrod into two great classes, those with and those
without the ambiens. The first includes the Game-birds, Gulls, Divers,
Cormorants, Geese and Ducks, Hawks and Cuckoos : the latter the
Owls, Swifts, Kingfishers, Hoopoes, Woodpeckers, Passeres, Herons,
Auks and Grebes.

ANTRORSE. — Directed or bent forwards, used of nasal tufts and rictal bristles.

ASYMMETRICAL. — Composed of two dissimilar halves.

AXILLARY. — Of or belonging to the axilla (armpit). (See fig., p. *xv.)

BASI-PTERYGOID. — The name given to a bony projection from one of the
bones of the roof of mouth (Pterygoid) connecting it with the base
of the skull.

BOOTED. — Used of the TARSUS to denote that the usual scales are fused so
as to form a continuous LAMINA.

BROOD-SPOT OR INCUBATION-SPOT. — The patch of skin of varying extent
along the centre of the bird's abdomen and breast and between the
two halves of the ventral feather tract that shortly before incubation
begins becomes void of down and greatly thickened.

CALAMUS. — The hollow, transparent base of a feather.
STERNUM.

CARPUS. — The wrist. The carpal joint of the wing is that one forming the
forward prominence when the wing is closed.

*VIII GLOSSARY OF TERMS

CERE. — The bare and sometimes swollen and distinctively coloured skin in

which the nostrils are situated at the base of the bfll — a prominent

feature in the Hawks. (See fig., p. *xm.)
COMPRESSED. — Pressed together, i.e. flattened in a horizontal plane — laterally

compressed — flattened in a vertical plane.
CORNEOUS. — Horny, hard.
CULMEN. — The central longitudinal ridge of the upper mandible. (See

fig., p. *xvi.)
CUNEATE. — Wedge-shaped — e.g. the two sides of a feather or tail are rapidly

graduated to a point, the long axis being not greatly in excess of the

transverse (cf. LANCEOLATE).
CUTTING EDGES OF BILL. — The more or less sharp lower margins of the upper

jaw and upper margins of the lower jaw. (See fig., p. *xvi.)

DEGENERATE FEATHER. — One whose structure has been so modified that many
of its essential features may be apparently or actually absent.

DESMOGNATHOUS. — Like the Desmognathae, the third suborder of Carinata?
in Huxley's Classification. It is based on the fact that in the groups
comprised in it (Ducks, Geese and Swans, Flamingo, Storks, Herons,
Ibis, Spoonbill, Cormorants, Birds of Prey, Cuckoos, Bee-eater,
Hoopoe and Roller, amongst British birds) the vomer is more or less
suppressed or absent (cf. /EGITHOGNATHOUS).

DIASTATAXIC. — Arranged separately. Divided.

DIMORPHISM. — A difference in form, and also used generally in ornithology for
a difference in colour (strictly dichromatism), constantly exhibited by-
different individuals of the same species. Sexual dimorphism is
common in birds, but individual dimorphism is rare.

DISTAL. — A part remote from the centre or central line of the body as opposed
to a part nearer the centre (PROXIMAL).

DOWN. — The first covering of the young of many birds, but present also
beneath the feathers in certain families (Ducks, Geese, etc.) throughout
life. (See NEOSSOPTILES and TELEOPTILES. )

EGG-TOOTH. — The conical horny excrescence situated towards the distal
extremity of the culmen in the newly-hatched chick ; it is used to
crack the shell at birth, and is shortly afterwards shed.

EMARGLNATED. — Cut out or cut away in a slanting direction.

ERYTHRISM. — The abnormal replacement of other colours, generally green
or yellow, by red.

ETHIOPIAN REGION. — The name of one of the six Zoo-geographical Regions
of the world, comprising Africa south of the Pahearctic Region and
southern Arabia (cf. PAL^ARCTIC and NEARCTIC REGION).

FILOPLUME. — A hair-like feather consisting of calamus and rhachis with but
very few radii.

FESTOONED. — Indented or scalloped.

GAPE. — The angle formed by the lower border of the upper jaw and the

upper border of the lower jaw, when the bill is open.
GONYS. — The prominent ridge formed by the junction of the two halves of

the lower jaw towards its tip. Specially marked in the Gulls. (See

fig., p. *xv.)

GRADUATED. — Of gradually increasing or decreasing length or width.
HALLUX. — The first digit of the foot (i.e. the great toe). The toe which in

most orders is the only one that is directed backwards (i.e. hind toe) ;

very variable in size and in some species absent

GLOSSARY OF TERMS *IX

HUMERUS. — The bone of the upper arm, i.e. the most proximally situated
bone of the wing.

HYOID. — The cartilaginous and bony framework of the tongue.

IRIS. — The, often distinctively, coloured portion of the eye, in the form of a
circular curtain, having a central circular aperture, which is called
" the pupil." (See fig., p. *xvi.)

JUVENILE BIRD. — As here used refers to a bird in its first covering of true
feathers, which usually immediately succeeds the down of the nestling.

KNEE. — The forwardly directed joint in the upper part of the bird's leg,
always hidden by feathers. The more evident, distal and backwardly-
directed joint is often erroneously called the bird's knee, but is in
reality the ankle.

LAMELLA. — Small plates or scales.

LAMELLATED. — Covered with lamellae (small plates or scales).

LAMELLIROSTRES. — Cuvier's name in 1817 for the Anatidse.

LAMINA. — A small thin plate.

LANCEOLATE. — Lance-shaped, e.g. a feather or a bird's tail is said to be
lanceolate when the two sides are evenly graduated to a point ; the
long axis being greatly in excess of the transverse (cf. CUNEATE).

LOBES. — Fibrous, skin-covered outgrowths such as those of the toes of the
Coot.

MALAR. — Of or belonging to the cheek. In birds used to denote the region
extending down the side of the throat from the base of the lower jaw.
(See fig., p. *xvi.)

MANDIBLE. — The jaw — generally used with the qualifying adjectives upper
or lower, including the horny sheath as well as the bone.

MELANISM. — The abnormal presence of black or very dark coloured
plumage.

NAIL. — The term applied to the inverted shield-shaped horny plate at the
tip of the upper mandible in the Ducks, Geese and Swans.

NARES. — The cavities of the nose; anterior nares=the outside openings of
the nostrils : posterior nares = the openings of the nose into the
throat. In ornithology the word nares alone is often loosely applied
to the external apertures.

NEARCTIC REGION. — One of the six great Zoo -geographical regions of the
world, comprising North America and reaching into Mexico (cf. PAL.E-
ARCTIC REGION).

NEOSSOPTILES. — A term applied to the down-feathers which first clothe the
newly-hatched bird. They are characterized by the calamus being
very short, the rhachis ill defined or absent, the rami long and slender,
the cilia usually absent and the aftershaft always so in British species.
In some species the neossoptiles are either nearly or entirely suppressed.

NESTLING. — Here used to refer to a bird from the time it is hatched until
the growth of the TELEOPTILES (q.v. ).

NUCHAL. — Of or belonging to the nape. The region of the junction of the neck
with the back of the head.

OIL GLANDS. — The only glands of the skin in birds, consisting of two some-
what heart-shaped bodies lying side by side just above the root of
the tail and opening backwards on to the surface by several orifices
frequently prolonged into a projecting nipple which in some familie8
is surrounded by a circle of down and stiff feathers. Best developed
in the water birds.

OPERCULUM. — A cover or lid : applied to the fleshy flap covering the nostrils
and external aperture of the ears in some birds.

*X GLOSSARY OF TERMS

ORBITAL. — Of or belonging to the orbit, the bony cavity containing the eye
and its external mechanism.

PALJEARCTIC REGION. — The name given to one of the six great regions into
which Sclater demonstrated that the world could be divided for the
purpose of considering and classifying the geographical distribution
of its fauna. It comprises Europe, Asia to the Indus, the Himalayas
and Yang-tse-Kiang, Africa about to middle of the Sahara, and the
Atlantic Islands.

PALMATE. — Spread out like the palm of the hand.

PAPILLA. — A small conical eminence.

PECTINATE. — Furnished with teeth like a comb.

PLANTAR. — Of or belonging to the sole of the foot.

POWDER-DOWNS. — The down which clothes certain tracts in various groups
of birds, sometimes on the featherless spaces and sometimes amongst
the contour feathers. The barrel as it grows splits into numerous
brush -like barbs and barbules, instead of forming a central shaft, and
these continuously disintegrate into a white powder which permeates
the plumage. They are found amongst British birds in the Herons
and Harriers.

PROXIMAL. — A part nearer to the centre or central line of the body as opposed
to one more remote (DISTAL).

PTERYLOSIS. — The consideration of plumage with regard to the distribution
of its growth.

PTJLLUS. — A chick. The naked or down-covered young of birds. (See
NESTLING).

RADII. — The lateral branches of the rami, which in turn bear cilia or booklets
by means of which adjacent rami of a feather are held together.

RAMI. — The lateral branches from the shaft of a feather which in mass
compose the inner and outer webs.

RECTRICES. — The large quill feathers of the tail. (See fig., p. *xvi.)

REMIGES. — The principal feathers of the wing (flight feathers). Consist
of two series, the primaries attached to the bones of the hand, and
the secondaries, attached to the ulna (inner bone of forearm). (See
fig., p. *xvi.)

RETICULATION.' — Used to denote the plates covering the tarsus and toes in
certain birds ; they are of various shapes but are most often six-sided
and small, not arranged in definite rows and do not overlap (c/. SCUTE).

RHACHIS. — The opaque part of the main central shaft of a feather (c/.
CALAMUS).

RICTAL. — Of or belonging to the gape.

SCANSORIAL. — Of or belonging to the Scansores, the first Order in Illiger's
(1811) classification. As here used refers to birds capable of climbing.

SCUTE. — Literally a shield, used to denote the scales covering the tarsus
and toes ; they are usually comparatively large and overlap each
other (c/. RETICULATION).

SCUTELLATE. — Covered with SCUTES.

SHAFT. — The central horny portion of a feather, consisting of the CALAMUS
and RHACHIS.

SINUATED. — Cut or sloped in a wavy manner.

SPECULUM. — A name used for any patch of feathers on the wing differing
markedly in colour from those near them — especially applied to the
metallic patch on the wing-feathers of the freshwater ducks.

SQUARE. — Applied to the distal extremity of a feather or group of feathers
when that extremity forms roughly a right angle with either of the
lateral borders (c/. LANCEOLATE, CUNEATE, GRADUATED).

GLOSSARY OF TERMS *XI

STERNUM. — The breastbone. Birds are divided into two great divisions,
dependent on the presence or absence of a deep forwardly projecting
plate (keel) down the centre of this bone. The development of this
keel is directly dependent on the power of flight and the two divisions
are known as (1) the Carinatse (those with keels) and (2) the Ratitse
(those without) ; Ratitse do not occur in the British Islands.

SUBULATE. — Awl-shaped.

SUPERCILIARY. — Referring to the part immediately above the eye.

SYNDACTYLOUS. — Having two toes coalescent.

TARSUS. — The most conspicuous portion of the bird's leg, and except in a few
genera, covered with flattened horny scales or SCUTES. The toes
are attached to its lower extremity. (See fig., p. *xm.)

TIBIA. — The shin-bone — generally the longest portion of the bird's leg, extends
from the knee joint to the tarsal joint (cf. TARSUS).

TELEOPTILES. — The feathers or down which immediately succeed the
NEOSSOPTILES (q.v.).

TROPICAL. — Of or belonging to the tropics, that portion of the globe between
the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, i.e. 23° N. and S. of the equator.

UROPYGIUM. — The rump.

WEB. — I. The fleshy membrane uniting (or attached to the sides of) the
toes of water-birds.

II. The collected rami on either side of the shaft of a feather, generally
used with the qualifying adjectives inner or outer. (See fig., p. *x.v.)

WING-BAR. — See ALAR BAR.

XANTHOCHROTSM. — The abnormal replacement of another colour, generally

green, by yellow.
ZYGODACTYLE. — Vieillot's name (1816) for the group of birds having two

toes pointing forwards and two backwards. Practically the same

as Illiger's SCANSORES (q.v.).
<J— Male.
$ — Female.

'XII

SCALE

OF MILLIMETRES AND INCHES.

Inches

Millimetres

Millimetres

Inches Inches
and and
Decimals Fractions

k

3.175

1

.039

i

6.350

2

.078

1

9.525

3

.118

i

12.700

4

.157

1

15.875

5

.196 or about ^

1

19.050

8

.315 „ A

I

22.225

10 (=1 cm.)

.393 „ |

1

25.400

15

.590 „ if

2

50.799

20

.787 ,., §i

3

76.199

30

1.181 „ lT3<j

4

101.600

40

1.574 „ 1^

6

152.399

50

1.968 „ IfJ

12

304.800

60

2.362 „ 2|

70

2.756 „ 2|

80

3.149 „ 3/2

90

3.543 „ m

100 (=aO cm.)

3.937 „ 3flj

*XIII

Showing the method of measuring the wing used by us. The wing is pressed out
on the rule until it is quite flat, and thus the longest possible measurement is
consistently obtained. In very large birds (e.g. Eagles, Swans) a tape is used
stretched from the carpal joint to the tip of the longest feather along the upper-
side of the wing; in each case when a tape is used it will be mentioned.

Showing the method of measuring the tail used
by us. One end of the dividers is placed be-
tween the tail-feathers and pressed to the skin,
while the other is passed to the tip of the
longest feather.

Showing the method of measuring
the tarsus used by us.

Showing the cere and the

method of measuring the

bill from the cere to the

tip.

Showing the method of measuring the bill
from the end of feathering to the tip.

'XIV

Showing the method used by us in measuring the bill from

its tip to the base of the skull. One end of the dividers is

pressed along the culmen to the base of the skull, which is

usually concealed by feathers.

UPPER-PARTS.

UNDER-PARTS.

Topography of the nestling to show the down-tracts referred to, especially
in the descriptions of nestling Passeres.

*xv

View from below and side of bills of Gulls to show the portion
called the gonys.

FIRST PRIMARY

-.\ . _ OUTER WEB.

SHAFT OR
RHACHIS

-AXILL/

Topography of the under-wing.

*XVI

'* I

I-"-

v;>

)u u -N^

Sf %/-

§
I I

I !

£

i

iltlllii

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF
BRITISH BIRDS.

f

KEY TO THE ORDERS.

It must be understood that this " Key " is not a scientific
definition of the Orders, but that it applies only to British birds.
It is intended as an aid to the beginner in placing a bird unknown
to him.

Hind toe connected by a web with the
inner toe :
Steganopodes (Cormorants and Gannets)

Hind toe not connected by a web with
the inner toe 2

Nostrils in one or two tubes,
no rictal bristles:
Tubinares (Petrels, Shear-
waters, Albatroses)

Nostrils not tubular or else
(Goatsuckers) strong rictal
bristles present ... 3

A. Fulmar Petrel (Fulmarus glacialis) .

B. (from above). Manx Shearwater

(Puflinus puffinus).

2 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

I Cutting-edges of bill smooth or festooned, but not lamellated or sharply

3 I serrated .4

• Cutting-edges of bill lamellated or strongly serrated 20

Wigeon (Anas penelope), to show lamellated cutting-edges of bill.

/ Legs inserted near vent, far behind middle of body
I Legs inserted about middle of body .....

. 5
. 6

f Hind toe present Colymbi (Grebes and Divers)

* Hind toe absent Alcce (Auks)

A. Great Crested- Grebe (Colyrribut crittatus).

B. Red-throated Diver (Gavia stellata).

C. Black Guillemot (Oriagrytte).

Anterior toes not or only incompletely
webbed 7

Anterior toes fully webbed :

Lari (Terns, Gulls, and Skuas).

Black-headed Gull
(Larusridibundw)

KEY TO THE ORDERS.

f Lower portion of thigh not feathered (with one exception [Little

_ I Bittern] where lores bare, bill long and straight, head flattened

'I on top) 8

* Lower portion of thigh feathered .10

Loral or orbital region or both bare :

Gressores (Storks, Ibises and Herons)

Lora! and orbital regions fully feathered

Common Heron (Ardea cinerea).

1st visible primary generally longest
or equal to 2nd (in few instances,
such as Vanellus, Chettuna, Burhinus,
shorter than 2nd); distinct narrow
and stiff rudimentary real 1st primary,
concealed by coverts :

Limicolce (Waders)

1st primary shorter than 2nd, no dis-
tinct rudimentary primary : Alecto-
rides (Bustards, Cranes, and Rails)

Rudimentary real 1st primaries of —

A. Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus).

B. Grey Plover (Squatarola

squatarola).

C. Common Snipe (Oallinago

gallinago).

Nostrils opening in soft, fleshy membrane :

Colunibce (Pigeons)

Nostrils in sharply defined cere at base of upper
1(M mandible H

No cere or soft, fleshy membrane at base of upper
mandible 12

Wood-Pigeon
(Columbapalumbus).

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Eves very large and directed forward, toes feathered or with
bristles Siriges (Owls)

Eyes moderate and laterally directed, toes quite bare :

Accipitres (diurnal birds of prey)

Barn-Owl (Tyto ofl>a) and Peregrine Falcon (.Fafco peregrinus).

( Toes feathered, no hind toe :
12| Pterocletea (Sand-Grouse)

I Toes feathered or bare, hind toe present . 13

Pallas's Sand-Grouse
(Syrrhaptes paradoxus).

( Ten or twelve tail-feathers

14

13s More than twelve tail-feathers (with one exception — Coturnix [Quail] —
where tail hidden by coverts, and primaries stiff and rounded) :

Gattin-e (Game-birds)

14

Ten fully developed tail-feathers, wing over
80 mm 15

Ten fully developed tail-feathers and two
small soft ones on top of lateral tail-
feathers (two toes in front, two behind) :
Pici (Woodpeckers)

Twelve fully developed tail-feathers, or else
wing not over 60 mm 17

Green Woodpecker
(Picus viridis).

r With a large crest
\ Without a crest .

Upupce (Hoopoes)
. 16

Hoopoe \Upupa epops).

KEY TO THE ORDERS. 5

(Two toes in front and two behind : . . . . CucuLi (Cuckoos)
Three toes in front and one behind, claw of middle toe pectinated,
nostrils tubular Caprimulgi (Goatsuckers)
All four toes in front, or else tail with spines. . Cypseli (Swifts)

A. Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus). B. Nightjar (Caprimulguseuropceus). C.Swift (Apus apus)-

Middle pair of tail-feathers elongated :
Meropes (Bee-Eaters)

Middle pair of tail-feathers not elon

gated

18

All toes unconnected :
Passer es (" perching
birds ")

Some of the front
toes syndactylous,
i.e. tightly con-
nected in a common
sheath . . .19

Raven (Corvus corax) .

{Bill long, straight, and pointed, about as long as tail :
Haley ones (Kingfishers)
Bill short and curved, less than one-third of the tail :
Coraeice (Rollers)

A. Roller (Coracias garrulus). B. Kingfisher (Alcedo ispida).

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Bare portion of tibia over 200 mm., tarsus many times longer than
toes Phcenicopteri (Flamingoes)

Bare portion of tibia (if any) not more than 30 or 40 mm., tarsus (if
at all) less than twice as long as toes :

Anseres (Swans, Geese, and Ducks)

ORDER PASSERES.

This Order consists of the ordinary perching birds and contains
nearly half of the known species of birds. The Order is divided
into several suborders, of which in Europe only the largest, the
so-called Oscines (singing birds), is found.

The numerous families are difficult to define, and the limits
of some of them are so far very unsatisfactory. On account of
great variation of form, the Order is difficult to diagnose by
external characters, Orders of birds being chiefly founded on
anatomical structure. The palate is aegithognathous ; never
more than fifteen cervical vertebrae ; deep plantar tendons free ;
ambiens absent ; no basi-pterygoid processes ; young hatched
naked and helpless.

There are always four toes, first or hallux being directed
backwards and not reversible, always jointed at same level as
the others. An oil-gland is always present, but it is naked, not
tufted. Wing with nine or ten obvious primaries ; tail usually
with twelve, in a few genera only with ten, rectrices. Land-birds ;
feet never webbed. Cosmopolitan.

Key to families of Order PASSERES.

( Tarsus posteriorly rounded and divided into scutes Alaudidce (Larks)
\ Tarsus posteriorly ridged and not scutellated 2

{1st primary rudimentary and hidden ; outermost obvious primary
more than half as long as next, often longest (" nine primaried "
Passeres) 3
1st primary obvious, though sometimes small (" ten-primaried "
Passeres) 5

( Longest primary more than twice as long as secondaries :
3 < Hirundinidce (Swallows)
I Longest primary less than twice as long as secondaries 4

ORDER PASSERES. 7

I" Bill short and thick, more or less conical :

4 J Fringillidce (Finches and Buntings)
1 Bill thin and slender .... Motacillidce (Wagtails and Pipits)

( Wing over 150, tail over 100 mm., nostrils entirely covered by stiff

5 J antrorse feathers Corvidce (Crows)

Wing under 150, tail under 100 mm.

I No obvious rictal bristles 7

I Obvious rictal bristles 11

I With crest ; wing over 100 mm. : Bombycillidce (Ampelidce) (Waxwings)
I Without crest ; or else wing under 80 mm 8

[ Tail-feathers pointed and stiffened ; bill thin and curved :

8 J, , Certhiidce (Creepers)
I Tail-feathers not pointed and stiffened ; bill not curved ... 9

( Tail under 40 mm. ; nostrils bare, with membrane : Troglodytidce (Wrens )

9 < Tail over 40 mm. ; nostrils bare, with membrane : Sturnidce (Starlings)
I Tail 40 mm., or over ; nostrils covered by stiff antrorse feathers . . 10

r Bill shorter than head, base of culmen feathered . . Paridce (Tits)
I Bill as long as head, base of culmen bare . Sittidce (Nuthatches)

Bill curved, strong, with sharp " tooth " on cutting-edges of upper
mandible Laniidce (Shrikes)

Bill strong ; bright yellow in plumage ; wing over 1 20 mm. :

Oriolidce (Orioles)

Bill strong, tapering laterally from middle ; no bright yellow in plumage ;
wing under 120 mm Accentoridce (Accentors)

Bill thin or widened, flat, never as strong as in Oriolidce, nor tapering
laterally as in Accentoridce ; if somewhat stronger, then bird larger
(Thrushes) . . M-uscicapidce (Flycatchers, Warblers, and Thrushes)

FAMILY CORVIDCE.

Largest Passer es. Ten distinct primaries, 1st of which is
always much shorter than 2nd, but longer than primary-coverts.
Tarsus ridged posteriorly and not divided into scutes. Bill strong
and powerful, but fairly long, not much, if at all, shorter than
head. Nostrils not with an operculum or membrane, but covered
with bristles directed forward. Young more or less similar to
adults. One annual moult. Almost cosmopolitan, but more
developed in Northern Hemisphere.

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Key to genera of family CORVID^E.

Tail longer than wing, strongly graduated ; first primary very narrow ,
small, and stiff Pica, p. 21

Tail shorter than wing, tip slight^ graduated, rounded or almost
straight ; 1st primary regular, half, or more than half, as long
as 2nd 2

Bill and feet red ; plumage uniform black . . . Pyrrhocorax, p. 31
Bill black, feet brownish flesh-colour ; plumage vinous with white, black,

and grey ; blue on wings Garrultis, p. 27

Bill and feet black : plumage entirely black, brown and white, or black

and grey 3

White tips to tail-feathers ; body-plumage brown with drop-like white
spots Nucifraga, p. 23

No white tips to tail-feathers, body-plumage black or black and
grey 4

Bill under 40 mm., end of tail almost square . . Colosus, p. 18
Bill over 40 mm., end of tail rounded Corvus, p. 8

Genus CORVUS L.

CORVUS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 105 (1758 — Type : C. corax
by tautonymy " corvus," the Raven ; also by subsequent designations).

Contains Ravens, Crows, and Rooks. Tail shorter than wing,
slightly graduated or rounded at end. 1st primary at least half
as long as 2nd ; 3rd and 4th primaries longest ; primaries exceed
longest secondaries by more than length of tarsus. Four outer-
most primaries with inner webs sinuated. Coloration black or
black and grey, the black often with purple, violet, or steel-blue
gloss ; some tropical species black and white.

Nearly cosmopolitan, but absent from New Zealand, some
Polynesian Islands, Madagascar, South America, and Lesser
Antilles. Four species in British Isles.

Key to species of genus CORVUS.

C Entirely black (with more or less metallic reflections) 2
(.Parti-coloured (grey and black) C. comix, p. 11

( Much larger, wing over 380 mm C. corax, p. 9

\ Much smaller, wing under 380 mm 3

( let primary shorter than 9th, 2nd shorter than 6th . C. corone, p. 13
3 j 1st primary equal to or longer than 9th, 2nd longer than 6th

C, frugilegus, p. 15

THE RAVEN.

CORVUS CORAX

i. Corvus corax corax L. — THE RAVEN.

CORVUS CORAX Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 105 (1758 — Europe.

Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

G^rvus corax Linnaeus, Yarrell, ir, p. 259 ; Saunders, p. 241.

A. Raven (Corvus c. corax). B. Carrion-Crow (C. c. corone).

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Whole plumage
black ; nasal and rictal bristles glossy-black ; crown glossed
greenish or purplish ; back of neck and ear-coverts greenish-black ;
mantle, scapulars, back and upper tail-coverts glossed blue or
slightly reddish-purple ; chin glossed green ; throat and upper-
breast usually more reddish-purple (feathers of throat long,
narrow, and lance-shaped) ; rest of under-parts glossed green or
blue-purple ; axillaries and under wing-coverts brown-black,
glossed blue and reddish-purple ; tail glossed green and reddish-
purple ; outer primaries, primary-coverts, and bastard-wing glossed
green, inner primaries more bluish ; secondaries and all wing-
coverts glossed reddish-purple ; under-down and feather-bases
brownish-white like Rook. This plumage is acquired by complete
moult from August to October. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion
makes whole bird less glossy and wings and tail especially become
browner.

Nestling. — Down, mouse-brown, plentiful ; distribution, occi-
pital, humeral, spinal, femoral, ventral (description from skin).

Juvenile. — Upper-parts brown-black with little gloss compared
to adult ; under-parts brown with some greenish gloss on chin but
with scarcely any on rest of under-parts ; tail, wings, and wing-
coverts much as in adult but not so brightly glossed.

10 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

First winter and summer. Male and female. — Like adult but
tail, wings, and wing-coverts much browner, gloss becoming
almost entirely worn off by first autumn. The juvenile body-
plumage and some lesser and median coverts are moulted in
autumn but not rest of wings or tail.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 400-436 mm., tail
215-250, tarsus 64-73, bill from nostril 44-52, from skull 72-80,
depth at angle of lower mandibles 25-28, at base 28-32 (10
measured). $ wing 395-420. Primaries : 1st between 7th and
8th, sometimes shorter than 8th, 4th longest, 3rd sometimes equal
but usually 3-12 mm. shorter, 2nd 15-40 shorter, 6th 40-65
shorter ; 2nd to 5th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries between
8th and 10th primaries, tips slightly rounded. Tail rounded.
Bill massive, culmen curved. Numerous and strong rictal and
nasal bristles, latter completely covering nostrils.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris dark-brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — C . c. varius (Faeroes) has longer
wing and whiter feather-bases, C. c. hispanus (Spain) heavier,
deeper bill, C. c. sardus (Sardinia) has a deeper bill and shorter
wing, C. c canariensis (Canaries) and C. c. tingitanus (north-
west Africa) have short, deep bills, C. c. umbrinus (Sahara,
Arabia, east Persia) has a thinner bill and is partly brownish,
C. c. laurencei (Palestine, north-west India to Greece) is intermediate
between last and typical form ; other forms differ in size of bill
and wing. Large size and heavy bill distinguish Raven specifically.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — At close quarters large size distinguishes it
from any other crow. Lanceolate feathers of throat give old
bird a bearded appearance. In flight, massive bill and head
project far in advance of wings, and suggest longer-necked bird
than a crow. Note, a frequently-uttered deep " pruk, pruk,"
infallible guide to identity.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Formerly widely distributed, breeding in tall
trees all over the country, now practically confined to moun-
tainous districts and sea-cliffs, and nesting almost entirely on
ledges of rocks. Nest. — Solidly built of sticks, heather-stalks,
rarely seaweed, mixed with earth, lined warmly hair and wool,
sometimes a little grass. Eggs. — 4-6, sometimes only 3 or even
fewer, and rarely 7 ; ground-colour light blue to greenish, generally
freely blotched and spotted brown or blackish and ashy-grey
shell-marks. Occasionally markings very scanty, sometimes (but
rarely) absent. Erythristic variety once recorded. Average size
of 79 eggs, 49. 8x33. 5 mm. Breeding-season. — February and
first half March. Incubation. — Lasts 19-21 days ; in confinement
performed by female only (St. Quintin), though others state that
male takes part. Fledging -period. — About 5 weeks. One brood.

FOOD. — Very varied, including carrion of all kinds, occasionally

THE HOODED CROW. 11

lambs and injured or helpless mammals, or birds ; also eggs (even
of birds as large as Buzzard and Cormorant), field-mice, reptiles,
frogs, fish, mollusca, insects (chiefly beetles), and a little corn.

DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. — Resident. Breeds here
and there on coast from Isle of Wight to Cornwall and north
Devon, and in Cumbrian and Pennine Hills, and Wales. Rare
visitor eastern counties and midlands (bred Essex, 1889).
Breeds Isle of Man. Scotland. — Resident. Breeds fairly commonly,
especially in west and higher districts and on islands, especially
Hebrides and Shetlands; scarcer Orkneys. More widely distri-
buted from late autumn to spring. Ireland. — Resident. Breeds
wilder sea-cliffs and some mountains, especially in west.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — In Scotland seems regular autumn-
to spring- immigrant, sometimes in considerable numbers ; in
Ireland small flocks occasionally noted, but elsewhere only
vagrant- movements of a bird here and there.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe generally. Represented by
allied forms in Faeroes, Iceland, Spain, some Mediterranean islands,
Greece, Arabia and Palestine to north-west India and Himalayas;
in Canary Islands and nonh Africa ; also in north and east Asia,
Greenland, and North America.

CORVUS CORNIX

2. Corvus cornix cornix L.— THE HOODED CROW.

CORVUS CORNIX Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 105 (1758 — Europe.

Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Corvus cornix Linnaeus, Yarrell, n, p. 275 ; Saunders, p. 245.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Back of neck,
mantle, scapulars, back, rump, breast, belly, under tail-coverts,
and axillaries french-grey, feathers with very fine dark mesial
streaks ; head, throat, wings, tail, and tibial feathers black ;
nasal and rictal bristles glossy-black ; crown and nape glossed
greenish-blue ; ear-coverts and chin greenish ; throat blue-purple,
lower- throat mixture of black and french-grey (feathers of throat
long and lance-shaped as Carrion-Crow) ; upper tail-coverts mixture
of french-grey and blue-purple ; tail, outer feathers glossed
bluish-green, inner reddish-purple ; bastard-wing, primary-coverts,
and outer primaries glossed greenish-blue ; inner primaries,
secondaries, and wing-coverts reddish-purple ; under wing-coverts
black-brown, glossed blue-purple. This plumage is acquired by
complete moult in autumn. /Summer. — No moult. Abrasion has
not much effect, but some gloss is lost and grey becomes less pure
and tinged brownish.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

12 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Juvenile,. — Whole head and throat black-brown with faint
greenish gloss ; tibial feathers and upper tail-coverts black-
brown ; back of neck, mantle, back, and rump more brownish-,
less bluish-grey than adult, and with small brown tips to feathers ;
breast, belly, and under tail-coverts like upper-parts but without
brown tips ; tail, wings, and wing-coverts like adult but browner
and with less gloss.

First winter and summer. — Like adult but tail, wings, and
wing-coverts browner and with less gloss, especially in summer,
but apparently never becoming so brown as many specimens of
Rooks and Carrion-Crows. The juvenile body-plumage and
majority of lesser and median wing-coverts are moulted from Aug.
to Oct., but not tail- and wing-feathers or rest of wing-coverts.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 203-332 mm., tail
170-185, tarsus 51-61, bill from nostril 31-40, depth at angle of
lower mandible 16-20 (12 measured). $ wing as male. Wing-
formula exactly as Carrion-Crow, and other structure similar.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris dark brown (adult),
greyish- blue (young).

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — C. c. sardonius (Sardinia and
Corsica) is smaller, C. c. sharpii (Siberia, Turkestan, Persia,
and perhaps Egypt) is paler grey, C. c. capellanus (possibly distinct
species, not subspecies) (Persian Gulf), is much larger, and
white rather than grey. Grey of body is unmistakable specific
character.

HYBRIDS. — Between C. comix and C. corone these exhibit every
intergradation of colour, and are fertile inter se.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Grey mantle and under-parts prevent any
confusion with Carrion-Crow or Rook.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds sometimes in tree, but often in low
bush on side of steep bank, or on ledge of cliff ; occasionally among
heather on low islets in lochs. Nest. — Strongly built of sticks,
heather-twigs, seaweed-stems, moss, and earth, lined wool, hair,
and sometimes feathers. Saxby records large bones in foundation
in Shetlands. Eggs. — Usually 4-6, very rarely 7 ; much resemble
Carrion-Crow's ; ground-colour varying from light blue to deep
green, generally blotched and spotted over whole surface with
shades of umber-brown, and underlying ashy shell-marks. Some
have only few markings on blue ground ; one light-coloured egg
in clutch not uncommon. Erythristic variety recorded once or
twice. Average size of 100 eggs, 41.2 x 29mm., slightly smaller
than Carrion-Crow's. Breeding-season. — End March and April.
Incubation. — Shared by both sexes ; lasts 18-19 days. Eggs
incubated as laid. One brood.

FOOD. — Very varied, including carrion of all kinds, wounded birds,
small mammals, enormous quantities of eggs of many birds

THE CARRION-CROW.

13

(including those of Cormorant, Shag, Puffin, Ducks, Grouse, and
smaller gulls), also mollusca, insects (chiefly beetles), echini, frogs,
worms, and grain.

DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. — Regular autumn- and
winter- visitor east coast, south coast to Hants., Trent Valley, and
east midlands ; occasional further inland and western counties ;
rare Wales. Has bred occasionally, mostly eastern counties, and
seldom inland. Has also interbred with C. c. corone. Residen
Isle of Man. Scotland. — Resident. Abundant north and north-
west and most islands. Overlaps breeding-range of C. c. corone,
and often interbreeds with it, especially in Clyde and Solway areas
in west, and Tay area in east. Very occasionally breeds in south-
east, where chiefly known as migrant. Ireland. — Resident in
every county.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Great numbers arrive east coast
Great Britain from central Europe and Scandinavia, second
week Oct. to first week Nov., extremes Aug. 5 and Nov. 12, and
depart mid-March to third week April, extremes mid-Feb. to
May 10. No evidence of migration hi Ireland.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Scandinavia, Denmark, Russia, east
Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, also Fseroes. Represented
by other forms in Corsica and Sardinia, Balkan Peninsula,
Cyprus, Egypt, and west Asia. Casual in Greenland. Interbreeds
with C. corone where ranges overlap.

CORVUS CORONE

3. Corvus corone corone L. — THE CARRION-CROW.

CORVUS CORONE Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 105 (1758 — Europe.

Restricted typical locality : England).

Corvus corone Linnaeus, Yarrell, n, p. 274 ; Saunders, p. 243.

Feathers from lower-throat of
(A) Raven, (B) Carrion-Crow, (C) Rook.

14 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Nasal bristles
black ; fore-head, crown, and nape black, glossed greenish ; mantle,
back, rump, and upper tail-coverts glossed reddish-purple ; chin
glossed green ; throat, flanks, under wing-coverts, axillaries, and
under tail-coverts glossed bluish-purple (feathers of throat long
and lance-shaped) ; rest of under-parts black with little gloss ;
tail black underneath, glossed greenish and bluish-purple above ;
primaries black underneath, glossed purplish-green above ;
secondaries same, but glossed reddish-purple on outer webs and
greenish on inner ; primary-coverts and bastard-wing as primaries
but more glossy ; greater coverts like secondaries ; median and
lesser coverts glossed reddish-purple. This plumage is acquired
by complete moult in Aug. -Sept. Summer. — No moult.
Abrasion causes some loss of gloss, and wings and tail
especially become browner by wear but never so brown as in first
summer.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like that of Rook but crown and mantle duller,
less glossed ; outer webs of secondaries and greater coverts glossed
bluer, less reddish-purple, than Rook. Wing-formula as in adult.

First ivinter and summer. — Like adult but wings and tail
browner, especially in summer. The juvenile body-plumage,
median, lesser and inner greater coverts are moulted in autumn,
but not rest of wings and tail.

Measurements and structure. — ^ wing 318-345 mm., tail 175-195,
tarsus 55-64, bill from nostril 34-41, depth at angle of lower
mandible 17-21 (12 measured). $ wing 310-325. Primaries : 1st
equal to or shorter than 10th, very occasionally between 9th and
10th, 2nd 5-14 mm. shorter than 6th (very occasionally equals
6th, never longer), 4th usually longest, 3rd and 5th equal or 3-7 mm.
shorter, 6th 16-25 shorter ; 2nd to 6th clearly emarginated outer
webs. Secondaries about equal 9th primary, tips rounded. Tail
rounded. Bill thick, deep, and curved at tip. Numerous rictal
and nasal bristles, latter completely covering nostrils.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs and feet black ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — C. c. orientalis (Siberia, north
China, Japan) is larger. As compared with Rook, greenish, not
reddish-purple, head and chin ; bluer, not so reddish-purple, mantle,
throat, and breast ; feathers of throat pointed, lance-shaped
instead of rounded ; feather-bases whiter ; bill thicker, deeper,
and more curved ; 2nd primary never longer than 6th, as it is in
Rook.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Differs from Hooded Crow in its uniformly
black plumage. Resembles Rook, but bill much stouter, with
base feathered at all ages instead of bare as in adult Rook. In
repose, plumage clings closely to body, whereas in Rook, feathers
of flanks hang loosely over thighs. Generally Rooks are gregarious

THE ROOK. 15

and Crows in pairs, but Crows are sometimes seen in company
and Rooks singly. In flight difficult to distinguish. Note,
raucous croak "varrock," hardly differs from Hooded Crow's,
but cannot be mistaken for any note of Rook.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests chiefly in trees, but in hills of Wales
often in small bushes on hill-sides and on ledges of cliffs on coast ;
once on low stone-wall. Nest. — Closely resembles Hooded Crow's,
sometimes very conspicuous and at times cleverly hidden ; built
of sticks and twigs, earth, moss, etc., lined hair and wool.
Eggs. — Usually 4-5, rarely 6 ; like Hooded Crow's, but average
rather paler and not so green. One egg of clutch often sparsely
marked ; blue, unmarked eggs rare ; some very heavily marked
at end. Average size of 100 eggs 43.5 X 30.1 mm., larger than
Hooded Crow's or Rook's. Breeding-season. — Begins early April.
Incubation. — Lasts 18-19 days ; both sexes said to incubate, but
more evidence is desirable in view of E. Selous's observations.
Eggs incubated as laid. One brood. Fledging-period. — 33-34
days (S. E. Brock).

FOOD. — Very varied, including carrion, small mammals (rabbits,
mice), wounded and small birds, eggs of many birds, frogs, toads,
mollusca, insects (especially beetles), worms, and grain.

DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. — Resident and common,
but somewhat local. Scotland. — Resident. On east side common
as far north as Perth, not rare in north of Moray area, and
occasionally nests east Sutherland ; on west side common parts of
Clyde district, but scarce resident Skye and very scarce north-west
Highlands ; occasional visitor Orkneys, Shetlands, and Fair Isle,
once Outer Hebrides (Flannans). Where overlapping range of
C. c. comix, frequently interbreeds. Ireland. — Very rare. Said
to have bred Mayo, 1890.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Appears to arrive with Rooks east
coast Great Britain from central Europe between Sept. and Nov.,
and to return between mid-Feb. and mid-April, but very few of
such migrants appear to have been properly identified.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Western Europe generally, in Germany
roughly to the Elbe, and throughout the Alps to Bohemia. An
allied form in north-east Asia. Interbreeds with C. comix in
Germany and Siberia where ranges overlap.

CORVUS FRUGILEGUS

4. Corvus frugilegus frugilegus L. — THE ROOK.

CORVTTS FRUGILEGUS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 103 (1758 —

Europe. Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Corvus frugilegus Linnaeus, Yarrell, n, p. 289 ; Saunders, p. 247.

16

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Wing-formula of A, Carrion-Crow (C. corone) . B, Rook (C. frugilegus).

DESCRIPTION (Plate 1). — Adult male and female. Winter. — Nasal
region, fore-head, lores, and under eyes bare greyish-white skin,
covered with short rounded "knobs " (aborted feather sheaths) ;
chin and upper-throat covered with dark greyish-brown down-like
degenerate feathers, plumules, and filoplumes ; crown, nape, and
ear-coverts black, glossed greenish-purple ; rest of upper-parts and
under-parts black, glossed reddish-purple, but lower flanks and
under tail-coverts inclined to bluish-purple, and tibial feathers
greenish ; vent, under whig-coverts, and axillaries sooty-black, with
little gloss ; tail black underneath, glossed reddish- and greenish-
purple above ; primaries black underneath, glossed purplish-green
above, especially on outer webs and tips ; secondaries same, but
glossed reddish-purple on outer webs and greenish on inner ;
primary-coverts and bastard-wing like primaries but more glossy ;
greater coverts like secondaries ; median and lesser coverts glossed
reddish-purple. This plumage is acquired by complete moult
commencing with primaries in May and finishing with head in
September. Summer. — No moult. Down on chin gradually wears
away, and very little remains by January, when skin is bare and
greyish-white like fore-head. Rest of plumage becomes duller
and less glossy, especially on wings and tail, but latter never
become so brown as in first summer.

Nestling. — Down, dusky - grey, skin black; distribution,
humeral, spinal, ulnar, and femoral. Mouth bright crimson ;
tongue-spots pale orange. (A. G. Leigh, Brit. B., iv, p. 73.)

Juvenile. — Nasal bristles black ; rest of head (fully feathered)
black, slightly glossed green ; hind-neck more brownish ; mantle
and scapulars same, slightly glossed reddish -purple ; back, rump,
and upper tail-coverts same, but slightly glossed greenish ; whole
under-parts brownish-black, very slightly glossed greenish ; tail-

Plate 1.

K ^

^ 1
ll

5 a

. s

p. 16.]

THE ROOK. 17

and wing-feathers as in adult, but underneath more brownish-
black ; wing-coverts as in adult but browner and with less gloss.

First winter. — Nasal bristles glossy black ; rest of head (fully
feathered) glossed greenish-purple, otherwise like adult, but tail
and wing-feathers and greater wing-coverts considerably browner
and less glossy. The juvenile body-feathers, lesser and median
and two innermost greater wing-coverts are moulted in July and
August, but not rest of wings and tail. First summer. — Nasal and
gape bristles and feathers at base of lower mandible and on
lores, chin, and upper-throat are gradually moulted from January
to May, commencing with chin, sides of face following, and nasal
region being last. Two latter regions become covered with
" knobs " (aborted feather-sheaths) as in adult, but on chin and
upper-throat some degenerate down-like feathers grow as well as
many " knobs." These degenerate feathers, with the plumules
and filo plumes (wrhich do not moult), form a slight covering which
gradually wears down until skin is bare greyish-white as in adult.
Rest of plumage does not moult, but abrasion causes loss of gloss,
and wings and tail become very brown and almost without gloss.

Measurements and structure. — £ wing 305-330 mm., tail 157-175,
tarsus 52-58, bill from nostrils 35-40, depth at angle of lower
mandible 15-17 (12 measured), bare skin from nostril to feathers
under or just behind eye 29-37, bare skin from angle of
lower mandible to feathers of throat 37-66 (22 measured in flesh).
? wing 290-311, bill from nostril 31-38 (10 measured). Primaries :
1st usually between 8th and 9th, more rarely between 9th and
10th, 2nd between 5th and 6th, 3rd and 4th about equal and
longest, 5th 5-10 mm. shorter, 6th 35-45 shorter ; 2nd to 5th
clearly emarginated outer webs. Secondaries about equal 9th
primary, tips rounded. Tail rounded.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — C. f. tschusii (north Persia,
Turkestan, south-west Siberia) is slightly smaller, and C. f. pasti-
nator (China, Japan, east Siberia) is smaller, and adult has
feathered chin but bare fore-head. For differences from Carrion-
Crow, see that species.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Bare, greyish-white face of adult noticeable
whether bird is at rest or in flight. Young, until face becomes
bare, resembles Carrion-Crow, but bill always more slender and
culmen less curved. At all ages baggy appearance of Rook's
thighs — due to the loose flank-feathers — distinguishes it from
Crow on ground. Its " caw " cannot be confused with Crow's
hoarse croak.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Sociable, nesting in colonies in large trees,
and quite exceptionally on buildings such as church-spires or
chimneys, and in large bushes. Nest. — Similar to Crow's, built
of sticks solidified with earth, and often on old nest of previous

c

18 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

year ; lined grasses, moss, roots, straw, hair, wool, etc. Eggs. —
Usually 3-5, sometimes 6, rarely 7 ; vary much as Crow's : ground-
colour from light bluish-green to green and greyish-green but
never so blue, and rarely show much of ground-colour, being more
uniformly marked with shades of ashy-grey and brown. Erythristic
varieties have occurred abroad, but not in British Isles. Average
size of 100 eggs, 40.7 X 27 mm. ; smaller than Crow's. Breeding-
season. — Begins latter half of March and early April. Incubation. —
Lasts 17-18 days ; both sexes said to incubate, but generally male
is seen to feed female on nest. Eggs incubated as laid. One
brood. Fledging-period.— 29-30 days (S.E. Brock).

FOOD. — In agricultural districts mainly corn ; Collinge estimates
vegetable matter at 71 % and Gilmour says 58 % is corn and
husk ; earthworms, insects, millipedes also regularly taken, and
at times various fruits, acorns, walnuts, potatoes, fish, eggs of
many birds, small birds, small mammals, and carrion. Proportion
of animal-matter is highest in summer and lowest in winter.

DISTRIBUTION.— British Isles. — Resident. Generally distributed.
Increasing and spreading north in Scotland, and now breeds
Caithness, Sutherland, Ross, and Cromarty, O. Hebrides and
Orkneys, but only visitor Shetlands. Now breeds western isles
of Ireland.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — After nesting our residents are
subject to partial and irregular movements — some probably
emigrating to Continent. Great numbers arrive east coast Great
Britain from central Europe and Scandinavia, end Sept. to third
week Nov., extremes Sept. 1 to end Nov., and depart mid-Feb.
to third week April. Occasional records of emigration from
south coast in late autumn and immigration in mid-March.
Winter-movements also noted in Hebrides ; in Ireland apparently
a cross-channel movement autumn and spring.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe generally from north Russia,
Finland, and 60° north in Sweden, but rare or absent in south
Europe. Casual Madeira, north Africa, Greenland, and Iceland.
Represented by allied forms in parts of west and east Asia.

Genus COLCEUS Kaup.

COLCEUS Kaup, Skiz/.. Entw.-Gesch. und Natiirl. System, p. 114 (1829 —
Type C. monedida, because German name of genus " Dohle"= Jackdaw.
C. monedida first-named species, and accepted as type by Sharpe, 1874,
and others).*

* In the same year, 1829, the name Lycos was given to the Jackdaws
by Boie, but the name Colceus is preferable, because in 1787 the name Lycus
had already been established for another genus.

THE JACKDAW. 19

Contains palaearctic Jackdaws only. Genus very similar to
Corvus, and might without great harm be suppressed. It differs,
however, by having shorter, pointed bill with almost straight
culmen. First primary is rather strongly emarginated on inner
web, tail at end and single rectrices almost square, very slightly
rounded. Only two palaearctic species, of which C. monedula
occurs in several races all over Europe and northern Africa as
well as parts of Asia.

COLCEUS MONEDULA

5. Coloeus monedula spermologus ( Vieill. ) *— THE JACKDAW.

CORVUS SPERMOLOGUS Vieillot, Nouv. Diet. d'Hist. Nat., vin, p. 40

(1817— Typical locality : south of France).

Corvus monedula Linnaeus, Yarrell, n, p. 305 ; Saunders, p. 239.

Jackdaw (Coloeus m. spermologus).

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Nasal and rictal
bristles glossy black ; fore-head and crown glossy blue-black ; nape,
back and sides of neck, and ear-coverts silvery ash-grey ; mantle,
back and rump black slightly glossed blue and tinged greyish
(feathers being narrowly tipped grey) ; scapulars and upper tail-
coverts with more purple gloss ; chin, throat, under wing-coverts,
and axillaries black, slightly glossed blue ; rest of under-parts
black, tinged greyish ; tail black, outer feathers glossed bluish-green
on outer webs, inner bluer ; bastard-wing, primaries, and primary-
coverts glossed bluish-green; secondaries and all wing-coverts
glossed reddish-purple. This plumage is acquired by complete
moult in early autumn, beginning with wing-feathers in June.
Summer. — No moult. Abrasion has little effect, but by wear of
tips of feathers grey of neck becomes less pronounced and mantle
and under-parts rather darker.

* The Scandinavian Jackdaw, Coloeus monedula monedula (L.), may
possibly be an immigrant to the east coast cf Great Britain in autumn, but
none of the specimens of migrants which we have so far examined have been
of this form.

20 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Nestling. — Down, buffish-grey ; distribution, humeral, spinal,
femoral and ulnar ; mouth, inside deep orange, no spots (A. G.
Leigh, Brit. B., m, p. 154.)

Juvenile. — -Crown brownish-black, slightly glossy ; nape and
sides of neck greyish-brown ; ear-coverts with silvery tinge ;
mantle, back, and rump black-brown ; under-parts paler brown
with slight greyish tinge ; tail and wings as in adult but rather
less glossy, lesser and median coverts brown-black with scarcely
any gloss.

First winter and summer. — Like adult, but tail and wing-
feathers, greater wing-coverts, and often some median and lesser
coverts browner and less glossy, becoming in summer often quite
brown and almost devoid of gloss. The juvenile body-plumage
and majority (often all) lesser and median and usually innermost
greater coverts are moulted in autumn, but not rest of coverts
and wing- and tail-feathers.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 228-246 mm., tail
124-140, tarsus 42-47, bill from nostril 23-26 (12 measured).
$ whig 225-243. Primaries : 1st equal to or shorter than 10th
or between 9th and 10th, 3rd and 4th usually equal and longest,
2nd and 5th 12-20 mm. shorter, 6th 30-40 shorter ; 2nd to 5th
emarginated outer webs. Secondaries between 9th and 10th
primaries, square tipped, slightly notched. Tail nearly square,
very slightly rounded. Numerous rictal and nasal bristles, latter
completely covering nostrils.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — C. m. monedula (Scandinavia)
has slightly greyer under-parts and small white or creamy-
white patch at base of side of neck, C. m. collaris (eastern
Europe, western Asia) is very like typical form, but sides of neck
are paler and white patch is rather larger, C. m. cirtensis
(Algeria) is as grey on under-parts as C. m. monedula, but has
no white patch on sides of neck. The European forms intergrade
and series must be compared. Silvery-grey sides of neck and
nape unmistakable specific character.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Smaller size, dapper appearance, and a
certain pert alertness in actions, distinguish Jackdaw at all ages
from more sedate Rook and Crows. Silver-grey nape and ear-
coverts of old bird afford additional distinction. In flight differs
from Rook, with which it frequently consorts, by quicker wing-
beats and its notes, " cae " and " jack " ; alarm-note uttered at
nest is " caw."

BREEDING-HABITS. — Usually breeds in hole, whether of tree,
building, rock, or rabbit-burrow, but sometimes builds large open
nest of sticks with deep cup, occasionally roofed, in trees. Shows
tendency to sociability, several pairs often breeding close together.
Nest. — Varies according to site, enormous quantities of sticks used
in some cases, but absent from small holes, which are merely

THE MAGPIE. 21

lined with wool, hair, fur, grass, etc. Eggs. — 4-6, sometimes 7 ;
much bluer than eggs of most Corvidce ; ground being pale greenish-
blue, spotted brownish-black and ashy; some with bold black
blotches, others unmarked or only finely pitted. Average of
50 eggs, 35.47 X 25.32 mm. Breeding-season. — Begins second half
April. Incubation. — Lasts 18-20 days. Fledging-period. — 4-5
weeks. One brood.

FOOD. — Occasionally young birds and frequently eggs, but mainly
insects (coleoptera and larvae, larvae of moths, diptera, etc.) ; also
slugs, worms, wheat, young potatoes, etc., and sometimes fruit
(cherries and walnuts).

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Resident. Common except north-
west Scotland, where scarce, 0. Hebrides, where appears on
migration and has recently nested, and Shetlands, where only
rather rare visitor, although now abundant Orkneys. Does not
breed western isles of Ireland.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Some of our residents appear to
depart autumn and return spring. Numbers arrive east coast
Great Britain mid-Oct. to first week Nov., extremes Sept. 18
to Nov. 20, and depart mid-Feb. to third week April. Some
evidence of ^arrivals on south coast (Hants.) beginning of April.
Anivals have been noted April and Oct. Fair Isle.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — West and central Europe, also parts of
south Europe, but exact limits not yet ascertained. Replaced by
closely allied forms in Scandinavia, east Europe, parts of north and
west Asia, and Algeria.

Genus PICA Briss.

PICA Brisson, Orn. i, p. 30 (1760 — Type by tautonymy "pica," i.e.
Pica pica ; cf. op. c., n, p. 35).

Differs at a glance from all other north European Corvidce by
long graduated tail, middle feathers of which stand out far beyond
rest. First primary very narrow, stiff, and short. Colours Avhite
and black, latter mostly beautifully glossed with metallic green,
blue, or purple. Sexes alike. Genus ranges over Europe, north
Africa, western, northern, central and eastern Asia, and parts of
North America. Eight forms distinguishable, replacing each
other geographically. All might be treated as subspecies.

PICA PICA

6. Pica pica pica (L.)— THE MAGPIE.

COBVUS PICA Linnseus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 106 (1758— Europe.

Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Pica rustica (Scopoli), Yarrell, n, p. 312 ; Saunders, p. 237.

22 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Whole head, neck,
mantle, inner scapulars, upper tail-coverts, throat, upper-breast,
tibial feathers, vent, under tail-coverts, axillaries, and under
wing-coverts velvety-black with blue-purple tinge ; crown and
scapulars slightly glossed greenish ; chin and throat-feathers
with whitish shaft-lines ; rump varying from white or brownish-
white to brown (in British specimens never very white and
often nearly black) ; rest of scapulars and breast, flanks, and belly,
pure white ; tail below black, above both webs of central pair
and outer webs of rest brilliant bronze-green with band of red-
purple near tip, merging into blue-purple and green-purple at
tip ; primaries : outer webs and tips glossed blue-green, inner
webs mostly white except at base and tip ; in outer primaries
white goes to a point near shaft, in inner ones it is squarer at tip
and extends less towards base (extent of white in primaries varies
slightly individually) ; secondaries : outer webs glossed bright blue
with inner line of bronze-green on basal half of outer feathers, tips
bluish-green, inner webs black except those of innermost feathers
which are bluish-green ; primary-coverts, greater and median
coverts, bronze bluish-green ; lesser wing-coverts black with
little gloss. This plumage is acquired by complete moult in
autumn. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion causes slight loss of
gloss and brilliancy.

Nestling — Down, absent.

Juvenile. — Like adult, but with all black parts sooty blackish-
brown ; rump blackish -brown ; scapulars brownish or buffish-
white ; belly buffish-white ; wing-coverts much less brilliantly
glossed ; wing and tail-feathers like adult but slightly less brilliant.

First wnter and summer. — Scarcely distinguishable from
adults but slightly less brilliant wings and tail, especially noticeable
on central tail-feathers, primary-coverts, and primaries, which
become brownish in summer. The juvenile body-plumage and
wing-coverts are moulted in Aug.-Sept. but not tail, wing-
feathers, or primary-coverts.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 187-200, tail 215-260,
tarsus 47-53, bill from nostril 24-29 (12 measured). $ wing
173-190, tail 205-240. Primaries : 1st about twice primary-
coverts, scythe-shaped, 2nd usually between 9th and 10th, some-
times either shorter than 10th or longer than 9th, 4th tc 6th about
equal and longest, 3rd and 7th 7-12 mm. shorter ; 3rd to 7th clearly
emarginated outer webs. Secondaries about equal 10th primary,
tips almost square. Tail wedge-shaped, central pair 20-40 mm.
longer than next and rest graduated in steps of about 20 mm.
Strong rictal bristles and numerous nasal bristles completely
covering nostrils. Bill slightly hooked at tip.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs and feet black ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — P. p. melanota (Spain and
Portugal) has uniform black rump, occasionally with pale patch,

THE MAGPIE. 23

P. p. mauritanica (north-west Africa) has black rump and blue
naked patch behind eye, P. p. bactriana (northern Asia) is larger,
has white rump and usually more white on primaries, P. p. sericea
(China. S. Japan) is very dark, P. p. bottanensis (Tibet, Himalayas)
is very large. Long tail and black and white coloration unmis-
takable specific distinctions.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Pied plumage and long wedge-shaped tail
separate it at once from all other British birds. In thick cover
presence often revealed by unmistakable chattering cry.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Usually breeds in tall trees, sometimes in
thorny bushes or straggling hedgerows, and in Scandinavia occa-
sionally under eaves of houses and on telephone-poles. Nest. —
Bulky, built of sticks with lining of earth and over it a layer of
fine roots. Rarely hair reported used in lining. Dome of sticks,
nearly always thorny, covers nest, but an opening is left.
Eggs. — Usually 5 or 6 to 8, rarely 9 or 10 ; vary in ground-
colour from greenish-blue to yellowish- and greyish-green, closely
spotted and mottled brown and ash. Varieties almost unmarked
or with heavy brown caps, and erythristic eggs have been recorded.
Average of 100 eggs, 32.9x23 mm. Breeding-season. — Begins
April ; exceptionally, late March. Incubation. — Lasts 17 18 days ;
performed by female alone (Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1896), though
it has been stated that both sexes take part. Fledging-period. —
26 30 days. One brood.

FOOD. — Mainly insects, but also carrion, small mammals (rats,
mice, voles), young birds of many species and eggs, insects (beetles
and their larvae, larvae of lepidoptera), worms, and vegetable
matter (grain, acorns, holly-berries, etc.).

DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. — Resident. Generally dis-
tributed, but much diminished in numbers in some parts by game-
preserving and probably now exterminated East Anglia. Some
evidence of migration on east and south-east coasts England.
Scotland. — Resident. Very scarce north and north-west, and
rather local elsewhere on mainland, being in some places plentiful
and in others very scarce. Unknown O. Hebrides and very rare
vagrant Orkneys and Shetlands. Ireland. — Resident since 17th
century. Numerous ; scarcer in extreme west.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Nearly whole of Europe. Replaced by
other forms !n Spain and north-west Africa, and in parts of Asia
and North America.

Genus NUCIFRAGA Briss.

NTJCIFKAGA Brisson, Orn., i, p. 30 (1760 — Type by tautonymy " nuci-
fraga," i.e N. caryocatactes • cf. op. c., 11, p. 59).

Bill about as long as head, somewhat rounded laterally, almost

24 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

quite straight, with a more or less sharp or obtuse tip. Nostrils
circular, entirely hidden by bristles. 4th to 6th primaries almost
equal and longest, 3rd very little shorter, 1st not much more than
half 2nd. Tail about three-quarters length of wing, end very
little rounded, almost straight. Plumage soft and full, blackish-
brown with white spots. Sexes alike. One species in a number
of different forms in northern Europe and Asia, in India to
Himalayas, east as far as China and Japan, and as far south
as Hainan and Formosa. Another very different species in
North America.

NUCIFRAGA CARYOCATACTES

7. Nucifraga caryocatactes caryocatactes (L). — THE THICK-
BILLED NUTCRACKER.

CORVTJS CARYOCATACTES, Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. ed. x, i, p. 106 (1758 —
Europe. Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Nucifraga caryocatacfes (Linnaeus), Yarrell, n, p. 330 (part) ; Saunders,
p. 233 (part).

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Lores and nasal
bristles white with brown bases ; fore-head and crown uniform
dark chocolate-brown ; rest of body-plumage rather paler
chocolate-brown with pear-shaped white spots at tip of each
feather, considerably larger on under-parts, ear-coverts, and sides of
neck than on upper-parts ; back with few and still smaller spots ;
rump darker with scarcely any spots ; upper tail-coverts brownish-
black slightly glossed greenish with one or two small whitish mesial
streaks ; under tail-coverts pure white ; tail brownish-black,
glossed bluish-green above and with white tips, small on central,
and becoming much larger on outer pairs ; primaries and
secondaries brown-black glossed bluish-green above with very
small white tips to inner primaries and outer secondaries, 6th and
7th primaries with a large crescentic white mark on basal part
of inner web, 5th primary often also with a small similar mark* ;
primary-coverts, bastard-wing, and greater coverts glossed bluish-
green with some of the outer feathers with small white tips ;
median coverts same but more and larger white tips ; lesser coverts
browner with little gloss and pear-shaped white tips. This plumage
is acquired by complete moult from June to September. Summer. —
No moult. Abrasion makes body-plumage rather paler, wings
and tail become browner, white tips of primaries, secondaries,
outer primary-coverts, and greater coverts mostly wear off.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Resembling adult but body-plumage paler brown ;
crown not so uniform, with pale shaft-streaks ; mantle with white

* One specimen of N. c. macrorhynchus has 5th to 8th primaries so
marked and small mark on 9th.

THE THICK-BILLED NUTCRACKER. 25

spots smaller and much less conspicuous ; back uniform brown ;
rump and upper tail-coverts with narrow whitish fringes ; under-
parts with white tips not so pear-shaped and less sharply defined ;
throat usually whitish with little brown showing ; tail- and wing-
feathers and wing-coverts browner and less glossed ; primary,
greater and median wing-coverts all with white tips ; 6th and 7th
primaries sometimes without white mark on inner webs.

First winter. Male and female. — Like adults but primaries,
secondaries, and wing-coverts browner and less glossed, and
primary, greater, and median wing-coverts all with white tips ;
6th and 7th primaries sometimes without white mark on inner
web. The juvenile body-plumage, lesser and median coverts
are moulted July and August, but not tail- and wing-feathers
and primary- and greater coverts. Summer. — -Tail, wings, and
wing-coverts become very brown, and white spots mostly wear off
greater coverts.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 173-194, tail 115-136.
tarsus 40-45, bill from nostril 34-40, depth at angle 14-16 (13
measured). $ wing 175-190, bill depth at angle 13-15. Primaries :
1st about twice primary-coverts, 5th longest, 4th and 6th often
equal but generally 1-3 mm. shorter, 3rd 5-12 shorter, 2nd between
7th and 9th ; 3rd to 6th clearly emarginated outer webs.
Secondaries between 9th and 10th or shorter, tips rounded. Tail
slightly rounded laterally. Rictal and nasal bristles, latter covering
nostrils but not so long as in Corvus.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs and feet black ; iris brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Chocolate-brown plumage,
spotted white, is unmistakable specific distinction. For difference
of N. c. macrorhynchus see p. 27 ; other forms in Japan, Turkestan,
Kamtschatka and India differ in size of white spots of body-plumage
and white tips of tail or wings, or in darker coloration.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Shape not unlike Rook, with long bill ;
plumage mottled ; white tips of widely spread tail-feathers very
noticeable in flight. Flight dipping ; stronger than Jay. Note,
monosyllabic " gurrrr " or " kurrrr " repeated five to eight
times, but Saunders says it has another note like a sprung rattle
(F.C.R.J.).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nest. — Always in coniferous forest, generally
near trunk at about 15 or 18 ft. from ground. Built of twigs,
moss, and lichens, solidified with earth, lined thick layer of grass
and hairy lichen (Usnea barbata). Eggs. — Usually 3, sometimes
4, and occasionally only 2 ; ground-colour pale bluish-green, with
fine olive-brown and grey spots. (Some finely-speckled varieties
of Jackdaw's eggs approach them closely, but usually have darker
markings.) Average of 100 eggs 33 -9 X 25 mm. Breeding-season. —
Begins about second week March in central Europe, and April

26

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

in north. Incubation. — Said to last 18 days ; apparently chiefly
performed by hen. One brood.

FOOD. — Mainly seeds of conifers, especially Pinus cembra where
found, but also hazel-nuts, juniper-berries, and insects (coleoptera,
orthoptera, odonata, etc.), flesh, and young birds.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Rare vagrant. Some occurrences
recorded under N. c. macrorhynchus may have been of this form,
but only the following have been satisfactorily identified : Sussex —
one near Chichester, Dec. 21, 1900, male near Brede, Feb. 12,
1907, one Penhurst, Nov. 7, 1908, female near Hastings, March 4,
1909 ; Kent — male, Benenden, Jan. 14, 1905 ; Cheshire — male near
Northwich, 1860.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Scandinavia, Bornholm, Denmark,
northern Russia, East Prussia, and principal mountain-
systems of Europe (Harz, Bohmerwald, Alps, Carpathians, Tatra,
Balkans, etc.)

8. Nucifraga caryocatactes macrorhynchus Brehm — THE
SLENDER-BILLED NUTCRACKER.

NUCIFRAGA MACRORHYNCHOS Brehm, Lehrb. Naturg. eur. Vogel, i,
p. 103 (1823 — Mountain forests mid. N. Errope and Asia, occasionally
Germany. Type, a migrant shot in winter in Germany)^
Nticifraga caryoca.actes (Linnaeus), Yarrell, n, p. 330 (part) ; Sannders,
p. 233 (part).

A. Thick-billed Nutcracker (Nucifraga c. caryocatactes).

B. Slender-billed luucracker (Nun)ragn c. macrorhynchus).

THE CONTINENTAL JAY. 27

DESCRIPTION. — Like N. c. caryocatactes, but with a comparatively
finer (less deep and less broad) and usually longer and more sharply-
pointed bill. Bill from nostril : ^ 38'5-46, $ 37-41 ; depth at
angle, <£ and <j>, 12-14.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Builds in pine-forests early in year, but little
known of breeding-habits, which probably scarcely differ from
those of Thick-billed form. Eggs.— -Said to be similar.

FOOD. — British-killed specimens have been found feeding on
coleoptera (dung-beetles, etc.) and grain, but in Siberia main food
is seed of Pinus cembra sibirica.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Vagrant. About forty-five
authentic records of Nutcrackers in England, chiefly in southern
and eastern counties, one Wales, three Scotland, but none Ireland.
Probably most were of the Slender-billed form, but few have been
properly identified (cf. supra). Six in autumn 1911, two in
Dec. 1912, and two in Oct. 1913, were of this form.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeding in Siberia ; in winter frequently
all over Europe as far westward as France and central Pyrenees.
Common in certain years, rare or absent in others. Represented
by allied forms in Japan, Formosa, north China, Kamtschatka,
Turkestan, Himalayas, etc.

Genus GARRULUS Briss.

GARRULUS Brisson, Orn., i, p. 30 (1760 — Type " Garrulus," i.e. Garrulu-t
glandarius, by tautonymy, cf. op. c., n, p. 47).

At once recognizable by striking coloration of bastard-wing,
primary-coverts, and outer greater wing-coverts, which are bright
blue, barred with black. Plumage full and soft, feathers of crown
elongated, forming erectile crest. Nostrils roundish, covered by
bristles. 5th and 6th primaries longest, 1st about half as long as
longest. Tail almost square. Sexes alike.

Five or six species, only European one, G. glandarius, in at
least sixteen different subspecies ; Europe, north-west Africa, Asia
to Himalayas and south China, Japan and Formosa.

GARRULUS GLANDARIUS

9. Garrulus glandarius glandarius (L.)— THE CONTINENTAL
JAY.

COKVUS GLANDARIUS Linnseus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 106 (1758 —

Europe. Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Garrulus glandarius (Linnaeus), Yarrell, n, p. 323 (part) ; Saunders,

p. 235 (part).

Garrulus g. glandarius, N. F. Ticehurst, Brit. B., iv, p. 213.

28 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

DESCRIPTION. — Like British Jay, but greyer, not so pink, lower-
mantle, scapulars, and back ; rather paler breast and flanks ;
streaking of crown very variable, even more so than in rufitergum.
Comparison of skins necessary for certain identification. Indis-
tinguishable in the field.

Measurements. — tf wing 178-187 mm., tail 140-152, tarsus
39-44, bill from skull 28-39 (12 measured). $ wing 174-195.
Averaging perhaps a little larger than British Jay.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nest. — In hazel-saplings, conifers, or decid-
uous trees at from 5-20 ft. (occasionally much higher) from ground
in woods. Built of sticks and twigs and a little earth, thick
internal layer of fine black roots, not unlike Bullfinch's but of
course much larger. Eggs. — 5-7 but 8 to 10 recorded ; ground-
colour sage-green or olive-buff, finely mottled slightly darker
olive spots, and generally black hair-line at big end. Varieties
with green ground and few markings also occur. Average of 100
eggs, 31 '6 X 23 mm. Breeding-season. — Begins late April or early
May. Incubation. — Lasts 16-17 days (Naumann), 14 (Dettmers).
One brood, but second layings may be found till late June.

FOOD. — Young birds of many species, eggs, mice, small frogs,
insects and their larvae, wrorms, green peas ; and in autumn,
acorns, nuts, beech-mast, grain, and potatoes.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Migrant. Jays arriving on east
coast England in autumn have fairly often been recorded (cf.
Saunders, p. 235; Birds Yorks., I, pp. 226-7; Hist. Birds Kent,
p. 196, etc.), but no specimens of immigrants had been examined
until recorded by N. F. Ticehurst, Kent and Sussex, Sept. and
Oct., 1910 (Brit. B., rv, p. 213). More records of Continental
Jays based on examination of specimens are required.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe generally, but represented by
different forms in Spain, some Mediterranean islands, south-east
Russia. Turkey, north-west Africa, and parts of Asia.

10. Garrulus glandarius rufitergum Hart. — THE BRITISH
JAY.

GABKULUS GLANDARIUS RUFITERGUM Hartert, Vog. pal. Fauna, i, p. 30
(1903 — " Grossbritannien und Irland." Typical locality, Tring. Irish
specimens not examined at the time) ; id., Brit. B., i, p. 209.
Garrulus glandarius (Linnaeus), Yarrell, n, p. 323 (part) ; Saunders,
p. 235 (part).

British Jay (Garrulus g. rufitergum).

THE BRITISH JAY. 29

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Fore-head and
crown whitish, streaked black (amount and width of streaks vary
individually ; feathers of crown very narrow and crest-like) ;
nape brownish-pink, finely-streaked black and usually with faint
narrow cross-bars and often tinged blue ; back of neck and mantle
brownish-pink ; back and scapulars same but tinged grey ; rump
and upper tail-coverts wiiite ; sides of neck, breast, flanks, axil-
laries, and under wing-coverts brownish-pink ; ear-coverts same
but generally whitish near eye ; broad black moustachial stripe ;
chin, throat, centre of belly, and under tail-coverts white ; tail
brown-black with base grey, barred blue-grey ; primaries brown-
black with outer webs fringed greyish-white and inner webs
mottled bluish at base ; secondaries black with basal half of outer
webs of first five white marked blue and black, and base of 6th
barred blue, white, and black, innermost deep chestnut, tipped
black ; bastard-wing, primary-coverts, and outer greater coverts
blue, barred black and narrowly barred white, rest of greater
coverts black ; median coverts chestnut with narrow greyish bars ;
lesser coverts brownish-pink. This plumage is acquired by com-
plete moult in early autumn. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion
makes mantle browner and less pink, and under-parts more buff
and less pink.

Nestling. — Down, absent. Mouth, inside pink ; no spots
(C. B. Ticehurst, Brit. B., iv, p. 72).

Juvenile. — Like adult but with smaller dark streaks on fore-
head and crown, and more foxy-red, not so pink, on upper-parts,
and reddish-buff, not pink, on breast and flanks.

First winter and summer. — Like adult. The juvenile body-
feathers and lesser wing-coverts are moulted in autumn but not
remiges, rectrices, primary- and greater coverts.

Measurements and structure. — ^ wing 173-185 mm., tail
134-147, tarsus 40-44, bill from skull 29-35 (12 measured).
$ wing 170-188. Primaries : 1st about two-thirds 2nd, 2nd equal
to or 1-12 mm. shorter than 10th, 5th and 6th nearly equal and
longest, 4th and 7th 2-8 mm. shorter, 3rd 10-16 shorter ; 4th to
7th slightly emarginated outer webs. Secondaries about 10 mm.
shorter than 10th primary. Tail almost square, slightly rounded
laterally. Bill short and thickish, slightly hooked at tip. Nostrils
covered with bristle-like feathers ; a few longish rictal bristles.

Soft parts. — Bill blackish-horn ; legs and feet pale brown ;
iris whitish-blue (adult), brown (juvenile).

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — For differences of Continental
and Irish Jays see under those forms. There are many other
nearly allied forms which differ in measurements and shades of
colour, while others such as G. g. atricapillus (Syria and south-
west Persia), G. g. cervicalis (north Algeria and north Tunisia) have
black crowns. Blue wing and white rump are specific characters.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Vinaceous body-colour, white and black

30 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

crest, and bright blue in wing-coverts identify it at once at close
quarters. Weak flight and rounded wings characteristic at distance
in open ; in close woods pure white rump usually very noticeable,
as is harsh scream, " schach."

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nest. — In woods and plantations, generally in
undergrowth and not as a rule high, though exceptionally 60 ft.
from ground ; outcrop from trunk of big tree also a favourite
site ; exceptionally in tall ling, close to ground. Eggs. — Generally
5 or 6, less often 7 ; resemble those of other races, and cannot be
distinguished with certainty. Rare variety almost pink with pale
brownish spots, and another almost unmarked with bluish-green
ground. Average of 100 eggs, 31.7 X 22.8 mm. Breeding-season. —
Begins about last week April in south and early May in north Eng-
land. Incubation. — Lasts probably about sixteen days. One brood.

FOOD. — Much as Continental Jay, but slugs, snails, and occasionally
fruit (apples, plums, and cherries) recorded in addition.

DISTRIBUTION. — Confined to Great Britain. — England and Wales. —
Resident. Generally distributed ; locally abundant. Not found
Isle of Man. Scotland. — Resident. Very local. Decreased in
numbers but apparently extending northwards. Very rare north
of Great Glen and not found Sutherland, Caithness, north-west
Highlands, Hebrides, or Orkneys. Recorded Shetlands, but this
may have been the Continental form. Ireland. — Replaced by
Garrulus glandarius hibernicus, but may occur casually.

ii. Garrulus glandarius hibernicus With. & Hart. — THE
IRISH JAY.

GARRULUS GLANDARIUS HIBERNICUS Witherby and Hartert, Brit. B., iv,
p. 234 (1911— Ireland. Type, co. Wexford).

DESCRIPTION. — Like British Jay but sides of head, ear-coverts,
breast, and flanks darker and more rufous ; nape, mantle, and
scapulars also darker and richer rufous-pink ; fore-head and
crown usually darker with broader black streaks ; back of crown
and nape usually considerably more tinged blue.

Measurements. — About same as in British Jay. <$ wing
170-187, tail 140-152, tarsus 40-44, bill from skull 28-32 (12
measured). $ wing 172-184.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Resemble those of British Jay, except that
clutch is usually smaller, consisting of 4, or less commonly 5, eggs.
Average size of 4 eggs (May llth, co. Waterford) 31.7 X 23.5 mm.

DISTRIBUTION. — Confined to Ireland. — Resident in parts of fol-
lowing counties : Waterford, Tipperary, Kilkenny, Wexford,
Carlow, Queen's, King's, Kildare, Galway, and irregularly in Cork,
Westmeath, Wicklow, Dublin, Meath, and Louth ; recently spread
into Fermanagh and Cavan.

THE CHOUGH. 31

Genus PYRRHOCORAX Tunst.*
PYRKHOCORAX Tunstall, Orn. Brit., p. 2(1771 — Monotype, the Chough).

Contains Chough and Alpine Chough. Former has longer,
red, and more curved, latter shorter and whitish, bill. In both,
plumage is entirely black. Sexes alike in colour, but bill of female
smaller. Tarsus covered with an unbroken lamina in front and
behind (" booted ") ; only quite young birds show traces of a
division into several scutes. Unnecessary to split the two species
into two genera, and we follow Dresser, Reichenow, and many
others, who unite them in one genus.

PYRRHOCORAX PYRRHOCORAX

12. Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax (L.)— THE CHOUGH.

UPTJPA PYRRHOCORAX Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 118 (1758 — Coasts
of England and Egypt. Restricted typical locality : England).
Pyrrhocorax graculus] (Linnaeus) Yarrell, u, p. 252 ; Saunders, p. 231.

Chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax).

* The oldest generic term is Coracia Brisson, Orn. i, p. 30, type, according
to tautonymy, op. c., u, p. 3, the Chough. The name has generally been
rejected because it is so much like Coracias. This is no reason, however, for
its rejection, but it may be argued that it is a faulty transliteration of
Coracias, a name which is preoccupied, in another sense, by Linnaeus.
As a synonym should be quoted Comix Forster, Syn. Cat. Brit. B.,
p. 5, 1817. Forster mentions under the genus Comix " C. rufipes," the
Chough and C. monedula, the Jackdaw. No action having hitherto been
taken with regard to the name Comix, I designate as its type C. pyrrhocorax
(rufipes Forst.), to avoid this name being taken up for the Jackdaw. — E.H.

f It is difficult to understand how this name came to be accepted
for the red-billed Chough, as the diagnosis says : " rostro pedib usque luteis."
On the other hand, the Upupa Pyrrhocorax of 1758 is undoubtedly the Chough,
the diagnosis being: "Upupa atra, rostro pedibusque rubris " ; in 1766,
however, Linnaeus, apparently having forgotten what he had already written
quite correctly — except for the genus — in 1758, gave under the name of
Corvus Pyrrhocorax a mixture. — E.H.

32 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Whole body-
plumage glossy blue-black ; feather-bases greyish-brown ; longer
upper and under tail-coverts, tail, primaries, secondaries, bastard-
wing, primary-coverts, and greater coverts glossed greenish. This
plumage is acquired by complete moult in August-September,
primaries starting in June. Summer. — No moult and only a
slight loss of gloss on wings and tail by abrasion.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like adult, but body-feathers brownish-black with
their tips only slightly glossed blue-black ; feather-bases browner
than adult ; tail, wings, and wing-coverts tinged brown and slightly
duller than adult.

First winter and summer. — Difficult to distinguish from adult,
but tail and wings less glossy, becoming brown in summer ; espe-
cially noticeable on bastard-wing, primary-coverts, and inner
secondaries. The juvenile body-plumage and lesser and median
wing-coverts are moulted in August-September but not rest of
wings nor tail.

Measurements and structure. — ^ wing 270-310 mm., tail 140-160,
tarsus 55-59, bill from nostril 49-58 (12 measured). 2 wing 265-
285 mm., bill from nostril 42-47. Primaries : 1st usually between
9th and 10th, sometimes either longer than 9th or shorter than
10th, 3rd to 5th usually about equal and longest, 2nd 20-40 mm.
shorter, 6th 12-25 shorter ; 2nd to 6th emarginated outer webs.
Secondaries about equal 10th primary, tips fairly square and
slightly notched. Tail nearly square. Bill curved, upper mandible
slightly longer than lower. Bristle-like feathers covering nostrils
are shorter and more compact than in Corvus.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs, and feet bright red (adult), orange
(young) ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — No subspecies. P. graculus is
smaller in all dimensions, and has finer, much shorter and less
curved yellow bill.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Only likely to be confused with Jackdaw
from which distinguished by absence of grey in its purple-black
plumage, more slender form, and red bill and legs. Flight buoyant ;
widely-separated primaries, with tips often curving upward, give
wing a pectinated appearance. Notes, a soft " k'chufe," and a
rather querulous "tchare." Alarm note, " keea we," changing to
loud, hard "kwarr," when nest or young in danger,

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nearly all breeding-places in British Islands
at present on, or close to, sea-coast, but formerly many in cliffs
and rocks inland. Crevices and holes in roofs of sea-caves or
crannies and hollows in face of steep cliffs are usual sites. Occa-
sionally unused or ruined buildings are utilized. Nest. — Bulky,
built of sticks, heather-stalks, or furze-stems, dead plants, etc.,
thickly-lined wool, cow or goat hair, etc. Eggs. — 3 or 4 to 6 or 7 ;

THE CHOUGH. 33

whitish, creamy-yellow or very pale greenish ground-colour,
thickly-mottled and spotted sepia and yellowish-brown markings
and underlying ashy blotches. Some boldly blotched and occa-
sionally with black hair-line at big end. Average of 100 eggs,
39.4 x 27.9mm. Breeding-season. — Begins late April (excep-
tionally April 10th) or early May in Ireland, and about three
weeks earlier in Spain. Incubation. — Lasts 17-18 days (W.-Bond),
18-20 days (Girtanner). Fledging -period. — About 30 days. One
brood.

FOOD. — Chiefly insects (coleoptera, chiefly dung-beetles and their
larvae ; larvae of moths, etc), worms, and at tunes corn. Crustacea,
mollusca, arachnida, as well as lizards and even small rodents
also recorded, but confirmation of last seems desirable.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Resident. Rapidly decreasing.
Breeds on parts of south-west coast of England ; some sea-cliffs
and a few places close to sea and in at least one locality inland in
Wales ; Isle of Man ; some I. Hebrides (especially Islay and Jura),
and one or two places on mainland in south-west Scotland. Occurs
sporadically elsewhere. Ireland. — Resident on many sea-cliffs,
especially in west, and some inland cliffs, but decreasing. Absent
from east^coast.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Channel Islands, coasts of west France,
Alps, Spain, some Canary Islands, north Africa, Mediterranean
countries, Asia Minor, Syria, and mountains of central and north
Asia eastwards to China, southwards to Himalayas.

[NoiE. — An example of the ALPINE CHOUGH, Pyrrhocorax graculti»
(L.)neo auct., shot in Oxon. in 1881, had probably escaped from captivity
(c/. Saunders, p. 232).]

FAMILY STURNID^.

Primaries ten, but first very short, though distinctly visible.
Without rictal bristles, nostrils free from feathers. Tongue flat,
not tubular. Tarsus behind with unbroken lamina. First plumage
different from that of adult in colour and sometimes in structure.
Nests in holes. Old World.

Key to genera of family STURNID.E.

[Head crested, back and abdomen rose-colour . . Paato; ad., p. 37
1 {Head not crested, back and abdomen not rose-
[ colour 2

(Back and abdomen glossy green-, purple-, or blue-
black Sturnus ad., p. 34
Back and abdomen dark brown Sturnus juv., p. 35
Back greyish earth-brown, abdomen buff . . . Pastor juv., p. 38

D

34 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Genus STURNUS L.

STURNUS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 167 (1758 — Type by tautonymy
— ace. to Opinion 16 Comm. Nomencl. — Sturnus vulgaris. Also by
subsequent designation, Stephens 1817).

Bill flat, wide, straight, not very much pointed, about as
long as head. Nostrils reached by feathers of fore-head, but not
covered by them, protected by a membrane. Wings long and
pointed, first primary clearly visible, though very small, pointed
and stiff, about 10-20 mm. long. Tail short, straight, about half
as long as wing. Sexes alike, but young very different from adult,
in which feathers of head, neck, and chest are narrow, pointed,
and elongated, and plumage very glossy.

All forms might be looked upon as subspecies of S. vulgaris,
though S. unicolor is generally treated as a different species.
S. vulgaris with about fifteen different subspecies. Europe,
north Africa, and greater part of Asiatic continent.

STURNUS VULGARIS

13. Sturnus vulgaris vulgaris L.— THE STARLING.

STURNUS VULGARIS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 167 (1758 — •
Europe, Africa. Restricted typical locality : S. Sweden).
Sturnus vulgaris (Linnaeus), Yarrell, u, p. 228 ; Saunders, p. 227.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male,. Winter. — Whole plumage blackish
with metallic reflexions : feathers of upper-parts tipped buff, and
those of under-parts white. Crown and nape green (sometimes
tinged purple) ; mantle reddish-purple ; scapulars, back, rump, and
upper tail-coverts green and purple ; ear-coverts, cheeks, chin, and
throat green, merging to reddish-purple on upper- breast and sides
of neck ; breast bronze-green ; belly black and bronze-green ;
flanks blue-purple ; vent and under tail-coverts black slightly
glossed green and broadly margined grey or pale buff ; axillaries
and under wing-coverts brown, margined and tipped pale buff ;
tail-feathers and primaries black-brown, edged and tipped buff
with very slight green gloss inside buff on outer webs ; secondaries
same but with wider and more brilliant edging of blue-green gloss ;
primary-coverts like primaries ; greater coverts like secondaries
but with more gloss ; median and lesser coverts blue-green, tipped
buff. Body-feathers especially on throat and breast long, tapering
and pointed. This plumage is acquired by complete moult begin-
ning sometimes in June. Summer. — No moult. Buff and grey
tips of feathers gradually wear off, making whole bird darker and
more glossy, especially on crown and under-parts.

Adult female. — Like male, but body-feathers shorter and
rather broader, not so sharply pointed ; buff and grey tips being
thus larger, make female more spotted both in winter and summer

THE STARLING. 35

than adult male. Metallic colours not so brilliant, and in second-
aries and greater coverts much less in extent.

Nestling. — Down, greyish-white, a shade darker on head,
fairly long and plentiful ; distribution, inner supra-orbital,
occipital, humeral, spinal, ulnar, femoral, and ventral. Mouth,
inside orange, no spots ; flanges broad and lemon-yellow (C. B.
Ticehurst, Brit. B., n, p. 194).

Juvenile. Male and female. — All upper-parts dark mouse-brown ;
chin and centre of throat whitish, necked brown ; breast and flanks
brown ; belly brown, streaked greyish-white ; axillaries pale brown ;
under and upper tail -co verts brown, with slight edgings and tips
of buff ; tail-feathers dark brown narrowly margined buff ;
primaries same ; secondaries, primary-coverts, and greater coverts
with broader buff edgings. N.B. — Juvenile specimens from Shetland
appear to be very dark.

First winter. Male and female. — Like adults but body-feathers
broader and less pointed, and buff and white tips
larger and rounder, giving very spotted appear-
ance in whiter (when freshly-moulted chin appears
uniform white and fore-head buff). The juvenile
plumage is completely (including wings and tail)
moulted in July-Sept. First summer. — Spots wear
off considerably, but not so much as in adults,
and metallic colours are less brilliant and second-
aries and greater coverts have less gloss than in

A ,, Feathers from lower-

adults, throat of c? adult

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 125-132, (right-hand) and <J
tail 64-68, tarsus 28-30, bill from nostril 17-20, tot winter (left-
bill width at nostril 7-8 (12 measured). ? whig
122-127. Primaries : 1st small and pointed,
7-11 mm. longer than under wing-coverts, 2nd and 3rd about
equal and longest, rest becoming shorter in steps of 4-10 mm. ;
2nd and 3rd emarginated outer webs. Secondaries about equal
10th primary. Tail fairly square, slightly rounded laterally.

Soft parts. — Bill in winter brown with base of under mandible
dull yellow, hi summer (beginning change January) lemon-yellow ;
legs and feet reddish-brown ; iris, male dark brown, female same
but with narrow yellowish- white outer ring, young grey-brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — 8. v. faroensis (Faeroes) is larger
and darker (especially in juvenile-plumage), 8. v. granti (Azores)
has very small first primary, 8. v. poltaratskyi (Siberia, southwards
in whiter) has purple head and throat and green mantle, 8. v.
purpurascens (Asia Minor to north-west India) has green head and
throat, purple mantle and breast, and very dark axillaries, 8. v.
grcecus and 8. v. balcanictis (south-east Europe) are much like
last ; many other forms differing in distribution of metallic colours
and in size.

D 2

36 A PKACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Its bustling activity on ground, spindle-like
contour of body on wing, direct purposeful flight, rapid beats of
short triangular wings alternating with gliding motions, loqua-
city, sociability, and aerial evolutions of flocks at dusk, are all
characteristic.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Generally breeds in hole — most frequently in
tree or building, but also in nest-boxes, ivy on walls, among rocks
and heaps of stones, and occasionally in foundations of larger
birds' nests, in holes in ground, haystacks, etc. Nest. — Untidy,
built of straw, lined feathers and sometimes containing leaves,
wool, or moss. Eggs. — 5-7 sometimes 8 ; very pale blue or some-
times almost white, and with some gloss. Average size of 50
eggs, 30.2 X 21.3 mm. Breeding-season. — About mid-April, but
occasionally has second brood, in some districts not uncom-
monly. Exceptionally breeds also in late autumn and even
winter. Incubation. — Lasts 12-13 days (S. E. Brock), 14 days
(Liebe) ; shared by both sexes. Fledging -period. — 21-22 days
(S.E.B.).

FOOD. — Mainly insects and their larvae, many species of coleoptera
(chiefly dung-beetles, weevils, or wireworms), lepidoptera (larvae
of noctuse and other moths), orthoptera (earwigs), diptera (larvae
of tipula, etc.). Also earth- worms, spiders, centipedes, woodlice,
and mollusca (slugs and snails), sometimes wheat, eggs, and in
some districts much fruit in summer and autumn.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Resident. Generally distributed.
Increased greatly during last fifty years or so, and has spread
northwards on Scottish mainland (has long been common Shet-
lands and Orkneys) and westwards on mainland Great Britain and
Ireland and in I. Hebrides, though has long been common (but
lately greatly increased) in O. Hebrides and some western isles of
Ireland. In Ireland now nests every county, but still scarce some
districts, especially in parts of Cork and Kerry.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Our residents flock late summer
and some emigrate autumn and return Feb. and March. Vast
numbers arrive from central and north Europe on east coast Great
Britain end Sept. to first week Nov., extremes second week
Sept. to third week Nov. ; some winter and some pass south
and return mid-Feb. to early April. A great immigration in
Ireland from Sept. to Nov. Winter weather-movements also occur.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — From north Scandinavia and Russia to
south Europe, the Pyrenees and Italy ; casual in Spitsbergen, and
either this or the Fseroe bird in Greenland and Iceland ; on migra-
tion to Madeira and Canary Islands, wintering in Mediterranean
region. Other more or less close-allied forms on Faeroes, Azores,
in south-east Europe, and in Asia.

THE ROSE-COLOITRED STARLING. 37

Genus PASTOR Temm.

PASTOR Temminck, Man. d'Orn., I, p. 82 (1815 — Type (monotype)
P. roseus).

This monotypic genus differs strikingly from Sturnus in the
adult, which has in both sexes a wide crest and much rose-colour,
also stronger feet ;, the young bird differs from the adult in. its
short crest and lighter coloration. One annual moult. Distribution,
that of the single species.

PASTOR ROSEUS

4. Pastor roseus (L.)— THE ROSE-COLOURED STARLING.

TURDUS ROSEUS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 170 (1758 — Lapland

and Switzerland).

Pastor roseus (Linnaeus), Yarrell, n, p. 243 ; Saunders, p. 229.

Rose-coloured Starling (Pastor roseus) : $ adult.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Whole head and extending
over upper-mantle and upper-breast black, glossed reddish-purple
and tipped pale brown (feathers of crown and nape long and
narrow, forming crest) ; mantle, back, rump, breast, flanks, and
belly pale rosy-pink, somewhat obscured on under-parts and much
so on upper-parts by long pale brown tips of feathers ; inner
scapulars partially black-brown, making narrow dark line on
each side mantle ; thighs, under and upper tail-coverts black,
glossed blue-purple and tipped bumsh-grey ; axillaries and under
wing-coverts brown-black, fringed and tipped white ; tail black,
glossed blue-purple and green ; primaries and secondaries, outer
webs and tips black glossed blue-purple and green, inner webs
brown ; primary, greater, and median coverts glossed blue-purple
and green, median with whitish tips ; lesser coverts blacker with
longer pinkish-buff tips. This plumage is acquired by complete

(105095

38 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

moult in autumn. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion causes con-
siderable alteration. Brown tips gradually wear off pink feathers
and by May-June upper- and under-parts are pure rosy-pink,
tips wear off feathers of head, median wing-coverts, and upper
tail-coverts, and become much reduced on under tail-coverts and
lesser wing-coverts.

Adult female. Winter. — Like male but crest shorter, pink
duller more obscured by brown, gloss on head duller and mucli
more obscured by buff tips ; wing-feathers and coverts and tail
much less glossy and narrowly edged pale buff. Summer. —
Abrasion has same effect as in male, but pink generally not so
pure ; head, wings, and tail much duller, browner, and less

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Upper-parts uniform brown ; chin, centre of throat,
lower-breast, and belly brownish-white ; lower-throat, sides of
throat, and upper-breast spotted and streaked brown (occasionally
dark brown) ; flanks pale brown ; under tail-coverts and axillaries
brown with brownish- white edges and tips ; tail, wing-feathers,
and wing-coverts dark brown with brownish-white edges and
tips. Feathers of nape very slightly elongated.

First winter. Male. — Closely resembling adult female ; pink
very much obscured ; buff edgings to wings and tail conspicuous,
and gloss much duller than adult male. The juvenile plumage
is completely (including wings and tail) moulted in autumn.
Summer. — Does not become so pure a pink on upper-parts as
adult, and traces of edgings can generally be found on secondaries
and greater coverts. Female. — Still browner and duller than adult
female, often with scarcely any pink on feathers of upper-parts ;
crest very short ; axillaries pale brown, fringed whitish ; under-
parts much washed brown.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 125-133 mm., tail 62-68,
tarsus 29-32, bill from nostrils 14-16, width at nostrils 6-7 (12
measured). $ wing 124-133. Primaries : 1st small and narrow
about two-thirds primary-coverts, 2nd and 3rd about equal and
longest, 4th 3-7 mm. shorter, 5th 10-16 shorter; 3rd and 4th
slightly emarginated outer wrebs. Secondaries about equal 10th
primary, tips square and slightly notched. Tail almost square.

Soft parts. — Bill pink with basal half of lower mandible
black ; legs and feet pink ; iris brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED SPECIES. — No subspecies. Pink colouring
and crest are distinctive.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Resembles Starling in flight and habits,
but, except at distance, contrast of colour is good distinguishing
character. Gregarious, and single birds will associate with
Starlings. Note, harsh chatter, less musical than Starling's, but
somewhat similar (F.C.R.J.).

THE ROSE-COLOURED STARLING. 39

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds in colonies in most erratic way,
thousands of pairs appropriating suitable locality, breeding, and
deserting it again. Rocky ground covered with broken stones,
or ruins, preferred, but in default any kind of hole in old stone-
wall or in ground. Nest. — -Untidy heap of twigs, straw, grasses
etc., lined roots, feathers, or any available material ; not infre-
quently hardly any nest. Eggs. — 3 to 8, most commonly 5 or 6,
rarely even 9 ; very pale bluish or bluish-white, with no markings ;
more glossy and paler than Starling's. Average of 80 eggs,
28.7 X 21 mm. Breeding-season. — Variable, sometimes not till
mid-June, at others early in May : probably dependent on food-
supply. Incubation. — Period not known, probably under 14 days.
One brood.

FOOD. — Orthoptera (locusts, grasshoppers, etc.) ; also coleoptera
and many other insects, and much fruit (mulberries, cherries,
figs, etc.). British killed specimens fed chiefly on beetles,
gnats, worms, and fruit (mulberries, elderberries, currants, and
gooseberries).

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Vagrant. Fairly frequent.
Recorded from many parts England, chiefly east side , but often
Devon and Cornwall ; seldom Wales ; often Scotland, but never
0. Hebrides ; about twenty-eight times Ireland.

DISTRIBUTION.— A broad. — South-east Europe, occasionally as far
west as Italy and Hungary, and in Asia from Asia Minor to
Turkestan ; common in winter in India. Wandering irregularly
far northwards, thus observed from time to time in nearly all parts
of Europe, exceptionally as far north as Lapland, Finland, east
Prussia, also Belgium and Holland.

[NOTE. — Examples of the RED-WINGED STABLING, Agelaius phceniceus
Linnaeus, of North America have been taken in this country, but the recorded
examples had probably escaped from captivity. The same may be said
of Icterus galbida (Coracias Galbula Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 108,
typ. loc., Carolina), also from America, which has been captured in Shetland,
and recorded under the name Icterw baltimore. Sturnella magnet and
Scolecophagus carolinus (sub nomine S. ferrttgineus) from North America
must surely have escaped from captivity, and this is absolutely certain with
the Indian Mynah, Gracula religiosa, from southern India and Ceylon.]

FAMILY ORIOLID^E.

Medium-sized birds, the majority of species with much yellow
in plumage First primary well developed ; in Genus Oriolus
about half as long as second, third longest. Tail-feathers twelve,
primaries ten. Bill about as long as head, nostrils free of feathers,
upper portion covered with a membrane. Rictal bristles present,
but fine and short. Tarsus short. Sexes different ; young striped
below. Habits strictly arboreal. Numerous species in tropical
Africa and Asia to Australia ; only one in Europe.

40 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Genus ORIOLUS L.

ORIOLTTS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. xn, i, p. 160 (1766 — Type by
tautonymy (Coracias oriolus 1758 = Oriolus galbula).

In the genus Oriolus the lores are feathered. For characters
see under family. Only one species in Europe, many in Africa,
others in India and East-Indian Archipelago to Australia.

ORIOLUS ORIOLUS

15. Oriolus oriolus oriolus (L.)— THE GOLDEN ORIOLE.

CORACIAS ORIOLUS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 107 (1758 — Europe,

Asia. Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Oriolus galbula Linnaeus, Yarrell, i, p. 233 ; Saunders, p. 145.

PESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Lores black ; rest of body-
plumage bright golden-yellow, generally with few (occasionally
good many) feathers of mantle and scapulars and few under wing-
coverts and upper tail-coverts slightly marked black ; tail velvety-
black tinged yellow at base, central pair narrowly tipped yellow,
rest with distal half or third yellow ; primaries velvety-black,
tipped yellowish-white, inner webs fringed grey and outer webs
of 3rd to 5th fringed whitish on distal half ; secondaries velvety-
black with broader yellowish-white tips ; primary-coverts velvety-
black with broad pale yellow tips forming distinct yellow patch ;
greater, median, and lesser coverts velvety-black, innermost
partially yellow. This plumage is acquired by complete moult
in autumn. Summer. — No moult and no noticeable change by
abrasion.

Adult female. Winter and summer. — Crown, ear-coverts, sides
of neck, mantle, scapulars, and back golden-green ; rump and
upper tail-coverts greenish-yellow ; lores greyish-black ; throat
and upper-breast ashy-grey, faintly streaked dark brown ; lower-
breast and belly yellowish-white, more boldly streaked ; flanks
greenish-yellow lightly streaked ; under tail-coverts, axillaries,
and under wing-coverts bright yellow ; tail as in male but browner,
strongly tinged yellow and with smaller yellow tips ; primaries
and secondaries brown, edged and tipped greyish-white, and inner
secondaries tinged green ; primary-coverts black-brown, tipped
pale yellow ; greater and median coverts brown, tinged green ;
lesser rather darker brown and more distinctly tipped green.
N.B. — Occasionally females are yellow on under-parts lightly
streaked brownish-green, and with crown and rump bright greenish-
yellow.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Much as adult female but feathers of crown, mantle,
back, and wing-coverts with pale yellow tips, under-parts with
browner and less distinct streaks, under tail-coverts paler yellow.

THE GOLDEN ORIOLE. 41

First winter and summer. Male. — Upper-parts as in adult
female but rather more yellow ; throat ashy-grey, tinged yellow ;
upper-breast yellowish-green, faintly streaked brown ; lower-
breast, belly, and flanks yellow, faintly streaked on flanks and
sides brown ; tail browner-black than in adult male and with
rather smaller yellow tips ; wings more like adult female but
rather darker and with less green tinge, and wing-coverts with
pale tips. The juvenile body-plumage is moulted in autumn
but apparently not wing- and tail-feathers and wing-coverts.
N.B. — Some males like adults but more greenish on upper-parts
and with light greenish streaks on under-parts and less glossy-
black wings and tail may be second-winter birds. They are like
the very bright females noted above.

First winter and summer. Female. — Like adult female but
upper-parts more olive-, less golden-, green ; ear-coverts brownish ;
breast and belly less yellowish and more strongly streaked black-
brown ; wing-coverts distinctly tipped greenish-yellow.

Measurements and structure. — g wing 150-161 mm., tail 77-85,
tarsus 21-24, bill from feathers 22-26 (12 measured). ? wing
146-157. Primaries : 1st about double primary-coverts and
about half (or less) 2nd, 3rd longest, 2nd 8-12mm. shorter, 4th
1-6 shorter, 5th 14-23 shorter ; 3rd and 4th clearly emarginated
outer webs. Longest secondary equals 10th primary. Tail
almost square, slightly rounded laterally. Bill wide at base, taper-
ing to point ; slightly hooked. A few rictal bristles.

Soft parts. — Bill dark pink (young $ browner) ; legs and feet
dark slate ; iris dark crimson (young y dark brown).

•CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — In 0. o. kundoo (India,
Turkestan) male has patch of black behind eyes, primary-coverts
and tail-feathers (except central pair) mostly yellow with only
bases black; female has more yellow under-parts, more yellow
•on primary-coverts and tail, and greener secondaries and wing-
coverts.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Frequently uttered, loud, and very melodious
whistle (" wiel-a-wo ") of male generally first indication of presence ;
•curious harsh growling noises to be heard at close quarters. Makes
short flight, when disturbed, to nearest tree, in which it disappears.
Male very skulking, and practically invisible in tree just coming
into leaf, but during flight bold black and golden-yellow plumage
very conspicuous. Females and young males look greenish, and
are hard to see (F.C.R. J.)

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds by preference in parks, old wooded
gardens and small plantations, building its remarkable nest in
angle of two horizontal boughs at various heights from ground.
Nest. — Slung like a hammock, but attached firmly to boughs on
both sides, built of grass stalks, sedges, strips of bark, wool, etc.,
lined flowery grass-heads and frequently containing bits of paper

42 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

woven into it. Eggs. — Usually 4, sometimes 5, very rarely 6 ;
white or creamy ground-colour, with few bold purplish-black
spots, each with slight penumbra, and mostly near big end.
Average of 100 eggs, 30.8 X 21.3 mm. Breeding-season. — Generally
late May or early June in central Europe, rarely as early as mid-
May, but earlier in Spain. Incubation. — Lasts about 14-15 days ;
male relieves female in middle of day (Naumann). One brood.

FOOD. — Insects in spring, but much fruit in autumn. Coleoptera
(especially cockchafers) and larvae of lepidoptera, diptera, orthop-
tera (grasshoppers), and hemiptera : also spiders and small
mollusca, cherries and mulberries, also currants, grapes, and figs.

DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. — Spring-visitor (arriving
end April to mid-May). Annual in very small numbers to south-
east and south-west England ; irregular elsewhere, but has occurred
most counties. Has nested Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Northants.,
Herts., Surrey, Devon, and especially Kent, while other records
are not authenticated. Scotland. — A few occurrences, mostly
in south ; one Shetlands, one Orkneys, and noted Fair Isle spring
and autumn 1908, and May 1909, and spring 1913. Ireland.—
Rare casual spring and summer- visitor, most frequent Kerry, Cork,,
Waterford, and Down.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe generally, except Norway,
Sweden north of 63°, and Russia north of 60°, to Mediterranean,
and in north-west Africa ; eastward to Tian-Shan and Altai, and
replaced by allied form in India and Turkestan. In winter in
tropical and southern Africa and Madagascar.

FAMILY FRINGILLID^.

Comprising all finch-like or " seed-eating " birds of our
country. Bill conical, short, and more or less stout, but very
variable ; cutting-edges either smooth or strongly toothed or
angulated. Nostrils always nearer to culmen than to cutting-
edge of bill and close to frontal feathers, sometimes concealed or
partially so. Wing with nine obvious primaries, first spurious,
concealed and displaced by next. Tail with twelve rectrices.
Tarsus scutellated in front, sides covered with unbroken plates
forming sharp ridge at back. Sexes different, young mostly like
female. Complete moult in autumn, and in certain species also a
partial spring-moult ; autumn -plumage often greatly changed
towards spring by wearing away of differently coloured edges to
feathers. Cosmopolitan, or nearly so.

Key to genera of family FRINGILLID.E.

jTips of mandibles crossing, bill laterally compressed Loxia, p. 83:

I Tips of mandibles not crossing, bill not compressed 2

FAMILY FRINGILLIDJE.

43

f Bill enormous, width at base over 10 mm.
' I Bill less large, width at base under 10 mm.

Coccothraustes, p. 44

Cutting-edges of mandibles straight and coter-
minous, mandibular angle at chin very slightly
indicated 4

Cutting-edges of mandibles incurved, often leaving
visible gap in outlines of closed bill ; mandibular
angle at chin acute 12

{ Culmen curved, bill short and stout .... 5
1 Culmen nearly or quite straight, bill more elongated
I and pointed 8

Larger, wing over 100 mm. ; bill more than half as

long as head Pinicola, p. 81

Smaller, wing under 100 mm. ; bill not more than

half length of head 0

Very small, wing under 80 mm. ; yellow in plumage

of adult Serinus, p. 71

Larger, wing about 80 mm., or more ; no yellow in

plumage of adult 7

C First visible primary longest Carpodacus, p. 78

I First visible primary shorter than second . . . Pyrrhula, p. 74

fBill very stout ; green in plumage CMoris, p. 47

(. Bill not so stout ; no green in plumage ... 9

( Gonys (lower outline of under mandible) straight 10

I Gonys convex Passer, p. 100

10

11

12

Larger, wing over 100 mm. ; lateral tail-feathers

almost entirely white Montifringitta, p.

Smaller, wing under 100 mm. ; lateral tail-feathers
only partially, if at all, white 11

Tail over 60 mm.
Tail under 60mm.

Fringitta, p. 91
Carduelis, p. 50

Wings very long, 4th (3rd visible) primary much

shorter than ind ; longest primaries exceeding

shorter secondaries by twice length of tarsus, falling

short of tail by not more than length of tarsus : Plectrophenax, p. 140
Wings not so long, 4th primary little, if at all,

shorter than 2nd ; longest primaries exceeding

shortest secondaries by less than twice length of

tarsus, falling short of tail by much more than

length of tarsus 13

Hind claw curved, shorter than hind toe ... Emberiza, p. 106
Hind claw slightly arched or nearly straight, nearly

equal to or longer than hind toe Calcarius, p. 136

44 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Genus COCCOTHRAUSTES Briss.

COCCOTHBAUSTES Brisson, Orn., I, p. 36 (1760 — Type by tautonymy :
Coccothraustes, cf. Brisson, Orn., m, p. 218).

At once recognizable by enormous bill, which is about as wide
as high at base, and not much longer. Tail short and square,
only slightly emarginated in middle ; about half as long as wing.
1st primary hidden, 2nd about as long as 3rd and 4th which
are longest, 5th a little shorter, following ones cut square at tips
and emarginated on inner webs. Feet short and strong ; tarsus
about as long as middle toe. Sexes differ little. Young different ;
under-parts spotted crossways. One species in four forms in
Europe, north-west Africa, north Asia.

COCCOTHRAUSTES COCCOTHRAUSTES

16. Coccothraustes coccothraustes coccothraustes (L.) — THE
HAWFINCH.

LOXIA COCCOTHBAUSTES Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 171 (1758— -
" Habitat in Europa australiori." Restricted typical locality : Italy).
Coccothraustes vulgaris Pallas, Yarrell, n, p. 98 ; Saunders. p. 171.

Hawfinch (Coccothraustes c. coccnthraustes} ;
bill and part of 6th (curled) primary.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Narrow line on fore-head,
lores, chin, and centre of throat black ; fore-part of crown, ear-
coverts, cheeks, and rump yellowish-brown ; rest of crown, nape,
and upper tail-coverts deeper rufous-brown ; hind-neck pinkish-
grey ; mantle and scapulars rich umber ; breast and flanks pinkish-
brown, darker on flanks ; centre of belly greyish-white ; vent,
under tail-coverts, and axillaries white ; tail : centre pair base
black, distal part grey and rufous-brown, tipped white, other tail-
feathers with black basal, white distal, halves, outer webs black
fringed rufous ; primaries: jet-black, tipped glossy- green and purple
with middle portion of feathers white on inner webs ; secondaries
same but with less white, and outer webs fringed glossy-purple,
inner secondaries brown ; primary-coverts black, glossy on outer
webs ; greater coverts with brownish-white outer and black inner

THE HAWFINCH. 45

webs, inner greater coverts rufous-brown; median coverts white
with black bases ; lesser coverts black-brown. This plumage is
acquired by complete moult in August and September. Summer.—
No moult and scarcely any change by abrasion, but forepart of
crown becomes rather paler.

Adult female. Winter and summer. — Like male but paler and
less rufous ; black of fore-head and lores much reduced ; crown,
rump, upper tail-coverts especially paler and more greyish-brown ;
sides of head and under-parts also considerably paler and more
greyish ; tail not so white at tip ; primaries with distal half of
outer webs grey-brown ; secondaries with outer webs fringed grey
instead of glossy purple.

Nestling. — Down, white, long, and plentiful ; distribution,
inner supra -orbital, occipital, humeral, spinal, ulnar, femoral,
ventral, and crural. Mouth, inside violet-pink, no tongue-spots ;
externally, flanges yellowish-orange and whitish at angles (C. B.
Ticehurst, Brit. B., n, p. 192).

Juvenile (Plate 2). Male. — Very narrow line of black round
base of bill ; head and nape greenish-brown ; hind-neck greyer ;
mantle sepia ; rump buff ; upper tail-coverts brown ; whole upper-
parts faintly mottled black ; chin and throat pale huffish-yellow ;
rest of under-parts pale buff, breast mottled brown, flanks and sides
barred brown-black, centre of belly, vent, and under tail-coverts
pale buff ; axillaries white ; tail and wing-feathers as adult ; greater
and median coverts rather paler and more buffish than adult.
Female. — Like male but with no black round bill and whiter (less
buff) under-parts, and primaries and secondaries fringed grey-
brown and grey as in adult female.

First winter and summer. Male and female. — Like adults but
primary-coverts apparently not so glossy. The juvenile body-
feathers and wing-coverts are moulted in August but not primary-
coverts, remiges or rectrices.

Measurements and structure. — £ wing 100-106 mm., tail 47-53,
tarsus 18-20, bill from feathers 18-20 (14 measured). ? wing 97-106.
Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 3rd and 4th usually equal
and longest, 2nd usually 1-2 mm. shorter, 5th 2-5 shorter, 6th
13-16 shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs ; 6th to
9th notched and curled at tip. Secondaries about equal 10th
primary, square at tip and slightly notched. Tail almost
square ; upper tail-coverts within 10 mm. of tip of tail, under
coverts slightly shorter. Bill extremely deep and broad. Oblong
horny pad on palate and two " bosses " below in lower Jaw
(W. P. Pycraft, Brit. B., I, p. 152). SmaU rictal and nasal
bristles.

Soft parts. — Bill lead-blue, blackish at tip and yellowish under
lower mandible (summer), yellowish-horn with dark brown tip
(winter and juvenile* legs and feet brownish-flesh ; iris greyish-
white.

46 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — C. c. japonicus (east Siberia,
Japan, China) and C. c. buvryi (north-Avest Africa) are paler or
duller and have less white on primaries, C. c. humii (Turkestan,
India) has yellowish under-parts. Enormous bill distinguishes
species.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Enormous bill and stout head, short tail
and white wing-patch, are outstanding features, whether bird at
rest or in flight. Usual note an explosive " psitt," shrill rather
than loud, but quite characteristic. Shy and retiring, its presence
is often only revealed by shredded pea-pods, or split stones of
cherries, holly, Avhitethorn, and yew (and in last case terminal
twigs) beneath trees in which it has fed.

BREEDING -HABITS. — Breeds chiefly in orchards and old wooded
gardens or woods, often building on horizontal branches of fruit-
trees, occasionally in forest-trees or thorn-bushes at varying
heights. Nest. — Layer of small twigs as foundation, generally
projecting on each side of branch ; nest itself slight and shallow,
built of roots, lichens, bents, etc., and lined fine roots, hair, or
fibre. Eggs. — 4-6, generally 5 ; ground-colour light bluish or
greyish-green, sometimes pale slate or warm buff, boldly but
sparsely spotted and streaked blackish-brown with faint grey under-
lying streaks. Average of 100 eggs, 23.8 x 17.2 mm. Breeding-
season. — Begins end April in south England, but about fortnight
later in north. Incubation. — Lasts 14 days ; chiefly performed by
female (Naumann). One brood.

FOOD. — Kernels and seeds of many kinds (e.g. sloe, bird-cherry,
oherry, plum, bullace, yew, hawthorn, hornbeam, and laurel) ;
also green peas and beech-mast. Larvae of currant-moth are eaten
in June, and Naumann says young are fed on insects.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Resident. Local, but generally dis-
tributed except in north and west, where, however, has lately
increased and spread, and now breeds in Cumberland, Durham,
And Northumberland (since 1884). Rarely breeds in Devon, and
not in Cornwall. Wales. — Resident. Now well-known in eastern
half, but rare or unknown in western parts. Scotland. — Resident.
Now considered as widely distributed and not very rare in south-
east, and has nested East Lothian (1908 and 1909), West Lothian
(1911), and east Fife (1903) ; also bred Dumfries (1906 and 1908).
Elsewhere a good many stragglers, even as far north as Fair Isle
and Shetlands. Ireland. — Rare vagrant to all quarters, mostly
winter. Said to have nested Kildare 1902.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — No regular migrations yet worked
out, but occurs occasionally at lighthouses in England, Scotland
(even to extreme north of mainland), and Ireland, and lias been
noticed in winter in parts where it does not breed.

THE GREENFINCH. 47

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe generally to islands in Mediter-
ranean, exact limits eastwards uncertain. Replaced by allied
forms in north-west Africa, Turkestan, India, and east Asia.

Genus CHLORIS Cuv.

CHLORIS Cuvier, Lemons d'Anat. Comp. Tab., n, Ois. (1800 — Latin name
for " Le Verdier," which, from Cuvier's other writings, we know to be the
Greenfinch, and which is type of genus).

Bill short and conical, about as high as wide at base and
only 2-3 mm. longer. Culmen and cutting-edges straight, tip of
beak pointed. Wings long, first three obvious primaries about
equal and longest. Tail moderate, distinctly emarginated. Europe,
north-west Africa, northern Asia, China, and Japan south to
Bonin Islands.

CHLORIS CHLORIS

17. Chloris chloris chloris (L.)— THE GREENFINCH.

LOXIA CHLORIS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 174 (1758— Europe.
Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Coccolhraustes chloris (Linnaeus), Yarrell, n, p. 105. Ligurinus chlorit
(Linnaeus), Saunders, p. 169.

Greenfinch (Chlorit c. chlorit) c? adult.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Crown, nape, mantle, and
back dark greyish-brown, tinged greenish ; lower-back and rump
yellowish-green ; upper tail-coverts dark grey, tinged green ; lores
blackish-brown ; indistinct brown malar stripe ; ear -coverts, sides
of neck and flanks brownish -grey, tinged green ; chin, throat, and
breast yellowish-green, tinged grey; belly, axillaries, and under
wing-coverts bright greenish-yellow; vent greyish- white ; under
tail-coverts pale yellow and grey ; tail-feathers brown-black,
fringed grey on distal half and greenish-yellow on proximal, four
outer pairs with about proximal half of feathers greenish-yellow ;
primaries brown-black, tipped grey and fringed on outer webs

48 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

greenish-yellow ; secondaries same but fringed brownish-grey on
distal and greenish on proximal halves ; primary-coverts like
primaries but with greenish fringes; greater coverts grey -brown,
tinged green, especially on outer webs ; median and lesser coverts
brownish-green. This plumage is acquired by complete moult in
early autumn, sometimes beginning as early as May and June.
Summer. — No moult. By abrasion of tips of feathers upper-parts
gradually become greener, under-parts brighter yellowish-green,
and greater wing-coverts and inner secondaries greyer and
less brown.

Adult female. Winter. — Crown, nape, and mantle dark greyish-
brown with indistinct darker streaks ; rump yellowish-green ; upper
tail-coverts brown ; eye-stripe greenish ; lores, distinct malar stripe,
ear-co verts, sides of neck, and flanks like mantle but greyer ; chin,
throat, and breast brownish-grey, tinged greenish-yellow ; lower-
breast more yellow ; belly, vent, and under tail-coverts whitish,
latter sometimes a little yellow ; under wing-coverts and axillaries
as in male but not so bright ; tail-feathers as in male but with
much less greenish-yellow, this being confined to inner and outer
edges ; primaries and secondaries and wing-coverts as in male
but much browner and with narrower edging of greenish-yellow on
primaries, only faint greenish tinge on secondaries, and no green
on greater coverts. Summer. — By abrasion eye-stripe and rump
become greener; mantle tinged green; throat, space between
malar stripe and ear-coverts, and lower-breast, more yellowish.

Nestling. — Down, greyish-white, medium length ; distribution,
inner supra-orbital, occipital, humeral, spinal, ulnar, femoral,
ventral, and crural. Mouth, inside deep crimson, no spots ;
externally gape white (C. B. Ticehurst, Brit. B., n, p. 192).

Juvenile (Plate 2). Male. — Resembling adult female on
upper-parts but much more streaked dark brown, and with rump
and upper tail-coverts brown and streaked like mantle ; whole
under-parts greyer, tinged pale yellow and much streaked brown,
including under tail-coverts, but with centre of belly yellower and
without - streaks ; tail, primaries, secondaries and primary- coverts
as in adult male, but with edges of inner secondaries pale
reddish-brown ; all wing-coverts pale reddish-brown with only
tinge of green. Female. — Like juvenile male, but with wing and
tail-feathers as in adult female.

First mnter and summer. — Like adult. The juvenile body-
feathers, wing-coverts, and inner secondaries are moulted from
July to Sept., but not primary-coverts, primaries, rest of
secondaries, and tail.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 85-90 mm., tail 55-60,
tarsus 17-19, bill from feathers 12-14 (12 measured). $ wing 83-85.
Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th about equal and
longest, 5th 2-4 mm. shorter, 6th 11-14 shorter ; 3rd to 5th emar-
ginated outer webs. Longest secondary equals 8th primary. Tips of

Plate 2.

(HALF NATURAL SIZE.)

Juvenile plumages of 1, Lesser Redpoll (Carduelis I. cabaret). 2, Siskin (Carduelis spinus).

3, Hawfinch (Coccothraustes c. coccothraustes) . 4, British Goldfinch (Carduelis c. britan-

nica). 5, Greenfinch (Chloris ch. Moris).

[Face p. 48.]

THE GREENFINCH. 49

secondaries square and slightly notched. Tail fairly deeply
forked, inner webs being cut off at sharp angle. Bill short, wide
and very deep, tapering sharply at point. A few gape-bristles.

Soft parts. — Bill whitish-flesh, tip dark brown -.legs and feet
pale flesh ; iris brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — C. c. aurantiiventris (south
Europe and north Africa) is brighter above and more golden
below, and C. c. chlorotica (Syria) is still brighter and smaller,
C. c. madaraszi (Corsica, Sardinia) is somewhat darker and more
brownish, also slightly smaller, C. c. muhlei (Greece to Bosnia and
Servia, Italy) is similarly small, but lighter, C. c. turkestanica
(Turkestan) is said to be larger, and C. c. bilkewitchi (north Persia)
is said to be smaller again, but unknown to us. Heavy bill and
yellow on wings and tail are specific characters.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Large flesh-coloured bill and olive-green
plumage with a strongly contrasted yellow patch on primaries
at once distinguish it when at rest. In flight, most conspicuous
characteristics are yellow rump and bright yellow patches at
base of tail-feathers. Call-note of male, a long-drawn " dwee,"
uttered with tiresome iteration from early spring through summer.
Another note, equally persistent, is " pee-wee." The song, a
warbling twitter in which call-note " dwee " is often introduced,
lacks distinction ; is often uttered as bird flies in circles with
slowly flapping wings.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in hedge-rows, evergreens, and bushes,
large numbers sometimes breeding close to one another. Excep-
tionally in large trees or among ivy. Nest. — Built of twigs and
moss, mixed with few bents, bits of wool, etc., usually lined roots
and hair but sometimes feathers are freely used. Eggs. — 4-6,
rarely 7 or 8 ; ground-colour dirty white to pale greenish-blue,
generally rather sparingly spotted and streaked red-brown and
pale violet shell-marks ; some with zone of spots, others thickly
spotted or with no markings. Variable in shape and size. Average
of 101 eggs, 20.2 X 14.5 mm. Breeding-season. — Begins late April
or early May. Young sometimes in nest late as September.
Incubation. — Lasts 13-14 days. Fledging-period. — 13 days. At
least two broods.

FOOD. — Mainly seeds (corn and many weeds), also turnip-seed,
yew-berries, and buds of fruit trees. Young are fed partly on
insects (larvae of lepidoptera, diptera) and spiders, and partly on
pulp of broken seeds.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Resident. Common most parts,
but only a visitor to Shetlands and most 0. Hebrides, though it
breeds Stornoway (Lewis).

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Many home-bred birds emigrate

50 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Sept. and return March. Great numbers of passage-migrants and
winter-visitors arrive east coast Great Britain second week Oct.
to mid-Nov., extremes Sept. 23 to Nov. 26, and depart mid-March
to end of April, extremes March 12 to May 11. Occasional records
of migrants on west coast third week Oct. to mid-Dec., and in
mid-April. An autumn-immigration has also been noticed in
Ireland.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — North and central Europe generally.
Replaced by allied forms in south-west Europe and north-west
Africa, some Mediterranean islands, in south-east Europe, Syria,
Persia, and Turkestan.

Genus CARDUELIS Briss.

CARDTTELIS Brisson, Orn., i, p. 36 (1760 — Type, according to ni, p. 53,
" Carduelis "=Fringilla carduelis L., by tautonymy).

Contrary to custom Goldfinches, Siskins, Redpolls, Citril,
Twite, and Linnets are here united into one genus, and this
example has been largely followed since 1903, when Hartert
adopted it in his book on palaearctic birds, in which (vol. I, p. 65)
the reasons were fully explained. In Europe one might separate
generally Carduelis (containing Goldfinch, Citril, Siskin, Redpolls)
and Linota (containing Linnet and Twite), but in other countries
these are connected by intermediate forms. Bill of genus, as
here conceived, is hard, almost conical; tip thinner or thicker
and shorter, base distinctly thicker, as if swollen. Upper mandible
straight or very slightly curved. Nostrils covered by short feathers.
Wings long and fairly pointed, first (obvious) to third primary
forming tip of wing. Tail of medium length, emarginated for
at least 5 mm. Tarsus short and strong. North and south
America, northern Africa, Europe, and Asia to Himalayas, China,
and Japan.

Key to species of genus CARDUELIS.

I Quills with yellow or yellowish basal bar ... 2
I Quills without yellow basal bar 5

| Face red C. carduelis <$ $ ad., p. 51

I Face without red 3

r Crown black ; breast uniform yellow ... C. apinus, <$ ad., p. 54
X Crown not black ; breast not uniform yellow . 4

f Lateral tail-feathers yellow at base . . C. apinus $ and juv., p. 54
I Lateral tail-feathers partially white C. carduelis, juv., p. 52

( Rump and abdomen yellow .... C. citrinella <J $ ad., p. 67
\ Rump and abdomen not yellow 6

THE CONTINENTAL GOLDFINCH. 51

| Black or slate-groy patch on upper-throat . . 7
\ No black patch on upper-throat 8

f Rump with blackish streaks in adult . . . . C. linaria, pp. 59-64
I Bump without blackish streaks in adult . . G. hornemanni, pp. 64-66

< Rump with red patch G. flavirostria <J ad., p. 56

( Rump without red patch 9

I Back rufous, with dark brown longitudinal spots : C. cannobina, p. 68
\ Back brown, with blackish longitudinal spots . 10

1 Throat grey and brown, inner webs of outer tail-
feathers with very narrow white edge . . C. citrinella, juv., p. 67
Throat rufescent, inner webs of outer tail-feathers
with wide white border . . . . C. flavirostria $ and juv., p. 57

CARDUELIS CARDUELIS

[Carduelis carduelis carduelis (L.)— THE CONTINENTAL
GOLDFINCH.

FKIKGILLA CABDTJELIS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 180 (1758 —
Juniper woods of Europe. Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

DESCRIPTION. — Adult mole and female. — Like British Goldfinch
but of a considerably less deep colour on mantle, back, sides of
breast, and flanks ; nuchal spot larger and whiter ; sides of nape
and ear-coverts purer white ; crimson of fore-head and throat
decidedly deeper and more brilliant. Juvenile. — Greyer on upper-
parts than that of British Goldfinch.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — " Immigrant " Goldfinches are
recorded regularly east coast England end Sept. to early Nov.
Until actual specimens have been examined, however, the
Continental form cannot be definitely included.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad.— Europe from about lat. 65° in Norway
and 60° in Russia to the Mediterranean. Replaced in Spain and
north-west Africa, some Mediterranean islands, and the Atlantic
isles as well as in western Asia, by more or less closely-allied forms.]

1 8. Carduelis carduelis britannica (Hart.)— THE BRITISH
GOLDFINCH.

ACAHTHIS CARDUELIS BRiTANNicus Hartert, Vog. pal. Fauna, I, p. 68
(1903— British Isles. Type, Rottingdean) ; id., Brit. B., I, p. 211.
Cardudis elegans Stephens, Yarrell, n, p. 117; Saunders, p. 173.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Narrow line

52 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

round base of bill and lores black ; rest of fore-head, forepart
of crown, chin, and upper-throat glossy
crimson ; back of crown, centre of
nape, and hind-neck black, continuing
in a band round sides of neck ; sides
of nape, ear-coverts, and lower-throat
white ; small whitish - brown nuchal
spot; mantle, scapulars, and back
dark tawny-brown ; rump pale buff ; Goldfinch (Car
upper tail-coverts : proximal half black,
distal half white with buff-tips ; breast and flanks brown-buff,
often with a few yellow marks on sides of breast ; centre of
breast, belly, and vent white ; under tail-coverts same tinged
buff ; axillaries white often tinged pale yellow ; tail black with
small white tips (larger on central feathers) and with large
irregular oval white marks on middle of inner webs of two outer
pairs and often a small mark on next pair (amount of white varies
individually) ; primaries and secondaries black, inner webs fringed
white and basal half of outer webs bright yellow (2nd primary
has no yellow), all with small white tips becoming larger on inner-
most secondaries ; primary-coverts black ; greater coverts bright
yellow with basal half black on outer and white on inner webs
and innermost feathers buff and black on inner webs ; median
and lesser coverts black with small tawny-brown tips. This
plumage is acquired by complete moult in Aug.-Sept. Summer. —
No moult. Abrasion makes back of head browner, nuchal spot
whiter, mantle greyer less tawny, under-parts whiter less buff,
and white tips of wing- and tail-feathers gradually wear off.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile (Plate 2). Male and female. — Whole upper -parts
greyish-buff with rather indistinct dark brown spots and streaks ;
chin, throat, breast, and flanks same but more whitish ; belly dull
white ; vent and under tail-coverts pale buff ; upper tail-coverts
pale buff with blackish bases ; tail, primaries, and secondaries as
in adult but with tips tinged buff, especially those of tail and inner
secondaries ; greater coverts resembling adult but with yellowish-
buff instead of bright yellow outer webs and tips ; median coverts
black with broad buff tips ; lesser coverts same but with small
buff tips.

First winter and summer. Male and female. — Like adults,
but with tips of wing- and tail-feathers more buff, less white.
The juvenile body-feathers, wing-coverts, and innermost second-
aries are moulted in Aug.-Sept. but not primary-coverts, other
remiges or rectrices.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 76-80 mm., tail 47-51,.
tarsus 13-15, bill from skull 12.5-13.5 (12 measured). $ wing
73-79. Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th
about equal and longest, 5th 2-4 mm. shorter, 6th 10-12 shorter ;;

THE BRITISH GOLDFINCH. 53

3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs. Longest secondary between
7th and 9th primaiies, square-tipped with shallow notch. Tail
fairly well forked. Bill thickish at base, tapering gradually to
longish sharp point. Short bristle-like feathers directed forward
cover nostrils and at gape.

Soft parts. — Bill pinkish-white with black-brown tip ; legs
and feet pale flesh ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — For difference of Cardudis c.
cardudis see under that form. C. c. tschusii (Corsica, Sardinia),
C. c. parva (Madeira, Canaries, Azores), C. c. africanus (north-west
Africa), C. c. major (Siberia, Turkestan), and other forms differ
in size of whig, size and shape of bill, and in shade of colouring.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Crimson and bands of white and black on
head, broad yellow band on black wings, and white spots on
wings and tail distinguish it from all other British finches. Has
a butterfly-like appearance as it flutters about seeding heads of
thistles and other composite plants. Usual note, uttered per-
sistently, whether bird is perched or flying, is a characteristic, clear,
liquid " twit " ; song, pleasing rather than loud, is an elaboration
of this.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds in gardens, orchards, avenues, etc.,
placing nest far out on spreading boughs. Occasionally also in
hedges, and evergreens. Nest. — Neatly built of roots, bents,
moss, and lichens, interwoven with wool, generally lined down,
wool ; hair sometimes added. Eggs. — 4-5, occasionally 6 or 7 ;
bluish-white ground-colour with few spots and streaks of red-
brown, sometimes very dark, and ashy shell-marks. Generally
more boldly marked than Linnets' eggs. Average of 100 eggs,
17 X 12.8mm. Breeding-season. — Begins early May, exceptionally
April, but most eggs of first brood laid second half May. Incu-
bation.— Lasts 13-14 days ; performed by hen. Fledging -period. —
13 days. Usually two broods.

FOOD. — Seeds and insects, but chiefly former. Of seeds, thistles
are great favourites, but many other weed -seeds are eaten and, it
is said, also small seeds from cones. Of insects, small coleoptera,
larvae of lepidoptera, diptera, hymenoptera, and aphides.

DISTRIBUTION. — Confined to British Isles. — British Isles. — Resident,
local, but generally distributed, and increasing except in Ireland
where decreasing ; scarce and local and often rare northern
Scotland and only scarce vagrant O. Hebrides, Shetlands, and
Orkneys.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Flocks and migrates locally autumn
and winter (regular, east coast end of Sept. to first week Nov.), and
some may emigrate. Passing birds (possibly of British form)
have been noted in spring in various counties (cf. Bull. B.O.C.,

54 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

xx, p. 178 ; xxn, p. 182 ; xxiv, p. 173), and there are occasional
records from south and west coast Lights, end Oct. and Nov., and
south coast Lights April, which may refer to this or the typical form.

CARDUELIS SPINUS

19. Carduelis spinus (L.)— THE SISKIN.

FRINGIIXA SPINUS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 181 (1758 — Juniper
woods of Europe. Restricted typical locality : Sweden).
Carduelia spinua (Linnaeus), Yarrell, n, p. 126 ; Saunders, p. 175.

Siskin (Carduelis spinus) <$ adult.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Top of head, chin, and
centre throat black, feathers tipped grey ; mantle and scapulars
yellowish-green, faintly streaked black and tinged grey ; upper
tail-coverts green, tipped grey ; rump greenish-yellow, unstreaked ;
lores greyish ; cheeks and ear-coverts yellow, washed greyish-
green ; stripe behind eye, sides of nape and throat, breast and
axillaries greenish-yellow, tinged greyish; belly greyish-white
slightly tinged yellow ; flanks and under tail-coverts same but
broadly streaked black ; tail-feathers : central pair brown-black
fringed yellow, rest yellow with brown-black tips and shafts and
outer pair with brown-black outer webs ; wing-feathers black-
brown, fringed yellow, 5th to 10th primaries and all secondaries
with basal parts of outer webs bright, and inner webs pale, yellow,
innermost secondaries tipped greyish-white ; greater coverts same,
tipped yellowish-green ; median and lesser coverts yellowish-green
with brown bases. This plumage is acquired by complete moult
in Aug. -Sept. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion makes head
more uniform black, upper-parts and under-parts brighter, less
tinged grey.

Adult female. Winter and summer. — Upper-parts greenish-
grey, streaked black -brown ; rump greenish-yellow boldly streaked ;
upper tail-coverts as male ; stripe behind eye, ear-coverts, and
sides of nape grey -brown, tinged yellow ; lores, chin, and belly
greyish-white ; sides of throat and breast same, but tinged yellow
(varying in amount) and streaked black-brown ; flanks and under
tail-coverts whiter and more heavily streaked ; wings and tail as
male, but yellow not so bright or extensive, tips of greater coverts
and inner secondaries often whitish.

THE SISKIN. 55

Nestling. — (Not examined).

Juvenile (Plate 2). Male and female. — Crown, mantle, and
upper tail-coverts buffish-brown streaked black-brown ; hind-neck
and rump buffish-grey streaked same ; stripe behind eye, sides of
neck and throat white, tinged yellow and spotted black-brown ;
rest of under-parts same but streaked not spotted ; ear-coverts
pale brown ; wings as adult but inner secondaries and wing-coverts
tipped pale buff.

First winter and summer. Male. — Like adult but rather
more streaked mantle, and yellow at base of wing-feathers
apparently not so extensive. Female. — Like adult, but decidedly
browner head and mantle. The juvenile body-feathers, wing-
coverts, and inner secondaries are moulted in Aug.-Sep., but not
rest of wing-feathers, primary-coverts, or tail.

Measurements and structure. — ^ wing 70-74 mm., tail 41-44,
tarsus 13-15, bill from feathers 8.5-10 (12 measured). ? wing 67-70.
Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 2nd and 3rd equal and longest,
4th usually 1-2 mm. shorter, 5th 5-6 shorter, 6th 11-12 shorter;
3rd and 4th emarginated outer webs and 5th less distinctly.
Secondaries about equal 10th primary, tips square, slightly
notched. Tail fairly well forked. Bill thickish and deep at base,
tapering acutely to longish fine point. Nostrils covered with
short bristle-like feathers and similar ones at gape.

Soft parts. — Bill dark brown, lower mandible pale ; legs and
feet dark brown ; iris black.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — No subspecies recognized. Fine
bill distinguishes it at once from Serinus, and streaked under-parts
from C. citrinella.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — To greater part of Britain known only as
visitor in winter, when it is essentially gregarious, and usually
feeds in alders and birches, though at times among seeding
composite plants. In its restless activity and varied postures
resembles Tits. Olive-green of male, with yellow rump and eye-
stripe and black crown (female shows little yellow and lacks black
crown), stouter build and shorter tail distinguish it from Lesser
Redpoll, with which it frequently consorts. Both when feeding
and when passing from tree to tree flocks keep up an incessant
twittering. Call-note of male, " tsyzing," is characteristic.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Haunts coniferous woods in breeding-season,
and nests often at great height from ground, frequently far out
near end of branch. Accounts of nesting in low bushes in south
England must be received with caution. Nest. — Small dead
twigs with lichens attached ; moss, bents, wool, etc. ; lined roots,
feathers, down, and hair. Eggs. — 4-5, rarely 6, sometimes pale
blue or else deeper tint, marked pale reddish spots and streaks,
and occasionally a very dark brown mark. Average of 72 eggs,

56 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

16.2 x 12 mm. Breeding-season. — First broods early April to early
May, second broods June. Incubation. — Said to last 12-14 days
and to be performed by hen. Two broods.

FOOD. — Mainly seeds of trees, not only conifers, but many
deciduous trees as well. Also buds recorded and young said
to be fed on aphides.

DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. — Resident and autumn-to-
spring visitor. A few pairs nest regularly Cumberland, and nests
have been recorded Durham, Yorks., Salop, and north Wales.
Evidence of having bred exceptionally Surrey, Sussex, Kent, and
other south counties, hi most cases unsatisfactory. Scotland. —
Breeds from Perth northwards to Caithness and east Sutherland,
also in east Ross, occasionally in Tweed, and in small numbers in
Solway district, but otherwise a scarce visitor to west side, and only
recently recorded from 0. Hebrides (Barra, autumn). In Shet-
lands and Fair Isle has been noted on spring and autumn passages,
and in Orkneys in autumn. Ireland. — Resident. Breeds locally
all four Provinces.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Arrives in fluctuating numbers east
coast Great Britain from third week Sept. to first week Nov.,
extremes Aug. 28 to Nov. 26, and departs in April and early
May. Has been recorded from Lights of south coast Ireland
in winter, which may point to occasional emigration of Irish
residents.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Locally hi north Europe and northern
Asia (but absent from the high north) as far south as Alps and
rarely to north Italy, Balkans, and Caucasus. In winter common
to Mediterranean, sometimes not rare in north-west Africa.

[NOTE. — The specimen of the NORTH AMERICAN GOLDFINCH,
Cardudis tristis (L.), shot on Achill Island (Mayo), Sept. K, 1894, had no
doubt escaped from captivity (cf. ZooL, 1894, p. 396).]

CARDUELIS FLAVIROSTRIS

20. Carduelis flavirostris flavirostris (L.) — THE TWITE.

FRIKGILLA FLAVIROSTRIS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 182 (1758 —

" Europa." Typical locality : Sweden).

Linota flavirostris (Linnaeus), Yarrell, n, p. 160; Saunders, p. 193.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Crown and nape streaked
black and buff ; hind-neck same but rather paler ; mantle, scapulars,
and upper tail-coverts same but more dark rufous-brown, and
buff edges rather darker ; rump pink, tinged brown and tipped
pale buff ; ear-coverts and sides of neck buff finely streaked black-
brown ; lores, stripe over eye, chin and throat rufous-buff ; breast
and flanks rather paler buff, broadly streaked dark rufous-brown ;
belly white, tinged buff ; under tail-coverts same, streaked black-

THE TWITE. 57

brown (varying individually) ; axillaries white, tinged buff ; tail-
feathers brown-black, two central pairs edged buff, rest fringed
white on outer webs and more broadly whitish-buff on inner webs ;
wins; -feathers brown-black tipped buff and edged white on inner
webs, inner primaries conspicuously edged white on outer webs,
secondaries narrowly (innermost broadly) edged buffish-brown ;
greater coverts black-brown, edged and tipped pale buff ; median
and lesser coverts same but tipped darker rufous-buff. This
plumage is acquired by complete moult in Sept. -Oct. Summer. —
No moult. Abrasion makes upper-parts much darker, less
buff, except hind-neck, feathers of which have greyish- white
edges (concealed by buff edges in winter) ; rump much brighter
pink ; throat less uniform and rather paler buff ; breast and flanks
much more strongly striated with rufous-brown as buff edges
gradually wear away.

Adult female. Winter and summer. — Like adult male but
rump like mantle and usually without any pink, but sometimes
faintly tinged pink.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Similar to adult female, but edgings of feathers of
crown and nape slightly greyer, not so buff ; mantle and scapulars
slightly more rufous ; rump slightly paler without pink ; lores, ear-
coverts, throat and upper-breast not so deep a buff as adult and
more streaked especially on throat and breast ; chin with indistinct
brown streaks ; flanks slightly more rufous, not so yellowish-buff
as adult.

First winter and summer. — Like adults. The juvenile body-
feathers, wing-coverts, and innermost secondaries are moulted in
Sept.-Oct., but not rest of remiges, primary-coverts, or tail.

Measurements and structure. — <£ wing 72-80 mm., tail 54-63,
tarsus 14-16, bill from skull 8.5-10 (12 measured). $ wing 70-75.
Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 3rd usually longest, 2nd and
4th sometimes equal but generally 1-2 mm. shorter, 5th 2-4
shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries between
9th and 10th primaries. Tail fairly deeply forked. Bill thick
and deep at base, tapering sharply to point. Nostrils covered
by short bristle-like feathers and similar ones at gape.

Soft parts. — Bill yellow, darker at tip (duller in young birds) ;
legs, feet, and iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — C. f. brevirostris (Asia Minor,
etc.) has whitish edgings to feathers of upper-parts, C. f. stoliczkae
(Kashmir) is paler sandy-brown, C. f. rufostrigata (Tibet) has
larger bill. The dull upper-parts, uniform buff throat, pink rump,
and yellow bill are distinctive specific characters. Juvenile has
darker upper-parts and buffer sides of head, throat and breast than
juvenile Redpolls, and lacks greyish-black chin.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Yellow bill is its outstanding feature, but

58 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

dark upper-parts and buff chin are also distinctive. Tail longer
in proportion than Linnet's or Lesser Redpoll's, and never any
crimson on fore-head or breast, though rump in male — displayed
in courtship — is rose-red. After autumn-moult general coloration
mealy-brown, but in flight white margins of greater coverts and
inner primaries are conspicuous. In nesting-season affects open
moorlands, in autumn flocks in pastures, feeding on seeds of
knapweed and kindred plants ; higher ground deserted in winter
and region of coasts much resorted to. Usual call-note, long-
drawn " deek " ; flocks, when feeding or changing ground, maintain
continuous twitter.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Haunts moorlands and wind-swept islands.
Breeds almost in colonies, nests being at no great distance apart.
Frequently close to or actually on ground, sometimes under
shelter of upturned sod, sometimes among ivy or creepers on
walls and rocks, in bushes in gardens, long heather, young corn,
stone-heaps, rabbit-holes, etc. JVes£.— Grasses, stalks, etc., with
few twigs and some moss, lined hair and wool and sometimes a
few feathers. Eggs. — Usually 5-6, sometimes 7, not unlike
Linnet's, but bluer and with more decided markings, which are
generally a few bold streaks and spots of very dark red-
brown. White eggs have been recorded. Average of 100 eggs
16.9 x 12.6 mm. Breeding -season. — Latter half May and early
June : in Ireland rather earlier, but fresh eggs have been found
as late as August. Incubation-period. — Not exactly known, but
about a fortnight, and share of sexes unknown. Usually two broods.

FOOD. — Mainly seeds, grain when available and young turnips in
Shetlands ; also insects.

DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. — Resident. Breeds very
locally most moorlands from east Cheshire, north Staffs., north
Derby., and west Yorks. northwards, and in Lanes, at lower levels.
Has bred Isle of Man. Forsakes high ground in winter. Small
colony reported nesting north Devon 1904, but otherwise only knoAvn
as somewhat uncertain winter- visitor to south, though in some
years plentiful on parts of south coast. Very rare visitor Cornwall.
Suspected of nesting in north Wales. Scotland. — Much more
common and general than in England, especially on west coast
and Hebrides, Orkneys, and Shetlands. In south-west and on
lower ground on east side scarce as nester. Ireland. — Breeds all
counties except those of central Plain.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — The coasts are resorted to in winter
by inland breeding-birds ; but migrants, possibly from oversea,
arrive east coast Oct. and return March. In Ireland an autumn-
immigration has been noted on north and west coasts.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — North Norway, Lapland, and north

THE MEALY REDPOLL. 59

Finland, in winter over Europe, but very rare in Mediterranean
countries. Replaced by other races from Asia Minor and Caucasus
to Persian Turkestan, etc., and in Tibet and Manchuria.

CARDUELIS LINARIA

21. Carduelis linaria linaria (L.)— THE MEALY REDPOLL.

FRINGIJLLA LINARIA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 182 (1758 — Europe.
Restricted typical locality : the alder woods of Sweden).
Linota linaria (Linnaeus), Yarrell, n, p. 133 ; Saunders, p. 189.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 3). — Adult male. Winter. — Much resembling
C. 1. cabaret (p. 62) but in addition to larger size having crimson of
crown brighter ; hind-neck and mantle less tawny, paler buff and
often buffish-grey ; rump whiter with scarcely any buff and
occasionally with very few dark streaks ; upper tail-coverts tipped
greyish-white to pale buff ; stripe over eye, ear-coverts, and sides
of neck less buff, more greyish- white ; cheeks, throat, and breast
more pearly -pink, tips of feathers being whiter ; flanks greyish-
white, streaked dark brown with scarcely any buff ; edgings of
tail and wing-feathers and especially inner secondaries and tips
of greater and median wing-coverts pale buff to greyish-white.
Summer. — No moult. Abrasion has same effect as in C. I. cabaret
and differences between the two forms in worn plumage are not so
observable but upper-parts of C. I. linaria are more marked with
greyish-white ; rump and flanks whiter ; remains of edgings of
tail and wings and tips of wing-coverts whiter.

Adult female. Winter. — Resembling that of C. I. cabaret but
with same differences as in male on upper-parts, sides of head,
flanks, wings and tail ; throat and breast huffish- white to white.
Summer. — In very worn plumage difficult to distinguish, but rump
always paler.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like that of C. I. cabaret.

First winter and summer. Male. — Like that of C. 1. cabaret
with same differences as in adult female. More often with a little
pink on breast than in C. I. cabaret.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 72-78 mm., tail 49-58,
tarsus 14-16, bill from skull 8.5-10 (14 measured). ? wing 69-76.
Other details as in C. I. cabaret.

Soft parts. — As in C. I. cabaret.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Can always be distinguished in winter from
Lesser Redpoll by its paler coloration, having a greyer and less
tawny appearance (H.F.W.).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds chiefly in birch-forest or on willows,
though exceptionally in grass-tussocks and on top of a
stump ; tends to breed in colonies, like Twite. Nest. — Twigs of

60 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

birch or heather as foundation, on which are roots, bents, bark-
fibre, etc. ; thickly lined down and feathers, or sometimes hair.
Eggs. — Usually 5-6, occasionally only 4 or 7. Ground-colour
rather deep blue and surface dull and gloss less, spotted and streaked
light brown. Average of 100 eggs, 16.98 X 12.65 mm. Breeding-
season. — Latter part May till August, but generally June, and
varying according to latitude. Apparently sometimes two broods.
Incubation-period. — Not precisely known.

FOOD. — Mainly seeds, especially birch and alder, but also of
many plants. Also insects (small caterpillars, larvse of hymen-
optera, etc.).

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Irregular autumn-winter visitor
along whole east coast Great Britain, but more common northern
isles and east Scotland and north-east England. Arriving mid-Oct.
to end of Nov. , occasionally as early as mid-Aug. Departure
mid -March to end May. Occasionally arrives great numbers, as in
1829, 1847, 1855, 1861, 1863, 1873, 1885, 1897, 1910. More rarely
recorded spring. Elsewhere in Great Britain rare autumn or
winter straggler, as it is in Ireland, where it appears chiefly in
western islands.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Northern portions of Northern Hemi-
sphere, the northern limit of its breeding-range overlapping the
southern range of C. hornemanni exilipcs ; in Europe as far south
as Baltic and coast of East Prussia. In winter and on migration
over greater part of Europe, parts of central Asia, and United
States.

[Carduelis linaria holboellii (Brehm)— HOLBOLL'S REDPOLL.*

LINARIA HOLBOELLII Brehm, Handb. Naturg. Vog. Deutschl., p. 280
(1831 — Described from migrants obtained in Germany).
L. holboelli Saunders, p. 189 (in text).

DESCRIPTION. — Differs from C. I. linaria only in having a larger
bill measuring, in adult males, from skull to tip 10.5-12 mm.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Vagrant. One, Aston Clinton
(Bucks.), Dec. 14, 1895 (Vog. pal. Fauna, i, p. 80). One said
Achill Island, Mayo (Bull. B.O.C., xn, p. 15) Possibly some of a
flock in Yorks., 1881 (Birds Tories., i, p. 187). A number Fair Isle
autumn 1910. Two Shetlands, Oct. 28, 1910. One Isle of May
(Forth), Oct. 23, 1910. A number Lothians, Oct., 1910. One
Cambridge, Dec. 12, 1910. (Brit. B., rv, pp. 291, 369, v, p. 60).

* As this form appears to breed within the same area as C. I. linaria
it may represent only an individual variation, and until this question is finally
decided we cannot admit it fully to the list. Occurrences of specimens
possessing the characters assigned to this form should, meanwhile, be carefully
recorded.

THE GREENLAND REDPOLL. 61

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Polar regions of Old and New Worlds,
in winter southwards to Holland, Germany, Austria, Hungary,
Russia, central Asia, Japan, and occasional during migration in
parts of north-east North America.]

22. Carduelis linaria rostrata (Coues) — THE GREENLAND
REDPOLL.

ROSTRATUS Coues, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, Nov.,
1861, p. 378 (S. Greenland).
L. rostrata, Saunders, p. 190 (in text).

DESCRIPTION (Plate 3). — Male and female. — Except for much
larger size, very similar to C. I. cabaret, but rump, sides of neck,
and tips to wing-coverts more greyish-white ; as compared to
C. I. linaria, dark streaks on upper-parts (including rump) and
especially on flanks and sides of breast broader : darker and more
tawny-buff on upper-parts ; more buff on flanks, and in female
and first-winter male also on throat and breast ; pink on breast of
adult male appears to extend not so far down sides of breast
and belly.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like that of C. I. cabaret, but dark stripes on upper-
and under-parts slightly broader.

Measurements. — $ wing 78-85 mm., tail 56-62, tarsus 15-17,
bill from skull 10-11 (12 measured). $ wing 75-81. Bill broader
and deeper as well as longer than in C. I. linaria.

BREEDING-HABITS. — As this and Hornemann's Redpoll (p. 64) both
apparently breed in Greenland, it is at present not possible to
distinguish records. Nesting-sites must necessarily be very
similar, and we have no means of distinguishing eggs from the
scanty material to hand.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — None. Scotland. — Vagrant. In recent
years fairly regular in northern isles. Barra (0. Hebrides) one,
Oct. 8, 1896 ; one, Nov. 10, 1898 ; one, Oct. 13, 1900 ; two, Sept.,
1901. St. Kilda, five, Sept., 1911. Flannans, several, Oct. and
Nov., 1905. Tiree (I. Hebrides), two, Sept., 1913. Fair Isle (Shet-
lands), abundant Sept. and Oct., 1905, small numbers Sept. 21,
1907, Sept.-Nov., 1908, Oct., 1911, and autumn, 1913. Shetlands,
several Oct. and Nov., 1907. Suleskerry (Orkneys), one, Oct., 1911.
Ireland. — Several Achill Island (Mayo) and two or more Tearaght
(Kerry) have been assigned to this form. One Rathlin (Antrim),
Sept. 25, 1913.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Summer-resident in south Greenland.
In winter south-westward through Canada and parts of western
United States.

62 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

23. Carduelis linaria cabaret (P.L.S. MiiU.)*— THE LESSER
REDPOLL.

FRINOILLA CABARET P.L.S. Miiller, Natursystem, Suppl., p. 165 (1776—

Ex Daubenton and Buffon. Europe. Restricted typical locality :

France).

Acanthis linaria britarmica Schmiedeknecht, Wirbelt. Eur., p. 128 (1906—

British Isles.)

lAnota rufescens (Vieillot), Yarrell, n, p. 146 ; Saunders, p. 191.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 3). — Adult male. Winter. — Crown dark
glossy crimson ; nape, hind-neck, mantle, and scapulars tawny-
brown, streaked brown-black ; back more greyish-white streaked
same ; rump rosy-pink more or less concealed by buff tips and
less streaked than back ; upper tail-coverts dark brown, edged
and tipped buff ; narrow line on fore-head, lores and chin black ;
line over and behind eye pale buff ; ear-coverts buffish-brown ;
sides of neck paler greyish-buff, streaked dark brown ; cheeks
rosy-pink much obscured by buff tips ; throat, upper-breast,
and sides of lower-breast rosy-pink tipped huffish-white ; centre
of breast, belly, and under tail-coverts white, latter more or less
streaked brown and often tinged rosy-pink ; flanks buff, strongly
streaked dark brown and marked rosy-pink on upper p( rtion ;
axillaries buffish-white ; tail black-brown narrowly fringed whitish
on inner, and buff on outer, webs ; wings same, inner secondaries
with broader buff fringes on outer webs ; greater and median
coverts black-brown, broadly tipped buff ; lesser coverts same
but narrowly tipped buffish-brown. This plumage is acquired
by complete moult in Sept. -Oct. N.B. — Amount of rosy-pink
on rump and under-parts varies individually. Pink is re-
placed by golden-yellow very rarely in wild birds, but usually in
captive ones after moulting. Summer. — No moult. By abrasion
of fringes and tips of feathers, upper-parts gradually become less
tawny more dark brown, fringed greyish-white especially on nape,
hind-neck, centre of mantle, and back ; sides of neck greyish-
white, streaked dark brown ; flanks same with more pink showing ;
all pink very much brighter and more extensive ; tips to wing-
caverts smaller and paler.

Adult female. Winter. — Like adult male but generally no
pink (very rarely a slight tinge) on under-parts or rump, throat
and upper-breast being buff streaked dark brown on sides ; black
of chin sometimes rather more extensive than in male ; tips to
wing-co verts generally rather paler. Summer. — No moult.
Abrasion has same effect as in male.

Nestling. — Down, greyish ; distribution, inner supra-orbital,
occipital, humeral, spinal, ulnar, femoral, ventral, and crural.
Mouth, inside carmine, no tongue-spots, gape white (C. B.
Ticehurst, Brit. B., n, p. 193).

* The name cabaret is forty years older than rufescens. — E.H.

THE LESSER REDPOLL. 63

Juvenile (Plate 2). — Male and female. — Crown, nape, and
hind-neck dark brown, feathers edged greyish-white ; mantle
darker with more huffish-brown edgings ; rump huffish-white
streaked black-brown ; upper tail-coverts same but more dark
buff ; ear-coverts brownish-buff streaked dark brown ; chin and
lores greyish-black ; sides of neck, throat, breast, and flanks
buffish-white streaked black-brown ; belly and under tail-coverts
greyish-white ; tail and \vings as in adult but fringes of inner
secondaries and tips to wing-coverts paler whitish-buff. Much
resembling adult female in worn summer-plumage but with no
crimson on crown, much less black on chin, and more dark streaks
on throat and breast.

First vrinter and summer. Male. — Like adult female but
almost always with a trace of pink on rump and usually with a
trace on cheeks, whereas this is more exceptional in female.
Female. — Like adult female. The juvenile body-feathers, wing-
coverts, and sometimes one or two inner secondaries are moulted
in Aug.-Sep., but not primary-coverts, rest of remiges, or
rectrices.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 67-73 mm., tail 47-55,
tarsus 13-15, bill from skull 8.5-10 (12 measured). $ wing 63-69.
Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 3rd longest, 2nd and 4th some-
times equal to it, sometimes 1-2 mm. shorter, 5th 2-5 shorter,
6th 9-10 shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries
between 9th and 10th primaries, tips square, slightly notched.
Tail fairly deeply forked. Bill thick and deep at base tapering
sharply to point. Nostrils covered by short bristle-like feathers
and similar ones at gape.

Soft 'parts. — Bill yellow with dark brown tip and upper-part
of upper mandible ; legs, feet, and iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Darkest, most tawny, and
smallest form. C. I. linaria greyer and larger, C. I. rostrata very
similar in coloration but still larger and with very heavily streaked
flanks, C. h. hornemanni and C. h. exilipes very pale upper -parts,
unstreaked rump and purer white under-parts. All forms distin-
tinguished from Twite and Linnet at all ages by black or blackish
chin.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Resembles other Redpolls in its dark crimson
fore-head, but differs from them in its small size, more rufescent
coloration and buff — not white — wing-bars ; from Twite in its
rotund shape and shorter tail. From autumn to spring roams
country in closely -packed flocks, feeding upon seeds of birches,
alders and (less often) of herbaceous plants, especially composites.
In its acrobatic postures and continuous twitter resembles Siskin,
with which it frequently associates. In breeding-season less in
evidence and easily overlooked, but for its curious and
characteristic love-flight. Song, a frequently repeated rippling

64 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

trill, sometimes uttered from perch, but more often in flight,
which is wavering in character and usually at a height of thirty
feet or more.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Tends to breed sociably, but many isolated
nests may also be found. Sites variable : sometimes high hedges
or isolated bushes, outskirts of plantations, young conifers, but
also at considerable heights in forest- trees, and exceptionally
young heather or bracken. Nest. — Recognizable by foundation
of twigs and roughly-furnished external appearance due to ends
of coarse bents and stalks ; lined white down, sometimes hair and
feathers. Eggs. — 4-5, occasionally 6, with same characteristics
as Mealy Redpoll. Occasionally found without markings. Average
of 100 eggs, 15.97 X 12.2 mm. Breeding-season. — Irregular ; a
few April, but usually latter half May or early June, and in Alps
from end April onwards. Apparently one brood as a rule
but sometimes two. Incubation. — Under a fortnight (11 days,
A. Taylor).

FOOD. — Chiefly seeds (alder; birch, bullrush, and . many small
plants), but also minute insects and their eggs.

DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. — Resident. Breeds most
counties, but locally and especially so in southern England, and
Wales, and very sparingly in south-west England, while in extreme
south-west it is rare even in autumn and winter, when it becomes
more generally distributed elsewhere. Scotland. — Resident. More
generally distributed in wooded districts than in England, but
uncommon in north-west, and appears not to breed Caithness.
Breeds sparingly I. Hebrides, and has nested Barra (0. Hebrides).
Said to nest Orkneys, but rare at any time Shetlands. Ireland. —
Resident. Generally distributed, even in the bare west.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Flocks said to arrive Yorks. coast
in mid-Sept, and Oct., and it becomes more generally common
east coast in winter. Some at least of our breeding birds appear
to emigrate in whiter. No migration noted in Ireland.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Alpine regions, probably also Carpa-
thians and Balkans, and possibly the Caucasus.

CARDUELIS HORNEMANNI

24. Carduelis hornemanni hornemanni (Holb.) — HORNE-
MANN'S REDPOLL.

LINOTA HORNEMANNI Holboll, Naturh. Tidskr., iv, p. 398 (1843—

Greenland).

L. hornemanni, Yarrell, n, pp. 141 and 144 (in text) ; Saunders, p. 189

(in text).

Plate 3

m

(HALF NATURAL SIZE.)

I, Lesser Redpoll (Carduelis I. cabaret). 2, Mealy Redpoll (C. I. Knaria). 3, Greenland Redpoll
(C. I. rostrata). 4, Coues's Redpoll (C. h. exUipes). 5, Hornemann's Redpoll (C. h. hornemanni).

[Face p. 64.]

HORNEMANN'S REDPOLL. 65

DESCRIPTION (Plate 3).— Adult male. Winter.— Differs from C. I.
linaria in rump being pure white, unstreaked (tinged pink in
adult male) ; rest of upper-parts including upper tail-coverts paler,
feathers having white or pale buff edges and tips ; sides of neck
and flanks white with few dark streaks ; stripe over eye white ;
ear-coverts tinged buff ; under tail-coverts white, usually without
any dark streaks ; rest of under-parts pure white, and pink of
cheeks, throat, and breast considerably paler and less marked ;
edges and tips of tail and wings, and tips of wing-coverts, white.
Summer. — Abrasion of fringes of feathers of upper-parts makes it
more like C. L linaria, but unstriped rump, remains of white
fringes and tips to feathers, and scarcely streaked flanks, easily
distinguish it.

Adult female and first unnter male. — Like adult male but
with no pink ; hind-neck and mantle slightly more buff ; sides
of neck, breast, and throat pale sandy-buff ; flanks slightly more
streaked ; tips of wing-coverts sometimes pale buff not pure
white.

Nestling and juvenile. — (Not examined).

Measurements. — <$ wing 82-88 mm., tail 57-65, tarsus 15-17,
bill from skull 9.5-11 (5 measured). § wing 80-85, tail 57-62,
tarsus 16-17, bill 9-10 (5 measured). Bill, depth and width
like C. I. rostrata.

CHARACTERS. — Unstriped rump and white under-parts dis-
tinguish the two forms of C. hornemanni at once from all forms
of C. linaria.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Owing to absence of trees in breeding-area
nests always on ground, sheltered by rocks and sometimes dwarf
vegetation. Eggs. — Rather larger than those of Mealy Redpoll,
but similar in colouring. Average of 27 eggs from Greenland
17.64 x 13.04 mm. Breeding-season. — Not before latter half of
June. One brood. (See also Greenland Redpoll.)

FOOD. — Seeds of arctic plants and small insects.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Very rare vagrant. Specimens
from Spurn (Yorks.), Oct., 1883, and Oct., 1893, have been assigned
to this form (Birds Yorks., i, p. 189), and one near Whitburn
(Durham), April 24, 1855 (Saunders, p. 189). Five Fair Isle
(Shetlands), Sept. and Oct., 1905 (W. E. Clarke, Ann. S.N.H., 1906,
p. 17). One Unst (Shetlands), Oct., 1905 (E. Hamilton, op. c., 1910,
p. 54). (cf. Brit. B., i, p. 183 ; in, p. 378).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Resident in Greenland. Once obtained
in France, in Spitsbergen, Franz-Josef Land, Jan Mayen, and
perhaps Iceland, but probably in all these places as a rule only
an accidental visitor. In winter regularly in parts of North
America.

66 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

25. Carduelis hornemanni exilipes (Coues) — COUES'S
REDPOLL.

EXILIPES Coues, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, Nov.,
1861 {pub. 1862), p. 385 (Fort Simpson, Arctic America).

DESCRIPTION (Plate 3). — Adult male. — Like C. h. hornemanni but
smaller and more inclined to buff on hind-neck and mantle ; rump
not so pure a white but unstreaked ; upper tail-coverts with
narrower white edgings and tips ; flanks slightly more streaked ;
pink of breast slightly stronger ; sides of head slightly more buff ;
under tail-coverts often streaked.

Adult female and first winter male. — Like those of C. h. horne-
manni but slightly darker and more buff on upper-parts and
flanks rather more streaked.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like that of C. I. cabaret but very slightly more
marked with greyish-white on crown, mantle and back ; belly
rather purer white ; rump streaked not uniform as in adult.

Measurements. — $ wing 73-79 mm., tail 52-59, tarsus 13.5-16,
bill from skull 8-9 (14 measured). $ wing 69-76. Bill depth
and width like C. I. linaria.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Very similar to those of other Redpolls, and
like them shows social tendency, breeding in low birch and
willow scrub ; H. Pearson detected no difference in breeding-
habits of this and Mealy Redpoll. Eggs. — 4-6 with charac-
teristic dull greenish-blue ground. Average of 9 authentic eggs,
17.35 X 12.91 mm. Breeding-season. — In Lapland about mid-
June. One brood.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Very rare vagrant. A specimen
assigned to this form occurred at Easington (Yorks.), winter 1893-4,
and two others at Skeffling (Yorks.), Dec. 30, 1898 (Birds Yorks.,
i, p. 188). Three Fair Isle, Oct. 26, Nov. 3, Nov. 5, 1910 (W. E.
Clarke, Studies in Bird Migration, n, p. 111).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Lapland and north Russia, northern-
most portions of continents of Asia and America. In winter
southwards to East Prussia (rare), Japan, and northern United
States of America.

CARDUELIS CITRINELLA

26. Carduelis citrinella citrinella (L.)— THE CITRIL FINCH.

FRINGILLA CITRINELLA Linnaeus Syst. Nat, ed. xn, i, p. 320, (1766—
" Hab. in Europa australi." Restricted typical locality : Alps ; Hartert,
Vog. pal. Fauna, i, p. 81).

Citril Finch, Yarrell, n, p. 113 (in footnote) ; Saunders, p. 178 (in text) ;
Chryaomitria citrinella, id., Brit. B., i, p. 12.

THE CITRLL FINCH. 67

Citril Finch (Carduelis c. citrinella) $ adult.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head, forepart of
crown, round eye, and cheeks golden-green ; rest of crown, ear-
coverts, nape, and hind-neck brownish blue-grey ; sides of neck
paler blue-grey ; mantle and scapulars green, tinged brownish-grey
and faintly streaked dark brown ; back and rump greenish-yellow ;
upper tail-coverts, chin, centre of throat, and breast yellowish-
green, all slightly tipped blue-grey ; centre of belly and under
tail-coverts greenish-yellow ; vent white ; sides and flanks brownish-
grey tinged green ; axillaries white fringed yellow ; tail- and
wing-feathers and primary-coverts brown-black, tipped and fringed
on inner webs whitish and on outer yellowish-green ; greater
coverts with distal half yellowish-green, very narrowly tipped
grey ; median and lesser coverts showing entirely yellowish-green.
This plumage is acquired by complete moult in early autumn.
Summer. — No moult. Abrasion makes mantle rather more
striated, not so uniform, but otherwise effects little change.

Adult female. Winter and summer. — Like male but less green
on crown, browner nape and sides of neck, browner more streaked
mantle, lower-throat brownish-grey, all yellow and green duller
and darker.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Crown and mantle brown, streaked brown-black ;
nape, rump, and upper tail-coverts paler more buff-brown, streaked
same ; sides of neck, chin, and throat brownish- or yellowish-grey,
streaked dark brown ; breast and flanks pale brown, streaked
dark ; belly and under tail-coverts whitish-buff, tinged yellow ;
axillaries white, edged yellow ; tail- and wing-feathers as adult
but with fringes of outer webs more buff less green ; innermost
secondaries and all wing-coverts fringed and tipped pale buff.

First winter and summer. Male. — Like adult but browner,
more streaked on mantle and fringes of outer webs of tail- and
wing-feathers and primary-coverts less green, more buff ; one or
two of outer greater coverts fringed pale buff, and occasionally

68 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

an unmoulted buff -edged inner secondary. The juvenile body-
feathers, wing-coverts, and innermost secondaries are moulted
in early autumn, but not other wing-feathers, primary-coverts,
or tail.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 75-79 mm., tail 47-51,
tarsus 13.5-15, bill from skull 8.5-9.5 (10 measured). $ wing
73-76. Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 3rd and 4th about
equal and longest, 2nd and 5th 1-2 mm. shorter, 6th 7-9 shorter ;
3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries equal 10th
primary, square-tipped and notched. Tail fairly deeply forked.
Bill thick and deep at base, tapering sharply to point. Nostrils
covered with short bristle-like feathers, and similar ones at gape.

Soft parts. — Bill horn-brown, paler under lower mandible ;
legs and feet and iris brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — In C. c. corsicana (Corsica)
mantle of male is more rusty-brown with darker streaks, under-
parts paler yellow. Grey nape and sides of neck and uniform,
unstreaked under-parts distinguish it at once from Siskin and
Serin, while latter has much shorter and thicker bill.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Haunts mountain-sides and breeds chiefly in
large conifers, often at considerable heights, but occasionally also
in thatched roofs of alpine huts, according to some writers.
Nest. — Beautifully built of grasses, moss, and lichens, lined
hair, feathers and down, and decorated with cocoons outside.
Eggs. — 4-5, pale bluish in ground-colour, with usual red-brown
streaks and spots as in Siskin and Goldfinch. Average of 41 eggs,
16.5 X 12.59mm. Breeding-season. — Begins end April in Switzer-
land, but eggs may be found till late June, so possibly two broods
are reared. Incubation. — Period not precisely known.

FOOD. — Chiefly seeds of fir and spruce, as well as of various plants,
especially dandelion, also buds and small insects.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — One. Female, Yarmouth (Norfolk),
Jan. 29, 1904 (J. H. Gurney, Zool., 1905, p. 91).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Mountain-systems of central and south
Europe. Replaced by a local race in Corsica and Sardinia.

CARDUELIS CANNABINA*

27. Carduelis cannabina cannabina (L.) — THE LINNET.

FKINGIIXA CANNABINA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 182 (1758 —

Europe. Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Linota cannabina (Linnaeus), Yarrell, n, p. 153 ; Saunders, p. 187.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Crown streaked blackish-
brown and buff with concealed spots of dull crimson ; nape same

THE LINNET. 69

but no crimson ; hind-neck, sides of neck, and ear-coverts greyer
and more uniform ; mantle and scapulars chestnut with blackish-
brown streaks and dark buff edges ; back and rump paler and
more uniform ; upper tail-coverts black, fringed broadly dark and
pale buff ; lores and line round eye buff ; chin and throat buff with
broad streaks of greyish-black ; breast pink, concealed by buff
fringes ; flanks buff, streaked chestnut-brown ; belly pale buff ;
vent whitish ; under tail-coverts pale buff with black mesial
stripes ; axillaries white ; tail brown-black, central pair edged
buff, rest with narrow white edgings to outer webs and broad
ones to inner webs ; primaries as tail-feathers, white edgings to
inner five feathers conspicuous ; secondaries and primary-coverts
same but outer webs fringed buff not white, innermost secondaries
and wing-coverts like mantle. This plumage is acquired by
complete moult from August to October. Summer. — No moult.
Abrasion greatly alters appearance which varies according to
amount of wear. In much worn examples (July) centre of crown
is crimson ; rest of crown, nape, hind-neck, sides of neck, and
ear-coverts brownish-grey ; mantle, scapulars, and wing-coverts
almost uniform chestnut ; chin and throat greyish- white with
brown streaks ; breast crimson (varying in extent) ; belly greyish-
white ; flanks almost uniform chestnut-buff. N.B. — The most
worn examples are usually brightest and most uniform, but there
is considerable individual variation. In Redpolls, Linnets,
Crossbills and Grosbeaks, not only the tips and edges of the
feathers wear down but the radii also : in the crimson feathers
only the rami are pink, and these are divided by grey radii which
wear away and thus cause the pink rami to show up brilliantly.
Wild birds occasionally, and birds which have moulted in
captivity always, have dull gold instead of pink on crown and
breast.

Adult female. Winter and summer. — Resembling adult male
but with no pink ; darker, more heavily streaked brown-black,
and less chestnut on upper-parts ; streaked dark brown on
breast and flanks.

Nestling. — Down, grey ; distribution, inner supra-orbital,
occipital, humeral, spinal, ulnar, femoral, ventral, and crural.
Mouth, inside deep orange ; no spots. (A. G. Leigh, Brit. B.,
m, p. 154.)

Juvenile. — Much resembling adult winter-female but chin
and throat almost uniform huffish-white and without decided
dark streaks ; dark streaks much narrower on upper-parts, breast,
and flanks. Male considerably more chestnut-buff on upper-parts
than female.

First winter and summer. — Male and female like adults. The
juvenile body-feathers and inner secondaries are moulted in
August and September, but not remiges, primary-coverts, or
rectrices.

70 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Measurements and structure. — £ wing 77-82 mm., tail 50-57,
tarsus 16-17, bill from skull 10-11 (12 measured). $ wing 75-79.
Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th about equal
and longest, 5th 4 mm. shorter ; 3rd, 4th, and 5th emarginated
outer webs. Longest secondary equal to 9th primary. Tail fairly
deeply forked. Bill thick and deep at base, tapering sharply to
point. Nostrils covered with short bristle-like feathers, and
similar ones at gape.

Soft parts. — Bill dark brown with greyish base to lower
mandible ; legs and feet dark brownish-flesh ; iris black-brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — C. c. meadewaldoi (western
Canaries), C. c. harterti (eastern Canaries), C. c. mediterranea
(Mediterranean countries), C. c. nana (Madeira), and C. c. fringilli-
rostris (Asia Minor, Persia, Turkestan) differ in measurements and
in coloration, but are generally brighter and males more crimson
on breast. Twite is darker, rufous-buff unstriped throat, less
white on tail, yellow bill ; males with crimson on rump, not head
or breast. Redpolls lack white on tail and primaries and have
black chins and yellowish bills.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Larger than Twite and Redpolls, dark
brown bill, white margins of tail and white wing-bars especially
noticeable in male ; in flight, head markedly grey in contrast
with warm brown of general plumage. Like allies, gregarious from
winter to spring, but more exclusive than some other Finches.
Flocks, sometimes hundreds strong, roam country in search of
seeds, gathered mainly on ground on stubble and waste-places.
When alarmed and when changing ground flocks proceed with
rapid undulating flight, and maintain incessant twitter. On
sunny days they often babble in chorus from some tree-top. In
breeding-season gorse-covered commons much affected, and male
— then crimson on fore-head and breast — often sings — a warbling
elaboration of the twitter — from top of some bush, and at times
sallies into the air for a few feet, descending singing with flut-
tering wings and outspread tail. A soft " tew-ee " is uttered at
times.

BREEDING - HABITS. — Prefers commons and thickets of gorse,
bramble, and thorn-bushes, but also commonly in hedgerows
and young plantations. Also locally in marram-grass on sandy
coasts. Shows tendency to breed socially, but many nests
are isolated. Nest. — Generally low down, only few feet from
ground, and sometimes actually on it, built of stalks, bents,
moss, and sometimes twigs ; lined hah-, wool, and sometimes
down or feathers. Eggs.— 4-6, occasionally 7, pale bluish or
bluish-white in ground-colour, with spots and occasional streaks
of purplish-red. White and blue varieties without markings also
occur. Size variable: average of 100 eggs, 18.12 x 13.10mm.
Breeding-season. — From mid-April onwards, and as two or three

THE SERIN. 71

broods are usually reared fresh eggs may be found until July.
Incubation. — Lasts to 14th day ; chiefly performed by hen, cock
only relieving for short periods.

FOOD. — Mainly seeds of weeds, but also of flax, hemp, turnip,
and rape, some insects, and according to Saunders, berries and
oats in winter.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Resident. Common and widely
distributed, but uncommon and local in west Scotland and
I. Hebrides ; rare vagrant 0. Hebrides and apparently so Shet-
lands ; recorded several times Fair Isle and common nester and
migrant Orkneys.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — A proportion of our home-bred birds
move south autumn, many crossing Channel, third week Sept. to
end Oct., occasionally from Sept 1, and returning spring, third
week March to mid- April. Large numbers of Continental immi-
grants arrive east coasts Great Britain autumn, mid-Sept, to end
Oct., occasionally to third week Nov., and return spring, mid-
March to third week April, extremes March 5 to May 8.
Occasional records of passage-movements west coast Lights
latter half of Sept. Frequently observed as immigrant on
Irish coasts both spring and autumn, but movements not
clearly worked out.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe generally, except in the high
north. Replaced by allied forms in Mediterranean countries and
Atlantic isles, and in parts cf west Asia.

Genus SERINUS Koch.

SERIKUS Koch, Syst. d. baier, Zool., p. 228 (1816 — Type S. hortulanus =
serinus, monotypy and tautonymy).

Small. Bill very short and thick, as if swollen, culmen
distinctly curved. Tail deeply emarginated. Wing fairly long
and 2nd to 4th primaries about equal and longest. Plumage
Siskin-like in coloration. Many species in Africa ; one only in
Europe, and two in Asia.

SERINUS CANARIUS

28. Serinus canarius serinus (L.)— THE SERIN.

FRINGILLA SERINUS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. xn, i, p. 320 (1766 —
" Habitat in Europa Australi." Based on Gesner, Aldrovandi, and
Brisson. Restricted typical locality, Switzerland, where Gesner lived).
Serinus hortulanus K. L. Koch, Yarrell, IT, p. Ill ; Saunders, p. 177.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Fore - part of crown, eye-
stripe, and hind-neck yellow much concealed by long greyish-green

72 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

fringes; fore-head darker; nape more greenish, much streaked black-
brown ; mantle and scapulars yellowish-brown, broadly streaked
black-brown ; back yellow, streaked greenish -
black ; rump bright greenish-yellow ; upper
tail-coverts dark brown fringed green and
tipped grey ; lores whitish ; ear - coverts
greenish-brown, tinged grey ; chin, throat,
and centre of breast bright greenish -yellow ;
sides of breast and flanks pale buff, boldly
streaked black - brown ; under tail - coverts Serin (Serinui c' serinua)-
same but with few streaks ; centre of belly uniform whitish-buff ;
axillaries white, fringed pale yellow ; tail black-brown, tipped and
fringed on inner webs whitish, on outer webs yellowish -green ;
wing-feathers same but inner secondaries with browner fringes and
larger white tips ; greater coverts with yellowish-buff tips ; median
same but tips more yellowish ; lesser coverts with yellowish-green
tips. This plumage is acquired by complete moult in autumn.
Summer. — No moult. Abrasion makes all yellow parts much
brighter, fore-part of crown becoming uniform yellow ; mantle
and flanks more markedly striated ; green fringes wear off tail
and wings and tips to wing-coverts become paler.

Adult female. Winter and summer. — Resembling male but
much less yellow and more striated, crown and nape only tinged
yellow, thickly streaked dark greenish-brown ; mantle browner,
less yellowish ; rump paler ; eye-stripe yellowish-white ; throat
and breast much paler yellow (sometimes greyish-white, only
tinged yellow) and streaked dark brown.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Upper-parts including upper tail-coverts brownish-
buff, streaked dark brown ; rump paler, streaked same ; under -
parts pale yellowish-buff closely streaked brown, chin and centre
of belly uniform pale yellowish-buff ; inner secondaries and all
wing-coverts black-brown, fringed and tipped buff.

First urinter and summer. — Apparently like adults. The
juvenile body-feathers, wing-coverts, and inner secondaries are
moulted in autumn but not other remiges or rectrices.

Measurements and structure. — ^ whig 66-74 mm., tail 42-49,
tarsus 11-13, bill from skull 7-9 (14 measured). ? wing 64-71.
Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 3rd and 4th equal and
longest, 2nd and 5th 1-3 mm. shorter, 6th 6-9 shorter; 3rd to
5th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries equal 10th primary,
square tipped very slightly notched. Tail forked. Bill wide,
thick and short. Short feathers directed forwards over nostrils
and at gape.

Soft parts. — Bill dark horn, under mandible pale horn ; legs
and feet dark brown ; iris black -brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Serinus c. germanicus (Germany)

THE SERIN, 73

is duller and more greenish, S. c. canarius (Canary, Madeira,
Azores) is considerably larger, much greyer, less brown on mantle,
and deeper yellow on under-parts. Female Serin superficially
resembles female Siskin, but is at once distinguished by its short
thick beak.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Size and shape resembling Lesser Redpoll,
tut striped with the yellow and olive colours of a mule canary
— cock bright, hen dull. When flying away both sexes may be
recognized by light lemon coloured longitudinal streak on lower
back, surrounding parts having dark appearance. Flight rather
swift and gliding, reminding of Sand -Martin, but this will be
more appreciated in breeding-season. Song, a finch-like " babb-
ling " of notes, but its harmony spoilt by the somewhat hissing
tone that pervades it (H. Lynes).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nest. — Generally neatly concealed and being
small, difficult to see. In all kinds of trees and bushes, generally
five to twenty feet from ground, sometimes at ends of smaller
branches like Goldfinch's, and sometimes in fork. Neatly built
of stalks, lichen, and roots, woven together with spider-webs, and
lined thickly with hair (not down) and occasionally a feather or
two. Eggs. — Generally 4, sometimes 5 or only 3, and scarcely
distinguishable from those of Citril, Siskin and Goldfinch, but
generally rather smaller than Goldfinch's ; ground-colour pale
bluish, spotted and streaked with purplish and red-brown, chiefly
at big end. Average of 100 eggs 16.17 X 11.86 mm. Breeding-
season. — From mid- April in south and May in central Europe, and
beginning of March to July in north Africa : evidently two
broods. Incubation. — Lasts about ten days and is performed by hen.

FOOD. — Seeds of various weeds and garden-plants.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Rare vagrant. About twenty
recorded England, ten being from Sussex coast, where also small
flock said to have been seen ; three Kent, four Norfolk, one or
two near London, one each Hants., Somerset, and Devon, and one
said to have been seen Yorks., and another Oxon. Two co. Dublin.
Male near Edinburgh Nov. 9, 1911.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — North-west Africa and south Europe to
France and Switzerland. The form inhabiting Germany has been
separated as S. c. germanicus and birds from Holland and perhaps
north France belong to this form, as may also those obtained in
the British Isles. Represented on the Canaries and Madeira by
S. c. canarius.

[NOTE. — " Wild " CANARIES, Serinu* canarius canarius (L.) have been
taken in Great Britain, but these were undoubtedly escaped birds, as in its
home (Canary Islands, Azores, and Madeira) the Canary Serin does not
migrate, and numbers are imported into our islands.]

74 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Genus PYRRHULA Briss.

PYRRHUXA Brisson, Orn. i, p. 36 (1760 — Type by tautonymy " Pyrrhula,"
according to Briss., Orn. in, p. 308, i.e. the Bullfinch).

Easily recognizable by its short, round'sh, thick bill.
2nd primary about equal to 6th, 3rd to 5th about equal and
longest, though only a few mm. longer than 2nd and 6th, 3rd
to 6th emarginated on distal half. Tail (in the European species)
square, upper tail-coverts very long, beyond middle of tail.
Tarsus short, not much longer than middle toe with claw.
Sexes different in colour, young different from both adults, but
more like female. Palaearctic, but extending into Himalayas,
Malay Peninsula, Formosa, and Philippines in the east.

PYRRHULA PYRRHULA

29. Pyrrhula pyrrhula pyrrhula (L.)— THE NORTHERN
BULLFINCH.

LOXIA PYRRHULA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 171 (1758— Europe.
Restricted typical locality : Sweden).
P. major, Saunders, p. 195 (in text).

A T

i

A. Northern Bullfinch (Pyrrhula j>. pyrrhula) ; B. British Bullfinch (Pyrrhula, p. fikata.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. — Like P. p. pileata but larger and purer
and paler blue-grey on upper-parts and brighter pink on under-
parts, tips of outer greater wing-coverts generally whiter, not so buff.

Adult female. — Like P. p. pileata but larger and much greyer
and paler on upper- and under-parts (the nape paler grey than
even in male pileata) ; lesser and median coverts blue-grey, inner
greater coverts tipped pale grey, and outer greyish-white.

Juvenile. — Like P. p. pileata except for larger size.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 90-98 mm., tail 63-70,
tarsus 18-20, bill from feathers 9-10 mm. (12 measured). $ wing
87-92. Structure as P. p. pileata.

Soft parts. — As P. p. pileata.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Except for P. p. kamtschatica
this is the largest and palest form.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Even at a little distance distinctly larger
and "cleaner" looking than British Bullfinch. Call-note
louder (H.F.W.).

THE BRITISH BULLFINCH. 75

BREEDING-HABITS. — Haunts forests, frequently nesting in conifers.
Nest similar to that of British Bullfinch but slightly larger, and
in Scandinavia often lined with hairy lichen (Usnea barbata).
Eggs. — Usually 5 or 6, occasionally only 4, clear greenish-blue
in ground-colour when fresh, with few spots and streaks of
very dark purplish-brown. Average of 65 eggs, 20.42 X 14.69 mm.
Breeding-season. — From May to July in Scandinavia ; in June in
Finland ; probably two broods in former country at any rate.
Incubation. — Lasts a fortnight, and is performed by hen alone
(Naumann).

FOOD. — Mainly seeds of trees (alder, birch, and conifers), also
kernels of berries, plant seeds and buds.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Irregular autumn- and whiter-
visitor. As it is imported as cage-bird, some records may be due
to " escapes," but following are probably genuine : England. —
Two Yorks. Nov., 1894, and possibly immigrations noted under
" Pyrrhula europcea" Nov., 1880, Oct. and Nov., 1884, 1886,
1887, and other years (Birds Yorks., I, pp. 194 and 195), one
Yorks. coast Dec. 3, 1910. One Yarmouth (Norfolk) Jan. 22,
1893. Scotland.— One near Longniddry (Haddington) Oct., 1884.
Considerable immigration Shetlands Nov., 1905, and some birds
March and April, 1905, Oct., 1906, and one Nov., 1902, probably
of this form. One or more Fair Isle, Nov., 1905, and a few Nov.,
1906, and a good many Isle of May, Fair Isle, and Shetlands, as
well as south-east Scotland, Oct., Nov., and Dec., 1910. One
Shetland, Oct., 1911, one Fair Isle, Oct., 1912, and a few Nov.,
1913, one Orkney, Oct., 1912, and probably a pair Nov., 1913.
One Fair Isle, March 27, and one April 30, 1913, appear to be
the only spring records. Others recorded as " Bullfinches " in
Shetlands probably of this form.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Scandinavia, Russia, north-east parts of
Germany, and west Siberia, also apparently Hungary and Tran-
sylvania. In winter spreading southwards and westwards, as far as
west and south Europe. Represented by a form (P. p. europcea*)
much more nearly allied to P. p. pileata in west and central
Europe generally, and by other forms in the Azores, Caucasus, and
temperate Asia.

30. Pyrrhula pyrrhula pileata MacGillivray— THE BRITISH
BULLFINCH.

PYRRHULA PILEATA MacGillivray, Hist. Brit. Birds, i, p. 407 (1837 —
Great Britain).

Pyrrhula pyrrhula pileata MacGillivray, Hartert, Brit. B., n, p. 130.
Pyrrhula europcea Vieillot, Yarrell, n, p. 166 ; Saunders, p. 195.

* No examples of this form have as yet been detected in the British Isles.

76 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head, crown, nape,
lores, and chin glossy blue-black ; back of neck blue-grey ; mantle,
scapulars, and back same but slightly tinged yellowish-brovvn and
sometimes marked pink ; rump white ; upper tail-coverts glossy
blue-black ; ear-coverts, sides of neck, throat, breast, and flanks
varying rosy-pink to pinkish-red ; lower-belly, vent, under tail-
coverts, and axillaries white ; tail black, central pair and outer
webs of rest glossy ; primaries greyish-black, fringed black on
outer, and greyish- white on inner webs ; secondaries same but
outer webs fringed glossy blue-black, two inner secondaries all
glossy blue-black and innermost with outer web grey usually
marked pinkish-red ; primary-coverts greyish-black ; lesser and
median coverts blue-grey ; greater coverts glossy blue-black, inner
ones tipped pale blue-grey, outer buffish-white. This plumage
is acquired by complete moult in Aug. -Oct. Summer. — No
moult, and very little change by abrasion except that mantle
becomes purer blue-grey.

Adult female. Winter. — Head as male but less bluish ; back
of neck brownish-grey ; mantle, scapulars, and back dark
yellowish-brown, tinged grey ; upper tail-coverts glossy blue-
black ; rump, vent, under tail-coverts and axillaries white ; ear-
coverts, sides of neck, and under-parts pinkish-brown to buffish-
brown ; tail as male (often with dull white streak along shaft
of outer feathers) ; wings as male but lesser and median coverts
darker, tips of greater coverts more buff less grey, and pink
on innermost secondary not so bright and extensive. Summer. —
No moult. When much abraded mantle and back become
greyer, less brown, and under-parts become paler.

Nestling. — Down, blackish-grey, abundant and long ; distri-
bution, inner supra -orbital, occipital, humeral, spinal, ulnar,
femoral, ventral, and crural. Mouth, inside violet-red, no spots,
flanges whitish (C. B. T^icehuist, Brit. B., n, 193).

Juvenile. Male and female. — Resembling adult female but
head brown like mantle, which is darker than in adult female;
rump white, tinged buff ; lores and chin yellow-brown and whole of
under-parts same and more yellowish than adult female ; vent
and under tail-coverts pale buff ; axillaries white ; wing-feathers
as adult but innermost secondary marked brown not pink ; lesser
wing-coverts as mantle ; median tipped brown ; greater tipped
deep buff.

First winter and summer. — Like adults. The juvenile body-
feathers, wing-coverts, and innermost secondaries are moulted
in Aug. to Oct. but not remiges, primary - coverts, or
rectrices.

Measurements and structure. — <£ wing 78-84 mm., tail 56-62,
tarsus 15-17, bill from feathers 8-9 (14 measured). $ wing 78-83.
Primaries : 1st minute and hidden. 3rd, 4th, and 5th about equal
and longest, 2nd about 4mm. shorter, 6th about equal to or a

THE BRITISH BULLFINCH. 77

little longer or shorter than second ; 3rd to 6th emarginated
outer webs. Secondaries equal 10th primary, tips rounded.
Tail almost square very slightly forked. Bill short, very wide
and thick with sharp, slightly overlapping point. Small gape-
bristles.

Soft parts. — Bill black, brownish at base of lower mandible ;
legs and feet brown ; iris brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Male of P. p. europcea cannot
be distinguished from male of this form but female is greyer, not
so brown on mantle and back, and rather paler more greyish on
breast than female of P. p. pileata. For differences of P. p.
pyrrhula see under that form. P. p. kamtschatica (Kamtschatka)
and P. p. caspica (Caspian) differ in size and shade of colour, but
in P. p. murina (Azores) male is like female, and male of P. p.
cassini (east Siberia) is pale grey on under-parts, while that of
P. p. griseiventris (north Ch;na, Japan) has only throat and
cheeks pink.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Unmistakeable in the open, but, except in
early spring when feeding on fruit-buds, it seldom leaves cover
of thickets and dense hedge-rows. Rump pure white, contrasted
with grey upper-parts, and black wings, tail, and head, betray it
as it takes short nights along hedge-row. Its presence often first
revealed by call-note, a soft, low, piping " whib."

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds in gardens, thick hedges, clumps of
evergreens (especially box), also yews, and in plantations. Nest. —
Usually about four to seven feet from ground, built of fine twigs
and some moss or lichens, lined with thick layer of interlacing
fine black roots. Sometimes extremely slightly, at others very
stoutly, constructed. Eggs. — Usually 4-5, occasionally 6 or even
7 ; clear green-blue with few spots and a streak or two of extremely
dark purple-brown, generally tending to form zone at big end.
Varieties with reddish markings on white ground occur. Average
of 83 eggs, 19.58 X 14.46mm. Breeding-season. — Exceptionally
eggs latter part April, but generally during May, and second brood
a month later. Incubation. — Lasts 13-14 days, and is performed
chiefly by hen, cock taking some part daily. Fledging -period. —
2-3 weeks.

FOOD. — Chiefly buds, seeds, and kernels of berries. Insects to-
some extent in spring, but bulk of food vegetable, and damage
is done to fruit-trees in early spring.

DISTRIBUTION. — Confined to British Isles. — British Isles. — Resident.
Generally distributed, but rather local in Scotland. Recently
spread to some I. Hebrides, and recorded from Harris and North
Uist (0. Hebrides). Its recorded visits to Orkneys and Shetlands
may be referable to P. p. pyrrhula (see p. 75).

78 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Genus CARPODACUS Kaup.

CAKPODACTTS Kaup, Skizz. Entw.-Cesch. und Natiirl. Sjrstem, p. 161
(1829 — Type by designation of Gray, 1855, Carpodacus erythrinus).

Bill thick and short, but longer than in Pyrrhula, height
about equal to length of upper mandible from nostril to tip.
Culmen moderately curved. Wings rather long, first three visible
primaries longest. Tail (in the European species) emarginate.
Plumage not very soft and rich but somewhat hard, as in
Passer. Sexes different. East Europe to Kamtschatka and
North America, south to Himalayas, only one in Europe.

CARPODACUS ERYTHRINUS

31. Carpodacus erythrinus erythrinus (Pall.) — THE SCARLET
GROSBEAK.

LOXIA ERYTHRINA Pallas, Nov. Comm. Acad. Sci. St. Petersb., xiv,
p. 587, pi. 23, fig. 1 (1770 — S. Russia and Siberia. Restricted typical
locality : Volga).
Pyrrhula erythrina (Pallas), Yarrell, n, p. 172 ; Saunders, p. 197.

Scarlet Grosbeak (Carpodacus e. erythrinut). $ autumn.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Crown, nape, and rump
rosy-carmine, usually with some brown of centre of feathers
showing ; mantle, scapulars, back, and upper tail-coverts brown,
tinged varying amount of carmine ; lores brown ; ear-coverts
brown, more or less tinged pink ; chin, throat, and upper-breast

THE SCARLET GROSBEAK. 79

bright rosy-carmine ; rest of breast and sides of belly whitish,
tinged varying amount of pink ; centre of belly, vent, and under
tail-coverts white ; flanks tinged pale buff with faint dark streaks ;
axillaries pale buff, tinged pink ; tail- and wing-feathers dark
brown, fringed on outer webs pink or pinkish-buff ; greater and
median coverts dark brown tipped pink and pinkish buff, forming
not very conspicuous double wing-bar ; lesser wing-coverts dark-
brown fringed and tipped carmine. This plumage is acquired
by complete moult in autumn. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion
makes carmine deeper and considerably more brilliant, but
mantle becomes browner owing to wearing off of carmine tips,
and pale tips of wing-coverts become much reduced.

Adult female. Winter. — Crown, mantle, and scapulars
yellowish-brown with dark brown centre of feathers showing ;
rump more uniform and greenish ; upper tail-coverts brown ;
ear-coverts and sides of neck uniform brown ; throat and breast
pale buff, streaked brown ; chin paler and often without streaks ;
flanks darker and lightly streaked ; belly and under tail-coverts
huffish-white ; tail- and wing-feathers dark brown, outer webs
fringed greenish ; innermost secondaries with wider and more
buff fringes to outer webs ; greater and median coverts dark brown,
tipped buff, greenish-buff, or whitish-buff, forming conspicuous
double wing-bar ; lesser coverts tipped greenish. Summer. —
Abrasion makes mantle and crown browner, rump greyer and
under-parts more greyish-white, less buff.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. Male and female. — Much as adult female but
upper-parts darker and browner, dark streaks larger and more
prominent ; rump streaked ; throat, breast, and flanks much more
heavily streaked ; tips of wing-coverts rather more yellowish-buff.

First winter and summer. Male. — Like adult female and not
distinguishable from it. The juvenile body-feathers and median
and lesser wing-coverts are moulted in autumn, but not remiges
or rectrices. Female. — Scarcely distinguishable from adult, but
usually more streaked on flanks and lower-breast.

Second unnter and summer. Male. — Carmine not so brilliant
as in adult, mantle mostly brown, tips of greater wing-coverts
paler pink ; tips of median coverts whitish, tinged pink ; breast
and belly with less pink and more buffish, not so white as in adult :
wing- and tail-feathers less pink on outer webs. Often brown
feathers amongst pink of throat and breast. Occasionally like
first winter except for pink edges to wings and tail and pink
lesser coverts.

Measurements and structure. — <£ wing 80-86 mm., tail 54-59,
tarsus 17-20, bill from feathers 9.5-11 (12 measured). $ wing
79-83. Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 2nd to 4th about equal
and longest, 5th 3-4 mm. shorter, 6th 10-12 shorter ; 3rd to 5th
emarginated outer webs. Tips of secondaries fairly square, longest

80 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

about equal 9th primary. Tail fairly forked. Bill much like
Bullfinch's but rather finer. Minute bristle-like feathers covering
nostrils and at gape.

Soft parts. — Bill brown, slightly paler base lower mandible ;
legs and feet dusky-brown ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — C. e. roseatus (Himalayas) is
exceedingly brilliant, C. e. grebnitskii (east Siberia) rather more
rosy, less carmine throat, but doubtfully distinct from typical
form. Bullfinch-like bill and brilliant carmine throat, crown,
and rump of adult male, streaked throat and whitish double
wing-bar of young and female are specific characters.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Female and young males are somewhat like
Corn-Buntings in general coloration but are much more slim.
Double whitish wing-bar and streaked throat and breast are
distinctive (H.F.W.).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds generally in swampy woods near rivers,
placing its flimsy nest in thick undergrowth. Nest. — More like
Warbler's than Finch's, built of dead stalks and grasses, lined
roots and sometimes few hairs. Eggs. — Usually 5, sometimes
4 or 6 ; very distinctive, being very deep and vivid blue in ground-
colour with few bold spots and streaks of deep chocolate-black and
generally few ashy shell-marks at big end. Average of 86 eggs
20.05 X 14.29 mm. Breeding-season. — Begins early June in east
Prussia, but eggs may be found up to July. In mid-Russia from
end May. Incubation-period. — Not precisely known; apparently
performed by hen only. Probably only one brood normally reared.

FOOD. — Entirely vegetable-matter (though young also eat insects
and larvae), seeds of reeds, trees, and bushes, as well as buds.

DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. Five obtained, several seen.
Female near Brighton (Sussex) Sept., 1869. Female Hampstead
(Middlesex) Oct. 5, 1870. Female near Yarmouth (Norfolk)
Sept. 3, 1892 (Saunders, pp. 197, 199, 756). Male near Painscastle
(Radnor) about 1875 (Zool, 1904, p. 228). Female Holy Island
(Northumberland) Aug. 30, and another seen Sept. 15, 1913. One
seen Oxon. Jan. 31, 1912, and another Hants. Aug. 13, 1913
(cf. Brit. B., vi, p. 283 ; vn, pp. 168-179). Scotland. — Irregular
autumn- visitor of recent years (very few adult males), unrecorded
previous to 1906. Fair Isle (Shetlands) one Oct. 3, 1906, one
Sept. 4, one Sept. 29, and probably another autumn, 1908, one
Sept. 20, one Sept. 28, 1912, several Aug. 29 to Sept. 18, 1913.
Isle of May, one Sept. 25, 1907, one Sept. 12. 1908, one Sept. 13,
1909, one Sept. 7, 1910, one Sept. 20 and 21, 1913. St. Kilda (O.
Hebrides), two Sept. 8, one Sept. 19, 1910. Tarbatness (Ross-
shire), one Sept. 8, 1912. Auskerry (Orkneys), nine Aug. 31 to
Sept. 30, 1913.

THE PINE-GROSBEAK.

81

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — North-east Germany, Kussia, Siberia,
eastwards at least to the Lena River, and replaced by allied races
in central Asia and Kamtschatka. Migrant, but its regular winter-
quarters appear to be as yet uncertain ; during migration or in
winter occasionally in west Europe and Mediterranean countries.

Genus PINICOLA Vieill.

PINICOLA Vieillot, Ois. Amer. Sept., i, p. iv (1807 — Type by monotypy
Pinicola rubra Vieill. = enucleator L.).

Large arboreal Finches ; sexes different ; young like female.
Larger than Carpodacus ; bill more curved ; plumage softer, longer,
and more plentiful. First four visible primaries about equal and
longest, 2nd (first visible) a little shorter than next but distinctly
longer than 6th. Otherwise like Carpodacus. One species in
several subspecies ; northern parts of Old and New Worlds, in
the latter south to California.

PINICOLA ENUCLEATOR

32. Pinicola enucleator enucleator (L.) — THE PINE-
GROSBEAK.

LOXIA ENTJCLEATOK Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 171 (1758 — North
of Sweden and North America. The American form, however, differs.
Restricted typical locality : Sweden).
Pyrrhula enucleator (Linnaeus), Yarrell, n, p. 177 ; Saunders, p. 199.

Pine-Grosbeak (Pinicola e. enucleator).

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Crown, nape, and rump

rosy-pink or crimson to yellowish-scarlet ; mantle same, but

with more of brown centres of

feathers showing ; scapulars and

back french-grey, tipped pink ;

upper tail-coverts greyish-brown

tinged pink and tipped pink or

greyish-white ; sides of neck,

ear-coverts, throat, breast, and

sides of belly extending on to

flanks, as crown; chin and Pine-Grosbeak (Pinicola e.enudeaior).

G

82 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

lores greyish-white ; round eyes black-brown ; centre of belly,
flanks, and axillaries smoke-grey ; under tail-coverts rather browner
with white tips ; tail dark brown, outer webs narrowly fringed
pinkish at base and whitish at tips ; primaries same ; secondaries
same but with whiter fringes and inner ones with broad white
fringes and tips ; primary-coverts like primaries ; greater coverts
like inner secondaries but with white more tinged pink ; median
coverts dark brown with pinkish-white tips ; lesser coverts grey-
brown, tipped pink. This plumage is acquired by complete moult
in autumn. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion makes crimson
brighter as in Crossbills and fringes gradually wear off tail and
primaries but white edgings and tips of inner secondaries and
wing-coverts though becoming reduced in size are always
conspicuous.

Adult female. Winter. — Resembling male but crimson replaced
by golden-yellow or reddish-gold ; mantle, back, and rump
greyish-brown with rather narrow gold fringes and tips.
Summer. — Abrasion gradually reduces amount of golden colouring
owing to tips of feathers wearing off ; mantle becomes almost
uniform greyish-brown and rump and back greyer ; wings and tail
with scarcely a trace of gold edgings.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Upper-parts dark sepia, with feathers of crown
and rump tipped dull yellowish ; throat and breast paler and more
yellowish-brown ; belly and under tail-coverts ashy-brown with
buffish tinge ; tail-feathers dark brown, narrowly edged whitish-
buff ; primaries same ; secondaries with wider and whiter fringes ;
greater coverts fringed and tipped whitish-buff ; median and lesser
coverts tipped yellowish-buff. N.B. — Tips of wing-coverts are
considerably smaller and duller than in adult.

First winter and summer. Male. — Much like adult female
but usually more pinkish, less yellow-gold, tail- and wing-feathers
and wing-coverts browner and not so blackish and the edgings
and tips duller, not so pure white. Female. — Like above but
yellow paler. The juvenile body-feathers and wing-coverts are
moulted in autumn (August) but not the primary-coverts, remiges,
•or rectrices.

Soft parts. — Bill dark horn-brown, paler base lower mandible ;
legs, feet, and iris dark brown.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 107-114, tail 77-87,
tarsus 20-23, bill from feathers 14-15 (10 measured). $ wing
105-110. Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 3rd longest, 4th
often equal, sometimes 1 mm. shorter, 5th and 2nd 1-5 shorter,
6th 7-12 shorter ; 3rd to 6th emarginated outer wrebs. Second-
aries between 9th and 10th primaries, tips slightly rounded. Tail
fairly forked. Bill heavy, upper mandible curved and projecting
beyond under mandible. Small bristle-like feathers cover nostrils
and at gape.

THE PINE-GROSBEAK. 83

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — P. e. kamtschatkensis (Kamt-
schatka and east Siberia) has shorter and thicker bill, while
five different forms are recognized in North America. Large
size, conspicuous white edgings to secondaries and wing-coverts,
and grey belly are specific characters.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Haunts coniferous woods and in some districts
also birch-forest in subarctic regions of the Old World, and nests
at no great height on lateral branches, near trunk. Nest. — Recalls
Bullfinch's on larger scale, built of interlaced twigs, generally birch,
lined fine roots or wiry grasses. Eggs. — 4, sometimes 3 only,
5 once recorded ; deep greenish-blue, blotched and spotted boldly
blackish or bro wnish-purple. Average of 100 eggs, 26.03 x
17.72 mm. Breeding-season. — From end May onward, usually
first half June. Incubation. — Lasts 14 days (noted in confine-
ment) ; by hen alone. One brood.

FOOD. — Chiefly berries, catkins of birch, seeds and buds ; insects
also said to be taken.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Rare vagrant. Some fifty recorded,
but most are not authenticated. Of recent years the following
records : One Notts., Oct. 30, 1890 (Saunders, p. 199) ; small
flock Kent and Sussex, Oct., 1905 ; two Kent, March 4, 1909 ;
two Sussex, Jan. 20, 1914 ; (cf. Brit. B., I, p. 247, vn, p. 292 ; Hist.
Birds Kent, p. 165).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Scandinavia and north Russia, north
Siberia. In winter spreading more or less regularly southwards
and westwards, occasionally as far as Italy and south France.
Represented by closely-allied forms in Kamtschatka and North
America.

Genus LOXIA L.

LOXIA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 171 (1758 — Type by subsequent
designation — Gray 1840 — L. curmrostra; according to Opinion 16 Intern.
Comm. Nomencl. also by tautonymy).

Adult birds alone among all other British birds with mandibles
crossing at tip, lower mandible being turned to left or right ;
when bird is hatched mandibles are perfectly parallel, but at
early age begin to cross. Bill compressed. Nostrils covered.
Wings long and pointed, three first visible primaries almost equal
and longest. Tail deeply emarginate, short but longer than half
wing. Tarsus shorter than middle toe with claw. Sexes different
in colour, young striped. Palaearctic and Nearctic faunal
regions, in Old World south to Philippines, in America south to
Guatemala. Three species, with a number of subspecies, in
Europe.

G 2

84 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Key to species of genus LOXIA.

( Wings with two white bars L. leucoptera, p. 89

(Wings without distinct white bars ... 2

f Larger, bill stouter. Width of lower mandible at base
| equal to or more than length of gonys . L. pytyopsittacus, p. 88

I Smaller, bill slenderer. Width of lower mandible at
[ base less than length of gonys L. curvirostra, p. 84

LOXIA CURVIROSTRA

33. Loxia curvirostra curvirostra L. — THE COMMON
CROSSBILL.

LOXIA CUBVIKOSTKA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 171 (1758 — Europe.

Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Loxia curvirostra anglica Hartert, Vog. pal. Fauna, I, p. 119 ; id., Brit. B.,

I, p. 209 ; c/. id. op. c., in, p. 194.

Loxia curvirostra Linnaeus, Yarrell, n, p. 187 (part) ; Saunders, p. 201

(part).

DESCRIPTION (Plate 4). — Adult male. Winter. — Crown bright
pink to scarlet-pink with dark brown centres of feathers showing
here and there ; back of neck, mantle, and scapulars not so bright
and with more dark brown showing, especially on scapulars ; back
and rump brighter and more uniform than crown and with no
brown ; upper tail-coverts dark brown, tinged pink ; lores and
round eyes black-brown with buffish tips ; ear-coverts as crown
but upper portions generally more brown ; throat, breast, and
flanks as rump but not quite so bright ; centre of belly dull greyish-
white ; lower flanks and under tail-coverts same but streaked
dark brown and usually tinged pink ; axillaries greyish-white,
fringed pink ; tail-feathers, primaries, and secondaries black-brown
with very narrow pinkish fringes on outer webs ; primary-, greater,
and median coverts same ; lesser coverts dark brown with pink
tips. N.B. — Adult males frequently have a few golden or greenish-
yellow feathers on upper- and under-parts. This plumage is
acquired by complete moult from July to Nov. Summer. — No
moult ; abrasion makes crimson more brilliant. As in Linnets,
Redpolls, and Grosbeaks, the rami only are pink and the radii
grey, and the wearing-off of latter (especially on distal portions
of rami) causes pink rami to become massed together, thus
giving more brilliant effect. Also, as in birds mentioned, crimson
becomes gold or yellow after moulting in captivity. There is
much individual variation in brilliancy both in summer and
winter.

Adult female. Winter. — Crown yellowish-green mottled brown,
feathers being dark brown tipped yellowish-green ' and often on
fore-head with small ashy-grey tips ; nape and back of neck
streaked dark brown and ashy-grey, occasionally tinged green ;

Plate 4.

(HALF NATURAL SIZE.)

Common Crossbill (Loxia c. mrvirostra) Male, female and juveniles

[Face p. 84.]

THE COMMON CROSSBILL. 85

mantle like crown but rather browner ; back and rump bright
and nearly uniform yellowish-green ; upper tail -co verts dark
brown, tinged green ; ear-coverts, cheeks, and sides of neck ashy-
brown, slightly tinged green ; chin and throat ashy-grey, streaked
dark brown and tinged yellowish-green ; breast and flanks yellowish-
green with ashy-brown centres of feathers showing ; centre of
belly greyish-white ; under tail-coverts same, with large dark
brown centres ; axillaries smoke-grey, faintly tinged yellowish ;
tail and wings as in male but with fringes greenish. Summer. —
No moult, and very little change by abrasion, but yellowish-green
becomes slightly brighter on rump though it tends to become
worn off on crown. N.B. — Some specimens are more golden,
less greenish-yellow, and some have a considerable number of
feathers tipped dull pink on upper- and under-parts.

Nestling. — Down, very dark grey ; distribution, inner and
outer supra-orbital, occipital, humeral, spinal, ulnar, femoral,
ventral, and crural. Mouth, inside partly violet-pink, partly
yellow ; no tongue-spots ; externally, flanges pale yellow (C. B.
Ticehurst, Brit. B., rv, p. 71).

Juvenile. Male. — Crown, nape, upper-mantle, ear-coverts
and sides of neck brown-black, streaked whitish, feathers being
edged whitish (a few feathers of crown usually have dull green
edgings) ; rest of mantle, scapulars, and back same, but feathers
edged brownish-green ; rump like crown but more yellowish ;
upper tail-coverts brown-black, tipped brownish-green ; whole of
under-parts dull whitish-grey, heavily streaked brown-black, centre
of belly with fewer streaks, flanks more brownish and with very
broad streaks, some feathers on side of throat and an ill-defined
band at base of throat with yellowish-green edges ; tail as in
adult female ; primaries and secondaries as in adult female, with
greenish fringes, but inner secondaries tipped dull buff ; all wing-
coverts tipped dull buff. Female. — Like juvenile male but
browner and less green on upper-parts, especially mantle, and with
no greenish-yellow feathers on throat and breast. N.B. — The
juvenile is paler, especially on under-parts, when first leaving nest,
but afterwards becomes duller.

First winter and summer. Male. — Varies from greenish-gold
to orange and crimson and a mixture of these colours. Frequently
a varying number of striped juvenile-feathers remain, especially on
breast and belly. Wing- and tail-feathers are fringed greenish
instead of pinkish as in adult, and wing-coverts have buff tips,
but these distinctions become almost lost by abrasion during
summer. Most of the juvenile body-feathers are moulted from
May to Oct. but not remiges, rectrices, primary-coverts, and most
greater and median coverts. N.B. — In this plumage there is
great individual variation, ranging from a bird indistinguishable
from adult male except for wings and tail, to one resembling
a very bright yellow female. Female. — Like adult female

86 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

except for buff tips to wing-coverts and sometimes a few
striped juvenile-feathers.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 95-100 mm., tail 54-60,
tarsus 15-18, bill depth at base 10.5-12, length of upper mandible
from feathers 16.5-20 (20 measured). $ wing 91-98. Primaries :
1st minute and hidden, 2nd and 3rd longest and about equal,
4th 2 mm. shorter, 5th 7 shorter, 6th 17 shorter ; 3rd to
5th emarginated outer webs. Longest secondaries between 8th
and 9th primaries. Tail deeply forked. Small, bristle-like feathers
cover nostrils and at gape. Bill massive, mandibles at tips crossed
and much curved, lower mandible upwards and upper downwards,
sharply pointed and with scissor-like cutting-edges. Upper
mandible longer than under. Crossing may be in either direction.
In nestlings and for a week or two after leaving nest, mandibles
are not crossed, upper being hooked and slightly longer than lower.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs, feet, and iris dark brown, with a
yellowish mark along cutting-edges of mandibles. Nestling's bill
before it is crossed is pale yellowish towards tip.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — For differences of L. c. scotica,
see under that form ; other forms differ chiefly in size and shape
of bill, and in general measurements, but little in coloration.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Being usually possible, owing to its tameness,
to examine it at close quarters, crossed mandibles, varying plumages
due to age and sex, and its Parrot-like postures are easily recog-
nisable. Cannot be satisfactorily distinguished in field from
Scottish or Parrot-Crossbill, but absence ot double white wing-bars
separates it at all ages from Two-barred Crossbill. Flight rapid
and undulating. Call-note a loud incisive " gyp, gyp," uttered
on wing as well as from perch. Conifers are largely resorted to
for sake of their seeds, and the birds, which are very gregarious,
often keep up a subdued chatter, inaudible at any distance, whilst
feeding. Song, a low warble ; has been likened to that of Starling.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Haunts coniferous woods, frequently nesting
in clumps or belts of Scots firs, not as a rule in thickest part, but
by preference on outskirts of forest. Nests at varying heights,
sometimes not more than 6 ft. from ground. Nest. — Charac-
teristic : strong foundation of fir-twigs, with superstructure of
grasses, wool, etc., lined grass, rabbit's fur, hair, feathers, etc. ;
somewhat flattened in shape. Eggs. — Usually 4, sometimes 3
only, rarely 5. Ground greenish-white (sometimes faint reddish
flush) with few bold spots and streaks of purple-red, sometimes
blackish, generally at big end ; in some cases markings faint.
Average of 25 Norfolk eggs 22.32 x 16.06 mm. Breeding-season.
— Irregular : some laying Jan. and Feb., mostly March and
early April ; sometimes also June and July. Incubation. —
Lasts 12 days ; apparently performed by hen only. Sometimes
double brooded.

THE SCOTTISH CROSSBILL. 87

FOOD. — Normally seeds of cones of Scots fir and other conifers,
but also apple-pips, rowan berries, buds, aphides, caterpillars, etc.
DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. — Late summer - immigrant
arriving mid - June to August. Regular in some districts, but
irregular in most, and especially so in north-west and south-west
England and in Wales. Periodically (every three to ten years)
arrives in great numbers and becomes much more generally distri-
buted and frequently stays over following spring and into summer.
Most nesting-records in springs immediately following "irruptions."
Has nested in following counties ; dates within square brackets
refer to probable but not positive records : — Devon, 1839, 1894.
Somerset, 1910. Hants., 1839, 1858, 1877, 1892, 1910, 1912-14.
Berks., 1882, 1889 [1898], 1899, 1910. Sussex, 1791, 1840, 1910.
Surrey [1899], 1910. Kent [1833], [1839], [1894], 1910, 1911.
Herts., 1907. Bucks., 1910. Gloucester, 1839, 1910. Oxon.
[1839]. Leicester, 1839. Staffs., 1910. Hereford [1895]. Salop,
1880, [1895], [1896], 1898, 1913. Northants., 1892, 1904. Beds.
[1899], 1910, 1913. Essex, 1910. Suffolk, 1815, 1822, 1885,
1889, 1910-14. Norfolk, 1829, 1887, 1889, 1890, 1910-13. Lines.
[1910]. Yorks., 1829, 1840, [1855], 1872, 1876, 1902. Durham,

1838, 1856. Cumberland, 1839, 1856, [1865]. Northumberland
[1821], 1838, 1869, 1889. Cheviot Hills, 1898. Carnarvon, 1890
or 1891. Montgomery, 1880. Merioneth [1897]. Scotland —
Late summer-immigrant as in England, but apparently not so
regular ; subject to similar irruptions, appearing in numbers even
in far northern and western isles. Breeds sporadically and rarely
in south Scotland, and possibly also in territory of Loxia c. scotica,
but proof so far wanting. Has nested Ayr, 1864, [1884]. Dumfries
[1838-9], 1888. Kincardine, 1903. Linlithgow, 1839. Stirling,

1839. Ireland. — Now resident but not indigenous. Apparently
only migrates to Ireland in years of " irruptions." Following
irruption of 1838 bred Tipperary and has since ; in 1867 Kildare ;
since 1868 has settled Fermanagh ; since 1881 King's ; between
1883 and 1895 Westmeath. Following irruption of 1887-8,
increased and bred more widely, and is now established (with
fluctuations) in plantations of conifers in each province.
DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe generally and north Asia, but
represented by closely-allied forms in Spain, the Balearic Isles,
north-west Africa, Cyprus, Caucasus, Crimea, central Asia and
Himalayas to Japan and North America. More or less nomadic,
in certain years migratory and spreading in great numbers west-
wards and southwards.

34. Loxia curvirostra scotica Hart. — THE SCOTTISH
CROSSBILL.

LOXIA CURVIROSTRA SCOTICA Hartert, Vog. pal. Fauna, i, p. 120 (1904

—Scotland), id., Brit. B., i, p. 211.

Loxia curvirostra Linnseus.Yarrell, n, p. 187 (part); Saunders, p. 201 (part).

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

A. Common Crossbill (Loxia c. curvirostra) adult. B. Nestling. C. Scottish Crossbill
(L. c. scotica) . D. Parrot-Crossbill (L. pvlyopsiitacus).

DESCRIPTION. — Like Loxia c. curvirostra but with more massive,
deeper, and usually blunter bill, especially in male, but this differ-
ence noticeable even in juvenile. Average wing-measurement also
larger. Intermediate between L. c. curvirostra and L. pytyopsittacus,
and if it should be proved that L. c. curvirostra also breeds
in the Highlands this bird should be considered as a form of
L. pytyopsittacus.

Measurements. — ^ wing 96-103 mm., tail 55-62, tarsus 17-19,
bill depth at base 12-14, length of upper mandible from feathers
17-19 (10 measured). $ wing 94-98. Tips of mandibles and
especially upper one are thicker and blunter, and not so elongated
as in typical form.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Similar to those of Common Crossbill, but
perhaps more frequently nesting in larches. Eggs also similar
in character, 7 eggs once recorded. Average of 100 eggs,
21.24 X 15.91 mm. Breeding-season. — From Feb. to April, and
sometimes again in June ; most eggs found early in March.

DISTRIBUTION. — Confined to Scotland. — Resident in north Scotland,
breeding from south-east Sutherland, throughout Moray Basin
south to Dunkeld (Perth), west to Loch Maree (west Ross), and
east to Huntley (Banff). Has occurred sporadically in whiter in
very small numbers in Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, and Fife, but
apparently not a regular migrant from data available.

LOXIA PYTYOPSITTACUS

35. Loxia pytyopsittacus Borkh.— THE PARROT-CROSSBILL.

LOXIA PYTYOPSITTACUS Borkhausen, Rheinisches Magazin, i, p. 139
(1793 — Substituted typical locality : Sweden ; c/. Hartert, Vog. pal.
Fauna, i, p. 122).

Loxia pityopaittacus Bechstein, Yarrell, n, p. 207 ; Saunders, p. 202
(in text).

THE TWO-BARRED CROSSBILL. 89

DESCRIPTION. — Like Loxia c. scotica but still larger, wing being
longer and bill deeper, broader, and longer.

Measurements. — <J wing 98-110 mm., tail 57-66, tarsus 18-19,
bill depth at base 14-15.5, length of upper mandible from
feathers 19-21 (13 measured). $ wing 99-106.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Haunts pine-forests, generally apart from
Common Crossbill, and much less numerous. Nest. — Similar in
character, rather more substantial, of grasses, pine-needles, and
mosses on foundation of twigs, and warmly lined grasses, bark-
strips, lichens, feathers, etc. Eggs. — 3-4, rarely 5, larger on
average than Common Crossbill's, with generally bolder and
blacker markings, otherwise very similar. Average of 100 eggs,
22.31 X 16.5 mm. Breeding-season. — Variable, eggs found from
Dec. to June. In Scandinavia generally March or April.
Incubation. — Stated as 14-15 days, but confirmation required.
Probably sometimes double-brooded.

FOOD. — Chiefly seeds of various species of pine.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Rare vagrant. A good many re-
corded, but some at least (especially from Scotland) may be
referable to L. c. scotica. The following examined by us are of
this species : near Plumstead (Kent) Jan., 1868 ; Southgate
(Middlesex) Nov., 1864.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — North Europe (Scandinavia and north
Russia to Poland). Like other Crossbills, somewhat nomadic, and
known to have nested in Germany and probably also in other
parts of central Europe.

LOXIA LEUCOPTERA

36 . Loxia leucoptera bif asciata (Brehm)— THE TWO-BARRED
CROSSBILL.

CRUCIROSTRA BIF ASCIATA Brehm, Ornis, in, p. 85 (1827 — Thuringia and

Vienna).

Loxia bif asciata (C. L. Brehm), Yarrell, n, p. 211 ; Saunders, p. 203.

Two-barred Crossbill Loxia I. bif asciata) .

90 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Like that of L. c. curvirostra
but pink everywhere more brilliant and more uniform ; tail fringed
white on outer and inner webs and tips, with pink tinge on outer
webs ; primaries and secondaries narrowly fringed pinkish-white
on outer webs, and narrowly (four inner secondaries broadly)
tipped white ; primary-coverts as primaries ; greater coverts
broadly tipped white with pink tinge (innermost feathers with
distal half white) ; median coverts white, with only bases dark
brown ; lesser coverts tipped pinkish-white or pink. This plumage
is acquired by complete moult in autumn. Summer. — Abrasion
makes carmine still more brilliant ; fringes of tail and wings gradu-
ally wear off, and white of wing-coverts becomes much reduced
by wear.

Adult female. Winter and summer. — Like that of L. c.
curvirostra but rump paler and brighter yellow, not so greenish ;
feathers of crown and mantle with paler fringes and darker
centres, giving rather more streaked appearance, especially in
worn summer -plumage ; throat- and breast-feathers with dark
brown centres ; upper tail-coverts tipped yellowish-white ; tail-
and wing-feathers and wing-coverts like those of male but tinged
yellow instead of pink.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like that of L. c. curvirostra but tail- and wing-
feathers fringed yellowish - white as in adult female ; inner
secondaries, greater and median coverts, with rather smaller
white tips than in adults.

First urinter and summer. Male. — As in L. c. curvirostra — a
mixture of crimson and yellow but colours paler and brighter ;
mantle and scapulars dark brown, tipped crimson or yellow ;
fringes of tail- and wing -feathers yellowish ; tips of inner secondaries
and greater coverts smaller than in adult, and tinged yellow
instead of pink. The juvenile body-feathers, median and lesser
wing-coverts, are moulted in autumn but not remiges or rectrices
and not apparently greater coverts.

Measurements and' structure. — <$ wing 87-99 mm., tail 57-66,
tarsus 15-17, bill depth at base 10-11, length of upper mandible
from feathers 16-17 (10 measured). $ wing 85-91. Primaries :
1st minute and hidden, 3rd longest, 2nd and 4th sometimes as long
but usually 1-3 mm. shorter, 5th 4-6 shorter, 6th 14-17 shorter ;
3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs. Longest secondaries between
9th and 10th primaries. Bill like L. c. curvirostra but finer, and
tips usually more elongated and sharper.

Soft parts. — Like L. c. curvirostra.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Double white wing-bar dis-
tinguishes at glance all forms of L. leucoptera from all forms of
L. curvirostra at all ages. L. I. elegans (Siberia) is doubtfully
distinct as more brilliant form of Scandinavian bird, L. L leucoptera

THE AMERICAN WHITE- WINGED CROSSBILL. 91

(North America) has smaller and finer bill (depth at base 7-9), is
generally smaller, and brown of tail, wings, scapulars and mantle
is considerably darker — almost black.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in coniferous forests. Nest. — Said to
be smaller and slighter than Common Crossbill's, but built in
similar way : foundation of fir-twigs and nest of grasses, lichens,
moss, and dead leaves, lined roots, lichens, feathers, etc. Eggs. —
3-4, occasionally 5. Reliable information still unobtainable and
eggs ascribed show extraordinary variation. Generally only marked
with few bold spots of very dark purplish on greenish-white ground.
Eggs described as averaging 20.8 X 14.7 and 23.52 X 16.6 mm.,
but hardly possible that both can be correct. Breeding-season. —
From late March to end June, possibly two broods sometimes
reared. Incubation. — No details.

FOOD. — Chiefly seeds from cones of various pines, spruces, firs, etc.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Rare vagrant. A good many
recorded from various parts England, but mostly on eastern side ;
in some years (e.g. 1845-6, and autumn 1889) a number together.
About eleven authentic records Scotland, and three Ireland.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Forests of north European Russia (and
probably west Siberia), more or less irregularly spreading south-
westwards at various times of the year. In Siberia a doubtful
subspecies.

[Loxia leucoptera leucoptera Gm.— THE AMERICAN WHITE-
WINGED CROSSBILL.

LOXIA LETTCOPTERA Gmelin, Syst. Nat.j, 2, p. 844 (1789 — North America).
Loxia leucoptera J. F. Gmelin, Yarrell, n, p. 218 ; Saunders, p. 204
(in text).

DESCRIPTION. — See under " Characters and Allied Forms " above.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Several recorded occurrences are
dealt with by Saunders and in Yarrell, and there are others, but
it is doubtful if it has occurred in a truly wild state.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Northern North America. In winter
southwards, irregularly as far as North Carolina, Indiana, Illinois,
Kansas, Colorado, Nevada. Occurs south and east Greenland.
Said to have been procured on Heligoland.]

Genus FRINGILLA L.

FKINGILLA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 179 (1758 — Type by
subsequent designation — Gray 1840 — F. ccelebs ; according to Opinion 16
Intern. Comm. Nomencl. also by tautonymy).

Bill hard, somewhat long, culmen straight, bulging slightly

92 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

on sides, sharp-pointed ; nostrils near base, oval, mostly hidden by
frontal plumes. First three or 2nd to 4th obvious primaries about
equal and longest. Sexes differ in coloration ; young very much
like females. Europe, north-west Africa, Madeira, Canaries, Azores,
north Asia.

Key to species of genus FRINGILLA.

Outer tail-feathers with much white, rump greenish

in adults, also with green tinge in juvenile . . F. coeleba, p. 92

Outer tail-feathers with very narrow white fringes,
rump white in adults, slaty, more or less spotted
with white in juvenile ... F. montifringilla, p. 95

FRINGILLA CCELEBS

37. Fringilla coelebs ccelebs L.— THE CHAFFINCH.

FRINGILLA COELEBS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat.,ed. x, i, p. 179 (1758 — "Europa."

Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Fringilla caelebs gengleri Kleinschmidt, Falco, v, p. 13 (1909 — England.

Typical locality : Hampstead).

Fringilla coeleba Linnaeus, Yarrell, n, p. 68 ; Saunders, p. 183.

Chaffinch (Fringilla c. ccelebt). c?

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head black, feathers
tipped buff ; crown, nape, hind-neck, and upper-mantle grey-blue,
more or less washed reddish-buff ; very narrow line yellowish-green
below grey -blue, rest of mantle chestnut-brown; back and rump
yellowish-green; upper tail-coverts blue-grey, tinged buff and
green, and smaller coverts marked black ; lores, b'ne over
eyes, ear-coverts, and cheeks pinkish-chestnut ; chin, throat,
breast, and flanks pearly-pink to brownish-pink ; lower-flanks
generally washed greenish-buff ; centre of belly white ; vent
and under tail-coverts creamy ; axillaries white ; tail-feathers :
central pair slate-grey, fringed green, rest black, inner ones
fringed green, outer pair mostly white with slanting black
mark on outer part of distal half and on inner web at base,
next pair same but more black at base (amount of black varies

THE CHAFFINCH. 93

individually), next pair sometimes with, but often without, white
mark on tip of inner web ; primaries and secondaries brown-black,
fringed on outer webs greenish-yellow, and on inner wrhite and
with basal portions yellowish- white, showing as narrow band
below coverts except in 2nd, 3rd, and 4th primaries, which have
no white at base of outer webs, two innermost secondaries without
white and fringed greenish-buff ; greater coverts black, fringed and
broadly tipped yellowish- white ; median and lower lesser coverts
white ; remaining lesser coverts blue-grey marked black. This plum-
age is acquired by complete moult commencing July and sometimes
June. Summer. — No moult, but feathers here and there on
body often renewed in spring. By abrasion (varying individually)
fore-head becomes black, crown and neck pure grey-blue, mantle
more chestnut, tips of greater coverts smaller and purer white,
and greenish -buff edges of inner secondaries wear off.

Adult female. Winter. — Fore-head, crown, nape, and mantle
yellowish -brown, more greyish-brown on centre of crown and
nape ; back and rump yellowish -green ; upper tail-coverts yellowish-
brown ; ear-coverts, sides of neck, and flanks greyish-brown ; breast
same, but paler and often tinged pinkish ; chin, centre of throat,
belly, and under tail-coverts paler whitish-grey, tinged brown ;
tail and wings as in male but browner, and white not so pure ;
lesser and median coverts less white and greater coverts more
buff. Summer. — No moult but occasional feathers renewed as
in male. By abrasion, crown and nape become more slate-grey,
less brown, and under-parts greyer, less brownish (some individuals
show considerable amount of brownish -pink on breast).

Nestling. — Down, greyish ; distribution, inner and outer
supra-orbital, occipital, humeral, spinal, ulnar, femoral, ventral,
and crural. Mouth, inside violet-red, but hard palate orange,
no tongue-spots, externally flanges white (C. B. Ticehurst,
Brit. B., n, p. 192).

Juvenile. — Much resembling adult female in winter but with
greyish- white nuchal spot ; back brown, not green ; rump brownish-
green ; under-parts paler and tinged yellowish rather than brownish.
Male differs from female in having mantle tinged chestnut-brown,
ear-coverts buff, less yellowish-brown, tail-feathers and primaries
and secondaries as in adult, wing-coverts whiter.

first winter. Male and female. — Like adults. The juvenile
body-feathers and wing-coverts are completely moulted in July
to Sept., but not remiges, primary-coverts, and rectrices.

Measurements and structure. — <£ wing 82-90 mm., tail 57-65,
tarsus 14-18, bill from skull 13-15 (12 measured). $ wing 78-85.
Primaries : 1st minute, 3rd and 4th equal and longest, 5th generally
a shade shorter, 2nd 3-4 mm. shorter, 6th 5-7 shorter ; 3rd to
6th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries equal 10th primary, tips
square, slightly notched. Tail slightly forked. Bill thick, tapering
to sharp point. A few short nasal and rictal bristles.

94 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Soft parts. — Bill lead-blue, dark tip and whitish under lower
mandible (<$ summer), whitish -brown with dark tip (^ winter),
brown, paler under ($ and juvenile) ; legs and feet pale brown ;
iris brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Males of F. c. spodiogenys
(Tunis), F. c. africana (Algeria, southern Marocco), and F. c.
kcenigi (north Marocco) differ from typical form in having green
mantles, while males of the forms in Canaries, Madeira, and Azores
have slate-blue mantles, but females of all these forms much
resemble those of typical form. White tail-feathers and white
double wing-bars are distinctive specific characters.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Its lively yet confiding disposition renders
it easy to appreciate distinctive characters of plumage at short
range. In flight, which is markedly undulating, both sexes, but
male especially, appear to have white shoulders, and white patches
on outer tail-feathers are conspicuous. Usual call-note " pink,
pink," but in spring male has another cry, a clear, loud " whit " ;
and during breeding - season both sexes utter a Sparrow-like
" chissick." In winter Chaffinches flock, often with Bramb lings,
Greenfinches, Sparrows, and Yellowhammers. At this season they
utter a soft " tsup, tsup " when taking flight. Rattling song is
happily rendered : " In another month will come a Wheatear."

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds in hedge-rows, gardens, and small
trees, as a rule, generally at no great height. Nest. — Grasses,
roots, wool, moss, etc., decorated externally with lichens, some-
times fragments of birch-bark or paper, neatly lined hair and
sometimes a feather or two. Well and compactly built ; lichens
fastened together by spiders' webs. Eggs. — Usually 4-5, occa-
sionally 6, 7 also recorded. Ground-colour generally greenish to
brownish stone-colour, exceptionally ranging into clear blue or
light olive, with spots and streaks of very dark purplish-brown,
spots usually with a " penumbra." Some have only light brown
cloudings, others are unmarked or have a few black streaks and
spots. Average of 100 eggs, 19.3 X 14.6 mm. Breeding-season. —
Begins mid-April (exceptionally earlier), most eggs laid May ;
usually second brood late in May or June. Incubation. — Lasts
usually 12 days, but said to vary from 11 to 14 days. Chiefly
performed by hen; male said also to take part.

FOOD. — Insects (lepidoptera and larvae, larvse of hymenoptera,
aphides, orthoptera, and small coleoptera) : fruit-buds, fruit, corn,
and weeds of many species as well as garden-seeds and seedlings.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Resident. Abundant and widely
distributed, nesting in Orkneys but not Shetlands, nor probably
0. Hebrides, where only a visitor.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Our residents flock in winter and

THE BRAMBLING. 95

move about the country, but there is little evidence that they
emigrate. Large flocks arrive from the Continent on east coast
Great Britain, third week Sept. to mid-No v., occasionally from
first week Sept. Many continue westward and spread inland,
wrhile some perhaps pass south, as emigratory or passage move-
ments are noted south coast third week Oct. to mid-Nov., extremes
Oct. 4 to Nov. 25. Return movements occur south coast third
week March to early April, and on east coast third week March
to mid-May, extremes March 8 to May 17. Passage movements
noted west coast third week Sept. to second week Nov., mid-March
to early April. Winter passage movements on all three coasts
occasionally in Jan. and Feb. A diminution in Sept. and an
increase in Oct. and Nov. have been noticed in Ireland.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe generally, western parts of Asia.
In winter in north Africa. Replaced by supposed closely-allied
forms in Corsica and Balearic Isles, and by very different races
(generally looked upon as " good species ") in north-west Africa,
Canaries, Madeira, and Azores.

FRINGILLA MONTIFRINGILLA

38. Fringilla montifringilla L.— THE BRAMBLING.

FRINGILLA MONTIFRINGILLA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 179
(1758 — " Habitat in Europa." Restricted typical locality : Sweden).
Fringilla montifringilla Linnaeus, Yarrell, n, p. 75 ; Saunders, p. 185.

Brambling (Fringilla montifringtila) .

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Top and sides of head,
neck, and mantle glossy blue-black, partially obscured by buff
fringes ; patch of whitish-grey in middle of nape and sides of neck
greyer ; feathers of mantle with pale grey bases often showing
here and there ; scapulars chestnut-buff, with black bases ; middle
of back white and of rump buff, sides of back and rump black ;
upper tail-coverts black, with long buff tips; throat and breast
chestnut-buff (of varying intensity) ; flanks paler and spotted
black ; belly white ; under tail-coverts pale buff ; axillaries white
and bright lemon-yellow ; tail-feathers black, narrowly edged
yellowish, central pair mostly grey, tipped buff and edged yellowish,

96 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

outer pair white at base of outer and at tip of inner webs, and
with white or whitish diagonal central streak (of varying size) at
base ; wing-feathers black, with distal halves of outer webs fringed
yellowish and basal parts of inner webs fringed white, with band
of white showing below coverts on outer webs of 4th to 10th
primaries ; inner secondaries tipped and edged chestnut-buff ;
primary-coverts black, edged buff ; greater coverts black, outer
ones edged and tipped whitish and inner chestnut-buff ; median
coverts whitish-buff ; lesser coverts bright orange-buff, with
black bases. This plumage is acquired by complete moult in
Aug. -Sept. Summer. — No moult but abrasion produces remark-
able change on upper-parts. In much worn examples (June and
July) whole head becomes glossy blue-black, nape marked grey,
mantle blue-black, wings and tail black, with scarcely any
edgings, remains of tips of greater coverts and median coverts
nearly white, lesser coverts and scapulars more yellow and
paler than winter, buff on throat, breast, flanks, and under
tail-coverts much paler. N.B. — The effect of abrasion begins to
show generally in Feb. or March, but individual variation is
considerable.

Adult female. Winter. — Like male, but duller and with no
blue-black, dark portions of feathers of crown and mantle being
brown-black ; ear-coverts greyish-brown ; sides of neck and centre
of nape greyer than male ; scapulars and lesser wing-coverts
especially with smaller and duller chestnut-buff tips ; throat and
breast paler than male. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion pro-
duces little change compared to male, but upper-parts (especially
crown) become more uniform brown-black by wearing off of
buff tips.

Nestling. — Down, white ; distribution, inner and outer supra-
orbital, occipital, humeral, spinal, ulnar, ventral, femoral, and
crural (C. B. Ticehurst, Brit. B., n, p. 193).

Juvenile. — Closely resembling female but rump and belly
tinged yellow, greater and median coverts black-brown, with
buffish-white tips.

First winter and summer. Male and female. — Apparently like
adults. The juvenile body -feathers and wing-coverts are moulted
in Aug.-Sept., but not primary-coverts, wing- or tail-feathers.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 89-94 mm., tail 55-62,
tarsus 17-19, bill from feathers 11-13 (14 measured). $ wing
83-89. Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 3rd longest, 4th often
equal but usually 1-2 mm. shorter and equal to 2nd, 5th 3-4 shorter,
6th 12-14 shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries
about equal 9th primary, tips square, slightly notched. Tail
rather deeply forked. Bill thick, tapering gradually to point.
Good many short nasal and rictal bristles.

Soft parts. — Bill blue-black (summer), yellow with black tip
(winter) ; legs and feet brownish-flesh ; iris brown.

THE BRAMBLING. 97

CHARACTERS. — No subspecies recognized. White rump, chestnut-
buff wing-coverts, and yellow axillaries are distinctive.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Tortoise -shell coloured plumage is distinctive,
and renders it easily distinguishable from Chaffinch, with which
it consorts, especially in beech- woods, or hi mixed flocks of Green-
finches, Sparrows, and Chaffinches in stackyard or stubble. In
flight greyish-white rump is diagnostic. A low trilling chorus
which Bramblings maintain can only be heard at close quarters,
but call-note, a harsh " scape," is audible at considerable distance.
True song seldom if ever heard in this country, but in April, just
before leaving, males utter a hoarse wheezing note, similar to,
but coarser than Greenfinch's " dwee."

Brambling, from above.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Similar to Chaffinch's, nesting in birch-woods
and outskirts of coniferous forests, and building usually from
5 to 10 ft. from ground. Nest. — Rather larger and less finished
than Chaffinch's, of grasses, bents, etc., generally decorated bits
of birch-bark and lichens, lined hair, feathers, and sometimes
down. Eggs. — 5 to 7, but 8 have been found. Much same
types of colour and markings as Chaffinch's, ranging from clear
blue to deep brownish-olive, but often darker and greener than
normal Chaffinch's eggs and similarly marked. Average of 100
eggs, 19.5 X 14.6 mm. Breeding-season. — Mid-May to early June
or even July, according to latitude. Incubation. — Probably
similar to Chaffinch's, but exact data lacking ; chiefly, at any rate,
performed by female. Probably single-brooded.

FOOD. — Insects ; seeds of knot-grass and other weeds, beech-mast,
nuts, and wheat.

DISTRIBUTION and MIGRATIONS. — England and Wales. — Winter-
visitor, arriving north-east and east coasts England fourth week
Sept. to second week Nov., extremes Sept. 5 to Nov. 19, in varying
numbers, according to severity of weather. In south and west
England and in Wales its numbers are still more dependent upon
weather-conditions, as well as supply of beech-mast. In some
years does not occur hi extreme south-west and west. Most
return March, but many stay until April, and occasionally to May,
and exceptionally June (Yorks., June 30, 1907). Emigration

98

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

sometimes noted south-coast mid-Oct. to mid -Nov., and very
occasionally immigration April, but such passage-movements do
not appear to be regular. Scotland. — "Numbers greatly influenced
by weather-conditions, and most regular and abundant in south-
east ; in south-west and north-east more irregular, but sometimes
occurring in large numbers ; in north-west and 0. Hebrides much
scarcer ; in Shetlands, Orkneys and Fair Isle fairly regular autumn
and spring. Late dates : Dumfries, May 10, 1895 ; Fair Isle.
May 20, 1909 ; Shetland, July 4, 1915. Reported to have nested
in Scotland. Ireland. — In varying numbers to all quarters, but
rare in west. Late date : Down, June 13, 1910.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Subarctic forests of Old World, in
Europe in northern Scandinavia and north Russia, in winter all
over Europe and northern parts of Asia. An eastern form has
been described, but does not appear to be separable.

Genus MONTIFRINGILLA Brehm.

MONTIFRINGILLA Brehm, Isis, 1828, p. 1277 (Type by monotypy :
M. nivalia, the two species mentioned by Brehm being one and the same).

Wing longer than in Fringilla, distance from secondaries to
tip of primaries greater. First three or two visible primaries
longest and almost equal. Inhabitants of mountains. One species
in Europe, a number in north and central Asia, and North America.

MONTIFRINGILLA NIVALIS

39. Montifringilla nivalis nivalis (L.)— THE SNOW-FINCH.

FRINGILLA NIVALIS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. xii, i, p. 321 (1766 —
" Habitat in America." Errore ! As typical locality accepted :
Switzerland; cf. Hartert, Vog. pal. Fauna, i, p. 132).
Montifringilla nivalis (Linn.), M. J. Nicoll, Bull. B.O.C., xv, p. 58 ;
Saunders, Brit. B., i, p. 13.

nowflnch (Montifringilla n. nivalis) <$ adult.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head creamy- white ;
crown, ear-coverts, nape, and back of neck bluish-grey, tinged
brownish-buff ; mantle, scapulars, and back dark brown, feathers
tipped huffish ; rump and upper tail-coverts black, feathers narrowly
tipped white or buffish-grey, and some partially white ; sides of

THE SNOW-FINCH. 99

neck ashy-grey, tinged buff ; chin and inconspicuous malar stripe
creamy-white ; centre of throat black, somewhat concealed by
long white tips; rest of under-parts creamy-white; under tail-
coverts tipped brownish ; axillaries pure white ; tail-feathers,
central pair black, fringed buffish-white, next pair white, tipped
black and with black shaft-streak at base, rest white, narrowly
tipped and with concealed bases black, except outermost which
has no black ; first six visible primaries black, very narrowly
fringed and tipped brownish- white, 7th with some white on inner
web, 8th mostly white on inner web, 9th white with base black ;
secondaries, greater and median coverts white, with black bases
except innermost which are blackish-brown, fringed and tipped
white and buff ; lesser coverts white, tipped blackish at point
of wing ; bastard-wing black ; primary-coverts white, tipped
black. This plumage is acquired by complete moult in autumn.
Summer. — Some feathers of throat are renewed in March, other-
wise no moult. Abrasion of tips of feathers makes throat blacker,
under-parts whiter, head pure bluish-grey, mantle darker brown,
creamy-white fore-head and malar stripes more distinct.

Adult female. — Like male but head browner, not so grey ;
sides of neck buffer ; black of throat less extensive and not so
intense, and when freshly moulted almost entirely concealed by
whitish tips ; rump, upper tail-coverts, and black feathers of
wings and tail browner than in male ; white of primary-coverts
and pair of tail-feathers next to central much more restricted
than in male ; lesser coverts at point of wing tipped brown.
Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Much like adult female but crown and nape
browner ; mantle duller brown ; rump and upper tail-coverts
brownish ; throat ashy-grey, only bases of feathers blackish ;
9th (visible) primary and secondaries marked black mostly on
outer webs, and fringed pale buff on distal half of outer webs ;
innermost secondaries, greater, median, and lesser wing-coverts
as adult ; primary-coverts dark brown ; tail, central pair blackish-
brown, fringed buff, next pair same, with small white mark on
inner web, rest white, fringed buff, tipped and mesially marked
black, except outer pair which is almost pure white.

First winter and summer. Male and female. — Like adults.
The juvenile-plumage is completely (including wings and tail)
moulted in autumn.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 118-126 mm., tail 68-76.
tarsus 22-23, bill from skull 13-14 (12 measured). $ wing 115-120.'
Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 2nd and 3rd about equal and
longest, 4th 3-5 mm. shorter, 6th 14-17 shorter ; 3rd and 4th
emarginated outer webs. Secondaries between 8th and 10th
primaries, tips square and notched. Tail almost square. Bill
thick, tapering gradually to point. A few minute rictal bristles
and very short bristle-like feathers almost covering nostrils.

H 2

100 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Soft parts. — Bill yellow with dark tip (winter adult and juv.),
black with base of lower mandible usually deep yellow (summer) ;
legs and feet black ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — M. n. alpicola (Caucasus, Persia,
Afghanistan) has paler mantle and browner head, M. n. adamsi
(Himalayas, Kashgar) has browner, not so white secondaries and
wing-coverts. Some resemblance to Snow-Bunting but larger size,
grey head, and black throat at once distinguish it.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in high alpine districts in crannies of
rocks, but where buildings exist will build in holes in walls or
under eaves. Nest. — Bulky, built of dead grasses and moss,
mixed with leaves, hair, feathers, etc., warmly lined feathers and
hair. Eggs. — 4 to 5, rarely 6 ; pure white, without gloss, and
rather delicate. Average of 62 eggs, 23.42 X 16.96 mm.
Breeding-season. — Begins in Alps end April or early May, while
second brood may be found about end June (Fatio), but others
have found first eggs about beginning June or even later.
Incubation. — Period not known, nor whether male assists hen.

FOOD. — Insects (small coleoptera, orthoptera, etc.) ; seeds of
coniferous trees and alpine plants.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Three times. Male, Rye Harbour
(Sussex), Feb. 22, 1905 (vide supra). Two, Paddock Wood (Kent),
Dec. 28, 1906, with a flock of four or five " similar-looking " birds
(N. F. Ticehurst, Brit. B., I, p. 189). Three, Rye, Feb. 28, 1916
(J. B. Nichols, op. c., xn, p. 66).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — High elevations in the Alps, Pyrenees,
Sieira Nevada (Spain), north Apennines, rare in south-east Europe
but breeding in Montenegro and Greece. Allied forms in Asia.

Genus PASSER Briss.

PASSEB Brisson, Orn. I, p. 36 (1760 — Type Passer domesticus, the passer
of Gessner, Aldrovandi, etc., by subsequent designation).

Bill shorter than head, heavy, clumsy; culmen slightly
curved ; large nostrils nearly hidden by frontal feathering. First
three visible primaries about equal and longest, fourth little
shorter ; first a little more developed than in most other
Fringillidce, but not noticeable unless searched for. Wings broad,
distance from end of secondaries to tip of primaries short. Tail
about three-fourths of wing or more, square at end. Sexes either
very different or alike ; young like female. Europe, Africa, and
Asia ; introduced into America, Australia, New Zealand and
elsewhere.

Key to species of genus PASSER.

Sides of head white with black patch ... P. montanus, p. 104
Sides of head pale ashy-brown . . . . P. domesticus, p. 101

THE HOUSE-SPARROW. 101

PASSER DOMESTICUS

40. Passer domesticus domesticus (L.) — THE HOUSE-
SPARROW.

FEINGILLA DOMESTICA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 183 (1758 —
" Europa." Restricted typical locality : Sweden).
Passer domesticus (Linnaeus), Yarrell, n, p. 89 ; Saunders, p. 179.
Passer hostilis Kleinschmidt, Falco 1915, p. 19. (Type : Tring, Herts.)*

House-Sparrow (Passer d. domesticus) <? adult. Tree-Sparrow (Passer m. momanus).

DESCRIPTION. — Adult 'male. Winter. — Fore-head, crown, and nape
grey, with varying amount of buff tinge (occasionally some chestnut
on fore-head) ; streak behind eyes joining patch on sides of neck
and continuing as a band round back of neck chestnut, much
concealed (especially on back of neck) by huffish fringes ; mantle
and scapulars broadly streaked black, chestnut and buff ; back,
rump, and upper tail-coverts much like crown but more brownish,
not so grey ; lores and line under eyes black ; ear-coverts smoke-
grey ; sides of neck greyish-white, tinged buff ; chin, throat, and
centre of upper-breast black, partially concealed on throat and
breast by whitish fringes (frequently some chestnut amongst
black, very occasionally as much chestnut as blackt) ; rest of breast
and belly dull white, faintly tinged buff, and with very faint dark
shaft-streaks ; flanks dull grey, washed buff ; under tail-coverts
huffish-white, with brownish-grey centres ; axillaries white ; tail-
feathers black-brown, fringed buff ; primaries black -brown, fringed
chestnut-buff on outer and white on inner webs ; secondaries
same, but innermost broadly fringed both webs, and tipped

* The only distinguishing character given by Pastor Kleinschmidt is size.
The wings of 90 British males measure 72-81 mm., average 76.2 and of 50
Continental males 75-82, average 78.9. The Continental House-Sparrow
thus averages larger than the British, but of the 90 British measured by us
only 17, or about 19 per cent., could be distinguished by their size. We,
therefore, cannot recognize P. d. hostilis. The subject has been previously
discussed by Mr. E. Stresemann, Bull. B.O.C., xxxin, pp. 47-9. — H.F.W.

f Chestnut on throat may be found in first-winter birds as well as adults,
and is not connected with age.

102 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

chestnut-buff ; greater coverts as inner secondaries but fringes
rather deeper chestnut ; median coverts black at base, with long
buffish-white tips forming wing-bar ; lesser wing-coverts chestnut.
This plumage is acquired by complete moult in Aug.-Oct.
Summer. — No moult. Abrasion of buff fringes makes crown and
nape pure French -grey, back and rump greyer but always browner
than crown, mantle brighter, chestnut behind eye and on sides
and back of neck more uniform, brighter and more extensive,
ear-coverts, sides of neck and greater wing-coverts whiter, black
of chin and throat uniform, and more extended on breast by
wearing-off of white tips to feathers.

Adult female. Winter. — Fore-head, crown, nape, back of neck,
back, rump, and upper tail-coverts uniform blown, tinged olive ;
mantle and scapulars like male but without chestnut ; streak
behind eye brownish-buff ; below it and patch on sides of neck
dark brown ; ear-coverts, breast, and flanks greyish-brown, tinged
buff ; chin and belly whiter ; centre of throat whitish, often with
faint blackish mark (feathers of under-parts with more decided
shaft-streaks than in male) ; under tail-coverts as male ; axillaries
buffish-white ; tail, primaries, and secondaries as male but edgings
paler ; greater coverts fringed and tipped buff ; median coverts
with narrow whitish-buff tips ; lesser coverts brown. Summer. —
No moult. Abrasion makes streaking of mantle more marked,
ashy -black mark on centre of throat stronger and rest of under-parts
rather paler.

Nestling. — Down, absent. Mouth, inside pinkish-yellow, no
tongue-spots ; externally, flanges pale yellow.

Juvenile. Male and female. — Like adult female but crown
and rump faintly mottled dark brown, mantle, wings, and tail
paler, throat and belly white, but in male more decidedly tinged
ashy-black in centre of throat.

First winter and summer. Male and female. — Like adults but
in male more white on tips of feathers of chin. The juvenile-
plumage is completely (including wings and tail) moulted in
Sept.-Oct.

Measurements and structure. — <£ wing 72-81 mm., tail 54-58,
tarsus 17-20, bill from skull 12-13 (40 British measured). $ wing
71-76. Primaries : 1st minute (larger in juvenile), 2nd to 4th nearly
equal and longest, 5th 1-2 mm. shorter, 6th 5-7 shorter ; 3rd to 5th
emarginated on outer webs. Secondaries between 8th and 10th
.primaries, tips square, slightly notched. Tail slightly forked.
Bill thick, tapering sharply at point. Few small rictal bristles
and small bristle-like feathers covering nostrils.

Soft parts. — Bill black (<£ summer), horn-brown, more yellow
at base (<$ Oct. to Jan. and £), yellow tip, brownish -black base
(juv.) ; legs and feet pale brown ; iris hazel.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Male of P. d. biblicus (Syria) is
slightly larger and paler, P. d. tingitanm (north-west Africa) with

THE HOUSE-SPARROW. 103

black centres to feathers of crown, P. d. alexandrinus (Nile valley,
Alexandria to Cairo and probably further south) like indicus but
cheeks more grey, P. d. arboreus (Sudan) small and brightly coloured,
P. d. niloticus (Fayum to Wadi Haifa) paler than last, P. d. indicus
(Arabia, Persia, India, Turkestan) small, and sides of neck and
under-parts white, P. d. pyrrhonotus (Sind) very small, with pale
grey crown.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Its impudent familiarity prevents confusion
with any other species. Of its various notes, " chissick " (uttered
in spring), " tchirp " and the " tell, tell " of alarm are those heard
most often.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Invariably haunting neighbourhood of houses, .
nesting in almost any kind of hole or niche, in ivy or creeper, under
eaves, in spouting, but also not uncommonly at considerable
heights among branches of trees, or even in straggling hedges, also
in House-Martins' nests, among foundations of Rooks' nests and
in holes of cliffs. Nest. — Characteristically untidy ; built of
straw and domed with side entrance when in open, but merely
a lining when inside small hole ; warmly lined feathers and some-
times a little hair, wool, etc. Eggs. — 3-5, occasionally 6 or even
7 ; variable in colouring, one egg in set being generally much
lighter than rest ; ground-colour greyish-white ; generally finely
and uniformly spotted dark and lighter ashy -grey and brown.
Some eggs unmarked ; others have big blotches or dark zone,
and few showing distinct tendency to erythrism have reddish-brown
markings. Average of 100 eggs, 22 X 15.6 mm. Breeding-
season. — Usually begins May, and as two or three broods usually
reared fresh eggs may be found till July or Aug., also exceptionally
in almost every month. Incubation. — Lasts 13-14 days, chiefly
by hen, but male also shares in work.

FOOD. — In agricultural districts chiefly corn, with few insects, seeds
of weeds, etc. ; in towns, insects, street refuse, and few seeds ;
in fruit-growing districts staple food insects (diptera, lepidoptera,
hymenoptera, coleoptera, hemiptera, orthoptera, etc.), but some
seeds, buds, fruit, corn, etc., also eaten.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Resident. Widely distributed.
Now established I. Hebrides, but in 0. Hebrides confined to Castle-
bay (Barra), Tarbert (Harris) and Lewis, and has been noted in
Uist. Local in many parts Ireland, but found on western isles.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Appears to move from certain
exposed places in winter, but no evidence of true migration of our
residents. An autumn-immigration to and passage-movements
on east coast of England south of the Wash occur in autumn,
Sept. 9 to end Oct., chiefly in latter half of Oct. ; movements
in the reverse direction taking place in spring, second week to

104 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

end of March ; and there is some evidence of a cross-Channel
departure in late autumn, and a return movement at end of
March and beginning of April.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe generally except Italy, eastwards
to Siberia. Replaced by closely-allied forms in north Africa
and parts of Asia and by a different species in Italy.

PASSER MONTANUS

41 . Passer montanus montanus (L.) — THE TREE-SPARROW

FRINGILLA MONTANA Linnaeus, Syst. Xat., ed. x, i, p. 183 (1758 — "Habitat
in Europa." Restricted typical locality : North Italy ; cf. Hartert,
Vog. pal. Fauna, i, p. 160).
Passer montanus (Linnaeus), Yarrell, n, p. 82 ; Saunders, p. 181.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Whole croAvn
and back of neck extending on sides of neck to base of ear-coverts
uniform magenta-chocolate ; mantle and scapulars rufous- and
yellowish-brown boldly streaked black ; back and rump uniform
yellowish-brown ; upper tail-coverts greyer brown ; lores, line under
eye, sides of lower mandible, chin, throat, and just reaching
upper-breast black (sometimes chocolate feathers amongst black) ;
lower portion of ear-coverts black, forming a patch ; rest of ear-
coverts and sides of throat and neck white, slightly marked
greyish-black ; upper-breast greyish-white ; rest of breast and
belly purer white ; flanks washed buffish- and smoky-bro-mi ;
under tail-coverts buffish-white with pale brown centres ; axillaries
pale buff ; tail-feathers dark brown, fringed buff ; primaries black-
brown, inner webs fringed pale buff, outer webs fringed chestnut-
brown, broadly at bases and at ends of emarginations ; secondaries
same but with more even fringes to outer webs, and inner feathers
more broadly fringed and tipped ; primary-coverts brown at
base, black at tip ; greater coverts as inner secondaries but tipped
huffish-white ; median coverts black, tipped huffish-white (tips of
greater and median coverts making two narrow wing-bars) ; lesser
coverts uniform brownish-chestnut. This plumage is acquired by
complete moult in Aug. -Oct. Summer. — No moult, and abrasion
causes little noticeable alteration, but white of sides of head and
tips of wing-coverts becomes purer.

Nestling. — Down, absent. Mouth, inside dull pink (sometimes
dark spot at tip of tongue) ; externally, flanges pale yellow.

Juvenile. — Much resembling adult, but cro^-n mostly srnoky-
brown, feathers with small blackish tips, sides of crown and back
of neck dull chestnut-brown ; mantle less rufous ; throat, lores,
and ear-coverts greyish-black ; greater wing-coverts and outer
webs of wing -feathers brown, not chestnut-bro^Ti ; tips of greater
and median coverts buff ; lesser coverts browner, not so chestnut.

THE TREE-SPARROW. 105

First winter and summer. — Like adults. The juvenile-plumage
is completely (including wings and tail) moulted in Aug.-Oct.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 65-73 mm., tail 51-54,
tarsus 16-18, bill from skull 10-11.5 (12 measured). $ wing as
male. Wing-formula and structure as in House-Sparrow.

Soft parts. — Bill black (summer), blackish-brown (winter and
juv.) ; legs and feet pale brown ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — P. m. dilutus (east Persia,
Turkestan) is paler ; other forms in eastern and south-eastern
Asia differ in size of bill. Differs from House-Sparrow in sexes
being alike, smaller size, magenta-chocolate crown and nape, black
spot on ear-coverts, whiter sides of neck, whitish tips of greater
coverts, smaller and whiter tips of median coverts, more yellow-
ish axillaries, black of throat without white tips in winter and
not so extended on breast.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Though often feeding in winter in farmyards
with other Finches, is usually of retiring nature. Both sexes are
alike and differ from male House-Sparrow in smaller size, trimmer
build, black patch on ear-coverts, and chocolate-coloured, not
grey, crown. Double white wing-bar is another, though less obvious,
distinction. Notes bear general resemblance to House-Sparrow's,
but are perhaps shriller, and " chee-ip, chup " is distinctive.
Birds flying across open fields — often singly — may be detected by
their sharp " teck, teck."

BREEDING-HABITS. — More retiring than House-Sparrow but locally
common in suburbs of some large towns, breeding in holes of
ivy-covered trees, pollarded willows, haystacks, thatched roofs,
quarries, and old nests of larger birds ; also in Woodpecker's holes
and Sand-Martin's burrows. Nest. — Very similar to House-
Sparrow's, though smaller, but never built in open among branches ;
often shows little trace of roof. Materials similar. Eggs. — 4-6,
rarely 7 or 8, much smaller than House-Sparrow's, darker, with
finer stippling, browner in general tint, and more glossy. One
light egg also commonly found in each clutch. Average of 103
eggs, 19.5 x 14 mm. Breeding -season. — Apparently variable,
many not laying till late May or even in June in north Scotland,
but some said to breed April. At least two broods. Incubation. —
Lasts 13-14 days : shared by both sexes (Naumann).

FOOD. — Seeds of weeds, corn, as well as insects of various kinds.

DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. — Resident. Widely spread
but local, especially in extreme south-west (where it appears not
to nest), south and west Wales and Lanes., Westmorland and
Cumberland. Has nested Isle of Man. Scotland. — Mostly on east
side, very local and rare west side. Breeds in some 0. Hebrides,

106 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

even as far west as St. Kilda, very rarely in Shetlands, in Fair Isle,
but apparently not in Orkneys. Ireland. — Local resident, co.
Dublin since 1852, and recently on coasts of Londonderry, Mayo,
Antrim and Donegal, and on Inishtrahull Is. (Donegal). Once seen
in Sligo and once in Kildare. Once occurred off Wexford.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Immigration and passage-movements
east coast England, beginning Oct. to first week Nov., extremes
Sept. 17 to Nov. 29, and return March 18 to April 20 (extremes).
Some evidence of immigration south-east coast end of March. No
evidence of migration to Ireland.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe generally and Siberia. Replaced
by closely-allied forms in east Siberia, Japan, Turkestan, and
Persia, India and China, Greater Sunda Islands, Hainan and
Formosa.

Genus EMBERIZA L.

EMBERIZA Linnaeus, Syst. Xat., ed. x, i, p. 176 (1758 — Type E. calandra —
by subsequent designation : Jenyns 1833 says, " Our common Bunting
is the type." This is preferable to Gray's later designation of E. citrinella
as type, because E. calandra is the most typical species of the genus).

This genus has been split into three to ten genera and sub-
genera, but it is desirable to keep the natural assemblage, as here
adopted, together under one name, as nearly all differences on
which genera have been based — if stated at all — are bridged over.

Typical Buntings have somewhat short, conical, hard, sharp-
pointed beak, with cutting-edges more or less incurved ; upper
mandible, and following it lower, forms sharp mandibular angle.
In roof of mouth a more or less developed hump, absent in
some species, seldom so well developed as in E. calandra ; all
intergradations between that of latter and total absence ; also
between highly-arched bill of E. pyrrhuloides and thin one of
E. schcenidus wonderful intergradations in % various forms of
E. 'palmtris. Claws strongly curved, hind claw shorter than liind
toe. Wings well developed, first primary rudimentary, not visible ;
2nd to 6th primaries generally nearly equal and longest, but
sometimes (cf. E. da) 6th almost as long as 3rd, 4th, and 5th,
and 2nd distinctly snorter ; in other cases (cf. E. hortulana)
5th distinctly shorter than 2nd to 4th. Tail long, emargiiiate.
Nostrils more or less covered by frontal plumes. Palsearctic,
African, and Indian regions, absent from Australian region, and
represented by closely allied genera in America : 31 Palsearctic
species with many subspecies.

GENUS EMBERIZA. 107

Key to species of genus EMBERIZA.

'Throat black, abdomen chiefly or entirely yellow . 6

Throat black, abdomen white 7

Throat uniform yellow, abdomen rufous . E. hortulana $ ad , p. 122
Throat and rest of under-parts uniform yellow :

E. melanocephala ad., p. 115
Throat yellow or buff, under-parts with yellow, but

not uniform 2

Throat white or buff, crown not uniform, under-parts

without any yellow whatever 8

Throat white, crown and ear-coverts black :

E. rustica £ ad. summer, p. 129
Throat greyish-white, crown and ear-coverts chestnut :

E. castaneiceps $ ad., p. 127
Throat uniform grey, abdomen rufous, ear-coverts

greyish E. da <J ad., p. 124

Throat chestnut, middle of abdomen white :

E. leucocephala <J ad., p. 113

I Rump and upper tail-coverts distinctly chestnut . 3

* | Rump and upper tail-coverts not distinctly, or without

[ any, chestnut 4

„( Crown yellow or brown , E. citrinella, p. 110

(Crown chestnut ... . E. aureola $ ad. winter, p. 117

i Tail with white 5

(Tail without pure white ... E. melanocephala juv., p. 116

| Under wing-coverts sulphur yellow . . E, cirlus $ and juv., p. 120
\Underwing-covertswhite ... E. aureola $ and juv., p. 118

f Crown black, back uniform chestnut : E. melanocephala <J var., p. 115
I Crown and rump dark chestnut : . E. aureola (J ad. summer, p. 118
Crown and rump olive-green or brown and striped :

E. cirlus <J ad., p. 120

(•Bill slender, culmen very slightly curved : E. scho&niclus <$ ad., p. 133
(Bill thick, culmen strongly curved . E. palustris $ ad., p. 136

rNo white in tail E. calandra $, $ and juv., p. 108

(With white in tail ...-,.-... 9

(Rump more or less chestnut ..... 10
\Rump without chestnut 13

{Lesser upper wing-coverts and spots on chest chest-
nut E. rustica <$ ad. winter, $ and juv., p. 128
No chestnut spots on chest nor chestnut upper wing-
coverta .,,..., .11

108 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

( Ear-coverts chestnut .... E. castaneiceps $ ad., p. 127

(Ear-coverts brownish - , . 12

12

Middle of abdomen white . . . . E. leucocephala $ and juv., p. 114
Middle of abdomen buff or rufescent, tips of median

coverts whitish E. da ? and juv., p. 125

Middle of abdomen buff, tips of median coverts buff :

E. castaneiceps juv., p. 127

J Ear-coverts uniform cinnamon-rufous E. pusilla, p. 131

(Ear-coverts not uniform cinnamon-rufous . . .14

J Belly rufous-buff E. hortulana ? and juv., p. 123

(Belly whitish 15

(Bill slender, culmen very slightly curved :
E. schceniclus $ and juv., p. 134
Bill thick, culmen strongly curved : E. palustris $ and juv., p. 136

EMBERIZA CALANDRA*

42. Emberiza calandra calandra L.— THE CORN-BUNTING.

EMBERIZA CALAXDRA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 176. (1758 —
" Habitat in Europa." Restricted typical locality : Sweden).
Emberiza miliaria Linnaeus, Yarrell, n, p. 38 ; Saunders, p. 207.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Upper-parts
yellowish- to greyish-brown streaked black-brown, ruinp and upper
tail-coverts with fewer and much
finer streaks and latter with
whitish tips ; lores and chin
uniform buff ; ear-coverts as
crown ; indistinct stripe behind
eye, base of sides of neck, throat,
breast, and flanks buff with trian-
gular spots and streaks of black-
brown ; centre of breast with few Corn-Bunting ^(Emberiza c. calandra).

streaks and belly without streaks

yellowish-buff or buffish-white ; under tail-coverts with pale brown
centres ; axillaries pale pinkish- or yellowish-buff ; tail-feathers dark
brown with buff tips and fringes (outer pair occasionally with faint
indication of wedge-shaped mark on inner webs) ; primaries black-
brown inner webs narrowly fringed whitish, outer webs buffish-
brown ; secondaries same but with more rufous fringes, especially
innermost which have wider fringes and pale tips ; greater and
median coverts as inner secondaries ; lesser coverts more greyish-

* In 1758 Linnaeus named the Corn-Bunting calandra, and we cannot
accept his alteration of 1766, when he called it miliaria without
explanation. — E.H.

THE CORN-BUNTING. 109

brown. This plumage is acquired by complete moult in Sept. -Oct.
N.B. — There is much individual variation between a deep buff
and a grey tint in brown of upper-parts and between yellowish-
buff to buffish- white in under-parts, but British specimens are
never so grey -brown on upper -parts nor so whitish on under-parts
in winter as many Continental specimens. Summer. — No moult.
Abrasion makes brown of upper-parts considerably paler and
more greyish, less buff, and under-parts much whiter, less buff,
and the streaks and spots browner, smaller and less numerous,
some being worn away altogether.

Nestling. — Down, yellowish-buff, long and plentiful ; distribu-
tion, inner supra-orbital, occipital, humeral, spinal, ulnar, femoral,
crural and ventral ; filaments on uropygium. Mouth, inside flesh,
no tongue-spots ; externally, flanges yellow.

Juvenile. — Ground-colour of upper-parts paler (buff or buffish-
brown) than adult and black -brown streaks much broader and
more prominent. Centre of crown often with few or no streaks,
sides of crown with dark streaks coalescing and forming stripes ;.
upper tail-coverts with distinct dark brown centres ; lores and
distinct stripe over and behind eyes varying pale to deep buff ;
ear-coverts more buff and less marked black than adult ; chin
and throat almost uniform buff with a few black -brown spots in
malar region ; upper-breast much as adult ; rest of breast, belly,
and under tail-coverts whiter and uniform ; flanks with very
few streaks ; tail, wing-feathers (especially inner secondaries) and
all wing-coverts with well-marked margins and tips of buff.

First winter and summer. — Like adults. The juvenile-plumage
is completely (including wings and tail) moulted in Sept. -Oct.

Measurements and structure. — ^ wing 89-101 mm., tail 67-76,
tarsus 24-27, bill from skull 12-15 (12 British measured). $ wing
as male. Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 3rd and 4th longest,
2nd often equal sometimes 1 mm. shorter, 5th 2-4 shorter, 6th,
9-11 shorter; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries
about equal 9th primary but longest equals 6th. Other structure
as E. citrinella but knob on palate is considerably larger.

Soft parts. — Bill dark horn along ridge of culmen, rest yellowish ;
legs and feet straw -yellow tinged flesh ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Subspecies which have been
described do not seem to be satisfactorily separable. Lark-like
coloration, heavily streaked breast, and want of white in outer
tail-feathers distinguish it from all other British Buntings.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Found not only in cultivated districts but
on rough pastures and wastes, especially near coast. In winter
assembles in flocks. Unobtrusive and sluggish in temperament,
and without any outstanding feature in its brown plumage. In
appearance a robust, blunt-headed Sky-Lark, lacking white outer
tail-feathers ; it would often be overlooked except for its song.

110 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

From Feb. to Oct. the short, monotonous strain, like the jangling
of a bunch of keys, is uttered, often with great persistence, from
some conspicuous perch. On leaving perch the singing bird often
flies with dependent legs. Alarm-note is a metallic " chip."

BREEDING-HABITS. — Generally breeds in mowing-grass or corn-
fields, less frequently in scrub and furze on downs at some distance
above ground. Nest. — Built of bents, grasses, etc., lined finer
materials and few hairs. Eggs. — 3-6 in British Isles. Ground-
colour greyish-white to light sienna-brown, with bold, brownish-
black, straggling lines and few spots. Some devoid of markings,
others have dark streaks on red-brown ground, and some show
bluish-tint in ground. Average of 100 eggs, 24.3 x 17.6 mm.
Breeding-season. — Begins late May, sometimes not till June or
even July ; eggs have been taken in Aug. and Sept. Incubation. —
Period 14 days ; chiefly by hen (Naumann). Probably in some
cases double-brooded.

FOOD. — Chiefly seeds and corn, but also buds of trees, and
insects (cockchafers and small beetles).

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Resident. Common in most coasta
regions throughout, but generally local inland, though sometimes
common where found.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Breeding-birds, or at all events many
of them, emigrate in autumn from Great Britain, and perhaps
also from Ireland. Immigrants noted east coast Great Britain,
and flocks occur other parts in autumn. In Shetlands and Fair
Isle occurs on both passages.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — From south Sweden in the north through-
out Europe to north Africa and west Asia. Forms from west
Siberia, Corsica, and Canary Islands have been separated, but are
all very closely allied and require confirmation.

EMBERIZA CITRINELLA

43. Emberiza citrinella citrinella L. — THE YELLOW
BUNTING.

EMBERIZA CITRINELLA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 177 (1758 —
" Habitat in Europa." Restricted typical locality : Sweden).
Erriberiza citrinella Linnaeus, Yarrell, n, p. 43 ; Saunders, p. 209.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 5). — Adult male. Winter. — Centre of crown and
nape bright yellow streaked dark brownish-green, similar streaks
coalescing and forming narrow lines on sides of crown from nostrils,
broadening at sides of nape ; hind-neck brownish-green ; mantle,
scapulars, and back yellowish- to chestnut-brown, boldly streaked
black-brown ; rump and upper tail-coverts chestnut, with small
greyish-white tips ; ear-coverts and sides of neck yellow, streaked

THE YELLOW BUNTING. Ill

dark greenish ; lores, over and behind eyes, chin and throat bright
yellow sparsely streaked dark greenish* ; moustachial stripe (some-
times absent) chestnut ; upper-breast olive-green ; lower -breast
(especially on sides) and flanks chestnut, tinged yellow and often
with black-brown streaks on flanks; belly and axillaries bright
yellow ; vent and under tail-coverts same but streaked chestnut
and dark brown ; tail brown -black, central pair fringed yellowish- or
chestnut-brown, two outer pairs narrowly fringed greenish-yellow
on outer webs, and with large wedge-shaped white marks on distal
two-thirds of inner webs; primaries black-brown, outer webs
narrowly fringed greenish - yellow and inner greyish - white ;
secondaries same, but with more brownish fringes, and innermost
with broad chestnut fringes and tips ; primary-coverts like
primaries ; greater coverts like innermost secondaries but often
with paler tips ; median coverts tipped chestnut or yellowish-
brown, and sometimes yellow ; lesser coverts fringed yellow and
chestnut. This plumage is acquired by complete moult from
Aug. to Oct. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion makes crown and
throat more uniform and paler yellow, upper-parts more strongly
streaked, sides of breast and flanks brighter chestnut, greenish-
yellow edges to wing-feathers also wear off.

Adult female. Winter. — Resembling male but crown and
throat much less yellow and more dark green ; breast and flanks
reddish-brown streaked black-brown, not so chestnut as male;
belly paler yellow. Summer. — Abrasion makes plumage rather
brighter and more striated.

Nestling. — Down, smoke-grey, fairly long and plentiful ;
distribution, inner supra-orbital, occipital, humeral, ulnar, spinal,
femoral, ventral, and crural. Mouth, inside pink, no spots ;
externally, flanges bright pale yellow.

Juvenile. Male. — Resembling first-winter female but browner
and more streaked and less chestnut rump ; paler and duller yellow
throat and belly ; with usually blacker, not so brown and much
more prominent streaks on breast and flanks ; tips of median and
greater coverts paler, and divided centrally by dark brown. Female.
— Greyer, not so yellowish on crown, throat and belly as juvenile
male.

First winter and summer. Male. — Closely resembling adult
female but yellow brighter, and breast and flanks chestnut, not
brown ; as compared with adult male yellow paler, not so deep and
brilliant, with more brownish-green and less yellow on crown,
ear-coverts, and sides of neck. The juvenile body -feathers, wing-
coverts, four inner secondaries and occasionally middle pair of
tail-feathers moult in July to Oct., but not primary-coverts nor
rest of remiges and rectrices. Female. — Like adult female but
crown and nape yellow-brown (not dark green) streaked black-
brown, scarcely any pure yellow showing on crown ; throat and

•* Very rarely throat has more or less chestnut (c/. Ibis, 1901, plate x.).

112 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

breast more buff-yellow, and marked brown, belly paler yellow.
Moult as in male.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 82-93 mm., tail 66-75,
tarsus 16-18, bill from skull 12.5-14 (15 measured). $ wing 80-88.
Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 3rd usually longest, 4th and
5th sometimes equal to 3rd but usually 1-2 mm. shorter, 2nd
usually 2-3 shorter than 3rd, 6th about 8 shorter ; 3rd to 6th
emarginated outer webs. Secondaries about equal 9th primary
but longest between 7th and 8th ; tips square, very slightly notched.
Tail forked. Bill : upper mandible flattish and sharply pointed,
with a knob in centre of palate, lower mandible thicker, with under-
part of distal portion sloped up at sharp angle. Minute rictal and
nasal bristles. Long filoplumes often observable on hind-neck.

Soft parts. — Bill : upper mandible dark bluish horn-colour,
lower paler ; legs and feet pale flesh-brown ; iris dark brown.
CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — E. c. erythrogenys (East Prussia
and eastwards) is paler on upper-parts. E. cirlus, male, has black
chin and upper-throat, dark crown and olive-brown rump, female
is less yellow on belly, darker streaked on breast, greyer on crown,
and yellow-brown on rump, juvenile is paler buff on upper-parts,
and buff, not chestnut, on rump. E. melanocephala both sexes and
all ages are unstreaked on under-parts. E. aureola, female and
young, have no yellow on crown, less streaked breast, whitish
axillaries and tips to median coverts. Other species have no
yellow on abdomen.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Like most Buntings, differs from finches in
slighter build and longer tail. Predominance of yellow in plumage
of male is characteristic, but more soberly coloured female is not
readily distinguished from some allies except by the chestnut rump.
White in lateral tail-feathers conspicuous in flight. In winter
assembles in small bands, often associating with Chaffinches,
Sparrows, and Greenfinches in farmyards and fields. Song well
described by words, " A little bit of bread and no cheese." A clear
loud single " zit " functions as call- and alarm-note. In winter,
assembled birds utter a liquid chirruping note when disturbed.
BREEDING-HABITS.— Breeds in hedge bottoms, by road-sides, and
at foot of bushes, generally on or near ground and frequently
partly hidden by grass, less commonly some feet above it.
Nest. — Built of stalks, bents, and a little moss, lined horsehair and
fine bents. Eggs. — 3-5, rarely 6. Ground-colour varies from
whitish to pale purplish-white (normal) and light brownish-red,
pencilled with fine hair-lines of dark brown, and few spots. Some
without markings ; others approach eggs of Girl- and Corn-
Buntings, but normal eggs have much finer lines and few bold
markings. Average of 100 eggs, 21. 2 x 15.9 mm. Breeding-season. —
Begins end April, but usually from May till Aug., rarely Sept. and
Oct. Incubation. — Lasts 13-14 days, chiefly by hen. Fledging-
period. — 13 days. Two or three broods.

THE PINE-BUNTING. 113

FOOD. — Chiefly vegetable : corn, and seeds of weeds, wild-fruits,
etc. ; also insects (coleoptera, lepidoptera and larvae) and spiders.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Resident. Common and generally
distributed, but does not nest in some O. Hebrides, now common
Orkneys, but seldom noticed Shetlands except on migration ; occurs
Fair Isle both passages, but chiefly autumn.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Flocks in winter, but little evidence
that our breeding-birds emigrate. Immigrants from north appear
east coasts Great Britain in Oct. and Nov. and return in spring.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe generally from about lat. 65J°
to 70° N., but in south Spain and south Italy only in winter, and
absent from Greece. Replaced by allied forms in Siberia and east
Europe. Local races require further study (see Gengler, Orn.
Jahrb., 1912, pp. 88-92).

EMBERIZA LEUCOCEPHALA

44. Emberiza leucocephala S. G. Gm.— THE PINE-BUNTING.

EMBERIZA LEUCOCEPHALOS S. G. Gmelin, Nov. Comm. Acad. Sci. Imp.
Petropol., xv, p. 480, pi. 23, fig. 3 (1771 — Astrakhan).
Emberiza leucocephala W. Eagle Clarke, Scot. Nat., 1912, p. 8 ; cf. Brit. B.,
v, p. 239.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 5). — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head and sides
of crown black, much obscured by buffish-brown fringes and tips ;
centre of crown white, more or less obscured by brown and black tips ;
back of neck almost uniform greyish-brown ; mantle and scapulars
streaked black with chestnut markings and yellowish-brown edgings ;
rump chestnut tipped buff ; upper tail-coverts same but with white
tips and black shaft-lines ; narrow Line under eye and in centre
of lores buffish-white ; ear-coverts same margined at base of neck
with line of blackish-brown ; lores and continuing in broad stripe
round and behind eyes to base of neck, chin, and upper-throat
extending to sides of neck chestnut, more or less obscured by tips of
buff with small black spots ; below chestnut of throat white band,*
obscured by similar tips ; upper-breast chestnut with long buffish-
white tips ; flanks same, but streaked black mesially ; centre of
breast, belly, and vent pure white ; under tail-coverts white
with dark brown shaft-streaks ; axillaries white with dusky
centres and often with slight yellowish tinge ; tail brown -black,
central pair fringed chestnut- brown, outer pair with some
white on outer web and large white wedge covering most
of inner web, penultimate pair with smaller white wedge on
distal half of inner web ; primaries and secondaries black -

* Exceptionally throat is white or yellowish-white, and centre of crown
tinged pale yellow. This species appears to hybridize with E. citrinella in
west Siberia (Journ. f. Orn., 1903, p. 145, pi. vii).

I

114 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

brown, inner webs fringed white, outer webs of outer primaries
fringed white, and of inner primaries and secondaries greenish-
brown ; innermost secondaries and greater coverts broadly
fringed and tipped chestnut-brown ; median coverts same, but
tips whitish ; lesser coverts greyish-brown. This plumage is
acquired by complete moult in early autumn. Summer. — A
partial moult apparently confined to regions of lores and ear-coverts
and few feathers of white " bib " takes place in Feb. and March,
new feathers of ear-coverts and line under eye and in centre of lores
being pure white ; otherwise no moult, but abrasion gradually
makes centre of crown pure white bordered with greyish-black ;
chin and throat uniform pinkish-chestnut with white " bib " below
chestnut ; breast and flanks more brownish-chestnut and always
with some white tips.

Adult female. Vginter. — Like male but whole crown streaked
black with bumsh-brown edgings and only bases of feathers in
centre part whitish ; lores and eye-stripe buffish with a little
chestnut near base of feathers ; ear-coverts brown with creamy patch
on sides of neck ; chin and throat pale buff, spotted dark brown and
with varying amount of chestnut (sometimes absent) at bases of
feathers ; small creamy patch in place of white " bib " of male ;
breast and flanks streaked blackish and with little chestnut.
Summer. — Same moult as male, but this and abrasion cause little
change. Centre of crown becomes greyer, and dark spots on throat
and streaks on breast become more prominent and chestnut more
marked when present.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Much like winter female, but with only indication
of pale bases to feathers of centre of crown ; rump brownish-
chestnut, streaked black ; rest of upper-parts more tawny than
winter female ; throat whitish, streaked black ; breast and flanks
tawny-buff, streaked black-brown ; under tail-coverts rufous-
chestnut in one specimen, huffish-white with fine dark mesial
streaks in another.

First winter and summer. — Apparently like adults. The juvenile
body-plumage and lesser and median wing-coverts are moulted
in autumn but apparently not rest of wings nor tail.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 90-95 mm., tail 73-79,
tarsus 19-20.5, bill from skull 10.5-12 (12 measured). $ wing 82-91.
Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 3rd and 4th usually equal and
longest, 2nd and 5th 1-3 mm. shorter, 6th 6-8 shorter ; 3rd to 6th
emarginated outer webs. Other structure as E. citrinella.

Soft parts. — Bill : upper dark brown, lower pale brown ; legs
and feet yellowish-brown ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED SPECIES. — No subspecies recognized. White
bases to feathers of centre of crown distinguish adult male and female,
latter being much like E. citrinella with all yellow replaced by white.

THE BLACK-HEADED BUNTING. 115

Younger birds differ from other British Buntings with white abdo-
mens, in the combination of chestnut rump and brown lesser wing-
coverts E. rustica having both chestnut, E. pusilla both brown,
and E. schceniclus lesser coverts chestnut and rump bro wnish-grey
or buff.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests among clumps of small bushes or edge
of thickets on ground among grass like Yellow Bunting. Nest. —
Also similar, of dead grasses, lined horsehair and finer grasses.
Eggs. — 4-6 ; resembling Yellow Bunting's. Ground varies from
light pinkish to violet or greenish-white ; numerous fine
brown hair-lines and few spots ; pale ashy shell-marks. Average
of 54 eggs, 21.48 X 16.1 mm. Breeding-season. — End of May
and July. Incubation. — Period unknown ; hen incubates. Two
broods.

FOOD. — Seeds of grasses and mountain-plants ; young fed with
orthoptera and cicadae.

DISTRIBUTION. — Scotland. — One. Male, Fair Isle (Shetlands), Oct.
30, 1911 (ut supra).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeds from west Siberia (Ural) to
east Siberia. Migrates to China, Mongolia, Turkestan, casually
to Europe (Italy, Dalmatia, Russia, south France, Austria,
Heligoland).

EMBERIZA MELANOCEPHALA

45. Emberiza melanocephala Scop. — THE BLACK-HEADED
BUNTING.

EMBERIZA MELANOCEPHALA Scopoli, Annus I, Hist. Nat., p. 142 (1769 —
Carniola).

Euspiza melanocephala (Scopoli), Yarrell, u, p. 64 ; JZmberiza melano-
cephala, Scopoli, Saunders, p. 205.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 5). — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head, crown,
nape black, almost entirely obscured by buff-brown tips to feathers ;
lores and ear-coverts same, but black less obscured ; scarcely visible
collar at back of neck yeUow and chestnut ; mantle and scapulars
chestnut, much obscured by long buff -bro wn fringes, most of the
tips having dark shaft-lines (some adult specimens have varying
number of feathers of mantle brown with mesial dark streaks) ;
back and rump mixture of yellow and chestnut ; upper tail-coverts
brown, marked yellow or chestnut and tipped grey ; chin and tibial
feathers yellowish-buff ; small patch of chestnut on each side of
breast ; rest of under -parts * yellow, much obscured by buffish-
white tips to feathers, especially on throat, breast, and flanks ;

* Occasional specimens have black feathers on throat, and very rarely
•entirely black throat.

I 2

116 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

axillaries pale yellow ; tail black -brown very narrowly fringed buff,
and at base more broadly yellowish, outermost pair with faint
indication of wedge-shaped mark ; wing-feathers black-brown very
narrowly edged buff, inner secondaries broadly fringed buffish or
chestnut-brown ; greater coverts fringed and tipped buff ; median
coverts tipped whitish -buff ; lesser coverts chestnut and brown,
tipped buff. This plumage is acquired by a complete moult
from July to Nov. or Dec. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion of
tips of feathers gradually makes head entirely black, mantle
uniform chestnut, and under-parts bright canary-yellow, narrow
yellow collar at back of neck and chestnut patches on breast
more prominent.

Adult female. Winter. — Crown brown, streaked black ; mantle
brown and chestnut-brown, lightly streaked black-brown ; scapulars
mostly brown without chestnut ; rump as in male, but duller ;
ear-coverts brown ; under-parts paler and more buff than in male ;
axillaries huffish-white, tinged yellow. Summer. — Mantle becomes
rather more uniform chestnut-brown, but never so bright and
uniform as in male, and under-parts become yellower but never
so bright as in male.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Crown sandy-buff, with short streaks or spots of
black ; mantle broadly streaked brown-black, feathers broadly
edged and tipped buff ; rump and upper tail-coverts sandy-buff,
lightly streaked brown-black ; ear-coverts sandy-buff ; chin, throat,
and belly pale buff ; breast and flanks rather darker, with sometimes
a few narrow brown streaks ; under tail-coverts buffish-yellow ;
axillaries buff, tinged yellow ; tail- and wing-feathers as adult but
with broader buff fringes ; inner secondaries and all wing-coverts
broadly fringed and tipped sandy-buff.

First winter and summer. Male. — Like adult and apparently
indistinguishable, though some specimens with brown feathers
amongst chestnut of mantle and brownish- or yellowish-buff
ear-coverts may be first-summer birds, though undoubtedly adults
sometimes have such feathers. The juvenile plumage is completely
(including wings and tail) moulted in June-Dec. Female. — Differs
from adult in crown and mantle being brown, streaked black -brown ;
rump tinged greenish-yellow ; throat and breast pale buff ; flanks
rather darker ; centre of belly tinged yellow ; under tail-coverts
yellow as adult ; axillaries whitish-buff.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 92-98 mm., tail 70-74,
tarsus 21-23, bill from skull 13-15 (12 measured). $ wing 84-90.
Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 3rd usually longest, 2nd
and 4th as long or 1-2 mm. shorter, 5th 4-5 shorter, 6th 10-12
shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs. Other structure as
E. citrinella.

Soft parts. — Bill : lead-blue, under mandible greyer ; legs and
feet dark flesh ; iris brown.

THE YELLOW-BREASTED BUNTING. 117

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED SPECIES. — No subspecies recognized.
Unstreaked under-parts, yellow under tail-coverts and want of
white in tail distinguish it at all ages from all other British
Buntings.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Large size and entirely uniform yellow
or yellowish under-parts make it distinct from other Buntings
(H. Lynes).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds in bushes, sometimes among standing
peas, or in vineyards, a few feet from ground. Nest. — Roughly
built of dead plants, thistle-leaves, and grass, lined fine grasses
and hair. Eggs. — 4-5, rarely 6, once 7 ; ground-colour light
greenish-blue, spotted evenly with brown and violet shell-
marks ; occasionally unmarked or with dark blotches. Average
of 100 eggs, 22.4 x 16 mm. Breeding-season. — From mid-May
to end June. Incubation. — Lasts 14 days ; by both sexes. One
brood.

FOOD. — Seeds of cultivated plants and weeds ; also insects.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Six England, three Scotland.
Female near Brighton (Sussex) about Nov. 3, 1888. Male, Notts.,
June or July, 1884. Male near Dunfermline (Fife) Nov. 5, 1886.
Female, Bexhill (Sussex) Nov. 3, 1894 (Saunders, p. 205). Male,
Little Common (Sussex) April 21, 1905 (ZooL, 1905, p. 267).
Female, Fair Isle, Sept. 21, 1907 (Ann. S.N.H., 1908, p. 76).
Male near Westfield (Sussex) May 5, 1909 (Brit. B., m, p. 412).
Young male, Fair Isle, Aug. 25, 1910 (Studies in Bird Migration,
11, p. 113). Male, Battle (Sussex), April, 1912 (Butt. B.O.C., xxxin,
pp. 133-4). [Male recorded from near Halifax (Yorks,), Dec., 1910
not authentic.]

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — South-east Europe, Crete, Cyprus, and
Asia Minor to Palestine, Persia, and Baluchistan, occasionally west
to Italy ; casual visitor to south Germany, Austria, Switzerland,
south France, Heligoland, Malta. In winter in north-west India.

EMBERIZA AUREOLA

46. Emberiza aureola Pall.— THE YELLOW-BREASTED
BUNTING.

EMBEBIZA AUKEOLA Pallas, Reise d. versch. Prov. d. Russ. Reichs,
u, p. 711 (1773 — River Irtish in Siberia).

Emberiza aureola Pallas, Saunders, Bull. B.O.C., xvi, p. 10 ; id., Brit. B.,
i, p. 13.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 5). — Adult male. Winter. — Whole upper-parts
dark pink-chestnut, partly concealed by buffish tips of feathers ;
scapulars and mantle with inconspicuous mesial black marks ;
upper tail-coverts browner, not so chestnut as rest of upper-parts ;

118 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

lores and narrow line over eye buff ; ear-coverts blackish, marked
buff ; chin and throat extending to sides of neck, centre of breast,
and belly yellow, washed buff ; narrow band across upper-breast
chestnut, tipped buff (basal portion of these feathers yellow or
white, with black line dividing this from chestnut distal portion) ;
sides of breast and flanks yellow, with broad chestnut-black streaks
and whitish tips ; vent and under tail-coverts buffish- white ;
axillaries white, tinged yellow ; tail brown-black fringed brown,
outermost pair with large diagonal white band across both webs,
penultimate pair with small white mark at tip ; primaries and
secondaries brown-black, fringed greyish on inner, and brown on
outer webs ; innermost secondaries and greater coverts black and
chestnut, fringed and tipped buffish ; median and lower lesser
coverts buffish or yellowish- white, freckled dusky ; upper lesser
coverts black, narrowly fringed whitish. This plumage is acquired
by complete moult in early autumn. Summer. — A moult confined
to head takes place in April and May, and new feathers of fore -head,
fore-part of crown, lores, round eyes, ear-coverts, chin, and upper-
throat are jet-black ; abrasion of tips of feathers gradually makes
upper-parts uniform chestnut and breast-band and dark streaks
on flanks more prominent ; median and lesser coverts whiter, and
greater more chestnut.

Adult female. Winter. — Centre of crown and back of neck
yellowish-brown, with narrow black mesial streaks ; sides of crown
blacker, farming dark lines ; mantle and scapulars with broader
black streaks ; rump more uniform and with some chestnut ; lores
and eye-stripe buff ; ear-coverts brown and buff ; chin, throat,
breast, and belly yellow, much obscured by greyish-buff fringes ;
flanks more buff and streaked ; vent and under tail-coverts pale
buff ; axillaries white or buffish-white ; tail and wing-feathers as
male, but browner, not so dark ; inner secondaries and greater
coverts black and brown, fringed and tipped pale buff ; median
coverts black, tipped whitish-buff ; lesser coverts with narrow
buffish-grey tips. Summer. — Moult as in male, new feathers of
crown being marked chestnut and of chin being buffish-white.
Abrasion has little effect compared with male, but chestnut shows
more on rump, and occasionally ill-defined chestnut breast-band
is revealed by wearing off of tips, and under-parts become purer
yellow, not so buff.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Much as adult female, but fringes of feathers of
crown and mantle paler, and rump more streaked ; under-parts
yellowish-buff ; breast and flanks browner and finely streaked
brown-black ; axillaries buffish-white.

First urinter. Male. — Much less chestnut on crown and rump
than adult male ; more like female on mantle and scapulars ; under-
parts paler yellow than adult male, and heavily washed buff as in
female ; chestnut breast-band almost concealed by buff tips

THE YELLOW-BREASTED BUNTING. 119

wing-coverts much as in female. The juvenile body-plumage and
wing-coverts, and apparently innermost secondaries, are moulted
in autumn but not rest of wings and tail. Summer. — Moult as in
adult but fore-part of crown, ear-coverts, and throat never become
so black ; back of crown and rump not so uniform chestnut ; mantle
streaked brown and black, like female ; under-parts paler yellow
than adult, and breast-band narrower.

First winter and summer. Female. — Paler and less yellow on
under-parts than adult female, and breast finely streaked as in
juvenile.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 75-80 mm., tail 57-61,
tarsus 18-22, biU from skull 11-12 (12 measured). $ wing 71-75.
Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 2nd to 4th usually equal and
longest, 5th 2-3 mm. shorter, 6th 6-10 shorter ; 3rd to 5th emargi-
iiated outer webs. Other structure as E. citrinella.

Soft parts. — Bill : upper mandible dark brown, lower pale
brown ; legs and feet pale brown ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED SPECIES. — No subspecies recognized. Male
distinguished from all other British Buntings with yellow under-
parts by chestnut crown and breast-band and in summer black
ohm. Juvenile distinguished from E. citrinella by buffish-brown
rump, and from E. cirlus by white under wing-coverts and buffer,
not so yellow, and less streaked under tail-coverts. Female not
so streaked on breast as E. cirlus and E. citrinella, under wing-
coverts white and under tail-coverts buffer, not so yellow. Also
sixth primary not emarginated on outer web.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Compared with Yellow Bunting, darker crown,
white wing-bar in flight, plain yellow underneath (not streaked)
are distinctions in female. Males are very distinct by reason of
dark chestnut upper-parts and very conspicuous white wing-bar
in flight, apart from other characteristics (H. Lynes).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in low bushes, on stumps, or sheltered
by coarse vegetation ; usually 2 or 3 ft. from ground. Nest. —
Dead grasses, lined finer grass and few horsehairs. Eggs. — 4-5,
rarely 6 ; ground-colour generally green, occasionally stone-colour
or olive, blotched and streaked with dark brown and ashy-grey
blotches as shell-marks. Average of 52 eggs, 20.53 X 15.05 mm.
Breeding-season. — From beginning June to early July. Incubation. —
Period not known. Both sexes incubate. One brood.

FOOD.— Small coleoptera, insect larvae ; also seeds, rice, vegetable

matter.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Three. Female, Cley (Norfolk) Sept.

21, 1905 (Saunders, Bull. B.O.C., xvi, pp. 10-11). Female near

Wells (Norfolk) Sept. 5, 1907 (F. G. Penrose, Brit. B., i, p. 263).

Cley, Sept. 4, 1913 (E. C. Arnold, op. c., vn, p. 170).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — North Russia and Siberia ; on migration

120 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

in many tropical parts of Asia and casual in south and west Europe,
Austria, Bohemia, Italy, south France, Malta, Heligoland.

EMBERIZA CIRLUS

47. Emberiza cirlus L.— THE CIRL BUNTING.

EMBEKIZA CIKUTS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. xn, i, p. 311 (1766 — S. Europe).
Emberiza cirlus Linnaeus, Yarrell, n, p. 50 ; Saunders, p. 211.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 5) . — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head and crown
greyish olive-green, streaked black and tinged brown ; back of neck
with fewer dark streaks ; mantle and scapulars chestnut, fringed
greyish-buff, tips of feathers with black centres forming streaks ;
rump olive-brown, indistinctly streaked ; upper tail-coverts rufous-
brown with black shaft-streaks ; stripes from base of bill over and
under eye, fore-part of ear-coverts and spot behind them yellow ;
lores, upper and hinder part of ear-coverts greenish -black ; chin
and upper-throat black, tipped buffish- white ; lower-throat and
extending to sides of neck yellow ; upper-breast greyish olive-green ;
sides of breast chestnut, tipped buff ; centre of breast, belly, and
under tail-coverts yellow, feathers tipped buffish-white, and long
under tail-coverts with black shaft-streaks ; flanks buff, streaked
dark brown ; axillaries yellow ; tail black -brown, central pair
fringed brown, rest very narrowly fringed greenish-brown on outer,
and white on inner webs, outermost pair with outer web mostly
white and large white wedge on inner web, penultimate pair witli
small white wedge ; primaries black-brown very narrowly fringed
greyish on outer, and white on inner webs ; secondaries same, but
outer webs fringed brown ; inner secondaries and greater coverts
broadly fringed chestnut-brown ; median coverts tipped greyish-
buff ; lesser coverts greyish-green. This plumage is acquired by
complete moult in Aug.-Oct. Summer. — Feathers of yellow
stripes above and below eye and ear-coverts are moulted March
and April, but apparently no other moult. Abrasion gradually
makes crown more grey and black, mantle more chestnut,
chin blacker, upper breast purer green, and sides of breast more
chestnut.

Adult female. Winter. — Upper-parts much as male, but crown
and nape browner and rather more streaked ; mantle less chestnut ;
stripe over eye and spot behind ear-coverts ill defined, and buff,
not yellow ; ear-coverts yellowish-brown ; chin and throat yellowish-
buff, spotted dark brown ; ill defined dark malar streaks ;
upper-breast and flanks darker, prominently streaked, sides of
breast tinged chestnut ; lower breast, belly, and under tail-coverts
pale yellow, with few dark streaks ; axillaries pale yellow ; tail as
male but white marks slightly smaller ; wings as male. Summer. —
Moult round eyes and ear-coverts, as in male. Abrasion makes
crown and rump greyer ; mantle more chestnut ; eye -stripe
rather more prominent ; throat yellower and less spotted ; upper-

Plate 5.

• ;

(9-10THS NATURAL SIZE.)

1, Yellow Bunting (Emberiza c. citrinella). 2, Cirl Bunting (E. cirlus). 3, Pine-Bunting (E. leuco-
cephala). 4, Black-headed Bunting (E. melanocephala) . 5, Yellow-breasted Bunting (E. aureola).
6, Ortolan Bunting (E. hortulana.) 7, Meadow-Bunting (E. c. da). 8, East Siberian Meadow-
Bunting (E cioides castaneiceps). 9, Little Bunting (E. pusilla). 10, Rustic-Bunting (E. rustica.)

[Face p. 120.]

THE CIRL BUNTING. 121

breast greyer and less streaked ; chestnut on sides of breast more
prominent.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Whole upper-parts streaked black, feathers broadly
margined pale buff or brownish-buff ; under-parts pale yellowish-
grey with black-brown streaks, thicker on breast and sides of throat,
finer on flanks and smaller on chin, centre of throat, and belly ;
stripe over eye and sides of head yellowish-buff, spotted dark brown ;
tail and wing-feathers as adult ; greater coverts edged and tipped
buff ; median coverts tipped duller buff than adult ; lesser coverts
black with very narrow buff tips.

First winter and, summer. — Like adults and cannot be distin-
guished with certainty, but some females with browner and more
streaked upper-breasts and browner crowns (especially noticeable
in summer) may be first summer. The juvenile body-plumage and
wing-coverts, innermost secondaries and sometimes middle pair of
tail-feathers are moulted in Aug.-Oct., but not primary-coverts nor
rest of wings and tail.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 76-83 mm., tail 65-73,
tarsus 18-19, bill from skull 10.5-12 (12 measured). £wing 71-80.
Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 3rd to 5th longest and equal, 2nd
and 6th 2-4 mm. shorter ; 3rd to 6th emarginated outer webs.
Other structure as E. citrinella.

Soft parts. — Bill: upper mandible dark horn, lower bluish;
legs and feet brownish-flesh ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED SPECIES. — No subspecies recognized. For
differences of E. citrinella and E. aureola see under those species ;
cannot be confused with any other British Bunting.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — In form, and to a large extent in behaviour,
resembles Yellow Bunting. In appearance male easily dis-
tinguished by black throat, lores, and ear-coverts, and olive-grey
band on chest, but female and young only with difficulty by
brown rump — not chestnut as in Yellow Bunting. In
winter often associates with small parties of Yellow Buntings
and finches. Song, always in one tone, has been likened to
Yellow Bunting's without final long-drawn " cheese," but is
much more like loud rattling phrase of Lesser Whitethroat's.
Often uttered from considerable elevation in elm or other tree,
but in open country from top of bush, junipers being much
affected. Call- and alarm-note " zit," much like Yellow Bunting's,
but in a lower key.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds in hedge-rows, gorse-bushes, brambles,
and bank-sides, generally above ground, but also on it. Nest. —
Bents, roots, much moss, and sometimes leaves in foundation ; lined
fine grasses and horsehair. Eggs. — 3-5, very rarely 6, normally 4
in England. Ground-colour bluish or greenish in tint, and streaks
and hair-lines almost black ; bolder than in Yellow Bunting's eggs,

122 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

but rare varieties are barely distinguishable. Average of ICO
eggs, 21.1 x 16.1 mm. Breeding-season. — Begins about mid-May,
occasionally early in May, and lasts till Aug. or even Sept.
Incubation. — Lasts about 12-13 days (12| days, Raspail) ; by hen
only. Two broods.

FOOD. — Chiefly corn and seeds of grasses and weeds ; also insects
(orthoptera, small coleoptera, larvae of lepidoptera, etc.) ; young
fed with insects (orthoptera, lepidoptera, etc.).

DISTRIBUTION — England and Wales. — Resident, but local, nesting
in Somerset and coastal counties from Cornwall to Kent, scarcer
Herts., Beds., Surrey, Berks., Bucks., Oxon, Wilts., Gloucester,
Worcester, Hereford, Salop, and many counties of Wales, but not
recorded nesting Pembroke, Carmarthen, Radnor, Merioneth, or
Anglesey. Nests very rarely Essex, Middlesex, and Yorks.
Elsewhere rare winter-straggler. Scotland. — Rare vagrant. Four
or five. Ireland. — Rare vagrant. One seen Donegal Aug. 2, 1902
(H. E. Howard, ZooL, 1902, p. 353).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Mediterranean countries generally : in
small numbers in south-west Germany (Rhine, Moselle, Saar),
generally distributed in France and locally common. The
Corsican race has been separated, but this requires confirmation.

EMBERIZA HORTULANA

48. Emberiza hortulana L.— THE ORTOLAN BUNTING.

EMBERIZA HORTULANA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 177 (1758 —

Europe. Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Emberiza hortulana Linnaeus, Yarrell, n, p. 57 ; Saunders, p. 213.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 5). — Adult male. Winter. — Crown and nape
greyish olive-green, faintly streaked darker ; back of neck uniform
greenish-brown ; mantle and scapulars boldly streaked black, with
chestnut-brown marks and pale brown fringes ; back, rump and upper
tail-coverts yellowish-brown, with dark shaft-streaks ; lores, orbital
ring, chin, and throat pale yellow or buffish -yellow ; ear-coverts,
distinct malar stripe, sides of neck, and upper-breast greyish olive-
green ; rest of under-parts buffish- or yellowish-chestnut ; axillaries
and under wing-coverts pale yellow ; tail black-brown, central pair
broadly fringed chestnut-brown, outermost pair with large diagonal
white band across both webs, penultimate pair with rather smaller
white mark on inner web ; primaries and secondaries brown-black,
with outer webs narrowly edged yellowish-brown and inner webs
greyish-white ; innermost secondaries broadly fringed chestnut-
brown ; greater coverts edged and tipped huffish-brown ; median
coverts tipped same ; lesser coverts tipped greyish-brown. This
plumage is acquired by complete moult in early autumn:
Summer. — No moult, abrasion makes crown and especially nape

THE ORTOLAN BUNTING. 123

and upper-breast greyer, less green, some specimens being much
greyer than others.

Adult female. Winter and summer. — Like adult male but
crown and sides of head tinged brownish ; throat more huffish-yellow ;
upper-breast less green and with dark spots or small streaks.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Whole upper-parts streaked brown-black, feathers
margined buff or brownish-buff ; throat and sides of head whitish-
buff, rather sparsely streaked black-brown ; breast darker and
more heavily streaked ; flanks same but with fine streaks ; middle
of breast, belly, and under tail-coverts almost uniform rufous-buff ;
tail and wings like adult but tips of wing-coverts paler and divided
centrally by black -brown.

First winter and summer. Male. — Much like adult female but
crown rather browner, with fine shaft-streaks ; throat paler and
less yellow, with few dark spots ; upper-breast greyer, with more
decided dark streaks. The juvenile body-plumage, wing-coverts
and inner secondaries are moulted in Sept.-Oct., but not tail and
rest of wing-feathers. Female. — Resembling first-winter male
but crown brown and streaked as mantle, breast buffer and more
heavily streaked and a few small streaks on flanks.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 85-92 mm., tail 64-71,
tarsus 19-21.5, bill from skull 10-11.5 (12 measured). ? wing 80-88.
Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 2nd to 4th almost equal and
longest, 5th 3-6 mm. shorter, 6th 10-14 shorter; 3rd to 5th
emarginated outer webs. Other structure as in E. citrinella.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs, and feet brownish-red ; iris brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED SPECIES. — No subspecies recognized.
Brown, not chestnut, rump distinguishes it in all stages from E. cia
and E. cioides, and chestnut or rufous-buff abdomen from all other
British Buntings. E. buchanani (Persia, India, Turkestan) is very
similar, but never with yellow on throat, and always greyer on
crown and mantle.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Adults of both sexes readily recognized by
their being rather light rufous underneath below the grey and
yellow -green chest, not to mention the very small red bill and light
yellowish-coloured " spectacle " round eye. In younger birds
these are all characters which should be looked for, but it must
be borne in mind that all the colours are duller, less distinctive
(H. Lynes).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds sometimes in corn- or rye-fields, or
in ground overgrown with Artemisia and other weeds, on ground
or near it, in growing vegetation. Nest. — Dead grasses, root?,
etc., lined fine roots and hair. Eggs. — 4-6 ; ground-colour bluish -
white to pinkish or reddish-grey, with round spots and few streaks
blackish-brown ; exceptionally very lightly marked. Average of

124 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

100 eggs 19.73 X 15.29mm. Breeding-season. — From beginning
May in Spain, to beginning June in Finland, generally about
mid-May. Incubation. — Period not precisely known, nor share
of sexes. One brood.

FOOD. — Seeds (oats, millet, hemp, grasses, etc.), also insects
(orthoptera, coleoptera, larvae of lepidoptera, etc.) and snails.

DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. — Vagrant. A good many
chiefly on east and south coasts in autumn (occasionally in small
parties), but also in April, May, and June. Scotland. — At Fair
Isle appears regularly on spring and autumn passages ; at St.
Kilda several noted Sept. 1910, and one Sept. 1911 ; at Isle of
May several May 1885 and four autumn 1910 ; in Shetlands two,
April 1898 ; in Orkneys several May 1913, two Sept. 1913 ;
Aberdeen two, Nov. 1863. 'Ireland. — One somewhat doubtful
record Clare, May, 1852.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe generally (except in the high
north), Mediterranean countries and west Asia.

EMBERIZA CIA

49. Emberiza cia cia L.— THE MEADOW- or ROCK-BUNTING.

EMBEBIZA CIA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. xn, i, p. 310 (1766 — S. Europe.
Restricted typical locality : Lower Austria).

Emberiza cia Linn.,Sharpe, Bull. B.O.C., xm, p. 38 ; Saunders, Brit. B.,
i, p. 13.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 5). — Adult male. Winter. — Centre of crown
and nape blue-grey, finely streaked black and washed buffish-brown ;
line on each side of crown meeting on fore-head black (feathers
edged brown) ; hind-neck almost uniform yellowish-brown (feathers
with grey bases) ; mantle and scapulars chestnut-buff boldly
streaked black ; rump uniform chestnut ; shorter upper tail-
coverts same, long ones brown, with fine black shaft-streaks ;
stripe from bill over eye to base of neck and patch under eye
ashy-white, tinged brown ; malar stripe continuing round ear-
coverts and joining stripe through lores and behind eye black ;
ear-coverts, sides of neck, chin, throat and upper-breast ashy
blue-grey, tinged buff ; lower-breast, flanks, belly, and under
tail-coverts uniform huffish-chestnut ; axillaries white ; tail
brown-black, central pair fringed buffish-brown, outer pair with
outer webs mostly white and large wedge-shaped white marks on
distal halves of inner webs, penultimate pair with smaller white
wedges and next pair with small white tips ; wing-feathers
brown-black, inner webs narrowly edged whitish, outer webs of
outer primaries same and of inner primaries and secondaries
brown, innermost secondaries broadly fringed chestnut-brown;
greater coverts same but tipped huffish-white ; median coverts

THE MEADOW- OR BOCK-BUNTING. 125

tipped buffish-white ; lesser tipped grey. This plumage is acquired
by complete moult in early autumn. Summer. — No moult.
Abrasion makes crown, sides of head and throat purer grey, buff
tinge being worn off.

Adult female. Winter. — Like male but browner and more
streaked crown ; paler, not so chestnut, mantle ; browner ear-
coverts ; throat and breast more tinged buff and faintly spotted ;
rest of under-parts rather paler than male. Summer. — Abrasion
makes crown and ear-coverts greyer, approaching winter plumage
of male, and spots mostly wear off throat and breast, which are
always rather less pure grey than in male.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Crown brownish-buff, streaked black ; mantle more
chestnut-brown and broadly streaked ; rump and upper tail-
coverts chestnut, finely streaked black ; eye-stripe pale buff,
speckled black ; ear-coverts buffish-brown ; throat buff and upper-
breast and flanks rufous-buff, spotted and streaked black -brown ;
centre of breast, belly and under tail-coverts uniform buff ; tail
and wings as adult ; greater and median wing-coverts with smaller
buffish-white tips divided centrally by black-brown ; lesser coverts
browner, narrowly tipped dull grey.

First winter and summer. Male. — Like adult female but
slightly greyer on crown and slightly more chestnut on mantle.
The juvenile body -plumage and wing -coverts are moulted in early
autumn but not rest of wings and tail. Female. — Like adult
female, but crown buffish-brown, streaked black with only bases
of feathers grey; eye-stripe inconspicuous buff; ear-coverts
buffish -brown ; throat and breast heavily washed buff and much
speckled dark brown ; flanks slightly streaked.

Measurements and structure. — ^ wing 81-85 mm., tail 73-78,
tarsus 18-20, bill from skull 10-11.5 (12 measured). $ wing 75-81.
Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 3rd to 5th usually equal and
longest, 2nd 3-6 mm. shorter, 6th 1-4 shorter ; 3rd to 6th emargi-
nated outer webs. Other structure as E. citrinella.

Soft parts. — Bill dark lead ; legs and feet brownish-straw ;
iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — E. c. africana (north-west
Africa) is rather paler on throat and under-parts with grey of
throat not extending so far down breast, E. c. par (mid- Asia }
larger, paler mantle, reddish-brown tips to median wing-coverts,
E. c. stracheyi (Himalayas) darker upper- and under-parts, tips
of median coverts as in E. c. par, E. c. godlewskii (east Siberia)
larger, sides of crown chestnut, grey of crown and throat bluer.
Except in juvenile ash-grey throat distinguishes it from all other
British Buntings except E. cioides castaneiceps, which has chestnut
ear-coverts. Juvenile only to be distinguished from juvenile
E. cioides castaneiceps by whitish tips to median coverts (this

126 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

distinction is lost in other subspecies of E. c. da) ; differs from
juvenile E. Jiortulana by chestnut rump, and from all others in
rufous-buff abdomen.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Chestnut body, grey head with triple black
bands (above, through and below the eye) make it very distinctive.
Scrub-clad, stony upland slopes are its natural habitat (H. Lynes).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests among stones on barren hillsides,
sometimes low down in small bushes or loose stone walls.
Nest. — Grasses and bark strips, little moss ; lined fine roots and
horsehair. Eggs. — 4-6, ground-colour greyish -white or pale
purplish-brown, with wreath of interlacing hair -lines round big
end, few spots dark brown and ashy shell-marks. Average of
86 eggs, 20.63 x 16 mm. Breeding -season. — Begins early April :
mostly in May or June at high altitudes. Incubation. — Period
and share of sexes not precisely known. One brood.

FOOD. — Seeds (oats, millet, hemp, grasses, etc.), probably also
insects.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Six. Two near Shoreham (Sussex) end
Oct., 1902 (B. B. Sharpe, Bull. B.O.C., xm, p. 38). One seen
Faversham (Kent) about Feb. 14, 1905 (C. J. Carroll, Ibis, 1905,
p. 291). Two Ninfield (Sussex) April 1, 1910 (J. B. Nichols,
Brit. B., v, p. 50). Female, Westfield (Sussex), April 6, 1915 (id.,
op. c., xii, p. 89).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Mediterranean countries generally, north
to Rhine valley, Lower Austria and foot of Transylvanian Alps.
Replaced by allied forms in north-west Africa and in various parts
of Asia. Dr. Le Roi (Orn. Monatsber., 1911, pp. 78, 79) has not only
separated the north-west African form (E. c. africana), but also
two in Europe, i.e., E. cia da in Lower Austria, Switzerland,
Bavaria and Rhine valley, and E. da barbata Scop, from Krain,
Tyrol, Wallis, Spain, Italy, Dalmatia, and south-east Europe.
We do not know to which of these two forms (which require con-
firmation) the British specimens would belong.

EMBERIZA CIOIDES

50. Emberiza cioides castaneiceps Moore — THE EAST
SIBERIAN MEADOW-BUNTING.

EMBERIZA CASTANEICEPS Moore, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1855, p. 215

(China).

Emberiza cioides Brandt, Saunders, p. 215.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 5). — Adult male. Winter. — Crown and nape
dark pink-chestnut, feathers broadly edged brownish-buff ;
mantle and scapulars brown-chestnut, edged same and streaked
black ; rump and upper tail-coverts chestnut, narrowly tipped

THE EAST SIBERIAN MEADOW -BUNTING. 127

buff ; stripe from bill over eye to base of neck and patches under
eyes and at sides of neck greyish- white ; lores and malar stripe
black ; ear-coverts dark pink-chestnut ; chin and throat extending
to sides of neck pale ashy -grey ; band on upper -breast dark
pink-chestnut, broadly tipped buff ; flanks chestnut-buff ; centre
of breast and belly and under tail-coverts pale buff ; axillaries
white ; tail : central pair chestnut with black shaft-streaks, rest
black narrowly edged brown, outermost pair with large wedge of
white on distal two-thirds, penultimate pair with smaller wedge
and next pair usually with very small white tip; wing-feathers
black, narrowly edged chestnut on outer, and white on inner webs ;
innermost secondaries, greater and median coverts with broad
chestnut margins and tips with narrow outer fringe of buff ; lesser
coverts tipped grey. This plumage is acquired by complete moult
in Sept.-Oct. Summer. — A moult confined to chin, ear-coverts
and lores takes place from March to May, but does not seem to occur
in all individuals. Abrasion makes fore-head blackish, crown and
breast-band and mantle less buff more chestnut -brown.

Adult female,. Winter and summer. — Like male but crown and
nape browner with very little chestnut ; mantle, inner secondaries,
wing-coverts, and rump browner less chestnut ; ear-coverts tinged
buff ; throat less pure ashy -grey ; breast-band browner and less
defined ; flanks paler.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like that of E. c. da, and only to be distinguished
from it by tips of median coverts which are buff, not whitish ;
edgings of wing and central tail-feathers rather more chestnut
but scarcely distinguishable.

First winter. Male. — Apparently same as adult. The juvenile
plumage is completely (including wings and tail) moulted
in Sept.-Oct. Female. — Crown and nape decidedly browner
than adult female, with scarcely any chestnut ; eye-stripe and
under eye buff ; dark brown specks on lores and malar stripe
black-brown and ill-defined ; chin and throat greyish-buff ; breast
and flanks buffer and paler. Summer. — A moult takes place as
in adults. In the female the new feathers of chin are greyer than
old, but still more tinged with buff than in adult females.

Measurements and structure. — £ wing 75-84 mm., tail 72-81,
tarsus 18-20, bill from skull 9-10.5 (12 measured). $wing 69-80.
Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 3rd to 5th usually longest,
2nd 2-5 mm. shorter, 6th 2-3 shorter. Other structure as E.
citrinella.

Soft parts. — Bill dark horn, under mandible paler ; legs and
feet pale reddish-brown ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALT JED FORMS. — E. c. cioides (west Siberia,
Turkestan) has longer wing and tail and paler edgings to feathers
of mantle, E. c. ciopsis (Japan) has blackish ear-coverts. For
specific characters see under E. da.

128 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Large chestnut patch on ear-coverts showing
up clearly against grey of head distinguishes it from E. cia. A
more bush- and lowland-loving bird ; Meadow-Bunting is as appro-
priate a name for this species as " Rock-Bunting " would be for
E. cia (H. Lynes).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests under tussock by bush or small rock,
sometimes in sapling pines, near ground. Nest. — Of twigs, leaves,
grasses and fern, lined fine grass and hair. Eggs. — 3-6, usually
4-5 ; ground-colour creamy to pale purplish-grey, with wreath
of brown hair-lines in zone and generally some dark streaks and
spots and bluish shell-marks. Average of 16 eggs 20.61 x 15.78 mm.
Breeding-season. — From mid-May to June and probably July.
Incubation. — Period and share of sexes not known. Probably
two broods.

FOOD. — Seeds and probably insects.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — One caught alive Flamborough Cliffs
(Yorks.) Nov., 1886 (cf. Ibis, 1889, pp. 293-294 and 296).

DISTRIBUTION.' — Abroad. — East Siberia, Manchuria, and Corea,
wintering in China. Casual in Italy. Replaced by E. c. cioides
in west Siberia, and by E. c. ciopsis in Japan.

EMBERIZA RUSTICA

51. Emberiza rustica Pall.— THE RUSTIC-BUNTING.

EMBERIZA EUSTICA Pallas, Reise d. versch. Prov. d. Russ. Reichs, in,

p. 698 (1776— Transbaikalia).

Emberiza rustica Pallas, Yarrell, n, p. 29 ; Saunders, p. 217.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 5). — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head and
crown brown-black, much obscured by broad fringes and tips of
rufous-brown and buff ; spot in centre of nape white, tinged buff ;
back of neck, rump and upper tail-coverts chestnut, tipped buff
(longest upper tail-coverts browner) ; mantle chestnut, broadly
fringed buff and mesially streaked black ; scapulars same but
usually with narrower black streaks ; lores brownish-buff ; stripe
over and behind eye buffish- white ; under eye and ear-coverts
brown, buff and black ; throat extending to sides of neck behind
ear-coverts buffish- white with broken dusky-black malar stripes,
and generally a few brown flecks on throat ; breast-band and
flanks chestnut, fringed buff or buffish-white and upper feathers
of breast-band more or less marked black (sometimes black is
quite absent) ; rest of breast, belly, under tail-coverts, and
axillaries white tinged buff ; tail : central pair brown narrowly
fringed buff and with black shaft streaks, outermost pair with
large wedge of white occupying most of feather and extending
to base, penultimate pair with similar but narrower wedge on inner
web, rest brown-black with outer webs fringed buff ; primaries

THE RUSTIC-BUNTING. 129

brown-black fringed greyish-white inner, and pale brown outer
webs ; secondaries same but outer w7ebs fringed darker brown,
inner secondaries margined chestnut with outer fringe of buff and
a tongue-like projection of black and chestnut about centre of
outer web ; inner greater coverts like inner secondaries but outer
ones tipped white and fringed buff ; median coverts with larger
white tips ; lesser coverts chestnut tipped buff. This plumage
is acquired by complete moult in August. Summer, — A moult
confined to head and throat takes place in April and May (sometimes
March), when small patch of black appears on chin ; whole throat
including malar region, stripe over and behind eye and nape-spot
become pure white ; lores, ear-coverts, fore-head, and crown jet-
black ; some feathers of upper-part of breast-band are renewed but
moult does not extend further ; abrasion of tips and fringes of
feathers causes rest of breast-band, back of neck, rump and flanks to
become more uniform chestnut and mantle more strongly streaked
black. N.B. — Moult of head is not always quite complete, some old
brown-tipped feathers being frequently left on crown and ear-
coverts.

Adult female. Winter. — Differs from male in having more
buff and brown and less black on crown and ear-coverts ; whitish-
buff nape-spot scarcely observable ; back of neck, mantle and
wings browner and less chestnut ; breast-band much less well-
defined and broken and often with some dark brown streaks, less
chestnut on flanks. Summer. — Moult of head takes place in April
as in male but new feathers are much like old, but lores, ear-coverts
and croAvn have rather more black and head much resembles male
in winter.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Crown brownish-black, feathers edged pale buff;
nape and mantle with more rusty-buff edgings and with some
rufous in centres ; rump and upper tail-coverts rusty-chestnut
with dark centres ; lores and stripe behind eye pale buff ; ear-
coverts buffish-brown ; chin uniform buff ; throat more whitish
streaked blackish-brown ; breast and flanks more tawny and
more heavily streaked same ; centre of lower-breast whitish-buff
with blackish spots ; centre of belly and under tail-coverts uniform
whitish-buff ; tail- and wing-feathers as adult ; lesser wing-coverts
dull chestnut tipped buff ; median coverts brown-black with
buffish-white tips centrally divided with brown; greater coverts
same but tips more buff.

First winter and summer. Male and female. — Like adults,
very difficult to distinguish, but males in winter appear to have
less black on crown and ear-coverts than adults. The juvenile
body-plumage and wing-coverts are moulted in August but not
primary-coverts, remiges and rectrices.

Measurements and structure. — <£ wing 75-81 mm., tail 56-63,
tarsus 18-19, bill from skull 11-12 (12 measured). $ wing 72-76.

130 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 3rd and 4th equal and
longest, 2nd and 5th usually 1-3 mm. snorter but occasionally equal,
6th 5-7 shorter ; 3rd to 6th emarginated outer webs. Other
structure as E. citrinella, but palatal knob scarcely observable.

Soft parts. — Bill brown and base of lower mandible flesh ;
legs and feet reddish-flesh ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED SPECIES. — No subspecies recognized.
Distinguished from E. da and E. cioides by white abdomen, from
E. leucocephala by chestnut lesser wing-coverts and smaller size,
and adults from all other British Buntings by combination of
chestnut rump, breast-band, and streaks on flanks. For differences
of E. p/usilla see under that species.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Bright rusty breast-band of large spots as
well as similar spots on flanks show up distinctly on silky white
under-parts and make it readily distinguishable from other Buntings
(H. Lynes).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds on or near ground in bushes or rank
grass in swampy forest. Nest. — Built of grasses and bents.
Eggs. — 4-5, occasionally 6, ground-colour greenish-grey to bluish-
green, spotted and blotched thickly with greyish-olive and violet
shell-marks, but no streaks. Average of 43 eggs, 20.36 X 15.12 mm.
Breeding-season. — From end May to July. Incubation. — Period
and share of sexes unknown. One brood.
FOOD. — Seeds ; young said to eat oats and other grain.
DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Six England, seven Scotland.
England.— One near Brighton (Sussex) Oct. 23, 1867. One Holder-
ness (Yorks.) Sept. 17, 1881. One Elstree (Herts.) Nov. 19,
1882 (Saunders, p. 217). One Westfield (Sussex) Sept. 22, 1902.
One near Seaton Sluice (Northumberland) some time previous to
Dec., 1904. One seen Lines, (cf. Brit. B., i, pp. 248-9) One
Westfield (Sussex) Dec. 4, 1914 (op. c. rx, p. 92). Scotland.— Pair
Torphins (Aberdeen) end March, 1905. Male Cape Wrath (Suther-
land) May 11, 1906 (cf. op. c., i, p. 249). Female adult June 18,
young Sept. 22, 1908, male adult Sept. 29, 1909, Fair Isle (Studies
Bird Migration, n, p. 114). Male adult May 30, 1913, Fair Isle
(Scot. Nat., 1914, p. 54).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — From east Finland throughout Siberia
to Kamtschatka. On migration through Manchuria and Mongolia
to Japan, China, Turkestan, casual in Europe (Sweden, Austria,
Germany, Heligoland, south France, Italy, Holland), and Alaska.

EMBERIZA PUSILLA

52. Emberiza pusilla Pall.— THE LITTLE BUNTING.

EMBKRIZA PTISILLA Pallas, Reise d. versch. Prov. d. Russ. Reichs, in,

p. 697 (1776— Transbaikalian Alps).

Emberiza pugilla Pallas, Yarrell, n, p. 34 ; Saunders, p. 219.

THE LITTLE BUNTING. 13 1

DESCRIPTION (Plate 5). — Adult male. Winter. — Centre of crown
and nape chestnut and sides black (forming two black stripes)
all much obscured by long buff fringes ; back of neck, rump, and
upper tail-coverts chestnut-brown, feathers with dark centres
and huffish edgings ; mantle and scapulars more broadly streaked
black and marked chestnut ; lores, stripe over and behind eye and
ear-coverts pinkish-chestnut ; chin and throat same tipped buff,
with broken black malar stripes ; small black patches behind and
under ear-coverts ; breast and flanks pale buff boldly streaked
black ; centre of belly and under tail-coverts buffish-white ;
axillaries white with dusky centres ; tail brown-black margined
brown, outer pair with large white wedge extending nearly to
base, penultimate pair with narrow white line on inner web along
shaft, rest narrowly fringed buffish on outer webs ; primaries
brown-black, inner webs fringed pale buff, outer webs fringed
pale brown ; secondaries same, but outer webs fringed chestnut-
brown and inner secondaries broadly margined same with outer
fringe of buff and black " tongue " about centre of outer web ;
greater coverts fringed and tipped rufous-buff ; median coverts
tipped pale buff ; lesser coverts buffish-brown. This plumage
is acquired by complete moult from July to Sept. Summer. — A
moult confined to lores, line over eye, ear-coverts, chin and throat
takes place from February to April, new feathers of these parts
being rather deeper in colour. Abrasion of tips and fringes of
feathers makes centre of crown uniform chestnut with broad black
stripes on each side ; mantle more boldly streaked black and
marked chestnut ; under-parts whiter and black streaks bolder.

Adult female. Winter. — Like adult male but lores, eye-stripe
and ear-coverts paler, black stripes on sides of crown not so
pronounced, and chin and throat more yellowish-buff, occasionally
pinkish. Summer. — Moult and abrasion as in male, after which
becomes very difficult to distinguish, but black stripes on sides of
crown are more broken with brown.

Nestling. — Specimens nearly feathered have long dark brown
tufts of down on occipital, humeral, ventral, and crural tracts.

Juvenile. — Upper-parts heavily streaked black, feathers of
sides of crown fringed chestnut, those of centre of crown and nape
pale buff, those of mantle yellowish-buff and chestnut, those of
rump browner-buff ; lores and ear-coverts chestnut-buff, latter
streaked black ; stripe over eye paler buff ; chin whitish-buff ;
throat, sides of neck and breast heavily streaked black, feathers
with pale buff or white edgings ; flanks buffish-white finely streaked ;
centre of belly and under tail-coverts same but unstreaked ; tail,
wings, and wing-coverts as adult.

First winter. Male and female. — Like adult female but lores
and eye-stripe pale buff with only slight chestnut tinge, and chin
and throat buffish-white. The juvenile body-plumage and wing-
coverts are moulted in July and Aug. but not primaiy-co verts,

K2

132 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

remiges and rectrices. Summer. — After moult becoming more
like adults but chin and throat apparently less dark and often
whitish.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 68-74 mm., tail 53-59,
tarsus 17-18, bill from skull 9-10 (12 measured). $ wing 64-67.
Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 3rd and 4th usually equal and
longest, 2nd and 5th sometimes equal usually 1-2 mm. shorter,
6th 4-7 shorter ; 3rd to 6th emarginated outer webs. Other
structure as E. dtrinella but palatal knob scarcely observable.

Soft parts. — Bill blackish-brown, lower mandible pale brown ;
legs and feet pale brown ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED SPECIES. — No subspecies recognized.
Uniform chestnut lores and ear-coverts, browner rump, and brown
lesser wing-coverts distinguish it from E. schceniclus ; in juvenile
plumage its chestnut-buff lores and ear-coverts are best character,
and these, combined with heavy black streaks on breast and
brown, not chestnut, rump and lesser wing-coverts, distinguish
it from E. rustica at all ages.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — A dull-looking little bird, distinctly smaller
than Reed- Bunting. With field-glasses, rufous sides of face should
always be looked for. In addition to its smaller (slimmer) appear-
ance, readily distinguished from Rustic-Bunting by its duller
under-parts, with fine black streaks (H. Lynes).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds in depressions of ground in willow
swamps and forest clearings, also in dwarf willow scrub on tundra.
Nest. — Among dead leaves, moss, and grass, lined few reindeer
hairs and fine grasses. Eggs. — 4-5, rarely 6, very variable, ground-
colour, greenish, pinkish-grey or brownish, spotted, blotched and
scrawled dark brown, or reddish-brown, with violet-grey shell-marks.
Average of 33 eggs, 18.28 X 13.94 mm. Breeding-season. — Latter
part of June. Incubation. — Period and share of sexes unknown.
One brood.

FOOD. — Seeds ; also insects in summer (coleoptera, etc.).

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — About seven England, many

Scotland, and one Ireland. England. — One Brighton (Sussex),

Nov. 2, 1864 (Saunders, p. 219). One Teesmouth (Durham)

Oct. 11, 1902. One near Rugby (Warwick) Oct., 1902. One

Dover (Kent), Nov. 16, 1907. One, supposed, Southend (Essex),

Nov., 1892. One Cley (Norfolk), Oct. 19, 1908. One Whitby

(Yorks.), Oct. 6, 1913 (cf. Brit. B., i, pp. 249, 383, 385 ; n, p. 238 ;

vn, p. 196). Scotland.— Fair Isle (Shetlands) : observed in

recent years (since 1905) almost regularly in small numbers in

autumn (Sept.-Oct.) and three times in spring (April 14, 1907 ;

May 12, 1908 ; May 18, 1909). Orkneys : Pentland Skerries, one

Oct. 15, 1903, one Oct. 12, 1915, one Sule Skerry, Sept. 22, 1908,

one Auskerry, Sept. 21, 1913. St. Kilda (0. Hebrides), two Sept. 15,

THE HEED -BUNTING. 133

1911. Isle of May, one Sept. 25, and one Sept. 26, 1909, two or
three Sept. 28, 1912, one Oct. 8, 1913. Ireland.— One Rockabill Lt.
(Dublin), Oct. 2, 1908 (op. c., IT, p. 238).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — North Russia and Siberia to Turkestan.
In winter further south in Asia, and not rarely in Europe : east
Germany, south Sweden, Holland, Belgium, Heligoland, Austria,
Italy, south France, Malta, and Algeria.

EMBERIZA SCHCENICLUS

53. Emberiza schosniclus schoeniclus (L). — THE REED-
BUNTING.

FBINGILLA SCHCENICLTTS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 182 (1758 —

Europe. Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Emberiza schoeniclus Linnaeus, Yarrell, n, p. 23 ; Saunders, p. 221.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head and crown black,
mostly obscured by long buffish- or rufous-brown tips to the
feathers ; back of neck white, mostly obscured by brown tips ;
mantle and scapulars boldly streaked black, margined rufous-brown
and fringed buff ; rump ashy -grey, feathers with blackish shaft-
streaks and long rufous-brown tips ; upper tail-coverts same but
rather browner ; lores buff ; ear-coverts as crown ; chin and
throat extending on to centre of upper-breast same but tips smaller
and usually paler buff ; malar stripes and sides of neck white,
tinged buff ; sides of breast and flanks same but with narrow black
and reddish-brown streaks ; centre of breast, belly, under tail-
coverts and axillaries white ; tail : central pair mostly brown with
mesial black line and outer webs chestnut-brown, rest black
narrowly edged brown, outermost pair with large wedge of white
occupying most of feather, penultimate pair with smaller wedge
on distal half of inner web ; primaries and secondaries brown-black,
inner webs fringed white and outer webs bright bay ; inner
secondaries and greater coverts broadly margined and tipped same
with outer fringe of buff ; median coverts tipped bright bay ;
lesser coverts bright bay. This plumage is acquired by complete
moult from Aug. to Nov. Summer. — A moult confined to chin,
upper throat, lores, ear-coverts, and usually fore-head, takes
place from March to May. Before this moult crown, throat and
ear-coverts have become much blacker by abrasion of tips of
feathers but lores never become black before moult. New
feathers are entirely black except those of malar stripes which
are white, but generally some old feathers remain so that throat
and ear-coverts do not become uniform black until tips are entirely
worn off old winter feathers. Abrasion of tips gradually makes
crown uniform black, back of neck white forming a collar, mantle
much blacker, rump greyer, sides of neck and breast and belly
whiter without tinge of buff.

134 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Adult female. Winter. — Similar to adult male but feathers
of crown buffish-brown with black centres, sides of crown more
chestnut-brown ; back of neck with no white visible ; rump much
browner less grey ; stripe over and behind eye buff ; ear-coverts
rufous-brown mixed with blackish ; chin and throat buff with
black and reddish-black malar stripes ; breast and flanks same
streaked black and reddish-brown ; rest of under -parts more buff
than male. Summer. — Moult in same regions and time as male,
but apparently less complete, and new feathers coloured much as
old ones. Abrasion gradually makes crown darker but never
uniform black, narrow greyish-white collar at back of neck appears
in much worn spec miens, rump becomes rather greyer, streaks on
breast and flanks more prominent and under-parts whiter but not
pure white as in male.

Nestling. — Down sooty-black ; fairly long and abundant ;
distribution, inner supra-orbital, occipital, humeral, ulnar, spinal,
femoral, crural, and ventral (very sparse and sometimes absent).
Mouth, inside deep pink, spurs and tip of tongue whitish, no spots ;
externally, flanges yellowish -white.

Juvenile. — Like adult female but more boldly streaked upper-
parts with feather edges paler, whitish or yellowish-buff ; rump and
upper tail-coverts buff with black centres ; under-parts yellowish-
buff, especially throat and breast, latter and flanks streaked and
spotted black, centre of belly whitish unstreaked ; greater and
median wing-coverts with smaller and paler fringes and tips than
in adult female.

First winter. Male,. — Like adult but with longer buff tips
to feathers of crown ; less white on feathers of back of neck, often
a buff stripe over and behind eye ; ear -coverts browner ; throat
with longer buff tips to feathers, and those of chin usually entirely
buff without black, and those of lower throat usually marked
rufous and black not extending so far on to breast. The juvenile
body-plumage and wing-coverts are moulted in Aug. -Sept. but
not remiges and rectrices. Summer. — Same moult as in adult
but generally more complete in regions affected and consequently
difficult to distinguish from adult in summer except by narrower
and more spotted white collar and black less extended on breast.

First unnter and summer. Female. — Like adult but still
browner crown, no white on back of neck, more streaked breast
and flanks.

Measurements and structure. — <£ wing 76-82 mm., tail 61-67,
tarsus 20-22, bill length from skull 9.5-11, depth at nostrils
5-6 (12 measured). $ wing 70-77. Primaries : 1st minute and
hidden, 3rd to 5th longest, 2nd 2-5 mm. shorter, 6th 1-3 shorter ;
3rd to 6th emarginated outer webs. Other structure as E. citrinella.

Soft parts. — Bill dark brown, blackish along top of uppei
mandible ; legs and feet dark brown ; iris dark brown.

CHAEACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — E. s. canneti (south-east Europe)

THE REED -BUNTING. 135

lias longer and thicker bill, but not so thick as in E. palustris and
pyrrhuloides, E. s. pallidior (Baikal) is paler on upper-parts, as is
E. s. pyrrhulinus (Japan), which also has a rather thicker bill.
Differs from E. palvstris and E. pyrrhuloides in its thin and flattish
upper mandible. For differences of E. rustica, E. pusilla and
E. leucocephala, see under those species.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Black head and throat and white collar of
male conspicuous characters, whilst brown head, buff throat, pale
buff eye-stripe and white outer tail-feathers (constantly displayed)
identify female. Being frequenter of reed-beds and swampy
places, is more restricted in habitat than other resident Buntings.
First flocks of returning migrants in early spring, often associated
with Pied Wagtails and Meadow-Pipits, usually consist of males
exclusively. Song a stammering " zip, zip, zizee," uttered
apparently with difficulty. Call-note a harsh, long-drawn " tschee."

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds generally in marshy ground, in tussocks,
osier stumps, etc., on or near ground. Nest. — Chiefly bents, a
little moss, lined finer grasses, horsehair, sometimes reed-flowers.
Eggs. — 4 to 5 normally, occasionally 6, rarely 7, ground brownish-
olive, occasionally greenish or buff, rarely bluish-white without
markings, but normally with few bold streaks and spots deep
blackish-brown, and ashy-grey shell-marks. Edges of spots
suffused brown. Average of 172 eggs 19.32 X 14.43 mm. Breeding-
season. — Begins late April, but most eggs laid May. Two or even
three broods : fresh eggs in June and July. Incubation. — 13-14
days, chiefly by hen, but cock also takes part.

FOOD. — Chiefly seeds of marsh plants, grasses, and grain, also
small mollusca and Crustacea, and in spring and summer insects
and larvae (coleoptera, lepidoptera, neuroptera and hemiptera such
as Notonecta glauca).

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Eesident. Generally distributed
throughout, but only rare visitor to Shetlands, though in Fair Isle
appears to be of double passage ; breeds sparingly Orkneys and 0.
Hebrides.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Majority of home-bred birds emigrate
Sept. and Oct., and return mid-March to mid- April. Numbers
arrive east coast from Continent fourth week Sept. to fourth week
Oct. (extremes Sept. 20 to Oct. 26). Many of these spread over
the country as winter-visitors, many passing down east coast
during October. Return movement late March to mid-May
(extremes March 8 to May 28). Southward weather migrations
occasionally Dec. to Feb., and emigration from south coast.
Occasional records of movement from north coast lights late Oct.
and mid-April. Some Irish birds appear to emigrate.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe generally, but absent (except on

130 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

migration) or rare in south-eastern Europe, eastwards to Siberia.
In winter in south Europe, Asia Minor, in small numbers in north
Africa, in Asia as far south as Punjab in north-west India.
Replaced by a number of allied forms in south-east Europe and
central Asia.

EMBERIZA PALUSTRIS

54. Emberiza palustris palustris Savi — THE WESTERN
LARGE-BILLED REED-BUNTING.

EMBERIZA PALUSTRIS Savi, On. Toscana, n, p. 91 (1829 — "Toscana").
Emberiza pyrrhuloides palustris Savi, M. J. Nicoll, Bull. B.O.C., xxi,
p. 104; id., Brit.'B., n, p. 88.
Emberiza palustris palustris Savi, Hartert, Brit. B., vi, p. 154.

A. Reed-Bunting (Emberiza s. gchaenielus) ; B. Western Large-billed Reed-Bunting
(Emberiza p. paluslris) ; C. Eastern Large-billed Reed-Bunting (Emberiza p. tgchutii).

DESCRIPTION. — Easily distinguished from E. s. schcenidus by large
size and thick bill but in coloration scarcely different, though in
winter male is slightly more tawny-buff on under-parts and female
especially so, and streaks on breast and flanks more reddish.
Moults and abrasion as in E. s. schoeniclus.

Measurements and structure. — <£ wing 78-85 mm., tail 67-70,
tarsus 19-21, bill length from skull 10.5-11.5, depth at nostrils 6.5-8
(8 measured). $ wing 75-79. Wing-formula as E. s. schcenidus.
Bill thick and deep, upper mandible considerably deeper than
lower, and high and arched curving to tip, not flattish and straight
as in other Buntings, lower mandible also thick.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — High, arched bill distinguishes
it from E. schozniclus ; forms of E. pyrrhuloides have still thicker
bills and are usually paler in colour on upper -parts.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds in marshes, reed-beds and swamps,
on or near ground. Nest. — Similar to Reed-Bunting's. Eggs. —
4 or 5, like Reed-Bunting's, but slightly larger, and more boldly
marked. Breeding-season. — May. Incubation. — No details.

FOOD. — Seeds of water plants and insects.

THE EASTERN LARGE-BILLED REED -BUNTING. 137

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Two. Male, near Lydd (Kent), May
26, 1908 (ut supra). Male, Filsham (Sussex), Jan. 6, 1915 (H. W.
Ford-Lindsay, op. c., ix, p. 120).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad.— Italy, Sicily, south France, and east
Spain. Allied form E. p. tschusii see below, another (E. p. othmari),
in Greece.

55. Emberiza palustris tschusii Reiser and Almasv — THE
EASTERN LARGE-BILLED REED-BUNTING.

EMBEKIZA SCHOENICLUS TSCHUSII Reiser and Almasy, Aqu la, v, p.
122-25 (1898 — Typical locality : Dunavat, Dobrudscha).
Emberiza palustris tschusii Reiser and Almasy, E. Hartert and J. B.
Nichols, Brit. B., vi, p. 153.

DESCRIPTION. — Like E. p. palustris, but mantle, scapulars and
edgings of tail- and wing -feathers and coverts much paler sandy-buff ;
back, rump and upper tail -coverts paler more ashy-grey (in young
female pale sandy-buff) ; grey patch below white collar on back
of neck ; male less streaked on flanks and female on breast and
flanks ; in winter also less tawny-buff on breast and flanks than
E. p. palustris.

Measurements and structure. — <§ wing 79-86 mm., tail 70-75,
tarsus 19-22, bill length from skull 10-11.5, depth at nostril 6.5-8
(10 measured) ; structure as in E. p. palustris, but bill usually
very slightly finer.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds in the great reed-beds of Lower Danube.
Nest. — Like that of preceding, but precise details of habits and
eggs unobtainable.

FOOD. — Also similar.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — One. Male, Rye (Sussex), April 23,
1912 (ut supra).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Delta of the Danube and southern
Russia to Lenkoran on the Caspian Sea .

Genus CALCARIUS Bechst.

CALCABIUS Bechstein. Orn. Taschenb. Vog. Deutschl. i, p. 130 (1803—
Type by monotypy C. lapponicus).

Very closely allied to Emberiza, but wings longer and generally
more pointed, hind claw nearly straight, about equal to or longer
than hind toe ; claws of front toes rather flat. Three first visible
primaries about equal and longest. Only one form in arctic
and subarctic regions of Old and New World, but represented by
a subspecies in Kamtschatka and Commander Islands, and another
in Alaska.

138

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

CALCARIUS LAPPONICUS

56. Calcarius lapponicus lapponicus (L.)— THE LAPLAND
BUNTING.

FKINGILLA LAPPONICA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 180 (1758 —
Lapland).

Plectrophanes lapponicus (Linnaeus), Yarrell, n, p. 15 ; Calcarius lap-
ponicus (Linnaeus), Saunders, p. 223.

Lapland Bunting (Calcarius I. lapponicus). <? spring.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Crown black almost entirely
concealed by long buff and brown tips to the feathers ; broad band
at back of neck extending on to sides of neck chestnut, much
concealed by buff tips ; mantle, scapulars, back, rump and upper
tail-coverts streaked black and chestnut-brown, feathers broadly
edged and tipped sandy and whitish-buff ; lores whitish ; stripe
over and behind eye sandy-buff ; ear-coverts same but partly
marked black ; between ear-coverts and chestnut band a buffish-
white patch ; cheeks, indistinct malar stripes and lower throat
black, much concealed by buffish-white tips to feathers ; chin,
centre of throat, breast, belly and under tail-coverts buffish-white ;
flanks heavily streaked black and chestnut-brown ; axillaries
white ; tail-feathers black-brown edged buff, outer pair with most
of outer web buffish-white and large wedged-shaped buffish-white
mark on inner web, penultimate pair with smaller buffish-white
wedge on inner web ; primaries and secondaries black-brown
narrowly edged buff or whitish-buff on outer and inner webs, inner
secondaries broadly edged chestnut-brown on outer webs and
tipped whitish ; greater coverts same but with more distinct
white tips ; median coverts more buff or buffish-white less chestnut ;
lesser coverts tipped and edged buff. This plumage is acquired
by complete moult in August. Summer. — A moult confined to
lores, fore-head, ear-coverts, chin and upper throat takes place
in April, new feathers of these parts being jet-black. Abrasion of
pale tips of feathers gradually makes rest of crown and base of
throat uniform black ; band at back of neck uniform bright
orange-chestnut ; mantle, back and rump much darker — black

THE LAPLAND BUNTING. 139

and chestnut-brown with narrow buff edgings ; eye-stripe becomes
much more prominent and whiter and extends in a broken line
nearly to base of bill ; breast and belly purer white.

Adult female. Winter. — Like adult male but with much less
black on crown ; chestnut band at back of neck ill-defined and
scarcely noticeable, feathers being streaked black, edged and tipped
buff and only slightly marked pale chestnut ; black on sides of
head, lower throat and upper breast browner often mixed with
tawny, not so extensive and almost concealed by buff fringes ;
streaks on flanks narrower and more chestnut-brown. Summer. —
Same parts are affected by moult as in male but it is less complete,
and new feathers are much like old, but those on sides of head and
throat with more black at bases. Abrasion of tips of these and
old feathers makes sides of throat and lower throat blackish but
always with some whitish tips ; crown becomes darker but never
uniform black as in male ; band at back of neck becomes pale
chestnut spotted and streaked black ; rest of upper -parts much
as male.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Whole upper-parts broadly streaked black, slightly
marked chestnut-brown on crown and scapulars, and all the
feathers edged bufnsh-yellow ; sides of head as upper -parts, but
ear-coverts rather browner and a white spot behind them ; chin
and upper throat whitish-buff spotted brown-black ; lower throat,
upper breast and flanks buffish-yellow narrowly streaked same ;
rest of under -parts whitish-buff ; tail, wings and greater coverts
as adults ; median coverts with white tips divided centrally black ;
lesser coverts fringed white.

First winter. Male. — Like adult male but chestnut band at
back of neck with minute black spots. The juvenile body -plumage
and lesser and median wing -coverts are moulted in Aug.-
Sept. but not rest of wing-feathers and tail. Summer. — Like
adult and with same moult, but crown and throat do not become
so uniform black, and chestnut band at back of neck is spotted as
in tirst winter.

First winter. Female. — Like adult female but with little
black on feathers of sides of head and malar stripe ; feathers cf
upper breast and lower throat only streaked black and tawny, not
with large dark centres. Summer. — After moult as adult, but
unmoulted feathers of upper breast are streaked instead of with
blackish centres.

Soft parts. — Bill yellow, tips black; legs and feet and iris
dark brown.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 88-96 mm., tail 61-67,
tarsus 19-23, biU from skull 10-11.5 (12 measured). ? wing 83-93.
Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 3rd longest, 2nd and 4th often
as long but sometimes 1-2 mm. shorter, 5th 6-8 shorter ; 3rd and
4th clearly, and 5th slightly, emarginated outer webs. Secondaries

140 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

between 8th and 10th primaries, tips square. Tail slightly forked.
Bill rather broad at base tapering sharply to point, under mandible
as E. citrinella, upper thicker than under and rather wider, cutting
edges slightly overhanging. Nostrils bare. A few small rictal
bristles. Hind claw rather longer than hind toe and only slightly
curved, somewhat Lark-like.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — C. I. coloratus (Kamtschatka)
is darker and more rufous on upper-parts, while C. I. alascensis
(Alaska) is decidedly paler than typical form. Long Lark-like
hind claw and comparatively thick upper mandible and chestnut
band on hind-neck of adults are distinguishing characters.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Found alike in the swampy hollows and
on the bare parts (where tussocky) of the high open " f jeld " in
summer. Flies up into air singing like a Sky-Lark. Call-note,
a soft mournful pipe, exactly like that of Golden Plover, but less
loud. Black head, chestnut nape and yellow bill of male are
easy means of identification. Female and juvenile look like
large, stout female Reed-Bunting, but are darker on the back
and have practically no white in the tail ; in adult females the
chestnut nape is also easily seen with glasses, but much less so
in juveniles. Generally found in this country in company with
Sky-Larks, or in mixed flocks of finches and buntings on stubbles
(N.F.T.).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Kests on ground in tussock or under dwarf
bush. Nest. — Built of grasses and moss, lined finer bents, hair
and always some feathers. Eggs. — 6, sometimes 5 or 7 ; ground
varying from greenish-grey to olive-brown, blotched and clouded
reddish -brown, streaked and spotted blackish. Average of 100
eggs, 20.67 X 14.96 mm. Breeding -season. — Begins early June ;
two weeks later in high north. Incubation. — Chiefly by hen, but
male also takes part. Period not exactly known. One brood.

FOOD. — Chiefly seeds of grasses and other plants ; in summer also
insects and larvae.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Autumn passage-migrant, fairly
regular northern and western isles and east coast (probably much
overlooked) but varying greatly in numbers. Arriving mid-Sept.
to end Oct. (extremes Aug. 25 to Nov. 23) ; occasionally recorded
December. Very rarely observed in spring and exceptionally in
summer. Has occurred many English counties as vagrant.
Ireland.— Four : Fastnet Rock (Cork), Oct. 16, 1887 ; Kilbarrack
(Dublin), Jan. 27, 1906, and Dec. 12, 1907 ; Killough (Down),
Jan., 1916.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Arctic and subarctic latitudes of the
Old and New Worlds ; in Europe common in Lapland, but south
of Arctic Circle only breeds at considerable elevations, such as

THE SNOW-BUNTING. 141

Dovrefjeld in Norway ; in winter to middle Europe, rarely to
Italy ; in Asia to China. Allied forms in Kamtschatka and
Alaska.

Genus PLECTROPHENAX Stejn.*

PLECTROPHENAX Stejneger, Proc. U.S. Xat. Mus. v, p. 33 (1882 — Type
E. nivalis L.)

Comprises only Snow-Bunting with some closely-allied forms
on Aleutians and Islands of Bering Sea. Bill : typical Bunting-bill,
though without hump in roof of mouth. Plumage full and soft,
wings much more elongated than in Emberiza, primaries exceeding
secondaries by twice length of tarsus. First visible primary longest,
next equal or nearly so, next several millimetres shorter and thence
rapidly decreasing in length. Tail about 3-5ths of length of wing,
strongly emarginate. Hind claw curved. Coloration of old male
somewhat like Montifringilla, but no close relationship.

PLECTROPHENAX NIVALIS

57. Plectrophenax nivalis (L.)— THE SNOW-BUNTING.

EMBERIZA NIVALIS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 176 (1758 — Lapland,

etc.).

Plectrophanes nivalis (Linnaeus), Yarrell, n, p. 1 ; Plectrophenax nivalis

(Linnseus), Saunders, p. 225.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head, crown, and nape
white, almost entirely concealed by long tawny-buff (dark brown
in centre of crown) tips to feathers ; mantle, scapulars, and back
black, almost concealed by long fringes varying from tawny-buff
to whitish -buff ; rump sometimes as back but more often con-
cealed portion of feathers white with black centres or entirely
white ; upper tail-coverts same, but longest always black with
long tawny tips ; lores and line over eye bumsh-white ; ear-coverts,
tips of feathers of upper breast (forming narrow pectoral band)
tawny and frequently tips of feathers of flanks ; rest of under-
parts pure white ; tail : two central pairs black fringed white or
buff, next pair black and white, two outer pairs white tipped black
on outer webs, next pair with larger black tips ; primaries black
narrowly edged and tipped white or bumsh-white with bases
white usually showing just beyond primary-coverts on outer
primaries and more extensive on inner feathers, 9th usually
having only distal quarter black, and 10th only a black patch
on outer web at tip ; secondaries white often with black marks
on outer webs at tip, three innermost black with long tawny-buff

* Stejneger, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., v, 1882, p. 33, has clearly shown
that the name Plectrophanes is not tenable, and has proposed Plectrophenax.
The name Passerina, which has been used for some time, is not correct. — E.H.

142

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BKITISH BIRDS.

tips and fringes ; primary-coverts white usually with black tips
(extent of white on primaries and amount or total absence of black
on secondaries and primary-coverts varies individually) ; bastard-
wing black ; greater coverts white, innermost black fringed and
tipped white or tawny-buff; median and lesser coverts white.
This plumage is acquired by complete moult in August and early
September. Summer. — A moult affecting chin, throat, ear-
coverts, and sides of head takes place in March and new feathers
are pure white except those of ear-coverts which are tinged buff.
Abrasion of tips and fringes of feathers gradually causes remarkable
change in coloration of upper-parts, whole crown and back of neck

Snow-Bunting (Plectrophenax nivalis). Lower, ? first winter. Upper, <? ad. winter.

becoming pure white ; mantle, back, scapulars, and inner secondaries
black ; rump generally white but in some black and white or
nearly black ; tail- and wing-feathers black and white ; whole
under-parts pure white.

Adult female. Winter. — Like male but upper -parts duller
buff not so bright tawny ; feathers of crown, nape and rump with
black centres ; black portion of feathers of mantle less extensive
and not so deep a black ; tail- and wing-feathers browner not so
jet-black ; two outer pairs of taiJ -feathers with black extending
further towards base of shaft and inner webs black at base, next
pah* with very little white ; primaries with no white showing

THE SNOW-BUNTING. 143

above primary-coverts and with distal quarter of inner feathers
black ; secondaries with largish black marks on distal portion of
outer webs ; primary -coverts black narrowly fringed white ;
greater coverts brown-black fringed buff and tipped white ; median
and lesser coverts brown-black tipped white. Summer. — Same
moult as in male but new feathers of ear-coverts more tawny than
in male. Abrasion of tips of feathers makes upper-parts greyish-
black but with buff or whitish remains of tips especially on crown ;
nape rather whiter speckled and streaked black.

Nestling. — Down, dark grey, fairly long ; distribution, inner
supra-orbital, occipital, humeral, spinal, ulnar, femoral, and crural.
Mouth, externally gape yellow ; beak yellow (C. B. Ticehurst,
Brit. B., n, p. 193).

Juvenile (Plate 6). — Crown, nape, back of neck, ear-coverts,
sides of head, and rump dusky or bumsh-grey very faintly streaked
black ; mantle more buff and considerably more broadly streaked
black ; chin and centre of throat dusky grey ; upper breast and
flanks more buff ; centre of breast and belly whitish-buff ; wing-
feathers and primary- and greater coverts as first whiter ; median
coverts greyish -black tipped white ; lesser coverts greyish-black
fringed greyish-white. Female has more black on secondaries
and outer tail-feathers than male.

First winter. Male. — Much like adult male but often (not
always) of darker tawny colour on upper-parts ; feathers of nape
and back with small black spots ; those of rump always with
black centres ; primary-coverts either entirely black or with bases
white freckled dusky ; primaries with less white at bases, 9th
and 10th primaries with distal half black ; secondaries with outer
webs marked brownish-black ; greater coverts brownish-black
tipped white, but sometimes the central feathers dusky-white
only flecked black ; median coverts white ; lesser coverts black
with buffish-white tips or white flecked black (amount of black
in wing -feathers and wing-coverts varies individually). The
juvenile body-plumage, lesser and median wing-coverts are
moulted in Aug. -Sept., but not tail- and wing-feathers and rest of
wing-coverts. Summer. — Same moult as adult and abrasion has
same effect but back of neck always has flecks of black ; rump
usually black (very occasionally white with few black marks).

First winter. Female. — Much like adult female and difficult
to differentiate with certainty, but has more black on secondaries,
most of outer webs and distal portion of inner webs being black ;
nape darker with less white ; greater coverts with shorter white
tips ; pectoral band often with black flecks.

Measurements and structure. — £ whig 105-112 mm., tail 65-70,
tarsus 21-23, bill from skull 11-12 (12 measured). $ wing 100-107.
Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 2nd and 3rd equal and longest,
4th 2-5 mm. shorter, 5th 12-15 shorter ; 3rd and 4th emarginated
outer webs. Secondaries between 8th and 10th primaries. Tail

144 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

slightly forked. Bill as in E. citrinella but with only a slightly
elevated ridge (not a knob) on palate. Short bristle-like feathers
covering nostrils. Hind claw about as long as hind toe, curved,
thick at base.

Soft parts. — Bill black (summer) brownish-yellow with dusky
tip (winter) ; legs and feet black ; iris brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — P. n. townsendi (Siberian coast
Bering Sea, Aleutian, Pribilof, and Shumagin Islands) is said to
be larger with longer bill. P. Jiyperboreus (north central part of
Bering Sea) has much more white on upper-parts and wings.
White under-parts and white in wings combined with long hind
claw, wing-formula and Bunting-bill distinguish it from all other
British species.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — In winter — when oftenest seen in this
country — it affects rough places near sea and the shore itself,
and to a lesser degree hilly country. Comparatively inconspicuous
on ground, is very noticeable in flight by reason of large amount
of white in wing, white outer tail-feathers and under-parts. In
summer contrast of black and white very striking. Usual gait,
like Lapland Bunting's, is a quick run. Alarm note " tweek " ;
call-note a long-drawn " dwee," not unlike Greenfinch's and
Brambling's ; song uttered in breeding-season very sweet.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds among screes on mountain-sides among
loose boulders or larva blocks, placing nest well out of sight among
stones. Nest. — Chiefly dead grasses, stalks, little moss, lined
finer grasses, hair, wool, and many feathers of alpine and northern
birds. Eggs. — 5 or 6 to 8 ; ground-colour ranging from yellowish-
white to bluish or greenish, boldly marked with blotches and spots
red-brown, a few blackish-brown markings and violet shell-marks.
Average of 100 eggs 22 X 16.1 mm. Breeding-season. — End May
and beginning June in Scotland ; in Iceland mid-May to mid- July,
but chiefly June ; in Lapland latter half June. Incubation. —
Lasts 14 days, chiefly by hen, but Faber says both sexes share.
One brood.

FOOD. — In summer largely insects, especially mosquitoes, also
seeds of dwarf birch, grasses, etc. ; in winter gram, seeds, sand-
hoppers, chrysalids, larvae of lepidoptera, etc.

DISTRIBUTION. — England, Wales and Ireland. — Winter - visitor
chiefly to coast, but occasionally inland, and rather commonly on
hills in Wales. Occasionally stops until May, and fairly frequently
in summer on north and west coasts Ireland. Scotland. — Resident.
Breeds in small numbers on higher mountains in northern half
of mainland — in any case as far south as Perthshire and in Shet-
lands. Once on St. Kilda. Also winter-visitor, not only to islands
and coasts (not much in evidence on north-east coast), but also
inland and on hills.

THE SNOW-BUNTING. 145

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Arrives regularly but in varying
numbers east coast mid-Sept, to mid-Nov. (extremes Sept. 1 to
Nov. 21). Many remain as winter visitors and passage movements
take place down east coast (especially noticeable in years when
species is more numerous) up to mid-Dec, and later under adverse
weather conditions. Return migration mid-March to mid-April
(extremes March 12 to June 8). Less regular west coast, but
occasionally in large numbers (as in 1911) in western isles.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Arctic and subarctic regions of Northern
Hemisphere to about 60° in Scandinavia, in winter farther south,
in small numbers to Mediterranean countries, even to north Africa,
Canary Islands, Madeira and Azores. American ornithologists
separate a subspecies from Siberian coast of Bering Sea and
Commander, Pribilof, and Shumagin Islands, but this requires
confirmation.

[NOTE. — A specimen of the AMERICAN SNOWBIRD, Junco hyemalia (L. ),
of which ten different local races inhabit the whole of North America, was
captured at Loop Head Light (Clare), May 30, 1905 (Irish Nat., 1906, p. 137 ;
Brit. B., i, p. 12), having probably escaped from captivity.]

[NOTE.— Specimens of the AMERICAN WHITE-THROATED SPARROW,
Zonotrichia albicollis (Gm.), have occurred at Aberdeen, near Brighton (Sussex),
in Holderness (Yorks.), and on Flannan Isles, but these had probably
escaped. Breeds in eastern North America, and winters in eastern United
States, and as far south as north-east Mexico and Florida.]

FAMILY ALAUDIDJE.

This is one of the best-defined families of Passeres, though its
members are very variable in structure. Sides of tarsus covered
with scutes, not with an unbroken lamina. Hind claw quite otj
almost straight, very sharp and often much elongated. First:,
primary varying from practical absence, unless searched for, to»
length of primary-coverts (and in foreign species to one-thirdl
and even half of length of wing). Sexes generally alike in colour,,
though different in size, but in Melanocorypha yeltoniensis very-
different in colour. Young in most species spotted, but not i»
Ammomanes (Desert-Larks) and Rhamphocorys. Numerous genera
in Europe, Africa and Asia, in America only Eremophila, in
Australia only Mirafra.

Key to genera of family ALAUDID^:.

/ First (rudimentary) primary well developed, mere than half length of
primary-coverts 2

First (rudimentary) primary invisible or quite narrow and stiff, less

than half primary-coverts 3

L

146 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

( Pointed crest in middle of crown Gaierida, t>. 156

21
[No pointed crest in middle of crown Lullula, p. 160

. Wing not over 96 mm., secondaries falling short of primaries not more

(mostly less) than 10 mm Caiandrella, p. 153

3

Wing over 96 mm., secondaries falling short of primaries much more
' than 10 mm 4

| Tuft of elongated, pointed feathers above each eye in adult of both
^ I sexes Eremovhila, p. 1 67

[ No tuft of elongated, pointed feathers 5

I Bill slender, pointed, culmen nearly straight . . . Alauda, p. 163
IH
• [ Bill thick, culmen arched Melanocorypha. p. 140

Genus MELANOCORYPHA Boie.

MELANOCORYPHA Boie, Isis, 1828, p. 322 (Mixture, type by designa-
tion of Gray, 1840, " M . latarica " = yeltoniensis).

Somewhat different forms are comprised in this genus, but
there is no advantage in further dividing it. Bill comparatively
high, strong, somewhat resembling those of many Fringillidce,
but not so wide, more laterally compressed. Upper mandible
curved, lower nearly straight. Nostrils close to fore-head, covered
by bristle-like feathers. Wings long and rather pointed, 2nd
to 4th or 2nd and 3rd primaries about equal and longest,
1st invisible in M. sibirica and M. yeltoniensis, distinctly visible
from below though stiff and barely 10 mm. long in M. calandra.
Tarsus longer than middle toe with claw, claw of hind toe longer
than hind toe, and straight. Tail short to medium, not emarginate.
Sexes different in colour, at least of certain parts. Six species
in Mediterranean countries and from Marocco and south Russia
to central Asia and north India.

Key to species of genus MELANOCORYPHA.

f Les&er upper wing-coverts reddish M . sibirica, p 147

1 -i
[ Lesser upper wing-coverts brown 2

I Inner web of outer tail-feathers white or cream-colour : M . calandra '• p. 151

21
I Inner web of outer tail-feathers dark brown or black : M. yeltoniensis .p. 149

THE WHITE-WINGED LARK. 147

MELANOCORYPHA SIBIRICA

58. Melanocorypha sibirica (Gm.)— THE WHITE-WINGED
LARK.

ALAUDA SIBIBICA Gmelin, Syst. Nat., i, 2, p. 799 (1789 — ex Pallas, Reise.
Typical locality : River Irtish).

Melanocorypha sibirica (J. F. Gmelin), Yarrell, i, p. 642 ; Alauda sibirica
J. F. Gmelin, Saunders, p. 257.

Wnite-winged Lark (Melanocorypha, sibirica) c? adult.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head and crown
chestnut, somewhat obscured, especially on hind-part of crown,
by tips to feathers which are greyish-buff with brown central
streaks ; hind-neck, mantle, scapulars, back and rump dark
brown, each feather edged pale brownish-grey with slight pinkish-
buff fringes to some of the feathers ; upper tail-coverts as rump
but basal part of feathers and fringes chestnut ; lores, orbital
ring and short superciliary stripe white ; ear-coverts streaked
brown, white and chestnut ; chin white ; cheeks, throat and
upper-breast same, spotted dusky ; sides of breast pale chestnut
and white, streaked brown ; flanks streaked blackish-brown
tinged chestnut ; tibial feathers pale chestnut ; centre of breast,
belly, under tail-coverts and axillaries white ; tail brown- black,
central pair edged rusty-buff, outer pair white, penultimate pair
with whole outer web and narrow fringe on inner white, rest
narrowly fringed white ; primaries brown-black narrowly fringed
whitish on inner webs, outer web of 2nd white, of 3rd to 7th
reddish-buff and tips buff, tips and distal part of inner webs of
8th to 10th white; secondaries with distal half of both webs
white, three innermost black -brown fringed and tipped rufous-
buff ; primary-coverts chestnut with concealed portion of inner
webs black-brown ; greater coverts black-brown fringed and
tipped chestnut and whitish-buff ; median coverts with distal
portion chestnut fringed pale buff; lesser coverts chestnut
narrowly fringed pale buff. This plumage is acquired by complete
moult in autumn. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion makes crown

148 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

and lesser wing-coverts more uniform chestnut, mantle rather
darker, spots on throat and breast become smaller or wear off,
chestnut on sides of breast becomes more prominent.

Adult female. Winter and summer. — Like male but fore-
head and crown like the mantle and only tinged chestnut ;
chestnut of wing-coverts paler ; spots on throat and breast larger
and more in form of short streaks ; sides of breast more heavily
streaked black -brown and less chestnut ; outer pair of tail-
feathers with a dark streak at tip.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Crown dark brown, feathers with bumsh-white
tips and bumsh-yellow bases ; nape more yellowish-buff, feathers
with buffish- white tips and penultimate dark brown marks ;
mantle, back and rump dark brown, feathers tipped bumsh-
white fringed and mottled yellowish-buff ; upper tail-coverts
like nape ; lores buffish- white ; cheeks same, feathers with
penultimate dark brown tips ; ear-coverts same but more
yellowish-buff ; chin white ; throat same with a few dusky
spots ; breast and flanks yellowish-buff, feathers with penultimate
dark brown spots ; rest of under-parts including axillaries white ;
tail-feathers brown, mottled yellowish-brown and evenly margined
buff with an inner dark brown line, outer pair white tinged buff
on outer web and with a brown line on inner web ; primaries as
tail but 8th to 10th with inner webs bumsh-white ; innermost
secondaries as tail, rest with distal half buffish- white ; greater
and median coverts as tail but tips whitish ; lesser coverts brown
tipped whitish-buff ; primary-coverts and bastard- wing brown
fringed deep creamy-buff.

First winter. Male and female. — Apparently like adults and
not to be distinguished. The juvenile plumage is completely
(including wings and tail) moulted in autumn.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 115-125 mm., tail 64-70,
tarsus 24-26, bill from skull 12-14 (12 measured). $ wing 106-112.
Primaries : 1st minute and less than half primary-coverts, 2nd
and 3rd equal and longest, 4th 5-7 mm. shorter,. 5th 14-18 shorter,
6th 22-28 shorter ; 3rd and 4th emarginated outer webs. In
juvenile plumage 1st primary is considerably longer and broader
than in adult. Secondaries between 8th and 10th primaries,
square tipped and notched, longest between 6th and 7th. Tail
almost square. Hind claw straight, spike-shaped and longer than
hind toe. Bill strong, upper mandible curved and slightly longer
than lower. A good many small and fine rictal and nasal bristles
and small bristle-like feathers covering nostrils.

/Soft parts. — Bill brownish horn, paler at base ; legs and feet
yellowish-brown ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS. — No subspecies. Distinguished easily by its chestnut
primary-coverts and lesser wing-coverts and white secondaries.

THE BLACK LARK. 149

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests on ground in depression on grassy
steppes. Nest. — Like that of other Larks, built of dead grasses, etc.,
under shelter of clump of grass or plant. Eggs. — Usually 4, some-
times 3 or 5 ; ground creamy or greyish- white, thickly and uniformly
spotted with olive-brown and ashy, but sometimes with a zone.
Shell noticeably glossy. Average of 100 eggs, 22.6 X 16.38 mm.
Breeding -season. — From end April to end May. Incubation. — Period
not exactly known.
FOOD. — Mainly seeds, but data lacking.

DISTRIBUTION. — - England. — Eleven. Female, near Brighton
(Sussex) Nov. 22, 1869 (Saunders, p. 257). Woodchurch (Kent)
male Jan. 27, female Jan. 28, and male Mar. 22, 1902 (N. F. Tice-
hurst, Bull. B.O.C., xn, p. 50 ; xm, p. 15). Pevensey Sluice
(Sussex) male Dec. 30, 1907, and female Jan. 1, 1908 (R. Butterfield,
op. c., xxi, p. 51 ; cf. Brit. B., I, pp. 256, 357). One seen near Rye
(Sussex) Nov. 3, 1915 (M. L. Kleinwort, op. c., ix, p. 209). Win-
chelsea (Sussex) male Mar. 30, male and female 31st and male
Apr. 2, 1916 (J. B. Nichols, op. c., xn, p. 159).
DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — South Russian Steppes, Transcaspia,
west (Russian) Turkestan to Siberia. On autumn-migration
frequently in south-east Europe and also far west : Belgium, Italy,
Heligoland, etc.

MELANOCORYPHA YELTONIENSIS

59. Melanocorypha yeltoniensis (Forst.) — THE BLACK LARK.

ALAUDA YELTONIENSIS Forster, Philos. Trans. LVII, p. 350 (1768 — S.
Russia, Lower Volga, near Lake Yelton).
Alauda tatarica Pall., Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B., n, p. 282.
Melanocorypha yeltoniensis (Forst.), C. B. Ticehurst, Bull. B.O.C., xix,
p. 57 ; Saunders, Brit. B., i, p. 14.

Black Lark (Melanocorypha yeltoniensis) 6' spring.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Whole plumage black almost
obscured on upper-parts and flanks by long buffish- white or buff
fringes to feathers ; similar but much narrower fringes on throat
and breast, rest of under-parts with scarcely any pale fringes;

150 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

tail-feathers tipped buffish-white and central pair fringed same ;
primaries narrowly tipped same ; inner secondaries tipped and
fringed same with two or three tooth-like marks on distal portions
of outer webs. This plumage is acquired by complete moult in
autumn. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion of pale-coloured tips
gradually makes plumage almost entirely jet-black.

Adult female. Winter. — Upper-parts pale buff, each feather
with dark brown centre ; upper tail-coverts with uneven or hollow
dark brown centres ; lores pale buff, freckled brown ; ear-coverts
and sides of throat much as upper-parts but tinged yellowish ;
whitish patch at base of sides of neck with blackish-brown patch
below it ; chin and throat buffish-white, feathers with dark brown
bases ; upper-breast and flanks dark brown almost concealed by
long white or whitish-buff fringes and tips ; rest of breast and
belly and under tail-coverts white, feathers with brown-black
bases ; axillaries and under wing-coverts sooty-brown ; tail dark
brown edged and tipped buffish-white, outer pair with most of outer
web white ; primaries dark brown tipped whitish, three outer
feathers broadly edged white on outer webs ; secondaries same but
with broader white tips, two innermost paler brown and with a
penultimate band of buff ; all whig-coverts dark brown fringed
and tipped buffish-white. Summer. — Abrasion of pale fringes
causes more dark brown to show on upper-parts, and black bases
of feathers of under-parts are revealed to varying extent by wear
of white distal halves.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Much like that of M . sibirica, but upper-parts more
blackish, not so yellowish-brown, and tips of feathers rather whiter ;
sides of head tinged yellowish, breast and flanks not so buff and
latter dark brown with creamy -white tips ; feathers of belly with
pale brown bases ; tail and wing-feathers as adult female, but paler
brown and evenly margined buffish-white ; wing-coverts as adult
female but paler brown.

First winter. Male and female. — Apparently indistinguishable
from adults. The juvenile plumage appears to be completely
(including wings and tail) moulted in autumn.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 127-139 mm., tail 70-76,
tarsus 25-27, bill from skull 16-19 (12 measured). ? wing 114-122.
Primaries : 1st minute, less than half primary-coverts, 3rd longest,
2nd and 4th sometimes as long but usually 1-4 mm. shorter,
5th 7-12 shorter, 6th 18-25 shorter; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer
webs. Secondaries between 8th and 10th primaries, tips rather
deeply notched, longest between 7th and 8th. Tail almost square, •
very slightly forked. Hind claw much as S. sibirica but very
slightly curved and quite half as long again as hind toe. Bill
very strong, shaped like that of M . sibirica, a good many small and
fine rictal and nasal bristles and small bristle-like feathers covering
nostrils.

THE CALANDRA LARK.

151

Soft parts. — Bill yellow, tip blackish ; legs and feet black ;
iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS.— No subspecies. Black colour of male, and large
size, thick bill and absence of white feathers in tail and wing, and
blackish-brown axillaries and under-wing of female distinguish
it from other Larks.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests on ground near salt-marshes. Nest. — In
hollow on ground, lined with dead grasses. Eggs. — 4 rarely 5, much
like Calandra Lark's, but perhaps less boldly marked; ground
greyish-white, marbled and blotched with ochreous brown and
ashy, chiefly towards big end. Average of 23 eggs, 25.1 X 18.12mm.
Breeding-season. — First half May. Incubation. — Period, etc., not
precisely known.
FOOD. — Mainly seeds.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Small party on borders of Sussex and
Kent, January, 1907, following being shot : male, near Pevensey
(Sussex) Jan. 29 ; female, near Lydd (Kent) Jan. 31 ; male, near
Lydd, Feb. 18 ; male, Rye (Sussex) Feb. 16 (ut supra). Female,
Westfield (Sussex) Jan. 30, 1915 and another Feb. 1, also a male seen
Hollington, St. Leonards, early in Jan. (T. Parkin, Brit. B., ix, p. 68).
DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — From west Siberia and Turkestan to
the Lower Volga. In winter more or less vagrant, and has appeared
in the Talysh plains, Heligoland, Galizia, Belgium, and Italy.

MELANOCORYPHA CALANDRA

60. Melanocorypha calandra calandra (-L.). — THE
CALANDRA LARK.

ALAUDA CALANDRA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. xn, i, p. 288 (1766 —

" Habitat circa Pyrenaeos.")

Melanocorypha c. calandra, J. B. Nichols, Brit. B., x, p. 254.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult
male and female.
Winter. — Crown, hind-
neck, mantle, scapulars,
back and upper tail-
coverts brown to grey-
ish brown, each feather
mesially streaked black-
brown very broadly on
mantle, less broadly on
crown, and narrowly
on hind -neck ; feathers

of centre of mantle Calandra Lark <**"«««*« «•

with rather conspicuous whitish-brown edges, most feathers
of upper-parts in very fresh plumage with very narrow

152 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

whitish tips which soon wear off ; rump brown without dark
streaks ; lores and line over and behind eye, creamy-white ;
cheeks whitish, speckled brown ; ear-coverts brown ; chin, centre
of throat and sides of neck below ear-coverts creamy -white sparsely
speckled dark brown, except in malar region where speckles form
ill-defined stripe ; on each side of lower throat conspicuous black
patch ; upper-breast huffish-white streaked black-brown, rest of
breast and belly and under tail-coverts white ; flanks, under
wing-coverts and axillaries greyish-brown, feathers with very
narrow greyish-white tips ; tail-feathers brown-black, central pair
widely edged pale brown, outermost pair with outer and most of
inner web white, penultimate pair narrowly fringed white and tip
white, rest with smaller white tips ; wing-feathers brown-black,
outer webs narrowly fringed pale brown (in 2nd primary whiter),
outer primaries with narrow brownish-white tips, inner primaries
and secondaries with wider and whiter tips, except innermost
secondaries which are fringed and tipped pale brown ; primary-
coverts brown-black, narrowly fringed and tipped pale brown ;
all wing-coverts dark brown fringed and tipped (broadly in greater
and median), pale brown to whitish-brown. This plumage is
acquired by complete moult in autumn. Summer.— No moult.
Abrasion causes very little change, but mantle becomes rather
darker owing to wear of brown edges of feathers, streaks on breast
and black patches on sides of throat become still more prominent.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — (Not examined.)

First winter. — Apparently like the adults and probably the
juvenile plumage is completely moulted in the first autumn as in
other Larks, but no specimen moulting has been examined.

Measurements and structure. — £ wing 120-135 mm., tail 57-65,
tarsus 26-30, bill from skull 16-20 (12 measured). $ wing 110-132.
Primaries : 1st minute and less than half primary-coverts, 2nd and
3rd usually equal and longest but 2nd sometimes 1-4 mm. shorter,
4th 1-6 shorter, 5th 8-16 shorter, 6th 13-27 shorter ; 3rd to 5th
emarginated outer webs. Secondaries between 7th and 10th
primaries, square tipped and notched. Tail almost square. Hind-
claw straight, spike-shaped and longer than hind -toe. Bill very
strong and thick, upper mandible curved and slightly longer than
lower. Some small and fine rictal and nasal bristles, and small
bristle-like feathers covering nostrils.

Soft parts. — Bill, upper mandible dark horn, lower yellowish
horn ; legs and feet yellowish-brown ; iris brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — M. c. psammochroa (western
Persia, Transcaspia to Turkestan), is paler and rather more sandy
on upper-parts and paler on flanks. M. bimaculata (Turkestan,
Persia, Lebanon, Asia Minor) has not white tips to secondaries
and inner primaries. Large size, black patches on sides of lower

THE CALANDRA LARK. 153

throat and white on inner web of outer pair of tail-feathers dis-
tinguish it from other British Larks.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Distinguished from all other British Larks
(except Black and perhaps White-winged) by its size, being almost
as big as a Song-Thrush. Conspicuous white tips to secondaries form
a ready distinction, when seen in flight, from female of Black Lark,
while black patch on side of neck and absence of white on base of
secondaries distinguish it from White-winged Lark (F.C.R.J.).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in depression in open country, especially
rough pastures or cornfields, and frequently sheltered by a thistle
or other conspicuous plant. Nest. — Dead grasses and bents, lined
with finer materials. Eggs. — Usually 4 or 5, but clutches of 6 and
7 have been recorded ; ground dirty white, rather boldly spotted
and blotched with ochreous-brown and grey shell-marks. The
greenish shade often found in fresh eggs soon fades. Average
size of 100 eggs, 24.2 X 17.8 mm. Breeding-season. — From early
April in Spain and late April in Greece to June — so apparently
double-brooded.

FOOD. — Naumann states that it feeds on grain and wild seeds and
Irby notes that it is destructive to young shoots of field-peas.
Also eats insects and their larvae (orthoptera, small coleoptera, etc.).

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Two obtained (from party of five)
at Filsham Farm, St. Leonards-on-Sea (Sussex), May 16th and
17th, 1916 (ut supra}. Two said to have been obtained in Devon
(ZooL, 1863, p. 8768, 1869, p. 1599, 1876, p. 4835), not considered
authentic.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — South Europe : Spain and south France,
Mediterranean Islands to Balkan Peninsula and south Russia (as
far as the Caspian Sea), Asia Minor and Armenia, Palestine, also
Marocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Occasional stragglers in Heligoland
and in Germany ; as this Lark is often kept in cages, single occur-
rences require careful consideration. Replaced by another race
in western Persia, Transcaspia, to Turkestan.

Genus CALANDRELLA Kaup.

Calandrella Kaup, Skizz. Entw. und Naturl. System, p. 39 (1829 —
Genotype — only sp. mentioned — C. brachydactyla).

Might almost be described as a miniature Melanocorypha.
Bill short, nearly conical, 1st primary not visible, hidden under
primary-coverts, 2nd to 4th as a rule about equal and longest.
Secondaries very long, in C. brachydactyla quite or nearly as long
as primaries. Hind claw about as long as hind toe, a little curved.
Sexes alike. Europe, Asia and Africa.

154

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Short-toed Lark
(CalandreUa b. brachydactyla).

CALANDRELLA BRACHYDACTYLA

61. CalandreUa brachydactyla brachydactyla (Leisler)— THE
SHORT-TOED LARK.

ALAUDA BRACHYDACTYLA Leisler, Ann. Wetterau. Ges., in, p. 357, pi. 19
(1814 — Montpellier in France).

CalandreUa brachydactyla (Leisler), Yarrell, i, p. 637 ; Alauda brachy-
dactyla Leisler, Saunders, p. 255.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and
female. Winter. — Whole upper- parts
varying from pale greyish-brown to
sandy-buff, broadly streaked black-
brown ; nape more uniform with
very fine streaks ; rump and upper
tail-coverts with scarcely any streaks
(crown in sandy-coloured specimens
usually reddish with fine dark
streaks) ; lores and superciliary
stripe whitish-buff ; ear-coverts grey
to sandy-brown ; cheeks minutely
spotted dark brown ; chin, throat,
breast, belly and under tail-coverts white with a sandy-buff band
across upper-breast ; flanks washed sandy-buff ; on each side of
upper-breast a dark brown patch; axillaries and under wing-
coverts white tinged sandy-buff ; tail-feathers, central pair dark
brown broadly fringed sandy- buff, rest blacker brown, outer pair
with buffish-white outer web and large wedge-shaped mark on
inner web, penultimate pair with most of outer web buffish-white,
rest narrowly edged and tipped same ; primaries brown tipped
and edged on outer webs buff and on proximal half of inner webs
whitish ; secondaries same, but inner feathers broadly edged and
tipped sandy or whitish-buff ; primary-coverts like primaries ;
greater and median coverts like inner secondaries but with reddish-
buff marks above the pale tips ; lesser coverts more uniform buff.
This plumage is acquired by complete moult in early autumn
Summer. — No moult and abrasion causes little change, but crown
becomes rather more uniform, dark streaks on upper-parts and
dark patches on sides of upper-breast more pronounced.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Upper-parts in general coloration varying as adults,
each feather evenly tipped white to whitish-buff with a penultimate
dark mark, giving upper-parts (including rump and upper tail
coverts and median and lesser wing-coverts) a spotted appearance ;
tail, wing-feathers, primary- and greater coverts with even margins
of white to buff ; lores, superciliary stripe and ear-coverts as adult
but some of latter with minute whitish tips ; under-parts white
with an irregular band of dark brown spots across upper-breast
coalescing and forming dark patches at sides as in adult.

THE SHORT-TOED LARK. 155

First winter and summer. — Like adults. The juvenile plumage
is completely (including wings and tail) moulted in Aug. -Sept.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 92-95 mm., tail 57-59,
tarsus 20-21, bill from skull 11-12.5 (12 measured). $ wing 85-94.
Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 3rd longest, 2nd usually equal
sometimes 1-2 mm. shorter. 4th 1-2 shorter, 5th 8-13 shorter, 6th
15-19 shorter ; 3rd and 4th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries
between 7th and 10th primaries, tips fairly square and notched,
but longest between 4th and 5th primaries, and tips pointed.
In juvenile plumage 1st primary is much larger than in adult
being almost equal to longest primary-covert instead of about
half, it is also broader and less pointed ; longest secondary only
reaches between 5th and 6th primaries. Tail almost square, very
slightly forked. Hind claw almost straight, spike-shaped and
longer (often half as long again) than hind toe. Bill strong and
thickish tapering gradually to rather blunt point. Fine rictal and
nasal bristles and small bristle-like feathers covering nostrils.

Soft parts. — Bill, upper mandible horn, cutting edges and
lower mandible whitish-horn ; legs and feet pale brownish-flesh ;
iris brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Subspecies require careful
comparison. For differences of C. b. longipennis see under that
form. C. b. duTchunensis (India, Mongolia) has darker breast and
flanks and darker brown upper-parts, C. b. rubiginosa (southern
Algeria, Tunis, Marocco) is paler reddish-sandy colour, C. b.
artemisiana (Caucasus) is said to be more greyish. All forms of
C. minor are distinguished from those of C. brachydactyla by upper-
breast being clearly streaked dark brown and long inner secon-
daries shorter, usually not reaching further than 7th primary.
Distinguished from other British Larks by small size and unstreaked
under-parts.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Distinguished by small size from all the
other Larks on the British List. At close quarters, light colora-
tion of under-parts, and dark patches on each side of upper-breast
are characteristic. Haunts barren plains. Song full and loud but
rather broken, uttered chiefly on wing but also on ground (F.C.R.J.).
BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in depression of ground, sheltered by
thistles, grass, etc. on open plains. .ZVerf.— Built of dead grasses,'
roots, with hair, bits of wool or down in lining. Eggs. — 3-5,
variable, but generally some shade brownish-yellow in ground ;
occasionally bluish ; finely freckled pale brownish- and ashy-
grey spots. Some are marbled, others uniform with a dark hair
streak, and some have darker zone. Average of 104 eggs,
19.6 x 14.6 mm. Breeding-season, — From mid- April onward to
June and July. Incubation. — Lasts thirteen days ; probably
chiefly by hen. Two broods.
FOOD. — Chiefly small seeds, also insects.

156 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Twelve England, four Scotland,
one Ireland. One near Shrewsbury (Salop), four near Brighton,
and one Amberley (Sussex) ; one near Southampton and one near
Portsmouth (Hants.) ; one Orpington (Kent) ; one Scilly Isles ;
one near Cambridge ; one South Breydon (Norfolk). Flannan
Isles (0. Hebrides) one Sept. 20, 1904 ; Fair Isle one June 18,
1908, one Nov. 28, 1910 ; Auskerry (Orkney) one Oct. 1, 1913.
One Blackrock Light (Mayo) Oct. 11, 1890. All occurrences in
autumn except one April, two June, one July.
DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — From south France throughout south
Europe and Mediterranean Islands and north-west Africa, north
of Atlas, eastward to Asia Minor and Palestine. Northern birds
more or less migratory, in winter to Sahara and Sudan (seems to
cross the western Sahara, but not observed south), also to north-
west India ; more southern birds resident or vagrant. Has occurred
casually elsewhere, as in Heligoland, Switzerland, near Metz. It
is desirable that such specimens should be carefully examined,
as they might belong to the eastern form. A paler race inhabits
southern Algeria and southern Tunisia.

62. Calandrella brachydactyla longipennis (Eversmann). —
THE EASTERN SHORT-TOED LARK.

ALATJDA LONGIPENNIS Eversmann, Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, xxi,

p. 219 (1848— Songaria).

Calandrella brachydactyla longipennis W.E. Clarke, Scot. Nat., 1915, p. 100.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter and summer. —
Like C. b. brachydactyla, but upper -parts paler and greyer (more
mealy), crown like mantle not rufous as it so often is in typical
form, eye-stripe rather whiter. Requires careful comparison, but
differences conspicuous in a series.

Measurements. — <$ wing 90-95 mm. (one 98), tail 52-59, tarsus
19-21, bill from skull 12.5-13 (12 measured). $ wing 85-90.
DISTRIBUTION. — Scotland. — One Fair Isle (Shetlands) Nov. 11,
1907 (ut supra}.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Not sufficiently known, but at least
breeding in west Turkestan, Transcaspia, east Persia, north to
' Kuldja (on the Hi river) in Dsungaria to the southern slopes of
Tian-Shan, east to Kobdo. Migrating in south-westerly direction,
to Asia Minor, Greece, Egypt and Nubia, and even Algeria and
western Sahara to the Oued Saret. (India doubtful.)

Genus GALERIDA Boie.

Galerida Boie, Isis 1828, p. 321 (Mixture; genotype by designation —
Gray 1840 and 1855 — G. cristata).

Differs from all other Larks hi having a pointed crest, arising
from about middle of crown. Bill more or less pointed. First

THE CRESTED LARK.

primary distinctly visible, about as long as primary-coverts, next
four not very different in length. Hind claw long, almost straight.
Sexes alike. Two often confounded species in Europe and north-
west Africa, a third in India. From western Europe to Corea,,
south to Abyssinia and Somaliland, and to south India.

GALERIDA CRIST ATA*

63. Galerida cristata cristata (L.)— THE CRESTED LARK.

ALATJDA CRISTATA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 166 (1758 — " Habitat
in Europse viis." Vienna fixed as restricted typical locality by Hartert.,
Vog. pal. Fauna, i, p. 228).
Alauda cristata Linnaeus, Yarrell, i, p. 632 ; Saunders, p. 253.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and
female. Winter. — Whole upper-
parts greyish- to huffish-brown,
streaked on head and mantle
black -brown, back and rump
being more uniform ; upper
tail-coverts with dark centres,
greyish tips and rufous bases ;
feathers of centre of crown

brownish-black with very nar- Crested Lark ^^ c

row greyish-buff edgings, in
shape very narrow and elongated, projecting 10-20 mn\
beyond other feathers and forming very distinct crest (on average
rather shorter in £ than in $) ; narrow line from nostrils over
and behind eye buffish- white ; ear-coverts huffish-brown ; lores,
under eyes, cheeks and sides of throat buffish- white, streaked
black -brown ; upper-breast same but buffer and streaks broader ;
chin and centre of throat unstreaked ; centre of lower-breast,
belly, and under tail-coverts very pale buff ; longer under tail-
coverts and sides of belly with a few fine dark streaks ; flanks
brownish-buff ; axillaries and under wing-coverts pinkish-buff ;
tail, central pair dark brown with paler fringes and tinged rufous
at base, rest brown-black tipped greyish-brown, outer pair with
outer web and wedge-shaped mark on inner web rufous-buff,
penultimate pair with narrow edging of rufous-buff on outer web ;
wing-feathers dark brown narrowly edged buff on outer webs and
broadly edged rufous-buff on inner webs, innermost secondaries

* The name Galerida has been rejected, and new names have been created
by Madarasz and Dresser, because they supposed that Galerida was a misprint
for Galerita, which w^s preoccupied. There is, however, nothing in the original
publication to prove this. In the same volume Brehm adopted Galerida,
and we may suppose that Boie and Brehm purposely spelt the name with d
in order to distinguish it from the well-known name Galerita, referring to a
common beetle, undoubtedly known to both authors. — E.H.

158 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

paler brown with greyish fringes ; primary-coverts like primaries ;
greater and median coverts brown with dark centres and whitish-
buff fringes and tips ; lesser coverts brown, narrowly tipped
greyish-white. This plumage is acquired by complete moult from
Aug. to Nov. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion of greyish or
buffish fringes of feathers of mantle and crown causes dark centres
of feathers to show more, giving a darker and more streaked
appearance, under-parts become whiter less tinged buff.

Nestling. — Down, whitish straw-colour, long and plentiful ;
distribution, inner supra-orbital, occipital, humeral, ulnar, spinal,
femoral and filaments on ventral. Mouth, inside dull orange -
yellow, two black spots at base and another at tip of tongue;
externally gape-flanges dull ivory-white.

Juvenile. — Upper-parts bumsh-brown, feathers of crown,
mantle and scapulars with large white tips and penultimate dark
mark, giving a spotted appearance ; feathers of fore-head, back of
neck and rump with narrow whitish edgings ; upper tail-coverts
with more buffish tips ; crest-feathers shorter and more rounded
than in adult ; dark brown markings on upper-breast in form of
spots rather than streaks and much less heavy than in adult ;
rest of breast, belly, flanks and under tail-coverts whiter than
adult and unstreaked ; tail much as adult but two middle pairs
paler and all tipped buffish- white ; wing-feathers paler and more
bumsh-brown than adult and with more distinct buff edgings and
whitish tips with narrow dark penultimate lines more marked
in inner secondaries ; all wing-coverts like wing-feathers but
with broad whitish tips and distinct dark penultimate lines.

First winter and summer. — Like adult. The juvenile plumage
is completely (including wings and tail) moulted in early autumn.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 105-110 mm., tail 61-68,
tarsus 25-28, bill from skull 17-19 (12 measured). $ wing 94-102.
Primaries : 1st 3-6 mm. shorter than longest primary-covert,
4th longest, 3rd and 5th often as long but usually 1-2 shorter,
2nd 1-5 shorter, 6th 5-8 shorter ; 3rd to 6th emarginated outer
webs. Secondaries between 8th and 10th primaries, tips square
and notched, longest inner secondary nearly equals 6th primary.
In juvenile plumage 1st primary is as long as longest primary-
covert and tip is much rounder and less pointed than in adult.
Tail almost square. Hind claw almost straight, spike-shaped and
as long as, or rather longer than, hind toe. Bill rather slender,
culmen curved. A few fine rictal and nasal bristles and bristle-
like feathers covering nostrils.

Soft parts. — Bill, culmen and tip of lower mandible dark
horn, rest of lower and cutting edge of upper pale flesh ; legs and
feet pale flesh ; iris black -brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Numerous races displace one
another geographically, distinguished by small differences in size

THE CRESTED LARK. 159

and especially by different shades of colour varying from the
almost black G. c. nigricans (Nile Delta) to the pale grey
G. c. iwanowi (Turkestan) , pale sandy G. c. deichl&ri (north-west
Sahara) and rufous-sandy G. c. isabellina (Sudan). G. theklce and
its subspecies are distinguished by comparatively shorter bill,
greyish axillaries and longer first primary. The long narrow
feathers of the crest distinguish Crested Lark at once from all
other British Larks (see Plate 6).

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Haunts roadsides, railway tracks, and sandy
ground in parties of two or three, allowing very close approach.
Call-note sweet and melodious " dudiria " ; song uttered both on
wing and from ground, not unlike Wood-Lark's, but less flute-like
and broken into short phrases. Tail short. At close quarters
long crest, whether depressed or erect, is characteristic, and
outer web of rectrices buff and not white as in Sky-Lark
(F.C.R.J.).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds in dry, sandy districts, near road-
sides, also in corn and potato fields and gardens, exceptionally
on sheds. Ne&t. — Carelessly built of dead grasses and plants,
sometimes hair in lining, placed in depression of ground.
Eggs. — Usually 4 or 5, glossy, and finely spotted or marbled with
shades of yellowish-brown and ashy ; sometimes fine brown and
grey speckles on greyish- white ground. Spots sometimes form
cap or zone at big end. Erythristic variety recorded. Average
of 100 eggs, 22.7 X 16.8 mm. Breeding-season. — End April (excep-
tionally early April) to beginning June. Incubation. — Lasts 12-13
days. Both sexes take part. Two broods, perhaps sometimes
three. Fledging -period. — In nest 9-11 days, flying a week later.

FOOD. — Principally seeds of grasses, corn, etc., and insects. Young
fed on insects and larvae.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Seven. Four in autumn at intervals
and one June 12, 1880, Cornwall ; one Littlehampton (Sussex)
prior to 1845 ; one near Shoreham (Sussex) Oct. 20, 1863 ;
one Dover (Kent) April 22, 1879. Others, including a supposed
example co. Dublin, 1836, not authenticated (c/. Saunders, and
Ussher, List of Irish Birds, p. 22). A male from Penzance (Cornwall)
Sept., 1846, in Mr. J. H. Gurney's collection, is of this form, but
the other specimens require careful comparison.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe from south Sweden to Pyrenees,
Italy, Balkans, and south-west Russia. Represented by between
twenty and thirty allied forms in Mediterranean countries, north
Africa to Sudan (Senegambia, Nigeria, Somaliland) and many
parts of Asia.

160 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Genus LULLULA Kaup.*

Lullula Kaup, Skizz. Entw. und Natiirl. System, p. 92 (1829— No species
named, but description that of L. arborea, which is also the type by sub-
sequent designation — Gray, 1855 — and by subsequent monotypy).

Closely allied to Galerida but without pointed crest, tail
shorter, about three-fifths of wing, bill thinner. First primary
obvious, about 15 mm. long. Sexes alike. One species in several
closely allied forms in Europe, north-west Africa and west Asia
(Transcaspia, Persia).

LULLULA ARBOREA

64. Lullula arborea arborea (L.)— THE WOOD-LARK.

ALATJDA ARBOREA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 166 (1758—" Habitat
in Europa." Restricted typical locality : Sweden).
Alauda arborea Linnaeus, Yarrell, i, p. 625 ; Saunders, p. 251.

Wood-Lark (Lullula a. arborea).

DESCRIPTION. — Adtdt male and female. Winter. — Crown, mantle
and scapulars broadly streaked brown-black, feathers edged buffish-
to reddish-brown, feathers of hind-part of crown elongated (but
not narrow, see Plate 6) forming crest ; hind-neck huffish-white
narrowly streaked black-brown ; back and rump more or less
olivaceous-brown ; upper tail-coverts more huffish-brown ; lores
and broad superciliary stripe extending behind ear-coverts huffish-
white ; sides of neck same but streaked black-brown ; ear-coverts
reddish-brown with darker tips ; chin and throat white tinged
yellowish-buff with small black-brown spots lengthening and
broadening into somewhat heavy streaks on breast ; flanks pale
buffish-brown with few fine streaks ; belly, vent and under tail-
coverts huffish to yellowish-white ; axillaries smoke-grey ; tail
brown-black, central pair brown, outer pair with distal halves
pale brown, next (penultimate) pair with whitish tips and next

* It is impossible to suppress the generic name Lullula. If Galerida is
separated generically, then Lullula must be too. Otherwise nearly all Larks
must be placed in the same genus. — E.H.

THE WOOD-LARK. 161

two pairs with smaller wedge-shaped white marks at their tips ;
primaries and secondaries black-brown tipped pale buff, primaries
narrowly fringed pale buff and secondaries buffish- brown on outer
and inner webs, inner secondaries with large wedge-shaped brown
marks at tips ; primary-coverts and bastard-wing brown-black
broadly tipped huffish-white ; under bastard-wing a conspicuous
buffish-white patch ; greater and median coverts brown fringed
buff ; lesser coverts same but outer ones tipped buffish-white
and inner ones grey-brown. This plumage is acquired by complete
moult in early autumn. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion of paler
fringes of feathers causes crown and mantle to become darker,
throat and belly becoming purer white.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile (Plate 6). — Crown, mantle, scapulars, back, primaries,
secondaries and wing-coverts black-brown, each feather (including
primaries) rounded and evenly margined with pale or whitish-
buff ; rump and upper tail-coverts buff-brown, each feather with
small paler tip and a penultimate narrow darker band ; nape,
eye-stripe, sides of head and under-parts closely resembling adult
but streaks on breast short and drop-shaped ; tail black-brown,
two outer pairs marked pale buff or buffish-white, central pair
brown fringed reddish-brown and tipped pale buff ; primary-
coverts and bastard-wing as adult. Feathers of back of crown
elongated but not so much as in adult.

First winter and summer. — -Like adults. The juvenile plumage
is completely (including wings and tail) moulted in early autumn.

Measurements and structure. — ^ wing 91-98 mm., tail 48-54,
tarsus 20-22.5, bill from skull 12-13 (12 measured). $ wing 88-95.
Primaries : 1st 3-6 mm. shorter than longest primary-covert (one
specimen 1 mm. shorter), 3rd and 4th longest, 5th often as long
sometimes 1-2 shorter, 2nd 2-4 shorter, 6th 6-8 shorter ; 3rd to 6th
emarginated outer webs. Secondaries between 7th and 10th
primaries, tips square and notched, longest between 6th and 7th.
In juvenile plumage 1st primary is broader and 1-5 mm. longer
than longest primary-coverts. Tail square. Hind claw slightly
curved and at least half as long again as hind toe. Bill fine and
sharp. A few fine rictal and nasal bristles, nostrils with a prominent
operculum and almost bare of feathers.

Soft parts. — Bill, upper mandible dark brown, lower paler
with pinkish-brown base ; legs and feet brownish-flesh ; iris umber.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Forms from Balkans and Greece
(paler) and east Persia (greyer) have been separated as well as
others from Sardinia and Corsica and north-west Africa, but require
further study. Broad white eye-stripe, white tips to primary-
coverts, very short tail are distinctive features in adult. Juvenile
closely resembles that of Sky-Lark, but is rather darker and less
rufous on upper-parts, whiter nape, darker primary-coverts with

M

162 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

longer whitish tips, longer first primary, much finer bill, outer
tail-feathers not entirely white.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Short tail, buffish- white eye-stripes meeting
at nape, and pinkish-brown, not yellowish-brown, legs at once
distinguish Wood-Lark from Sky-Lark at close quarters. Some-
times sings on ground or top of tree or bush but more usually in the
air, and often at as great a height as Sky-Lark, but whereas song
of that species seldom lasts more than five minutes, Wood-Lark's
may be maintained without cessation for an hour as the bird swings
to and fro in wide half-circles above its nesting-place. The ascent
is made, not perpendicularly like Sky-Lark's, but in a spiral curve,
short tail being especially noticeable in soaring bird. Song,
sweeter but less varied than Sky-Lark's, is not so monotonous
as often stated. Comprises series of short phrases, each being
repetition of one note, now tinkling song-note of Pipit, then one
resembling " dee-ur " of Wood- Wren, and again, and perhaps
most frequently, a flute-like " lu-lu." After young are fledged
birds keep together in family parties, and at times combine in
larger flocks. Call-note, a melodious " tloo-ee-et," often attracts
attention to these little parties as birds run on turf : it is also
uttered on wing.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests on or close to ground in depression,
sheltered by bracken, grass or heath, in open sandy country or
on hillsides with plenty of cover. Nest. — Neatly constructed of
bents with moss in foundation, and finer grass, horsehair, etc., in
lining. Eggs. — 4-5, very rarely 6, with greyish-white ground, closely
freckled with fine reddish-brown or olive-brown spots, and violet-
grey shell-marks, in some cases with well-defined zone at big end.
Average of 100 eggs, 21.1 x 15.6 mm. Breeding-season. — Begins
end March and early April and lasts till June. Incubation. — Lasts
14-15 days, apparently by hen only. Young leave nest before
they can fly. Two broods as a rule.

FOOD. — Chiefly insects, especially coleoptera and their larvae, small
orthoptera, diptera, etc., but also seeds of grasses and other plants.
Young fed on diptera and caterpillars.

DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. — Resident. Locally distri-
buted, most frequent southern counties, especially Devon, local
lower Severn and Thames valleys, from Bucks, to west Norfolk and
Suffolk, in southern Midlands and south WTales ; northwards very
scarce, but breeds rarely parts of Yorks., and probably parts of
north Wales ; breeding has been recorded from Lines., Lanes, and
Cumberland, and vagrants from Northumberland and Durham.
Has undoubtedly decreased, and is not now found in places where
formerly known. Scotland. — Rare but regular autumn-winter
visitor to Fair Isle, arriving from end Sept. to beginning Nov.
sometimes staying winter and even as late as April 2. Elsewhere

THE SKY-LARK. 163

vagrant, Pentland Skerries (Orkney) one Oct., 1911, Auskerry
(Orkney) one Oct., 1912, and two Oct., 1913. Flannans (0.
Hebrides) one Nov., 1913, to Jan., 1914. Isle of May (Forth) one
Oct. 16, 1910, one Sept. 29, 1912. Ireland.— Formerly in several
counties, now extremely rare and apparently breeding only in
Wicklow.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Except for Scottish records no
evidence of migration, except those of quite a local character, but
in severe weather small flocks and single birds are noticed on coast
in various parts.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Middle Scandinavia to south Europe and
Ural. Local forms have been separated from Corsica and Sardinia,
north-west Africa, south-east Europe, Persia, and Transcaspia,
but, though it is certain that southern and eastern birds are paler,
their distribution and relations to one another are not yet clearly
defined.

Genus ALAUDA L.

Alauda Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p 165 (1758 — Type by subsequent
designation: A arvensis — Swainson 1827, Gray 1840).

Bill stronger than in Lullula, much more slender than in
Calandrella. First rudimentary primary visible from below, but
minute, much less than half primary-coverts. Inner secondaries
very much elongated, but still falling short of primaries. Sexes
alike. Contains Sky-Larks and allies, ranging over Europe, Africa
north of Sahara, Asia to Japan, Kamtschatka, Formosa, China
and India.

ALAUDA ARVENSIS

65. Alauda arvensis arvensis L.— THE SKY-LARK.

ALAUDA ARVENSIS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 165 (1758 — " Habitat
in Europae apricis." Restricted typical locality: Sweden).
Alauda arvensis scotica Tschusi, Orn. Jahrb. xiv, p. 162 (1903 — Scotland)-
Alauda arvensis Linnaeus, Yarrell, i, p. 614 ; Saunders, p. 249.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and
female. Winter. — Upper-parts brown
(varying from yellowish- or buffish-
brown to more greyish-brown, occa-
sional examples are ashy or mealy
or reddish-sandy) broadly streaked
black -brown ; feathers of crown,
mantle, rump and upper tail-
coverts narrowly tipped whitish- Sky-Lark (Alauda a. arvensis).
buff ; feathers of hind-part of

crown elongated (but not narrow) forming slight crest ; feathers
of nape paler, and with fine dark streaks ; lores and narrow

M 2

164 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

superciliary stripe extending behind eye whitish-buff ; ear-
coverts brown, streaked dark brown ; chin buffish- or yellowish-
white ; throat same but with fine, short, dark brown streaks ;
upper-breast more rufous-buff and strongly streaked black-brown ;
flanks same but with fewer and less prominent streaks ; lower-
breast, belly and under tail-coverts yellowish- or buffish-white ;
axillaries and under wing-coverts smoke-grey tinged buff ; tail
black-brown narrowly fringed brown, central pair broadly fringed
brown, outer pair with outer web and large wedge-shaped mark
on inner white, next (penultimate) pair with outer web white ;
wing-feathers dark brown with tips, inner webs and outer webs of
outer primaries fringed buffish-white, outer webs of inner primaries
and secondaries fringed more reddish-buff and innermost secondaries
paler brown on distal portion ; all wing-coverts dark brown fringed
and tipped buff. This plumage is acquired by complete moult
in Aug. -Sept. Summer. — No moult. By abrasion of pale tips
(usually lost by December) and fringes of feathers, upper-parts
gradually become much darker, less yellowish and more grey,
under-parts become whiter less buffish.

Nestling.— Down, very pale straw-colour, long and plentiful ;
distribution, inner supra-orbital, occipital, humeral, ulnar, spinal
and femoral. Mouth, inside dull yellow, two black spots at base
of tongue and another at tip, externally flanges white.

Juvenile (Plate 6). — Whole upper-parts yellowish to dark
brown, each feather evenly fringed and tipped white or pale buff
with a dark brown subterminal line or mark, feathers of nape and
rump with narrower tips ; under-parts much as adult but throat
with scarcely any spots, and streaks on upper-breast not so dark
and more drop-shaped ; chin and cheeks often with a yellowish
tinge ; flanks brownish with a few spots ; wing- and tail-feathers
brown, evenly fringed buff with a subterminal dark brown line,
outer tail-feathers like adult.

First winter and summer. — Like adults. The juvenile plumage
is completely (including wings and tail) moulted in Aug. -Sept.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 111-122 mm., tail 71-76,
tarsus 23-26, bill from skull 12.5-14.5 (12 measured). $ wing 99-108.
Primaries : 1st minute, less than half longest primary-covert,
narrow and pointed, 3rd longest, 2nd and 4th sometimes as long
but usually 1-2 mm. shorter, 5th 5-10 shorter, 6th 14-22 shorter ;
3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries between 8th and
10th primaries, tips notched, longest about equals 6th primary.
In juvenile 1st primary is broader, not so pointed and only 3-6 mm.
shorter than longest primary-covert (in one specimen as long as
covert). Tail slightly forked. Hind claw sharply pointed, nearly
straight, from twice as long to half as long again as hind toe. Bill
much stronger than Wood-Lark. A few fine rictal and nasal bristles
and short feathers covering nostrils.

Soft parts. — Bill, upper mandible dark brownish-horn, cutting

Plate 6.

(BIRDS HALF NATURAL SIZE. FEATHERS NATURAL SIZE.)

1, Juvenile Snow-Bunting (Plectrophenax nivalis). 2, Juvenile Wood-Lark (Luttul.a a. arborea).
3, Juvenile Sky-Lark (Alauda a. arvensis). 4, First-winter Richard's Pip\t(Anthus r. richardi).
5, Juvenile Rock-Pipit (A. s. petrosm). 6, 1st primaries of Sky-Lark (a) juvenile, (6) adult.
7, Crest-feathers of (c) Sky-Lark, (d) Wood-Lark, («) Crested Lark. 8, Feathers from rump
of (/) Red -throated Pipit, (g) Meadow -Pipit.

(Face p. 164.]

THE SKY-LARK. 165

edges and lower mandible pale horn ; legs and feet yellowish-brown ;
iris brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — For differences of A. a. cinerascens
see under that form, A. a. cantarella (east and south-east Europe)
is intermediate between the two and impossible to determine
without comparison of a series, A. a. harterti (north-west Africa)
has a longer, more pointed bill ; several eastern forms differ in size
and shade of coloration. Short first primary, long straight hind
claw and white in outer tail-feathers are specific distinctions.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Of stouter build and larger size than
Pipits, and lacking their nimble gait, can hardly be confused with
any other species when on ground, for its longer tail and obscure
eye-stripe distinguish it from Wood-Lark. Characteristic song
is normally uttered as bird ascends directly from ground, soars,
often at height rendering it almost invisible, and then descends in
spiral curve, but at times sings on ground or from fence-rail or
bush. In winter gregarious ; white outer tail-feathers, and to a
lesser degree greyish-white edging of inner margin of wings, are
conspicuous as the birds pass with fluttering, undulating flight
low over fields, uttering the while a liquid " chirrup."

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests always on ground in depression in
grass or growing crops, occasionally on shingle or in sand.
Nest. — Built of bents and grasses, lined finer grasses, sometimes
a little hair. Eggs. — 3-4, occasionally 5. Ground-colour dull
greyish-white, sometimes greenish tinge, thickly and uniformly
speckled or spotted olive or hair brown, sometimes with zone of
dark spots. Varieties are almost devoid of markings or sparsely
spotted. Average of 190 eggs, 23.2 X 16.8 mm. Breeding-
season. — Generally from latter half April till July, exceptionally
even in March. Incubation. — Lasts 14 days, by hen only. Two
or three broods.

FOOD. — Mainly seeds, large quantities of seeds of various weeds
eaten, and some damage done to corn and leaves of root-crops.
Besides these, earthworms and insects (coleoptera and larvae,
orthoptera, hymenoptera, larvae of lepidoptera and diptera,
aphides), as well as millipedes, are eaten.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Resident. Common and generally
distributed but somewhat local in north-west parts of mainland
Scotland. Many, if not most, home-bred birds leave in autumn.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Southward movement of breeding-
birds begins in Shetlands and Hebrides late Aug., and is noticed
on east coast (early date Aug. 22), continuing to early Nov. ;
many cross Channel, beginning first week Sept. ; others pass to
Ireland mid-Sept, onwards. In spring return migration along

166 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

same routes from late Feb. to early April. From mid-Sept, to
early Nov. vast numbers from central Europe arrive between
Tees and Kent ; from north Europe throughout Oct. and early
Nov. (main arrival Oct. 10 to 21) in Shetlands, and east coast
Scotland and north-east coast England. Majority of central
European birds pass on, following route taken by our residents,
while north European birds form bulk of winter-residents, many
crossing to Ireland. Spring-emigration from Ireland along same
lines from mid-Feb. to late March. Our winter-visitors leave
north-east and east coasts for north and central Europe from
mid-Feb. to early May. Return movement of " passage- birds "
observed second week March to mid- April. Occasional " weather
movements " all three coasts in Dec., Jan. and Feb.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe with exception of south Italy
and south-east Europe, and Mediterranean islands, where it is
represented by a very closely allied subspecies. Other allied forms
inhabit west Siberia and other portions of north and middle Asia
and north-west Africa. Casual in Bermuda.

66. Alauda arvensis cinerascens Ehmcke — THE EASTERN
SKY-LARK.

ALAUDA CIKERASCENS Ehmcke, Journ. f. Orn. 1904, p. 313 (author

altered name because it had been preoccupied — A. cinerea Gmelin,

Syst. Nat. i, 2, p. 798, 1789. — According to Article 36 of the Rules,

Ehmcke's alteration must be accepted.)*

Alauda cinerea Ehmcke, Journ. f. Orn., 1903, p. 149 (Barnaul in W.

Siberia).

Alauda arvensis cinerea, W. E. Clarke, Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1906, p. 139 ;

Hand-List B.B., p. 31 (1912).

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Like Alauda
a. arvensis, but upper-parts with light and dark colours more
contrasted and cleaner looking, pale tips of feathers being whiter
and fringes being pale pinkish-buff not so yellowish ; under-parts
much whiter without yellowish tinge, lower-breast, belly and
under tail-coverts pure white ; upper-breast pale pinkish- buff
(not yellowish). Summer. — Difference in under-parts not so
marked, but A. a. cinerascens always purer white, upper- parts
considerably greyer with dark markings more clearly cut and more
strongly contrasted.

Juvenile.- — Ljfce that of A. a. arvensis but less yellowish, tips
of feathers of upper-parts being white and under-parts being white
without yellowish tinge.

Measurements and structure. — As A. a. arvensis.

• I have formerly not fully recognized Art. 36 of the Rules, but now
accept necessity of doing so. — E.H.

THE SHORE -LARK. 167

BREEDING-HABITS AND FOOD. — Not known to differ in any way
from those of European Sky-Lark.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Three. One Flannan Islands Light
((). Hebrides) Feb. 24, 1906 (ut supra). One Old Head of Kinsale
Light (Cork) Oct. 7, 1910 (R. M. Barrington, Brit. B., vi, p. 254),
One Tuskar Light (Wexford) Oct. 5, 1911 (C. J. Patten, Zool,
1913, p. 333).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — West Siberia, Turkestan, and parts of
Persia. In winter farther south and as far west as Algeria.

Genus EREMOPHILA Boie.*

EREMOPHILA Boie, Isis, 1828, p. 322 (Type by designation : " Alaitdct
alpestris L." Boie included three forms of what we now call Eremophila
and Temminck's doubtful " Kollyi ").

Old birds easily recognized by tuft of elongated and pointed
feathers on sides of crown. Wings long and pointed, inner
secondaries much shorter than primaries. Tail emarginate, upper
tail-coverts reaching to middle of tail or further. Sexes differ a
little, females being duller in colour, tufts on sides of crown less
developed ; young differs more strikingly than those of most other
Larks. Breeding in north Europe, chiefly north of Polar circle,
north and middle Asia to Himalayas, thence westwards to Caucasus,
Asia Minor, Balkan Peninsula, Syria and in Africa in the northern
part of the Sahara ; also in North America, where, in addition to
E. a. alpestris thirteen subspecies are recognized in the latest A.O.U.
Checklist, and Andes of Colombia.

EREMOPHILA ALPESTRISf

67. Eremophila alpestris flava (Gm.)— THE SHORE-LARK.

ALAUDA FLAVA Gmelin, Syst. Nat., i, 2, p. 800 (1789 — Typical locality :

Siberia).

Otocorys alpestris (Linnaeus), Yarrell, i, p. 604 ; Saunders, p. 259.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head and broad super-
ciliary stripe (extending behind eye) pale yellow, more or less
obscured by dusky-brown tips to the feathers ; broad band across

* Eremophila has been rejected by the majority $f authors, because
Eremophilus had previously been given to a genus of mammals. The two
words are, however, easily distinguishable by ear and eye, and there is no
rule demanding its rejection. The next oldest name Phileremos has been
rejected as it had been preoccupied by Phileremus, and the third oldest
name Otocoris (Otocorys) has been in use with most authors. — E.H.

t Tho name alpestris originally refers to a North American form, which,
though very close to the one of the Old World, is separable. — E.H.

168 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

centre of crown black, somewhat obscured by yellowish tips of
feathers ; on each side of crown over eye a tuft of narrow, elongated
black feathers forming " horns " ; back of crown and nape brownish-
pink, tinged yellowish and slightly
mottled dusky ; hind-neck same but
more pinkish ; mantle, scapulars,
back and rump brown, indistinctly
streaked dark brown ; upper tail-
coverts with pinkish bases and
whitish tips ; round nostrils, lores
and extending in a broad stripe
down sides of throat black (feathers
narrowly tipped yellowish) ; ear-
coverts dusky-brown with pale yel- Shore-Lark (Eremophila a. flava).
low bases ; chin and upper- throat <j ad. spring.
extending round sides at base of

neck pale yellow ; lower- throat and across upper-breast broad band
of black feathers lightly tipped yellowish-white ; rest of breast
white (sometimes tinged yellow) faintly marked dusky and the sides
mostly brownish-pink ; belly, vent, under tail-coverts, axillaries
and under wing-coverts white ; flanks brown, tinged pink and
streaked dark brown ; tail-feathers : central pair brown with
dark centres and pinkish bases, rest brown-black narrowly fringed
whitish at tips, outer pair with more white at tip and most of outer
web white, penultimate pair with outer web fringed white ; primaries
and secondaries dark brown, narrowly tipped and fringed on outer
webs whitish and on basal half of inner webs broadly fringed white,
outer (2nd) primary with most of outer web white, inner secondaries
broadly fringed brown ; primary-coverts, outer webs pinkish-
brown fringed whitish, inner webs blackish ; greater coverts dark
brown fringed pale brown and tipped whitish ; median coverts
same but with brownish-pink centres ; lesser coverts brownish-pink
fringed ashy. This plumage is acquired by complete moult in
early autumn. Summer. — No moult. By abrasion of tips and
fringes of feathers, yellow of fore-head becomes purer, black of crown,
sides of head, throat and breast nearly uniform (but often with
traces of pale tips on crown), back of crown and especially nape,
upper tail-coverts and sides of breast much pinker (in summer
—June — yellow of head usually becomes whitish)

Adult female. Winter. — Resembling male but less yellow on
fore-head ; black on crown much restricted ; feathers of " horns "
much shorter and tipped brown ; nape and hind-neck less pink
more brown ; rest of upper-parts with darker and more prominent
streaks ; yellow of throat duller, and black somewhat restricted
and not so intense. Summer. — Abrasion makes differences more
marked, crown being only spotted black, nape browner and streaked,
upper-parts much more streaked dark brown.

Nestling. — Down, pale straw colour, long ; distribution, inner

THE SHORE-LARK. 169

supra-orbital, occipital, (? spinal), humeral, ulnar, femoral and
crural (description from half- moulted skin).

Juvenile. — Whole upper-parts black-brown fringed buff and
each feather with a buffish- or yellowish-white spot at tip ; upper
tail-coverts pinkish at base ; short line behind eye yellowish-white ;
ear-coverts and lines down sides of throat black -brown, spotted
yellowish-white ; chin and throat pale yellow to yellowish- white,
feathers faintly tipped dusky-black ; breast and flanks dusky
black -brown, feathers fringed and tipped yellowish- or buffish-
white ; rest of under-parts white or yellowish-white ; tail- and
wing-feathers much as adult but more widely and evenly fringed
and tipped buffish-white ; all wing-coverts black-brown fringed
buff and broadly tipped buffish-white.

First winter. — Like adults. The juvenile plumage is completely
(including wings and tail) moulted in August.

Measurements and structure. — ^ wing 108-112 mm., tail 66-75,
tarsus 21-23, bill from skull 12-14 (12 measured). $ wing 101-105.
Primaries : 1st minute and less than half primary-coverts, 3rd
longest, 2nd often as long (very rarely longer), sometimes 1-2 mm.
shorter, 4th 1-4 shorter, 5th 8-13 shorter, 6th 18-26 shorter ; 3rd
to 5th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries between 10th and
7th primaries, tips notched. In juvenile 1st primary is broader,
not so pointed and longer, being about two-thirds as long as primary-
coverts. Tail slightly forked. Bill strong. Small, fine rictal
and nasal bristles and short feathers covering nostrils. Hind
claw strong, straight, spike-shaped and about one-third longer
than hind toe.

Soft parts. — Bill greyish horn with black tip and yellowish at
base of under mandible ; legs and feet black ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — E. a. alpestris (North America)
is very similar but has larger bill and browner wing-coverts,
E. a. atlas (Atlas Mts.) has sandy-brown back and wing-coverts,
E. a. bilopha (Sahara) has more uniform reddish-sandy upper-parts
and white fore-head and chin, E. a. penicillata (Caucasus, Asia
Minor) has greyer upper-parts and black bands on sides of throat
are broad and join black of breast, E. a. balcanica (Balkans, Turkey,
Greece) very similar to last but with purer grey upper-parts and
deeper yellow fore-head and chin, E. a. bicornis (Lebanon) like
E. a. penicillata but with white fore-head and chin ; nine other
forms are found in Asia and fourteen in North America. Black
" horns," yellow chin, black breast-band and pinkish hind-neck
easily distinguish it from other British Larks.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — In this country usually in stubble-fields,
or among bents near sea, also often amongst seaweed thrown up
by tide. Pinkish tinge of upper-parts, yellowish chin and black
gorget and whitish, almost unstreaked, under-parts make it clearly

170 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS

distinguishable though it may easily be passed over unless carefully
looked at. Usually not shy in my experience, but is stated to
be so in Fair Isle by Mr. W. E. Clarke. Flies low, and has rather
loud, sharp call-note. Its song is pleasing but slight, but is
probably not to be heard in this country. Collett states that it
gives its full song only when perched, and when mounting and
descending with wavy motion in the air it only utters intermittent
notes (H.F.W.).

BREEDING-HABITS.— Nests in hollow of ground in peaty soil,
sheltered by grass tussock, and often near stone. Nest. — Loosely
built of dry grasses and stalks, lined with down of willow, arctic
coltsfoot, and cotton rush or reindeer hair. Eggs. — Usually 4,
sometimes 3 to 5. Variable, ground greenish-white, thickly freckled
fine yellowish-brown spots, paler as a rule than Sky-Lark's, some-
times with few bold spots or dark zone and not uncommonly a
blackish hair-line. Average of 100 eggs, 22.7 x 16.2mm. Breeding-
season. — From mid-May to July in north Europe, often not before
June. Incubation. — Period unknown. Two broods reared as a
rule.

FOOD.— In summer seeds, buds and insects, especially small diptera
and coleoptera and their larvae. During autumn and winter small
mollusca and Crustacea also eaten.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Winter- visitor arriving first week Oct.
(early date Sept. 11) to mid-Nov. returning mid-March to third
week April. First noticed Norfolk, March 1830. Was irregular
winter-visitor to east and south coasts until 1879, when considerable
visitation occurred, and subsequently has increased and is now
annual autumn to spring visitor east coast from Yorks. to Kent.
Along south coast occasional ; elsewhere very rare. Wales. — Very
rare vagrant. Scotland. — First recorded East Lothian Jan., 1859,
subsequently uncommonly, as far north as Fife ; of recent years
annualty small numbers autumn and occasionally spring Fair Isle ;
a few in autumns 1907, 1909, and 1913, Isle of May ; 1913 Pent-
land Skerries and Auskerry (Orkney) ; 1915, spring Hoy High,
autumn Swona (Orkney). Unknown in west. Ireland. — One
Wicklow Head, Nov. 4, 1910 (R. M. Barrington, Brit. B., iv, p.
215).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — North Europe, chiefly north of Arctic
Circle, and north Asia. Represented in America by a number of
allied forms. (Hartert treats also all the Horned Larks of Asia
and north-west Africa as forms of E. alpestris.)

FAMILY MOTACILLID^.

Comprises the Pipits and Wagtails. Smaller Oscines (see p. 6),
partly (Pipits) very similar to Larks in general appearance, but
distinguished by the sides of the tarsus being covered with an

FAMILY MOTAClLLID.gE. 171

unbroken sheath. Front of tarsus with more or less fused scutes,
sometimes in old birds only distinct on lower part. Wings with
nine primaries as in Fringillidce (p. 42), secondaries more or less
elongated, often fully as long as longest primaries. Tail generally
rather long, twelve rectrices. Bill thin and slender. Plumage
soft. Two moults, a complete one late in summer, an incomplete
one end of winter and early spring ; this at least in all European
species. Mostly terrestrial, walking like Larks, not hopping like
Thrushes. Nests on ground or in hollows in buildings, banks,
trees, etc. Eggs spotted. Nearly cosmopolitan, richest in Palse-
arctic region. Northern species migratory.

Key to genera of family MOTACZLUD^:.

Tail shorter than wings, upper-parts brown, mostly

spotted Anthus, p. 171

Tail as long as, or longer than, wings, upper-parts

uniform grey, black or greenish .... Motacilla, p. 191

Genus ANTHUS Bechst.

ANTHUS Bechstein, Gem. Naturg. Deutschl., n, pp. 247, 302, 465 (1805
— Type by subsequent designation — Mathews, 1915 — A. campestris).

Appearance of most species Lark-like, upper-parts spotted or
streaked. Tail as a rule considerably shorter than wing, secondaries
as long as primaries. Sexes alike, young much like adults. Eggs
spotted, Lark-like. Nearly cosmopolitan, but absent from islands
in Pacific Ocean. Numerous in Palsearctic region. Ten species
Palsearctic, some with several subspecies, six in Europe.

Key to species of genus ANTHUS.

Tarsus and foot longer and stronger, tarsus

over 30 mm A. r. richardi,p. 172

1

Tarsus and foot shorter and weaker, tarsus
I under 30 mm 2

Blackish-brown spots on upper-parts and
breast , very conspicuous and sharply
defined 3

Darker centres to feathers of upper-parts not
obvious and ill -denned, those on breast as a
rule not sharply defined 5

{Hind claw considerably curved, equal to or
shorter than hind toe" A. trivialis, p. 176

Hind claw slightly curved, longer than hind
toe 4

172 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

/ Distinct streaks on rump and upper tail-
coverts A. cervinus, p. 182

4-j

Rump and upper tail-coverts almost uniform
I or with only indistinct dark streaks

A. pratensis, p. 179

(Upper-parts sandy brown A. campestris, p. 1 74
Upper-parts of a warm olivaceous or rufescent
brown A. spinoletta, p. 184

Richard's Pipit (Anthut r. richardi).

ANTHUS RICHARDI

68. Anthus richardi richardi Vieill.— RICHARD'S PIPIT.

ANTHTTS RICHAKDI Vieillot, Nouv. Diet. d'Hist. Nat., nouv. 6d., xxvi,

p. 491 (1818— France).

Anthua richardi Vieillot, Yarrell, i, p. 598 ; Saunders, p. 139.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and
female. Winter. — Crown, neck,
mantle and scapulars brown to
buffish-brown, broadly streaked
black-brown ; back and rump
almost uniform brown; upper
tail -co verts same but with
rather darker centres ; lores
buffish- white ; broad stripes
over and behind eyes rather
more buff; ear-coverts buffish-
brown, streaked dark brown ;
chin and upper-throat buffish-
white ; lower-throat and upper-breast buff, streaked black-brown,
streaks extending up sides of throat in form of moustachial stripes ;
lower-breast, belly and under tail-coverts whitish-buff ; flanks
deep buff ; axillaries and under wing-coverts smoke-grey edged
buff ; tail brown-black, central pair broadly edged brown, outer
pair white with inner web fringed brown-black, next pair with
shaft and sometimes most of outer web black-brown and less white
on inner web ; primaries dark brown narrowly fringed pale brown
on outer webs and broadly whitish on basal half of inner webs ;
secondaries, primary-, greater and median coverts, black-brown
edged and tipped buff ; lesser wing-coverts more uniform buff.
This plumage is acquired by complete moult in Aug. -Sept.
Summer. — The body-plumage, most wing-coverts, innermost
secondaries and central pair of tail-feathers (occasionally outer
pair also) are moulted March-May but not primary-coverts nor
rest of wing- or tail-feathers. N.B. — The extent of moult varies
individually. The new plumage is like the old.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Feathers of upper- parts including wing-coverts, inner

RICHARD'S PIPIT. 173

secondaries, upper tail-coverts and central tail-feathers brown-black
evenly margined pale buff to buffish- white ; under-parts buffish-
white (whiter than adults), usually more streaked on upper- breast
and sides of throat than adult ; flanks buff, lightly streaked dark
brown ; rest of tail and wings like adults. N.B. — The pale margins
of the feathers of the upper- parts give the juvenile the appearance
of a juvenile Lark.

First winter (Plate 6). — Like adults but with many pale-
margined juvenile feathers, especially wing-coverts and innermost
secondaries. The juvenile body-feathers and a few wing-coverts
are usually moulted in Aug. -Nov., but not rest of wings or tail.
Frequently some juvenile body-feathers are retained until spring
moult. Summer. — Like adults, the moult being rather more
complete and the remaining juvenile wing-coverts, innermost
secondaries and central tail-feathers being apparently always
moulted but not primary-coverts nor rest of wing- and tail-feathers.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 92-97 mm., tail 72-78,
tarsus 31-32, bill from skull 15-16, hind claw 13-20, considerably
longer than hind toe, slightly curved (12 measured). $ wing 85-92.
Primaries : 1st minute about half primary-coverts, 2nd to 4th equal
and longest, 5th 2-3 mm. shorter, 6th 10-14 shorter ; 3rd to 5th
emarginated outer, webs. Secondaries between 9th and 6th
primaries, tips square, slightly notched, longest inner secondary in
winter usually a little shorter than 5th primary, after spring moult
often as long as longest primary. Tail very slightly forked. Bill
fine, wider and flattish base. A few longish rictal bristles, nostrils
uncovered.

Soft parts. — Bill, upper mandible dark brown, lower paler ; legs
and feet pale flesh or pale yellowish-brown ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — A. r. striolatus (India) has shorter
bill and hind claw. Distinguished from Meadow-, Tree-, and Red
throated Pipits by its much larger size and less streaked breast.
Somewhat similar to A. c. campestris but tarsus and foot much
Jonger, upper-breast and sides of throat more streaked and upper-
parts much less uniform. Juvenile closely resembles juvenile
A. c. campestris in coloration, but tarsus, toes and claws are much
longer.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in hollow on ground in plains, sheltered
by tussock of grass. Nest. — Built dead grasses and some moss.
Eggs. — 4-6, rather variable, ground ranging from greenish-grey
to dirty pink, thickly and as a rule uniformly mottled with olive
or reddish-brown spots and grey shell-marks. Average of 24
eggs, 21.38 X 16.4 mm. Breeding -season. — From beginning June
to July in Siberia. Incubation. — Period unknown ; hen shot
from eggs. Two broods (Dybowski).

FOOD. — Worms, orthoptera, and occasionally a butterfly or insect

174 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

taken in winter-quarters (Legge). Insects are main food in
summer.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Vagrant. Over eighty recorded
in various parts England, but chiefly in south coast counties and
Norfolk. In Scotland, single birds Perth, Kirkcudbright and
Midlothian, several autumn 1908, one Sept. 26, 1909, two Oct. 6,
1911, and one Oct. 2, 1912, Fair Isle. In Ireland, one Lucan
(Dublin) Nov. 21, 1907, one Howth (Dublin) Oct. 23, 1911.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — North Asia. Migrant, wintering in
tropical India and south China, and frequently visiting Europe,
even west Europe, and Mediterranean countries. An allied race
breeds in south Mongolia and China south to Himalayas and
Khasia Hills.

ANTHUS CAMPESTRIS

69. .Anthus campestris (L.)— THE TAWNY PIPIT.

ALAUDA CAMPESTEIS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 166 (1758

"Habitat in Europa." Restricted typical locality : Sweden).
Anthus campestris (Linnaeus), Yarrell, i, p. 592 ; Saunders, p. 137.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and
female. Winter. — Fore-head and
crown pale sandy-brown (often
slightly tinged greyish) somewhat
indistinctly streaked black-brown ;
mantle, scapulars, and upper
tail-coverts same but more uni-
form with Only very fine Streaks; Tawny Pipit ( Anthus c. campestris).

rump same but unstreaked ;
stripe from base of bill, over eye to back of crown cream-
colour ; lores and ear-coverts brown and cream ; chin and
throat yellowish to whitish cream-colour usually with an
interrupted dark brown moustachial stripe but sometimes
without any dark marks ; breast more buff, usually with a
few short dark brown streaks but sometimes unstreaked ;
flanks buff ; belly, under tail-coverts and axillaries cream-colour
to buffish-white ; tail dark brown, central pair broadly, and rest
very narrowly edged and tipped pale buff, outermost pair with
outer web and most of inner (in wedge-shape) whitish to huffish
cream-colour, next (penultimate) pair with brown shaft and smaller
wedge of cream on inner web (N.B. — Amount of cream-colour
varies considerably) ; wing-feathers dark brown edged and tipped
whitish very narrowly on outer, and more broadly on inner webs :
inner secondaries and greater coverts broadly edged and tipped
buff ; median coverts same but with blacker centres ; lesser
coverts pale sandy-brown ; primary-coverts as primaries. This

THE TAWNY PIPIT. 175

plumage is acquired by complete moult in Aug. -Nov. Summer. —
The body-plumage, most wing-coverts and occasionally some inner-
most secondaries and central tail-feathers are moulted March -April,
but not primary-coverts nor rest of wing- and tail-feathers. The
new plumage is like the old, but when much worn (June and July)
the upper-parts become less sandy and darker, more pinkish-
brown, and pale edges wearing off inner secondaries and wing-
coverts give it a still more uniform appearance, while under-parts
become paler and small streaks on breast rather more prominent.

Nestling. — ( Not exa mined . )

Juvenile. — Feathers of upper-parts including wing-coverts,
inner secondaries and central tail-feathers dark reddish-brown
evenly margined pale buff to buffish-white ; upper tail-coverts
buff with broad dark brown mesial streaks ; under-parts much
as adults but with more and broader dark brown streaks on breast
and distinct moustachial stripes ; flanks lightly streaked ; rest
of tail and wings like adults. N.B. — In this plumage closely
resembles juvenile Richard's Pipit, but may be at once recognized
by its smaller tarsus and foot.

First winter. — Like adults but frequently with many pale-
margined juvenile feathers on the body and always with some in.
wing-coverts and inner secondaries. The juvenile body-feathers
and a varying number of wing-coverts and innermost secondaries
and sometimes the central tail-feathers are moulted in July-Nov.
N.B. — Extent of moult and number of juvenile feathers retained
varies considerably individually. Summer. — Like adults and
moult the same. Remaining juvenile body-feathers and median
and lesser wing-coverts appear to be always moulted, but not
necessarily the innermost secondaries and central tail-feathers, the
edges of which become so worn as to make them indistinguishable
from those of adults.

Measurements and structure. — <£ wing 89-98 mm., tail 67-74,
tarsus 26-29, bill from skull 15-18, hind claw 7-10, about as long
as hind toe, curved (12 measured). $ wing 81-89. Primaries :
1st minute and less than half primary-coverts, 3rd and 4th equal
and longest, 2nd as long or 1-2 mm. shorter, 5th 1-3 shorter, 6th
10-13 shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries
between 8th and 10th primaries, tips square slightly notched,
longest inner secondary as long as longest primary or between
5th and 6th. Tail very slightly forked. Bill fine, wider and
flatter at base. A few fine rictal bristles, nostrils uncovered.

Soft parts. — Bill, upper mandible and tip of lower dark brown,.
rest of lower flesh ; legs and feet bright yellowish-flesh ; iris
black-brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — A. c. minor (north-west India)
is a doubtful form. A. sordidus captus (Palestine, Persia, Baluchi-
stan) is very similar but larger and the outer tail-feathers, especially

176 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

the penultimate pair, have less cream-colour. A. s. jerdoni
(Himalayas) is darker and browner on upper -parts. Distinguished
in adult plumage from all other British Pipits by the uniform
coloration of its upper -parts.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Haunts sand-dunes, plains and barren hill-
sides. Song, metallic cadence uttered during flight. Stands high
on legs and looks larger than any other British Pipit except
Richard's ; also runs with great speed. Throat and under-surface
uniform pale buff-cream ; broad whitish eye-stripe (F.C.R.J.).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds on hillsides and barren plains, nesting
in depression of ground sheltered by tussock, bush or vine.
Nest. — Neatly built of grasses, roots, etc., lined some hair.
Eggs. — Generally 4-5, rarely 6, closely spotted and mottled with
brown, and violet shell -marks, on whitish ground. Occasionally
markings form cap or zone. Average of 137 eggs, 21.9 x 15.7 mm.
Breeding-season. — Begins mid-April in north Africa and end of
May or early June in central Europe. Probably two broods
sometimes, as eggs have been found in July. Incubation. —
Lasts 13-14 days ; performed by hen only (Naumann).

FOOD. — Chiefly insects (coleoptera, orthoptera, diptera, and their
larvae, also larvae of lepidoptera), all taken on the ground ; no
seeds.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Thirty or more in past fifty years
in autumn on Sussex coast, where Mr. M. J. Nicoll in 1904 con-
sidered it an annual visitor, and had evidence that a pair bred
1905, and again possibly 1906. Elsewhere very rare straggler —
one Scilly Isles, Sept. 1868 ; one Yorks., Nov. 20, 1869 ; one Hants.,
1879 ; one Lowestoft (Suffolk) Sept. 2, 1890 ; one Yarmouth
(Norfolk) Oct. 9, 1897 ; one Cornwall Sept. 16, 1899 ; one Cley
(Norfolk) Sept. 15, 1910.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe from south and middle Sweden
to Mediterranean and north-west Africa, east to central Asia.
In winter in tropical Africa and north-west India. The existence
of a smaller form is doubtful.

ANTHUS TRIVIALIS

70. Anthus trivialis trivialis (L.)— THE TREE-PIPIT.

ALAUDA TRIVIALIS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 166 (1758— Sweden).
Anthus arboreus MacGillivray, Hist. Brit. B., n, p. 188 ; Thompson
B. Ireland, i, p. 224.
Anthus trivialis (Linnaeus), Yarrell, I, p. 569 ; Saunders, p. 131.

THE TREE-PIPIT.

177

Tree-Pipit (Anthus t. trivialis).
Meadow-Pipit (Anthus pratentis).

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Crown, nape,
mantle and back olive or buffish-brown, streaked black-brown ;
rump and upper tail-coverts same but almost uniform with very
fine indistinct streaks ; superciliary stripe yellowish-buff ; ear-
coverts buff and brown ; chin pale buff ; fairly distinct black-
brown moustachial stripes ; sides of throat, breast and flanks
yellowish-buff, streaked black-brown, but centre of throat uniform
buff ; centre of lower-breast and belly white ; under tail-coverts
pale buff ; axillaries dusky-grey fringed very pale buff ; tail and
wings as in A. pratensis. This plumage is acquired by complete
moult in Aug. -Sept. Summer. — A moult takes place from Jan.
to March to same extent as in A. pratensis, and new plumage is
like winter. In worn plumage dark markings of upper- and under-
parts are accentuated and throat, breast, and flanks less buff.

Nestling. — Down dark smoke-grey, fairly long and plentiful ;
distribution, inner and outer supra-orbital, occipital, spinal,
humeral, ulnar, femoral, crural and one or two filaments on ventral.
Mouth, inside orange, edges and spurs of tongue and barbs on palate
yellow ; externally flanges pale yellow. No spots.

Juvenile. — Resembling adult but more buff not so olive and
more prominently streaked on upper-parts, flanks with only a few
very fine dark streaks ; breast, flanks and under tail-coverts
washed with a warmer (not so yellowish) buff as adult.

First winter. — Like adult. The juvenile body -feathers, lesser
and median wing-coverts, some inner greater coverts and innermost
secondaries and occasionally central pair of tail-feathers are moulted
July-Sept., but not primary-coverts nor rest of greater coverts,
wings and tail. N.B. — Some examples retain a number of juvenile
feathers until they reach winter- quarters. First summer. — Like
adult and moult same.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 84-90 mm., tail 55-65,

178 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

tarsus 20-21.5, bill from skull 13.5-15, hind claw 7.5-9, consider-
ably curved and equal to or shorter than hind toe (12 measured).
$ wing 80-87. Primaries : 1st minute, about half primary-
coverts, 2nd to 4th about equal (greatest difference 1 mm.) and
longest, 5th 2.5-5 mm. shorter, 6th 11-14 shorter; 3rd to 5th
emarginated outer webs. Secondaries between 7th and 10th
primaries, tips fairly square, longest inner secondary generally
equal to 5th primary but in summer plumage often as long as
longest primary. Tail slightly forked. Bill rather fine with base
wider and flatter. A few fine short rictal bristles. Nostrils
uncovered.

Soft parts. — Bill, upper and tip of lower mandible dark brown,
rest of lower pale flesh ; legs and feet pale brownish-flesh (pinker
than Meadow-Pipit) ; iris black-brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — A. t. hodgsoni (maculatus Jerd.
1864 of authors, but not of Vieillot 1818) (Siberia, Japan to India
and China) and A. t. berezowskii (Kansu) are generally much greener
and more uniform on upper-parts and have wider and blacker
streaks on under-parts, A. t. haringtoni (Kashmir) has wider,
coarser bill and wider streaks on under-parts than typical form,
A. t. yunnanensis (south-west China) has shorter bill. For specific
distinctions see pp. 180-1.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Pipits differ from Larks in their more
slender build, graceful carriage, and restless Wagtail-like activity,
but resemble one another very closely in appearance, voice and
demeanour. Very like Meadow-Pipit, but rather larger, tail
longer, upper-parts warmer brown, spots on breast larger but fewer,
and legs flesh-coloured. Inhabits wooded districts. Song some-
times uttered from tree-tops, but usually on wing as bird ascends
perpendicularly from perch and then planes downwards with
outspread wings and upturned and outspread tail ; notes during
descent " see-ar, see-ar, see-ar," are characteristic. Call-note
a hoarse " tsee." Alarm-note, metallic " chip."

BREEDING -HABITS. — Breeds in depression of ground on sides of
railway cuttings, country lanes, hillsides, rough pastures and
outskirts of woods, and haunts fertile, well-wooded districts.
Nest. — Substantially built of dry grasses and bents, with moss
in foundation, lined finer grasses and varying amount of hair.
Eggs. — Usually 4 to 6, rarely 7 or even 8 ; extraordinarily variable.
Three mam types are reddish, brown, or grey in general appear-
ance, but in each type eggs may be uniformly speckled, with
well-defined zone or cap, or with blotches and streaks. Finely
spotted eggs also have frequently a black hair-streak. Ground-
colour varies from pale blue to pinkish, greenish, brownish or
grey. Scarce varieties show few or no markings on blue ground.
Average of 174 eggs, 20.09 X 15.1 mm. Breeding-season. —

THE MEADOW-PIPIT. 179

Latter half of May and early June ; occasionally early in May.
One brood. Incubation. — Lasts 13-14 days, apparently by hen
only.

FOOD. — Chiefly insects (small coleoptera, orthoptera, many species
of diptera, hymenoptera, etc., as well as their ' larvse), also
spiders.

DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. — Summer-resident. Fairly
distributed and common except west Cornwall, but occurs autumn
and has bred on Scilly Isles. Scotland. — Plentiful south-west and
fairly distributed elsewhere to central, but rarer northwards ;
very rare Sutherland, and does not breed Caithness, not recorded
Shetlands, and only once or twice Orkneys and O. Hebrides until
autumn 1910 when a good many St. Kilda and 1913 when quite
abundant Auskerry, regular spring and autumn passage-migrant
Fair Isle. Ireland. — One singing co. Gal way May 21, 1914. Several
Sept. and Oct. 1912, 1913 and 1915 Tuskar Rock (Wexford). One
Sept. 1913 Rockabill (Dublin). Previously reported occurrences
not authenticated.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe from Tromso and north Russia
to north Spain, higher portions of Italy, and in small numbers to
south-east Europe (mountains of Greece), in Asia to the Yenisei
and Tian-Shan. Migrates in winter to Mediterranean, tropical
Africa, and north-west India. Replaced by an allied race (often
treated as separate species) in north-east Siberia, Japan, China
.and bv others in Kashmir, Kansu and south-west China.

ANTHUS PRATENSIS

71. Anthus pratensis (L.)— THE MEADOW-PIPIT.

ALAUDA PRATENSIS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 166 (1758— "Habitat
in Europae pratis." Restricted typical locality : Sweden).
Anthus pratensis (Linnaeus), Yarrell, I, p. 575 ; Saunders, p. 133.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Crown, nape,
mantle and back olive, greenish-brown, or buffish-brown (occasion-
ally pinkish-brown), streaked black-brown ; rump and upper
tail-coverts same but almost uniform with only very fine indistinct
dark streaks ; superciliary stripe greyish or yellowish-white ;
•ear-coverts brown or yellowish-brown ; chin, centre of throat,
belly, and under tail-coverts whitish-grey or yellowish-buff
(occasionally pinkish-buff) ; sides of throat, breast and flanks
:same but broadly streaked brown-black ; axillaries dusky-grey
fringed very pale yellow ; tail-feathers black-brown, central pair
fringed same colour as upper tail-coverts, outer pair with dusky-
white outer web and large white wedge-shaped mark on inner

N 2

180 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

web, penultimate pair with small wedge-shaped white mark at
tip of inner web, next pair usually with very small white mark
at tip ; primaries and secondaries black-brown, fringed on inner
webs dusky-grey and on outer webs greenish or greyish-buff,
inner secondaries and wing-coverts with paler buff (sometimes
•whitish) edgings and tips. This plumage is acquired by complete
moult in Aug. -Oct. Summer. — All body-feathers, wing- coverts
(some outer greater and median coverts occasionally do not moult
and primary-coverts never do), innermost secondaries and central
tail-feathers are moulted (exceptionally outer tail-feathers or all
are moulted) but not other wing- or tail-feathers, from Jan. to
March. New plumage is like winter, but as summer advances
upper-parts become very dark and under-parts very pale and
boldly streaked owing to edges and tips of feathers wearing away.
N.B. — There is great individual variation in colour of under-parts
and lighter portions of feathers of upper-parts both in winter and
summer.

Nestling. — Down, brownish-grey, fairly long and plentiful ;
distribution, inner and outer supra-orbital, occipital, humeral,
ulnar, spinal, femoral, crural and ventral, very scanty on two
latter tracts. Mouth, inside carmine, externally flanges pale
yellow. No tongue-spots, but tongue-spurs whitish.

Juvenile. — Closely resembling adult but with edgings of
feathers of upper-parts smaller and dark markings more distinct,
under-parts generally tinged yellow.

First urinter.—Like adult. The juvenile body-feathers, lesser,
median and some inner greater wing-coverts and innermost secon-
daries and occasionally central pair of tail-feathers are moulted
July to Oct., but not primary-coverts nor rest of greater coverts
wings and tail. First summer. — Like adult and moult same.

Measurements and structure. — £ wing 77-85 mm., tail 58-64,
tarsus 20-23, bill from skull 11.5-13.5, hind claw 10-14, slightly
curved, longer than hind toe (12 measured). $ wing 74-79.
Primaries : 1st minute, about half primary-coverts, 2nd to 5th
nearly equal (greatest difference 1.5 mm.) and longest, 6th 8-11
shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries between
7th and 10th primaries, tips fairly square, longest inner secondary
usually between 5th and 6th primaries but sometimes as long
as longest primaries. Tail and bill as in Tree-Pipit.

Soft parts. — Bill dark brown with pale brownish-flesh base ;
legs and feet pale brownish ; iris black- brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED SPECIES. — No subspecies recognized.
As compared to Tree-Pipit is rather smaller (looking decidedly
shorter in life), has much longer and less curved hind claw, and
5th primary is equal to or within 1 mm. of longest, instead of
2.5-5 mm. shorter as in A. trivialis. In fresh plumage contrast
between buff throat and breast and whitish belly is always more

THE MEADOW-PIPIT. 181

marked in A. trivialis. Some rufous specimens of A. pratensis
much resemble some first winter males and winter females of
A. cervinus, for distinctions see p. 183 and Plate 6.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Closely resembles Tree-Pipit but rather
smaller, legs brown, not flesh-coloured, and upper-parts olivaceous.
Pure white outer tail-feathers conspicuous in flight. Inhabits
wild moorlands, rough commons, and water-meadows. Rarely
seen to perch on trees except on migration. Tinkling song, uttered
in air, lacks the "see-ar, see-ar " of Tree-Pipit as bird descends.
Call-note " ist." Alarm-note a plaintive " peep."

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in depression of ground, sometimes
completely sheltered from above, in tussock of grass, clump of
rushes, or in heather, and haunts marshlands, rough pastures
and moors. Nest. — Built of dry grasses and bents, lined finer
material and some horsehair. Eggs. — Usually 4 to 6, sometimes
7 in northern localities ; variable, but less so than Tree-Pipit's,
reddish types being very rare or absent. Ordinary types brown
or grey in general appearance, finely mottled or more boldly
marbled with varying shades of brown and ashy-grey ; others are
almost uniform ochreous or pale leaden grey, with dark hair-
streak, and some are sparsely marked on a pale blue ground.
Average of 143 eggs, 19.3 x 14.19 mm. Breeding-season. — From
latter part of April onward in England, but later in the north.
At least two broods usually reared, and eggs may be found late
in July. Incubation. — Lasts 13-14 days, probably by hen only.

FOOD. — Insects (coleoptera and larvae, small orthoptera, diptera,
and larvae, hemiptera, hymenoptera, and larvae of lepidoptera).
Also earthworms (Saxby), spiders, and occasionally seeds.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Resident. Abundant throughout
in open country, but majority leave higher and more northern
situations in autumn and many emigrate.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Summer-residents from Hebrides and
Highlands move south, chiefly down west coast, from about mid-
Aug. to late Oct., and there is evidence of autumn-immigration
in Ireland corresponding partly with this movement. Many, if
not majority of, English breeding- birds pass south and west in
autumn. Emigratory movements along south coast England
from late Sept. to late Nov., and corresponding immigratory move-
ments in south-east Ireland have been noticed. From early Sept.
to late Oct. large numbers of immigrants, many of which winter
with us, while some pass on, arrive in northern Scottish isles, and
between mid-Sept, and Nov. on east coast from Forfar to Kent.
Return passage from end Feb. to mid- April on south coast Ireland,
and from mid-March to mid- April on whole south coast England.
Considerable evidence that more northerly breeding-birds pass

182 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

north along west coast or through western counties England,
rather than east coast. Nestlings ringed in England have migrated
to France and Portugal.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe from Iceland, the Faeroes, and
North Cape to Pyrenees, Italy, and Carpathian Mountains, east-
wards to west Siberia and north Turkestan. Migrant, wintering
in the Mediterranean countries, north Africa, Syria, and Asia Minor.
Casual in Greenland.

ANTHUS CERVINUS

72. Anthus cervinus (Pall.)— THE RED-THROATED PIPIT.

MOTACILLA CERVINA Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-As., i, p. 511 (1827 — Siberia).
Anthus cervinus (Pallas), Saunders, p. 135.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Whole upper-parts, including
rump and upper tail-coverts, greyish- to huffish-brown, broadly
streaked black-brown, each feather being black-brown fringed
buffish- or greyish-brown ; lores superciliary stripe, chin and throat
uniform pearly- to buffish-pink with a few brown-black streaks
forming indefinite moustachial stripes ; ear-coverts buffish -brown ;
breast and flanks pale buff or pale pinkish-buff broadly streaked
brown-black ; belly and under tail-coverts uniform pale buff ;
axillaries dusky grey, fringed pale buff ; tail-feathers black-brown,
central pair fringed as upper tail-coverts, outer pair with dusky-
white outer web and large white wedge-shaped mark on inner web,
penultimate pair with small wedge-shaped white mark at tip of
inner web, next pair sometimes with very small white mark at
tip ; primaries and secondaries black-brown fringed on inner
webs dusky-grey, on outer pale buff ; inner secondaries, greater
and median coverts with broader and paler edgings and tips.
This plumage is acquired by complete moult in July-Aug.
Summer. — A moult like that of Meadow-Pipit takes place January
to April. Upper-breast becomes either uniform pink like throat,
or with a few narrow black-brown streaks, or buffish-pink streaked
as heavily as in winter (amount of streaking varies considerably),
rest of plumage as in whiter but in late summer by abrasion upper-
parts become darker and under-parts paler.

Adult female. Winter. — Like male but lores, eye-stripe,
chin and throat whitish-buff without pink. Summer. — Some
specimens indistinguishable from males but very rarely so uniform
pink on breast as some males, usually chin and throat are more buff
and less pink than in male, and breast with scarcely any pink and
much streaked like male in winter. In late summer chin and throat
often become whitish-buff only tinged pink.

Nestling. — Down, greyish-black ; distribution, inner and outer

THE RED-THROATED PIPIT 183

supra-orbital, occipital, humeral spinal, ulnar, femoral, and cmral
(spirit specimen) (C. B. Ticehurst, Brit. B., II. p. 191).

Juvenile. — Much resembling adult winter female but with pale
edgings of feathers of upper-parts rather smaller and more buffish ;
chin huffish-white ; sides of throat heavily streaked black-brown
like breast and flanks, buff of under-parts more yellowish than
adult winter female.

First urinter. Male. — Much like adult winter female but
chin and throat often tinged huffish-pink. The juvenile body-
feathers and lesser wing-coverts are moulted in August but
apparently not rest of wing-coverts nor remiges and rectrices.
N.B. — First summer males and first winter and summer females
apparently cannot be distinguished from adults ; those males with
much streaking on breast and those females with little pink on
throat may be first summer, but I know of no way of proving this.

Measurements and structure. — $ whig 82-90 mm., tail 59-63,
tarsus 21-23, bill from skull 11.5-13, hind claw 10-14, slightly
curved, longer than hind toe (12 measured). ? wing 79-84.
Primaries : 1st minute less than half primary-coverts, 3rd longest,
2nd and 4th often as long, sometimes 1 mm. shorter, 5th 1-3
shorter, 6th 10-13 shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs.
Secondaries between 8th and 10th primaries, tips fairly square,
longest inner secondary usually between 5th and 6th primaries
but sometimes when freshly moulted in spring as long as longest
primary. Tail and bill as Tree-Pipit.

Soft parts. — Bill dark brown, yellowish-flesh at base of lower
mandible ; legs and feet yellowish- or brownish-flesh ; iris dark
brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED SPECIES. — No subspecies recognized.
Pink chin and throat of adult in summer very distinctive. In all
plumages differs from Meadow-Pipit by the distinct streaks on rump
and upper tail-coverts, feathers of these parts having large dark
centres like those of rest of upper -parts instead of indistinct narrow
dark centres as in Meadow-Pipit (see Plate 6), also upper-parts
and edgings of wing-feathers are never so greenish as in Meadow-
Pipit. In juvenile throat is also more streaked than in Meadow-
Pipit.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — In summer found in wooded country as well as
on the scrub-covered patches on the high Fjeld, but more numerous
on the latter. Often side by side with A. pratensis. Takes long
nights high in the air singing, like other Pipits, but remains longer
in the air and mounts higher. Descends also in Pipit fashion and
settles on bushes. The call-note is distinctive. Mr. M. J. Nicoll
describes it as a long-drawn " cheep " and "more like the call of a
Reed- Bunting than anything else I know." Capt. Lynes defines
it as a musical " chig " as against the squeaky " peet " of the
Meadow-Pipit. In spring and summer rusty-red of throat and

184 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

breast is distinctive. In autumn the dark-centred rump-feathers
and upper tail-coverts should be looked for (N.F.T.).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Haunts swampy ground, nesting in recesses in
sides of hummocks, sometimes sheltered by dwarf scrub. Nest. —
Built of dry grasses and bents, lined finer grasses and occasionally
hair, but no feathers. Eggs. — Usually 5 or 6, rarely 7, extremely
variable, ranging from evenly freckled markings on blue-green
ground to almost uniform ochreous with a dark hair-line, or with
rich mahogany-red cloudings, or bold sepia markings on olive-grey
ground. Average of 100 eggs, 19.2 X 12.2 mm. Breeding-season.
— From about mid-June to early July. One brood. Incubation. —
Exact period unknown ; hen found incubating.

FOOD. — Principally insects and their larvae (diptera, coleoptera, etc.),
also small worms, and in winter also fresh water mollusca and

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Twelve. One Unst (Shetlands),
May 4, 1854. One St. Leonards (Sussex), Nov. 13, 1895 (Saunders,
p. 135). One Achill (Mayo), May 26th, 1895 (Bull. B.O.C.,
xn, p. 15). One Ninfield (Sussex), Nov. 26, 1901 (Bull. B.O.C.:
xn, p. 35). Two autumn, 1908, Fair Isle (Ann. S.N.H., 1909, p. 72).
One Rother Marshes (Kent), April 29, 1909 (Hist. Birds Kent,
p. 104). St. Kilda, one seen and heard Sept. 21, 1910, one seen
Oct. 8, 1911 (W. E. Clarke, Studies in Bird Migration, n, p. 212).
Two Hooe (Sussex), May 22, 1913 (Brit. B., vn, p. 52). One Aus-
kerry (Orkney), Oct. 1, 1913 (Scot. Nat., 1914, p. 7). [Specimens
from Brighton, 1884, and Rainham, 1880 (Saunders, p. 135) are
A. pratensis (Brit. B., n, pp. 278-9), as also one from Donegal,
Aug., 1898.J

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeds in high north of Europe and Asia.
Migrant, wintering in India (in small numbers even in Malay Archi-
pelago), south Arabia, Nubia, and Egypt to east Africa. 'Rare or
irregular visitor to west Europe and north-west Africa. Casual
in Aleutian Isles and south California.

ANTHUS SPINOLETTA

73, Anthus spinoletta spinoletta (L.)— THE WATER-PIPIT.

ALATTDA SPINOLETTA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 166 (1758 — Italy).

Anthus spinoletta, Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B., n, p. 248.

Anthus spipoletta (Linnaeus), Yarrell, i, p. 581 ; Saunders, p. 141.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Resembling
A. s. petrosus (see p. 188), but upper-parts considerably more warm
brown and without greenish-olive tinge ; rump uniform warm
brown ; eye- stripe rather more distinct and whiter ; under-parts
much purer white and the dark streaks warm brown instead of

THE WATER-PIPIT. 185

olive-brown ; axillaries whiter ; tail : outer pair with outer web
whitish and wedge on inner web white, next pair with a small
white mark at tip, and next pair sometimes with very small
white mark ; wings as A. s. petrosus but fringes warm brown and
tips of coverts very pale brown (when worn whitish). This plumage
is acquired by complete moult in Aug.-Sept. Summer. — The body-
plumage, usually some innermost secondaries, and middle tail-
feathers, and often some wing-coverts are moulted in March-April.
Head and back of neck become grey tinged brown ; rest of upper-
parts greyish-brown ; eye-stripe white (sometimes tinged pink)
broader and more distinct than in winter ; ear-coverts greyish-
brown ; belly and under tail-coverts whitish ; rest of under-parts
pale huffish-pink, usually unstreaked except for a few fine streaks on
flanks and an occasional winter streaked feather remaining on breast
(such feathers seem more frequent in females, which do not usually
become so pink as males).

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like that of A. s. petrosus but upper-parts more
warm brown and without greenish tinge, much like winter adult but
with dark centres of feathers of crown and mantle more marked ;
under-parts whiter than in A. s. petrosus, streaks narrower and
more blackish-brown than in adult winter ; tail- and wing-feathers
as adult.

First winter. — Like adults. The juvenile body-plumage, lesser
wing-coverts and usually median and some inner greater wing-
coverts and some innermost secondaries are moulted in Aug. First
summer. — Like adult and moult the same.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 87-93 mm., tail 65-70 ;
tarsus 24-25, bill from skull 14-16 (12 measured). $ wing, 82-89.
tStructur^ as in A. s. petrosus.

Soft parts. — Bill brown-black with base of lower mandible
yellowish-flesh (winter) all brown-black (summer) ; legs and feet
dark flesh-brown ; iris black-brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — A. s. petrosus, littoralis, and
kleinschmidti have pale portions of outer tail-feathers and also
axillaries smoke-coloured instead of white, besides other differences ;
A. s. rubescens has buff under-parts ; A. s. coutellii (Persia, Palestine,
Egypt) in winter has greyer crown and paler edgings and darker
centres to feathers of mantle and more pinkish-buff, not such
white under-parts, in summer under-parts paler pink ; A. s. blakistoni
(central Asia) is like coutellii but in winter paler brown on upper-parts
and still paler in summer ; A. s. japonicus (Kamtschatka, east
Siberia) in winter is darker brown than any other form and has
more blackish and distinct streaks on under-parts, in summer
under-parts are buff, not pink, with blackish streaks. All Water-
and Rock-Pipits occurring in British Isles have darker legs and
feet than other European Pipits.

186

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests at high elevations, under tussocks, or
in crevice of rocks, sometimes under shelter of bush or in depression
of ground. Nest. — Built of grasses and alpine plants, lined with
finer bents, sometimes few horsehairs or feathers. Eggs. — 4 to 6,
ground greyish-white, closely mottled with brown and ashy-grey.
Some eggs have a dark cap or zone, others a blackish hair-streak.
Average of 100 eggs, 21.3 x 15.5 mm. Breeding-season. — Begins
end April, but most eggs are laid in May. Possibly two broods, as
fresh eggs have been found in July. Incubation. — Period not
exactly known ; apparently performed by hen.

FOOD. — Chiefly insects during breeding-season (coleoptera, neurop-
tera, diptera, and their larvae), also spiders and plant lice. During
autumn and winter small mollusca, vegetable matter (confervas)
and seeds are also taken.

DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. — Possibly regular migrant to
Sussex coast and a vagrant elsewhere. There has been some
confusion between the Water-Pipit and Scandinavian Bock- Pipit,
but Mr. M. J. Nicoll has shown (Zool, 1906, p. 467) that it is fairly
regular on passage in Sussex. The following appear satisfactory :
Sussex, four, spring and autumn prior to 1900, one Feb., 1900, one
Oct., 1902, four Oct., eight Nov., and one Dec., 1904, four Feb.,
one April, and one Oct., 1905, some spring, 1906, one Sept., 1910.
Single birds, Isle of Wight, Sept., 1865 ; Lines., April, 1895 ;
Carnarvon, April and Dec., 1897, Feb., 1898 ; Scilly Islands, May,
1903 ; Oxon, Mar., 1903 ; Devon, Aug., 1904 ; Norfolk, Jan., 1905 ;
Kent, Jan., 1905 (cf. Brit. B., i, pp. 113-114, n, p. 276, m, pp. 120,
299). Ireland.— One Rockabill (Dublin), June, 1861.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Mountains of central and south Europe
generally, south to Spain and Corsica, east to Asia Minor. Partly
migrant, or vagrant, visiting plains of north Germany and else-
where, and common in winter in south Europe, also casual in north-
west Africa.

74. Anthus spinoletta rubescens (Tunst.)— THE AMERICAN
WATER-PIPIT.

ALAUDA RUBESCENS Tunstall, Orn. Brit., p. 2 (1771 — Ex Pennant, Brit.
Zool., Birds, 11, p. 239, who took his descr. from Edwards, Gleanings,
pi. 297, where a bird from Pennsylvania is figured ; Edwards said he
also found this bird near London.)

Anthus ludovicianus Yarrell, i, p. 589 (in text) ; A. pennsylvanicu*
— ludovicianus, Saunders, p. 142 (in text).

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Upper-parts
much as A. s. petrosus (see p. 188), but rather browner, not so
olivaceous (intermediate in colour between warm brown of
A. s. spinoletta and olive-brown of A. s. petrosus} ; under-parts

THE AMERICAN WATER-PIPIT. 187

deep buff or pale buff, never white as in A. s. spinoletta or olivaceous
as in A. s. petrosus ; streaks of breast and flanks narrower and
blacker, not so brown as in A. s. spinoletta and not so olivaceous
as in A. s. petrosus ; axillaries whitish as in A. s. spinoletta ; wings
and tail like A. s. spinoletta with light portions of outer tail-
feathers white. This plumage is acquired by complete moult
in July-Sept. Summer. — The body-plumage, lesser and median
wing-coverts, and usually inner greater coverts, some innermost
secondaries and central tail-feathers are moulted Feb.-April, but not
rest of wings and tail ; upper-parts become brown tinged grey,
the edges of the feathers of crown and mantle being somewhat
ashy-grey, much as in A. s. littoralis, but usually with a more
ashy tinge ; paler, more grey and less warm brown, on mantle
than A. s. spinoletta ; eye-stripe and under-parts varying from
buffish-pink scarcely streaked to pinkish-buff with almost as many
streaks as in whiter ; belly and under tail-coverts more buff, not
so white as in A. s. spinoletta. N.B. — Much worn specimens
have very little buff tinge on under-parts.

Nestling and Juvenile. — (Not examined.)

First winter and summer. — Like adults.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 82-89 mm., tail 62-69,
tarsus 22-23, bill from skull 12-14 (12 measured). $ wing 78-82.
Structure as in A. s.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds in depression of ground, or in cavity
sheltered by rocks, sometimes deep down in crevice. Nest. — •
Loosely built of dead grasses. Eggs. — Usually 4 or 5 ; resembling
those of Rock-Pipit, varying considerably and ranging from
pinkish to greenish or brownish in general tone, but all closely
freckled with fine spots. Average of 44 eggs, 19.5 x 14.58 mm.
Breeding-season. — Second half of June. Incubation. — Period un-
known : probably by hen.

FOOD. — Insects, small seeds, small mollusca and Crustacea.

DISTRIBUTION. — Scotland. — Young male St. Kilda (0. Hebrides),
Sept. 30th, 1910 (W. Eagle Clarke, Ann. S.N.H., 1911, p. 52 and
Studies in Bird Migration, n, p. 212 ; cf. Brit. B., iv, p. 285).
The specimen mentioned by Edwards (ut supra], and those
recorded by MacGillivray (Man. Brit. Birds, p. 169), were
probably A. s. littoralis (cf. Yarrell, I, p. 590).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeds in Arctic zone from north-east
Siberia, north Alaska, north Mackenzie, on both sides of Davis
Strait south to Great Slave Lake, north Quebec and Newfoundland,
and from Aleutian Islands and Prince William Sound, as well as
on high mountains south to California and mid-Mexico. Winters
from south United States to Guatemala, also on Bermuda. Has
occurred twice on Heligoland.

188 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

75. Anthus spinoletta petrosus (Mont.) *— THE ROCK-PIPIT.

ALATJDA PETKOSA Montagu, Trans. Linn. Soc. London, iv, p. 41 (1798 —

Wales).

Alauda dbscura — Non A. obscitra Gmelin 1789 — Latham, Index Orn.,

n, p. 494 (1790— England).

Anthus obscurus (Latham), Yarrell, i, p. 586 ; Saunders, p, 143.

Anthus spinoletta obscurns (Lath.), Hand-List B.B., p. 36 (1912).

DESCRIPTION. — Adult, male and female. Winter. — All upper-parts
dark olive-brown, rump uniform but feathers of rest of upper-
parts with darker and browner centres ; orbital ring and narrow,
somewhat indistinct, line from nostrils over and behind eye,
creamy-white ; lores and under eye blackish, finely speckled
creamy-white ; ear-coverts olive-brown ; chin, centre of throat
and belly olive-buff or olive-white ; under tail-coverts same but
longer ones streaked olive-brown ; rest of under-parts thickly
streaked dark olive-brown (the dark parts of the feathers being
blended into the pale parts the streaks are not harshly contrasted) ;
axillaries smoke-brown fringed white or yellowish- white ; tail
brown-black fringed olivaceous on outer webs, central pair browner,
outer pair pale smoke-brown on outer web and with a smoky-
white wedge-shaped mark on distal half of inner web, next
(penultimate) pair with a smoky- white mark at tip ; wing- feathers
brown-black narrowly edged olivaceous on outer and more broadly
smoky-white on inner webs, inner secondaries broadly edged
olive-brown ; primary- coverts like primaries ; rest of wing-coverts
like inner secondaries but with rather paler tips. This plumage
is acquired by complete moult in Aug. -Oct. In mid- winter when
somewhat worn upper-parts become browner (less olive) and
imder-parts paler with the streaks browner and more distinct.
Summer. — The body-plumage is moulted in Feb.-April, occasionally
lesser and median wing-coverts, or some innermost secondaries
and rarely wThole tail, but not usually any tail-feathers and not rest
of wing-feathers, primary-coverts or greater wing-coverts. New
feathers like winter but very slightly less olive on upper-parts and
usually slightly less olive-buff and more whitish on under-parts.
and the streaks rather browner and less olive. When worn, dark
centres of feathers of upper -parts become more distinct and fringes
are greyer, under-parts paler. N.B. — Rarely there is a slight
pinkish-buff tinge on throat and such specimens are very difficult
to distinguish from some specimens of A. s. littoralis, but crown
of latter is usually slightly greyer.

Nestling. — Down, brown-grej', long and fairly plentiful ; dis-
tribution, inner and outer supra-orbital, occipital, spinal, humeral.
ulnar, femoral, crural and ventral (short on last). Mouth, inside
reddish-flesh, no spots, externally gape-flanges very pale yellow.

Juvenile (Plate 6). — Like adult but upper- parts slightly browner

* We are obliged to Mr. T. Iredale for pointing out the prior use of
A. obseura in 1789. — ED.

THE ROCK-PIPIT. 189

and less olivaceous, chin and throat speckled blackish, sides of
throat rather darker than adult, and streaks of breast rather darker
and narrower.

First urinter. — Like adult, but often more yellowish on under-
parts, but this is not always so. The juvenile body-plumage, lesser
wing-coverts and usually median and some greater wing-coverts
and some innermost secondaries are moulted in Aug.-Sept., but not
rest of wings or tail. First summer. — Like adult and moult appar-
ently the same.

Measurements and structure. — <J wing 89-94 mm., tail 63-68,
tarsus 23-24, bill from skull 14-16 (12 measured). $ wing 80-90.
Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 3rd and 4th longest, 2nd and
5th sometimes as long, often 1-2 mm. shorter, 6th 9-12 shorter ;
3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries between 7th
and 8th primaries, tips square slightly notched, longest inner
secondary between 5th and 6th primaries. Tail slightly forked.
Bill rather fine with base wider and flatter. A few fine, short
rictal bristles. Nostrils uncovered. Hind claw curved and about
length of hind toe.

Soft parts. — Bill brown-black, with base of under mandible
yellowish-flesh (winter), all brown-black (summer) ; legs and feet
flesh-brown ; iris black-brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — The Water-Pipits differ from the
Rock-Pipits in having pale portions of outer tail-feathers white
instead of smoky-white, for other differences see under A. s.
spinoletta and rubesc^ns, for differences of A. s. littoralis see under
that form, A. s. Ideinschmidti (Faeroes) has darker upper-parts
and more streaked under-parts.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Pre-eminently a bird of rocky coasts, but in
winter also frequents mud-banks and estuaries. Very like Meadow-
Pipit but larger and darker, and white on outer tail-feathers
replaced by smoky-grey, a character that distinguishes it from
Water-Pipit and all others. Song, call and alarm-notes similar
to those of Meadow-Pipit.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in hole or recess of some kind in cliff/
often sheltered by vegetation, less often in grassy banks, burrows
in soil or thick growth of maritime plants, but always close to the
sea-shore, though sometimes at considerable height. Nest. —
Usually built of dead grasses and bents, lined finer bents and horse-
hair ; sometimes sea-wrack and moss utilized. Eggs. — 4-5, in some
cases 6, with greyish-white ground, thickly covered fine olive-brown
and ashy-grey spots, sometimes with cap or zone at big end.
Erythristic varieties also occur. Average size of 100 eggs, 21.3 x
15.9 mm. Breeding-season. — From latter half April to early May,
and again in June. Two broods. Incubation. — About a fortnight ;
probably by hen only. Fledging-period. — 15 days.

190 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

FOOD. — Insects, animal and vegetable matter picked up on shore.
Insects taken include coleoptera, diptera and larvae, and aphides.
Small worms, Crustacea (sandhoppers), slugs, small marine mollusca,
remains of small fish, and seeds also recorded.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Resident. Generally distributed on
rocky shores throughout. Also on many flat shores in autumn and
winter.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Autumn immigration east coast Great
Britain, and return-migration spring. There is evidence that
some migrants pass on southward. No regular migration noted
elsewhere.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Channel Islands, and coasts of north
France. According to Collett (Nyt Mag. Naturv., xxni, p. 144,
xxvi, p. 306) this form breeds on coasts of Norway, while A.
spinoletta littoralis is the Baltic form. In winter vagrant, and found
along the coasts to Spain, also occasionally inland.

76. Anthus spinoletta littoralis Brehm*— THE SCANDINA-
VIAN ROCK-PIPIT.

ANTHUS LITTORALIS Brehm, Handb. Naturg. Vog. Deutschl., p. 331

(1831— Danish Isles).

Anthus rupeatris, Yarrell, i, p. 588 (in text) ; Saunders, p. 143 (in text).

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Apparently
exactly like A. s. petrosus (see p. 188). Summer. — Moult as A. s.
petrosus. New feathers of upper-parts are rather greener with
more slatish edges and not so brown as A. s. petrosus ; chin more
whitish than in A. s. petrosus ; throat and upper-breast with varying
amount of huffish-pink ; sometimes the pink is very marked and
extends all over throat and breast and in such examples the streaks
of breast are usually absent, in other examples the pink is reduced
to a tinge on a few feathers of lower throat and there is every
variation between these extremes.

Measurements and structure. — As in A. s. petrosus.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Similar to those of British race. Nest. — Some-
times reindeer hair in lining. Eggs. — Average size of 19, 21.5 X
15.4 mm. Breeding-season. — From mid-May onward in Norway,
in June in high north, where only one brood probably reared.

FOOD. — Similar to that of the British race.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Since Booth noted its occurrence
in Sussex in March and April very little recorded. Has been
observed in parts of Wales, Scilly Isles, Northumberland, Lines.,

* The name rupestris refers only in part to this bird. — E.H.

GENUS MOTACILLA. 191

Norfolk, Land's End, Kent (two), Fair Isle (two), Pentland Skerries
(Orkneys). Said to pass along Yorks. coast in autumn, which is
probable, but the bird is only distinguishable from the Rock-
Pipit in summer-plumage, when the throat is less spotted and has
a rosy hue. Specimens recorded by Edwards near London and
by MacGillivray near Edinburgh as " Alauda rubescens " (vide
supra) were possibly of this race.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Coasts of Scandinavia (Baltic coasts only
according to Collett), Danish Isles and, it is said, White Sea in
north Russia. In winter farther south : Heligoland (common),
coasts of Germany, Holland, Belgium, north France.

Genus MOTACILLA L.

MOTACILLA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 184 (1758 — Mixture of many
soft-billed Oscines, type by subsequent designation — Gray 1840 — M. alba L.).

Contains the black and white, grey and yellow Wagtails.
Tail longer than in Pipits, as long as or longer than wing, slightly
rounded at tip, rec trices as a rule rather narrow. No species striped
or spotted. Sexes different, young different from both. Eggs
spotted. Old world, except Australia, where only irregular and
rare straggler, and Polynesia, in south parts of Asia only wintering,
in Africa various species, south to Cape Colony. Most numerous
in Palaearctic region.

Key to adult males in summer of genus MOTACILLA.

J Under-parts white, without any yellow . 2
1 Under-parts chiefly or entirely yellow . 4

2| Back grey 3

~ ] Back black M. a. lugubris, p. 206

I Ear-coverts white M. a. alba, p. 209

| Ear-coverts black M. a. personata, p. 212

(Tail longer than wing, outer tail-feather entirely
white M. c. ciiwrea, p. 202

Tail not longer than wing, outer tail-feather
not entirely white 5

J Throat white M . /. cinereocapilla,p. 197

I Throat yellow 6

/ Crown greenish, eye-stripe yellow .... M . f. rayi, p. 199

I Crown ash-grey, eye-stripe white .... M. f. flava, p. 192

„ / Crown very light grey, eye-stripe white . M. /. beema, p. 196

I Crown dark grey or slate, eye-stripe generally

absent or ill-defined M. f. thunbergi, p. 196

Crown black, eye-stripe nearly always absent M. f. feldegg, p. 198

192 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Key to adult males in winter of genus MOTACILLA.

1 I Under-parts without any yellow ... 2
[ Under-parts with some yellow ... 4

Back ashy-grey 3

Back darker, more slate-grey mixed with black M. a. lugubris, p. 20(>

. Ear-coverts white M. a. alba, p 209

Ear-coverts black M. a. personata, p. 212

f Tail longer than wing, outer tail-feather entirely

I white M. c. cinerea, p. 202

j Tail not longer than wing, outer tail-feather not
entirely white 5

Crown black with green and greyish-brown

edges, ear-coverts black and greenish-brown,

eye-stripe absent M . /. feldegg, p. 198

Crown greenish-brown, ear-coverts brownish

slate-colour, eye-stripe absent or ill-defined,

rarely distinct and well-defined ... M. f. thunbergi, p. 196

and M. /. cinereocapilla, p 197
Crown greenish-brown, ear-coverts brown with

whitish stripes, eye-stripe yellowish- white M. f. flava, p. 192

and M. f. beema, p. 196
Crown greenish-brown, ear-coverts brown with

buff or yellowish markings, eye-stripe

bufnsh-yellow to buff M. f. rayi-, p. 199

MOTACILLA FLAVA

77. Motacilla flava flava L. — THE BLUE-HEADED WAGTAIL.

MOTACILLA FLAVA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 185 (1758 — " Habitat
in Europa." Restricted typical locality : S. Sweden).
Motacilla flava Linnaeus, Yarrell, I, p. 558 ; Saunders, p. 127 ; M. f. flava L.,
N. F. Ticehurst, Brit. B., i, p. 134 et seq.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 7). — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head and
fore-part of crown bluish-grey much obscured by greenish- brown
tips of feathers ; rest of crown, mantle and scapulars greenish-
brown (yellowish-green tips and edges of feathers soon wear away
and fore-head becomes greyer, crown greyish-brown and mantle
browner) ; rump yellowish-green ; upper tail-coverts dark brown
tipped and fringed green ; line from nostrils over and behind
eye and apex of chin white slightly tinged creamy-yellow ; lores,
line under eye and ear-coverts brown with whitish markings ;
rest of chin, throat, lower-breast, belly and under tail-coverts
bright yellow ; upper-breast buffish-yellow, and many of the
feathers, especially in centre and at sides, marked dark brown,
forming a very ill-defined pectoral band ; flanks greenish-yellow ;
under wing-coverts and axillaries very pale yellow ; tail-feathers
black-brown, very narrowly fringed greenish to whitish-yellow,

Plate 7.

ADULT
WINTER

(9-10THS NATURAL SIZE.)

1, Blue-headed Wagtail (Motacilla f. flava). 2, Yellow Wagtail (A/. /. raj/t). 3, Grey-headed Wagtail
(Jf . /. thunbergi\. 4, Sykes's Wagtail (If./. 6e«ma). 5, Ashy-headed Wagtail (M .f. cinereocapilla).
6, Black-headed Wagtail (M. f. feldegg).

(Face p. 192.]

THE BLUE-HEADED WAGTAIL. 193

outermost pair mostly white with only inner edge of basal two-
thirds of inner web black-brown, next (penultimate) pair sometimes
with almost as much white as outer pair but usually with basal
quarter of inner web and much of shaft black-brown, as well as a
wider margin on inner web ; wing-feathers dark brown, edged
yellowish- or buffish-white on outer, and greyish-white on inner
webs ; innermost secondaries, greater and median wing-coverts
same but more broadly edged and tipped ; lesser coverts with
more greenish tips. This plumage is acquired by complete moult
in Aug. -Sept. N.B. — In this plumage differs from M. f. rayi
by its greyer fore-head, whiter superciliary stripe, white on chin,
usually brighter yellow of throat, and more distinct dark marks
on upper-breast. Summer. — All the body -feathers, most lesser
and median wing-coverts, many inner greater coverts and usually
innermost secondaries and central tail-feathers are moulted Jan.
to April, but not primary-coverts nor rest of wing- and tail-feathers.
(N.B. — Exceptionally whole tail moults. Extent of moult of
wing-coverts and inner secondaries varies individually.) Fore-
head, crown, nape, and back of neck uniform blue-grey (often a
few green feathers on crown) ; rest of upper-parts yellowish -green
when freshly moulted, becoming browner with wear ; line from
nostrils, over and behind eye white ; lores, under eye and ear-
coverts like crown but darker and marked white ; chin with varying
amount of white sometimes only at angle of mandibles and some-
times extending some way down throat ; rest of under-parts bright
yellow, flanks greenish and a patch of yellowish-green on each
side of upper-breast and usually some feathers of upper-breast
marked dark green ; new wing-coverts edged and tipped more
greenish -yellow than in winter. N.B. — In this plumage at once
distinguished from M . f. rayi by its blue crown and white eye-stripe.

Adult female. Winter. — Upper-parts resembling adult male ;
eye-stripe usually more tinged yellow ; chin, throat and upper-
breast paler and more buffish, often very pale buff only tinged
yellow with dark markings rather more prominent ; rest of under-
parts paler yellow than male. N.B. — In this plumage often
difficult to distinguish from M . f. rayi, but crown generally greyer
not so brown and chin either yellower or more white and less buff.
Summer. — Moult as male. Top of head more brownish, not so
pure a blue-grey as male ; mantle rather browner ; eye-stripe
and chin become whiter and throat and breast yellower than
winter, but tinged buff and not so bright as in adult male and
spots on upper-breast especially at sides more prominent than
in male. N.B. — In this plumage crown is greyer and eye-stripe
and chin whiter than in M. f. rayi.

Nestling. — Down buff, fairly long and plentiful ; distribution,
outer and inner supra-orbital, occipital, spinal, humeral and ulnar.
Mouth, inside orange, two brown spots at base of tongue ; externally
gape-flanges pale yellow.

194 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Juvenile. — Whole upper-parts earth-brown with blackish
markings, forming dark lines on sides of crown, upper tail-coverts
black-brown with very narrow buff tips ; eye-stripe extending
behind eye and little in front buff ; lores and ear-coverts buff
and dark brown ; chin and centre of throat pale buff ; sides of
throat from base of lower mandibles to breast and band across
breast brown-black ; rest of breast buff ; belly, under tail-coverts,
under wing-coverts and axillaries pale yellowish-buff ; tail- and
wing-feathers and wing-coverts as adult but with buff to whitish-
buff edgings and tips. N.B. — In this plumage apparently
indistinguishable from M . f. rayi.

First winter. Male. — Crown and mantle brown ; back and
rump greenish-brown ; upper tail-coverts black-brown fringed
green ; eye-stripe more buffish than adult ; lores and ear-coverts
as adult ; chin and throat buffish- white ; upper-breast darker
with a broken line of black-brown marks ; lower-breast, belly
and under tail-coverts pale yellow ; fringes of wing-feathers (when
not worn off) less yellowish than adults and tips and fringes of
wing-coverts paler and more whitish. (Much resembling adult
female winter, but upper-parts not so green and throat and breast
more buff.) The juvenile body -plumage and most of the wing-
coverts (not primary-coverts) are moulted in July-Sept. N.B. —
In this plumage usually indistinguishable from M . f. rayi, but some
specimens of latter have deeper buff eye-stripe and upper-breast
than in M. f. flava. Summer. — Same moult as in adult, but often
•commencing in November. After moult resembles adult.

First winter. Female. — Closely resembling first winter male,
but browner, not so green on back and rump, usually more buff
and more prominently spotted on breast, and belly paler yellow.
N.B. — In this plumage cannot be distinguished with certainty
from M . f. rayi. Summer. — After moult becomes a little greener
on back and rump, and rather deeper yellow on belly, thus
resembling first winter male and differing from adult summer
female by its whitish-buff throat and upper-breast and much
browner upper-parts. N.B. — In this plumage cannot be dis-
tinguished with certainty from M . f. rayi, but eye-stripe and chin
are usually whiter.

Measurements and structure. — <£ wing 80-84 mm., tail 69-76,
tarsus 22-24, bill from skull 13-15 (12 measured). $ wing 76-82.
Primaries : 1st minute, about one-third primary-coverts, 2nd
longest, 3rd and 4th sometimes equal, sometimes 1-3 mm. shorter,
5th 3-7 shorter, 6th 10-14 shorter ; 3rd and 4th clearly, and 5th
indistinctly emarginated outer webs. Secondaries between 7th
and 10th primaries, tips square very slightly notched, longest
secondary between 4th and 5th or as long as (in spring often longer
than) longest primary. Bill fine, rather flat at base. A few
short, fine rictal bristles. Hind claw slightly curved, as long
as, or slightly longer than, hind toe.

THE BLUE-HEADED WAGTAIL. 195

Soft parts. — Bill greyish-black, paler at base of lower mandible ;
legs and feet black ; iris black-brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS.* — Differences of M . /. rayi are
given above under description of each plumage. For differences
of M. /. beema, thunbergi, cinereocapilla, and feldegg see under
those forms. Adult male of C. f. dombrowskii (Dobrogea, Wal-
lachia), has dark lores and ear-coverts, scarcely any white on
chin, darker crown but not so dark as in C. f. thunbergi, M. f.
campestris (south Russia to Transcaspia) is like M . f. rayi, but
adult male in summer has fore-head and fore-part of crown as
yellow as throat, M . f. melanogriseus (Turkestan) is like M . /. feldegg ,
but adult male has white chin and white line from lower mandibles
under ear-coverts, M . f. leucocephala (Dsungaria, southern Altai)
adult male has white fore-head, crown, ear-coverts, lores and
chin, M. f. taivanus (Baikal, Amur to Kurile) adult male has dark
green crown, yellow eye-stripe and blackish lores and ear-coverts,
M. f. pygmcea (Egypt) is small and dark and has wrhite chin, other
forms breed in north-eastern Siberia, Kamtschatka and Alaska.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in thick vegetation in low-lying meadows
and cultivated ground. Nest. — Generally well concealed. Built
of bents and ' roots, sometimes moss in foundation, with thick
lining of hair. Eggs. — 5-6, sometimes 7, so finely speckled with
ochreous as to be almost uniform, but sometimes with distinct
mottling, and generally a dark hair-streak. Average of 100 eggs,
18.7 X 13.9 mm. Breeding-season. — From end May or early
June onward to July, but probably single brooded, as a rule.
Incubation. — Period not exactly known ; chiefly at any rate
by hen.

FOOD. — Almost entirely insects (coleoptera and larvse, diptera,
orthoptera, larvse of lepidoptera, rhynchota, etc.). Saxby records
small worms, larvse, aquatic insects and small univalves, but
these are probably exceptional and diptera constitute bulk of food.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Summer-resident in small numbers
south-east Sussex and south-west Kent, arriving end April and
departing August. Has bred several times Durham and Wilts.,
and possibly north Devon, Norfolk, Suffolk, north Kent, and Essex.
Elsewhere often recorded as a straggler, but chiefly in south.
Wales. — Two Merioneth, several Carnarvon, and has occurred, and
possibly bred, Brecon. Scotland. — Has occurred at Edinburgh, in
Haddington, Lanark, Dumfries, Isle of May, Shetlands, and Fair
Isle. Possibly nested Aberdeen.

* Varieties with very deep yellow (almost orange) under-parts are
occasionally met with in various subspecies, but no such specimen of
M. f. rayi has been examined.

O 2

196 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeds in most parts of Europe, from
middle Scandinavia to Pyrenees, and (in small numbers) north
Italy, eastwards throughout Russia (limits in south-east uncertain)
and Hungary to Danube and Save. Winters in Africa. Repre-
sented in north Europe, Mediterranean countries, south Russia,
and various parts of north Asia by a number of other forms.

78. Motacilla flava beema (Sykes)— SYKES'S WAGTAIL.

BTTDYTES BEEMA Sykes, Proc. Committee Zool. Soc., London, Part n,
1832, p. 90 (1832 — Dekkan, India).

Motacilla beema, Butterfield, Zoo!., 1902, p. 232 ; Saunders, Brit. B., i,
p. 11 ; N. F. Ticehurst, i.e., I, p. 136.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 7). — Adult male. Winter. — Resembling that
of M. f. flava but crown less brown and more green and grey and
ear-coverts rather greyer, not so brown. Summer. — Fore-head and
crown considerably paler, more ashy blue-grey, and ear-coverts
with more white than in M. f. flava.

Female. — Cannot be distinguished from that of M. f. flava.

Nestling and juvenile. — (Not examined.)

First urinter. Male. — Crown apparently very slightly paler
and eye-stripe rather whiter than in M . f. flava, but most specimens
cannot be distinguished.

Measurements and structure. — Like M . f. flava but tail usually
rather shorter, $ 67-71 mm. (12 measured).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Probably similar to other races.
FOOD. — Also probably insects.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — One. Male, Rottingdean (Sussex),
April 20, 1898 (ut supra). [A male, Sussex, May 31, 1901,
said to have been probably of this race, is a worn example of M. /.
flava (N. F. Ticehurst, Brit. B., I, p. 136.] Scotland.— One. Male,
Fair Isle, May 18, 1910 (W. E. Clarke, Scot. Nat., 1913, p. 153).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — West Siberia. Winters in India. Casual
in Europe (Hungary, Italy and Tunisia).

79. Motacilla flava thunbergi Billberg* — THE GREY-
HEADED WAGTAIL.

MOTACILLA THTTNBEKOI Billberg, Synopsis Fauna Scand., i, 2, Aves,
p. 50 (1828— Lapland).

Motacilla viridis Gm.: M. borealis Sundev., Saunders, Brit. B., I, p. 10 ;
M . f. borealis Sund., N. F. Ticehurst, t.c., I, p. 136.

* Billberg's name antedates SundevalPs borealis by 14 years, and has
now been widely adopted. — E.ET.

THE GREY-HEADED WAGTAIL. 197

DESCRIPTION (Plate 7). — Adult male. Winter. — Resembling that
of M . f. flava but either with no eye-stripe or only a very small
one, ear-coverts darker and more slate-colour not so brown, crown
and mantle darker and more greenish and less brown, spots on
upper-breast and sides of throat usually well marked, white on
chin much restricted. Summer. — Eye-stripe absent or ill defined,
crown darker slate-grey, lores and ear-coverts often nearly black
with no white markings, mantle and rump darker.

Adult female. Winter and summer. — Upper-parts and ear-
coverts distinctly darker than in M . f. flava, and eye-stripe usually
less developed.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like that of M. f. flava.

First winter. — (No authentic specimens examined.)

First summer. Female. — Upper-parts and ear-coverts slightly
darker than in M . f. flava.

Measurements and structure. — Like M. f. flava, but some
specimens are slightly larger. <£ wing 79-86 mm., tail 68-78, tarsus
23-26, bill from skull 13-16 (12 measured).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Similar to those of Motacilla f. flava, nesting
under tussocks in tundra. Nest. — Also similar. Eggs. — 5-6,
sometimes 7. Average of 100, 18.3 x 13.9 mm. Breeding-
season. — From mid-June onward in Lapland. One brood.

FOOD. — Insects, chiefly diptera (mosquitoes, etc.) in summer.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — One probable, Penzance (Saunders,
p. 128). One Yorks., spring, 1901. Possibly a pair bred Romney
Marsh, June, 1906. Sussex, two May, 1903, one May, 1904, one
May, 1907, one spring, 1869 or 1870, one May, 1909, one April,
1912, one, May, 1917. One possibly Dover (Kent), 1889. One
Norfolk, May' 1, 1842. Scotland.— Pentland Skerries (Orkneys),
one May, 1888, and one May, 1889. Fair Isle, " fair numbers "
end May and early June and Sept., 1908, spring and autumn,
1909 and 1910, Sept. and Oct., 1912, May and June, 1913. Isle
of May, one May, 19J3 and one May, 1914. Shetland, one Sept.,
1914.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeds in north Scandinavia, Russia,
and Siberia ; on migration throughout Europe — south to north-
west and north-east Africa, and doubtless to tropical Africa,
as it passes through Sahara in spring, not rare in India, Burma,
and Tenasserim.

80. Motacilla flava cinereocapilla Savi— THE ASHY-HEADED
WAGTAIL.

MOTACILLA CINEREOCAPILLA Savi, Nuovo Giornale dei Letterati, no. 57,

p. 190(1831— Italy).

Motacilla flava cinereocapilla Savi, N. F. Ticehurst Brit. B., I, p. 137.

198 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 7). — Adult male. Winter. — Resembling that
of M . f. flava but with darker lores and ear-coverts and ill-defined
eye-stripe : in these particulars resembling M . f. thunbergi but
with white of chin extending on to throat more even than in
M. f. flava. Summer. — Same differences as in winter, but more
marked, and crown slightly darker than in M . f. flava, but not so
dark as in M. f. thunbergi.

Adult female. Winter and summer. — Very similar to M. f. flava
and scarcely distinguishable but ear-coverts rather darker and
chin purer white.

Nestling and juvenile. — (Not examined.)

First winter. Male and female. — Not to be distinguished
from M . f. flava.

Measurements and structure. — Like M. f. flava but inclined
to be smaller. $ wing 76-84 mm., tail 68-72, tarsus 21-25, bill from
skull 13-14 (12 measured).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in more open sites than Motacilla f. flava
and M . /. rayi, owing to lack of cover, but otherwise habits similar.
Eggs. — 4 to 6, rarely 7 ; average size of 35, 18.5 X 14 mm.
Breeding-season. — From latter part April in Spain. Possibly two
broods, as eggs taken in Algeria in June.

FOOD. — Insects.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — One Penzance (Cornwall (at supra).
[The 1842 Norfolk specimen is M. f. thunbergi, see Brit. B., rx,
p. 93.]

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Spain, south France (Camargue), Sicily,
Italy, east to Dalmatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro and
north-west Africa (Algeria), wintering in northern tropical Africa.

81. Motacilla flava feldegg Michah.— THE BLACK-HEADED
WAGTAIL.

MOTACILLA FELDEGG Michahelles, Isis, 1830, 'p. 812 (1830 — Southern
Dalmatia).*

Motacilla melanocephala Lichtenstein, Verz. Doubl. Zool. Mus. Berlin,
p. 36 (1823— Nubia).

Motacilla feldeggi of Michahelles, Butter-field, Bull. B.O.C., xm, p. 69 ;
M. melanocephala Licht., Saunders, Brit. B., i, p. 10 • M. /. melano-
cephala Licht., N. F. Ticehurst, i.e., i, p. 137 ; Handl. B.B., p. 38 (1912).

DESCRIPTION (Plate 7). — Adult male. Winter. — Resembling that
of M. f. flava but feathers of fore-head and crown black fringed
green and greyish-brown, and ear-coverts black and greenish-

* We are obliged to Mr. T. Iredale for pointing out the prior use of
the combination " Motacilla melanocephala " by Gmelin. The name to be
used is therefore " feldegg," but not feldeggi, as the author wrote purposely
" feldegg " and " neumayer " several times. — E.H.

THE BLACK-HEADED WAGTAIL. 199

brown, usually no eye-stripe and if any it is yellow and broken.
Summer. — Crown black often extending on to mantle, lores and
ear-coverts black, chin yellow usually without white, edgings
and tips of wing-coverts brighter yellow than in M. f. flava, dark
patches on sides of breast darker and sometimes black.

Adult female. Winter. — Fore-head, crown and ear-coverts
mixture of black and brownish-grej7, eye-stripe, if any, yellow.
Summer. — Crown and ear-coverts with more black than in winter,
tips and edgings of wing-coverts yellower than in M. f. flava,
eye -stripe, if any, yellow.

Nestling and juvenile. — (Not examined.)

First winter male and first summer female. — Very similar to
M . /. flava but always some black or blackish feathers on fore-head
and sometimes on crown but ear-coverts brown and eye-stripe
white.

First winter. Female. — Apparently indistinguishable from
M. f. flava.

Measurements and structure. — Larger but otherwise like
M. f. flava. $ wing 79-88 mm., tail 70-80, tarsus 23-26, bill from
skull 14-17 (12 measured).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests sometimes in cornfields and sometimes
in open plain or marsh, sheltered by small bush. Eggs. — 4 to 6.
Average size of 18, 18.68 X 14.4 mm. Breeding-season. — From
end April or early May to June in south-east Europe ; probably
double-brooded.

FOOD. — Insect larvae, coleoptera, and small diptera (Lynes).

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Four. Male, Willingdon (Sussex), May
13, 1903 (W. R. Butterfield, Zool., 1903, p. 420). Male, Lydd
(Kent), June 3, 1908 (J. B. Nichols, Brit. B., n, p. 165). Male,
Winchelsea (Sussex), May 23, 1909 (id., op. c., in, p. 256). Male,
Romney Marsh (Sussex), May 26, 1909 (C. B. Ticehurst, I.e.,
p. 257). One (probable) seen Norfolk, June 17 and 19, 1910
(op. c., iv, p. 92).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeds in Greece, Turkey, north to
Bulgaria and south Dalmatia, Asia Minor, Caucasus, south Russia.
Migrates south to Arabia and north-east Africa, straying occasionally
northwards (Heligoland) and westwards to France, Italy, Tunisia,
and Algeria.

82. Motacilla flava rayi (Bp.)— THE YELLOW WAGTAIL.

BTJDYTES RAYI Bonaparte, Geog. and Comp. List of B. Europe and

N. America, p. 18 (1838—" British Islands ").

Budytes neglectus Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 142 (1855 — England, rarely in

Germany).

Motacilla raii (Bonaparte), Yarrell, i, p. 564; Saunders, p. 129 ; M. flava

rayi (Bp.), Hartert, Brit. B., i, p. 212.

200 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 7). — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head, crown,
mantle and scapulars greenish- brown ; rump yellowish-green ;
upper tail-coverts black-brown, tipped and fringed yellowish-
green ; line from nostrils over and behind eye buffish-yellow to
buff ; lores, line under eye and ear-coverts brown with buff or
yellowish markings ; chin and throat greenish-yellow to yellowish-
buff ; upper-breast yellowish-buff sometimes with a few brown
marks in centre ; rest of breast, belly and under tail-coverts
yellow ; sides of breast and flanks darker, more greenish ; under
wing-coverts and axillaries very pale yellow ; tail-feathers very
narrowly fringed greenish-yellow, outermost pair mostly white
with only inner edge of basal two-thirds of inner web black-brown,
next (penultimate) pair sometimes with almost as much white
as outer pair but usually with basal quarter of inner web and
much of shaft black-brown as well as a wider margin on inner
web ; wing-feathers dark brown, edged yellowish- or buffish-white
on outer, and greyish-white on inner webs ; innermost secondaries,
greater and median wing-coverts same but more broadly edged
and tipped ; lesser coverts with more greenish tips. This plumage
is acquired by complete moult in Aug. -Sept. Rummer. — The
body-feathers, most lesser and median wing-coverts, many inner
greater coverts, usually innermost secondaries and sometimes
central tail-feathers are moulted in Jan. -March, but not primary-
coverts or rest of wing- and tail-feathers (extent of moult in wing-
coverts and secondaries varies individually). Fore-head and fore-
part of crown greenish-yellow to yellowish-green ; back of crown,
mantle and scapulars darker yellowish-green ; rump rather brighter
green ; line from nostrils over and behind eye bright yellow ; lores
and ear-coverts green marked varying amount of yellow ; chin
and rest of under-parts bright yellow, flanks greenish and a patch
of yellowish -green on each side of upper-breast and often some
feathers in centre of upper-breast and at sides of throat marked
dark green ; new wing-coverts edged and tipped more yellow than
in winter.

Adult female. Winter. — Much resembling adult male but
crown and mantle slightly browner and less green, eye-stripe,
chin and throat whitish-buff (sometimes almost white), upper-
breast more buff than male, belly usually rather paler. Summer.
— Moult as male. Fore-head and crown browner green not so
yellow as male, mantle darker and browner, eye-stripe and under-
parts considerably paler yellow and dark markings on upper-breast
rather more prominent than in male.

Nestling. — Down buffish-white ; distribution, outer and inner
supra-orbital, occipital, spinal, humeral and ulnar. Mouth inside-
orange-yellow, externally gape-flanges pale yellow.

Juvenile (Plate 7).— Whole upper-parts earth- to yellowish-
brown with blackish markings forming dark lines on sides of
crown ; upper tail-coverts black-brown with narrow buff -tips ;

THE YELLOW WAGTAIL. 201

eye-stripe extending behind eye and little in front buff ; lores
and ear-coverts buff and dark brown ; chin and centre of throat
pale buff ; sides of throat from base of lower mandible to breast
and band across breast brown-black ; rest of breast buff ; belly,
under tail-coverts, under wing-coverts and axillaries pale yellowish-
buff ; tail- and wing-feathers and wing-coverts as adult but with
buff to whitish-buff edgings and tips. Females are paler than
males and in both sexes as the plumage becomes worn the upper-
parts become greyer-brown and under-parts more whitish.

First winter. Male. — Crown brown ; mantle same, sometimes
tinged green but always browner than adult ; rump duller green
than adult ; eye-stripe, chin and throat paler bumsh-white without
yellow; breast buff tinged yellow; rest of under-parts much
paler yellow than adult ; fringes and tips of wing-feathers and
wing-coverts paler and not so yellowish. (Much resembles adult
female winter but mantle still browner and belly paler.) The
juvenile body-plumage and most of the wing-coverts (not primary-
toverts) are moulted in July-Sept. Summer. — Same moult as in
adult but beginning earlier, usually in December or January. After
movlt resembles adult.

First winter. Female. — Very closely resembling first winter
male but usually slightly less green on rump, and belly even paler
yellow, under tail-coverts sometimes white. Summer. — After
moult becomes a little greener on rump and rather deeper yellow
on belly and is like first winter male and adult winter female,
and differs from adult summer female in being less yellow on
eye-stripe, chin and throat, and less green on upper-parts.
Measurements and structure. — Like M . f. flava.
Soft parts. — Bill greyish-black, paler at base of lower mandible ;
legs and feet black ; iris black-brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Differences of M. f. flava are
given at end of description of each plumage of M. f. flava (pp. 193-4),
and for differences of other allied forms see p. 195.
FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Adults in breeding dress differ from other
sub-species of M. flava in yellow superciliary stripe, but young
birds and adults after autumn moult can hardly be discriminated
in the field from their near allies. A bird of cultivated fields and
cattle pastures rather than water-side. Bounding flight like that of
other Wagtails. Call-note a shrill " chit-up." A warbling song, not
often heard. Very demonstrative if nest is approached, fluttering
overhead or perching in adjacent trees with incessant alarm notes.
BREEDING-HABITS. — Generally nests in thick herbage in low-lying
meadows, sometimes also in cornfields or garden crops. Nest. — In
depression, built bents and roots, thickly lined with pad of cow-
or horse-hair, and occasional feather or two. Eggs. — Usually 6,
sometimes 5 or 7, and 8 once recorded. Similar to other Yellow
Wagtails, but whitish and olive-grey varieties have been recorded.

202 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Average of 100 eggs, 19 X 14.1 mm. Breeding-season. — Exception-
ally eggs laid end April, generally latter part May or early June.
One brood generally but apparently a few pairs rear two, as fresh
eggs have been found in July. Incubation. — Chiefly at any rate
by hen ; period about fortnight, but not exactly known.

FOOD. — Insects, especially diptera, and small molluscs. One killed
on coast contained sandhoppers.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Summer-resident. Arrives end
March, April, and early May ; departs Sept. Has occurred Oct.
and even so late as Nov. 27. Distributed throughout England and
Wales, but rarely breeds Devon,, where, as Cornwall and west
Wales, chiefly known as passage-migrant. In Scotland chiefly in
Clyde area, elsewhere in south scarce and rarely as far as Inverness
and Aberdeen on east side, and not beyond Clyde area in west,
north of which a straggler. Said to have bred Orkneys. Occurred
N. Rona (0. Hebrides), Orkneys, Shetlands, and Fair Isle. Ireland.
— Very local, breeding on Loughs Neagh, Corrib, and Mask ; occurs
autumn Dublin coast and three times Wexford Lights.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Appears to breed in small numbers in
west Holland (Snouckaert van Schauburg, Avifauna Neerlandica,
p. 27, 1908), west France, and perhaps Portugal, also, it is said, on
Heligoland (Weigold, Orn. Monatsber., 1910, p. 158). Migrates
through west Europe to west Africa.

MOTACILLA CINEREA

83. Motacilla cinerea cinerea Tunst,*— THE GREY
WAGTAIL.

MOTACILLA CINEREA Tunstall, Orn. Brit., p. 2 (1771 — New name for the
"Grey Water Wagtail" and " Hoche-queue ou Bergeronette jaune 5>
of the Zool. Brit, and Brisson).

Motacilla boarula Linnaeus, Mantissa Plantarum, p. 527 (1771 — Sweden).
Motacilla grisea P. L. S. Miiller, Natursystem, Suppl., p. 175 (1776 —
Ex Edwards ! Miiller says " America," but Edwards, who also figured
the adult male quite well, expressly says that the bird he described
was shot near London).

* Mr. T. Iredale points out to us that the earliest reference to Motacilla
boarula is Scopoli, Annus I, Hist. Nat., p. 154, 1769. It is clear, however,
that Scopoli described (p. 153) the " Grey Wagtail" as Motacilla flava, and
named the " Blue-headed Wagtail " Motacilla boarula. He says that his
M. flava is not gregarious, non-migratory, and found along rivers, and that
it has a grey back and yellow rump. Of his M. boarula he says only that
it is smaller than his flava, gregarious, and not aquatic, follows the herds
in the meadows, and has a different note ; his quotations refer with more
or less certainty to M. flava flava or some of its races.

Under the circumstances, Linnseus's later name of 1771 (Scopoli is 1769)
cannot be accepted, and we must revert to the name cinerea of Tunstall.

THE GREY WAGTAIL. 203

Motacilla sulphured Bechstein, Yarrell, I, p. 552 ; Motacilla mclanopc

(non Pallas), Saunders, p. 125.

Motacilla boarula boarula L., Hand-List B.B., p. 39 (1912).

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Crown, mantle, scapulars
and back slate-grey tinged olive ; rump and upper tail-coverts
yellow-green ; lores blackish ; narrow stripe from bill over and
behind eye pale buff to white ;
ear-coverts as crown ; chin and
throat pale buff to white (usually
huffish-white) ; breast buffish-
yellow ; belly and under tail-
coverts brighter yellow ; flanks
pale grey ; axillaries pale grey
and white ; tail-feathers, three
central pairs black with outer
webs fringed yellow-green,
broadly at base, narrowly at
tip, three outer pairs mostly
white, the outermost quite The Grey Wagtail (Motacillac.cinerea).

white and the other two pairs $ adult, summer.

Avith inner web and tip white

and rest of outer web black fringed yellow-green (the penulti-
mate pair occasionally has very little black on outer web, the
third pair from outside often has a trace of black edging near
base of inner web, and third pair from centre is rarely mottled
with white) ; primaries black, basal portion of inner web whitish
on 5th and white on 6th to 10th ; secondaries same but white
at base of both webs and more extensive, showing slightly beyond
greater coverts, innermost secondaries fringed on outer webs
yellowish-white to white ; greater and median wing-coverts
narrowly edged and tipped olivaceous-grey ; lesser coverts
olivaceous-grey. This plumage is acquired by complete moult
in July-Sept. Summer. — All the body-feathers, usually inner-
most secondaries and middle pair of tail-feathers are moulted
in Feb. -March, but not usually rest of wings and tail, though
rarely whole tail and a good many inner wing-coverts are moulted.
New plumage as in winter, with following exceptions : eye-stripe
white ; ear-coverts purer grey mottled white ; broad malar stripes
white ; chin and throat black, feathers tipped white (white tips
mostly wear off during summer) : breast bright yellow like
belly.

Adult female. Winter. — Like adult male but slightly more
buffish on upper-breast and rather paler yellow on rest of breast
and belly. Moult same. Summer. — Moult same as male. Like
adult male except for chin and throat which are never so black
and usually a mixture of white, black and dull yellow (sometimes
only a few spots of black in malar region), and rest of throat

204 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

white, and ear-coverts tinged greenish, not so pure grey. Females
without any black on chin and throat are probably first summer
birds.

Nestling. — Down, golden-buff ; fairly long, but very scanty on
outer supra-orbital, occipital and crural tracts ; distribution, inner
and outer supra-orbital, occipital, humeral, ulnar, spinal, femoral
and crural, tuft on uropygium. Mouth inside orange, no spots,
externally gape-flanges pale yellow.

Juvenile. — Crown, mantle and scapulars greyish-brown tinged
green ; rump, upper tail-coverts and fringes at base of tail-feathers
like adult but duller and tinged buffish ; eye-stripe, chin, throat
and upper-breast pale buff with a few greyish-black mottlings on
sides of throat ; rest of breast and belly very pale yellow ; under
tail-coverts brighter yellow ; fringes and tips of all wing-coverts
•buff ; edgings of inner secondaries pale greyish-green.

First winter. Male. — Like adult male but upper-parts rather
more brownish, upper-breast buff and lower-breast very pale
yellow and often whitish. Much like adult female but more buff
on breast. The juvenile body-feathers, lesser and median wing-
coverts, and usually greater wing-coverts, innermost secondaries
and central pair of tail-feathers are moulted in July-Sept., but
not primary -co verts nor rest of wing- and tail-feathers. Slimmer. —
Like adult male and moult same.

First winter. Female. — Not to be distinguished with certainty
from first winter male, but upper-breast usually paler buff.
Summer. — Females with chin and throat white or yellowish-white
without any black are probably first summer birds, but this cannot
be said with certainty.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 81-88 mm., tail 96-103,
tarsus 20-22, bill from skull 13-14.5 (12 measured). $ wing 80-85,
tail 95:103. Primaries : 1st minute and hidden, 2nd to 4th longest
(2nd and 4th occasionally 1 mm. shorter than 3rd), 5th 5-6 shorter,
6th 12-15 shorter ; 3rd and 4th clearly and 5th less distinctly
emarginated outer webs. Secondaries slightly shorter than 10th
primary, tips square, longest inner secondary usually as long as
or shade longer than longest primary but sometimes shorter than
5th primary. Bill fine, rather flat at base. A few short, fine
rictal bristles. Hind claw curved and about as long as hind
toe.

Soft parts. — Bill greyish-black, paler at base of lower mandible ;
legs and feet brownish-flesh ; iris black-brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — M. c. melanope (Caucasus,
Siberia to Kamtschatka) has shorter tail (84-90 mm.), M. c.
schmitzi (Madeira, Azores) has darker slate-grey upper-parts and
ear-coverts and ill-defined eye-stripe. Long tail, more white in
outer tail-feathers and grey "mantle distinguish Grey Wagtail at

THE GREY WAGTAIL. 205

all seasons from M. flava and subspecies, while in summer black
chin and throat and in winter contrast of buff upper-breast and
bright yellow under tail-coverts are distinctive.

FIELD-CHARACTERS.- — Differs from all other British Wagtails in
its long tail and blue-grey colour of upper-parts. In flight, long
tail and sulphur-yellow belly and under tail-coverts are conspicuous.
Characteristic of mountain streams in breeding-season. From
September to March affects more sluggish lowland streams, ponds,
watercress beds, etc., but never seen away from water. Call-note,
tittered usually on the wing, is " tzit-zee " generally repeated
several times. Alarm-note at nest a plaintive " see-eet." Song
a Jbabbling Swallow-like twitter.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in hole of cliff, rocky ledge or cavity
in wall, occasionally on steep bank or among tree-roots, and
generally quite close to running water, but sometimes some distance
away. Nest. — Built of moss, small twigs, leaves, roots, and
grasses, lined hair (preferably white horsehair), and an occasional
feather. Eggs. — Generally 4 to 6, sometimes only 3 ; buff or
stone-colour, faintly marbled with greyish-brown and often a
dark hair-streak. Occasionally the type approaches that of the
Pied Wagtail, though most eggs resemble those of Yellow Wagtail,
but are broader oval and paler. Erythristic varieties are rare.
Average of 100, eggs 18.8 x 14.27 mm. Breeding -season. — Generally
in latter half April or beginning of May ; occasionally beginning
of April. In some districts a second brood in early June, but
in many districts single-brooded. Incubation. — Performed by hen
only as a rule, but male occasionally found incubating. Period
about 14 days.

FOOD. — Mainly insects, especially diptera, but coleoptera also
recorded. Small mollusca recorded by Saxby and Norgate.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Resident. Breeds very sparingly
in eastern counties south of Trent and only locally in southern
counties east of Devon, most common in Wales, Ireland, and
Scotland, but scarcer in north Scotland, breeds Orkneys, but only
a visitor to Shetlands and O. Hebrides. A movement fro^m its
breeding-places southwards occurs in autumn.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe from south Sweden to Mediter-
ranean countries, east to Ural. Partial migrant, apparently only
in small numbers south in winter to Senegambia and British East
Africa. Replaced by a closely allied form (M. c. melanope) in north
Asia (in winter in tropics), and by another on Atlantic isles. (With
regard to the form from the Canary Islands, see Hartert, Vog. pal.
Fauna, i, p. 299.)

206 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

MOTACILLA ALBA

84. Motacilla alba lugubris Temm.— THE PIED WAGTAIL.

MOTACILLA LTJGUBKIS Temminck, Man. d'Orn., i, p. 253 (1820 — Partim.

Temminck mentions specimens from Russia, Crimea, France, Egypt,

Hungary. Restricted typical locality : France).*

Motacilla, Yarrellii Gould, B. Europe, List of Plates in Vol. n, p. 2 (1837

— Great Britain).

Motacilla lugubris Temminck, Yarreil, i, p. 538 ; Saunders, p. 121.

M. a. lugubris Temm., Hartert, Brit. B., i, p. 212.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 8). — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head and
fore-part of crown white ; rest of crown, nape, hind-neck, and
rump glossy jet-black ; mantle, scapulars and back same, but
mixed with varying amount of dark grey ; upper tail-coverts
same but outer feathers broadly edged white on outer webs ;
lores, over eyes, ear-coverts, chin, extending down centre of sides
of neck, throat, lower-breast, belly and under tail-coverts white ;
a black crescentic band on upper-breast extending to fore-part
of sides of neck but not reaching black of nape ; flanks dark grey
mixed with black ; axillaries white with dark grey centres ; tail-
feathers glossy jet-black, central pair narrowly fringed white on
outer webs, outer.pair mostly white with three-quarters of inner
web edged black, next (penultimate) pair same but with wider
edging of black which reaches shaft at base and with varying
amount of black on outer web ; primaries black, fringed white,
narrowly on outer webs and tips, broadly on inner webs ;
secondaries same but inner feathers more broadly fringed white
on outer webs, innermost feathers browner, not so black ; primary-
coverts brown-black narrowly fringed and tipped white ; greater
coverts brown-black broadly fringed and tipped white ; median
coverts brown-black with long white tips ; lesser coverts black,
usually mixed with varying amount of grey. This plumage is
acquired by complete moult in Aug. -Nov. Summer. — The body-
feathers and often lesser wing-coverts, some innermost secondaries,

* The diagnosis agrees well with our English bird, which is of course
the one occurring in France, and there is no reason to reject the name.
Temminck mentions as localities Russia, France, Egypt, Crimea, Hungary.
He says that the specimens sent by Pallas from Russia agree perfectly with
those killed in France. He also says that the new species interbreeds with the
White Wagtail and produces specimens " tapires " with black and grey.
"Tapires" must be an error for " tapisse's." Now, of the localities
mentioned by Temminck black-backed Wagtails are only found in France,
and not in Russia, Egypt, Crimea or Hungary. What the birds were which
looked like the French ones we do not therefore know, but they might
possibly have been specimens of M. a. lugens from east Siberia ; as there
is thus only one possible locality in the original description, and as the
diagnosis fits the Pied Wagtail entirely, we have to restrict the name lugubris
to " France," and need not alter this name on the plea that what Temminck
described was an undefinable mixture — in fact he only added wrong localities,
which «vas often done by older authors. — E.H.

THE PIED WAGTAIL. 207

some inner greater and median wing-coverts and central tail-
feathers are moulted in Jan. -March, but not rest of wings or tail.
Whole upper-parts black with only a few dark grey feathers here
and there ; chin and throat black joining black of upper-breast ;
centre of sides of neck white, and rest of plumage as winter.

Adult female. Winter. — Much like adult male, but usually
with more grey on mantle, flanks slightly less dark, wing-feathers
and wing-coverts very slightly browner, less black and their tips
and edges less pure white. Moult as male. Summer. — Moult
as male. Like male but mantle with more dark grey and less
blackish -brown, black extending rather less far down breast.

Nestling. — Down, smoke-grey. Distribution, inner and outer
supra-orbital, occipital, humeral, ulnar, spinal, femoral, crural and
ventral (very scanty on two last). Mouth, inside orange-yellow,
no spots ; externally flanges very pale yellow.

Juvenile. Male and female. — Crown, mantle, scapulars and
back grey tinged huffish-brown ; fore-head and indefinite line down
sides of crown darker, often blackish ; rump sooty -brown-black ;
upper tail-coverts more glossy black, slightly tipped buff ; lores,
line over eye and ear-coverts dull buffish-white, mottled dark smoke ;
chin and throat dull white, many feathers tipped sooty-brown-
black ; crescentic breast-band smoky-brown-black ; breast and
flanks smoke-grey tinged buffish ; belly and under tail-coverts
dull white ; wing-feathers as adult but more greyish-black and
fringes and tips of outer webs ashy-grey tinged buff ; primary-
coverts as primaries ; greater coverts with ashy-grey fringes
and dull white tips ; median coverts with dull white tips ; lesser
coverts tipped buffish-grey.

First winter. Male. — Like adult male, but fore-head tinged
yellowish and usually mottled with black ; ear-coverts and some-
times chin and throat tinged yellowish ; back of crown often
with some grey feathers amongst black ; mantle and scapulars
dark grey slightly tinged olivaceous and with very little black
(much like adult female but still less black) ; breast and belly
duller white than adult and flanks paler ; wing-feathers much
browner, not so black as adult, and fringes of outer webs ashy-
grey, not white ; new innermost secondaries greater and median
wing-coverts browner and with duller white edges and tips (un-
moulted juvenile feathers still browner and with ashy-grey edges) ;
lesser wing-coverts blackish tipped dark grey. The juvenile
body-feathers, lesser wing-coverts, most median and inner greater
coverts, some innermost secondaries are moulted in Aug.-Oct.,
but not rest of wing-feathers or tail. First summer. — Moult as in
adult, but some innermost secondaries, a good many greater and
median wing-coverts and central pair of tail-feathers are more
regularly moulted, while rarely whole tail is moulted. New
plumage indistinguishable from that of adult female summer, but
wing-feathers are much browner and old feathers in wing-coverts

208 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

and often one or two innermost secondaries are very worn and
brown.

First winter. Female. — Like first winter male and not to be
distinguished satisfactorily from it, but crown usually with more
grey feathers and often with no black at all on mantle. Summer. —
Very much like first summer male, but mantle greyer, usually
with very little black. Browner wings and wing-coverts distinguish
it at both seasons from adult female.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 87-93 mm., tail 85-90,
tarsus 23-25, bill from skull 13-14 (12 measured). 9 wing 83-90.
Primaries : 1st minute and hidden. 2nd to 4th usually equal and
longest, but 4th occasionally 1 mm. shorter, 5th 3-5 shorter,
6th 12-15 shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries
between 8th and 10th primaries, tips square, longest secondary
usually as long as longest primaries but sometimes between 5th
and 6th. Bill fine, rather flat at base. A few short, fine rictal
bristles. Hind claw curved usually rather shorter than hind toe.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs and feet black ; iris brown-black.

• CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — For differences of M. a. alba
and M. a. j)ersonata see under those forms. Distinguished from all
other British Wagtails by its black and white plumage.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Flight a succession of long curves. Call-
note, uttered chiefly in flight, a sharp " chiz-zit." Alarm note
at nest " che-ep." Song a musical elaboration of call-note. For
differences of White Wagtail see under that form.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds in holes of walls, sheds, steep banks,
ivy, woodstacks, pollarded willows, thatch of buildings, etc. Less
commonly it re-lines old nest of some other bird, generally
Thrush's or Blackbird's. Nest. — Built of moss, dead leaves,
twigs, roots, bents, etc., lined hair, feathers or bits of wool.
Eggs. — Generally 5 or 6 : clutches of 9 to 11, probably
by two hens. Ground-colour greyish or bluish-white, spotted
or freckled evenly with pale lead-brown and grey. Some varieties
are blotched, others pure white or marked with warm brown.
Average size of 100 eggs, 20.1 X 15.1 mm. Breeding-season. — From
latter part April to early May and again in June. Two broods
usually, sometimes three, and fresh eggs recorded in August.
Incubation. — Lasts 13-14 days ; performed chiefly by hen.
Fledging-period. — 13 days (S. E. Brock).

FOOD. — Chiefly diptera, but also coleoptera and smaller lepidoptera
and neuroptera, as well as their larvae. Saxby records fish bones
and fragments of shells, and Florence grain, potato, and seeds,
but these must be abnormal cases. Young fed chiefly on click
beetles (Florence) ; also flies and caterpillars.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Resident, generally distributed, but

THE WHITE WAGTAIL. 209

doubtful breeder Shetlands and only scarce visitor 0. Hebrides,
where it has been confused with the White Wagtail (Ann. S.N.H.,
1902, p. 144). Many of our breeding-birds migrate southwards in
autumn and return in early spring ; nestlings ringed in England
have migrated to France and Portugal.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeds in small numbers on west coast
of France, Belgium, and Holland (once), and, according to Collett,
near Stavanger and Bergen in Norway. Otherwise represented
in Europe, north-west Africa, and northern parts of Asia by other
forms. On migration in Heligoland and Denmark, winters in
south France, Portugal, Spain, and Marocco.

85. Motacilla alba alba L.— THE WHITE WAGTAIL.

MOTACILLA ALBA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 185 (1758 — " Habitat
in Europa." Restricted typical locality : Sweden).
Motacilla alba Linnaeus, Yarrell, I, p. 548 ; Saunders, p. 123.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 8). — Adult male. Winter. — Much like first
winter male of M. a. lugubris, hind portion of crown and nape
being black, often with some grey feathers ; mantle and scapulars
never with black, and grey purer and paler than first winter of
M. a. lugubris ; white of fore-head, sides of head, chin and throat
rarely with a tinge of yellow ; sides of breast and flanks paler
grey than in first winter M. a. lugubris, and breast and belly purer
white ; wing-feathers not brown as in first winter nor so black
as in adult male M . a. lugubris, more greyish-black ; greater
and median wing-coverts usually with greyish-white fringes and
tips but these are sometimes white, but not so pure white as in
adult male M . a. lugubris ; lesser coverts with tips and fringes
longer and paler grey than in first winter M. a. lugubris. This
plumage is acquired by complete moult in Aug. -Oct. Summer. —
The body-feathers and often some innermost secondaries, some
greater and most median wing-coverts and central tail-feathers are
moulted in Jan.-March, but not rest of tail or wings. Exactly like
winter, but chin and throat entirely black.

Adult female. Winter. — Fore-head grey with sometimes a
little dusky- white showing, only bases of feathers being white ;
crown grey rather darker and more olivaceous than mantle and
sometimes with a few blackish feathers, especially on sides of
crown ; lores, line over eye and ear-coverts white mottled dusky
and tinged olivaceous ; chin and throat white often tinged
olivaceous ; rest of plumage like adult male but breast-band not
so intense black and belly not so pure white. Differs from first
winter M. a. lugubris in having less white on fore-head, much
more grey and less black on crown, and paler mantle. Moult as
adult male. Summer. — Moult as adult male. Fore-head becomes
white slightly mottled black ; crown and nape black, usually with

210 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

some grey feathers mixed with black on nape ; throat black ; chin
mixture of black and white ; mantle not so pure a grey as in adult
male.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like that of M . a. lugubris and difficult to distinguish
from it, but usually rather paler on upper-parts and with no black
on fore-head.

First winter. Male. — Like adult female but usually with
rather more black on crown. The juvenile body-feathers, lesser
wing-coverts, most median and inner greater coverts and some
inner secondaries are moulted in Aug. -Sept., but not rest of wings
or tail. Summer. — Moult as adult but many greater and median
wing-coverts appear to be always moulted, as well as central
pair of tail-feathers and occasionally whole tail. Like adult summer
male except that wing-feathers are considerably more brown.

First winter. Female. — Like adult female in winter but
fore-head very rarely with any white showing, almost always
entirely grey washed olivaceous ; crown grey with no black and
usually tinged olivaceous. Moult as in first winter male. Summer.
— Moult as in first summer male. Like adult female summer
but fore-head less white and chin with more white and crown
sometimes with more grey, wing-feathers brown.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 87-96 mm., tail 85-93,
tarsus 23.5-26, bill from skull 13-15 (12 measured). $ wing 81-89.
Averages slightly larger than M . a. lugubris. Structure as that
form.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs and feet black ; iris brown-black.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Distinguished from adult and
first summer male and female M. a. lugubris by the absence of
black on mantle ; but first summer female lugubris often has
scarcely any black on mantle and is then difficult to distinguish
from adult summer female alba, which, however, has paler grey
mantle and less black on rump ; adult male alba very similar to
first winter lugubris but mantle always paler and purer grey, but
some examples are difficult to distinguish even when in hand ;
female winter and male first winter alba distinguishable from all
plumages of lugubris by absence, or slight amount, of black on
crown and usually grey (not white) fore-head, but mantle, although
usually paler than first winter lugubris, is sometimes as dull a gre3r
and like those examples of first winter female lugubris which have
no black in mantle. M. a. dukhunensis (west Siberia, Caucasus)
resembles M . a. alba, but has paler upper-parts and more white
on greater and median wing-coverts, M. a. baicalensis (middle
east Siberia) is similar but has white chin in summer, M . a. leucopsis
(Manchuria, Mongolia, north-west China, Tibet) has upper-parts
much like M . a. lugubris but greater and median wing-coverts
with much white, and chin white in summer, M . a. ocularis (north-

Plate 8.

[Face p. 210.]

THE WHITE WAGTAIL. 211

east Siberia) is like M. a. alba but has a black streak through lores
and behind eyes and more white on wing-coverts, M . a. lugens
(Kamtschatka and Jesso) is like ocularis but has darker lesser
wing-coverts, much white on primaries, and has black mantle in
summer, M. a. grandis (Japan) is similar to last but has black
ear -coverts, M. a. persica (Persia) is intermediate between M . a.
personata and M. a. alba, M. a. hodgsoni (Himalayas) is much
like M . a. personata but darker on mantle, M. a. subpersonata
(Marocco) is like M . a. alba, but with black line through lores and
behind eyes as in M. a. ocularis, also black of throat is joined to
that of nape by a black band and below this band is a patch of
white.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Adults in summer much paler on mantle
than Pied Wagtail, but at other seasons they closely resemble
young and female Pied Wagtail, but females and young males in
winter have little or no black on crown and thus can be distinguished
from Pied Wagtail. Habits and notes practically same as Pied
Wagtail's.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Similar to those of Pied Wagtail, but nests
have been recorded in marram grass on sand-dunes, in Sand-
Martins' holes, and old Fieldfares' nests, as well as in woodstacks,
banks, etc., like its relative. Nest. — Also similar. Eggs. — From
5 to 7 as a rule, rarely 8 ; perhaps slightly bluer in a series than
Pied Wagtail's, but practically indistinguishable. Erythristic
variety once recorded. Average size of 100 eggs, 20.4 X 15.1 mm.
Breeding-season. — From end April to early July, exceptionally
later in central Europe ; in Iceland and north Europe often not
before June. Two broods in south ; usually one in north.
Incubation. — By both sexes, but chiefly by hen ; period about
12 days. Fl edging-period. — 14 days (in confinement : Teschemaker).

FOOD.- — Chiefly diptera, but also coleoptera, lepidoptera, neuroptera
and their larvae.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Spring and autumn passage migrant.
Has bred exceptionally in Devon, Isle of Wight, Kent, Sussex,
Middlesex, Cambs., Suffolk, Hunts., Yorks., Westmorland, Car-
narvon, Fair Isle (1909 and 1910), Shetland, possibly Northants.,
Bucks, and Ross. Also often recorded as interbreeding with Pied
Wagtail, and although many records are no doubt based upon faulty
identification, some are genuine.

Passes through British Isles from mid-March to early June,
being chiefly noticed coastal regions west sides Great Britain and
Ireland, and especially frequent Welsh coast, in O. Hebrides, Shet-
lands, Orkneys and Fair Isle. On eastern side appears to' pass
through in smaller numbers, and seldom recorded south-east coast
England, or east coast Ireland, but this is partly due to want of

P2

212

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

observation. In autumn returns from mid-Aug. to early Oct. along
same routes. Occasionally inland.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe, from Iceland and Scandinavia
to Mediterranean, east to Ural — accidental on Jan Mayen, in south
Greenland and Ungava, N. America ; winters in tropical Africa,
touches Azores (exceptionally), Madeira and Canary Islands ; is
replaced as a breeding-bird in British Isles and parts of north-west
France by M . a. lugubris, and by other allied forms in north-west
Africa and across Asia to Kuriles and Japan.

86. Motacilla alba personata Gould.— MASKED WAGTAIL.

MOTACILLA PERSONATA Gould, B. Asia, iv, pi. 63 (1861 — India).
Motacilla alba personata Gould, M. J. Nicoll, Bull. B.O.C., xxxix, p. 89.

DESCRIPTION . — Adult male .
Winter. — Upper-parts as in M. a.
alba but mantle and scapulars
rather paler grey ; black of nape
extending round sides of neck
and joining black of throat ; ear-
coverts black ; white of fore-head
extending in a broad line over
and behind eye and under eye ;
apex of chin white, rest of chin,
throat and upper-breast black,
feathers with white bases, but
feathers of centre of throat often
mostly white with black tips ; rest
of under-parts as M. a. alba ; tail
as M. a. lugubris ; wing-feathers
as in M . a. alba ; greater wing-
coverts with broader and whiter
tips and edges than in M . a. alba

with only their bases grey and sometimes with dark grey shaft -
streaks ; lesser coverts as in M. a. alba. This plumage is acquired
by complete moult in Aug. -Nov. Summer. — A moult takes place
as in M . a. alba. After moult black of crown extends further on to
upper mantle and some feathers of rest of mantle and scapulars are
often marked with black ; rump blacker ; chin and throat uniform
black ; greater wing-coverts with whole outer webs wrhite and long
white tips, inner webs blackish-grey ; median coverts with whole
appearing portion white ; inner secondaries when renewed with
most of outer webs white.

Adult female. Winter. — Like adult winter male but with little
or no black on crown which is grey usually with some admixture
of black ; ear -co verts and sides of neck usually less jet-black ;
centre of throat usually with more white. Moult as in male.

Masked Wagtail (M. a. personata).
ad. summer.

median coverts mostly white

THE MASKED WAGTAIL. 213

Summer. — Moult as in, male. Black of nape not extending so far
down as in male and no black in mantle, otherwise like adult summer
male.

Juvenile. — Upper-parts as in juvenile M. a. alba, but with
rather more buffish tinge ; ear-coverts and sides of neck brownish-
grey ; broad line behind eye as in adult but cream-coloured instead
of white ; chin and throat dull grey ; feathers of centre of upper-
breast marked dull grey but no crescentic band ; rest of under-
parts dull white, often tinged creamy ; greater wing-coverts with
broad fringes of white tinged creamy ; median coverts white tinged
creamy with bases and shaft-streaks brown-grey.

First winter. Male. — Like adult but crown greyer and often
with only a little black ; chin whiter and throat with more white
showing ; dark portions of wing-feathers and wing-coverts browner.
The juvenile plumage is moulted as in M. a. alba. Summer. —
Moult as in M . a. alba. Like adult summer male but wing-feathers
browner.

First winter. Female. — White of fore-head restricted and
tinged creamy ; no black on crown ; ear-coverts and sides of neck
dark grey ; chin and throat with usually more white than in first
winter male. Summer. — Like adult summer, but with some grey
feathers amongst black ones on nape and often some white showing
on chin, wing-feathers browner.

Measurements and structure. — g wing 89-97 mm., tail 89-99,
tarsus 24-26, bill from skull 16-17 (12 measured). $ wing 87-94.
Bill and tail longer than in M. a. alba. Structure as in M. a.
lugubris.

CHARACTERS. — Distinguished from M. a. lugubris and M . a. alba
in all stages of plumage by white line behind eye and black or dark
grey ear-coverts and sides of neck.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nest. — In recesses under stones or in tree-
roots in bed of streams much like M. a. lugubris. Eggs. — 4-5,
similar to those of other races of M. alba. Breeding-season. — May
and June in Afghanistan.

FOOD. — [No definite information ; probably similar to other races.]

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — One (adult female) near West St.
Leonards (Sussex), April 26th, 1919 (ut supra).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Turkestan from Transcaspia to Altai and
Lake Baikal, on Chotan Tagh, in oases of Nija, Keria, and Sampula,
south to Afghanistan and Kashmir, north to east Persia. Wintering
in India.

[NOTE. — An example of the AMERICAN YELLOW WARBLER, Dendroica
cestiva cestiva (Gm.), picked up near Axwell Park (Durham), May, 1904
(E. Bidwell, Bull. B.O.C., xv, p. 46), had, in our opinion, most probably
escaped from captivity.]

214 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

FAMILY GERTRUDE.

Small birds with curved bills, as long as or longer than head.
Nostrils near base, protected by membrane, but free of feathers or
bristles. Rictal bristles obsolete. Tarsus short, either scutellate
or " booted," i.e. with an unbroken lamina. Lateral toes very
unequal in length, outer toe always decidedly longer than inner,
but shorter than middle toe. Claws large, curved, that of hind toe
as long as or longer than its digit. Primaries ten ; 1st less than
half 2nd, 3rd and 4th or 4th and 5th longest. Tail-feathers twelve.
Five genera in Europe and Asia to Australia, Africa and North
America.

Key to genera of family CERTHIID^.

Tail equal to or longer than wing, graduated rectrices

rigid and pointed at tip Certhia, p. 214

Tail shorter than wing, even, rectrices broad, soft,

rounded at tip Tichodroma, p. 21 8

Genus CERTHIA L.

CERTHIA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 118 (1758 — Type by subsequent
designation and elimination : C. familiaris L.).

Small, brownish, streaked birds, generally seen climbing up
trunks and branches of trees. Bill laterally compressed, culmen
ending in acute point, nostrils longitudinal, exposed. Tongue long,
narrow, corneous, terminating in about five bristles. Wing rounded,
4th and 5th primaries longest, 6th scarcely shorter, 2nd much
shorter than 3rd and between 7th and 8th, 1st somewhat less than
half 2nd. Tail distinctly graduated, rectrices with rigid and
acuminate tips. Tarsus distinctly scutellate. Plumage rich, long
and soft. Sexes alike in colour, young of more spotted appearance,
but almost same colours. One moult. Non-migratory. More
northern portions of northern hemisphere, in America south to
Nicaragua, in Africa to Atlas mountains, in Asia to Burma. Five
species, about thirty subspecies.

CERTHIA FAMILIARIS

87. Certhia familiaris brittanica Ridgw. — THE BRITISH
TREE-CREEPER.

CERTHIA BRITTANICA Ridgway, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., v, p. 113 (1882 —

England).

Certhia familiaris Linnaeus, Yarrell, i, p. 468 ; Saunders, p. 117 ; Certhia

/. brittanica Ridgw., Hartert, Brit. B., i, p. 218.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Fore-head, crown
and nape deep brown, much streaked pale rufous-brown or whitish ;

THE BRITISH TREE-CREEPER. 215

mantle and scapulars paler, more rufous-brown and rather more
uniform, pale streaks not so distinct, and only edges of the feathers
dark brown ; lower back and rump bright rufous, almost uniform,

U'/

The British Tree-Creeper (Certhia /. brittanica),

but each feather with faint pale central streak and the concealed
portion with a whitish patch between the rufous distal, and black
proximal portions ; upper tail-coverts uniform pale brown tinged
rufous ; lores blackish ; superciliary stripe white tinged rufous ;
ear-coverts mottled whitish, rufous and black ; chin, throat, breast,
under wing-coverts and axillaries silvery-white ; flanks, belly and
under tail-coverts washed pale buff (under -parts are usually some-
what dirty and sometimes quite sooty, probably by contact with
dirty trees, etc.) ; tail-feathers pale brown with shafts pale but
central portions alongside shafts darker brown ; primaries dark
brown, three outermost uniform but rest and secondaries with a
broad buff band across their centres margined above and below
with blackish, outer webs towards tips duller buff and tips whitish,
innermost secondaries without buff transverse band ; bastard-
wing and primary-coverts black with pale buff tips and bases ;
greater coverts same but with broad rufous-brown fringes to outer
webs ; median coverts brown-black with rufous-buff tips ; lesser
coverts pale brown with paler tips. This plumage is acquired by
complete moult in Aug. -Oct. Summer. No moult and abrasion
has no noticeable effect. (N.B. — The feathers, especially of rump,
are of loose structure.)

Nestling. — Down, greyish-black, long and plentiful ; distribu-
tion, inner supra-orbital and occipital. Mouth, inside yellow, no
spots ; externally flanges yellowish-white.

Juvenile. — Like adult, but upper-parts less rufous and with
larger pale buff centres to the feathers, giving more spotted appear-
ance ; rump pale rufous-brown not bright rufous ; under-parts
dull white (not silvery), throat, breast and flanks with minute
brown freckles ; belly and under tail-coverts pale buff.

216 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

First Winter. — Like adult. The juvenile body -feathers, wing-
coverts and innermost secondaries are moulted in Aug. -Oct., but
not primary-coverts nor rest of wing-feathers or tail-feathers.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 62-67 mm., tail 58-62,
tarsus 15-16, bill from skull 14-17 (12 measured). $ wing 59-67,
bill 13—17. Primaries : 1st about twice primary-coverts and about
half 2nd primary, 4th and 5th longest, 6th usually 1 mm. shorter
but sometimes as long, 3rd 1-3 shorter, 2nd 9-12 shorter and equal
to 8th or 9th ; 4th to 6th clearly emarginated outer webs. Secon-
daries equal 10th primary, tips sloped off to blunt point. Tail
graduated, forming wedge-shape, each feather stiff and strong and
tapering towards tip to a point. Bill fine, compressed, decurved
and sharp-pointed. No rictal bristles. Tarsal joint hidden by
feathers. Toes, three in front, one behind. Claws strong and
much curved, hind claw rather longer than hind toe.

Soft parts. — Bill dark brown, lower mandible pinkish ; legs
and feet pale brown ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — For differences of C. f. familiaris
see under that form. C. f. macrodactyla (France, Germany,
Hungary) is intermediate in coloration between C. f. familiaris
and C. f. brittanica, and is much like latter but brown of upper-
parts and especially rump is less rufous, C. f. corsa (Corsica) is
like C. f. macrodactyla but larger and more distinctly streaked on
mantle, C. f. bianchii (Kansu) and C. f. tianschanica (Tian-Shan)
differ slightly in coloration of upper-parts, C. f. khamensis (Mekong,
Tibet) and C.f. nipalensis (Nepal, Sikkim) have darker under-parts,
C. f. hodgsoni (Kashmir) is much like C. f. macrodactyla, but 4th
primary has no light mark on outer web, C. f. japonica (Japan)
is much like C. f. familiaris with colours of upper-parts more
contrasted. The species Certhia brachydactyla represented by
several forms, often living side by side with forms of C. familiaris
in Europe (but absent from British Isles) differs from C. familiaris
in having shorter hind claw, longer bill, dark spot on under wing-
coverts at base of 1st primary (usually absent in forms of C. f.
familiaris) and usually darker and less rufous upper-parts and
darker flanks. The stiff pointed tail and slender curved bill
distinguish Tree-Creeper from other British birds.
FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Soberly coloured, mottled brown above and
silvery- white below, would often escape notice but for very charac-
teristic behaviour. Constantly hunting for insects, it ascends trunks
and limbs of trees, and more rarely walls, by jerky leaps, then flies
obliquely downwards to foot of another tree and again ascends.
Stiff long tail-feathers pressed against bark in climbing. Call-note
a weak " zee-zee." Song " zee, zee, zee, pee. zee, zee, zissy, pee,"
deliberate at first but quicker as it proceeds, is uttered during pauses
in ascent. During winter often associates with bands of Tits and
Goldcrests.

THE NORTHERN TREE-CREEPER. 217

BREEDING-HABITS. — Usually nests behind loose bark on the trunks
of trees, or behind ivy roots where they have become separated
from the stem. Also occasionally in crevices of buildings, in loose
stone-walls, or even in masses of dead leaves accumulating in trees.
Nest. — Foundation of birch twigs, moss, roots, grass, etc., lined
feathers, bark and bits of wool, with a few twigs in the outer rim.
Eggs. — Usually 6, occasionally 5 or 7 ; white with a zone of red-
brown spots at the big end, varying in intensity. The presence of
reddish- violet shell-marks distinguishes them from the eggs of the
Crested Tits. Average of 100 eggs, 15.5x12.1 mm. Breeding-
season. — Latter part April and early May, also June. Incubation. —
Lasts 15 days from laying last egg (W. Evans). Two broods
sometimes reared.

FOOD. — Almost entirely insects : coleoptera, orthoptera, larvse
of lepidoptera, diptera, and hymenoptera. Spiders, their eggs and
webs are also eaten ; and occasionally one or two seeds have been
found in stomachs.

DISTRIBUTION. — Confined to British Isles. Resident. Generally dis-
tributed in suitable localities, but only once recorded O. Hebrides
(Lewis, Oct., 1915, during gale) and very rarely seen in Shetlands
and Orkneys.

88. Certhia familiaris familiaris L.— THE NORTHERN
TREE-CREEPER.

CERTHIA FAMILIARIS Linnaeus, Syst. Xat., ed. x, i, p. 118(1758 — Europe.
Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. — Like C. f. brittanica, but
upper -parts considerably paler, pale streaks on head being white ;
pale portion of feathers of mantle and scapulars larger and whiter
and rest of feathers paler brown ; rump paler rufous ; inner
secondaries and pale markings on other secondaries, primaries and
wing-coverts buffish-white, much paler than in C. f. brittanica ;
eye-stripe pure white ; under-parts pure silvery-white with very
pale buff wash on belly, flanks, and under tail-coverts. Moults
as in C. f. brittanica.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 63-67 mm., tail 61-66,
tarsus 14-16, bill from skull 14-16 (12 measured). $ wing 60-65,
bill from skull 13-16. Structure as in C. f. brittanica.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Its paler upper-parts and pure white under-
parts give it a very distinct appearance as compared to the British
form (H.F.W.).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Closely resemble those of the British race.
The paper-like outer bark of the birch is often used in nest-building.

218 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

?. — Rather lightly marked as a rule ; average of 26 eggs,
15.5x12.1 mm. Breeding-season. — Begins in mid-April in S.
Scandinavia.

FOOD. — Similar to that of the British race.

DISTRIBUTION. — Scotland. — Two. Male (exhausted) Fair Isle,
Dec. 27, 1906 (W. Eagle Clarke, Ann. S.N.H., 1907, p. 72). Female,
Fair Isle, April 14, 1913 (id., Scot. Nat., 1914, p. 54). Records of
Tree-Creepers from Orkneys and Shetlands, especially from latter
during a gale, Sept., 1859 and in Oct., 1882 with Great Spotted
Woodpeckers, may relate to this form.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Scandinavia, north Russia and Poland,
south to Carpathian Mountains, Siberia to sea of Ochotsk, also in
east Germany. This form is replaced by other races on mountains
of Corsica, central and west Europe generally, the Caucasus, Persia,
and many other parts of Asia. In many parts of Europe we
find side by side with a race of Certhia familiaris a race of another
species (Certhia brachydactyla), and forms of this species take the
place of C. familiaris in most parts of south Europe, C}Tprus, north-
west Africa, and apparently Asia Minor, or at least parts of it, as
also in North America.

Genus TICHODROMA 111.

TICHODROMA Illiger, Prodr. Mamm. Avium, p. 210 (1811 — Monotype
T. muraria (L.)).

Larger than Tree-Creepers ; grey, red and black, generally
seen climbing up rocks in mountains. Bill much longer than head,
laterally much compressed except near base, nearly straight, very
little curved. Nostrils forming narrow, slit-like opening. Tongue
long, very thin, divided at tip, but without bristles. Wing broad,
much rounded, 4th, 5th and 6th primaries longest, 3rd but a little
shorter, 2nd about equal to 8th, 1st a little less than half 2nd.
Secondaries broad, about four-fifths length of wing. Tail almost
square, somewhat less than two-thirds wing ; rectrices broad,
rounded at tip, soft. Under tail-coverts covering two-thirds of
tail. Plumage very soft. Tarsus covered in front with single long
lamina. Double moult (complete autumn and partial spring).
Sexes alike in colour, young not very different. Non-migratory.
Alpine districts of central and south Europe, Palsearctic Asia and
Himalayas. (Said to occur in Atlas and Abyssinia, but no proof.)
One species and no subspecies.

TICHODROMA MURARIA

89. Tichodroma muraria (L.)— THE WALL-CREEPER.

CERTHT A MURARIA Linnaeus, Syst. Xat., ed. xu, i, p. 184 ( 1 766 — S. Europe).
Tichodroma muraria (Linnaeus), Yarrell, in, p. ix, ; Saunders, p. 119.

THE WALL-CREEPER. 219

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Fore-head and
crown pale greyish-brown, tinged here and there pink ; back of
neck, mantle, and scapulars French-grey to pale ash-grey ; back

i

The Wall-Creeper (Tichodroma muraria).

slightly darker ; rump and upper tail-coverts dark slate-grey ;
lores dark slate-grey ; ear-coverts as crown but lower part white ;
chin and throat white ; breast and belly dark slate-grey ; under
tail-coverts same but tipped white ; axillaries and under wing-
coverts same but with broad edges and tips of pink ; tail-feathers
brown-black tipped grey, outer pair with broad white band above
grey tip, next (penultimate) pair with smaller white mark on inner
web only above grey tip ; primaries brown-black tipped grey,
1st uniform, 2nd to 5th with two large white spots on inner webs
(occasionally the proximal spot on 5th is reduced or absent), rest
either without spots or with a pale buff or rufous -buff spot on basal
half of inner web, 3rd to 10th with basal half of outer web bright
crimson ; secondaries like inner primaries but spot when present
usually bright rufous-buff, innermost secondaries fringed grey on
distal part of outer webs (N.B. — The basal spot on inner primaries
and secondaries varies considerably in size, while sometimes it
is entirely absent and sometimes present on only a few feathers) ;
primary-coverts broAvn-black, outer webs crimson ; greater coverts
same but bases and inner feathers grey ; median and lesser coverts
bright crimson writh ashy-grey bases. This plumage is acquired
by complete moult in Aug.-Sept. and even as late as Nov. Summer.
— The body-plumage is moulted in Feb.-March, but apparently
not wing-coverts, wing- or tail-feathers. Fore-head and crown
become French-grey tinged here and there pink ; mantle and
scapulars rather paler than crown, but not so ashy as is usual in
winter plumage ; lores, most ear-coverts, whole chin and throat
extending to upper-breast black ; rest of plumage as in winter,
but wing- and tail-feathers browner.

220 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Nestling. — (Not examined. A full feathered skin has long
pale grey down still remaining on feathers of occipital and supra-
orbital regions.)

Juvenile. — Closely resembling adult winter but fore-head and
crown not so brown ; chin and throat smoke-grey, tinged brownish ;
breast and belly not quite so dark as adult and tinged brownish.

First Winter. — Like adults. The juvenile body -feathers are
moulted in Aug.-Nov., but apparently not tail- or wing-feathers
or wing-coverts.

Measurements and structure. — £ wing 93-110 mm., tail 53-61,
tarsus 20-24, bill from feathers on ridge of culmen 23-30 (12
measured). $ wing 93-104, bill 23-28. Primaries: 1st about twice
primary-coverts and half 2nd, 4th and 5th longest, 6th as long or
1-2 mm. shorter, 3rd 3-5 shorter, 2nd 13-20 shorter, and equal to
9th or 10th ; 3rd to 6th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries
equal 10th primary, tips sloped off to blunt point. Tail almost
square. Tail-feathers rounded and not stiff. Bill fine, flattened
at base but distal half compressed, slightly decurved, point not very
sharp. No rictal bristles. Tarsal joint hidden by feathers. Claws
strong and much curved, hind claw rather longer than hind toe.

Soft parts. — Bill black ; legs and feet black ; iris brown-black.

CHARACTERS. — No subspecies. Long, slender, black bill, crimson on
wings and white spots on primaries clearly distinguish it.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Can hardly be confused with any other bird—
haunts rocks, precipices and walls, exploring their faces with
Creeper-like action and curious butterfly-like flight, giving glimpses
of crimson on expanded wings contrasting with black tail, tipped
white (F.C.R.J.).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in crevices or recesses of precipices,
generally in most inaccessible spots. Nest. — Built of moss, roots,
grasses and bits of wool, lined with felted wool and hair and a
feather or two. Eggs. — Usually 4, sometimes 5 ; white, sparsely
freckled with fine reddish-brown specks, chiefly at the big end,
sometimes practically unmarked. Average of 31 eggs, 20.8 X 14.8
mm. Breeding-season. — From the end of May to mid-June.
Incubation.— Chiefly at any rate by the female.

FOOD. — Almost entirely insects, especially larval stages and eggs
of diptera, lepidoptera, coleoptera and hymenoptera. A small
snail (Balea perversa) has once been recorded, and spiders are
largely eaten.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Six or seven. One Stratton Strawless
(Norfolk), Oct., 1792. One Sabden (Lanes.), May 8, 1872. One
Winchelsea (Sussex) about 1886 (cf. Saunders, p. 119). Female
near Hastings (Sussex), Dec. 26, 1905 (W. R. Butterfield, Bull.

THE BRITISH NUTHATCH. 221

B.O.C., xvi, p. 44). Male, Camber (Sussex), Nov. 1, 1912 (H. W.
Ford-Lindsay, Brit. B., vi, p. 218). Female, Ecclesbourne
(Sussex), Dec. 28, 1915 (J. B. Nichols, op. c., XH, p. 67). One seen
Mells, Somerset, Sept. 1901 (J. Wiglesworth, op. c., xn, p. 185).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad — Mountain-ranges of central and south
Europe, east to Mongolia, Turkestan, and Himalayas. Stragglers
occasionally seen far away from their breeding-places (Germany,
Brittany, Normandy, Alderney, etc.).

FAMILY SITTID^E.

Small, scansorial, ten-primaried Oscines with straight, subulate,
unnotched bill. Nostrils roundish, non-operculate and partly
concealed by antrorse feathers, or with an operculum and entirely
exposed (Neositta and Daphcenositta in Australia and New Guinea).
Tarsus short, distinctly scutellate (except in Neositta). Toes large,
with large laterally compressed claws, inner toe reaching only to
second joint of middle toe, hallux equal to outer toe. Wings long
and pointed. 1st primary very small, less than one-third of 2nd,
3rd and 4th or 3rd, 4th and 5th primaries longest, 2nd equal to or
slightly longer than 7th (except Neositta). Tail short, soft, straight,
twelve rectrices, broad with rounded tip. Nests in holes of trees
or crevices of rocks, eggs white with rufous spots (except Neositta).
Palaearctic, Nearctic, Indo-Malayan and Australian regions. Only
one genus Palsearctic. Non-migratory.

Genus SITTA L.

SITTA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i,p. 115(1758 — Monotype: S. europcea).

Bill robust, nearly as long as head, about equal to tarsus, at
base somewhat wider than deep ; culmen quite or nearly straight,
rounded above ; gonys more or less ascending terminally. Nostrils
roundish or oval, non-operculate, almost entirely concealed by
antrorse bristly feathers. Rictal bristles present, though short
and soft. 3rd to 5th primaries longest, 4th usually slightly longer ;
2nd equal to 7th or slightly longer ; 1st very small, sometimes
scarcely longer than primary-coverts. Wing -tip decidedly longer
than bill or tarsus. Tarsus distinctly scutellate. Palaearctic,
Nearctic and Indo-Malayan regions. Fifteen or sixteen species
in at least forty-six subspecies.

SITTA EUROP^A

90. Sitta europaea britannica Hart. — THE BRITISH
NUTHATCH.

SITTA ETHIOPIA BRITANNICA Hartert, Nov. Zool., 1900, p. 526 (England).
Sitta ccesia Wolf, Yarrell, I, p. 473 ; Saunders, p. 113 ; S. e. britannica
Hartert, Brit. B., i, p. 218.

222 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Whole upper-parts uniform
blue-grey ; indistinct ashy-grey mark over eye ; broad black stripe
from nostrils, through lores and eye to side of back of neck often

,^p^

The British Nuthatch (Sitta e. britannica).

reaching the " shoulders " where it tends to become spread ; under
eye, most ear-coverts, chin and upper -throat white ; rest of throat,
breast and belly buff ; flanks chestnut and buff ; under tail-
coverts buffish-white broadly fringed chestnut ; axillaries pale
buff ; under wing-coverts black with white patch at base of outer
primaries ; tail : central pair as upper-parts, rest black tipped
grey, three outermost pairs with white patch on inner web above
grey tip and outermost pair with similar white patch also on outer
web ; primaries black-brown very narrowly fringed blue-grey on
outer webs and more broadly white on inner webs, outer feathers
with concealed white bases and with a slight ashy mark on outer
web where emargination begins ; secondaries black-brown with
outer webs more broadly edged blue-grey than primaries and
innermost feathers mostly blue-grey ; primary-coverts black-
brown fringed blue-grey on outer webs ; rest of wing-coverts blue-
grey with brownish tinge on inner webs. This plumage is acquired
by complete moult in August. Slimmer. — No moult. Abrasion
causes buff of under-parts to become a little paler.

Adult female. Winter and summer. — Like adult male, but
chestnut of flanks usually paler.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like adult, but upper-parts duller and tinged
brownish, stripe through lores and eye brown-black, flanks and
under tail-coverts buff and dull rusty-red rather than bright
chestnut.

First winter. Male and female. — Like adult. The juvenile
body-feathers and lesser and median wing-coverts are moulted in
July-Aug., but not greater coverts, primary-coverts nor wing- or
tail-feathers.

Measurements and structure. — £ wing 83-88 mm., tail 43-46,
tarsus 19-20, bill from skull 18-20 (12 measured). $ wing 80-86.
Primaries : 1st twice as long or one-third longer than primary-
coverts and about one-third as long as 2nd, 4th and 5th longest,
3rd 1-2 mm. shorter, 2nd 6-11 shorter, 6th 2-4 shorter ; 3rd to 5th

THE BRITISH NUTHATCH. 223

emarginated outer webs. Secondaries between 9th and 10th
primaries, tips almost square. Tail-feathers rounded and not stiff,
tail almost square. Bill strong, wedge-shaped, sloped off to fairly
sharp point. A few, fine, short rictal and nasal bristles, and nostrils
almost covered with short bristle-like feathers. Claws strong and
curved, hind claw decidedly shorter than hind toe.

Soft parts. — Bill dark slate, base of culmen and basal two-thirds
of lower mandible grey ; legs and feet yellowish-brown ; iris dark
greyish-brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Sitta e. ccesia (middle Europe)
much resembles S. e. britannica but buff of under-parts is usually
of a deeper shade, S. e. Jiispaniensis (Spain) is much like britannica
but smaller and with shorter bill, 8. e. caucasica (Caucasus) has
dark under-parts and short bill, S. e. levantina (Asia Minor, Palestine)
has paler under-parts and much finer bill, S. e. persica (Persia) is
similar but paler above and below, S. e. europcea (Scandinavia,
north Russia) has white under-parts, S. e. homeyeri (east Prussia)
has more cream-coloured under-parts, S. e. uralensis (east Siberia)
is much like S. e. europcea but smaller, S. e. albifrons (Kamtschatka)
has paler upper-parts and white fore-head ; several other forms
inhabit China, while others have been named but are doubtful. Blue-
grey upper-parts, chestnut flanks, and wedge-shaped bill are
unmistakable specific characters.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Differs alike in coloration and form from all
other British birds. Unlike Tree-Creeper does not use tail in
climbing, and moves upwards, downwards and sideways indifferently.
Presence often made known by loud tapping as it hacks nuts, and
by shells of hazel nuts, acorns, beech-mast and yew seeds wedged
into crevices of bark. In flight, which is slow and undulating,
short tail, stout head and strong pointed bill very apparent. Call-
note a clear loud " twi-twit." In spring this note is repeated by
male so rapidly as to produce a bubbling cry. Another spring call
is a loud clear whistle.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Usually in a hole in the stem or large branch
of a tree at varying heights, occasionally in holes of walls, in Sand-
Martins' holes or old Magpies' nests, and twice recorded from the
side of a haystack. Nesting-boxes also often occupied. The
entrance to the hole is nearly always reduced in size with hard mud.
Nest. — Hole usually lined with bark of Scotch fir, less frequently
birch bark or dried leaves of oak and beech. Eggs. — 5-11, usually
5-8 ; white, more or less boldly spotted with red-brown and a few
violet shell-marks ; occasionally almost unmarked. Average of
100 eggs, 19.2 x 14.3 mm. Breeding-season. — From the end of
April to mid-May, also sometimes late in June. Incubation. — Lasts
about 13-14 days, probably by hen only. One brood normally,
occasionally two.

224 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

FOOD. — Chiefly hazel nuts in autumn, also beech-mast, acorns,
seeds of yew, Portugal laurel, etc. Also insects ; coleoptera,
orthoptera, diptera, hemiptera, larvae of gall insects. Spiders and
small mollusca also recorded.

DISTRIBUTION. — Confined to Great Britain. Resident. Tolerably
common south and central England, rarer west Cornwall and Wales,
and very rare western Wales, though in recent years becoming
established in Carnarvonshire, and twice recorded from Anglesey.
In Isle of Wight unknown. Very local Cheshire and Yorks., north
of which counties only a straggler, but has occasionally bred. In
Scotland has occurred three or four times in south-east (said to have
bred near Ednam (Roxburgh) about 1850), two were seen Skye,
and is said to have occurred in Shetlands. In Ireland one seen
Malahide (Dublin), March 26, 1911, was no doubt introduced (cf.
Brit. B., v, pp. 28 and 229).

Represented by S. e. europcea in Scandinavia, north Russia,
and Denmark, and by other forms in other parts of Europe, also in
west Asia (south to south-west Persia) and north Asia as far east as
Japan and Kamtschatka.

FAMILY PARID^E.

Small ten-primaried Oscines with the bill shorter than head
and wing rounded. Nostrils small, roundish, more or less concealed
by antrorse short feathers. Rictal bristles not very conspicuous,
but generally present, though sometimes obsolete. Wings long,
rounded, 3rd to 6th, 3rd to 5th, or 4th to 6th primaries longest,
first half as long as second or less, sometimes rudimentary. Tail
of twelve rectrices, variable in length and shape. Tarsus longer
than middle toe with claw, scutellate or " booted." Plumage
soft and copious. Northern hemisphere in general, Indo -Malay an,
Australian, New Zealand and Ethiopian regions, in South America
the genus Polioptila, which is now generally considered to belong here.

Key to genera of family PARIDJE.

( Nostrils covered by single stiff tiny feather . . Regidus, p. 250
*1 Nostrils covered by antrorse bristles . . 2

/ Tail slightly rounded or emarginate, not strongly

2J graduated Parus, p. 225

v Tail strongly graduated 3

I Under tail-coverts half as long as longest tail-
feathers Panurus, p. 256
Under tail-coverts much less than half as long as
longest tail-feathers ^Egithalos, p. 246

THE CONTINENTAL GREAT TITMOUSE. 225

Genus PARUS L.

PARUS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 189 (1758 — Type by subsequent
designation : P. major).

Comprising all our Titmice, with the exception of the Long-
tailed and Bearded Tits. Bill variable as to shape and size, but more
or less strong. Nostrils non-operculate, completely concealed by
dense, antrorse plumules. Tongue, obtuse, its tip with strong
bristles. Wing rounded, 1st primary much less than half as long
as 2nd, considerably longer than primary-coverts, 2nd shorter than
3rd and 7th, equal to 9th or 8th. Tail rounded or slightly emarginate,
never much graduated. Tarsus strong, front scutellate. Sexes
not conspicuously different. The latest review of the genus by
Hellmayr (1911) recognizes forty -seven species in one hundred and
sixty-nine subspecies. Nests in holes, eggs spotted. Habitat :
Palsearctic, Nearctic, Indo-Malayan, and Ethiopian regions.

Key to species of genus PARUS.

l f Back greenish ....... 2

[ Back brown, brownish, grey or greyish . . 3

, Larger, wing 70 mm. or more, continuous dark
area (black in adult, grey-brown in young) from
2^ bill to chest ........ P. major, p. 225

Smaller, wing under 70 mm., only slaty or grey
* bar across lower throat ...... P. ccerideus, p. 230

o f Head distinctly crested ...... P. cristatus, p. 238

[Head not crested ....... 4

er wing-coverts with whitish bars or spots . P. ater, p. 233

pper wing-coverts uniform .... 5

f Adult with tips of feathers of crown distinctly glossy P. palustris, p. 241
5 j Adult with tips of feathers of crown without any

gloss .......... P.atricapttliis,p.24:3

f Upp
\ Upp

PARUS MAJOR

91. Parus major major L.— THE CONTINENTAL GREAT
TITMOUSE.

PARUS MAJOR Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 189 (1758 — "Habitat in
Europa." Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

DESCRIPTION. — In coloration like British Great Titmouse : mantle
sometimes paler and " cleaner " looking but no constant difference.
Bill shorter and decidedly more slender, being narrower (more
compressed) and less deep, and this is more apparent by comparison
than by measurement. N.B. — An individual variation with pale
cream-colour instead of bright yellow under-parts is not infrequent,
especially in more southern portions of range of P. major.

Q

226 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Measurements and structure. — <§ wing 73-79 mm., tail 60-68,
tarsus 19-21 , bill from skull 10-1 1 , width at nostrils 4-5 (12 measured).
$ wing 70-77, bill from skull 9.5-11, width at nostrils 4-4.5.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — P. m. excelsus (north-west
Africa) has bill intermediate between P. m. major and P. m. newtoni
and fringes of innermost secondaries ashy-grey not yellow, P. m.
corsus (Corsica, Sardinia) similar but slightly smaller and breast
and belly cream-coloured and flanks greyish, P. m. blanfordi (Persia,
Palestine) has paler upper- and under-parts, and even juvenile has
fringes of secondaries blue-grey and those of innermost secondaries
ashy-grey, several other forms very similar to P. m. major have been
separated ; P. m. bokharensis (Turkestan), P. m. intermedius (east
Persia, Afghanistan) and P. m. caschmirensis (Kashmir) differ in
having blue-grey upper-parts and whitish under-parts ; P. m.
minor (Manchuria) and P. m. commixtus (south China) are similar
but have mantle washed yellowish-green.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Similar to those of the British Great Tit
Eggs.— -Also indistinguishable, but slightly smaller on the average,
17.2x13.4 mm. Breeding-season. — In central Europe from end
April onward and in late May in the Baltic provinces. Apparently
two broods, as a rule.

FOOD. — Similar to that of the British race.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Great numbers Norfolk and Suffolk
coasts Oct., 1910 (C. B. Ticehurst, Brit. B., iv, p. 247). Others at
same time Kent and in Scilly Isles in Nov. (N. F. Ticehurst, I.e.,
p. 248), and Haddington and Lincolnshire coasts and Lines, and
Essex lights in Oct. (Bull. B.O.C., xxx, p. 230). Return migration
observed Suffolk (Feb., Mar., and April, 1911) and Kent (Mar.
one obtained) (t.c. p. 164). One, Isle of May, Oct. 15, 1910
(E. V. Baxter and L. J. Rintoul, Ann. S.N.H., 1911, p. 3).
One Fair Isle, Nov. 17, 1910, and one probable Shetlands, Oct.
25, 1910 (id., I.e., p. 136). Six or seven seen Lerwick (Shetlands),
Oct., 1914, and one Dec. probably of this form (Scot. Nat., 1915,
pp. 115, 190), about a dozen Fair Isle end Oct., two staying until
end Jan., 1915 (I.e., p. 103). In Oct., 1910, many, probably of
this form, seen in Yorks., and apparently immigrant Great Tits
have often been noted in autumn on east coasts England, and
particularly in 1878, 1883, 1884, 1886, 1889, and 1901 (cf. Birds
Yorks., i, p. 108), while what was deemed a return migration was
noted in Norfolk in Feb., 1848 (Birds Norfolk, I, p. 140), but no
examples of these earlier immigrations have been identified.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe generally to Mediterranean, east
to west Siberia and Altai. Replaced by allied forms on Mediter-
ranean islands and Greece, north-west Africa and many parts of
Asia.

THE BRITISH GREAT TITMOUSE.

227

92. Parus major newtoni Prazak — THE BRITISH GREAT
TITMOUSE.

PARUS MAJOR NEWTONI Prazak, Orn. Jahrb., v, p. 239 (1894 — England).
Parus major Linnaeus, Yarrell, i, p. 479 ; Saunders, p. 103 ; P. m. newtoni
Prazak, Hartert, Brit. B., i, p. 213.

o

The British Great Titmouse.

(Parus m, newtoni)-

Note larger bill.

The Continental Great Titmor
(Parus m, major),
Note smaller bill.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head, lores, crown, and
nape glossy blue-black ; nuchal spot pale greenish-yellow ; mantle
and scapulars yellowish-green ; back same, feathers tipped blue-
grey ; rump and upper tail-coverts blue-grey ; cheeks and ear-
coverts white ; chin black ; throat and gorget blue-black joined
to nape by broad blue-black band at base of sides of neck (some
feathers in this band are blue-black with green tips) ; centre of
breast and belly black, rest of breast and belly and flanks chrome-
yellow ; vent and under tail-coverts black in centre, white at sides ;
axillaries whitish-yellow ; under wing-coverts white with brownish-
black bases ; tail blue-grey on outer webs, brown-black on inner
webs, but central pair with most of inner webs blue-grey and shafts
black, outer pair with outer web white and a wedge of white (of
varying size) on distal portion of inner web, next (penultimate) pair
with small white tip and following pair often with small white spot
at tip ; primaries and secondaries black, fringed blue-grey on outer,
and white on inner, webs, 1st and 2nd primaries not fringed, 3rd
to 7th with distal emarginated portion of outer webs dull white and
basal half fringed blue-grey, inner secondaries with outer webs
broadly fringed greenish-yellow ; bastard- wing black, fringed white ;
primary-coverts black, outer webs fringed blue-grey ; greater
coverts black, fringed blue-grey and broadly tipped white (tips
of inner feathers yellowish) ; median and lesser coverts blue-grey.
This plumage is acquired by complete moult in Aug.-Oct. Summer.
— No moult. Abrasion makes crown and throat less glossy, wearing
off of green tips makes blue-black of bands at sides of neck broader,
fringes of outer webs of wing-feathers and tips of greater coverts
become reduced by wear.

Adult female. — Like adult male but duller ; blue-black of
crown and throat and gorget less glossy ; black in centre of breast

Q2

228 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

and belly not so intense and less extensive ; edgings of secondaries
and greater coverts tinged greenish, not so pure blue-grey ; blue-
grey of primary-coverts and tail duller.

Nestling. — Down smoke-grey, fairly long ; distribution, inner
supra-orbital and occipital (fairly plentiful), humeral and spinal
(scanty). Mouth, inside orange, no( spots ; externally flanges
pale lemon-yellow.

Juvenile. Male.— Fore -head, lores, crown and nape sooty-
black ; nuchal spot very pale yellow ; mantle and scapulars much
duller and browner than adult ; rump and upper tail-coverts sooty-
grey ; cheeks, ear-coverts and sides of neck yellowish-white ;
chin and throat greyish-soot and narrow line of same down centre
of breast and belly ; rest of breast and belly and flanks rather
duller yellow than adult ; vent and under tail-coverts white,
tinged yellow ; tail as adult but blue-grey of outer webs much duller
and inner webs of central pair with little blue-grey ; primaries
much as adult but with duller blue-grey fringes ; secondaries with
fringes greenish, innermost secondaries browner, not so black as
in adult ; primary-coverts brown fringed dull bluish-grey ; greater
coverts smoke-grey, tipped whitish -yellow ; median and lesser
coverts browner with faint tinge of greenish. Female. — Like male
but fringes of tail- and wing-feathers still duller and primary-
and greater coverts browner.

First winter. Male.— Like adult but fringes of wing- and tail-
feathers and primary-coverts differing as in juvenile, except the
newly -moulted feathers which are like adult. The juvenile body-
feathers, greater, median and lesser wing-coverts, two (occasionally
three) innermost secondaries, central pair of tail-feathers (occa-
sionally whole tail) are moulted in Aug.-Sept. but not rest of wing-
feathers. Female. — Like adult female but primary -co verts much
browner with greyish not blue-grey fringes, fringes of primaries
greenish and of secondaries green, outer webs of tail-feathers duller
except when moulted.

Measurements and structure.— <$ wing 73-78 mm., tail 58-64,
tarsus 20-22, bill from skull 11-12.5, width at nostrils 5-6 (12
measured). $ wing 70-77, bill from skull 11-12, width at nostrils
4.5-5. Primaries : 1st 9-12 mm. longer than primary-coverts, 2nd
between 8th and 10th, 4th to 6th longest, 3rd and 7th 2-4 shorter ;
3rd to 7th emarginated outer webs . Secondaries equal 10th primary,
tips rounded. Tail almost square. Bill stout and strong. Good
many rictal and nasal bristles, short bristle-like feathers covering
nostrils. Tarsal joint feathered.

Soft parts. — Bill black, with horn-colour tip and cutting edges ;
legs and feet lead-blue ; iris brown-black.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — For allied forms see p. 226.
Large size and black central line on under-parts are distinctive
specific characters.

THE BRITISH GREAT TITMOUSE. 229

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Largest British Tit. Differs from all others
in broad black band down middle of sulphur-yellow breast and
belly. Cheeks white, crown glossy black. From autumn to spring
associates with other Tits and Goldcrests in woodlands and hedge-
rows. The individual members of these bands are in constant
motion, assuming every variety of acrobatic posture as they hunt
for food. Flight of all is weak and uncertain, consisting mainly of
short passages from tree to tree. Their cries are a confusing medley,
for all have — with slight modification- — a common call-note, a low
squeak, " tsee, tsee, tsee," which is shared too by Goldcrest and
Creeper, but each species has certain distinctive notes, e.g., the
Chaffinch -like " pink, pink " and sav-sharpening " teacher, teacher,
teacher " of this species.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Usually nests in a hole of a tree or wall,
occasionally in crevices of rock or in foundations of nests of larger
birds ; also in Kingfishers' burrows and even in old nests of Thrush,
Blackbird, Hedge-Sparrow, etc. Nest-boxes, letter-boxes, flower-
pots, bee-hives, and almost any kind of hole may be used in default
of natural sites. Nest. — Built of moss, with a few bents, lined with
a thick layer of felted hair or down, with which the eggs are covered
in the absence of the bird. Eggs. — 6 to 11 as a rule, but nests with
12 to 17 eggs are on record, probably in some cases laid by two birds ;
white, sparingly or thickly blotched and spotted with reddish-brown,
showing much variation. Some have no markings. Average of
100 eggs, 17.9 x 13.5 mm. Breeding-season. — Begins about end
April or early May, sometimes also in June. Incubation. — Lasts
14 days (Evans) ; 12-13 (Steele-Elliott) ; probably by hen only.
One brood as a rule.

FOOD. — Undoubtedly does some damage by destruction of buds in
spring, and fruit in autumn, but also destroys great quantities of
insects (coleoptera, larvae and imagines of lepidoptera (especially
winter moth and mottled umber), hymenoptera, orthoptera) ; also
aphides, spiders, scale insects, small mollusca and earthworms.
Besides fruit, peas, chestnuts, wheat and maize are occasionally
taken, and it has been known to kill a bat, and young birds, attacking
the brain. Young fed largely on moth larvae ; Newstead estimates
that one pair will destroy 7,000 to 8,000 insects, chiefly caterpillars,
in about 3 weeks.

DISTRIBUTION. — Confined to British Isles. England, Wales, and
Ireland. — Resident. Generally distributed. Scotland. — Resident.
Generally distributed in south and central portions ; becoming
scarce north Argyll and north of Loch Ness ; in north Sutherland,
Caithness, Orkneys and Shetlands Great Tits (whether of this form
or P. m. major not ascertained) are only occasional visitors ; breeds
Islay, Jura, and Mull, but only rare visitor Skye, and unknown
0. Hebrides.

230 A PEACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

PARUS" C^RULEUS

93. Parus caeruleus caeruleus L.— THE CONTINENTAL
BLUE TITMOUSE.

PARUS C^RULEITS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 190 (1758 — " Habitat
in Europa." Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Parus cceruleua cceruleuts L., J. L. Bonhote, Bull. B.O.C., xxvn, p. 101 ;
c/. Brit. B.,v, p. 109.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 9). — Like British Blue Titmouse but mantle,
scapulars, back and rump of a paler and usually greyer shade of
green ; tips of greater coverts longer and purer white, and those of
innermost secondaries less markedly so ; yellow of under-parts
usually slightly paler and " cleaner." Moults and differences in
male and female, juvenile and first winter and summer as in
British Blue Titmouse.

Measurements and structure. — £ wing 64-70 mm., tail 50-57,
tarsus 16-18, bill from skull 8-9 (12 measured). 2 wing 64-69.
Wing and tail decidedly longer than in British form ; although
measurements overlap, adults of Continental form have wings
longer and first winter birds of British form have them shorter
than 64-65 mm. Primaries and other structure as in British
Blue Titmouse.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — P. c. ogliastrce (Corsica, Sardinia)
is intermediate between P. c. cceruleus and P. c. obscurus, P. c.
persicus (Persia) is considerably paler on upper- and under-parts
than P. c. cceruleus (other forms from eastern Russia and northern
Persia have been separated), P. c. ultramarinus (north-west
Africa) has dark blue crown and greyish-blue mantle and back,
P. c. degener (eastern Canaries) is similar but paler, P. c. teneriffce
(Teneriffe, Grand Canary) is similar but has no white tips to inner
secondaries and greater coverts, P. c. ombriosus (Hierro, Canaries)
has blue-grey hind-neck, olive-green mantle and back, greenish-

ry upper tail-coverts and no white in centre of breast and belly,
c. palmensis (Palma, Canaries) is darker on upper-parts than
teneriffce and has narrow white tips to inner secondaries and greater
wing-coverts ; other forms have been separated but require further
study.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Resemble those of the British form.
Also similar. Breeding -season. — In northern Europe from mid-
May, but in Germany from the end of April. Two broods frequently
reared in central Europe.

FOOD. — Chiefly insects, their eggs and larval forms, also berries
and seeds in small quantities.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — One, Peeblesshire (ut supra). Immi-
grations of Blue Tits have been noted, especially in Yorks., where

THE BRITISH BLUE TITMOUSE. 231

they appear to arrive in most seasons from mid-Sept, to mid-Nov.,
and large immigrations were recorded end Oct., 1878 (corresponding
with a " rush " at Heligoland), in 1889, and Sept., 1901 (Birds Yorks.,
i, pp. 112-113). No specimens of these migrants have, however,
been examined and identified as belonging to this form.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — From about lat. north 64° in Sweden
and 60° in Russia, throughout continental Europe, but replaced by
allied forms in Spain, on some of the Mediterranean islands and
Canaries, north-west Africa, Persia, and apparently east Russia.

94. Parus caeruleus obscurus Prazak— THE BRITISH BLUE
TITMOUSE.

PARUS C.ERTJI/EUS OBSCTJRUS Prazak, Orn. Jahrb., v, p. 246 (1894 — •

England).

Parus caeruleus Linnaeus, Yarrell, i, p. 483 ; Saunders, p. 109 ; P. c.

obscurus Prazak, Hartert, Brit. B., i, p. 213.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 9). — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head, broad
stripe over eye joining narrow band at back of crown, white ; rest
of crown bright glossy blue ; hind-neck extending to base of sides
of neck dark blue ; nuchal spot bluish -white ; mantle, scapulars
and back green ; rump yellowish-green ; upper tail-coverts blue ;
line through lores and extending from eye to blue of nape, black ;
cheeks, ear-coverts and sides of throat white ; centre of chin and
upper-throat widening on lower -throat and meeting blue of sides
of neck black (most of the feathers tipped white) ; breast, flanks
and under tail-coverts yellow ; middle of lower-breast and belly
white, with patch of blackish-blue in centre ; axillaries pale yellow ;
tail greyish-blue, central pair and outer webs of rest bright blue,
outer pair narrowly fringed white on outer web ; primaries and
secondaries black-brown, outer webs blue and inner webs narrowly
fringed white, 1st and 2nd primaries uniform black-brown, 3rd to
7th with distal emarginated portion of outer webs dull white and
basal half bright blue, inner secondaries tinged greenish on outer
webs and tipped dull white ; primary-coverts blue on outer webs,
brown on inner with very narrow whitish tips ; greater coverts
same with broadish white tips ; median and lesser coverts blue.
This plumage is acquired by complete moult in Aug. -Oct. Summer.
— No moult. Abrasion makes blue of crown, wings and tail brighter
and black of throat more intense, and rather more extensive, white
tips of greater wing-coverts become smaller.

Adult female. — Like adult male but not so bright, primary-
coverts and outer webs of secondaries more tinged with green, not
so bright blue.

Nestling. — Down, greyish-white, rather short and scanty ;
distribution, inner supra -orbital, occipital and humeral. Mouth
inside dull orange-red, no spots ; externally flanges pale yellow.

232 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Juvenile. Male. — Fore-head yellow ; stripe over eye white
extending backwards in yellow stripe which continues round back
of crown ; crown and hind-neck dull greenish-brown ; nuchal spot
pale yellow ; rest of upper-parts including upper tail-coverts dull
olive-green ; black line through lores and behind eye as in adult ;
short stripe under eye white, but rest of cheeks and ear-coverts
yellow ; chin and throat yellow with an ill -defined brownish centre
becoming at base of sides of neck well-defined narrow greenish-
brown line ; whole of rest of under-parts yellow ; tail as adult, but
duller and tinged greenish ; primaries and secondaries browner
than in adult and outer webs greenish-blue and of inner secondaries
green ; primary-coverts bluish-green ; greater coverts grey-brown
with yellowish-white tips and narrow blue-green edgings to outer
webs ; median and lesser coverts slate-grey. Female. — Like above,
but tail duller, outer webs of wing-feathers more greenish and inner-
most secondaries, primary -coverts and greater wing-coverts browner.

First winter and summer. Male and female. — Like adults, but
not so bright on crown and outer webs of wing- and tail-feathers
(except those newly moulted) and primary-coverts like those of the
juvenile. The juvenile body -feathers, greater, median and lesser
wing-coverts, two (occasionally three) innermost secondaries and
occasionally central pair of tail-feathers are moulted July-Oct.,
but not primary-coverts or rest of wing- and tail-feathers.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 60-65 mm., tail 46-52,
tarsus 16.5-18.5, bill from skull 8-8.5 (12 measured). $ wing 57-64.
Primaries : 1st 6-10 mm. longer than primary-coverts, 2nd between
8th and 9th, 4th and 5th longest, 3rd and 6th 1 mm. shorter, 7th
2-6 shorter, 3rd to 7th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries
about equal 10th primary, tips rounded with somewhat pointed
apex. Tail almost square. Bill small but strong. Good many
rictal and nasal bristles and short bristle-like feathers covering
nostrils. Tarsal joint feathered.

Soft parts. — Bill black, tip horn ; legs and feet dark slate-blue ;
iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — For allied forms see p. 230. The
blue crown, wings and tail distinguish it from other British Tits.

FIELD-CHARACTERS.— Cobalt-blue crown, blue wings and tail, and
black line through eye are diagnostic. A characteristic note, heard
from early January until summer, is a loud " tsee-tsee-tit -it-it."

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in holes of trees and walls, occasionally
inside open nests of other species or in foundations of large nests,
and in holes of banks and nest-boxes. Where natural sites fail holes
of any kind maybe used : in letter-boxes, pumps, old cans, etc., and
an open nest is said to have been built on a bough. Nest. —
Foundation built of moss mixed with grass ; lining of hair or wool
with feathers ; eggs covered up before incubation by lining. Eggs.

Plate 9.

THE CONTINENTAL COAL-TITMOUSE 233

— 7-12, but much larger numbers, even up to 24, having been
found in one nest, probably two hens sometimes lay together.
Colour white, sometimes unmarked, but generally spotted or
speckled with a light chestnut, and showing a tendency to a zone.
Breeding -season. — End of April in south, early May in north.
Incubation. — Lasts 13-14 days (Evans). Only one brood in British
Isles.

FOOD. — Although injurious to ripe apples and pears in autumn,
and prone to attack buds in spring, the good done by devouring
injurious insects outweighs damage except in special cases. Young
fed on larvse of lepidoptera and aphides. Insects taken include
coleoptera, small lepidoptera and larvse, larvse of diptera, hymenop-
tera and larvse, and hemiptera. Plant lice and scale insects, as
well as aphides, are also largely eaten, and also spiders and milli-
pedes. Besides fruit, wheat, beech -mast, chestnuts, birch seeds,
maize, and sunflower seeds are also eaten.

DISTRIBUTION. — Confined to British Isles. England, Wales, and
Ireland. — Resident. Generally distributed. Scotland. — Resident.
Generally distributed, but becomes rare and very local in north-
west, and apparently only occasional Caithness ; well distributed
most I. Hebrides, but rare Skye, and apparently unknown Eigg ;
iinknown 0. Hebrides. Blue Tits (subspecies unknown) have on
rare occasions reached Orkneys and Shetlands.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Generally considered subject only to
local movements, but movements of small bands to east and south
coasts occur in late autumn, and there is evidence of southward
passage along east coast (Forth to Suffolk) Oct. and Nov. and
indications of return movement April. Migrants also recorded from
Little Ross Light (Kirkcudbright.) Oct.

PARUS ATER

95. Parus ater ater L. — THE CONTINENTAL COAL-
TITMOUSE.

PARTJS ATER Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 190 (1758 — " Habitat in

Europa." Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Parus ater Linnaeus, Yarrell, I, p. 489 (part) ; Saunders, p. 105 (part).

DESCRIPTION (Plate 9). — Adult and first winter. Male and female.
— Like P. a. britannicus but nuchal patch, cheeks and ear-coverts
purer white ; mantle, scapulars, and back slate-grey, occasionally
slightly washed greenish ; rump browner buff, not so olive as in P. a.
britannicus ; upper tail-coverts greyer ; black of throat in a series
rather more extensive ; sides, flanks and under tail-coverts duller
buff ; fringes of tail- and wing-feathers and wing-coverts greyer,
not so greenish ; tips of greater and median coverts usually purer

234 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

white. Summer. — Abrasion makes upper-parts, tail, wings, and
wing-coverts still greyer and flanks and under tail-coverts still
less buff.

Juvenile. — Like that of P. a. britannicus but nuchal patch
usually white ; mantle, scapulars and back greenish-grey ; cheeks
and ear-coverts paler yellow, sometimes almost white ; sooty-
brown of throat extending on to upper-breast and wider than in
P. a. britannicus ; rest of under-parts nearly white, only tinged
yellow ; fringes of tail- and wing-feathers greyer as in adult.

Measurements and structure. — As in P. a. britannicus, but
slightly larger, except tarsus, which averages smaller. Q wing
60-65 mm., tail 44-49, tarsus 16-17, bill from skull 9-10.5. $ wing
58-64.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS.— For differences of P. a. britan-
nicus and hibernicus see under those forms. P. a. vieirce (Spain,
Portugal) and P. a. sardus (Sardinia) are very similar to each other
and intermediate between P. a. ater and P. a. britannicus, P. a.
Cypriotes (Cyprus) is darker on upper-parts than P. a. britannicus
and white nuchal patch and white sides of neck are smaller and
flanks browner, P. a. atlas (Marocco) resembles P. a. sardus but
has greyer flanks, a greenish tinge on crown and round white spots
on tips of feathers of lower-throat, P. a. ledouci (Tunis, Algeria)
has cheeks, ear-coverts, and middle of breast and belly lemon-
yellow, P. a. derjugini (Armenia) somewhat resembles P. a. britan-
nicus but has longer bill, P. a. michalowskii (Caucasus) has thicker
bill, P. a. phceonotus (Persia) is similar but is brown on mantle,
P. a. pekinensis (north China, Mongolia) and P. a. cemodius (Hima-
layas) have feathers of crown elongated, P. a. insularis (Japan)
is much like P. a. ater but under-parts are cream-coloured.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Like those of British race. Often nests in
hole of ground ; occasionally in a wall, once recorded from a Sand-
Martin's hole. Eggs. — Slightly smaller on average than British ;
average of 105 eggs, 14.7 Xll.6 mm. Markings similar. Breeding-
season. — From early May in the north, where it is single-brooded.

FOOD. — Chiefly insects and seeds found in coniferous forests.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Said to be occasional visitor to east
coast England, but we know of only four specimens (two in Mr.
J. H. Gurney's coll.), viz. : Northrepps (Norfolk), Jan. 15, 1866 ;
Lakenham, Norwich, spring, 1866 (cf. Birds Europe, in, p. 88) ; and
two Thanet (Kent), one spring, 1893, and one Oct. 26, 1913 (Brit. B.,
vn, p. 262). Two reported seen Parkstone (Dorset), Jan., 1915
(cf., op. cit., xi, p. 237).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe and north Asia, but replaced
by allied races in Sardinia, Spain and Portugal, and in Marocco,
Algeria, and Tunisia, Cyprus, Crimea, Caucasus, and parts of Asia.

THE BRITISH COAL-TITMOUSE. 235

96. Parus ater britannicus Sliarpe and Dresser — THE
BRITISH COAL-TITMOUSE.

PARUS BRITANNICUS Sharpe and Dresser, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4,
vni, p. 437 (1871— England).

Parus ater Linnaeus, Yarrell, I, p. 489 (part) ; Saunders, p. 105 (part).
P. a. britannicus Sharpe & Dresser, Hartert, Brit. B., i, p. 213.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 9). — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head, lores,
and crown glossy black ; sides of hind-neck extending on to sides
of mantle in broad stripes jet-black ; middle of hind-neck extending
on to middle of mantle white, forming large nuchal patch ; rest of
mantle and scapulars and back grey washed olive-buff ; rump
olive-buff (each feather with concealed whitish patch above olive-
buff) ; upper tail-coverts olive-grey ; cheeks from base of lower
mandible, ear-coverts and sides of neck white ; chin, throat and
upper-breast black with white tips to feathers of upper-breast and
a few on those of throat ; rest of breast and centre of belly white ;
sides, flanks and under tail-coverts buff ; axillaries and under
wing-coverts white, tinged buff ; tail greyish-black fringed olive-
green on outer webs ; primaries and secondaries as tail but inner
webs fringed white, three innermost secondaries with greyish-brown
inner webs and whitish tips ; primary-coverts like primaries ;
greater coverts brown-black fringed olive-grey on outer webs and
with white tips to outer webs ; median coverts same but tips
rounded and covering both webs ; lesser coverts brown-black with
long olive -grey tips and lower series often with some pale buff at
tips. N.B. — Tips of median coverts are often buff or tinged buff,
intensity of buff on upper-parts and flanks varies individually.
This plumage is acquired by complete moult in Aug.-Sept. Summer.
— No moult. Abrasion of olive-buff fringes of feathers of mantle,
scapulars, and back gradually makes these parts purer grey ; crown
becomes somewhat duller and less glossy ; buff of flanks paler ;
black of upper-breast rather more extensive owing to wearing off
of white tips ; whitish tips wear completely off innermost secon-
daries and become much reduced on wing-coverts. N.B. — In
much worn plumage some specimens resemble some winter speci-
mens of P. a. ater.

Adult female. Winter and summer. — Like adult male but
black of throat rather narrower and not extending so far on to
upper-breast, though this character is not invariable.

Nestling. — Down, smoke-grey : distribution, inner supra-
orbital and occipital (fairly long and plentiful), humeral and spinal
(more scanty and shorter). Mouth, inside pinkish-orange, no spots ;
externally flanges pale lemon-yellow.

Juvenile. Male and female. — Fore-head, crown and sides of
hind-neck sooty-black ; middle of hind-neck as adult but tinged
yellow ; whole of rest of upper-parts dull brownish-olive ; cheeks,
ear-coverts and sides of neck pale lemon-yellow ; chin sooty-brown ;

236 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS*

throat pale yellow, the feathers with sooty bases which show through ;
breast and belly pale yellow ; flanks and under tail-coverts same
tinged pale buff ; axillaries and under wing-coverts buffish-white ;
tail, primaries, secondaries and primary-coverts as adult ; greater
and median coverts as adult but with olive-green fringes and
yellowish-white tips ; lesser coverts black-brown tinged olive.

First winter. Male and female. — Like adults. The juvenile
body -feathers, greater, median and lesser wing-coverts are moulted
July-Sept., but not primary-coverts, remiges or rectrices.

Measurements and structure. — Q wing 59-63 mm., tail 43-47,
tarsus 17-18, bill from skull 9-10 (12 measured). ° wing 57-62.
Primaries : 1st 7-10 mm. longer than primary -co verts, 2nd equal
to (or between) 7th or 8th, 4th and 5th longest, 3rd and 6th 1 mm.
shorter, 7th 5-7 shorter ; 3rd to 6th emarginated outer webs.
Secondaries equal 10th primary, tips rounded with somewhat
pointed apex. Tail slightly forked, each feather being sloped off
at tip of inner web. Bill fairly strong but finer than in Blue Tit-
mouse. Good many rictal and nasal bristles, short bristle-like
feathers covering nostrils. Tarsal joint feathered.

Soft parts. — Bill black ; legs and feet lead-blue ; iris brown.

CHARACTERS. — -For allied forms see p. 234. Small size, large white
nuchal patch and white tips to wing-coverts distinguish the Coal-
from other British species of Tit.

FIELD-CHARACTERS.—- Differs from other British Tits in having a
large pure white patch on nape. Partial to coniferous trees. A
characteristic note is " iff-hee, iff -he e, iff-hee."

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in a hole either in or close to the ground
in old stump, or tree, sometimes in a wall, more often in a bank.
Once recorded in an old Thrush's nest, and several times among
foundations of large nests in trees. Nest. — Built of moss with
thick layer of felted hair or down ; feathers exceptionally used.
Eggs. — 7 to 11, occasionally 13. Nests with 21 must be used by
two hens. Colour white, with reddish -brown spots, sometimes
thickly marked in zone, more often finely speckled. Average of
100 eggs, 15x11.6 mm. Breeding-season. — Latter part of April
in south, early May in midlands and north. Incubation. — Period
not exactly known, probably 12 days, chiefly at any rate by hen.
Single-brooded.

FOOD.— Mainly insects (coleoptera and larvae, imagines and larvae
of diptera, larvae and eggs of lepidoptera and hymenoptera) ; also
spiders, American blight and mussel scale. Seeds are also some-
times eaten, and like other Tits it will feed on meat and fat. Also
kernels of nuts, beech-mast and seeds of conifers.

DISTRIBUTION. — Confined to Great Britain. England and Wales. —

THE IRISH COAL-TITMOUSE. 237

Resident. Generally distributed, more especially in wooded parts.
Scotland. — -Resident. Generally distributed, except Caithness,
where very rarely observed,* and in Shetlands, Orkneys, and
O. Hebrides, where unknown.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Generally considered as subject to
local movements only, but has been observed on autumn-migration
at Isle of May and Bass Rock.

97. Parus ater hibernicus Ogilvie-Grant — THE IRISH COAL-
TITMOUSE.

PARUS HIBERNICUS Ogilvie-Grant, Bull. B.O.C., xxvii, p. 37 (31.xii.1910

—Ireland).

Parus hibernicus, Daily Mail (!) No. 4593, p. 3 (28.xii.1910 — County

Sligo, Ireland. Author not clearly stated, either " Natural History

authorities," Louia Wain, or Sir William Ingram).

DESCRIPTION (Plate 9). — Adult winter and first winter. Male and
female. — Like British Coal-Titmouse but nuchal patch tinged
yellow ; mantle, scapulars and back more strongly washed olive-
buff ; cheeks, ear-coverts, sides of neck, centre of breast and belly
pale yellow or yellowish-white, not pure white ; flanks and under
tail-coverts yellowish-buff. Summer. — Olive-buff wash on mantle
wears away considerably, but mantle does not become so grey as
in worn specimens of P. a. britannicus, yellow of cheeks, ear-coverts,
breast and belly becomes paler and more whitish than in winter.
N.B. — Occasional specimens especially from north-east Ireland
even in winter are indistinguishable from P. a. britannicus, while
others have only a faint tinge of yellow on ear-coverts or belly.

Juvenile. — Exactly like that of P. a. britannicus.

Measurements and structure. — As in P. a. britannicus, but
averaging perhaps a shade smaller. £ wing 57-61 mm., tail 41-45,
tarsus 16.5-18, bill from skull 9-10. $ wing 56-60.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Similar to those of British form, except that
the nest is often found in a hole in a stone-faced bank (Ussher).

FOOD. — Probably similar to that of British form. Ussher says it
feeds on alders and attacks cone of Picea nobilis ; Warren records
oats.

DISTRIBUTION. — Confined to Ireland. Resident, and generally
distributed, more especially in wooded districts .f

* Becords from Wick (Caithness) in autumn may be referable to Parus
a. ater.

f Some examples, especially from co. Down, are not separable from
Parus a. britannicus.

238

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

PARUS CRISTATUS

98. Parus cristatus scoticus (Prazak) — THE SCOTTISH
CRESTED TITMOUSE.

LOPHOPHANES CRISTATUS SCOTICA Prazak, Journ. f. Orn., p. 347 (1897
— Scotland).

Parus cristatus Linnseus, Yarrell, i, p. 499 ; Saunders. p. 1 1 1 ; P. c.scotica
(Prazak), Hartert, Brit. B., i, p. 215.

Adult. Juvenile.

The Scottish Crested Titmouse (Parus c. scoticus).

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter and summer. —
Mantle, scapulars and back considerably darker brown than in
P. c. cristatus ; rump and upper tail-coverts also darker, as well
as edgings of wing- and tail-feathers and wing-coverts ; white
tips of feathers of crown and crest duller ; white of under-parts
duller ; flanks, vent and under tail-coverts darker and browner,
not so buff.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile.- — Differs from adult in same way as juvenile P. c.
cristatus, but upper-parts more sooty-brown than adult and con-
siderably more so than in juvenile P. c. cristatus.

Measurements. — £ wing 61-65 mm., tail 46-50, tarsus 18-19,
bill from skull 9-11 (12 measured). $ wing 58-65. Structure as
in P. c. cristatus.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — For differences of P. c. cristatus
and P. c. mitratus see under those forms ; birds from Spain and
Portugal require further study. Black and white pointed crest
distinguishes the species.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Pointed black-and-white banded crest pre-
vents confusion with any other British Tit, and a clear trilling
" tirrrrl " is equally diagnostic.

THE NORTHERN CRESTED TITMOUSE. 239

BREEDING-HABITS.— Nests in holes or crevices of old pine stumps,
also in alders and birches and sometimes in fencing posts, iron and
wooden. Once recorded in Hooded Crow's nest. Nest. — Dead
moss lined with hair of deer and hare, sometimes feathers or wool.
Eggs. — Usually 5 or 6 ; rarely 7 or 8 ; white with handsome zone
of rich chestnut-red spots and blotches, only rarely faintly marked.
Average of 46 eggs, 16.1x12.5 mm. Breeding-season. — End of
April or early May ; occasionally mid-April. Incubation. — No
data. Probably one brood only.

FOOD. — Insects and larvse ; also small seeds and berries (juniper,
etc.). Young fed on insects (larvae of lepidoptera, aphides, etc.).

DISTRIBUTION. — Confined to Scotland. In Spey Valley, resident
over whole area of pine-tracts in Abernethy, Rothiemurchus and
Dulnan, from base of Cairngorms to Ballindalloch. In recent
years found breeding in several localities in Findhorn Valley and
several times seen and probably breeding in several localities in
east Ross-shire. Vagrants, possibly of this form, have occurred
Argyll, Perth, and Dumbarton.

99. Parus cristatus cristatus L. — THE NORTHERN
CRESTED TITMOUSE.

PARUS CRISTATCS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 189 (1758 — " Habitat

in Europa." Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Parus cristatus cristatus L., Witherby, Brit. B., v, pp. 109-10.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Feathers of fore-head and
crown black fringed white, those of back of crown much elongated
and pointed, forming prominent crest (longest feather from base to
tip 16-20 mm.) ; mantle, scapulars and back brown with greyish
tinge of varying strength ; rump and upper tail-coverts more
huffish-brown ; lores and ear-coverts white slightly mottled
black ; line behind eye and extending to hind-part of ear-coverts
black ; sides of chin, throat and neck white ; centre of chin and
throat black broadening at base of throat and extending as a black
line encircling base of neck to nape ; breast and belly white ;
flanks, vent and under tail-coverts varying from greyish-buff
to warm brown-buff ; under wing-coverts and axillaries white ;
tail-feathers grey-brown with fringes of outer webs like upper tail-
coverts ; primaries dark grey-brown fringed on inner webs white
and on outer webs very narrowly dull greyish-white ; secondaries
same but with fringes of outer webs browner ; primary-coverts
dark brown fringed greyish-brown ; rest of wing-coverts much as
mantle but rather gre3Ter. This plumage is acquired by complete
moult in Aug.-Oct. Summer. — No moult. By abrasion of their
tips feathers of crown become blacker and of crest shorter, wear
also makes wings and tail browner and flanks less buff.

240 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Adult female. — Like male. Feathers of crest slightly shorter
on average, but measurements overlap, and sexes cannot be
distinguished by this character. (Longest feather from base to
tip 15-19 mm.)

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Closely resembling adult but feathers of crown
brown-black and tips duller white, feathers of crest shorter and not
so pointed ; black of chin and throat brownish and some feathers
tipped white, black of base of throat not extending on to sides of
neck, and no encircling black line at base of sides of neck.

First winter and summer. Male and female. — Like adults.
The juvenile body -feathers, greater, median, lesser wing-coverts,
and innermost secondaries are moulted Aug.-Sept., but not primary-
coverts, rest of wing-feathers or tail.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 62-67 mm., tail 49-54,
tarsus 17.5-19, bill from skull 9-11 (12 measured). £ wing 59-65.
Primaries : 1st 9-14 mm. longer than primary-coverts, 2nd equal
to (or between) 8th or 9th, 4th and 5th longest, 3rd 2-3 shorter,
6th 1 shorter, 7th 3-5 shorter ; 3rd to 6th clearly, and 7th less
clearly, emarginated outer webs. Secondaries equal 10th primary,
tips round with somewhat pointed apex. Tail slightly forked, each
feather being sloped off at tip of inner web. Bill fairly strong.
Good many rictal and nasal bristles, short bristle -like feathers
covering nostrils. Tarsal joint feathered.

Soft parts. — Bill black ; legs and feet olive-grey ; iris red-
brown.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Similar to those of British form. Occasionally
nests in old squirrels' dreys. Eggs also similar.

FOOD. — Chiefly insects, their eggs and larvse ; only to small extent

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — One, iWhitby (Yorks.), March, 1872
(ut supra).

[Other examples (not examined) of Crested Tits, recorded as
obtained, are : Thirsk (Yorks.), near Christchurch (Hants.), 1846,
Grange, Melton (Suffolk), about 1873, Suffolk, about 1840. Others
are recorded as seen.]

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Scandinavia, north Russia, Poland, and
east Germany. Replaced in west Germany, central and west
Europe by Parus cristatus mitratus.

100. Parus cristatus mitratus Brehm — CENTRAL EURO-
PEAN CRESTED TITMOUSE.

PARUS MITKATUS Brehm, Handb. Naturg. Vog. Deutschl., p. 467 (1831 —

Germany).

Parus cristatus mitratus Brehm, Witherby, Brit. B., v, p. 110.

THE BRITISH MARSH-TITMOUSE. 241

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Like P. c.
cristatus and moults same, but white tips of crown and crest usually
tinged buff ; rest of upper-parts, including edgings of tail- and
wing-feathers and wing-coverts, considerably warmer buff -brown
with no greyish tinge ; sides of head, breast and belly tinged buff,
not so pure white ; flanks, vent and under tail-coverts considerably
deeper brown-buff than in P. c. cristatus. Summer. — In much worn
plumage differences are not so well marked, and some specimens
are very difficult to distinguish.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like that of P. c. cristatus and often very difficult
to distinguish, but edgings of wing- and tail-feathers more buff-
brown, upper -parts usually of a warmer tint, and flanks usually
more buff.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 61-70 mm., tail 49-51,
tarsus 17.5-20, bill from skull 9.5-10.5, longest crest-feather from
base to tip 17-22 (12 measured). $ wing 61-64, longest crest-
feather 15-20 Structure as in P. c. cristatus.

Soft parts. — As in P. c. cristatus.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Usually nests in holes of stumps, but also
at times in nests of birds of prey, Woodpeckers' borings, King-
fishers' burrows, etc. Eggs. — Also similar ; 5 to 8 as a rale, but
10 and even 12 are said to have been found together. Breeding-
season. — From mid- April onward to June. Two broods.

FOOD. — Similar to that of preceding forms.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — One. Yarmouth (Isle of Wight) pre-
vious to 1844 (ut supra}.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeds in central Europe, south to
Pyrenees and Alps. In Italy south of Alps only from autumn
to spring. Represented in north and north-east Europe, and
apparently in Spain and Portugal, by closely allied forms.

PARUS PALUSTRIS

loi. Parus palustris dresseri Stejn. — THE BRITISH
MARSH-TITMOUSE.

PARUS PALUSTRIS DRESSERI Stejneger, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., ix, p. 200
(1886 — England).

Parus palustris Linnaeus, Yarrell, I, p. 495 ; Saunders, p. 107 ; P. p.
dresseri Stejn., Hartert, Brit. B., i, p. 214.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 9). — Adult male and' female. Winter. —
Fore-head, crown, nape, and extending on to mantle, glossy jet-
black ; rest of mantle, scapulars, back, rump, and upper tail-
coverts warm brown (each feather of rump with concealed pale buff

R

242 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

patch above brown tip) ; lores and behind eye black ; cheeks and
ear-coverts white ; sides of neck extending on to sides of hind-
neck brownish-white ; chin and centre of throat black, each feather
tipped white ; breast and belly dull white tinged brownish -buff ;
flanks and under tail-coverts pale brownish-buff ; axillaries
and under wing-coverts white tinged brownish-buff ; tail-feathers
black-brown, outer webs edged olive -brown with a very narrow
whitish outer line on outer pair ; primaries and secondaries
black-brown, narrowly edged brown as mantle on outer webs, and
white on inner webs ; innermost secondaries pale brown ; primary-
coverts dark brown edged paler ; greater, median and lesser wing-
coverts brown. This plumage is acquired by complete moult in
July-Sept. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion has little effect, but
some white tips wearing off feathers of throat makes this rather
more black, brown of upper-parts becomes rather darker and less
warm in tint.

Nestling. — Down brownish-grey, short and scanty. Distribu-
tion inner supra-orbital, occipital, humeral and spinal. Mouth,
inside brownish-yellow, no tongue-spots ; externally flanges pale
yellow.

Juvenile. — Like adult but whole crown dull sooty-black;
rest of upper -parts tinged greyish not so warm brown as adult ;
black of chin and throat more brownish ; breast and belly whiter ;
flanks and under tail coverts paler with only a buffish tinge.

First winter. — Like adult. The juvenile body-plumage, greater,
median and lesser wing-coverts are moulted in Aug.-Sept., but not
primary -co verts, wing- or tail-feathers.

Measurements and structure. — £ wing 59-65 mm., tail 49-54
(outer tail-feather 2-4 (rarely 5) mm. shorter than longest), tarsus
15.5-17, bill from skull 9-10.5. $ wing 59-62. Primaries : 1st
8-11 mm. longer than primary-coverts, 2nd equal to (or between)
9th or 10th, 4th and 5th longest, 6th sometimes as long, sometimes
1 shorter, 3rd and 7th 2-4 shorter ; 3rd to 7th emarginated outer
webs. Secondaries equal 10th primary, tips rounded with some-
what pointed apex. Tail slightly forked, inner web of each feather
being sloped off at tip. Bill strong, good many rictal and nasal
bristles, short bristle-like feathers covering nostrils. Tarsal joint
feathered.

Soft parts. — Bill black ; legs and feet blue-grey ; iris dark
brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — All forms are very close and
require careful comparison. P. p. palustris (Scandinavia, east
Prussia) is larger and brown of upper-parts is considerably greyer
in tint, P. p. stagnatilis (south-east Europe) is much like last but
not quite so grey, P. p. communis (Germany, Austria) is of a more
huffish-brown, P. p. longirostris (France, Belgium, Holland) is more
olive and not so rusty as P. p. dresseri, P. p. italicus (Italy) is of a

THE BRITISH WILLOW-TITMOUSE. 243

paler rusty-brown on mantle ; other forms occur in Asia. Black
crown and nape without nuchal spot, and uniform (not pale tipped)
wing-coverts distinguish it from other British Tits except Willow-
Tit, for differences of which see pp. 243-4.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Readily distinguished from Coal-Tit by
absence of white patch on nape. Closely resembles Willow -Tit,
but has glossy blue-black, not dull sooty-black, crown. Song, see
Brit. Birds, iv, p. 147 (F.C.R.J.).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Usually nests in natural holes of willows,
alders, etc., sometimes slightly enlarging or altering opening ;
occasionally breeds in nesting -boxes. Nest. — Foundation of moss,
varying in amount according to size of hole, with thick pad of
felted hair, rabbit's fur or down. Eggs. — 7 or 8 as a rule, occasionally
more ; white, rather sparsely spotted with red-brown. Average
of 57 eggs, 15.6x12.2 mm. Breeding -season. — From about the
last week in April in the south of England. Incubation. — Lasts
about 13 days ; apparently by hen. Probably sometimes double-
brooded.

FOOD. — Chiefly insects (coleoptera, hymenoptera, etc., and their
larvae) ; also seeds of weeds, beech-mast, berries and sunflower
seeds. (Many records may refer to Willow-Tit.)

DISTRIBUTION. — Confined to Great Britain. England and Wales. —
Resident. Rather local and especially so in west Cornwall, Cumber-
land and Westmorland. In northern parts of north Wales probably
only accidental, and in Anglesey unknown. It may be replaced
entirely by the Willow- Tit in some parts, and especially in the
north. Scotland. — Appears to be entirely replaced by the Willow-
Tit. Ireland. — Said to have occurred many years ago in counties
Antrim, Kildare, Dublin, and Louth, but no specimens exist. Has
been introduced Tipperary (Brit. B., v, p. 229).

Represented by more or less closely allied forms on the continent
of Europe and in north Asia as far east as Japan. In Europe
apparently absent from Greece.

PARUS ATRICAPILLUS

102. Parus atricapillus kleinschmidti Hellm.— THE BRITISH
WILLOW-TITMOUSE.

PARUS MONTANUS KLEINSCHMIDTI Hellmayr, Orn. Jahrb., xi, p. 212
(1900 — England. Coalfall Wood, near Finchley).

Parus atricapillus kleinschmidti Hellm., Rothschild, Brit. B., i, p. 44 ;
Hartert, t.c.,p. 214.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 9). — Adult male and female. Winter and
summer. — Like adult British Marsh-Titmouse, but whole crown

R 2

244 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

always dull black not glossy ; sides of neck usually more buff
(sometimes pinkish-buff) ; flanks and under tail-coverts varying
in shade but always deeper buff (sometimes pinkish-buff) and
usually this is a very clearly marked difference ; outer edgings to
secondaries and greater wing-coverts usually much more huffish
than in P. p. dresseri ; outer tail-feathers usually shorter in propor-
tion to other tail-feathers than in P\ p. dresseri (see under measure-
ments). Moults apparently as in P. p. dresseri.

Juvenile. — Like that of P. p. dresseri and impossible to dis-
tinguish except when buff edgings to secondaries and shortness of
outer tail-feathers are well marked ; occasionally flanks are buffer
than in juvenile P. p. dresseri.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 56-62 mm., tail 47-52
(outer tail-feather 5-6 mm. shorter than longest), tarsus 16-17,
bill from skull 10-11 (12 measured). $ wing 56-61. Wing-formula
and other structure as in P. pahistris dresseri.

Soft parts. — As as in P. palustris dresseri.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — P. a. salicarius (middle Germany,
Austria) has longer wing and paler brown mantle, P. a. rhenanus
(west Germany, Holland, Belgium, France) is intermediate in colour
and length of wing between the last and P. a. kleinschmidti, P. a.
montanus (Alps) is more like P. a. borealis (see p. 245) but larger
and slightly darker on mantle, P. a. assimilis (mountains south-
east Europe) is much like P. a. borealis but with a finer bill and
more buff flanks ; other forms are found in Asia, and P. a. atri-
capillus and other forms in North America. All forms of the
species are distinguished from all forms of P. palustris by dull
black, instead of glossy black, crown.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Only distinguishable in field from Marsh-Tit,
by dull sooty crown, and light buff edges to secondaries, which
form a fairly defined light line on wing. Characteristic note a
penetrating " tchay, tchay, tchay " (F.C.R.J.).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Excavates a spherical chamber in soft rotten
wood, often of willows or alders, with an entrance hole leading
into it, made by the birds. Nest. — A thin pad of down mixed
with wood-fibre, but no moss, and far less bulky as a rule than
that of the Marsh -Tit. Eggs. — 6 to 9, white, spotted, in some
cases sparingly, but richly in others, with dark or light brown -red,
often forming a zone. Average of 17 eggs, 15.2x12.4 mm.
Breeding-season. — Early May in England, about a week later in
Scotland. Incubation. — Probably about 13 days ; details lacking.
Apparently one brood.

FOOD. — Probably very similar to that of Marsh -Tit, but records
not distinguished.

DISTRIBUTION. — Apparently confined to Great Britain. Distribution

THE NORTHERN WILLOW-TITMOUSE. 245

as yet not well known, and in England and Wales we can only give
counties where it has been identified, and in which it is present
in small numbers with Parus palustris dresseri, viz.: Devon, Wilts.,
Dorset, Hants., Sussex, Kent, Surrey, Berks., Oxon., Bucks.,
Herts., Middlesex, Essex, Cambs., Suffolk, Norfolk, Northants.,
Hunts., Lines., Yorks., Northumberland, Lanes., Cheshire, Derby,
Salop, Staffs., Warwick, Worcester, Hereford, Brecon, Merioneth,
Carnarvon. Scotland. — Seems entirely to replace P. p. dresseri, but
specimens have only been critically examined from Forth and Moray
areas, Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, Renfrew, and Lanark (cf. Brit. B.,
iv, pp. 159, 284 ; v, pp. 133, 256). Very local, but fairly well dis-
tributed south of a line from Firth of Forth to Firth of Clyde, reach-
ing to Loch Lomond and into Stirling and Perth in small numbers
and very locally to a little north of Perth (town), with isolated
record as far as Dunkeld. Also breeds in parts of Spey valley, but
otherwise unknown in north, except for a few isolated records
elsewhere in Moray area. Unknown I. and 0. Hebrides, Shetlands
and Orkneys.

103. Parus atricapillus borealis Selys.— THE NORTHERN
WILLOW-TITMOUSE.

PARTIS BOREALIS Selys-Longchamps, Bull. Ac. Bruxelles, x, 2, p. 28
(1843 — Iceland — errore ! The type came from Norway).
Parus borealis (Selys-Longch.), Grant, Bull. B.O.C., xxiii, p. 34 ; id.,
Brit. B., n, p. 277.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter and summer. —
Easily distinguished from P. a. kleinschmidti by its pale grey-brown
mantle, scapulars, back and rump ; pure white cheeks, ear-coverts
and sides of neck ; pure white centre of breast and belly ; paler
buff flanks and under tail-coverts ; edgings of outer webs of tail-
feathers, primaries and secondaries greyish-white or pale cream-
colour ; innermost secondaries and wing-coverts grey-brown, the
greater coverts edged paler. Larger size. Moults as in P. palustris
dresseri.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like adult but crown and chin sooty-brown-black.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 62-68 mm., tail 55-60
(outer tail-feather 5-8 mm. shorter than longest), tarsus 17-18,
bill from skull 10-11 (12 measured). $ wing 61-65. Wing-formula
and other structure as in P. palustris dresseri.

Soft parts.- — As in P. palustris dresseri.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — In Norway frequents both fir and birch
forests. Readily distinguished from Marsh-Tit and British Willow-
Tit by larger size, whiter cheeks, greyer back and greyish-white
edgings to secondaries. Its note is a loud and harsh " tchay "

246 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

repeated several times, and at a distance sounds somewhat like that
of a Jay (H.F.W.).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Bores a hole for itself like the British form,
and makes a scanty nest of juniper bark and willow-fibre, but does
not use moss, hair or feathers. Eggs. — Usually 7 or 8, occasionally
reported up to 12 ; white, spotted with red-brown. Average of
49 eggs, 15.2x12.1 mm. Breeding-season. — About mid-May in
south Scandinavia and a week later in the north. Incubation. —
Probably similar to that of British race.

FOOD. — Similar to that of other forms.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — One, Tetbury (Gloucester), March, 1907.
Also thought to have been seen at Welwyn (Herts.), Jan. 12, 1908
(ut supra}.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Scandinavia, north and north-west
Russia, Russian Baltic provinces, and east Prussia. In winter,
vagrant and appearing elsewhere (Poland, Orenburg, etc.).
Replaced by other races in central Europe and north Asia, as
well as in North America.

Genus ^EGITHALOS Herm.

^GITHALOS Hermann, Obs. Zool., p. 214 (1804 — Monotype: " dE.
europcea ").

Bill short and thick, much less than half as long as head,
upper and lower mandible strongly curved. Wing short, rounded,
1st primary less than half as long as 2nd, 4th and 5th longest,
6th longer than 3rd. Tail much longer than wing, much graduated
and emarginated, rectrices rather narrow. Tarsus rather slenderer
than in Parus ; scutes in front of tarsus inclined to fuse into a
single long lamina. Hind toe stouter than the others, and with a
stronger and longer claw. Plumage very copious and soft. Sexes
not conspicuously different. Nidification different from that of
Parus : nest a roundish or oblong, bulky, well-woven structure
of moss, lichen, spider's webs, etc., with small lateral entrance -hole.
Eggs finely spotted. One species with at least fifteen subspecies.
Palsearctic region from Ireland and Portugal to Japan, in Europe
south to Mediterranean, in the east to tropical China.

.EGITHALOS CAUDATUS

104. ^githalos caudatus caudatus (L.)— THE NORTHERN
LONG-TAILED TITMOUSE.

PARUS CAUDATUS Linnaeus, Syst. Xat., ed. x, i, p. 190 (1758 — " Habitat

in Europa." Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Acredula caudata (Linnaeus), Yarrell, i, p. 504 (part) ; Saunders, p. 101

(part).

THE NORTHERN LONG-TAILED TITMOUSE. 247

DESCRIPTION (Plate 10). — Adult male and- female. — Like M. c.
roseus but whole crown, nape, ear-coverts, and sides of neck pure
white ; tips of feathers of scapulars and rump whiter than in
M. c. roseus ; chin, throat and breast pure white with no dark
tips to feathers of upper-breast ; pink of flanks more mixed with
white than in M. c. roseus ; innermost secondaries with more
white, outer webs being mostly white, and in two innermost usually
whole feather except brown centre is white ; inner greater coverts
with purer and longer white tips. Moults as in M. c. roseus.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like that of M.. c. roseus but rather paler chocolate-
brown on upper-parts.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 64-67 mm., tail 88-100,
tarsus 16-17.5, b'ill from skull 7-8 (12 measured). $ wing 63-67,
tail 87-99. Structure as in M. c. roseus.

Soft parts. — As in M. c. roseus but eyelid and orbital ring yellow.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — M. c. europceus (western and
south middle Europe) is somewhat larger than M. c. roseus (<$ wing
61-67 mm., tail 84-93) and intermediate in colour between that
form and M. c. caudatus, sides of crown are variable, sometimes
with scarcely any dark markings, occasionally almost as black,
but not so broad, as in M. c. roseus, usually brownish and narrow,
white on inner secondaries also variable, sides of neck with less dark
streaks than in M. c. roseus, under-parts whiter than in JE. c. roseus
but not so pure white as in M. c. caudatus, M. c. pyrenaicus
(Pyrenees) is like M. c. roseus, but with stripes on sides of crown
much wider, M. c. irbii (Spain) has grey mantle and back, M. c.
taiti (Portugal) is similar but much darker, M. c. italics (Italy) differs
from M. c. irbii by its black upper back, scapulars pinkish, M. c.
sicula (Sicily) is like M. c. irbii but has stripes on sides of crown
pale brown and a good deal of brown in centre of crown, M. c.
tyrrhenicus (Corsica) has scapulars as in M. c. irbii, but upper back
as in M. c. italice, M. c. macedonica (Greece) has stripes on each
side of crown extending to base of bill, M. c. major (Caucasus) is
similar to sicula but larger, M. c. tephronotus (Asia Minor) and other
forms in Asia have a blackish spot in centre of throat.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Similar to those of British form. Eggs. —
9 to 12 in first layings, but higher numbers occasionally recorded ;
variable, some being freely marked with light red, and others
almost unmarked. Average of 47 eggs, 14.2x10.8 mm. Breeding-
season. — From end April to May in Scandinavia.

FOOD. — Chiefly larvae and eggs of insects (lepidoptera, coleoptera,
orthoptera, etc.) ; also spiders.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — One found dead Tynemouth (Northum-
berland) Nov., 1852 (Hancock, Birds North. & Durham, p. 77).

248 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

One said to have been obtained at Dover (Kent) prior to 1889, is at
Rochester (Hist. Birds Kent, p. 76). Pair seen probably of this
race, Bradfield (Essex), Mar. 22, 1912 (W. B. Nichols, Brit. B., v,
p. 328). Four seen Uist (Shetlands) April, 1860, may have been
this form. Others recorded as seen and M. A. Mathew (B. of
Devon, p. 34), says he received one shot near Cambridge.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — North and east Europe to Siberia and
north Japan ( Yesso) ; in winter vagrant and appearing in central and
west Europe. Replaced in central and south Europe, Asia Minor,
Caucasus, Crimea, Persia, China and south Japan by other races.

105. ^Egithalos caudatus roseus (Blyth)— THE BRITISH
LONG-TAILED TITMOUSE.

MECISTTTRA KOSEA Blyth, in Gilb. White, Nat. Hist. Selborne, p. Ill

(1836 — England).

Mecistura vagans Leach, Cat. Marnm. Birds Brit. Mus., p. 17 (1816 —

No description).

Mecistura longicauda MacGillivray, Hist. Brit. B., n, p. 454 (part).

Acredula caudata (Linnaeus), Yarrell, i, p. 504 (part) ; Saunders, p. 101

(part) ; A. c. rosea (Blyth), Hartert, Brit. B., i, p. 217.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 10). — Adult male and female. Winter.— Fore-
head, centre of crown and nape white, marked here and there brown
or brown-black ; on each side of crown and nape broad black line
extending from front of eye (ocasionally f rom base of bill) to mantle ;
upper-mantle black ; rest of mantle and back black mixed with
varying amount of pink ; scapulars and rump mostly pink with
some black markings and tips of feathers whitish ; upper tail-
coverts black ; lores, chin, and throat dull white ; ear-coverts
and sides of neck whitish, streaked brown ; upper-breast with an
indistinct band formed by small dark brown tips to some of the
feathers ; centre of breast and belly pinkish-white ; sides, flanks,
and under tail-coverts pink, feathers tipped white ; axillaries and
under tail-coverts white ; tail black, two outer pairs with outer webs
and large wedge-shaped mark at tip of inner web white, next pair
same but only distal half of outer web white ; primaries brown-
black, inner webs fringed white ; secondaries same but outer webs
also fringed white or bumsh-white narrowly on outer feathers,
broadly on four innermost ones, which are paler and browner than
others ; primary-, median and lesser coverts black ; outer greater
coverts same but inner ones brown, tipped white and margined
pink and white. This plumage is acquired by complete moult
in Aug.-Sept. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion of white tips of
feathers makes pink of upper-parts and flanks somewhat darker.

Nestling. — Down absent ; mouth inside and gape externallv
yellow (J. H. Owen).

Juvenile. — Fore-head, lores, ear-coverts, sides of neck, sides

THE BRITISH LONG-TAILED TITMOUSE. 249

of crown and nape, mantle, back, rump and upper tail-coverts dark
chocolate-brown ; centre of crown extending just on to nape
white marked here and there brown ; scapulars with distal half
whitish, tinged pink ; chin, throat, breast and belly white ; some
feathers of upper-breast tinged brown ; flanks tinged buffish ;
vent pink ; under tail-coverts same but marked here and there
blackish ; axillaries and under wing-coverts white ; tail black,
outer webs of twTo outer pairs white, tinged brownish (no wedge at
tip of inner web as in adult), next pair with only faint whitish
markings on distal part of outer web ; wing-feathers as adult,
but browner, not so black, and inner secondaries with narrower
white edgings ; wing-coverts dark brown, inner greater coverts
with narrow buffish-white tips and margins.

First winter. — Like adults. The juvenile plumage is completely
(including wings and tail) moulted in Aug. -Sept.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 58-63 mm., tail 80-92,
tarsus 16-17.5, bill from skull 6-7 (12 measured). $ wing 58-61,
tail 72-87. Primaries : 1st S-10 mm. longer than primary-coverts
(in juvenile 11-12 longer) 2nd equal to (or between) 9th or 10th,
4th and 5th longest, 6th 1-2 shorter, 3rd and 7th 2-5 shorter ; 3rd
to 6th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries about equal 10th
primary, tips rounded. Tail graduated, central pair about 5 mm.
shorter than next pair which is longest, 3rd pair same length as
central pair, 4th pair about 10 mm. snorter, 5th pair about 10
shorter than 4th, outer pair 20 or more shorter than 5th, and 40-50
shorter than longest. Tarsal joint feathered. Bill short but
fairly strong, culmen curved. Bristle-like feathers covering nostrils.
Body feathers long and loose in structure.

Soft parts. — Bill black (juv. black with yellowish base and tip) ;
legs and feet black-brown (juv. dull flesh) ; iris dark hazel ; eyelids
and orbital ring pink (occasionally brownish -yellow).

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS.— For allied forms see p. 247. The
long graduated tail, white centre of crown, and pink colouring of
scapulars, back and flanks distinguish it from all other British
species.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Delicate pink and grey tints and inordinately
long tail render this tiny bird unmistakable. Associates much
Avith other Tits, but is often seen in exclusive bands. White lateral
feathers in black tail are conspicuous as the birds pass with weak
flight from one tree to another. Call-note, a feeble " tsee, tsee "
which resembles that of other Tits, is often punctuated by a low
" tchup," which is very distinctive.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Builds a large upright ovoid-shaped nest, with
entrance hole near top, usually in thorn bushes, furze or brambles,
but sometimes also in orchard trees, conifers, oaks, birches, sometimes
at considerable heights. Materials used are chiefly moss (hypnum)

250 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

woven together with cobwebs and a little hair, externally covered
with lichens and lined with a great profusion of feathers of various
kinds, sometimes over 2,000 in number. Eggs. — 8 to 12, but
instances are on record where up to 20 have been found in one nest,
probably due to the presence of more than one female. Markings
rather variable, sometimes almost obsolete, aj, other times a zone
or cap of spots or freely speckled with light reddish. Average of
100 eggs, 14.2x11 mm. Breeding-season. — The nest is built in
March, but the full clutch is generally ready about mid-April in
south England, or late April in the north. Incubation. — Probably
about 12 days, chiefly by hen, but both sexes roost in nest. Two
broods sometimes at any rate.

FOOD. — Chiefly insects, their larvae and eggs (coleoptera, especially
weevils, small lepidoptera, especially the Tineince, hymenoptera,
scale insects), occasionally centipedes, seeds, fragments of buds,
and frequently spiders.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Resident. Generally distributed in
most parts, but rare in some very barren districts and in Isle of
Man ; only once 0. Hebrides (" company " Lewis, 1903), never
Orkneys, only once (four seen April, 1860) Shetlands may have been
M. c. caudatus, very rare Caithness and extreme north-west Scotland,
but common, if somewhat local, in other parts. (Almost exter-
minated in many parts by severe winter of 1 916-17, is now gradually
recovering its numbers.)

Genus REGULUS Vieill.

REGULUS Cuvier, Le9ons d'Anat. Comp. i, tab. n (1800 — Type by
tautonymy and monotypic : " Le Roitelet " — Molacilla Regulus L. apud
Cuvier, Tabl. Elem. d'Hist. Nat., p. 220, 1798. Cf. Opinion Nomencl. 39).

The " Goldcrests " differ in many ways from other Paridce
and are considered by some ornithologists even worthy of family
rank, being separated as " Regulidce." They are all of very small
size, the bill is thin and slender, with an almost straight culmen.
Nostrils near base of bill, small, with an operculum, being partially
covered by one single somewhat stiff plume, only R. calendula of
North America having several bristles. Rictal bristles soft. Wings
fairly long, rounded at tip ; 1st primary one-third or half as long
as 2nd ; in all Palsearctic forms at least 4th to 6th primaries longest.
Tail very slightly emarginated, the rectrices pointed at tip. Tarsus
long and slender, about one-third as long as wing, much longer
than middle toe with claw, front " booted." Crown of adults
with brilliant coloration, except in $ of R. calendula, generally

THE CONTINENTAL GOLDEN-CRESTED WREN. 251

different in sexes, of young uniform. Nest a more or less pensile
structure attached to small twigs, mostly in coniferous trees, open
above. Eggs without gloss, yellowish or pinkish-buff with fine
markings. Four species in not less than twenty subspecies.
Nearctic and Palsearctic regions, in Asia south to mountains of
tropical China and Formosa.

Key to species of genus EEGULUS.

Sides of neck with large olive-yellow patch, white

superciliary line R.ignicapillus,^,^^

Sides of neck without olive-yellow patch, no white

superciliary line R. regulus, p. 251

REGULUS REGULUS

106. Regulus regulus regulus (L.)— THE CONTINENTAL
GOLDEN-CRESTED WREN.

MOTACILLA REGULUS Linnseus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 188 (1758 —
" Habitat in Europa." Restricted typical locality : Sweden).
Regulus cristatus K. L. Koch, Yarrell, i, p. 449 (part) ; Saunders, p. 57
(part).

DESCRIPTION. — Closely resembling Regulus r. anglorum (p. 252) and
moults same but adults differ in having hind-neck and mantle
paler and more greyish, not so greenish-brown ; back rather paler,
more greyish-green ; ear-coverts and sides of neck generally rather
paler and greyer. Greyish tint of hind-neck is best distinction.
Measurements and structure as in R. r. anglorum.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — R. r. azoricus (Azores) has longer
bill, R. r. teneriffce. (western Canaries) has black sides of crown
broader and continued across fore-head, R. r. interni (Corsica and
Sardinia) has grey on sides of crown and neck ; other forms are
found in the Caucasus, Asia and in N. America south to Guatemala.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Similar to those of British race. Eggs also
indistinguishable and Food probably similar.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Not very many migrant Goldcrests
have been examined, but this form appears to be a passage migrant
(Sept. to Nov.) to east coast, frcm northern Isles to Kent, regular
in north, possibly not reaching east coast England every year, but
numbers vary greatly and are sometimes very large ; apparently
occasionally reaching Ireland, but no specimens from Ireland
identified. Returns March and April. Identified examples from
coasts Northumberland, Yorks., Lines., Norfolk, Kent, Sussex,
Hants., and Isle of May, Sept. and Oct., from Sussex Dec., and
from St. Catherine's Light (Isle of Wight) and Yorks., Oct. and
Nov. and Fair Isle, both seasons.

252 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe from Scandinavia and north
Russia (as far as pine-forests reach) to Pyrenees, Italy, Macedonia,
Caucasus, and Asia Minor. Resident and vagrant. Represented
by allied forms in British Isles, Azores, Canary Islands, Corsica,
and Sardinia, Turkestan, Himalayas, and Japan.

107. Regulus regulus anglorum Hart.— THE BRITISH
GOLDEN-CRESTED WREN.

REGULUS KEGULTJS ANGLORUM Hartert, Bull. B.O.C., xvi, p. 11 (Great
Britain and Ireland).

Regulus cristatus K. L. Koch, Yarrell, i, p. 449 (part) ; Saunders, p. 57
(part) ; R. r. anglorum Hartert, Brit. B., i, p. 218.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 10). — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head dusky-
brown ; centre of crown, fore-part lemon-yellow, hind-part bright
burnished orange, sides of crown black with inner webs of feathers
nearest central part lemon -yellow ; hind -neck and rest of upper-parts
yellowish-green rather browner on hind-neck and brighter yellowish
on upper tail-coverts and rump, feathers of latter having white
sub-terminal marks ; lores, chin and line round eye greyish -white
with inner circle of black immediately round eye ; ear-coverts
and sides of neck brown ; throat pale brown ; centre of breast
and belly whitish tinged pale yellowish-brown ; sides, flanks and
under tail-coverts more heavily washed yellowish-brown ; axillaries
white tinged pale yellow ; tail dark brown, outer webs fringed
yellowish-green ; primaries and secondaries dark brown fringed
white on inner webs, first two primaries with outer webs brown,
next four outer webs fringed yellow-green, rest and secondaries
same but with outer webs as follows : — basal portion concealed by
greater coverts greenish-yellow, and beyond the tips of the coverts
a band of black followed by yellowish-green, three innermost
secondaries fringed greenish and tipped whitish and without the
black band ; greater and median coverts as innermost secondaries ;
the whitish tips forming a double bar ; lesser coverts yellowish-
green. This plumage is acquired by complete moult in Aug.-Sept.
Summer. — No moult (occasional body-feathers are renewed) and
very little change by abrasion.

Adult female. Winter and summer. — Like male but centre
of crown all lemon-yellow sometimes with two or three orange
feathers.

Nestling. — Down, sooty-grey, short and scanty ; distribution,
inner supra-orbital and occipital. Mouth, inside bright orange,
no tongue-spots ; externally flanges pinkish -white.

Juvenile. Male and female. — Crown, hind -neck and mantle
greyish-brown slightly tinged green and mottled black especially
on sides of crown where there are black lines in adult ; scapulars,
back and rump greenish-brown ; lores, round eyes (with inner

THE BRITISH GOLDEN-CRESTED WREN. 253

circle dark brown), chin and throat greyish-white ; rest of under-
parts like adult but not so heavily washed with pale brown ; wings
and tail like adult but lesser coverts brown.

First winter and summer. Male and female.— Like adults.
The juvenile body-feathers median and lesser coverts are moulted
July-Sept, but not tail-, wing-feathers, or other wing-coverts.

Measurements and structure. — <§ wing 52-55 mm. (one 57),
tail 37-40, tarsus 16.5-17-5, bill from skull 9.5-10.5 (12 measured).
9 wing 51-54. Primaries : 1st 5-8 mm. longer than primary-
coverts, 2nd equal to (or between) 7th or 8th, 4th and 5th longest,
3rd and 6th 1-2 shorter, 7th 4-6 shorter ; 3rd to 6th emarginated
outer webs. Secondaries about equal 10th primary, tips rounded,
apex somewhat pointed. Tail slightly forked each feather with
fine point and webs sloped off. Bill very fine. A few longish
rictal bristles and a single somewhat stiff feather of loose structure
covering each nostril. Tarsal joint feathered.

Soft parts. — Bill black-brown ; legs and feet brown ; iris
dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — For differences of Continental
Goldcrest see under that form, and of Firecrest see under that
species.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Confident nature permits of close approach,
and its diminutive size, orange -yellow crest — absent in juvenile —
olive-green upper-parts and two white wing-bars are easily made
out, despite the bird's incessant restlessness. Very closely resembles
Firecrest, but lacks black line through eye and black loral streak.
Flight weak and fluttering. In breeding-season very partial to
coniferous trees. From autumn to spring essentially gregarious
and sociable, often consorting with Tits of various species, and
hunting bushes, hedgerows and woods for food. Call-note a high-
pitched, and oft-repeated Tit -like " tsitt." Song, persistently
uttered, is a feeble " weedle, weedle, weedle, weedle, tchip."

BREEDING-HABITS. — Normally nest is suspended under thick foliage
towards the end of a branch of some conifer, but in some districts
nests are commonly built against tree-trunks in ivy, and sometimes
in furze or among boughs of evergreens and whitethorns. Nest. —
Built of green moss woven together with spiders' webs and freely
lined with feathers. Eggs. — 7 to 10 as a rule, occasionally 11 or 12,
varying from white to ochreous in ground-colour and with fine
spots of brown usually in zone or cap at big end. Average of 100
eggs, 13.6x10.2 mm. Breeding-season. — Exceptionally at end of
March, usually end of April or early May or end of May and early
June. Incubation. — Lasts 12-13 days ; apparently by hen only.
Two broods.

FOOD. — Chiefly insects, their larvse and eggs (coleoptera, diptera,

254 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

hymenoptera, etc.). Also American blight (Schizoneura), bud
scales and spiders.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Resident. Generally distributed,
except in extreme north-west Scotland, where local ; in O. Hebrides,
where only once recorded as breeding (Stornoway, 1906) ; Shetlaiids,
where it does not breed, and Orkneys, where only twice recorded
as breeding. Goldcrests, probably of Continental form, having been
proved to be so on Fair Isle, are however common as spring- and
autumn -migrants in these three groups of islands. (British form
almost exterminated in many parts by severe winter of 1916-17
is now gradually recovering its numbers.)

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Few migrant specimens having been
critically examined, it is impossible to define migrations of our birds,
but there is a very considerable southward movement, in some
years at all events, in autumn, regularly in Scotland, and a return
in spring along east coast Great Britain, although probably many
individuals are residents subject only to local movements." Some
perhaps pass in autumn from Great Britain to Ireland, where
Goldcrests have been noted at Lights fairly frequently in Aug.,
while numbers occur in Sept. and Oct. ; those taken at Lights on
south coast England may be leaving the country in autumn and
returning in spring.

REGULUS IGNICAPILLUS

108. Regulus ignicapillus ignicapillus (Temm.) — THE FIRE-
CRESTED WREN.

SYLVIA IGNICAPILLA Temminck, Man. d'Orn., ed. n, i, p. 231 (1820 —

Ex Brehm MS. : France, Germany, etc.).

Begulus ignicapillus (C. L. Brehm), Yarrell, I, p. 456 ; Saunders, p. 59.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 10). — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head warm
buff ; centre of crown bright burnished red-orange, sides of crown
black with inner webs of feathers nearest central part yellow ; hind-
neck and rest of upper-parts golden-green ; feathers of rump with
white subterminal marks ; superciliary stripe extending to back
of head and small patch under eye white ; lores, narrow circle
round eye and short line from gape black ; behind eye and upper-
part of ear-coverts greyish-black ; rest of ear-coverts brown ;
base of sides of neck greenish-gold merging into golden-green of
hind-neck ; chin and throat pale brown ; centre of breast and
belly white ; rest of under-parts very pale greyish-brown ; axillaries
and under wing-coverts white ; tail dark brown, outer webs fringed
golden-green ; primaries, secondaries and wing-coverts as in
Regulus r. anglorum but black band on primaries and secondaries
shorter, not extending so far towards the tip of the feathers. This

THE FIRE-CRESTED WREN. 255

plumage is acquired by complete moult in July-Sept. Summer. —
No moult and practically no change by abrasion.

Adult female. Winter and summer. — Like male, but centre
of crown orange-yellow, sometimes reddish-orange, but never so
bright as in male.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. Male and female. — Like that of E. regulus anglorum,
but lores and upper-parts of ear-coverts blackish ; mantle,
scapulars and rump rather more green ; innermost secondaries
without whitish tips as in Goldcrest.

First winter and summer. Male and female. — Like adults.
The juvenile body-feathers, median and lesser wing-coverts are
moulted in July-Sept., but not tail-, wing-feathers, or other wing-
coverts.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 52-55 mm., tail 39-42,
tarsus 17-18, bill from skull 9.5-10.5 (12 measured). $ wing 51-53.
Wing-formula and rest of structure as in Goldcrest.

Soft parts. — Bill black ; legs and feet brown ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — E. i. madeirensis (Madeira)
has dull gold centre of crown and greater wing-coverts are black
with white tips. Distinguished at once from Goldcrest by white
superciliary stripe, black lores and line at gape, dark ear-coverts,
greenish-gold sides of neck and more golden -green upper-parts.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Notes readily distinguishable from those of
Goldcrest at close quarters, and white eye-stripe between two
black ones is very noticeable, while bronze colour of sides of neck
attracts attention (F.C.R.J.).

BREEDING -HABITS. — Very similar to those of Goldcrest, except
that the nest is perhaps slightly more compact and smaller.
Generally suspended under hanging branches of conifers, but
occasionally also in juniper bushes. Eggs.—l to 12. distinguished
from those of Goldcrest by warm pinky hue of ground, but
otherwise resembling them. Average of 100 eggs, 13.5x10.3
mm. Breeding-season. — Early in May and again in July in central
Europe. Incubation. — Probably about 12 days, but reliable data
lacking. Two broods.

FOOD. — Small insects and their larvae and eggs (coleoptera, diptera,
aphides, etc.), also spiders.

DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. — Fairly frequent visitor from
Oct. to April along coast from Cornwall to Kent, and considered
as annual autumn-visitor near Dover (Kent) and Scilly Isles, and
nearly so in east Kent and Cornwall. Also fairly frequent along
east coast up to and including Norfolk, more rarely Lines, and
Yorks., and has occurred rarely in Cumberland, Northumberland,
Wilts., Berks., Beds., Oxon.. Salop, Gloucester and Surrey. One

256 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

near Pwllheli (Carnarvon), March 24, 1878. A pair Brecon, Feb. 27,
1899.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Central and south Europe to north-west
Africa and Asia Minor. Replaced by allied race in Madeira.

[NOTE. — Two examples of the AMERICAN RUBY-CROWNED WREN, Regul us
calendula calendula (L.), now in the British Museum, said to have been shot
near Loch Lomond in 1852, cannot be admitted, the evidence not being sufficient
(Yarrell, i, p. 455 ; Saunders, p. 60).]

Genus PANURUS Koch.

PANURUS Koch, Syst. baier. Zool., p. 201 (1816 — Monotype: P.
biarmicua).

Bill short, culmen rounded with uncinate tip. Nostrils with
an operculum and mostly covered by antrorse bristly plumules.
Rictal bristles short and soft. Wing moderately long, narrow
and somewhat pointed, 3rd, 4th and 5th primaries longest and
about equal, 1st quite rudimentary, reduced to a very narrow,
stiff, lanceolate feather, shorter than the primary-coverts. Tail
very long, longer than wing, strongly graduated, outermost tail-
feathers scarcely half as long as median pair ; reetrices narrow,
attenuated at tip. Under tail-coverts very long, equal to outer-
most tail-feathers. Tarsus strong, about twice as long as middle
toe without claw, front distinctly scutellate. Plumage soft but
not so copious as Parus and Mgithalos. Sexes different, male
with a broad black moustache of elongated feathers, female
without ; male with black, female with buff under tail-coverts.
Young resembling female, but back mostly black, 1st primary
well-developed, nearly half as long as 2nd. Nest in reeds, eggs
white, finely scribbled. One species in two subspecies in south
Europe and temperate Palsearctic Asia eastwards to north China
and Amurland.

PANURUS BIARMICUS

109. Panurus biarmicus biarmicus (L.) — THE BEARDED
TITMOUSE.

PARUS BIARMICUS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 190 (1758 — " Habitat
in Europa." Ex Albin & Edwards, who state that they described Danish
specimens, which probably came from Holstein ; cf. Hartert, Vog. pal.
Fauna, i, p. 403).
Panurus biarmicus (Linnaeus), Yarrell, i, p. 511 ; Saunders, p. 99.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 10). — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head, crown,
nape ash-grey to pale , smoke-grey ; hind-neck, mantle, back and
rump yellowish tawny-brown (hind -neck occasionally tinged rose,

Plate 10.

(HALF NATURAL SIZE.)

1, Northern Long-tailed Titmouse (Mgithalos c. caudatus). 2, Adult, 3, Juvenile of British
Long-tailed Titmouse (/E. c. roseus). 4, Adult, 5, Juvenile of British Golden-crested
Wren (Requlm r. anglorum). 6, Fire-crested Wren (R. i, ignicapiUus). 1, Adult male,
8, Adult female, 9, Juvenile of Bearded Titmouse (Panunis b. biarmicug). 10, Adult
male, 11, Juvenile of Red-backed Shrike (Lanius c. cotturio.) 12, Juvenile Spotted
Flycatcher (Muscicapa s. striata).

[Fare p. 256.]

THE BEARDED TITMOUSE. 257

centre of mantle occasionally with a few black streaks, very rarely
with a number of black streaks) ; scapulars white basally with
cream-coloured tips ; upper tail-coverts like rump but with bases
rose-coloured, extent of latter varying considerably ; ear-coverts
pale ash-grey ; lores, extending slightly over eye, and broad mou-
stachial stripe black (feathers of " moustache " long and lanceo-
late) ; chin, throat and centre of breast white, latter tinged ash-
grey ; sides of base of neck and sides of breast tinged rose ; centre
of belly creamy-white ; flanks tawny ; under tail-coverts black ;
axillaries and under wing-coverts cream-colour ; tail tawny-
chestnut, tips slightly marked blackish, central pair more yellowish
than rest, outer pair with outer web and tip of inner dusky-white
and rest of inner web and base black, next pair with distal half of
outer web duskv-white ; primaries black-brown inner webs fringed
white, 3rd to 7th with conspicuous white margins to outer webs,
rest with yellowish -tawny margins ; secondaries with margins
of outer webs tawny, rest of outer webs becoming black on inner
secondaries and inner webs of these feathers becoming creamy-
white, innermost secondary entirely creamy-white ; primary-
coverts black with most of outer webs white ; greater and median
coverts black fringed and tipped tawTiy ; lesser coverts ash-grey
tipped yellowish-tawny. This plumage is acquired by complete
moult in autumn. Summer. — No moult and scarcely any change
in coloration by abrasion, but tail soon becomes very ragged.

Adult female. Winter and summer. — Fore-head, crowrn and
nape yellowish-brown, sometimes without and sometimes with
varying number of brownish-black streaks on crown ; mantle,
back, and rump as male, but more yellowish, not so reddish-tawny,
and usually with some broAvn-black streaks ; ear-coverts pale
brown ; lores and moustachial region dusky-white (not black as
male ; feathers of moustachial region somewhat elongated and
occasionally with blackish shaft-streaks) ; base of neck and sides
of breast occasionally with a slight rose tinge ; flanks paler and more
yellowish-tawny than in male ; under tail-coverts as flanks (not
black as in male) ; rest of plumage like male but tail and edgings of
secondaries and wing-coverts paler and duller and lesser coverts
not so grey.

Nestling. — Down absent. Mouth inside yellow with a number
of white spots" on palate and tongue.

Juvenile. — Crown, nape, and hind-neck yellowish-buff, sides
of crown occasionally with .blackish streaks ; scapulars very pale
yellow-buff with a few dark shaft-streaks ; centre of mantle and
back black, lower feathers of back with buff tips ; rump and upper
tail-coverts yellowish-buff ; lores dusky ; chin, centre of throat,
breast and belly very pale yellowish-buff, rest of under-parts deeper,
more tawny buff ; tail : centre pair pale buff often with black
shaft-line at tip, next pair mixture of black and buff, rest black with
buff bases, outermost pair with tip and distal hah* of outer web

258 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BEITISH BIRDS.

white, next (penultimate) pair with white tip, next with small buff
tip ; primaries and secondaries, greater and median wing-coverts
as adult but edgings not nearly so bright (1st primary much larger) ;
primary-coverts brown-black without white edgings ; lesser coverts
very pale buff slightly marked blackish.

First winter and summer. Male and female. — Apparently like
adults. The juvenile plumage is completely (including wing- and
tail-feathers) moulted in autumn.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 57-62 mm., tail 72-84,
tarsus 20-22, bill from skull 8-9 (12 measured). $ wing 55-61, tail
75-79. Primaries : 1st in adults minute only visible from below,
in juvenile plumage much broader and longer, being 5-6.5 mm.
longer than longest primary-covert, 2nd equal to 7th or between
7th and 8th, only very occasionally longer than 7th or shorter than
8th, 3rd to 5th longest, 6th 1-3 mm. shorter ; 3rd to 6th emargi-
nated outer webs. Secondaries rather shorter than 10th primary,
tips rounded. Tail graduated, central pair longest, next three
pairs becoming shorter in steps of about 5 mm., 5th pair from centre
(penultimate) about 10 mm. shorter than 4th, outermost pair about
20 mm. shorter than penultimate and 40-45 mm. shorter than
longest. Under tail-coverts nearly as long as outermost tail-
feathers. TarsaL joint feathered. Bill fairly strong, culmen
curved, cutting edges of upper mandible slightly recessed. A few
rictal bristles. Bristle-like feathers almost concealing nostrils.
Body-plumage somewhat long and loose but less so than in Mgiihalos.

Soft parts. — Bill : male, deep straw-colour ; female, upper
mandible and base and cutting edges of lower mandible greenish-
horn, rest of under mandible yellow ; legs and feet black ; iris
pale buff.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — P. b. russicus (eastern Europe,
Asia) is considerably paler. The graduated tail, tawny colouring,
white edges to primaries, as well as black moustache and under
tail-coverts in male, are distinctive specific characters.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Essentially a bird of reed-beds ; in form and
coloration alike unmistakable. Flight is direct and accomplished
at same level— just above tops of reeds. Call-note a ringing " ping,
ping." Alarm -note " ee-ar."

BREEDING-HABITS. — Generally nest is built among reeds or
aquatic vegetation in swampy ground, not far from the edge of
the bed, and low down. Nest. — Quite characteristic, built of dead
leaves of reed or sometimes sedges, warmly lined with flowering tops
of reeds and often a feather or two. Both sexes build, but lining
is added by male. Eggs. — -5 to 7, but sometimes 8 to 12 are found
in one nest, and it is not rare to find an egg buried in lining of nest.
Colour white with numerous fine streaks or scrawls and specks
of liver-brown. Average of 106 eggs, 17.2X13.9 mm. Breeding-

THE BEARDED TITMOUSE. 259-

season. — Occasionally eggs may be found at beginning of April,
but usually about third week of that month, and thence onward
to July, while young have been seen in the nest in September.
Incubation. — 13 days, male relieving female. Two or three broods
reared.

FOOD. — In winter seeds of reed chiefly : also insects and their
larvae, especially larvae of Laverna phragmitella. Succinea and
Pupa found in crops by W. H. Dikes. Young fed on green
caterpillars, also diptera, small neuroptera and trichoptera.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Resident in Norfolk and perhaps some
Suffolk Broads, and in one locality in Devon. Formerly bred
Sussex, Kent, Essex, Cambs., Hunts., and Lines. To most south
counties very rare vagrant, nearly always in winter, and has been
recorded. along Thames as far west as Gloucester; also very rare
vagrant to some midland counties and as far north as Yorks., where
a few have occurred. Many reports of birds seen are not well
authenticated. Introduced Yorks. 1911 (Brit. B., v, p. 108 ; vin,
p. 270).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe, in east Spain, south France,
Holland, Italy ; formerly in various parts of Germany, and replaced
by an allied race in Hungary, Roumania, south Russia and Asia,
from Asia Minor probably to Manchuria.

FAMILY LANIID^E.

The Shrikes form a well marked and sharply limited section
in the Palsearctic region, though the limits of the family are not
so certain and undisputed in the tropics, especially in the Austral-
asian region. Palsearctic Laniidce are strikingly coloured, middle-
sized Oscines (cf. p. 6) with laterally compressed strong bills,
more or less strongly hooked at tip, before which, on cutting edge
of upper mandible, is a distinct notch and tooth. Nostrils rounded,
without operculum but more or less concealed by bristle-pointed
antrorse feathers. Distinct rictal bristles. Tarsus fairly short,
distinctly scutellate in front, outer lamina sometimes divided into
scutes near base ; feet strong. Plumage soft. Wings short and
rounded in the less migratory L. excubitor, longer and more pointed
in the strictly migratory L. minor, collurio, and senator. Primaries
10, 1st about as long as half 2nd, in excubitor, much less in others,
3rd and 4th or 2nd and 3rd longest. Rectrices 12, tail fairly long,
rounded or almost graduated. Sexes similar or dissimilar, young
always more or less barred, an ancestral character preserved in adults
of some species, notably in North America and north Asia. Europe
and Asia to Australia and Pacific, Africa and North America to
Mexico, only two genera in Palsearctic fauna, one in British Isles.

S 2

260

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Genus LANIUS L.

LANIUS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 93 (1758 — Type by subsequent
designation : L. excubitor L.).

Characters as indicated for family. Europe, Asia south to
Celebes and Timor, Africa and North America to Mexico.

Key to species of genus LANIUS.

1 f Second and third primaries longest ... L. minor, p. 260
( Third and fourth primaries longest . . 2

2 .f First primary about half second ... L. exeubilcr, p. 2G.3
i First primary much less than half second . 3

o ] Crown uniform . . . . . . 4

'[ Crown barred . 5

Crown black, fore-head white or cream . . L. nubicu$,3 Q ad., p.
Crown and fore-head ashy-grey. . . . L. collurio, $ ad., p.

Crown brownish-red, fore-head black or blackish L. senator, $ 2 ad., p.
Crown and fore-head rufous-brown L. collurio, $ ad., p.

272

1? / .»

268
275

Back rufous .
Back earthy-brown

L. collurio, juv.,p. 275

' „ I Edges of wing-quills rufous
\ Edges of wing-quills whitish

L. senator, juv., p.
L. nubicus, juv., p.

260
27:5

LANIUS MINOR

no. Lanius minor Gm.— THE LESSER GREY SHRIKE.

LANIUS MINOR Gmelin, Syst. Nat., i, i, p. 308(1788 — "Habitat in
Italia, Hispania, Russia." Restricted typical locality : Italy).
Lanius minor J. F. Gmelin, Yarrell, i, p. 205 ; Saunders, p. 149.

The Lesser Grey Shrike (Lanius minor),
Note differences in wing-forrnula as compared with Great Grey Shriko, and more white.

THE LESSER GREY SHRIKE. 261

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head, lores, under and
over eye, ear-coverts and fore-part of crown black (a few grey
feathers often amongst black in fore-head) ; rest of upper-parts
pale blue-grey, rump rather paler than back, scapulars edged
white ; under -parts white, breast and flanks washed mauve-pink
varying in strength ; axillaries greyish-white, long under wing-
coverts black-brown ; tail, two centre pairs black with white
bases, and small whitish tips, third pair with more white at base
and about 5 mm. white at tip, fourth pair white with black shaft and
large black mark (varying considerably in size and shape) on distal
portion, two outer pairs white with shafts mostly black (penultimate
pair sometimes with black spot on distal portion) ; primaries black
with narrow brownish-white tips and white bases forming broad white
bar (in 2nd primary white base is confined to inner web) ; secon-
daries black with rather broader and whiter tips, but without
white bases ; primary-, greater and median coverts black ; lesser
coverts browner, fringed grey. This plumage is acquired by
complete moult in autumn. Summer. — A moult apparently
confined to body-feathers takes place in Feb. -Mar., sometimes
April, new plumage like old but cleaner and brighter and fore-head
and fore -part of crown without any grey feathers.

Adult female. Winter. — Much like adult male but usually
fore-head and fore-part of crown with more grey, ear-coverts
browner-black, upper-parts duller not so clear blue-grey, under-
parts less pink, more creamy. Summer. — Moult as in male, after
which upper-parts become cleaner blue-grey but not so bright as
male and fore-head and ear -coverts become blacker but not so
jet-black as in male.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Fore-head whitish ; crown and hind-neck brown-
grey, finely and rather closely barred dark brown ; mantle same
but not so closely barred ; scapulars same but whitish at tips ;
back, rump and upper tail-coverts paler and with only faint bars ;
lores and ear-coverts black-brown ; chin, throat and belly white ;
rest of under-parts pale cream-colour, flanks and under tail-coverts
with very faint bars ; tail as adult but usually with less white ;
primaries and secondaries as adult, but browner and innermost
secondaries with buffish tips and a penultimate dark line ; primary-
coverts, greater and median wing-coverts brown-black, narrowly
tipped buffish-white ; lesser coverts greyer tipped same.

First winter. Male. — Like adult male but without, or with
only a few, black feathers on fore-head, rest of upper-parts brownish-
grey not pure blue-grey ; under-parts whiter with creamy instead
of pink tinge ; wings browner with most of the pale tips of remiges
and wing-coverts worn off. The juvenile body-plumage is moulted
in autumn but not wings or tail, and frequently many barred
juvenile body-feathers are retained throughout winter. Summer. —
A complete (including wings and tail) moult takes place in Feb.-

262 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

March after which it becomes indistinguishable from adult except
for a slight mixture of grey feathers on fore-head.

First winter. Female. — Like first winter male but with no
black at all on fore-head, and browner on upper-parts. Summer. —
Moults as first winter male and becomes apparently indistinguishable
from adult female.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 114-123 mm., tail 86-96,
tarsus 23-25, bill from feathers on culmeii 13.5-16 (12 measured).
$ wing 113-122. Primaries : 1st equal to, or 1-4 mm. shorter
than, longest primary -covert, 3rd longest, 2nd 1-4 mm. shorter,
4th 3-6 shorter, 5th 11-14 shorter ; 3rd and 4th emarginated outer
webs. Secondaries about equal 10th primary, tips rounded. Tail
somewhat graduated, three central pairs longest, outermost pair
11-16 mm. shorter. Bill strong, compressed, upper mandible
hooked at point and cutting edges with tooth-like projection near
tip. Strong rictal bristles, and bristle -like feathers covering
nostrils.

Soft parts. — Bill black ; legs and feet brown-black ; iris dark
brown.

CHARACTERS. — No subspecies recognized. Differs from L. excubitor
in its very short 1st primary and different wing-formula, shorter
tail, and adults in having black on fore -head.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Has the usual habit common to Shrikes of
perching on top of some bush or tree and thence making stoops
on its prey ; also hovers. Breast tinged with pink and broad
black stripe from eye to eye distinguish adults from Great Grey
Shrike, while grey back and crown of head distinguish it from
Woodchat and Red-backed Shrikes. Will drive away all birds up
to size of Buzzard from nest (F.C.R.J.).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Usual site is from 10 to 30 ft. high in a
deciduous tree by a roadside, where a good look-out can be kept.
Nest . — Built of various flowering weeds, such as Gnaphalium, Filago,
etc., lined with feathers, roots, wrool, hair, etc., and readily
distinguishable from that of L. collurio. Eggs.— 5 to 7, nearly always
bluish-green in ground-colour, rarely with a creamy or buff ground
and brown and violet markings. Normally blotched with olive -
brown and pale greenish-brown in a zone. Average of 100 eggs,
25.1 x 18.2 mm. Breeding-season.— About the last two weeks in
May in central Europe. Incubation.— Said to be performed by
both sexes and to last 15 days. Normally one brood.

FOOD. — Apparently chiefly insects (coleoptera, including the larger
species, such as cockchafers (Meloloniha), lepidoptera, the larger
diptera, and orthoptera (including Gryllotalpa) ), also millipedes
(Julus).

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Sixteen. Most Sept. and Oct. but

THE GREAT GREY SHRIKE. 263

also Nov. (one), Jan. (one), April (three), May (four), June (one) ;
from following counties : — Yorks. (one), Norfolk (three), Beds.
(one), Kent (two), Sussex (five), Hants, (two), Devon (one), and
Scilly Isles (one). Scotland.— One Fair Isle (Shetlands), June 3,
1913.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — South and central Europe, north to
Livonia and west Siberia, east to Asia Minor, Persia, and Russian
Turkestan to Altai Mountains, but absent from Spain. Migrant,
wintering in tropical, and parts of south, Africa.

LANIUS EXCUBITOR

in. Lanius excubitor excubitor L.— THE GREAT GREY
SHRIKE.

LAXITTS EXCUBITOR Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 94 (1758—" Habitat

in Europa." Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Lanius excubitor Linnaeus, Yarrell, i, p. 199 ; Saunders, p. 147.

Lanius major Pallas, Yarrell, in, p. viii.

The Great Grey Shrike (Lanius e. excubitor). <J adult.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head, crown, mantle
and back pearly blue-grey ; scapulars with long white tips ; rump
and upper tail-coverts rather paler (sometimes whitish) than
mantle ; small superciliary stripe white ; lores, stripe under eye,
narrow circle round eye and broad stripe behind eye passing through
ear-coverts black ; whole under -parts white, often with faint rosy
tinge on breast ; axillaries with white tips and outer webs and grey
inner webs ; long under wing-coverts smoke-grey ; tail : middle
pair black with white bases and small dull white marks at tips,
second pair same but with 5-10 mm. white at tip, third pair with
10-20 (sometimes even 30) mm. white at tip, fourth pair with
20-40 white at tip, but occasionally mostly white with only part
of shaft and irregular mark on both webs black, fifth pair with
30-40 white at tip but occasionally all white with only part
of shaft black, sixth (outer) pair sometimes all white, sometimes
with part of shaft black, and sometimes with base of inner web or

264 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

mark of varying size black (distribution of black and white varies
greatly individually) ; primaries black with white bases (forming
bar about 10 mm. wide), tips of inner feathers white, outer feathers
with outer webs narrowly fringed whitish ; secondaries like
primaries, but with longer white tips and rather less white at base,
inner secondaries without white at base, sometimes all secondaries
with no white showing at base ; primary- and greater coverts
black, usually with small dull white tips ; median coverts black ;
lesser coverts grey with black bases. This plumage is acquired by
complete moult in Sept. -Nov., wing- and tail-feathers commencing
July. Summer. — A moult confined to body -feathers takes place
March-May (sometimes June) new plumage being like winter.

Adult female. Winter. — Like adult male but breast usually
with faint brown wavy bars. Many specimens indistinguishable
from adult male. Moult as in male. Summer. — Moult as male,
after which bars on breast usually absent, and when present very
faint.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. Male and female. — Upper-parts grey washed brown,
feathers of hind-part of crown, nape, rump and upper tail-coverts
usually with dark brown wavy bars but these sometimes absent ;
whitish superciliary stripe very small ; lores and line through ear-
coverts blackish-brown ; under -parts white washed brownish,
breast and flanks with 'faint brown wavy bars, chin and throat
whiter with fewer bars, belly and under tail-coverts also whiter
and without bars ; tail-, wing-feathers and primary -coverts as
adult, but innermost secondaries tipped brownish ; greater coverts
black, tipped brown ; median coverts dark brown with tips greyish-
brown speckled dark brown ; lesser coverts greyish-brown speckled
dark brown ; all wing-coverts usually with dark penultimate
crescentic lines.

The Great Grey Shrike (Lnnni.se. excubitor).
Note differences in wing-formula as compared with Lesser Grey Shrike, and less white.

THE GREAT GREY SHRIKE. 265

First winter. Male. — Like adult male but with faint brown
wavy bars on breast, and thus like most adult females, but unmoulted
juvenile greater coverts have remains of brown tips. The juvenile
body-feathers, innermost Secondaries, lesser and median wing-
coverts and inner greater coverts are moulted from July to Dec.,
but occasionally a good many juvenile body-feathers are retained
until spring moult. Summer. — Moult as in adult, after which
does not appear to have bars on breast and tips of greater coverts
being worn off it is usually indistinguishable from adult.

First winter. Female. — Like first winter male but bars on
breast usually rather stronger. Summer. — After moult like adult
summer female.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 111-118 mm., tail 107-117,
tarsus 27-29, bill from feathers on culmen 16-18 (12 measured).
$ wing 107-115. Primaries : 1st 14-17 mm. longer than longest
primary-covert (about half 2nd), 2nd equal to or 1-3 shorter than
6th, 3rd and 4th longest, 5th 2-3 shorter, 6th 10-13 shorter ; 3rd
to 5th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries shorter or equal to
10th primary, tips rounded. Tail more graduated than in L. miner,
central pair longest, rest becoming shorter and outermost 18-25
shorter than central. Bill and rictal bristles as in L. minor.

Soft parts. — Bill black-brown, paler base of lower mandible ;
legs and feet black ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — For difference of L. e. meridionalis
see under that form, L. e. homeyeri (south Russia, Rumania) has
paler upper-parts and whitish fore-head and upper tail-coverts,
L. e. przewalskii (Turkestan) is still paler and has more white on
scapulars and tail- and wing-feathers, L. e. mollis (Siberia) has
more brownish-grey upper-parts and white rump, L. e. algeriensis
(north Marocco, north Algeria) has dark blue-grey upper-parts and
grey under-parts, L. e. dodsoni (High Plateaux and. southern Atlas)
is paler than last, L. e. elegans (northern Sahara to Palestine) is
still paler, L. e Jcoenigi (Canaries) is somewhat like last two
but smaller, L. e. aucheri (Palestine, Persia) has very pale blue-grey
upper-parts and grey under-parts ; other forms are found in other
parts of Asia and Africa and in America. L. minor differs in having
. very short 1st primary besides black fore-head, shorter tail and
other differences.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Flight undulating and interrupted. Alights
with upward flight on high vantage-point, which it leaves from time
to time in pursuit of prey. Like other Shrikes constantly moves
its tail when perched. Large size, longer fan-shaped tail, grey
back, white under-parts, black ear-coverts, black, white-edged tail,
black wings with one, or two. white wing-bars are distinguishing
features. Alarm note a harsh shriek ; has considerable powers of
mimicry (N.F.T.).
BREEDING -HABITS. — Nesting-sites vary according to locality, some-

266 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

times in small pines, or big thorn bushes, at other times high up in
oaks, birches or apple trees. Nest . — Bulky, chiefly built of dry grass
and some moss on foundation of heather twigs, lined with roots,
wool, hair, and varied assortment of feathers. Eggs. — 5 to 7,
occasionally 8 or even 9 ; ground-colour ranges from greyish to buff,
blotched and spotted with two shades of olive and shell-marks of
purplish -grey. Often a zone or cap at big end. Average of 1 17 eggs,
26.3x19.3 mm. Breeding-season. — Latter part of April or early
May in central Europe, but in the high north not till late May or
early June. Incubation. — Said to last 15 days. Normally one
brood.

FOOD. — Insects (coleoptera, hymenoptera, orthoptera, lepidoptera
and their larvse) ; also small frogs, lizards, and blindworms, field-
mice, and birds of many species, chiefly those about the size of the
Finches, Warblers and Larks, but occasionally even Blackbird,
Thrush, Fieldfare, etc.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Annual autumn and winter-
visitant along east side, arriving second week Oct. onwards,
generally singly, but periodically in fair numbers. Much more
irregular spring and only occasional summer. Most spring records
in March, up to mid-April normal, late date one, Essex, May 24,
1916. Noted Fair Isle on both passages, and often occurs Orkneys,
but apparently much rarer Shetlands. Elsewhere irregular,
especially in west, and very rare casual to west Wales and Hebrides.
Ireland. — Rare casual, most frequently in north.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe from north Russia and Scandi-
navia to Pyrenees and Alps, and east to Hungary and River Ob.
On migration farther south, but not to Africa. Replaced in south
France, Spain and Portugal, on Canary Islands, in north-west
Africa, north-east Africa, south-east Europe and parts of Asia
and North America, by a number of other forms.

112.- Lanius excubitor meridionalis Temm. — THE SOUTH
EUROPEAN GREY SHRIKE.

LANITTS MERIDIONALIS Temminck, Man. d'Orn.,ed. n., i, p. 143 (1820 —
S. Italy, Dalmatia, S. France, etc. Restricted typical locality : Provence).
Lanius meridionalis, J. B. Nichols, Brit. B., v, p. 75.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter and summer. — Like L. e,
excubitor, but whole upper -parts dark slate-grey ; scapulars with
conspicuous white tips ; narrow white stripe from nostrils over
eye more conspicuous than in L. e. excubitor ; chin, vent, and
under tail-coverts white ; flanks pinkish-grey ; axillaries and
under wing-coverts as in L. e. excubitor ; rest of under-parts pink
with mauve tinge ; tail as in L. e. excubitor, but generally with less

THE SOUTH EUROPEAN GREY SHRIKE. 267

white and more black ; primaries with less white showing at base ;
secondaries never with white at base ; wing-coverts as in L. e.
excubitor. This plumage is acquired by complete moult in autumn.
Summer. — A moult confined to body-feathers takes place from
Feb.-April, new plumage being like winter.

Adult female. Winter and summer. — Like adult male and
moults same. Breast not barred as in L. e. excubitor.

Nestling and juvenile. — (Not examined.)

Measurements and structure. — ^ wing 103-111 mm., tail 108-121,
tarsus 28-32, bill from feathers on culmen 16-20 (12 measured).
$ wing 103-107. Primaries : 1st 11-19 mm. longer than longest
primary-covert, 2nd equal to (or between) 6th and 7th, 4th longest,
3rd and 5th equal to it or 1-3 shorter, 6th 5-8 shorter. Other
structure as in L. e excubitor.

Soft parts. — As in L. e. excubitor.

CHARACTERS. — Distinguished by combination of dark upper-parts
and pink under-parts.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Similar to those of Great Grey Shrike,
but crown and mantle darker and faint rosy flush on breast. Less
conspicuous and shyer than Great Grey Shrike (F.C.R.J.).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds sometimes in large clumps of brambles
and sometimes in young pines or ilex trees. Nest. — Similar to that
of Great Grey Shrike, built of coarse grass and lined with finer grass
and a few feathers. Bits of rag, lichens, and Gnaphalium may be
found on outside of nest. Eggs. — 4 or 5 to 7, markings generally of a
much richer and warmer brown than in the allied form, and often
forming a bold zone. Average of 117 eggs, 27.5x19.6 mm.
Breeding-season. — Irregular, some birds laying in March and others
not till mid-April. Incubation. — No authentic data. Possibly
two broods, as fresh eggs have been taken in June,

FOOD. — Information scanty, but apparently feeds chiefly on insects
and their larvae, especially coleoptera, and orthoptera and probably
small as well as young birds. One seen with large worm in bill in
Spain ; also observed to catch lizard.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — One. Male near Pett (Sussex), Jan. 2,
1911 (ut supra). [The specimen recorded from near Norwich,
Dec., 1890 (J. H. Gurney, Trans. Norf. & N. Nat. Soc., vm, pt. iii,
pp. 352-3, and Brit. B., i, p. 124), was wrongly identified (Brit. B.,

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Spain, Portugal, south-east France, once
at Gien on the Loire. Casual in Italy from the Riviera to Rome and
in Heligoland.

268

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

LANIUS SENATOR*

113. Lanius senator senator L.— THE WOODCHAT SHRIKE.

LANIUS SENATOR Linmeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 94 (1758 — "Habitat
in Indiis." Errore. Rhine fixed as typical locality by Hartert, Vog. pal.
Fauna, i, p. 434).

Lanius auriculatus P. L. S. Miiller, Yarrell, i, p. 215 ; Lanius pomeramts
Sparrman, Saunders, p. 153.

Upper wing : The Corsican Woodchat Shrike (Lanius s. badius).
Lower wing : The Woodchat Shrike (Lanius s. senator).

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Sides of fore-head and lores
white ; centre of fore-head and band across fore-part of crown
black ; rest of crown, nape, and upper mantle chestnut ; rest of
mantle brown-black, feathers narrowly tipped brownish-chestnut ;
scapulars white sometimes tinged cream ; back grey washed

* This species is rather unfortunate in its names. Until 1871 it was
almost universally called L. rufus, or sometimes ruficeps or rutilus. Then
Mr. Dresser introduced auriculatus, and this alteration of a well-known, time-
honoured name was tinblushingly accepted by Saunders in the same year, and
by Gadow, but in 1883 Saunders adopted pomeranus, which had to give way
to senator, since the adoption of the 10th edition of Linnaeus, 1758. — E.H.

THE WOODCHAT SHRIKE. 269

cream and feathers lightly tipped buff ; rump and most upper
tail-coverts white usually tinged cream ; long upper tail-coverts
grey tipped black ; superciliary stripe (joining black band across
crown), ear-coverts, and extending in a broad stripe nearly to
shoulders black ; a few white feathers immediately behind eye ;
whole of under-parts white tinged more or less with cream-colour,
flanks dark cream ; axillaries and under wing-coverts greyish-
black and white ; tail black, central pair with little or no white at
base, and with very narrow white tip, rest with white bases (con-
cealed by coverts) and larger white tips, amount of white at base and
tip increasing on outer feathers, outermost being mostly white with
only portion of inner web black ; primaries brown-black very
narrowly edged whitish and with white bases showing 5-10 mm.
beyond primary-coverts ; secondaries brown-black with no white
at base but with broader white or cream-coloured edgings and
tips ; primary-coverts brown-black with small white tips ; greater,
median and lesser coverts as secondaries. This plumage is acquired
by complete moult from Aug.-Dec. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion
usually causes crown to become paler, mantle more uniform, most
tips of feathers wearing off, back purer grey, white tips and edgings
of tail, wing, and wing-coverts become much reduced.

Adult female. Winter and summer. — Like adult male, but
band on fore-part of crown, and stripe through ear-coverts not so
broad, and more or less mixed with chestnut ; mantle, wings and
tail brown not black ; back browner not so grey ; varying number
of feathers of upper-breast and flanks with dusky-black crescentic
bars.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. Male and female. — Fore-head, crown and whole
upper-parts varying from greyish-white to rufous-buff, each
feather with a broad brown-black subterminal crescentic band ;
scapulars rather paler ; upper tail-coverts more rufous ; rump
nearly uniform pale rufous-buff ; ear -coverts brownish marked
black ; under-parts creamy-white, most feathers with dusky-
black crescentic bands but centre of belly and under tail-coverts
either without or with only a few bands ; tail brown with tips
and bases (except of central pair) cream-colour and with dark
subterminal lines, outermost feathers with most of inner web
brown ; primaries brown with wider and more buff edgings and
buffer or more creamy not so white at base as in adults ; secon-
daries brown with broad buff fringes and whitish tips, innermost
feathers with buff markings of varying extent ; primary-coverts
much as adult but with longer white tips ; greater coverts
brown with most of outer webs rufous-buff with black subterminal
line and white tips ; median and lesser coverts whitish with black
crescentic bars as feathers of upper-parts.

First winter. Male and female. — New feathers of fore-head,
crown and nape rufous with black subterminal crescentic bands ;

270 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

of mantle, scapulars and back rufous-brown with faint dark
subterminal bands ; of rump and upper tail-coverts buff with
black subterminal crescentic bands ; of under-parts cream-coloured,
those of upper-breast and flanks having black subterminal
crescentic bands ; of lesser and median wing-coverts dark
brown with rufous tips. A varying number of juvenile body-
feathers, lesser and median wing-coverts are moulted June-
Sept., but a good many juvenile feathers are always retained, as
well as the greater and primary-coverts, and wing- and tail-feathers.
First summer. Male and female. — The mixed plumage of juvenile
and first winter is completely moulted from Nov.-March, except
for primary-coverts which appear not to be moulted and frequently
two or three primaries or secondaries. New plumage like adults
but occasionally males have a few feathers on flanks with black
crescentic bands and females appear to have more of these feathers
than adult females. In males primary-coverts are distinctly
brown and frequently some primaries or secondaries being
unmoulted are brown and worn.

Measurements and structure. — £ wing 92-103 mm., tail 74-84,
tarsus 23-25, bill from feathers on culmen 13-14.5 (12 measured).
^ wing 91-103. Primaries : 1st 3-8 mm. longer than longest
primary-covert, 3rd and 4th longest, 2nd 5-10 mm. shorter, 5th
3-7 shorter, 6th 9-15 shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs.
Tail fairly square except for two outer pairs, outermost being
about 10 mm. short and penultimate 3-5 short. Bill and rictal
bristles as in L. minor.

Soft parts. — Bill bluish-black, base of lower mandible pale slate
(upper dark smoke-colour, lower paler in juvenile) ; legs and feet
slate-black ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — For differences of L. s. badius
see under that form, L. s. niloticus (Persia, Palestine, winter north-
east Africa) has basal third of central tail-feathers white. Chestnut
crown, black mantle, and white scapulars and rump distinguish
the species.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — In flight has black and white appearance
and white rump is noticeable, at rest chestnut crown and nape and
white scapulars are conspicuous, as well as white breast, which shows
up at considerable distance. Like other Shrikes, is very fond of
posting itself on tops of trees, bushes and posts and wires, from
which it darts at its prey either in the air or on the ground, but it
also sometimes frequents thickish woods. Fairly tame and confid-
ing, especially when feeding young. Its call and alarm notes are
very harsh and somewhat varied. The young when fledged have
grey appearance, are usually concealed amongst foliage of trees or
bushes and have a single, somewhat piping, call-note (H.F.W.).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests on outer branches of trees (olive, orange,

THE CORSICAN WOODCHAT SHRIKE. 271

oak, etc.) as a rule and seldom less than 10 -ft. from ground but
occasionally also in bushes and young trees. Nest. — Substantially
built of roots and branches of various flowering weeds, especially
cudweed (Gnaphalium). Cup neat and deep, lined finer materials,
bits of wool, hair or feathers. Eggs. — Usually 5 to 6, occasionally 7,
with pale greenish ground and markings of greyish-brown with ashy
shell-marks, generally forming a zone at big end. Occasionally sets
with brownish-yellow or creamy ground are met with, and a rare
erythristic type has a salmon-pink or warm-cream ground with
red-brown markings. Average of 100 eggs, 22.8x16.9. — Breeding-
season. — From late April onward in Spain, but usually in May and
generally towards end of month' in central Europe. Incubation. —
About 14-15 days. One brood.

FOOD. — Small birds (Swallows, Finches and Warblers) and their
young or eggs ; insects (coleoptera, lepidoptera, orthoptera, hymen-
optera, etc.) and their larvae ; also worms.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Some forty at intervals, mostly in
south, and east as far north as Norfolk ; very rarely elsewhere.
Occurrences all between spring and autumn, largest number May
and June. Not recorded from : — Lines., Rutland, Hunts., Beds.,
Bucks., Gloucester, Salop, Staffs., Leicester, Warwick, and Middle-
sex, nor from Wales. Said to have twice nested Isle of Wight.
Scotland.— One Isle of May (Forth), Oct. 19, 1911 ; one Auskerry
(Orkneys), June 6, 1913 ; one Fair Isle (Shetlands), June 4, 1913.
Ireland.— One Blackwater Lightship (Wexford), Aug. 16, 1893 ;
one Tuskar Rock Light (Wexford), May 26, 1917.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — North-west Africa and Mediterranean
countries generally, north to north Germany, Holland, and Belgium,
east to south Russia, Caucasus, and Asia Minor. Migrant, south in
winter to Sahara, Senegambia and Nigeria. Rare Canaries, casual
Madeira. Replaced in Corsica and Sardinia, Persia and Palestine,
by closely allied forms.

114. Lanius senator badius Hartl.— THE CORSICAN WOOD-
CHAT SHRIKE.

LANIUS BADIUS Hartlaub, Journ. f. Orn., 1854, p. 100 (Gold Coast).
Lanius senator badius Hartl., C. B. Ticehurst, Bull. B.O.C., xxv, p. 76 ;
id., Brit. B., in, p. 369.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female.— -Like L. s. senator but
outer five or six primaries without white at base and rest of primaries
with only a little creamy-white at base ; white of rump more
restricted, more of the upper tail-coverts being brownish-grey ;
less white at base of tail-feathers ; chestnut of crown and nape 'in
fresh plumage darker. Moults as in L. s. senator.
Nestling. — (Not examined.)

272 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Juvenile. — Like that of L. s. senator but without white at base
of outer five or six primaries and with less white at base of tail-
feathers.

First winter. — Like L. s. senator but without white at base of
outer five or six primaries, less white at base of tail and first winter
feathers of mantle apparently rather darker.

Measurements.— $ wing 96-104 mm. (larger on average than
L. s. senator], tail 78-85, tarsus 23-35, bill from feathers on cuhnen
13-15 (12 measured). Structure as in L. s. senator.

BREEDING.-HABITS. — Similar to those of Woodchat, but perhaps
nests more often in bramble thickets and bushes. Nest. — Also
similar. Eggs. — Slightly larger on average, but similar in type :
erythristic sets about 4 or 5 per cent. Average of 60 eggs,
23.1x17.27,, Breeding-season. — Usually about fourth week in
May in Corsica.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — One, Romney Marsh (Kent), June 29,
1909 (ut supra).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia and
Capraia and near Lazio (Italy), wintering in west Africa (Gold
Coast. Nigeria), passing through Tunisia and Algeria, casual
Madeira.

LANIUS NUBICUS

115. Lanius nubicus Licht. — THE MASKED SHRIKE.

LANIUS NUBICUS Lichtenstein, Verz. Doubl. Mus. Berlin, p. 47 (1823 —

Nubia).

Lanius nubicus, Xicoll, Bull. B.O.C., xvi, p. 22; Saunders, Brit. B. i,

p. 11.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Win-
ter.— Fore-head and broad stripe
over eye white ; crown, nape,
mantle, back and rump glossy
black, some feathers of lower
mantle and back with small buff
tips and feathers of rump with
greyish-white bases showing here
and there ; scapulars white ;

Upper tail-COVertS glossy-black The Masked Shrike (Lanius »«5ictw).

tipped and margined on outer 6 adult-

webs white ; lores dusky ; ear-
coverts brown- black ; chin, throat, centre of belly and under tail-
coverts white ; breast, sides and flanks rusty-chestnut : axillaries and
most under wing-coverts white but those covering primaries dusky-

THE MASKED SHRIKE. 273

black ; tail black and white : two central pairs all black, third
pair with small white tip, fourth pair with varying amount of white
on distal half, two outer pairs white with black shafts and black
edging at base of inner webs ; primaries with about basal half white
and distal black ; secondaries black, with tips and edgings to
outer webs white ; primary-coverts black ; rest of wing-coverts
black edged and tipped white, lesser coverts showing very little
black. This plumage is acquired by complete moult Aug.-Nov.,
and occasionally Dec. Summer. — A moult confined to body-
plumage takes place Jan.-March. new plumage being like that of
winter. Edgings and tips gradually wear off inner secondaries,
wing-coverts and upper tail-coverts, making these parts more
uniform black.

Adult female. Winter. — Like adult male but fore-head,
scapulars and edgings and tips of inner secondaries and wing-
coverts cream-coloured not white ; rest of upper-parts dark
greyish -brown, the feathers with very narrow rusty-buff tips,
crown and nape often blackish ; under-parts usually white less
richly marked with rusty-chestnut than male ; wing- and tail-
feathers browner black, not so jet-black. Moult as male. Summer.
— Moult as male and plumage as winter female.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. Male and female. — Fore-head, crown and mantle
pale brown, each feather with blackish-brown crescentic band ;
scapulars whitish with black-brown crescentic bands ; rump and
upper tail-coverts darker brown and bands less conspicuous ;
small stripe over and behind eye white ; ear-coverts greyish-brown ;
whole under-parts white, closely barred with dark brown crescentic
bands ; chin and centre of belly with few bands ; tail- and wing-
feathers as adult but browner, not so black ; inner secondaries
and greater wing-coverts dark brown mottled pale brown and
with pale buff edgings ; primary-coverts brown-black tipped
greyish ; median and lesser coverts as mantle. Males can be
distinguished (by comparison) from females by their less brown
and more blackish tail- and wing -feathers and primary-coverts.

First winter. Male. — Somewhat like adult female but feathers
of fore -head with black crescentic bands and all feathers of rest of
upper-parts with longer rusty tips especially on crown and nape
on which little black shows. The juvenile body-plumage, inner
secondaries, greater, median and lesser wing-ccverts are moulted
June-Oct., but not primaries, primary-coverts, rest of secondaries
or tail, and frequently two or three outer greater coverts and
a few body -feathers are retained. Female. — Fore-head speckled
brown ; rest of upper-parts not so dark as adult female and with
longer rusty tips to the feathers ; wing and tail-feathers browner.
Moult as male. First summer. Male. — The first winter body-
plumage is moulted Jan. -April and except for brownish wings and
tail and primary-coverts it becomes indistinguishable from adult

T

274 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

but occasionally a few first winter body -feathers are retained.
Female. — Moult as male. Fore-head slightly speckled and crown
and mantle paler and with longer brown tips than in adult female.

Measurements and structure. — £ wing 86-94 mm., tail 85-94,
tarsus 22-24, bill from feathers on culmen 11.5-13 (12 measured).
$ wing 85-94. Primaries : 1st 5-10 mm. longer than longest
primaiy-covert, 3rd and 4th longest, 5th 1-2 mm. shorter, 2nd 8-11
shorter, 6th 5-7 shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs.
Secondaries about equal 10th primary, tips rounded. Tail fairly
square, but outermost pair about 20 mm. and penultimate pair
about 5 shorter than others. Bill and rictal bristles as in L. minor.

Soft parts. — Bill black, base of lower mandible dark slate ;
legs and feet slate-black ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS. — No subspecies. Black and white upper-parts and
chestnut flanks are distinctive.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Contrast of black and white in plumage and
rufous under-parts makes it conspicuously different from other
British Shrikes. Flying at a distance might be confused with
Woodchat, 'which, however, has white rump. Usually perches on
bough fairly near ground from which it darts to ground or into air to
catch an insect. Note a harsh, complaining, almost squealing " keer,
keer, keer" (H.F.W.).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Usually breeds in olive-trees about 8-10 ft.
from ground, on main branch. Nest. — Small, neatly built of roots,
rags, bents, etc., lined fine roots and fibres. Eggs.—A-G, sometimes
7 ; pale buff or yellowish-brown ; with zone of umber-brown and
deep leaden-coloured spots, chiefly round large end. Average of 100
eggs, 20.7x15.7 mm. Breeding-season. — From end April or early
May to June in Asia Minor ; from mid-April onward in Palestine.
Two broods.

FOOD.— Chiefly insects (orthoptera, coleoptera, etc.) : not observed
to take j"oung birds.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — One adult male, Woodchurch (Kent),
July 11, 1905 («* mpro).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeds in south-west Persia, Asia Minor,
Cyprus and Syria, formerly also in Greece. Winters in north-east
Africa and south Arabia.

LANIUS COLLURIO

116. Lanius collurio collurio L. — THE RED-BACKED
SHRIKE.

LANIUS COLLURTO Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 94 (1758 — " Habitat
in Europa." Restricted typical locality : Sweden).
Lanius collurio Linnaeus, Yarrell, i, p. 209 ; Saunders, p. 151.

THE RED-BACKED SHRIKE. 275

DESCRIPTION (Plate 10). — Adult male. Winter. — Narrow line on
fore-head black ; whole crown, nape and hind-neck ashy blue-grey ;
mantle and scapulars extending on to back bright bay ; rest of back,
rump and upper tail-coverts blue -grey, feathers indistinctly edged
rufous ; lores, under and immediately round eye and ear-coverts
black ; usually a whitish line over and behind eye ; chin dull
white ; rest of under-parts pale pearly-pink, darker on flanks and
white in centre of belly and under tail-coverts ; axillaries white
with dusky-black bases ; tail : central pair black with small whitish
tips, next pair same but with about basal half white, rest with
about basal two-thirds white, shafts black and longer white tips ;
primaries and secondaries brown-black with narrow edgings, rufous
on outer webs and whitish on inner webs, inner primaries with
concealed white bases, inner secondaries with broader rufous
edgings and innermost with still more rufous and with whitish tips ;
primary-coverts like primaries ; all wing-coverts bay like mantle,
with inner webs and bases of feathers brown-black. This plumage
is acquired by complete moult, body-feathers often commencing
July and wing- and tail-feathers and rest of body-feathers usually
not moulting until Dec. -Feb. and sometimes not complete until
March. Summer. — No moult. Plumage like winter. Abrasion
makes little difference except that white tips wear off central
tail-feathers.

Adult female. Winter. — Fore-head brown to rufous-brown,
often speckled black ; crown and nape brown to rufous-brown
often tinged grey, a few feathers sometimes with small black spots
at tip ; hind-neck usually greyer and less rufous-brown ; mantle
and scapulars brown to bright rufous-brown, a few feathers some-
times with fine penultimate bands ; back, rump, and upper tail-
coverts greyish-brown, feathers with indistinct pale tips and
penultimate blackish bands, longer upper tail-coverts more rufous ;
lores and stripe behind eye whitish speckled black ; ear-coverts
dark brown or rufous-brown ; under-parts white or creamy-white,
sides of throat, breast and flanks more or less heavily marked with
black-brown crescentic bands ; axillaries white with inner webs
and bases dusky-black ; tail dark brown usually with obsolete
darker bars, tips white with penultimate dark line, outer pair
(sometimes two outer pairs) with white edging to outer web ;
primaries and secondaries as male but browner ; wing-coverts
as male but browner and darker. (Exceptional examples have
crown nearly as grey as male, lores and ear-coverts blackish, and
few crescentic bands on under-parts. General colour of upper-parts
varies considerably individually some being much more rufous
than others). Moult as in male. Summer. — As winter.

Nestling. — Down absent. Mouth inside orange-yellow, no
spots ; externally flanges pale yellow.

Juvenile. Male and female. — Whole upper-parts varying
from buff to rufous closely barred with black crescentic bands ;

T 2

276 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

ear-coverts darker and more uniform : under-parts cream-coloured,
each feather with blackish cresceiitic band but chin, middle of
belly and under tail -co verts with only a few dark marks ; tail as
adult female but penultimate dark lines at tip more distinct ;
primaries and secondaries as adult female but innermost secondaries
with distinct buff or rufous margins and penultimate black lines ;
primary -co verts with longish buff or rufous tips ; greater coverts
brown-black with rufous edgings and usually rufous spots at tip and
penultimate black bands ; median and lesser coverts same but with
part of centres also buff or rufous.

First winter. Male and female. — Much resembling adult
female but crown and rump more rufous and most feathers of
upper-parts including wing-coverts and innermost secondaries
with black crescentic bands ; under-parts like adult female.
Upper-parts darker and more rufous-brown than juvenile and not
nearly so much barred either on upper- or under parts. Apparently
no difference between male and female. Most of the juvenile body-
feathers and lesser and median wing-coverts are moulted July-
Sept., but a varying number of body-feathers and wing -co verts are
retained, as well as primary-coverts, wing- and tail-feathers and
usually greater coverts. First summer. — The first winter-plumage
together with remaining juvenile feathers are completely (including
wings and tail) moulted Nov.-Feb., when male becomes indis-
tinguishable from adult male but female differs from adult female
in having varying number of feathers of upper-parts, wing-coverts,
and inner secondaries with black concentric bands narrower than
in first winter.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 88-98 mm., tail 70-82,
tarsus 22-24.5, bill from feathers on culmen 12-13.5 (12 measured).
9 wing 87-96 mm. Primaries : 1st 1-4 mm. longer than longest
primary -co vert, 3rd longest, 2nd 4-9 shorter, 4th 1-3 shorter, 5th
5-8 shorter, 6th 10-13 shorter ; 3rd and 4th primaries emarginated
outer webs. Secondaries equal to or shorter than 10th primary,
tips rounded. Tail fairly square except for outermost pair which
is about 10mm. shorter. Bill and rictal bristles as in L. minor.

Soft parts. — Bill black (adult male) brown-horn (female and
young) ; legs and feet grey-black (adult male), brownish-grey
(female and young) ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Subspecies described from
Caucasus and Persia require further study. Grey crown and rump
and bay mantle distinguish adult male ; female differs from L.
senator in having no white on rump, less white in outer tail-feathers,
more rufous mantle ; juvenile distinguished from that of L. «.
senator by want of white at base of primaries but difficult to distin-
guish from that of L. s. badius except for less white in outer tail-
feathers.
FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Grey crown and nape, black lores and ear-

THE RED-BACKED SHRIKE 277

coverts, and red back distinguish male from all other British birds.
Coloration of female less pronounced, russet-broAvn above and
bumsh-white barred with brown beneath, but both sexes charac-
terized by their trim, alert pose and a certain fierceness of aspect.
Usually perches on topmost twig of bush or hedge, a telegraph
wire, or other conspicuous station affording good look-out. Tail
frequently raised and depressed, and swung from side to side
through a long curve. During flight, which is low and swooping,
pointed wings and long tail are noticeable. Song, a sweet warble
only audible at close quarters. Alarm-note a harsh " chack,
chack," and — under great excitement — " kaup." Hunger-cry of
young a querulous hawk-like %i kee, kee."

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in thick clumps of brambles, sapling
trees in thickets or straggling hedgerows, usually 3 to 6 ft. from
ground, occasionally higher. Nest. — Rather large : built of green
moss, bents, stalks, etc., neatly lined with fine roots and hair with
a little wool or down at times. Often resorts to same breeding-
place year after year. Eggs. — Usually 5 to 6 in first layings, sets
of 7 being rare in England. Although alike in a clutch, they vary
much, the ground-colour ranging from decided pinkish to brownish,
pale greenish, creamy and even Avhite. The last named sometimes
have no markings but as a rule markings form a zone at big end of
brown or red-brown spots with leaden shell-marks. Erythristic
eggs have always red-brown markings and greenish eggs are marked
with umber-brown. Average of 100 British eggs, 22.9 X 17.06 mm.
Breeding-season. — Usualty towards end May and early in June.
Only one brood, but if first nest is destroyed birds will lay two or
three times in same locality. Incubation. — 15-16 days by hen only
(J. H. Owen). Fledging-period. — 14-15 days (id.).

FOOD.- — Insects (coleoptera, lepidoptera, orthoptera, hymenoptera,
especially Bombus, and diptera). Birds and their young (Chaffinch,
Linnet,Yellow Bunting, Meadow-Pipit, Yellow Wagtail, Wren, Sand-
Martin, Blue Tit and small young of Pheasant, Red-legged and
Common Partridge) ; frog. J. H. Guriiey also records a shrew
impaled in a " larder " and Oldham a young bank- vole.

DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. — Summer-resident (early May
to late August). Also autumn and spring passage -migrant. Irregu-
larly distributed throughout south and central England and in
Wales, chiefly in wooded districts. On west side of Pennine chain
breeds very rarely in Cheshire and as far north as Cumberland, but
on east side now only nests irregularly in Yorks., except near
Sedbergh (north-west) where it is annual. In Durham and
Northumberland only a casual visitor. Scotland. — Occasional
visitor to south-east (the records of its having nested are discredited,
cf. Brit. B., n, p. 410). Very rare beyond Forth, and very rare or
unknown in west. Has occurred three times Shetlands (the record

278 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

of its having bred cannot be substantiated), three or possibly four
times Orkneys, fairly regularly in May-June and Sept. Fair Isle,
and twice O. Hebrides (Flannan Isles), May and Sept. Ireland.—
Three. Near Belfast (Down), Aug. 10, 1878 ; Wicklow Head
Light, Sept. 1, 1908 ; Fastnet Rock Light (Cork), Sept. 26, 1910.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — From about lat. 64° north, throughout
Europe, south to Cantabrian Mountains and Pyrenees, Italy and (?)
Sicily, Greece, Asia Minor, and north Syria. Migrant, wintering in
tropical and south Africa. Replaced in Corsica and Sardinia, in
Transcaucasia, Persia and west Turkestan, by closely allied forms
which require further study.

FAMILY BOMBYCILLID^E.

Middle-sized ten-primaried Oscines with the first primary
minute (less than half primary-coverts). Wing long and pointed,
second and third primaries nearly equal and longest, longest
primaries exceeding secondaries by much more than one-third
length of wing. Tail short, square, 12 rectrices. Bill short,
thick, widest base, slightly hooked and notched. Rictal bristles
obsolete. Plumage soft, silky, head crested. Lores and narrow
frontal line including nostrils, covered with dense, short, velvety
feathers. Tarsus very short, front scutellate. Three species in
subarctic regions of Old and New World, migratory. Nests in
trees, open.

Genus BOMBYCILLA VieilL*

BOMBYCILLA Vieillot, Ois. Amer. Sept., i.. p 88 (1808— Monotype :
B. cedrorum Vieill.).

Characters and distribution as family. Sexes differ slightly,
young striped underneath.

BOMBYCILLA GARRULUS

117. Bombycilla garrulus (L.) — THE WAXWING.

LANIUS GARRULUS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 95 (1758 — " Habitat

in Europa." Typical locality : Sweden).

Ampelis garrulus Linnaeus, Yarrell, i, p. 523 ; Saunders, p. 155.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head, lores, stripe over
and behind eye black ; fore-part of crown chestnut-brown ; rest

* In the Hand-List of British Birds, p. 53, the generic name Ampelis L.
has been adopted, its type by elimination being A. garrulus ; as the latest
Rules of Nomenclature do not allow elimination for type-fixing of generic
names, we shall have to adopt the name Bombycilla. — E.H.

THE WAXWING.

279

of crown and nape pale pinkish-brown (feathers of centre and back
of crown much elongated, measuring 30-35 mm. and forming
conspicuous crest) ; mantle and scapulars darker brown ; back
pale brownish-grey ; rump and upper tail-coverts ash-grey ; chin
and centre of throat black ; short line at base of lower mandible
white ; sides of throat chestnut-brown ; ear-coverts, sides of
head, upper-breast and flanks pale pinkish-brown ; rest of breast

The Waxwiug (Bombycttla garrulus), c? adult.

and sides of belly pale brownish-grey ; centre of belly tinged yellow ;
under tail-coverts dark chestnut ; axillaries and under wing-
coverts greyish-white ; tail grey at base shading into black with
bright yellow tips (6-10 mm.) shafts at tip red and occasionally
slightly thickened and with small " wax " tips ; primaries black
inner webs broadly edged greyish, 2nd with small white spot at tip,
3rd and 4th with white V-shaped margins at tip, 5th same but
with side of V on outer web yellowish, rest same but with this side
of V bright yellow ; secondaries more greyish-black with tip of
outer webs white, tips of shafts elongated, flattened and " waxy "
bright red,* three innermost secondaries brownish-grey, with no

* The " waxy " tips are formed by the fusion of the shaft of the feather
with the tip of its outer vane

.280 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

white on outer webs and usually without " waxy " tips but some-
times outermost of the three (i.e., 8th) has " waxy " tip (excep-
tionally " waxy " tips are bright yellow) ; primary-coverts black,
tipped white ; rest of wing-coverts brown like mantle. This
plumage is acquired by complete moult Oct. -Nov. Summer. —
No moult and no change by abrasion.

Adult female. Winter and summer. — Like male but mantle
and scapulars inclined to be more greyish ; chin and throat usually
not so intense black ; tail with rather paler and narrower yellow
tips and without red on shafts ; 2nd primary usually without white
spot, 3rd with small white spot, rest like those of male, but not so
bright yellow and with usually only outer side of the V ; secon-
daries Avith smaller " waxy " tips than in male on first 7 only and
frequently missing on some of these ; exceptionally females are
indistinguishable from adult males.

Nestling. — Inside mouth patch of violet-blue on each side of
palate and lower mandibles, remainder brilliant, deep cherry-red,
tongue port-wine colour (W. H. St. Quintin, Brit. B., in, p. 121).

Juvenile. — Whole upper-parts brown, rump and upper tail-
coverts paler brown than mantle, feathers of crown slightly elongated;
narrow line on fore-head, lores, and over eye black ; small patch
behind eye whitish ; throat, breast and belly brown striated with
pale buff; vent whitish-buff ; under tail-coverts pale chestnut;
tail as adults but duller ; primaries and secondaries as adults but
browner, tips of primaries without the inner side of V and "wax "
tips of secondaries small ; primary-coverts black-brown with
white tips ; rest of wing-coverts as mantle.

First winter and summer. Male. — Like adult male but wing-
feathers browner, tips of primaries without inside portion of V,
tip of 2nd primary without spot, tips of secondaries with smaller
wax tips sometimes missing on some of the feathers and generally
absent in 8th but sometimes present in this feather ; tips of tail-
feathers duller yellow. Female. — Like adult, but wing-feathers
browner, tips of primaries without inside portion of V, tips of
secondaries with smaller " wax " tips frequently absent on some
feathers. The juvenile body -plumage and wing-coverts are
moulted in autumn but not wing- or tail-feathers. N.B. — Only
one specimen in moult from juvenile to first winter and only one
in juvenile plumage have been obtainable for examination.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 112-120 mm., tail 59-67,
tarsus 20-22, bill from feathers on culmen 10-11.5. $ wing 112-119.
Primaries : 1st minute, about half primary-coverts, 3rd longest,
2nd sometimes as long but usually 1-3 mm. shorter, 4th 1-5 shorter,
5th 11-13 shorter, 6th 16-21 shorter; 3rd and 4th clearly emar-
ginated outer webs. Secondaries between 9th and 10th primaries,
tips of inner webs square and of outer somewhat sloped off, tip
of shafts elongated, flattened and wax-like. Tail slightly wedge-
shaped, tail-coverts long, under ones reaching within 5-10 mm. of

THE WAXWING. 281

tip of tail. Bill flattish, wide at base, slightly notched at tip.
Nostrils almost covered with short, somewhat stiff feathers, a few
fine, very short, rictal bristles. Tarsal joint feathered.

Soft parts. — Bill black, flesh at base ; legs and feet black ;
iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED SPECIES. — No subspecies. A. cedrorum
(temperate North America) is smaller and has no white and yellow
on wing -feathers. A. japonica (south-east Siberia, Japan) has
red tips to tail, primaries and greater \ving-co verts.
FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Its confiding habits allow a close approach
when it is feeding on berries in winter, and conspicuous crest,
general brown colouring and lemon-yellow tips to tail combined
with black chin and white bar on wings are unmistakable. The
deep sienna-brown under tail-coverts are also noticeable from
below (F.C.R.J.).

BREEDING-HABITS.--— Usually in coniferous forest, but sometimes
also in birch woods and generally in rather open spaces, with young
trees. Nest. — Built of spruce twigs, lichens (Usnea) and a little
grass. Sometimes a little hair or down or a few feathers in lining.
Eggs. — 4 to 6 : once 7, ashv-grey or ashy-blue in ground-colour,
sometimes very light, with distinct black or blackish-brown spots
and grey shell-marks. Average of 100 eggs. 24 x 17.3 mm.
Breeding-season. — Apparently from second week of June onward
to nearly end of month in Lapland. Incubation. — No information.

FOOD. — In British Isles in winter, food consists of berries, hips of
dog-rose, berries of mountain-ash, hawthorn, privet, yew and holly,
also buds of ash. Insects (chiefly diptera and also ephemeridse
#.nd phryganeidse) are also eaten in summer ; and berries of Empetrum
nigrum, V actinium uliginosum, etc., have been found in young.
DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Irregular visitor from Oct. to
March, but generally in winter-months, very occasionally April,
very rarely May, and twice Julv (Yorks.). Sometimes occurs in
•considerable numbers, as in winters 1686, 1834-5, 1849-50, 1866-7,
1872-3, 1892-3, 1903-4, and 1913-14. Most frequent on eastern
side. Has occurred in most counties but more rarely in west
England and Scotland, and still more rarely in Wales and north
Scotland (including Orkneys and Shetlands), and on\y three times
in O. Hebrides. Ireland. — Rare and irregular winter- visitor chiefly
in east and north. Occasionally in some numbers, as in 1903-4.
DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Arctic regions of eastern and western
hemispheres. In Europe, north Scandinavia, north Finland, and
north Russia. In winter farther south, regularly as far as east
Prussia, rarely to Italy.

[NOTE. — The example of the SOUTH AFRICAN BULBTJI, (Pycnonotus
•capensts, or one of its subspecies) shot near Waterford, Ireland, Jan., 1838,
had no doubt escaped from captivity (Yarrell, i, p. 247 ; Saunders, p. 144) ]

282 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

.FAMILY MUSCICAPLD.E

(including the so-called Sylviidce, Turdidce and most of the
" Timeliidce ").

Flycatchers, Warblers, Thrushes and " Timeliidce " form one
large family ; the supposed sections generally looked upon as families
cannot be limited ; on the other hand, when uniting such different
forms as Flycatchers, Thrushes, Warblers, Chats, etc., it is, of
course, more difficult to give a short diagnostic description of this
assemblage. All that can be said is, that the Muscicapidce, as
here conceived, have the following characters in common :

They are ten-primaried Oscin.es, varying in size from that of a
Thrush to a Chiffchaff . The bill is very variable, thin and pointed,
wide and flattened, or like an ordinary Thrush's beak. There are
generally some distinct rictal bristles, often strong and well
developed, sometimes obsolete. Tail-feathers 12, in a few cases 10.
Insectivorous and vermicivorous, Thrushes and some Warblers
partially frugivorous. Cosmopolitan.

Key to genera of family MUSCICAPIDCE.

t Wing over 110 2

I Wing under 110 mm 3

I Bill equal to or longer than middle toe with claw, adult

2 1 male with throat blue . Monticola

i Bill shorter than middle toe with claw, throat never blue Turdus

( Outer rectrices cinnamon-rufous with wide, white tip and

3 J black subterminal bar Agrobates

\ No wide, white tip to lateral rectrices ... 4

Outer rectricea from base to tip and upper tail-coverts
chestnut red. Plicenicurus

Outer rectrices and upper tail-coverts never chestnut-red
or only on basal half. 5

Axillaries pale lemon-yellow (except in Phylloscopus
fiiscatus, which, however, has striking buff superciliary

Axillaries white, grey, buff or brown (mostly without
striking buff superciliary line, which, however, is con-

. Bill wider, more Flycatcher-like, tail-feathers more pointed Hypolais
\. Bill narrower, Warbler-like, tail-feathers square . . . Phylloscopus

( Ten rectrices .- . Cettia

7 *. Twelve rectrices 8

| 1st primary about half as long as 2nd ... 9
*• 1st primary much less than half as long as 2nd . .10

FAMILY MUSCICAPID^.

283

10

«*

Tarsus booted, adult with red throat, young spotted .
Tarsus in front with large scutes, never red on throat,
adult and young without spots ....«,

Outer rectrices chestnut-red at base, or brownish-chestnut
throughout

Outer rectrices without chestnut or brownish-chestnut 11

4

Tail rounded or graduated 12

Tail square 14

First primary much longer than primary -coverts

First primary shorter or not longer than primary -coverts 13

Bictal bristles obvious

Rictal bristles obsolete

Rictal bristles obvious 15

Bictal bristles obsolete

Tarsus generally weaker and under 20 mm.

Tarsus stronger and over 20 mm 16

Upper tail-coverts conspicuously white ....
Upper tail-coverts not white

Erithacua

Herbivocula

Luscinia

Lusciniola

Acrocephalus
Locustella

Sylvia
Muscicapa

(Enanihe
Saxicola

Genus MUSCICAPA Briss.

MUSCICAPA Brisson, Orn., I., p. 32 (1760 — Type by tautonymy :
" Muscicapa," i.e., M. striata ; cf. Orn., II., p. 357).

Bill wide at base, wider than half the length of the exposed
culmen. Rictal bristles conspicuous. Plumage soft and full.
1st primary in all British species longer than primary -coverts but
considerably shorter than half the length of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th
longest. Tail square or slightly emarginated, rectrices 12. Feet
weak, tarsus short. Sexes alike or different, young in first plumage
spotted. Numerous species in all parts of Old World, but genus
very differently limited, even British species sometimes divided into
three or four genera, e.g., " Butalis " (=Muscicapa s.s.), Hedymda
or Ficedula (for hypoleiica), Alseonax (for latirostris), Siphia
(parva).

Key to species of genus MUSCICAPA.

f Uppar-parts spotted with buff . . Juveniles of all species
1 1 Upper-parts not spotted with buff 2

f Crown with blackish spots . . . M.striata, ad. and juv ,p. 284
"" I Crown uniform, unspotted . . 3

f Crown black, white patch on forehead 4

I Crown brown or brownish-grey . 5

284 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

f White band on hind-neck ... M. albicoUis £ ad., p. 293

v No white band on hind-neck . . 3/. hypoleuca, r> ad., p. 288

( Wing over 75 mm M. hypoleuca andM.

5 1 albicollis, ° and j uv., pp. 290, 294

^ Wing not over 75 mm. . . 0

IBase of tail brown like rest . . M. latirostris, ad. and
juv., p. 287
Base of tail white .... 7

( Throat rufous M. parva, o ad-. P- 295

7^ Throat whitish or buff . . M. parva, $ and juv., p. 296

MUSCICAPA STRIATA.*

118. Muscicapa striata striata (Pall.) — THE SPOTTED
FLYCATCHER.

MOTACILLA STRIATA Pallas, Vroeg's Cat. Verzam. Vogelen, etc., Adum-

bratiuncula, p. 3 (1764 — Holland).

Muscicapa grisola Linnaeus, Yarrell, I, p. 220; Saunders, p. 157.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 10). — Adult male and female. Winter. —
Fore-head and crown brown, feathers with blackish centres and pale
edges giving spotted appearance ; rest of upper-parts uniform dark
to greyish-brown, tipper tail-coverts with somewhat inconspicuous
buff tips ; lores and ear-coverts brown ; centre of chin and throat
white with one or two brown streaks, sides of throat and breast
same but much streaked brown ; sides of breast and flanks brown
tinged cinnamon and with dark brown streaks ; centre of belly
and under tail -co verts white unstreaked ; axillaries and under
wing-coverts cinnamon-brown ; tail dark brown ; primaries dark
brown with greyish-white margins to inner Avebs ; secondaries
same but also with narrow buff edgings to outer Avebs ; primary-
coverts as primaries ; greater and median coverts dark broAvn with
buff tips and edgings ; lesser coverts brown Avith slightly paler tips.
This plumage is acquired by a moult of the body -feathers July-
Sept., but Avings, wing-coverts and tail are not usually moulted
before migration, although occasionally some secondaries and
Aving-co verts and rarely central pair of tail-feathers are moulted.
The pale edgings to old Aving -feat hers and Aving-coverts are always
much AA'orn. Slimmer. — From Nov. -March a complete moult takes
place (in winter quarters), neAv plumage being like old except that
pale edgings to secondaries and Aving-coA-erts are broader (i.e., not
Avorn) and more conspicuous. As summer advances upper-parts
become greyer brown by abrasion.

* Since the rediscovery of the rare work quoted (only three copies appear
to be known, but a reprint has been made of the " Adumbratiuncula ") its
new names have been adopted, and under these circumstances striata of 1764
antedates grisola of 1766. — E.H.

THE SPOTTED FLYCATCHER. 285

Nestling. — Down sooty-grey, moderately long but rather
scant}', especially on femoral tract. Distribution outer and inner
supra-orbital, occipital, humeral, ulnar, spinal, femoral. Mouth
inside orange-yellow, no spots, externally flanges whitish-yellow.

Juvenile. — Whole upper-parts brown with large pale buff
spots, each feather having pale buff centre and narrow dark brown
margin ; upper tail-coverts with smaller and more rufous buff
spots and tips ; chin and throat huffish-white with faint sooty-
brown tips ; breast and flanks huffish-white, each feather margined
dark brown, giving spotted appearance rather than streaked as
adult ; centre of belly and under tail-coverts white ; axillaries
cinnamon-buff ; primaries, primary-coverts and secondaries as in
adults but edgings to latter usually more rufous ; greater coverts
dark brown with rufous-buff edgings and with small rufous-buff
spots at tip of inner feathers ; median coverts with larger and paler
buff spots at tips ; lesser coverts with pale buff centres and dark
brown margins as rest of feathers of upper-parts.

First winter. — Like adults, but always to be distinguished by
broader pale edgings to secondaries and spots at tips of greater
coverts ; also a few juvenile body -feat hers sometimes retained
The juvenile body -feathers, lesser and median wing-coverts and
innermost secondaries and greater coverts are moulted July-Sept.,
but not tail-feathers nor primary -co verts nor rest of wing-feathers
nor greater wing-coverts. First summer. — A complete moult
takes place as in adults but rather later, extending until
April (exceptionally May). New plumage indistinguishable from
adults.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 81-89 mm., tail 58-63,
tarsus 13.5-16, bill from skull 13-14 (12 measured). $ wing 80-89.
Primaries : 1st equal to or 1-5 mm. longer than longest primary-
covert, 3rd and 4th longest, 2nd and 5th 2-5 mm. shorter, 6th
9-13 shorter ; 3rd and 4th clearly, and 5th slightly, emarginated
outer webs. Secondaries between 9th and 10th primaries, tips
almost square. Tail almost square, central pair of feathers slightly
shorter than rest. Bill flat and broad at base, tapering gradually
to fairly sharp point, upper mandible slightly hooked at tip.
Nostrils half covered with short feathers and some fine, short
bristles. A few long and fairly strong rictal bristles. Tarsal
joint feathered in front but bare at back.

Soft parts. — Bill black-horn, base of lower mandible brownish
flesh ; legs and feet black ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — M. s. neumanni (West Siberia to
Baluchistan) is paler and often slight!}- longer in wing, and other
forms have been described. Spotted crown and streaked breast
distinguish this species from other British Flycatchers.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Unobtrusively grey in colour, but unniis-

286 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

takable in pose and action. Constant habit is to perch on dead
twig, fence-rail or some similar point of vantage, with head with-
drawn between shoulders, so that it appears to stoop. At frequent
intervals it makes a short sally in the air, captures an insect with
an audible snap, and returns, almost invariably to same perch.
Song weak and low, a rambling repetition of the squeaky call-note.
Alarm -note " egyp."

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests generally against wall or resting on
beam ; often supported by branch of fruit-tree, but sometimes in
hole. Also frequently built against tree-trunk. Will also nest on
hinge of door or in old nests of many other species of birds. Nest. —
Slightly built of moss, wool and hair, compacted with cobwebs.
Eggs. — 4-5, rarely 6, ground greenish -grey, occasionally pale bluish-
green, with spots of sienna -brown of varying depth, chiefly round
big end, sometimes forming a rich red-brown cap. A type with
pale blue ground and no markings also occurs. Average of 100
eggs, 18.3x13.8 mm. Breeding-season. — About third week May.
Two broods occasionally reared. Incubation. — Lasts 12|-13 days
(W. Evans) by both sexes.

FOOD. — Almost entirely insects ; chiefly diptera, but also lepidop-
tera, hymenoptera (Bombus, Vespa, etc.), orthoptera and coleoptera.
Has been known to take earthworm in hard weather, and is said
to take berries, such as those of rowan, in autumn.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Summer-resident. Generally dis-
tributed except in O. Hebrides, where only two vagrants (Flannans,
June 14, 1905, and Sept. 23, 1909) ; in north Sutherland and in
Caithness, where it breeds rarely, but occurs as migrant ; in Orkneys,
where bred for a year or two about 1867 and two pairs in 1917,
but otherwise known only as occasional visitor, as in Shetlands ;
in Fair Isle recorded on both migrations, but chiefly from late May
to mid -June.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Early arrivals from April 10 onward,
(early dates March 10, April 3). Main arrival of summer-residents
from first to third week May. Passage -migration second week
May to mid- June. Departure of summer-residents begins first
week Aug. and lasts to about end Sept. Passage-migration from
mid-Sept. (Fair Isle), though possibly as early as mid-Aug., to first
few days Oct. Late dates Oct. 6 and 31.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeds in Europe from Archangel and
Tromso to Mediterranean and in Atlas Mountains in north-west
Africa. Winters in central and south Africa. Casual Madeira :
on passage Canaries. Replaced by very closely-allied forms in
west Asia, Corsica and Mallorca.

THE BROWN FLYCATCHER. 287

MUSCICAPA LATIROSTRIS

119. Muscicapa latirostris Raffl.— THE BROWN FLY-
CATCHER.

MUSCICAPA LATIROSTRIS Raffles, Trans. Linn. Soc. London, xin, 2, p. 312
(1822 — Sumatra).

Alseonax latirostris Raffl., Nicoll, Bull. B.O.C., xxm, p. 93 ; Muscicapa
latirostris, id., Brit. B., in, p. 112.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Whole upper -
parts uniform brown to grey-brown ; lores and narrow circle round
eye dull white ; ear-coverts and sides of chin and throat brown,
with a whitish streak below base of under mandible ; centre of chin
and throat white ; brsast and flanks with centres of feathers pale
grey-brown and edges whitish, giving sometimes a slightly streaked
appearance ; centre of belly and under tail-coverts white ; axil-
laries pale buff ; tail dark brown ; primaries dark brown, inner
webs edged pale buff ; secondaries same but outer webs also
narrowly edged buff to whitish ; primary-coverts dark brown ;
greater coverts dark brown very narrowly edged greyish ; median
and lesser coverts brown with greyish-brown tips. This plumage
is acquired by a moult of the body-feathers in July-Aug., but the
wings, wing-coverts and tail are not moulted in autumn. Slimmer.
— From Feb. to May a complete moult takes place, new plumage
being like old except that tail-feathers usually have small greyish-
white tips. As summer advances upper-parts become greyer-
brown by abrasion.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like adult, but most feathers of upper-parts with
pale buff spots at tip and feathers of under -parts with dusky tips,
wing-coverts and inner secondaries with pale buff tips. N.B. —
The correct identification of the few juvenile specimens available
seems uncertain.

First winter. — Like adults, but always to be distinguished by
broader and more clearly defined pale buff or whitish edgings and
tips to greater coverts and in fresh plumage by similar margins to
inner secondaries. The juvenile body -plumage, lesser and median
wing-coverts are moulted in Aug.-Sept., but apparently not rest of
wings nor tail. First summer. — The body -plumage is again moulted
Feb.-May, but apparently not wings, greater wing-coverts and tail.
Pale tips of greater coverts become much worn in summer, but one
or two are usually distinguishable.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 67-74 mm., tail 45-51,
tarsus 12.5-14, bill from skull 10.5-12 (12 measured). £ wing 67-74.
Primaries : 1st 1-5 mm. longer than longest primary-covert, 3rd
and 4th longest, 2nd 5-7 shorter, 5th 2-3 shorter, 6th 8-10 shorter ;
3rd and 4th distinctly, 5th slightly, emarginated outer webs.

288 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Other structure as in M . s. striata, but bill, although shorter, wider
at base.

Soft parts. — Bill black, proximal part of lower mandible
3Tellow ; legs and feet black ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS. — No subspecies. In general appearance resembling
Spotted Flycatcher but much smaller, and with no spots on cro\vii
and with no distinct streaks on breast. " White circle round eye
conspicuous in life." (H. Lynes).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests on horizontal boughs of trees, close
to trunk. Nest. — A neat, lichen-covered cup. Eggs. — 4 or 5,
occasionally 6, light grey-green, sometimes unmarked or washed
with light red. Average of 23 eggs, 16.7x12.7 mm. Breeding-
season. — From May 10 onward in Japan : June in Siberia.

FOOD. — Probably entirely insects, but little information available.
Lynes records orthoptera (grasshoppers) and beetles, as well as
other winged insects in stomach.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — One, a male, near Lydd (Kent), May 21,
1909 (ut supra).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — East Siberia, from Lake Baikal to Corea,
Japan, also northern parts of China and eastern Himalayas. In
winter in India, Ceylon and other islands east to the Greater
Sunda Islands and Philippines.

MUSCICAPA HYPOLEUCA*

120. Muscicapa hypoleuca hypoleuca (Pall.) — THE PIED
FLYCATCHER.

MOTACILLA HYPOLEUCA Pallas, in Vroeg's Cat. Verzam. Vogelen, etc.,

Adumbratiuncula, p. 3 (1764 — Holland).

Muscicapa luctuosa MacGillivray, Hist. Brit. B., in, p. 524.

Muscicapa atricapilla Linnaeus, Yarrell, i, p. 229 ; Saunders, p. 159.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. — Winter. Fore-head, mantle, scapu-
lars and back brown, feathers of fore -head usually with white or
creamy bases, but not always ; rump as back, or mixture of black
and brown, if black feathers present most with brown tips ; upper
tail-coverts black, some of the shorter ones with brown tips ; lores
and ear-coverts brown, somewhat mottled black-brown ; feathers
round eye pale brown ; chin, throat, breast and flanks pale creamy-
buff, many feathers tipped dusky ; centre of belly and under tail-
coverts white ; axillaries creamy-white to cream with dusky
bases ; tail black to black-brown, outer pair with whole or most

* As Linnseus's name atricapilla dates from 1766, Pallas's name
hypoleuca has priority, and must therefore be adopted. — E.H.

THE PIED FLYCATCHER.

289

of outer webs white or creamy -white and often some white on inner
web, especially on basal portion, next pair usually with most of
outer web (and sometimes part of inner web at base) white or

\

The Pied Flycatcher (Muscicapa h. hypoleuca) $ adult, summer.

creamy but sometimes without any white, third pair from outside
usually without but sometimes with white on outer webs ; primaries
brown-black to dark brown, inner webs narrowly edged whitishr
6th to 10th (and 5th occasionally) with varying amount of white
at bases usually showing just beyond primary -co verts ; secondaries
with larger patch of white, or more usually cream-colour, at base,
three innermost with white, or creamy-white, margins of varying;
width on outer webs and the two longer ones with most of their
bases white or creamy, occasionally 6th has narrow white margin ;
primary-coverts brown-black to dark brown ; greater coverts
same with varying amount of pale brown to white on outer webs
and tips, especially of inner feathers ; median and lesser coverts
usually brown (sometimes black) with paler brown tips. N.B. —
There is considerable individual variation, especially in rump, wings
and tail. This plumage is acquired by complete moult in July -Aug.
Summer. — Most body-feathers, three (occasionally four) innermost
secondaries, inner greater coverts (outer very seldom) and sometimes
some median and lesser coverts are moulted early in year but not
rest of wings or tail. Feathers over nostrils black ; fore-head
white, varying in extent ; rest of upper -parts glossy black, with
varying number of new feathers brown or partially brown and
always some old brown winter feathers unmoulted, especially on
back and rump ; whole under -parts white ; innermost secondary
black with wide white margin on outer web, next two mostly white
with black on distal half of inner webs, 6th when renewed with
basal third white and rest black ; new greater coverts varying from

u

290 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

white with black bases to black with white tips ; median, when
renewed, black occasionally with white tips ; lesser coverts, when
renewed, black.

Adult female. Winter. — Like adult winter male but fore-head
brown or creamy, never with white ; rump brown, never black ;
upper tail-coverts usually brown, but sometimes black with brown
tips ; tail dark brown, never so black as in some males. Moult
apparently as male. Summer. — Moult apparently as male. As
winter, but inner secondaries with more white and under -parts
rather more whitish.

Nestling. — Down dark grey, scanty. Distribution inner supra-
orbital, occipital, humeral and spinal. Mouth inside orange-yellow,
no tongue spots, externally flanges pale yellow. (C. B. Ticehurst,
Brit. B., HI, p. 152.)

Juvenile. — Upper-parts dark brown with a pale buff spot at
tip of each feather ; upper tail-coverts black-brown ; under -parts
huffish-white, each feather slightly tipped dusky-black, giving a
spotted appearance ; tail, primaries, secondaries and greater
coverts as adult winter ; median coverts brown with small buffish-
white tips ; lesser coverts brown with pale buff spots at tip.

First winter. — Male. — Very similar to adult winter male but
usually distinguishable by whitish tips to some median coverts and
often by one or two juvenile feathers with spots at tip, pale margins
of inner secondaries usually broader, especially at apex, than in
adult winter. Feathers of fore-head brown or dark cream-colour,
apparently never with white. N.B. — Some first winter males
have tail-feathers and rump black and wing-feathers very dark,
and in these respects vary as adult males. The juvenile body-
feathers and lesser wing -co verts are moulted in July -Aug., but not
rest of wing -co verts nor wing-feathers or tail. First summer. — -
Moult apparently as in adults. Upper-parts mixture of black or
greyish-black and brown, and usually with less white on fore-head
and sometimes less pure white on breast than adult male ; wing-
feathers more worn and browner than adult. Occasionally examples
though moulted are much as in winter, having scarcely any black
or blackish feathers on upper -parts and many dusky-buff feathers
on throat and breast.

First winter. Female. — Moult as in male. Plumage as adult
winter female, but usually distinguishable (as in male) by somewhat
broader margins to inner secondaries and whitish tips to median
wing-coverts. First summer. — Moult as in male. Apparently
indistinguishable from adult female.

Measurements and structure. — £ wing 76-82 mm., tail 49-54,
tarsus 16.5-18, biU from skull 10-11 (12 measured). $ wing 75-80.
Primaries : 1st 2^i mm. longer than longest primary-covert, 3rd
and 4th longest, 2nd 4-7 shorter, 5th 2-5 shorter (5th usually longer
and never shorter than 2nd, but occasionally equal), 6th 8-10

THE PIED FLYCATCHER. 291

shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries slightly
shorter than 10th primary, tips almost square. Bill and other
structure as in Spotted Flycatcher.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs and feet black ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Male of M . h. speculigera (Tunisia,
Algeria) has more white at bases of 5th to 10th primaries and also
2nd to 4th, outer tail-feathers with no white or very little, and in
summer fore-head spot is larger and white on inner secondaries and
greater wing-coverts more extensive ; male of M . h. semitorquata
(Greece, Asia Minor, Persia) is much like last, but outer tail-feathers
with much more white than in M . h. hypoleuca. For differences
of M. albicollis see under that species. Distinguished from other
British Flycatchers by absence of streaks on breast and by white
margins of secondaries.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Coloration and strongly contrasted black
and white plumage of male render him conspicuous. Habits
differ in several respects from Spotted Flycatcher. It seldom, if
ever, returns to same twig after darting out to catch an insect on
the wing, but usually alights on different branch and often on ground
or another tree. At times it clings, tit-like, to a tree-trunk for an
instant, and often feeds on ground. Occasionally it hovers beneath
a leaf to pick off an insect. Call-note is a sharp " whit," very like
spring note of Chaffinch. Song bearing some resemblance to
Redstart's, but more broken, is uttered sometimes from perch,
and at others during flight from tree to tree, but always with great
deliberation. Alarm-note " p'hweet."

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds in holes of trees or buildings, sometimes
close to ground, but also up to 20 ft. Old Woodpeckers' holes
occasionally used. Generally near water. Nest. — Loosely built'
of strips of honeysuckle bark, moss, bents and roots, lined hair, and
sometimes bits of wool or feathers. Eggs. — 5 to 7, occasionally 8,
while 9 have been recorded ; delicate pale blue. Continental speci-
mens very occasionally show fine brownish spots. Average of 100
eggs, 17.3x13.4 mm. Breeding-season. — Seldom before mid-May,
often not till last week. Incubation. — Lasts 12-13 days by hen only.

FOOD. — Chiefly insects, larvae and imagines (diptera, coleoptera,
orthoptera, larvae of lepidoptera, and hymenoptera, especially ants).
Newstead records many acarids (Oribatidae). Said to have been
seen searching for worms on ground, and also to take berries in
autumn.

DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. — Summer-resident. Breeds
regularly in considerable numbers north and central Wales ; very
small numbers Devon and Salop ; locally north Lanes. ; more
commonly Westmorland and Cumberland ; exceptionally Lines. ;
locally north and west Ridings of Yorks. and in Durham and
Northumberland. Has also bred exceptionally in many other

u 2

292 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS

counties, including some southern ones. Scotland. — Breeds very
locally in Dumfries, and has bred exceptionally in Kirkcudbright,
Ayr., Midlothian, Haddington, Roxburgh, Peebles, and Inverness.
Ireland. — Vagrant. Fourteen occurrences. One co. Sligo, one
Maidens' Light (co. Antrim), one Rockabill Light (co. Dublin), five
Tuskar Light (Wexford), four Fastnet Light (Cork), one Ballyeottin
Light (Cork), one Tearaght Light (Kerry) ; two April, rest autumn.

MIGRATIONS. — Great Britain. — Early arrivals second week April
(early dates March 26, April 3). Main arrival of summer residents,
last week April to mid-May. Passage-migration first week May to
first week June. Departure of summer-residents begins mid- Aug.
at same time as passage-migration, and the two movements cannot
at present be separated, passage lasts until first few days Oct.
(late date Oct. 16.) As passage-migrant autumn and spring in
considerable numbers, especially autumn, along east coast from
Yorks. to Kent. North of Yorks., and especially in north Scottish
mainland more irregular, though passing through Orkneys fairly
commonly and noted both passages in Fair Isle, but much more
rarely Shetlands. In most other English counties and in south
and east Scotland recorded as occasional straggler (probably
regular passage -migrant in May, especially south coast counties,
though generally overlooked), generally in May, but seems particu-
larly rare as migrant Cornwall and Devon, though noted with some
regularity Somerset, and nearly every autumn at St. Catherine's
Light (Isle of Wight). As yet uncertain by what routes our
breeding-birds reach their quarters. In west Scotland (except
Dumfries, and Kirkcudbright) only recorded once or twice, and in
0. Hebrides rare vagrant in autumn.

•DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe from lat. 69° or 70° north in
Scandinavia, and from 65° in Finland and 60° in Russia to Spain,
and central Italy. In east apparently to Urals, south-west to
Austria. In winter in Africa. Casual Madeira ; passage migrant
Canaries. Replaced by other races in north-west Africa, Caucasus
Asia Minor, Persia, and Greece.

MUSCICAPA ALBICOLLIS

121. Muscicapa albicollis Temm. — THE COLLARED FLY-
CATCHER.

MUSCICAPA ALBICOLLIS Temminck, Man. d'Orn., p. 100 (1815 — New

name for M. collaris").

ftfuscicapa collaris* Bechstein, Gemeinn. Nat. Deutschl., iv, p. 495

(1795 — Europe and Germany : Thiiringerwald) ; Hand-list B.B., p. 55

(1912)

Muscicapa collaris Bechst., J. B. Nichols, Brit. B., v, p. 238.

*Muscicapa collaris Bechstein, 1795, is preoccupied by Latham's M. collaris
of 1790, which referred to an African bird.

THE COLLARED FLYCATCHER.

293

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Portions of upper -parts
which are black in summer replaced by brown ; apparently con-
siderably less white on collar and back and rump ; innermost

The Collared Flycatcher (Muscicapa albicdlis). $ adult, summer.

secondaries darkish brown with less white than in summer ; wing-
coverts apparently brown and inner greater coverts grey-brown
with only a little white on outer webs. Only one partially moulted
specimen available for examination. Summer. — No moulting
specimen examined, but moult appears to be same as in M. h. hypo-
leuca. Feathers over nostrils black ; fore-head and fore-part of
crown (circular shape) white varying somewhat in extent but much
larger than in M . h. Jiypoleuca ; rest of crown jet-black ; broad
collar round nape white ; mantle, lower part of rump and upper tail-
coverts jet-black ; back and upper -part of rump greyish -white ;
lores, ear -coverts and round eye black ; under -parts white ; axil-
laries white with dusky-black bases ; tail jet-black, outermost pair
of tail-feathers often with some white (varying in extent) on outer
webs and penultimate pair sometimes with a little white on outer
webs ; primaries black, 2nd with base of inner web only white, rest
with bases of both webs white showing 10-15 mm. beyond primary-
coverts ; secondaries same with white showing just beyond greater
coverts, 6th with white extending further towards tip on outer
web, three innermost with outer webs white and usually part of
inner webs white ; primary -coverts black ; outer two or three
greater coverts black, rest white with black bases ; median and
lesser coverts black with sometimes a few brown winter ones
remaining. N.B. Upper -parts are more uniform jet-black than in
M . h. hypoleuca and apparently never have an admixture of
brown or greyish feathers.

Adult female. Winter and summer. — Like that of M. h.

294

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

hypoleuca but rather greyer on upper-parts and the feathers
of back of neck and upper rump with white bases concealed in
fresh plumage but showing here and there when worn ; 2nd to
5th primaries with white at base of inner webs and 3rd to 5th
usually with white at base of outer webs also, rest of primaries
with more white showing at base than in M . h. hypoleuca ; tail as
in M. h. hypoleuca. Moults probably as in M. h. hypoleuca but
no specimens in moult examined.

Nestling and juvenile. — (Not examined.)

First winter. Male. — No specimen available for examination.
Summer. — No moulting specimen examined. Like adult, but
mantle and scapulars not so jet-black, usually with some brownish
or greyish feathers on upper-parts ; nuchal band sometimes
mixed with grey and indistinct ; white fore-head spot varying
in size as in adult ; primaries much browner than in adult, 2nd
to 4th usually with only inner webs white at base and only
occasionally outer webs with white, 5th sometimes with no white
on outer web, rest with less white than in adult (showing only
5 mm. or less beyond coverts) ; secondaries brown as primaries
except innermost four (exceptionally five) which are newly moulted
and like adults ; primary -co verts and outer greater -coverts old
and brown, rest new and like adult ; tail as adult.

Measurements and structure. — <£ wing 80-85 mm., tail 49-54,
tarsus 16-18, bill from skull 9.5-11 (12 measured.) $ wing 78-
82. Primaries : 1st equal to or 1-3 mm. longer than longest
primary-covert, 3rd and 4th longest, 2nd 2-6 shorter, 5th 4-6
shorter (5th equal to or shorter than 2nd, in one specimen shade
longer), 6th 10-12 shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs
Secondaries slightly shorter than 10th primary, tips almost square.
Other structure as in Spotted Flycatcher.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs and feet black ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS. — No subspecies. Summer males easily distinguished
from forms of M . hypoleuca by white collar, females can usually
be distinguished by white bases to feathers of nape and by short
5th primary, and from M. h. hypoleuca by more white on primaries.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Similar to those of Pied Flycatcher, breeding
in holes, generally in old trees. Nest.— Also of bark strips, bents,
etc. Eggs. — 5 to 7, pale-blue, unmarked. Average of 45, 17.2
X 13.3 mm. Breeding-season. — From early May (Carinthia) to
early June (Gotland.) Incubation.— By hen only.

FOOD. — Probably almost entirely insects (diptera, lepidoptera, etc.)
but information scanty. Said to take berries also.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Four. Two males near Winchelsea
(Sussex), one May 12, one May 13, 1911 (ut supra}. Two males
Hollington, nearest. Leonard's (Sussex) May 15th, 1916 (J. B.
Nichols, Brit. Birds, X., p. 166).

THE RED -BREASTED FLYCATCHER.

295

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Island of Gotland in Baltic, Austrian
Poland, Austria, Hungary, south Russia, south Germany (locally
common in Bavaria), parts of middle, and very rare north, Germany,
south-east Europe generally, but in Greece apparently only migrant,
very local France, Belgium, Holland, also Italy ; occurs (generally
in April) in Corsica, Cyprus and Spain. On passage in most parts
of Europe, Persia, Asia Minor, Palestine, Egypt, north-west
Africa, winter-quarters probably in central Africa.

MUSCICAPA PARVA

122. Muscicapa parva parva Bechst. — THE RED-BREASTED
FLYCATCHER.

MUSCICAPA PARVA Bechstein, Latham's allg. Uebers. d. Vogel, n, 1, p. 356

fig. on title-page (1794 — Thiiringerwald).

Muscicapa parva Bechstein, Yarrell, i, p. 224 ; Saunders, p. 161.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter.
— Fore -head and crown brown tinged
greyish ; rest of upper -parts brown ;
upper tail - coverts brown - black
tipped greyish-brown ; ring round
eye whitish ; lores, under eye and
ear-coverts ashy -grey tinged brown ;
sides of neck purer ashy -grey ; chin,
throat and upper-breast orange-red
(varying somewhat in depth and
occasionally bumsh-red) ; sides of
breast, flanks and axillaries creamy-
buff ; under tail coverts white slightly
tinged creamy ; rest of under -parts
white ; tail brown-black, three outer-

"SiSS^Sf^^SfeSftaS Pairs *itk ab°ut basal two-thirds

of tail. white, next pair with middle portion

of outer web and part of inner

web white, two central pairs generally without white but second
sometimes with some white on outer webs ; primaries and second-
aries dark brown, outer webs narrowly edged paler brown and
inner webs edged whitish ; all wing-coverts dark brown with
rather paler brown incon spicuous edgings . This plumage is acquired
by complete moult in Aug.-Sept. Summer. — The feathers of
chin, throat and breast, crown and some of the other body-feathers
are moulted in Feb.-April but not tail, wings or wing-coverts.
New feathers like those of winter. Abrasion makes fore-head
and crown more greyish ; lores and ear -coverts purer ashy-grey ;
red of throat more yellowish ; sides of breast and flanks more
whitish less creamy-buff.

Adult female. Winter. — Like adult male but fore-head

296 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

and crown brown without greyish tinge ,; lores buffish -white,
ear-coverts and sides of neck pale brown ; chin, throat and upper-
breast cream-buff to tawny-buff, indistinctly flecked brown.
Moult as male. Summer. — Moult as male. Abrasion makes
crown paler brown and under-parts whiter, not so buff.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Feathers of upper -parts, including lores and ear-
coverts, with rufous-buff centres and narrow dark brown edgings
giving a spotted appearance ; rump paler than rest of upper-
parts ; chin and throat pale buff, slightly flecked brown ; breast
deeper and more yellowish-buff, most of the feathers lightly tipped
dusky-brown ; flanks yellowish-buff ; belly and under tail-coverts
white ; tail as adult ; wing-feathers as adult but innermost
secondaries with small rufous-buff spots at tip ; greater and
median coverts with larger buff spots at tip.

First winter. Male and female. — Like adult winter female
but with buff spots at tips of innermost secondaries, greater coverts
and occasionally some inner median coverts. The juvenile body-
feathers, lesser and most median wing-coverts are moulted in
Aug., but not tail- or wing-feathers or rest of wing-coverts.
Summer. — Moult as adults after which like adults except for
traces of buff tips to inner secondaries and wing-coverts and in
male red of breast is apparently usually less extensive.

Measurements and structure. — ^ wing 66-71 mm., tail 49-55,
tarsus 17-18, bill from skull 9.5^10.5 (12 measured). $ wing
64-70. Primaries : 1st 3-6 mm., shorter than longest primary-
covert, 3rd and 4th longest, 2nd 6-8 shorter, 5th 1-2 shorter, 6th
3-6 shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries
slightly shorter than 10th primary, tips almost square. Bill
and other structure as in Spotted Flycatcher.

Soft parts. — Bill brown ; legs and feet dark brown ; iris
dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — In M. p. albicilla (eastern
Siberia, Kamtschatka) adult male has red restricted to chin and
throat, upper-breast being grey, and female and first winter male
have chin whiter and throat and breast browner, less yellowish-
buff than in M . p. parva ; M . p. Tiyperythra (Kashmir) is darker.
Uniform brown of upper -parts and white bases of tail-feathers
distinguish it from other British Flycatchers.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — White base of tail and small size apart
from orange-red throat of adult male should be easily observable
characteristics. It is shy and secretive, but has the habits of a
true Flycatcher. The song is very varied. Fine bell-like notes,
" tink, tink, tink — ida, ida," are frequent, as well as a flute-like
"diu, diu, diu," often connected with whirring passages. Call-
note is reminiscent of notes of Wren or Mistle-Thrush but less
loud. (E.H.)

THE RED-BREASTED FLYCATCHER. 297

BREEDING-HABITS. — Haunts beech forest, breeding sometimes
in holes, but also against tree -trunk often 15 to 20 ft. high, but
occasionally quite low down. Nests have also been recorded
from holes in rock, in stump, and in side of stack. Nest. — Small,
built of moss, stalks, and a few twigs, lined hair and interwoven
with cobwebs. Eggs. — 5-6, rarely 7, like very small eggs of Red-
breast, very pale bluish-green freckled rusty-brown. Average
of 100 eggs, 16.6 X 12.7 mm. Breeding-season. — Early June.
Single brooded.

FOOD. — Insects, chiefly taken on the wing : small coleoptera,
small lepidoptera, diptera (especially Culicidce), and larvae of various
insects, etc.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Irregular passage-migrant, chiefly
Sept. and Oct., but occasionally Nov., and once Jan. (Cornwall).
England. — Twenty obtained and others seen ; Sussex, one ; Nor-
folk, eleven and two others seen ; Lines., one ; Yorks., two and
three others said to have been seen ; Northumberland, one ;
Cornwall, one and another seen ; Scilly Isles, three. Scotland. —
Fifteen obtained and others seen : — Fair Isle, five and others seen ;
Orkneys, four ; 0. Hebrides, one and two seen ; Bell Rock (Fife),
one ; Isle of May (Forth), four. Ireland. — Five obtained at Lights :
— Wexford, two ; Cork, one ; Kerry, one ; Donegal, one.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeds in Europe from Petrograd,
Riigen, and Denmark to Alps, apparently eastwards to west Siberia.
On migration occasionally in south Sweden, more often in Heligo-
land, Holland and elsewhere in west Europe. In winter in western
parts of India. ; also observed at Cairo, and will probably be found
in winter in parts of tropical Africa. Casual Malta and Canaries.
Replaced by other races in east Siberia, and Himalayas.

Genus PHYLLOSCOPUS Boie.

PHYLLOSCOPUS Boie, Isis, 1826, p. 972 — (Type : only species mentioned :
Ph. trochilus).

Beak shorter than head, thin and pointed, sometimes wider,
somewhat more Flycatcher-like. Rictal bristles always present,
but sometimes very small. Wings more or less pointed, in most
cases 3rd and 4th primaries longest, but sometimes 4th and 5th,
or 3rd to 5th almost equal and longest. Tail with 12 rectrices,
square, slightly emarginated. Tarsus booted, though one scale
separated at base, feet generally weak. Upper -parts, or at least
outside of wings, greenish, except in P. fuscatus, where it is brown
though with a slight greenish tinge, under-parts whitish, yellowish,
or white. Sexes alike, young not obviously different. Inhabitants

298

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

of wooded places, but nests mostly on or near ground, more or less
fully domed. Eggs white, spotted with rufous or deep brown,
or uniform. Numerous species in Europe and Asia south to New
Guinea, in Africa south of Atlas only in winter.

Key to species of genus PHYLLOSCOPUS.

Under wing-coverts light brownish-buff
Under wing-coverts more or less lemon-
yellow 2

1st primary stiff, narrow, pointed, shorter
or at least not distinctly longer than
primary-coverts 3

1st primary less narrow and pointed, dis-
tinctly longer than primary-coverts . 4

2nd primary longer than 5th, under tail-
coverts white

2nd primary shorter than 5th, under tail-
coverts yellowish

Yellowish or pale line along crown . 5
No yellowish or pale line on crown . 6
Light yellow band across rump .
No yellow band across rump

Yellowish tips to greater upper wing-coverts
No yellowish tips to greater upper wing-

Outer web of 3rd to 5th primaries emarginate
Outer web of 3rd to 6th primaries emarginate

Ph. fuscatus, p. 31S

Ph.sibilatrix,p. 309
Ph. borealis, p. 312

Ph. prortgulus, p. 316

Ph. humei, p. 314

Ph. nitidus, p. 307

Ph. trochilus, p. 304
Ph. collybita, p. 298

PHYLLOSCOPUS COLLYBITA *

123. Phylloscopus collybita collybita (Vieill.) — THE CHIFF-
CHAFF.

SYLVIA COLLYBITA Vieillot, Nouv. Diet. d'Hist. Nat., nouv. ed., xi,
p. 235 (1817— France).

Phylloscopus collybita (Vieillot), Yarrell, i, p. 437 ; Phylloscopus rufus
(Bechstein), Saunders, p. 67.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 11.) — Adult male and female. Winter. —
Whole upper -parts varying from brownish olive-green to brown
tinged with olive-green (rump usually slightly more greenish
than rest of upper -parts) ; lores blackish, feathers tipped buffish,

* The name " rufus " has been erroneously used for the Chiffchaff. It
was first introduced by Gmelin, but his Motacilla ruja does not refer to a
Phylloscopus at all. The first certain name is collybita. — E.H.

THE CHIFFCHAFF.

299

yellowish or whitish ; ear-coverts brown marked huffish or yellowish;
circle round eye pale yellow or white ; narrow line from base of
bill, over and behind eye pale yellow, part behind eye being usually

The Chiffcb atf (Phylloscopus c. coUybita) . Note short 2nd primary and emarginated
6th primary.

The Willow -Warbler (Phylloscopus t. trochilus). Note longer 2nd primary than in
Ohiff chaff, and 6th primary not emarginated.

pale buff ; chin, throat, breast and flanks whitish tinged buff to
pale buff streaked with varying amount of lemon-yellow ; centre
of belly whiter less buff ; under tail-coverts rather more yellow ;
under wing-coverts and axillaries bright lemon-yellow ; tail-
feathers dark brown, outer webs edged olive-green ; primaries
and secondaries dark brown, outer webs edged olive-green and
inner webs edged greyish-white ; all wing-coverts dark brown
edged and tipped olive-green. This plumage is acquired by
complete moult July to early Sept. Summer. — The body -plumage,
and often (probably not always) wing-coverts, remiges and rec-
trices, are moulted in Jan.-Feb., and occasionally March or early
April. New plumage like winter. By June abrasion makes
upper -parts browner, less greenish, and under -parts whiter less
buff.

Nestling. — Down, darkish-grey, rather short and scanty >
distribution, inner supra-orbital, occipital and humeral. Mouths
inside dull yellow, no spots, externally flanges pale yellow.

Juvenile. — Much like adult but upper-parts browner less
green ; under-partg yellowish-white, washed smoke - brown on
throat and more heavily on breast, not buffish as in adult. (N.B*

300 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Upper-parts darker than juvenile Willow-Warbler, throat and
breast more smoky, belly whiter and less yellow, axillaries deeper
yellow.)

First winter. — Like adult and not to be distinguished. The
juvenile body-feathers and wing-coverts are moulted Aug.-Sept.,
but not primary-coverts nor wing- or tail-feathers, and apparently
not outer greater coverts.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 56-63 mm., tail 47-52,
tarsus 19-21, bill from skull 9.5-11 (20 measured). $ wing 52-
59. Primaries : 1st 5-9 mm. longer than longest primary -co vert,
3rd to 5th usually equal and longest but 3rd and 5th occasionally
1 shorter than 4th, 6th 1-3 shorter, 7th 4-6 shorter, 2nd usually
between 7th and 8th, occasionally as long as 7th or as short as
9th ; 3rd to 6th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries slightly
shorter than 10th primary, tips rounded. Tail nearly square,
each feather sloped off on inner web. Bill fine. A good many
very fine rictal bristles. Nostrils partially covered with short
feathers. Tarsal joint feathered.

Soft parts. — Bill blackish-brown, yellowish -brown at base of
lower mandible ; legs and feet dark brown ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — For differences of Ph. c.
abietinus and tristis see under those forms. Ph. c. canariensis
(western Canary Is.) is smaller, darker on upper -parts and browner
on under-parts, Ph. c. exsul (eastern Canary Is.) is still smaller
but paler than last, Ph. c. sindianus is like Ph. c. tristis but is
smaller and has no green on wings. Both forms of Ph. t. trochilus
have 2nd primary not shorter than 6th instead of equal to or
shorter than 7th, and only 3rd to 5th emarginated instead of 3rd
to 6th as in Ph. collybita. Ph. sibilatrix has longer wing and much
shorter 1st primary.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Different species of Phylloscopus are much
alike in form and colour, and are recognizable in the field rather
by their notes and habits than their appearance. Chiffchaff
closely resembles Willow-Warbler, but is rather smaller, duller
in hue, and has blackish legs. Unmistakable song, "Chiff-chaff,
chiff-chaff, chiff, chiff-chaff, chiff," is often uttered from top of high
tree and is sometimes prefaced by low cricket-like chirp, " tiddy
tiddy." Alarm-note, a plaintive " hoo-id " is almost identical
with that of Willow-Warbler.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Generally nests at some little height from
ground, and quite exceptionally touching it, in clumps of brambles
in woods or low bushes ; and also among thick branches of yews,
hollies, etc., also sometimes among ivy on walls. Nest. — Roughly
spherical in shape, with a shallow side entrance : more loosely
built than Willow-Warbler's, and usually with dead leaves as
foundation, and built of moss, stalks, etc., with thick lining of

THE SCANDINAVIAN CHIFFCHAFF. 301

feathers. Eggs. — Usually 6, occasionally 5 or 7, rather glossy
white in ground and spotted and speckled with dark purplish-
brown. Also said to occur with reddish-brown markings. Average
of 71 British eggs, 15.3 X 12.1 mm. Breeding-season. — From
early May to end of month : probably single-brooded as a rule.
Incubation. — About 13 days : apparently by hen only.

FOOD. — Eggs, larvae and imagines of small insects (coleoptera,
diptera, lepidoptera) : also aphides and small spiders, mostly
obtained from forest trees, often at a considerable height.

DISTRIBUTION. — England, Wales, and Ireland. — Summer -resident,
and in most years a few winter in south England, especially Corn-
wall and Devon, and in Ireland, and very exceptionally in north
England. Well distributed, but rare or local in Norfolk, Lanes.,
and north-west Yorks . Also a passage-migrant . Scotland.^— Except
in south-west (Solway and Clyde) and south-east (Tweed), where
it is local summer -resident, in Forth, where it is extremely local,
and in some I. Hebrides, where it has nested (Arran, Bute, Mull),
it is a somewhat rare passage -migrant occurring in small numbers
up east side, and still more rarely in Orkneys, Fair Isle, and Shet-
lands. On west side from Argyll northwards practically unre-
corded, but has been noted as fairly common near Loch Maree
(Ross.) (A. H. Evans, Ann. S.N.H., 1896, p. 94) ; only a rare
vagrant to O. Hebrides.

MIGRATIONS.— British Isles. — Early stragglers, second week March
(early dates Mar. 2, 5, 6.) Main arrival of summer-residents
begins March 25 to 30, and lasts to about fourth week April.
Passage-migration, second week April to third week May. Departure
of summer -residents begins first week Aug. and becomes merged
in movements of passage -migrants that begin about second week
Sept. and last to mid-Oct. (late dates Oct. 31, Nov. 1, 7.)

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeding in central, west, and south
Europe. Winters in Mediterranean countries, and in tropical
Africa. Replaced by closely-allied forms in east and north Europe,
Siberia, and central Asia, and on Canary Islands.

124. Phylloscopus colly bita abietinus (Nilss.) — THE SCAN-
DINAVIAN CHIFFCHAFF.

SYLVIA ABIETINA Nilsson, Kgl. Vet.-Akad. Handl., p. 115(1819, Sweden).
Phylloscopus collybita abietina (Nilss.), Bonhote, Bull. B.O.C., xxm, p. 21;
id., Brit. B., 11, p. 233.

DESCRIPTION. — Very similar to Ph. c. collybita and in autumn
usually not to be distinguished by coloration, though sometimes
distinctly whiter on under -parts. In spring and summer upper-
parts are paler, more greyish, especially on crown, nape and upper

302 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

mantle, which are greyish-brown with scarcely a tinge of green ;
ear -coverts and sides of neck are also more greyish-brown with
only a tinge of yellow ; under -parts are whiter, less buff and yellow.
Moults as in Ph. c. collybita but often autumn moult not complete
before Oct.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 62-66 mm., tail 50-52.
tarsus 19-21, bill from skull 9.5-11 (20 measured). ? wing 56-67
Wing longer than in Ph. c. collybita but largest individuals of latter
equal smallest of Ph. c. abietinus. Tail averages longer. Other
structure as in Ph. c. collybita.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Similar to those of the British breeding race,
but according to Collett the clutch usually consists of 8 eggs,
laid during May or early in June. Average of 43 eggs, 15.1 X
12.0 mm.

FOOD. — Presumably similar to that of typical race.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — One, a female, St. Catherine's Light
(Isle of Wight), April 15, 1907 (ut supra). Scotland.— Fair Isle
(Shetlands) regular spring and autumn passage -migrant (W. E.
Clarke, Studies in Migration, II., p. 131). St. Kilda, one Oct. 11,
1911 (id. t.c., p. 214). Isle of May (Forth) a good many Sept .-Oct.,
1912, one Sept. 30, and others Oct. 1913, two Nov. 1914 (E. V.
Baxter and L. J. Rintoul, Scot. Nat., 1913, p. 52, 1914, pp. 108-9,
Ibis, 1918, p. 269). Auskerry (Orkneys) small numbers, Sept.,
Oct., 1913 (W. E. Clarke, Scot. Nat., 1914, p. 8). Probably regular
passage -migrant, perhaps only in small numbers, but undoubtedly
overlooked owing to difficulty of identification.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Generally north and east Europe, but
difficult to distinguish, therefore distribution not well known, and
requiring further study. In winter known to occur in southern
Arabia and Egypt.

125. Phylloscopus collybita tristis Blyth — THE SIBERIAN
CHIFFCHAFF.

PHYLLOSCOPUS TRISTIS Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, xn, p. 966 (1843-

Calcutta).

Phylloscopus tristis, Clarke, Ann. Scot. Nat Hist., 1907, p. 15 ; id., Bull.

B.O.C., xix, p. 18 ; Saunders, Brit. B., i, p. 8.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 11).— Adult. Winter.— Like Ph. c. collybita but
upper -parts brown with only a tinge of green on mantle and rump
(in some examples this green tinge is absent) ; stripe from base
of bill over eye and orbital ring white or creamy-white ; ear-
coverts, sides of neck, sides of breast and flanks pale buffish-
brown ; rest of under-parts white washed pale huffish-brown
with no yellow as in Ph. c. collybita ; axillaries and under wing-

THE SIBERIAN CHIFFCHAFF. 303

coverts bright pale lemon-yellow ; wings and tail much as in Ph. c.
collybita but with narrow fringes of olive-green on outer webs ;
wing-coverts brown narrowly tipped and fringed olive-green.
Summer. — As winter but still browner with usually no trace of
green on upper -parts and scarcely any on wings and tail. Moult
as in Ph. c. abietinus.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like adult summer, but upper -parts rather paler
brown and without any green tinge.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 56-66 mm., tail 45-53,
tarsus 17.5-21, bill from skull 9.5-10.5 (12 measured). $ wing
54-61. Primaries : 1st 5-8 mm. longer than longest primary-
covert, 4th and 5th longest, 3rd sometimes as long but usually
1 mm. shorter, 6th .5-2 shorter, 7th 3-5 shorter, 2nd usually
between 8th and 9th or equal to 8th, only occasionally longer
than 8th ; 2nd is thus usually shorter proportionately and 6th
and 7th are usually a shade longer proportionately than in Ph. c.
collybita. Other structure as in Ph. c. collybita.

Soft parts. — As in Ph. c. collybita but legs and feet usually
blacker

CHARACTERS. — Easily distinguished from both Ph. c. collybita and
Ph c. abietinus by absence of yellow in under -parts, pale buffish-
brown sides of breast and flanks, brown (not olive) upper -parts.

FIELD -CHARACTERS .--Distinguishable from Ph. c. collybita by its
white under -parts, which are almost suggestive of Lesser White-
throat, and at once mark it out as distinct from any common
British Phylloscopi. The single bird observed by me during a
fortnight in Kent in December spent all its time ceaselessly flitting
along some hedge-rows in a deep gully, and in its behaviour showed
no peculiarity to distinguish it from allied species. Note, fairly
frequently uttered, was single, a good deal more plaintive than
that of Chiffchaff or Willow-Wren, and perhaps nearest to the
single note sometimes uttered by Coal-Tit ; its difference from
notes of the common species is so marked as to attract attention
at once (H. G. Alexander).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests often in willow and alder thickets
or in rank vegetation, at times also in flood refuse stranded in bushes
Nest. — Similar to that of typical race, warmly lined with feathers.
Eggs. — Also similar in type, but markings sometimes red instead
of purple. Clutch 5-9, probably 6-7 normally. Average of 80
eggs 15x11.9 mm. Breeding -season. — May and June in the Altai,
but end of June and early July in north Siberia.

FOOD. — Insects, chiefly diptera (mosquitoes) during breeding-
season.

DISTRIBUTION, — England. — One watched Tunbridge Wells (Kent

304 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Nov. 28 to Dec. 17, 1913 (H. G. Alexander, Brit. B., VII., p. 296.)
— Scotland. — Fair Isle (Shetlands) recorded regularly in autumn
(earliest Oct. 4, latest Nov. 6) from 1907 to 1914, once spring,
May 7, 1909 ; Lerwick (Shetland), one obtained Oct. 28, 1910,
and others seen there Oct. and one Dec. 27, 1913, one Oct. 24,
1914 ; Orkneys, one Sule Skerry Light* Sept. 23, 1902, one obtained
and another seen, Kirkwall, Feb. 5, 1908, had been observed since
Jan. 25 ; Isle of May, one obtained Oct. 16, 1910 ; Little Ross
Light (Kirkcudbright) one Dec. 3, 1916.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeding from Petchora and Ural to
Lake Baikal, migrating through Turkestan, and wintering in India.
In Oct., 1846, obtained in Heligoland.

PHYLLOSCOPUS TROCHILUS

126. Phylloscopus trochilus trochilus (L.) — THE WILLOW-
WARBLER.

MOTACILLA TROCHILTTS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 188 (1758 —
Ex cit. Willughby, etc. Restricted typical locality : England ; c/.
Hartert, Vog. pal. Fauna, i, p. 507).
Phylloscopus trochilus (Linnaeus), Yarrell, i, p. 432 ; Saunders, p. 69.

DESCRIPTION. — (Plate 11). — Adult male and female. Winter. —
Whole of upper-parts olive-green to olive-brown slightly more
yellowish-green on rump ; stripe from nostrils over and behind
eye yellow ; lores dusky black, feathers tipped whitish or yellowish ;
ear -coverts pale brown to yellowish-brown streaked pale yellow ;
chin, throat, and upper-breast whitish, more or less streaked
lemon-yellow, often with pale brownish streaks or wash on sides of
breast ; lower-breast and belly white with a few faint yellow
streaks ; flanks very pale yellowish-buff ; vent and under tail-
coverts pale yellow ; axillaries and under wing-coverts bright
lemon-yellow ; tail- and wing-feathers dark-brown, inner webs
fringed very narrowly dull white and outer webs more broadly
olive-green or olive-brown, wing-feathers with small whitish tips ;
wing-coverts dark brown broadly fringed and tipped olive-green
or olive-brown. This plumage is acquired by a complete moult
in July and August (sometimes beginning end June). Summer. —
A complete moult (including wings and tail) takes place Dec. to
March. New plumage like winter but perhaps slightly less green
and more brown on upper-parts, and as summer advances abrasion
makes under-parts whiter and less yellow and upper-parts still
more brown and less green.

Nestling. — Down, greyish -white, fairly long but not plentiful ;
distribution, inner supra -orbital, occipital and humeral. Mouth,
inside orange -yellow, two faint brownish marks on tongue-spurs,
externally flanges lemon-yellow.

THE WILLOW-WARBLER. 305

Juvenile. Male and female.— Whole upper-parts brown tinged
olive (browner than adult) ; eye-stripe yellow ; ear-coverts pale
brown streaked buff and yellow ; chin and throat dull buffish-
yellow ; upper-breast dusky buff ; lower-breast and belly very
pale yellow ; under tail-coverts rather more buff ; flanks whitish-
buff ; axillaries pale yellow.

First winter. Male and female. — Like adult but slightly
more yellowish-brown, not so greenish on upper -parts and much
yellower on under -parts, throat and breast being deeper yellow
and belly only shade paler instead of white, sides of breast and
flanks deeper yellowish-buff. The juvenile body-feathers are
moulted July and Aug. but not wing-coverts, wings or tail. First
summer. — Like adult and moult same.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 64-70 mm., tail 49-52,
tarsus 19-21, bill from skull 10-11 (12 measured). $ wing 60-66.
Primaries : 1st 3-6 mm. longer than longest primary -co vert,
3rd and 4th longest and equal, 5th 1-3 shorter, 6th 5-8 shorter
7th 8-11 shorter, 2nd usually between 5th and 6th sometimes
as short as 6th occasionally as long as 5th ; 3rd to 5th emarginated
outer webs. Rest of structure as Chiffchaff.

Soft parts. — Bill brown with base of lower mandible paler ;
legs and feet pale to dark brown ; iris hazel.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — For differences of Ph. t. evers-
manni see under that form, and of Chiffchaff see under that species.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Differs from Chiffchaff in being rather-
larger, and having brown legs and plumage tinged with yellow.
Less restricted to woods and coppices, and much more abundant.
Song a sweet warble rising at first and then descending until it
seems to melt away. Alarm-note a plaintive " hoo-id " similar
to that of Chiffchaff.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds among grass in hedge-bottoms, by
road sides or open glades in woods. Occasionally in low bush,
on trellis or in ivy on wall, but normally nesting on ground, though
occasionally recorded as much as 14 or 16 ft. aboveit. Nest. — Domed
with neat entrance at side, built of green moss, inter-woven stalks,
grasses, sometimes bracken, lined freely with feathers almost
invariably. Eggs. — Normally 6-7, rarely 8 or 9 but in late layings
4 and 5 may be found. Variable : some finely freckled light
red : others blotched light red-brown ; a third type boldly spotted
dark sienna-brown. 50 British eggs average 15.2 x 12.3 mm.
Breeding-season. — About end April and first half Ma^. Most
birds are apparently single brooded, but a few may be found
nesting in June and July, Incubation. — Normally 13 days (J. H.
Owen and W. Evans), by hen only. Fledging-period. — Variable,
12-16 days as a rule (S. E. Brock and J. H. Owen.)

x

306 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

FOOD. — Eggs, larvae and imagines of insects, mainly coleoptera,
diptera, and smaller lepidoptera, chiefly from hedgerows and
bushes : also aphides, spiders, etc. Elder berries and currants
eaten in autumn (Naumann).

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Summer-resident, abundant and
widely distributed, but somewhat local Cornwall, local north
Caithness, local Skye, but common in other I. Hebrides ; has
nested very rarely 0. Hebrides and Shetlands, but is seen on spring
and autumn passage in these islands, as well as Fair Isle and
Orkneys. Also abundant passage-migrant on south, west, and
east coasts England, and east coast Scotland. Occasionally stays
winter in south (rarely in north) England and in Ireland.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Early arrivals from third week March
onwards (early dates March 9, 10, 11). Main arrival of summer-
residents begins second week April and becomes merged in move-
ments of passage-migrants that start at same time and last to
first week June. Departure of summer-residents begins last week
July and lasts to end Sept. Passage-migration, early Aug. to end
first week Oct. Stragglers fairly frequent up to Oct. 22nd (late
date Nov. 5).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — From Lapland, Finland, Scandinavia,
and north Russia throughout west, central, and south Europe,
except in Balkan Peninsula. In winter in Africa, in small numbers
in Mediterranean countries. Passage -migrant Canaries : casual
Madeira. Replaced in north-east Russia and Siberia by Ph. t.
eversmanni.

127. Phylloscopus trochilus eversmanni (Bp.) -- THE
NORTHERN WILLOW-WARBLER.

PHYLLOPNETTSTE EVERSMANI (corr. eversmanni) Bonaparte, Consp. Gen,
Av., i, p. 289 (1850 — Ex Eversmann, Addenda. Actual typical
locality : Kazan and Orenburg).

Phylloscopus trochilus eversmanni (Bonap.), C. B. Ticehurst, Bull. B.O.C.,
xxin, p. 20 ; c/. Brit. B., n, pp. 234, 342, v, p. 28).

DESCRIPTION (Plate 11). ---Adult male and female. Winter. — Like
Ph. t. trochilus and impossible to distinguish satisfactorily but
usually rather browner and less green on upper-parts. Moult
as in Ph. t. trochilus. Summer. — Moult as in Ph. t. trochilus after
which it is considerably browner and less green than the typical
form on upper -parts ; eye-stripe whiter ; ear -coverts and sides
of neck brown and white ; under -parts whiter, less marked with
yellow ; under wing-coverts and axillaries yellow to pale yellow
(occasionally whitish). Individuals vary, some (especially more
eastern examples) having scarcely any green on upper -parts and
having no yellow on under -parts (except under wing) and eye-

THE GREENISH WARBLER. 307

stripe white, are very distinct from Ph. t. trochilus. As summer
advances most examples become by abrasion pale brown on upper-
parts with a tinge of green on wings and rump and white on under -
parts.

Nestling. — (Not examined).

Juvenile. — Like that of Ph. t. trochilus but apparently less
yellow on under -parts (only one examined.)

First winter. — Apparently less yellow on under-parts than
first winter, and thus resembling adult winter Ph. t. trochilus.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 68-72 mm., tail 50-54,
tarsus 19-21, bill from skull 10-11 (16 measured). $ wing 62-67.
Wing and tail of male thus averaging longer than in Ph. t. trochilus.
Wing-formula as in Ph. t. trochilus but 2nd between 5th and 6th
in all specimens examined.

Soft parts. — As in Ph. t. trochilus.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Similar- to those of British breeding form.
Eggs. — Usually 5-7, generally of light freckled type. Average
of 21 eggs, 15.5 x 12.2 mm. Breeding -season. — Latter half of
June or early July.

FOOD. — Similar to that of typical form, but diptera (mosquitoes)
form main food in breeding-season.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Passage-migrant, having been
detected usually in small numbers in spring (end April and May)
in Isle of Wight, Sussex, Kent, Norfolk, Yorks, Bardsey (Carnarvon),
Kirkcudbrightshire, Wigtownshire, Bass Rock (Haddington), Isle
of May, Shetlands (Fair Isle sometimes in large numbers). In Sept.
once in Norfolk and Yorks, three times on Bardsey, in Oct. once in
Norfolk, in Nov. once on Isle of May. Probably regular passage-
migrant in autumn but overlooked owing to difficulty of identifica-
tion.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — North-east Russia and Siberia, at least
to River Kolyma. Once obtained in Bering Sea. On migration
in Roumania, and apparently wintering in Africa. Often difficult
to distinguish, therefore distribution not well known.

PHYLLOSCOPUS NITIDUS

128. Phylloscopus nitidus viridanus Blyth— THE GREENISH
WARBLER.

PHYLLOSCOPUS VIRIDANUS Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, xii, p. 967

(1843 — Calcutta and Nepal).

Phylloscopus viridanus Blyth, Saunders, p. 65.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 11). — Adult male and female. Winter. —
Whole upper-parts olive-green tinged brown, upper tail-coverts
usually rather browner than rest of upper-parts ; lores blackish,

x 2

308 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

feathers tipped pale cream or whitish ; ear-coverts brown more
or less marked pale cream or whitish ; narrow circle round eye
and stripe from nostrils over and behind eye pale creamy yellow ;

The Greenish Warbler (Phyttoscvpus n. viridanus). Note shorter 2nd and longe 1st.
primaries than in Eversmann's Warbler.

whole under -parts, including under tail-coverts and axiUaries,
whitish-yellow, with sides of breast and flanks tinged dusky -olive ;
tail-feathers, primaries and secondaries brown edged on outer
webs green and on inner webs whitish ; wing-coverts brown with
outer webs and tips fringed green, varying number of outer greater
coverts with the tips of their outer webs whitish or if not whitish
in any case paler than the rest of the feathers. (N.B. This
character varies considerably being in some examples quite obvious
and in others requiring careful scrutiny to detect). This plumage
is acquired by complete moult Aug.-Oct. Summer. — A complete
moult (including wings and tail) takes place in March-April. New
plumage as winter.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like adult but considerably browner and less
green on upper-parts.

First winter. — Like adult. The juvenile body-plumage and
sometimes the innermost secondaries are moulted Aug.-Oct.,
but not rest of wings nor tail.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 61-65 mm., tail 45-51.5,
tarsus 18-21, bill from skull 10.5-11.5 (12 measured). <j> wing
58-62. Primaries : 1st 5-10 mm. longer than longest primary-
covert, 4th longest, 3rd and 5th .5-1.5 shorter, 6th 2-4: shorter,
7th 6-9 shorter, 2nd usually between 7th and 8th, occasionally as
long as 7th or as short as 8th (rarely between 8th and 9th) ; 3rd
to 6th emarginated outer webs. Rest of structure as Chiffchaff.

Soft parts. — Bill, upper mandible dark brown, lower very
pale brown ; legs and feet brown ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Ph. n. nitidus (Caucasus,
Transcaspia, Persia) is considerably greener on upper-parts and
more yellow on under-parts and the median as well as the greater
wing -co verts are tipped with pale yellow thus forming a double
wing-bar, in worn plumage the tips of the median coverts, however,

THE WOOD-WARBLER. 309

disappear, Ph. n. plumbeitarsus (Trans baikal to Sea of Okhotsk)
is like Ph. n. viridanus in general coloration but has double wing-
bar as in nitidus. Much resembles Chiffchaff and WilloAv-Warbler
in general coloration but distinctly paler under wing-coverts and
axillaries, wing-formula as Chiffchaff, pale tips to greater wing-
coverts distinguish it. Also somewhat resembles those specimens
of Ph. b. borealis which show only one wing-bar but besides other
differences 1st primary is shorter and 2nd longer in Ph. b. borealis.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests on ground in grass : once in crevice
between loose stones. Nest.— Built of green moss, with a little
grass and a few leaves, lined with goats' hair or wool, and domed
with side entrance. Eggs. — 4 normally, pure white, without
gloss and very thin shelled. Occasionally faint reddish markings
on eggs. Average of 9 eggs, 14.9 X 11.6 mm. Breeding-season. —
Early in June.

FOOD. — Probably insects, but definite information wanting.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — One, a female, North Cotes (Lines.),
Sept. 5, 1896 (G. H. Caton-Haigh, Bull B.O.C., vi, p. viii). [A
second record, Sule Skerry Light., afterwards shown to be Phyllo-
scopus b. borealis, vide infra, No. 130.]

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeds from Baltic Provinces of Russia
(possibly north-east Prussia) throughout central Russia to west
Siberia and north Turkestan. Winters in India. Accidental
Heligoland (3 times). Replaced by Ph. n. nitidus in Caucasus,
Transcaspia and Persia, and by another form in east Siberia and
other parts of Asia.

PHYLLOSCOPUS SIBILATRIX

129. Phylloscopus sibilatrix sibilatrix (Bechst.) — THE
WOOD-WARBLER.

MOTACILLA SIBILATRIX Bechstein, Naturforscher., xxvii, p. 47 (1793 —

Thuringian mountains).

Phylloscopus sibilatrix (Bechstein), Yarrell, i, p. 427 ; Saunders, p. 7J.

&

The Wood- Warbler (Phylloscopus s. sibilatrix). Note minute 1st primary.

310 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 11). — Adult male and female. Winter. —
Whole upper-parts green, crown and upper mantle tinged brownish ;
conspicuous stripe from nostrils, over and behind eye sulphur-
yellow ; line through lores and behind eye dark brownish-green ;
ear-coverts greenish -yellow ; chin, throat, upper-breast and tibial
feathers pale sulphur-yellow ; axillaries and under wing-coverts
brighter sulphur-yellow mixed with white ; rest of under -parts
pure white ; tail and wing-feathers dark brown fringed on outer
webs yellowish -green and on inner webs white ; all wing-coverts
dark brown with yellowish -green tips and fringes. This plumage
is acquired by complete moult in July -Sept. Summer. — A com-
plete moult (including wings and tail) takes place from Jan. to
March. New plumage like winter but considerably brighter,
more golden-green on upper-parts and sulphur -yellow of eye-stripe,
chin and throat usually brighter. Abrasion makes crown and
mantle somewhat greyer-green and throat rather less yellow by
June or July.

Nestling. — Down, pale-grey, long but scanty. Distribution
inner supra -orbital, occipital and humeral. Mouth inside bright
deep yellow, no tongue-spots, externally flanges pale yellow.

Juvenile. — Like adult winter but still duller green with a
greyish-brown tinge on all upper -parts.

First winter. — Like adult winter but perhaps slightly more
tinged with brownish on upper-parts. The juvenile body -plumage
is moulted July-Aug., but apparently not any wing-coverts nor
wing- and tail-feathers. Summer. — Moult like adults after which
is indistinguishable.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 74-78 mm., tail 48-53,
tarsus 17.5-19, bill from skull 11-11.5 (12 measured). $ wing
71-76. Primaries : 1st 2-5 shorter than primary-coverts, 3rd
longest, 4th 1-3 mm. shorter, 5th 4-8 shorter, 6th 9-12 shorter,
2nd 1-3 shorter (usually equal to or slightly shorter than 4th) ; 3rd
to 5th emarginated outer webs. Rest of structure as Chiffchaff.

Soft parts. — Bill : upper mandible blackish-brown, lower
mandible yellowish-flesh ; legs and feet pale yellowish-brown,
soles yellow ; iris brown-black.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Ph. s. erlangeri (Mediterranean
countries) is slightly more golden on upper-parts but is a doubtful
form. Large size, bright yellowish -green upper -parts, pure white
belly contrasted to yellow throat and 1st primary shorter than
primary-coverts distinguish it from other Phylloscopi.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Distinguished from Willow-Warbler and Chiff-
chaff by its rather larger size, longer wings, greenish upper-parts,
sulphur-yellow breast and throat, and broad yellow superciliary
stripe. Essentially a woodland species, affecting especially woods
of beech and oak. Captures much of its insect food from under-

THE WOOD-WARBLER. 311

sides of leaves, beneath which it hovers. Shivering song " Sip,
sip, sip, sip, tr-r-r-r-r-r-ree " is often uttered on the wing as the
bird passes from a lower branch of one tree to that of another and
when uttered from perch is usually accompanied by shivering of
wings. Song is sometimes prefaced by a plaintive note, " dee-ur,
dee-ur." Alarm note a mournful " pee-ou."

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds in woods with undergrowth of bracken
and brambles, making use of natural hollow in ground. Nest. — •
Built of dead bracken, dead leaves and grass, domed, with side
entrance, neatly lined with fine bents, and occasionally a few hairs,
but no feathers. Eggs. — Normally 6-7, occasionally 8 or 5 only,
white, thickly spotted and speckled with dark red-brown and
at times a few ashy shell-marks, the markings sometimes forming
a zone. Breeding-season. — Last fortnight of May and first week
of June. One brood. Incubation. — About 13 days, probably
by hen only.

FOOD. — Insects, in all stages from egg to imago, chiefly taken
from leaves and branches of trees or on the wing : coleoptera,
lepidoptera, diptera, etc. Saxby records portions of Ephemerae :
aphides also largely taken. Berries said to be eaten in autumn.

DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. — Summer-resident (mid-April
to Sept. Early date Mar. 16). Widely distributed in well-wooded
districts, but local, being abundant in some parts (especially those
heavily-wooded with beech and oak) and rare or unknown in tree-
less districts. Has been observed Isle of Man. Scotland. — Fairly
common, but local to Loch Broom (Ross), north of which on west
side unknown as nester. On east side fairly common in south-east
Sutherland (as far west as Lairg), but very rare further north.
Scarce visitor to Shetlands and Orkneys, single birds Fair Isle,
June and Aug., 1907, May 1909, a number May 1910, single birds
Aug. 1911, May 1912 and 1913, single birds Lerwick, May 1913
and Aug. 1914, single birds Sule Skerry Sept. 1906 and Auskerry
Sept. 1913. A summer-resident in most I. Hebrides but only
seen twice (N. & S. Uist) and obtained once (Aug. 1917, N. Uist) in
0. Hebrides. Ireland. — Extremely scarce, nesting small numbers
Gal way and Queen's co., and Wicklow. Vagrants have been
taken in Donegal, Antrim, Fermanagh, Mayo and Dublin, and seen
in Sligo, Londonderry, Antrim, Fermanagh (May 18-June 7) and
Wexford.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe from Upsala, south Finland
and Archangel to France, Alps, and Austria -Hungary. Occasional
Canaries : casual Madeira. Winters in Tropical Africa. Re-
placed by an ill - defined subspecies in the Mediterranean
countries.

312 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

PHYLLOSCOPUS BOREALIS

130. Phylloscopus borealis borealis (Bias.) — EVERSMANN'S
WARBLER.

PHYLLOPNEUSTE BOREALIS Blasius, Naumannia, p. 313 (1858 — Sea of

Ochotsk.).

Phylloacopua borealis (Blasius), Clarke, Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1909, p. 1.

Eversmann's Warbler (Phylloscopus b. borealis). Note longer 2nd and shorter 1st
primaries than in Greenish Warbler.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 11). — Adult male and female. Winter. —
Whole upper -parts dark olive-green ; stripe from nostrils, over
and behind eye pale creamy -y ell ow ; streak through lores and
behind eye dark olive-green ; ear -coverts pale yellow mottled
dark olive ; under -parts yellowish -white with faint pale yellow
streaks, upper-breast very faintly streaked dusky-olive and sides
of breast and flanks washed olive ; axillaries whitish edged and
tipped pale yellow ; wing and tail-feathers dark-brown, outer
webs edged olive-green and inner webs narrowly whitish ; all
wing-coverts dark brown edged and tipped olive-green but the
outer half of greater coverts with pale yellow or whitish tips and
a few of the median coverts similarly, but not so distinctly, tipped.
This plumage is acquired by complete moult in August. Summer. —
A complete moult (including wings and tail) takes place Jan. to
March. New plumage as winter. Abrasion has little effect except
that pale tips of median coverts usually become worn off and
sometimes those of greater coverts are almost entirely worn away.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Resembling adult but upper-parts considerably
less green, being strongly tinged greyish-brown especially on crown
and mantle ; under -parts whiter with only a very slight tinge
of yellow, sides of breast and flanks washed pale brown ; wing-
coverts with brownish-green edges and tips and pale tips of outer
greater coverts whiter, pale tips of outer median coverts very small
or absent.

First winter. — Intermediate between adult and juvenile,
wings, tail and wing-coverts become browner as autumn advances
and pale tips wear off median coverts and often a mere trace is

Plate 11.

(HALF NATURAL SIZE.)

1, Chiffchaff (Phyttoscopus e. collybita) winter. 2, Siberian Chiffchaff (Ph. c. tristis) winter.
3, Adult summer, 4, First winter of Willow- Warbler (Ph. t. trochilus). 5, Northern Willow-
Warbler (Ph. t. eversmanni) adult summer. 6, Greenish Warbler (Ph. n. viridanus}.
7, Wood- Warbler (Ph. s. silrilatrix) juvenile. 8, Eversmann's Warbler (Ph. b. borealis) first
winter. 9, Yellow-browed Warbler (Ph. k. premium) winter.

[Face p. 312.]

EVERSMANN'S WARBLER. 313

left of those of greater coverts. The juvenile body-plumage is
moulted in July-Sept, and usually three innermost secondaries
but not rest of wings or tail, while frequently a number of juvenile
body-feathers are retained throughout winter until spring moult,
which is complete as adult.

Measurements and structure. — <£ wing 62-71 mm., tail 42-51,
tarsus 18-20, bill from^kull 11-12 (12 measured). £ wing 61-67.
Primaries : 1st equal to, 1-2 mm. snorter or 1-3 mm. longer than
longest primary -co vert, 3rd and 4th longest, 5th 1-3 shorter,
6th 6-8 shorter, 2nd between 5th and 6th or equal to 6th, occasion-
ally slightly shorter than 6th ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs.
Base of bill rather broader than other Phylloscopi, otherwise rest
of structure as Chiff chaff.

Soft parts. — Bill, upper mandible dark horn, lower straw-
colour ; legs and feet rather pale yellowish-brown, soles dull
orange ; iris blackish-brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Ph. b. xanfhodryas (Yesso,
Kurile Is., Kamtschatka) has paler upper-parts and more yellow
under-parts, Ph. b. examinandus (wintering Sunda Is.) is larger.
Dark green of upper -parts, short 1st primary, pale tips to wing-
coverts, measurements and wing-formula, distinguish Ph. borealis
from other British Phylloscopi.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Considerably more dusky appearance than
Willow-Warbler but has same manner of feeding by making little
aerial tours after flies among leafy tops of trees. Utters constantly
repeated husky " swee-ep " moderately loud. (H. Lynes.)

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests on ground — in birch forest as a rule —
building domed nest with side entrance, built of grasses with some
moss and dead leaves and lined fine grasses with no feathers.
Eggs. — Apparently 6-7, but 4-5 also recorded. Little authentic
material, but white with spots of dark red-brown : occasionally
light red markings ; average of 17 eggs, 16.1 x 12.4 mm. Breeding-
season. — End of June and early in July, one brood.

FOOD. — During breeding-season almost entirely mosquitoes of at
least six species (Collett). Meves records hymenoptera (larvae of
Tenthredo or Lophyrus : also ants) and coleoptera : Dybowski
aphides : Lynes coleoptera and other insects.

DISTRIBUTION. — Scotland. — The first, Sule Skerry Light (Orkneys),
Sept. 5, 1902, was erroneously recorded as Ph. n. viridanus (cf.
Saunders, Bull B.O.C., xni, p. 12, W. E. Clarke, Ann. Scot. Nat.
Hist., 1903. p. 22), and subsequently correctly identified (id., op.c.,
1909, p. 114. Second, Fair Isle (Shetlands), Sept. 28, 1908 (W. E.
Clarke, Ann. S.N.H., 1909, p. 1). Third, Fair Isle, Oct. 18, 1913
(id., Scot. Nat., 1914, p. 54.)

314 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — North Norway and north Russia to east
Siberia, in winter in southern parts of Asia and its islands as far
as the Moluccas, Alor, and Sumba. Heligoland (once), Italy (once).
Replaced by a closely-allied form on Kurile Islands, Yesso, and
perhaps other Japanese islands and in Kamtschatka, also by
another wintering in Sunda Islands, etc., breeding home of which
is not yet known.

PHYLLOSCOPUS HUMEI

131. Phylloscopus humei praemium Math. & Ire. — THE
YELLOW-BROWED WARBLER.

PHYLLOSCOPUS HUMEE PREMIUM Mathews and Iredale, Austral Av.

Rec., in, p. 44 (1915— Russia).

Motacilla superciliosa* Gmelin, Syst. Nat., i, p. 975 (1789 — " Russia ").

Phylloscopua superciliosva (J. F. Gmelin), Yarrell, i, p. 443 ; Saunders,

p. 61.

Phylloscous 8upercilio8U8 superciliosus (Gm.), Hand-List B.B., p. 60 (1912).

DESCRIPTION (Plate 11). — Adult male and female. Winter. —
Fore-head, crown, and nape varying from brownish-green to brown
only tinged green, with an indistinct pale line down centre of
crown ; mantle and scapulars greener than crown ; back and rump
brighter yellowish -green ; upper tail - coverts brownish -green ;
stripe irom nostrils, over and behind eye and extending slightly
over back of crown pale yellow to whitish ; narrow line through
lores and at back of eye dark brown ; ear-coverts mottled greenish-
brown and pale yeUow ; under-parts white tinged greenish-yellow ;
flanks brownish -green tinged yellow ; axillaries white edged
yellow ; tail blackish -brown narrowly edged on inner webs whitish
and on outer green ; primaries same but with tips whitish ; second-
aries as primaries but with basal portions of outer webs showing
1 or 2 mm. beyond coverts brown and outer webs of innermost
feathers broadly edged yellowish -white ; primary -coverts blackish-
brown narrowly edged green ; greater and median coverts same,
but former with broad and latter with narrower pale creamy to
whitish tips forming conspicuous double wing-bar ; lesser coverts
brown tipped green. This plumage is acquired by complete moult
in July-Aug. Summer. — The body -plumage and very occasionally
wing-coverts, remiges and rectrices, are moulted Feb.-April.
New plumage as winter but rather browner on upper-parts and
with less yellow tinge on under -parts. Abrasion gradually reduces
pale edgings so that in much worn summer specimens pale edges
of inner secondaries are wanting and pale tips of median coverts
almost disappear.

* Motacilla superciliosa Gmelin, 1789, is preoccupied by the use of the-
same name in 1783 by Boddaert for an American Warbler.

THE YELLOW-BROWED WARBLER. 315

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like adult but considerably browner on upper-
parts and slightly tinged with greyish-buff on under-parts and
tips of greater and median wing-coverts tinged buff.

First winter. — Like adult. The juvenile body -feathers and
lesser wing-coverts are moulted in Aug. but not rest of wings nor
tail-feathers.

Measurements and structure.— <$ wing 55-60 mm., tail 38^44,
tarsus 17-18.5, bill from skull 9-10.5 (12 measured). <J> wing
52-57. Primaries : 1st 3-7 mm. longer than longest primary-
covert, 3rd to 5th about equal and longest, 6th 1.5-3 shorter,
7th 4-7 shorter, 2nd between 7th and 8th, very rarely slightly
longer than 7th ; 3rd to 6th emarginated outer webs. Extreme
tips of wing- and tail-leathers sharply pointed. Rest of structure
as Chiffchaff.

Soft parts. — Bill brown, with basal three-quarters of lower
mandible straw-colour ; legs and feet greyish-brown ; iris dark
brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Ph. h. humei (Altai, north-
west Himalayas) has browner upper -parts and somewhat isabelline
tinge in eye-stripe and under-parts, Ph. h. mandellii (eastern
Himalayas) is rather bigger with longer tail. Small size, very
distinct double wing-bar, pale edges to inner secondaries, pale
line down centre of crown and green rump distinguish it from
other British Phylloscopi. N.B. Wing-pattern much resembles
that of Goldcrest, but easily distinguished from juvenile of latter
by its yellow eye-stripe and other differences.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Small size, light green above and white
below as well as prominent superciliary stripe and wing-pattern
are all noticeable characters and make it quite easy to distinguish
(H. Lynes).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds on ground among moss and grass,
sometimes among rhododendron bushes. Nest. — Domed, built
of dead grasses and lined deer hair. Eggs. — 5 to 7. White, with
fine spots of dark red-brown, chiefly at big end. Average of 4
eggs, 14.8 x 11.2 mm. Breeding-season. — End of June or early
July.

FOOD. — Small insects (Lynes). Detailed information wanting.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Formerly considered rare vagrant,
has lately been so often recorded on east coasts Great Britain and
in Fair Isle that it may now be considered as an almost regular
passage-migrant in very small numbers (more numerous some years
than others) along east coast from mid-Sept, to late Oct. Has
also occurred very rarely in west and once in Ireland. Two seen in
spring (Kent, April 15, 1899, Dumfries., April 11, 1909). Following

316 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

recorded : England. — Twenty-four obtained and six seen, viz., Scilly
Isles, three ; Gloucester., one ; Kent, two seen ; Sussex, one ;
Suffolk, one seen, one shot ; Norfolk, six obtained, and one seen ;
Lines., six; Yorks., five; Northumberland, one: Notts., two
probable seen. Scotland — Many recorded, viz. : Dumfries., one
seen ; Kircudbrightshire, one seen ; Berwickshire, one seen ; Isle
of May (Forth), twenty -one ; east Ross., two ; Fair Isle (Shet-
iands), fairly regular in small numbers in autumn ; Sumburgh
Head (Shetlands), one ; Lerwick (Shetland) one ; Auskerry
(Orkneys) one ; Swona (Orkneys), one ; Pentland Skerries (Orkneys)
three seen ; Skerryvore Light (0. Hebrides), one. Ireland. — One,
Tearaght Light (Kerry).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeds in Siberia, migrates through
greater part of Asia, and winters in southern China and India.
Appears not rarely in Europe, from Orenburg and west Russia to
Heligoland, Germany, Holland, Austria, and Italy. Replaced
by allied forms in Altai, Tian-shan, Himalayas, and mountains
south of Brahmaputra.

PHYLLOSCOPUS PROREGULUS

132. Phylloscopus proregulus proregulus (Pall.) — PALLAS'S
WARBLER.

MOTACILLA PROREGULUS Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat., i, p. 499 (1827 —

Transbaikalia).

Phylloscoptis proregiilus (Pallas), Saunders, p. 63.

DESCRIPTION.— Adult male and female. Winter.— Fore-head golden-
green ; crown dark green with a greenish-yellow stripe down
centre, and brighter broad stripe from nostrils over eye continuing
down sides of nape these stripes spreading and breaking up some-
what on the nape give the whole nape a streaked appearance ;
mantle, scapulars, back and upper tail-coverts green ; rump pale
greenish-yellow ; line through lores and extending behind eye to
base of neck dark green ; ear-coverts greyish or yellowish usually
mottled dark green ; under-parts greyish-white tinged greenish-
yellow, especially under tail-coverts ; axillaries white edged bright
greenish-yellow ; tail-feathers brown outer webs edged yellowish-
green ; primaries same with inner webs narrowly edged whitish ;
secondaries same but with brown basal portions of outer webs
showing 2 or 3 mm. beyond coverts and outer webs of innermost
feathers broadly edged pale yellow ; primary -coverts dark brown
narrowly edged green ; greater and median coverts dark brown
edged green and broadly tipped greenish -yellow forming con-
spicuous double wing-bar ; lesser coverts green with brown bases.
This plumage is acquired by complete moult in Aug.-Sept. Sum-
mer.— The body-plumage is moulted in March and April but

PALLAS'S WARBLER. 317

apparently not wing -feathers, wing-coverts or tail-feathers. New
plumage as winter. Tips to wing-coverts frequently become
much reduced by wear during summer.

Nestling.— (Not examined).

Juvenile.— Like adult but crown dark sooty-brown with eye-
stripe and median -stripe much less distinct than in adult and pale
buff not so yellow ; mantle, scapulars and back brown with only
a tinge of green ; rump white tinged buff ; tips of wing-coverts
and edgings of inner secondaries yellowish-buff ; axillaries yellow
as adult but rest of under -parts pale buff.

First winter. — Apparently like adult but tips to wing-coverts
not so yellow — more buffish -white. The juvenile body-plumage
and apparently median and lesser coverts and perhaps some of
the inner greater coverts and innermost secondaries are moulted
in early autumn, but not rest of wings or tail. N.B. No specimen
actually moulting from juvenile to first winter has been available
for examination.

Measurements and structure. — £ wing 49-56 mm., tail 35-42,
tarsus 16-17, bill from skull 8-9 (12 measured). $ wing 47-55.
Primaries. 1st 5-8 mm. longer than longest primary -co vert,
4th and 5th equal and longest, 3rd .5-1.5 shorter, 6th 1-3 shorter,
7th 4-6 shorter, 2nd between 7th and 9th ; 3rd to 6th emarginated
outer webs. Extreme tips of wing- and tail-feathers sharply
pointed as in Ph. h. prcemium. Rest of structure as Chiffchaff.

Soft parts. — Bill dark brown with basal part of lower mandible
yellowish ; legs and feet sepia ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Ph. p. newtoni (Himalayas)
has a deeper yellow eye-stripe and usually 2nd primary is shorter.
Most like Ph. h. prcemium but eye-stripe, stripe down middle of
crown and tips of wing-coverts brighter yellow and easily dis-
tinguished from this and all other British Phylloscopi by its yellow
rump.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Yellow rump at once very obvious except
when wings are closed, but one usually sees it hovering with rapidly
whirring wings searching for insects among outer foliage. This
habit and very small size make it look like a Regulus. When
amongst thick foliage very difficult to find, and must generally first
be located by its small soft — but quite Phyllosc" opine — " weesp >r
(H. Lynes).

BREEDING-HABITS. — A forest breeding form, nesting on boughs
of moss-covered pines at 9-12 ±t. from ground. Nest. — Domed,,
built of green moss and grass, lined feathers. Eggs. — 5-6, white
spotted dark red, generally with zone. Average size from 15 X
10.5 to 14 x 11 mm. Breeding-season. — Mid-June.

FOOD.— Insects, chiefly taken from trees or on the wing. Lynes.
records small diptera and hymenoptera (flying ants).

318

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — One, a female, Cley (Norfolk), Oct. 31,
1896 (T. Southwell, Zool., 1896, p. 466).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeds in east Siberia ; Zarudny found it
passing through quite regularly near Orenburg (Ural), and it has
been obtained on Heligoland. Winters in south China, and probably
also elsewhere. Replaced by allied form in Himalayas.

133. Phylloscopus
WARBLER.

fuscatus (Blyth). — THE DUSKY

PHYLLOPNEUSTE FUSCATA Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, xi, p. 113
(1842 — Calcutta).

Phylloscopus fuscatus (Blyth), Clarke, Scot. Nat., 1913, p. 271.

The Dusky Warbler (Phylloscopus jiwcatus). Natural size.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. — -Winter — Forehead, crown,
mantle, scapulars, and wing-coverts dark olivaceous-brown (often
slightly tinged rufous) ; rump rather paler ; upper tail-coverts
more rufous ; lores and behind eye dark brown ; superciliary
stripe (from nostrils to nape) rufous-buff paler in front of eye ;
ear-coverts and sides of neck same mottled dark brown ; centre
of throat and belly whitish ; sides of throat, breast, and under
tail -coverts rufous-buff ; flanks darker washed greenish-brown ;
axillaries and under wing-coverts bright pinkish-buff ; tail and
wing-feathers dark brown with outer webs more rufous and fringed
very pale pinkish-buff on inner webs and narrowly fringed same
on outer webs of outer primaries. This plumage is acquired by
complete moult Sept .-Oct. Summer. — The body -leathers and
innermost secondaries are moulted in March and April but apparently
not tail and rest of wing -feathers. Coloration as winter.
Nestling. — (Not examined).

THE DUSKY WARBLER. 319

Juvenile. — Much resembling adults but greyer on breast, not
so buff on flanks, eye-stripe and ear-coverts greyer not so buff.

First winter male and female. — Resembling adults but more
yellowish on centre of throat and belly and has a yellowish rather
than rufous tinge on rest of under -parts. The juvenile body-
feathers are moulted Aug. but apparently not wing-coverts, wing-
feathers or tail. Summer. — Like adults and same moult.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 56-64, mm., tail 44-52,
tarsus 20-22, bill from skull 11-13. (12 measured.) $ wing 53-61.
Primaries : 1st about twice primary-coverts and half 2nd primary,
2nd between 8th and 10th (very seldom so long as 8th), 4th and
5th about equal and longest, 3rd and 6th 1-3 mm. shorter, 7th 5
shorter, 8th 7 shorter ; 3rd to 6th emarginated outer webs. Rest
of structure as Chiff-chaff.

Soft parts. — Bill, upper mandible dark brown, lower yellow ;
legs and feet yellowish-flesh ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Long first primary, rufous-
buff eye-stripe and under-parts and dark flanks are distinctive.
Ph. homeyeri (Kamtschatka) is similar but has darker and less
rufous upper-parts and less rufous eye-stripe and cheeks and pro-
bably should be treated as a subspecies. Closely resembling Herbivo-
cula schwarzi in structure but bill finer, tail-feathers not so pointed
and tarsus more slender, also in colour but usually more rufous.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds near water, on ground or a foot or so
above it. Nest. — Domed built of dead grasses and moss and lined
freely with feathers. Eggs.- — 5-6, white without gloss, 18 X 12.5
to 15.3 X 12.5 mm. Breeding-season. — Mid-June.

FOOD. — Small insects recorded by Lynes.

DISTRIBUTION. — Scotland. — One, a female, Auskerry (Orkney),
Oct. 3, 1913 (ut supra}. England.— One, West St. Leonards
(Sussex), Oct. 18, 1916 (J. B. Nichols, Brit. B., XL, p. 45).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeds from Yenisei eastward to Sea
of Okhotsk, and from Mongolia and Manchuria northwards
probably to about lat. 64° N. On migration, occurs in China,
Japan and Mongolia, wintering in Formosa, south China, Burma,
Assam, Nepal, Tenasserim. and plains of northern India.

Genus HERBIVOCULA Swinh.

HERBIVOCULA Swinhoe, Prpc. Zool. Soc. London, 1871, pp. 353, 354
(Monotype : H. flemingi= schwarzi).

Near Phylloscopus, but bill stronger, short and thick, tarsi
and feet stronger, rictal bristles more distinct. 1st primary long
and wide, quite twice as long as primary-coverts and about half

320 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

as long as 2nd, which is generally between the 7th and 8th or 8th
and 9th, or merely as long as 9th. 4th and 5th primaries longest
and nearly equal, 3rd only a little shorter. Tail slightly rounded.
Tarsi covered in front with lamina divided into a few long scutes,
which in old birds are obsolete. Colour like Reed-Warbler. Sexes
alike. One species. Distribution see under H. schwarzi.

HERBIVOCULA SCHWARZI

134. Herbivocula schwarzi (Radde). — RADDE'S BUSH-
WARBLER.

SYLVIA (PHYLLOPNEUSTE) SCHWARZI Radde, Reise Siiden v. O. Sibirien,
n, p. 260, pi. ix (1863 — Tarei Nor and Bureja Mountains).
Lusciniola schwarzi (Radde), Saunders, p. 73*.

O

O

A. Radde 's Bush- Warbler (Herbivocula schwarzi)

B. The Duaky Warbler (Phylloscopus juscatus).

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Whole crown
brown sometimes tinged olive ; mantle, scapulars and rump olive
to olive-brown ; upper tail -co verts brown tinged rufous ; prominent
stripe over and behind eye pale buff or cream ; lores and ill-defined
streak behind eye dark brown ; under eye and ear -coverts pale
brown speckled pale buff or pale yellowish ; chin and throat pale
buff to white ; upper-breast pale brown to tawny-buff ; flanks
and under tail-coverts tawny-buff to bright buff ; centre of breast
and belly white often tinged pale yellow and sometimes rather
brighter yellow ; axillaries and under wing-coverts bright buff ;
tail -feathers brown ; wing-feathers dark brown, inner webs narrowly
fringed dull white, outer webs fringed olive-brown to more rufous-
brown ; all wing-coverts olive-brown. This plumage is acquired by
complete moult in early autumn. Summer. — -Apparently no moult.
Abrasion gradually makes upper-parts more greyish-brown and
under-parts paler and whiter.

RADDE'S BUSH-WARBLER. 321

Nestling and Juvenile. — (Not examined.)

First winter. — Those specimens with a considerable amount
of yellow on under -parts may be first winter birds, but as no juvenile
and no moulting birds of any age have been available for exami-
nation it is impossible to say for certain.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 58-67 mm., tail 47-59,
tarsus 21-23, bill from skull 10.5-11 (12 measured). $ wing 56-
64. Primaries : 1st about twice as long as primary -co verts and
half as long as 2nd primary, 2nd between 8th and 10th usually
equals 9th, 4th and 5th longest, 3rd and 6th 1-2 mm. shorter,
7th 3-5 shorter ; 3rd to 6th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries
about equal 10th primary, tips pointed. Tail slightly rounded
laterally, outer pair of feathers being 3-5 mm. shorter than central,
twelve feathers, tips decidedly pointed. Under tail -co verts about
half as long as tail. Bill rather broadened at base, compressed
and strong at tip. A few fairly strong rictal bristles and some
shorter nasal bristles. Nostrils uncovered.

Soft parts. — Bill : upper mandible brown, lower pale yellowish-
flesh ; legs and feet yellowish-flesh ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS. — No subspecies. Much resembling Phylloscopus
fuscatus but bill and legs noticeably stouter, tail-feathers more
pointed, rictal bristles stouter, tail usually longer.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nest and Eggs unknown.

FOOD. — Probably insects, but definite information lacking.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — One, North Cotes (Lines.), Oct. 1, 1898
(G. H. Caton-Haigh, Butt. B.O.C., vin, p. vi.).

DISTRIBUTION.— Abroad.— East Siberia, wintering in south China,
Pegu, and Tenasserim.

Genus CETTIA Bp.

CETTIA Bonaparte, Comp. List B. Europe and N. Amer., p. 11 (1838 —
Monotype : G. cetti, the two supposed species mentioned being the same).

At once recognizable by strongly rounded tail in which lateral
rectrices are much shorter than middle pair ; moreover, tail con-
sists only of ten broad and soft rectrices ; under tail-coverts cover
about two-thirds of tail. Plumage very soft and long. Bill thin,
narrow, and pointed, only some short and fine rictal bristles.
Wings not very long, rounded ; first primary broad, about half
as long as second, which is hardly longer than secondaries and
generally between the 10th and llth, or equal to the llth or 12th.
Sexes alike. Nest a deep cup, eggs brick-red. One species.

Y

322

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

CETTIA CETTI

135. Cettia cetti cetti (Temm.) — CETTI'S WARBLER.

SYLVIA CETTI Temminck,* Man. d'Orn., 2nd ed., i, p. 194 (1820 — Sardinia).
Cettia cetti, Nicoll, Bull. B.O.C., xrv, p. 84 ; Saunders, Brit. B., i, p. 9.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female.
Winter. — Whole upper-parts uniform dark
chestnut -brown, crown and nape usually
less rufous than mantle, rump and upper
tail-coverts ; narrow stripe from nostrils,
over and behind eye dull white ; lores
dark brown ; ear-coverts and sides of
neck pale greyish-brown ; chin, centre
of throat, breast and belly dull white ;
sides of throat and breast greyish-brown ;
flanks and under tail - coverts darker
brown, latter tipped with dull white ;
under wing - coverts greyish - white and
pale brown ; axillaries pale greyish-brown
tipped greyish-white ; tail-feathers dark
brown, outer webs fringed chestnut-brown ;
wing-feathers same but inner webs nar-
rowly fringed whitish ; all wing-coverts
dark brown fringed and tipped chestnut- (Cettiac. cetti). Tail from below.
brown. This plumage is acquired by

complete moult in late summer. Summer. — A moult confined to
the body, lesser and median wing-coverts, inner greater coverts
and innermost secondaries takes place in March, but some
individuals do not seem to moult at all in spring.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like adult but slightly less chestnut on upper-
parts, white of under -parts rather duller.

First winter. — Like adults. The juvenile body-plumage
and wing-coverts are moulted in July and August, but not primary-
coverts, wing or tail-feathers.

Measurements and structure— <$ wing 58-66 mm., tail 57-65,
tarsus 21-24, bill from skull 12.5-14 (12 measured.) $ wing 54-60.
Primaries : 1st broad, 9-12 mm. longer than longest primary-
covert and about half as long as 2nd primary, 2nd equal to or
shorter than 10th, 4th and 5th longest, 3rd and 6th 1 mm. shorter,
7th 2-4 shorter ; 2nd to 6th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries
rather shorter than 10th primary, tips rounded. Tail much rounded.

Cetti's Warbler

* Temminck's name was published Oct. 1820, whereas Marmora's Sylvia
cetti, Mem. Accad. Torino, xxv, p. 254, was published in November or
December, 1820.

CETTl'S WARBLER. 323

ten feathers, two central pairs equal and longest, rest graduated,
outermost being 9-13 mm. shorter than central, tips of feathers,
broad and rounded. Upper and under tail-coverts about half as
long as tail. Bill fine and compressed. A few short, fine rictal
bristles. Nostrils uncovered. Legs and feet strong.

Soft parts. — Bill dark brown with brownish-flesh base of lower
mandible ; legs and feet brownish-flesh ; iris dark sepia.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — C. c. orientalis (Palestine) is
paler, C. c. cettioides (Turkestan, Persia) is larger and paler.
For general characters see generic distinctions.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — More rufous than Nightingale and tail
shorter, broader and graduated. Usually keeps to thick cover
close to water and is shy and difficult to observe. Song immediately
attracts attention — very short and very loud, generally of three
short phrases, it usually surprises one by suddenness of beginning
and abruptness of ending. Alarm note " tchuk " repeated
(H.F.W.).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Haunts banks of rivers, creeks, and swamps
with thick covert of bramble-brakes, tamarisk, reeds or rank
vegetation. Nest. — Often built in dead brambles over water, but
also at times in tamarisk bushes by riversides, or among reeds,
and in rank growth of Epilobium and other marsh -plants. Built
of dead grasses, leaves, etc., with a neat cup lined fine grasses and
hair, sometimes feathers. Eggs. — 4-5, deep brick-red, but fading
to purplish -pink. Average of 100 eggs, 18 x 13.9 mm. Breeding-
season. — Last week April and early May : apparently second
brood about end May or early June at times.

FOOD. — Mainly insects, but Gerbe also records worms and Lynes
found small mollusca (snails), and a few green seeds in stomach
as well as insects.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Three. A male Battle (Sussex) May
12, 1904 (ut supra). A female, Whatlington (Sussex), September 1,
1906 (J. B. Nichols, Brit. B., 1, p. 185). A male, Westfield (Sussex),
June 21, 1916 (G. V. Webster, t.c., X., p. 137).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — South France, Spain and Portugal,
Mallorca, Italy, Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia, north-west Africa,
south-east Europe and Asia Minor to Syria, and apparently Caucasus
and Crimea. Replaced by slightly paler form in Palestine, and by
a still paler and much larger one in Khirgiz Steppes and east Persia
to Turkestan. The form from Mallorca has also been separated,
but is unknown to us, while the supposed Balkan form is not
separable.

Y 2

324 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Genus LUSCINIOLA Gray.

LUSCINIOLA Gray, List. Gen. B., 2nd ed., p. 28 (1841 — Monotype : L.

melanopogon) .

Plumage soft, tail with 12 rectrices, rounded, nearly as long
as wing. First primary less than half 2nd, inner web attenuated
from the middle, much longer than primary-coverts, 2nd much
shorter than 3rd ; 3rd, 4th and 5th about equal and longest. Bill
thin and pointed. Rictal bristles small and not very obvious.
One species in two subspecies. (The other Palaearctic and Indian
species which have been included by Seebohm and recent
ornithologists in this genus differ by having comparatively shorter
wings, more graduated tails and less powerful claws. They cannot
reasonably be separated from the African Bradypterus, which, in
the Catalogue B. Brit. Mus., was placed in another family in another
volume).

LUSCINIOLA MELANOPOGON

136. Lusciniola melanopogon melanopogon (Temm.). — THE
MOUSTACHED WARBLER.

SYLVIA MELANOPOGON Temminck, PI. Col. 245, fig. 2 (1823 — Campagna

near Rome).

Lusciniola m. melanopogon, H. W. Ford-Lindsay, Brit. B., ix, p. 197.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter.
— Forehead, crown and nape black, each feather
fringed chestnut -brown ; mantle and scapulars
chest nut -brown, streaked black ; back, rump
and upper tail -co verts uniform chestnut-brown ;
narrow stripe from nostrils, over and behind
eye white ; lores and under eye black, feathers
tipped whitish ; ear -co verts black-brown ; sides
of neck chestnut -brown ; chin, throat, centre
of belly, axillaries and under wing-coverts
white ; breast, sides, flanks and under tail-
co verts chestnut -buff varying somewhat in
intensity (upper breast with varying number
of narrow brown streaks) ; tail-feathers black- _,

, ,. j i. . . i • -1,11 Moustached Warbler

brown fringed chest nut -brown ; primaries black- (Lusciniola m ^^1^.
brown narrowly fringed on inner webs whitish vogon), tail from below.
and on outer pale brown ; secondaries same
but with more chestnut -brown fringes to outer webs ; primary-
coverts as primaries ; greater and median coverts as second-
aries ; lesser coverts uniform brownish - black. This plumage
is acquired by complete moult in early autumn. Summer. — The
body -feathers are moulted February -March, but not wings or tail.

THE MOUSTACHED WARBLER. 325

Plumage as winter. Abrasion makes crown more uniform black,
mantle more clearly streaked and under -parts whiter, breast
becoming white as throat and belly and faint streaks wearing
completely away.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like adult but brown of upper -parts more tawny
less deep chestnut.

First winter. — Like adult. The juvenile body -plumage is
moulted June -August, but not wing or tail-feathers.

Measurements and structure.— $ wing 53-62 mm., tail 48-55,
tarsus 19-22, bill from skull 12-14 (12 measured). $ wing 52-59.
Primaries : 1st 5-8 mm. longer than longest primary-covert, 4th
and 5th longest, 3rd sometimes as long, but usually 1-2 mm.
shorter, 6th 1-3 shorter, 7th 3-5 shorter, 2nd usually equal to 8th,
occasionally as long as 7th or as short as 9th ; 3rd to 5th emar-
ginated outer webs. Tail much rounded, two central pairs being
longest and rest graduated, outermost 9-11 mm. shorter than
central pair, 12 feathers, tips rounded. Bill fine and compressed.
Two or three short rictal bristles but no nasal bristles. Nostrils
uncovered.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — L. m. mimica (west Turkestan,
Persia), is larger and considerably paler brown on upper-parts and
whiter on under-parts. Superficially somewhat resembles Sedge-
Warbler but crown is blacker, upper -parts more chestnut, eye-
stripe whiter, under-parts more rufous-buff not so yellowish, bill
is more compressed not so flat and wide, first primary is much
larger and wing much rounder, tail-feathers more graduated.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Darker crown and upper-parts contrasted
with prominent white eye-stripe and pure white under-parts
distinguish it from Sedge-Warbler. Also has generally slimmer
appearance and habit of raising tail to vertical position. Song
sweeter, and more refined than Sedge-Warbler's and frequently
opens with a succession of some four musical, high-pitched notes
after manner of Nightingale. Alarm note a jarring rattle (H. Lynes).

BREEDING-HABITS. — A swamp -haunting species, always breeding
over moderately shallow water, nesting in the knots made by
fishermen tying reeds together in Hungary and in small bushes
growing in water or at bases of reed -clumps in Sicily (Lynes).
Nest. — Built of water-grasses, bits of sedge, lined reed-flower,
bents and sometimes feathers. Eggs. — Normally 4-5, rarely
6 and often 3 in late broods. Much like Sedge-Warbler's, but
average lighter : evenly speckled with olive-brown and ashy,
almost obscuring ground, and generally black hairstreak at end.
Average of 90 eggs, 17.8 x 13.1 mm. Breeding -season. — End
April to early June in Hungary : probably early April onwards
in Sicily. Double brooded.

326 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

FOOD. — Little information available, but said to feed on diptera
and small coleoptera.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — One. Male, St. Leonards-on-Sea (Sus-
sex), April 12th, 1915 (ut supra).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeds in south-east Spain, Italy,
Sicily, and Hungary, probably in Dalmatia and Bosnia and perhaps
in south France and Egypt. Hungarian birds winter in Greece.
From Kirghiz Steppes and west Turkestan to Persia replaced by
•an allied race, wintering in India.

Genus LOCUSTELLA Kaup.

LOCUSTELLA Kaup, Skizz. Entw. & Naturl. Syst. Eur. Thierw., pp. 115,
191 (1829 — Type by tautonymy : Sylvia locustella=L. ncevia).

Somewhat resembling Cettia, but differing by having 12 rec-
trices and the plumage less silky. Rictal bristles obsolete, other-
wise much resembling Acrocephalus. Bill slender and pointed.
Under tail-coverts very long, as long as or longer than lateral
rectrices, tail strongly rounded, almost graduated. Sexes alike.
Nine species in Palsearctic region, in winter to tropical Asia, Sunda
Islands and Moluccas, and to Africa. Double moult. Nests on
•or near ground, open, eggs more or less pinkish, spotted.

Key to species of genus LOCUSTELLA.

( Upper-parts distinctly spotted ... 2

1 Upper-parts not distinctly spotted . . L. luscinioides, p. 326

I Rectrices with white tips and black ante-
apical bar from below L. certhiola, p. 328
Rectrices uniform 3

f Wing about 60-66 mm L. ncevia, p. 330

3t Wing about 53-57 mm L. lanceolata, p. 333

LOCUSTELLA LUSCINIOIDES

137. Locus tella luscinioides luscinioides (Savi) — SAVI'S
WARBLER.

SYLVIA LUSCINIOIDES Savi, Nuovo Giorn. Litter, vil, p. 341 (1824 — Pisa).
Acrocephalus luscinioides (Savi), Yarrell, I, p. 389 ; Locustella luscinioides
(Savi), Saunders, p. 91.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 12).— Adult male and female. Winter.— Whole
upper-parts uniform dark reddish -brown, sometimes with an
olivaceous tinge and in certain lights faint, narrow, transverse
bars are observable ; short, indistinct eye-stripe buff ; lores dusky ;

SAVl'S WARBLER. 327

ear-coverts pale brown somewhat speckled with buff ; chin, centre
of throat and centre of belly white or buffish-white ; rest of under-
parts pale reddish-brown, at base of throat sometimes some darker
streaks, tips of under tail-coverts paler ; tail as rest of upper -parts,
but with obsolete transverse bars more easily observable in some
specimens than in others ; wing-feathers and wing-coverts as rest
of upper -parts but inner webs of wing-feathers narrowly fringed
very pale brown. This plumage is acquired by complete moult
in late summer. Summer. — Possibly moults early in year, but no
specimen in moult has been examined. Abrasion has little effect,
but upper -parts become slightly paler and under -parts paler with
white of throat and centre of belly rather purer and more extensive.

Nestling. — A feathered skin has sparse reddish-brown down in
supra-orbital, occipital, humeral and spinal tracts.

Juvenile. — Xiike adult, but rather darker and more reddish
brown on upper parts.

First winter. — Apparently like adult, but no moulting specimen
examined.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 67-71 mm., tail 54-60,
tarsus 20-23, bill from skuU 12-14 (12 measured). $ wing 67-70.
Primaries : 1st minute, 1-5 mm. shorter than primary -coverts,
2nd longest, 3rd .5-3 shorter, 4th 3-6 shorter, 5th 5-9 shorter, 6th
8-11 shorter ; no emarginatioii on outer webs, and no notch on
inner web of 2nd ; outer primaries distinctly curved inwards.
Secondaries about 2 mm. shorter than 10th primary, tips slightly
rounded. Tail much rounded, 12 feathers, two central pairs about
equal and longest, rest graduated, outermost being 14-18 mm.
shorter than central, tips of feathers rounded. Under tail -co verts
very long, reaching beyond the outer tail-feathers. Bill fine and
compressed. Nostrils bare. A few minute rictal bristles. Legs
and feet fairly strong.

Soft parts. — Bill : upper mandible dark brown, lower pale
brown ; legs and feet pale brown ; iris brown.
CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — L. l.fusca (Transcaspia, Turkes-
tan) is considerably paler, less rufous and more tinged olive on
upper-parts and paler and whiter on under -parts. At once dis-
tinguished from other British Locustellce by its uniform upper-
parts. Superficially somewhat resembles Cettia cetti, but tinder-
parts are more rufous, less white and less grey-brown, tail has 12
instead of 10 feathers and wing-formula quite different.
FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Haunts marshes and reed-beds and is not
shy. Male in breeding-season reels for long periods, perched high
up on reed -stem, with widely opened mouth, turning head from
side to side. Can only be confused with Grasshopper- and River-
Warblers, but is at once distinguished from former by uniform
colour of upper-parts and entire absence of spots, and from latter
by absence of throat -streaks (F.C.R.J.).

328 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Haunts lagoons and marshes with thick
growth of reeds, sedge and marsh vegetation. Nest. — Well con-
cealed among masses of dead reed and clumps of sedge, and
invisible from above, built like a tiny Rail or Waterhen's nest of
dried leaves of Glycerium, but not invariably, as some nests are
neatly lined with much finer leaves and marsh grasses. Eggs.—
4 to 6, greyish-white, closely freckled all over with fine spots of
grey- brown and violet shell -marks. Average of 100 eggs 19.7 X
14.5 mm. Breeding-season. — From mid-April in south Europe
through May, but second half of May in central Europe. Probably
double brooded.

FOOD. — Mainly insects and their larvae, especially marsh -haunting
species, coleoptera, lepidoptera, diptera, neuroptera, etc. Small
worms also said to be taken.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Formerly regular summer-resident in
small numbers fens of Norfolk, Cambs., and Hunts., but has not
appeared since 1856. A bird thought to be of this species seen in
Humber district May 24, 1897, and another said to have been seen in
Bucks., and another in Suffolk. One obtained West St. Leonards
(Sussex), May 30, 1916 (J. B. Nichols, Brit. B., X., p. 167).
Scotland. — One obtained and another seen Fair Isle, May 14, 1908
(W. E. Clarke, Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1909, p. 73 ; Studies in
Migration, II, p. 135).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Spain, parts of France, Holland, and
near Geldern in the Rhenish Provinces, Italy, Sicily, Galizia,
Poland, parts of Russia, Hungary, and valley of Danube, also
Egypt, and north-west Africa. Winter-quarters not precisely
known, but recorded Khartoum (in March). Replaced by paler race
in Transcaspia and Turkestan.

LOCUSTELLA CERTHIOLA

138. Locustella certhiola (Pall.)— PALLAS 'S GRASSHOPPER-
WARBLER.

MOTACILLA CERTHIOLA Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso- Asiat., i, p. 509 (1827 —

Transbaikalia).

Locustella certhiola Pall., Grant, Bull. B O.C., xxin, p. 18 ; Barrington,

Brit. B., ir, p. 230.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Fore-head brown,
scarcely streaked ; crown, nape and mantle broadly streaked
brown-black, feather-edges being brown to pale brown on crown and
mantle, and more greyish on nape ; back of neck brown with fewer
streaks ; back and rump rufous-brown, sometimes without streaks
but usually with a few ; upper tail-coverts rufous-brown, usually
with somewhat drop-shaped black mesial streaks, but occasionally

Plate 12.

(HALF NATURAL SIZE.)

1, Savi's Warbler (Locust etta 1. luscinioidet). 2, Grasshopper- Warbler (L. n. n(evia)g summer.

3, 1.anceolated Warbler (L. lanceolata) <y summer. 4, .Barred Warbler (Si/Ma n. nisori*)<$ 1st

winter. 5, Orphean Warbler (S. h. hortensis) <$. 6. Garden-Warbler (S. borin). 7, Blackcap

(S.a.atricapittrtg.

[Face j>. 328.]

PALLAS 'S GRASSHOPPER-WARBLER. 329

almost without streaks ; distinct stripe trom nostrils over and

behind eye creamy -white ; lores dark brown, tipped greyish-white ;

under eye and lower part of ear-coverts creamy-buff, minutely

spotted dark brown, upper-part

of ear-coverts brown ; chin,

throat, centre of breast and bell} ,

axillaries and under wing-coverts

white, often with some minute

black spots on sides of throat

and on upper-breast and very

occasionally on centre of throat ;

upper-breast, sides and flanks

buff (occasionally one or two

short black streaks on flanks) ;

under tail-coverts same with

whitish tips ; tail : central pair

brown with small greyish-white

tips, divided by brown-black

shaft-line and with a brown- Pallas's Grasshopper-Warbler

black wedge-shaped penultimate (Locustella certMola) . Tail from below.

mark, rest with larger dull white

tips and the black extended over most of the feathers in the shape
of wide, coalesced bars, leaving only edges brown ; wing-feathers
dark brown, narrowly edged on inner webs dull white and on outer
webs pale reddish-brown, 1st and 2nd primaries with outer edge
brownish-white, innermost secondaries brown-black, evenly mar-
gined with pale reddish -brown, becoming whitish on innermost
feather ; all wing-coverts as innermost secondaries but primary-
coverts with very narrow margins. This plumage is acquired by
complete moult August-December. Summer. — The body -feat hers
are probabh moulted in March or April, but no specimens are
available for examination. In May specimens the body-feathers
appear to be new. Coloration as winter on upper-parts, but chin,
throat and middle of breast and belly purer white, contrasting
more strongly with huffish-brown sides and flanks.

Nestling. — (Not examined).

Juvenile. — Upper-parts as adult, but with rather a more
narrowly streaked appearance, especially on rump ; under-parts
suffused with pale yellow, sides of throat, lower -throat and upper
breast with numerous short (rather spot-like) black-brown streaks
flanks usually also with some similar streaks : tips of tail-feathers
smaller and less white, margins of innermost secondaries duller,
not so whitish.

First winter. — Like adult, but dark streaks on upper-parts
slightly narrower and pale edgings slightly broader ; under-parts
sometimes tinged pale yellow ; margins of innermost secondaries
as in juvenile. The juvenile body-plumage, lesser and median
wing-coverts, and sometimes in any case the tail-feathers are

330 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

moulted August-December, but not wing-feathers or primary-
coverts, and apparently not greater coverts. Summer. — Probably
a moult in March and April, after which it would appear to become
indistinguishable from adult. No spring moulting specimens,
however, have been available.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 61-68 mm., tail 49-54,
tarsus 20.5-23, bill from skull 12-14.5 (12 measured). $ wing
59-65. Primaries : 1st equal to or 1-2 mm. shorter or longer than
primary-coverts, 3rd longest, 2nd and 4th 2-4 shorter, 5th 3-6
shorter, 6th 5-10 shorter ; 3rd emarginated outer web and distinct
notch on inner web of 2nd. Outer primaries slightly curved, but
not so much as in L. luscinoides. Secondaries slightly shorter than
10th primary, tips rounded. Tail as L. luscinoides, but tips of
feathers more pointed. Rest of structure as L. luscinoides.

Soft parts. — Bill black- brown, basal portion of lower mandible
flesh-brown ; legs and feet pale flesh-brown ; iris reddish -brown.

CHARACTERS. — No subspecies. Easily distinguished from other
British Locustellce by whitish tips to tail-feathers.

'BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests much like our Grasshopper- War bier,
in tussocks of grass or rank vegetation in wet and moss-grown
meadows. Nest.— Well concealed in grass, with side entrance ;
built of mosses and grass. Eggs. — Normally 5, but ranging from
4 to 6, thickly covered so as to obscure the ground, with pinkish-
brown spots, occasionally a dark hair-streak. Average of 16 eggs,
18.8 x 13.7 mm. Breeding-season. — June.

FOOD. — Lynes records larvae and small insects in stomach.

DISTRIBUTION. — Ireland. — One. Male, Rockabill Light (Dublin),
Sept. 28, 1908 (ut supra).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Siberia and Altai to Pacific, wintering
in India, Burma, Greater Sunda and Natuna Islands. Once
Heligoland.

LOCUSTELLA N^VIA

139. Locustella nsevia naevia (Bodd.)— THE GRASSHOPPER-
WARBLER.

MOTACILLA NAEVIA Boddaert, Tabl. PI. Enl., p. 35 (1783 — ex Daubenton
pi. 581, 3 : Italy).

Acrocephalus ncevius (Boddaert), Yarrell, i, p. 384 ; Locustetta ncevia
(Boddaert), Saunders, p. 89.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 12). — Adult male and female. Winter. — Whole
upper-parts yellowish olive-brown, each feather with dark broA\ n
central streak ; rump rather less streaked than rest of upper-parts ;
upper tail-coverts more reddish-brown (not so olive) and without

THE GRASSHOPPER- WARBLER. 331

dark streaks ; lores greyish, tipped dusky ; faint, short, pale streak
behind eye ; ear -co verts olive-brown, somewhat speckled yellowish -
buff ; chin and centre of throat, breast and belly white or pale
buffish -yellow ; sides of throat, sides of breast, flanks and band
across upper-breast buff or yellowish-buff ; throat and flanks with
varying amount of dark brown spots and streaks, and often with no
streaks ; under tail-coverts brownish-buff, each feather marked
brown centrally ; axillaries and under wing-coverts pale buff ;
(X.B. Variation in general colours of under-parts and in streaking
is entirely individual) ; tail reddish-brown, with obsolete trans-
verse bars scarcely showing in some specimens but more clearly
in others ; wing-feathers dark brown, outer webs narrowly edged
pale, and slightly reddish, brown, inner webs narrowly edged dull
brownish-white ; all wing-coverts as rest of upper-parts but
usually not quite so olive. This plumage is acquired by co i plete
moult in August-September. Summer. — A complete moult
probably takes place in February or March but no specimens
collected from December to March have been available. In April
specimens the feathers appear to be new.* Coloration as winter.
Abrasion gradually makes upper -parts less olive, and more streaked,
and under-parts paler and less yellowish.

Nestling. — Down, dusky-grey, fairly long and plentiful ;
distribution, inner supra-orbital, occipital, spinal and humeral.
Mouth, inside yellow, olive-green at sides of roof, two black spots
at base of tongue and another at tip, externally gape-flanges
yellowish -white.

Juvenile. — -Like adult but upper-parts more reddish-brown
with scarcely any olive tinge ; buff of under-parts more dusky.

First winter. — Like adult but upper-parts rather browner and
less olive but not so reddish as juvenile ; under-parts varying as in
adult both as regards colour and presence or absence of streaks on
throat and flanks. The juvenile body -plumage, tail-feathers and
apparently lesser and median wing-coverts are moulted August -
October, but not apparently greater wing-coverts, nor primary-
coverts or wing-feathery.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 60-67 mm., tail 51-59,
tarsus 19-21, bill from skull 11.5-13.5 (12 measured). ? wing 59-66.
Primaries : 1st minute, equal to or 1-2 mm. shorter or longer than
primary-coverts, 3rd longest, 2nd .5-4 shorter, 4th .5-2 shorter,
5th 3-5 shorter, 6th 5-8 shorter ; 3rd emarginated on outer web.
Rest of structure as L. certhiola.

Soft parts. — Bill dark brown, lower mandible pale yellowish-
brown ; legs and feet pale yellowish -brown ; iris brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — L. n. straminea (Urals, Trans-

* In L. ncevia straminea there is a complete moult in March-April, and
i t is unlikely that one subspecies moults differently from another.

332 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

caspia, Turkestan) has more olive upper-parts and rather shorter
wing. For differences of L. lanceolata see under that species.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Chiefly a dweller in fens and bogs, but also
frequents gorse-covered commons, heather, and young plantations.
Essentially a skulking creature, creeping like a mouse in tangled
herbage, but readily recognized if seen by its greenish-brown
plumage, streaked dorsally, obscure eye-stripe and rounded tail.
Would often evade notice but for song of male, usually uttered
from top of a bush or twig, a rapid trill, rising and falling, pitched
so high as to be inaudible to some ears, and often maintained with-
out a break for two minutes or more. It has some resemblance
to a line running quickly off an angler's reel, and is unlike that of
any other British breeding bird. Alarm-note a sharp " tchick "
repeated several times.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests on edges of thickets on commons or in
clumps of rank grass and rushes in marshes, also in osier beds and
plantations of saplings. Nest. — Usually carefully hidden in
tussock, sometimes on ground or raised a foot or so above it ;
built of dead grasses and stalks, the bird entering and leaving by
a run. Eggs. — Normally 6, very rarely 7, sometimes 5, thickly
spotted with brownish-red on a creamy ground, often forming a
zone and generally with a dark hair-streak. Exceptionally eggs
with large purple-red blotches have been taken. Average of 100
eggs, 17.6 x 13.6 mm. Breeding-season. — About last week of
May as a rule or early June : as eggs have been found late in July
or even August a second brood may sometimes be reared.

FOOD. — Insects and their larvae, including many found on marsh
vegetation ; coleoptera, lepidoptera, diptera, neuroptera, etc.
Saunders says dragon-flies are taken on the wing and Miss Turner
reports young fed on small caterpillars, flies and woodlice.

DISTRIBUTION. — England, Wales, and Ireland. — Summer-resident,
local, but fairly evenly distributed in suitable localities, rare
Cornwall and very local Wales. Scotland. — Local and thinly
distributed in south-west and Clyde area, but breeding at wide
intervals as far north as Arisaig (south-west Inverness) and Skye.
On east side breeds locally as far as Perth, and has been recorded
as nesting at Pitlochry (Perth.), and even as far north as Elgin,
north of which on mainland not noted even as vagrant, but has
occurred four times in spring Fair Isle. Has once occurred as
far west as Skerry vore (off Tiree), but not in 0. Hebrides.

MIGRATIONS. — Great Britain. — Early arrivals in spring of summer-
residents third week April (early date 9) main body begins to arrive
towards end of fourth week, and continues to third week May.
Some evidence of passage-movements by both east and west
coast routes mid-April to mid-May. Departure of summer-residents

THE LANCEOLATED WARBLER. 333

begins early Aug. and lasts to end of Sept. Similar evidence of
east and west coast passage-movements during same psriod, but
mainly during middle fortnight Sept.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Middle and south Europe generally,
north, to south Norway and Finland, south to north Spain, middle
Italy, and Slavonia, wintering in north-west Africa, and probably
south Spain. Replaced by L. n. straminea from Caucasus and
Orenburg to Altai and Turkestan.

LOCUSTELLA LANCEOLATA

140. Locustella lanceolata (Temm.)— THE LANCEOLATED
WARBLER.

SYLVIA LANCEOLATA Temminck, Man. d'Orn., ed. n, iv, p. 614 (1840 —
" Mainz ? " Erroneous locality. Typical locality : Russia).
Locustella lanceolata, Caton-Haigh, Brit. B., in, p. 353.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 12). — Adult male and female. Winter. — Whole
upper-parts brown to yellowish-brown broadly streaked black-
brown ; upper tail-coverts darker brown and more colour of tail,
usually with a few broad black-brown streaks, but sometimes
without streaks ; somewhat indistinct, narrow streak from nostrils
to eye and behind eye cream-colour ; lores and under eye dusky ;
ear -coverts brown somewhat speckled cream-colour ; chin, upper-
throat and centre of belly white tinged sometimes pale yellow and
sometimes pale buff, sometimes a few brown-black spots on chin
and throat ; lower -throat and breast more strongly tinged buff
and with conspicuous, short, brown-black streaks ; sides, flanks
and under tail-coverts huffish -brown with longer and wider brown-
black streaks, longer under tail-coverts, sometimes streaked, often
unstreaked, sometimes only with dark shaft -lines and with whitish
tips ; under wing-coverts and axillaries pale sandy-buff ; tail
dark brown with obsolete transverse bars observable in some
specimens ; primaries and secondaries brown, inner webs narrowly
edged whitish and outer webs pale brown, innermost secondaries
black-brown with narrow pale brown margins ; all wing-coverts
as rest of upper-parts. This plumage is acquired by complete
moult in October-November. Summer. — A complete moult
(including wings and tail) takes place in March-April. Coloration
as winter. Abrasion has little effect, but under-parts gradually
become rather clearer white.

Nestling. — (Not examined).

Juvenile. — Like adult but rather darker upper -parts ; chin
and upper -throat considerably spotted ; streaks on breast rather
thicker than is usual in adults.

First winter. — Like adults. The juvenile body -plumage,
lesser and median wing-coverts and tail are moulted Sept.-Dec.

334 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

(occasionally Jan.) but not wing-feathers, primary-coverts or
greater wing-coverts.

Measurements and structures. — <$ wing 53-59 mm., tail 42-50,
tarsus 18-19, bill from skuU 10.5-12. $ wing 52-58. Primaries :
1st equal to or 1-2 mm. shorter or longer than primary -co verts,
3rd longest, 2nd occasionally equal but usually 1-2 mm. shorter,
4th 1-3 shorter, 5th 3-5 shorter, 6th 4-7 shorter ; 3rd emarginated
outer web. Rest of structure as L. certhiola.

Soft parts. — Bill dark brown, under mandible flesh-brown ;
legs and feet pale yellowish-flesh ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS. — No subspecies. Differs from L. ncevia in being
smaller, upper-parts less olive and more broadly streaked, under -
parts whiter and more streaked, especially on flanks.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds in marshy spots. Nest. — Well hidden
in tussock and invisible from above ; built of dead grasses, and
stalks with moss and leaves in foundation. Eggs. — 5, pinkish in
ground-colour thickly spotted with reddish-brown and grey shell -
marks. Average of 10 eggs, 17.7 X 13.5 mm. Breeding-season.—
May and June.

FOOD. — Probably insects, but definite information lacking.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Three. Male, North Cotes (Lines.),
Nov. 18, 1909 (ut supra] ; one Pentland Skerries (Orkneys),
Oct. 26, 1910; and one Fair Isle, Sept. 9, 1908 (W. E. Clarke,
Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1911, p. 71.)

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — From Kamtschatka and north Japan to
west Siberia, rare in Russia (Onega R.), wintering in south China,
Borneo, Andamans, Burma and India. Accidental Heligoland and
Dalmatia.

Genus ACROCEPHALUS Naum.

ACBOCEPHALXJS Naumann, Naturg. Land.-u. Wasserv. Deutschl., Xach-
trag rv, p. 199 (1811 — Type by subsequent designation: A. arundinaceus).

Containing Reed-, Marsh-, Sedge-, and Aquatic Warblers,
which have been split up into a number of genera, but by no means
consistently. Bill varies from a somewhat broad and depressed
one to a narrow one resembling that of a slender-billed Sylvia.
A few, but distinct and fairly strong, rictal bristles. 1st primary
narrow, stiff, and short, rarely longer than primary-coverts. Tail
of 12 rectrices, well rounded or slightly graduated. Tarsus long,
front generally divided into long scutes, but in old individuals of
most species fused, except at base. Sexes alike, young not con-
spicuously different. Nests open, in most cases suspended on
upright stems of reeds or bushes. Eggs spotted. Insectivorous.
Double moult. Old World, wanting in America.

THE GREAT REED -WARBLER.

Key to species of genus ACROCEPHALUS.

Top of head uniform 2

Top of head streaked 5

Much larger, wings over 80 mm. . . ^
Much smaller, wings under 80 mm. . 3
2nd primary shorter than 5th ....
2nd primary longer than 5th ... 4

Attenuation of inner web of 2nd primary begins
between tip of secondaries and 8th primary .

Attenuation of inner web of 2nd primary begins
before tip of 8th

A. arundinaceus p. 335
A. dumetorum,p. 344

Conspicuous light line along middle of crown,

upper tail-coverts distinctly spotted
No obvious light line along middle of crown,

upper tail-coverts not distinctly spotted . A. schcenobcenus, p. 346

A. scirpaceus, p. 339
A. palustris, p. 342

A. aquaticus, p. 349

ACROCEPHALUS ARUNDINACEUS

141. Acrocephalus arundinaceus arundinaceus
GREAT REED-WARBLER.

(L.)— THE

TUKDUS AETJNDINACEUS Linnaeus, Syst. Kat., ed. x, i, p. 170 (1758 —
ex Klein : Danzig).

Acrocephalus arundinaceus (Linnaeus), Yarrell, i, p. 364 ; Acrocephalus
turdoides (Meyer), Saunders, p. 83.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male
and female. Winter. —
Whole upper -parts warm
olive-brown, crown darker,
and back, rump, and upper
tail-coverts more tawny -
brown ; narrow stripe from
nostrils, over and behind
eye cream-colour ; lores
and ear-coverts brown ;
chin, throat, and centre of
belly white with varying
number of narrow brown

shaft -streaks on feathers of lower-throat but sometimes these
are absent ; rest of under -parts, including under tail -co verts,
under wing-coverts and axillaries creamy- to tawny buff, darkest
on flanks ; tail brown with narrow whitish tips ; wing-feathers
dark brown with small whitish tips and outer and inner webs
narrowly edged pale brown ; all wing-coverts as upper- parts
with rather paler edges. This plumage is acquired by com-
plete moult in Aug.-Nov. Summer — A complete moult (including

Great Eeed- Warbler
(Acrocephalus a. arundinaceus).

336 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

wings and tail) takes place Jan.-March. Plumage as winter, but
streaks on lower-throat and upper-breast usually more numerous
and prominent. Abrasion makes upper-parts more greyish-brown
and under-parts whiter. N.B. In some individuals the wings
and tail seem not to moult in autumn and in some they appear not
to moult in spring ; it is possible therefore that the wings and tail
only moult once a year.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Much like adult but more yellowish tawny-brown
on upper-parts especially on rump ; tips of tail-feathers and edges
of secondaries and wing-coverts also more tawny ; chin and throat
tawny-buff not white and without streaks ; rest of under-parts
as adult but rather more tawny-buff.

First winter. — Differs from adult as the juvenile, rump
especially being more yellowish than adult, chin and throat white
but unstreaked. The juvenile body-plumage and lesser wing-
coverts are moulted July-Sept, (often not completely) but not rest
of wings or tail. Summer. — A complete moult (including wings
and tail) takes place Jan.-March and after this they become like
adult.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 90-103, tail 68-81, tarsus
27-31, bill from skull 21-24 (12 measured). $ wing 88-94.
Primaries : 1st minute, half to three-quarters as long as primary-
coverts, 3rd longest, 2nd .5-3 mm. shorter, but exceptionally equal
to 3rd, 4th 2-4 shorter than 3rd (always shorter than 2nd), 5th
5-7 shorter, 6th 9-11 shorter ; 3rd emarginated on outer web, 2nd
Avith notch on inner web. Secondaries 2-3 mm. shorter than 10th
primary, tips rounded. Tail rounded, 12 feathers, central pair
longest, rest graduated, outermost being 8-12 mm. shorter than
central, tips of feathers rounded, but sometimes inclined to be
pointed. Under tail-coverts about three-fourths as long as outer
tail-feathers. Bill very strong, broad at base, tip of upper mandible
slightly hooked and projecting. Nostrils mostly bare. Three
(occasionally four) strong rictal bristles on each side.

Soft parts. — Bill : upper mandible and tip of lower dark brown,
rest of lower pinkish-flesh ; legs and feet pale brownish-grey ;
iris yellowish -sepia.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — For differences of A .a. orientalis
see under that form, A. a. zarudnyi (Transcaspia, Turkestan) is
more olive on upper-parts and paler on underparts. A. stentoreus
stentoreus (Egypt, Palestine) has 2nd primary shorter than 5tv,
3rd and 4th are emarginated on outer webs, and 2nd and 3rd have
notch on inner webs, A. s. brunnescens (Transcaspia, Turkestan,
Persia) is similar to last but paler and with a shorter and thicker bill.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Habits and coloration much as Reed -War bier,
but at once distinguished by large size. Song uttered from reeds or

THE EASTERN GREAT REED-WARBLER. 337

occasionally from low tree near reeds, is very loud and guttural
and almost frog-like — " karra, karra, karra, keek " (H.F.W.).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Usually found in reed-beds or sallow bushes
mixed with reeds. Nest. — Built round reed-stems growing in
water or among branches of sallows at varying heights, often 2 to
4 ft. from water but exceptionally as much as 8 ft. above it. Like
Keed-Warbler's but much larger, built of reed and sedge leaves,
roots, etc., lined reed flowers, down, occasionally hairs or feathers,
with deep cup. Eggs. — 4 to 6, ground bluish or greenish, boldly
blotched with dark umber or blackish and ashy shell -marks.
Average of 100 eggs, 22.5 x 16.2 mm Nesting-season. — From mid-
May in south Europe and about second week in June in central
Europe. Incubation.— About 14 days. One brood.

FOOD. — Marsh-haunting insects and their larvae : coleoptera
(especially Donacia), neuroptera (Odonata, Perlidae, Ephemeridse,
etc.) and diptera. Also aphides, spiders (up to great size according
to Lynes), and jelly-like substance, probably eggs of Limncea
stagnalis (Saxby). Said also to take elder and other berries in
autumn (Naumann).

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — About ten authentic occurrences besides
other unsubstantiated records. Near Newcastle (Durham), May
28, 1847 ; Sittingbourne, May 4, 1853, and Wingham (Kent), Sept.
14, 1881 ; Godalming (Surrey), spring, 1858 ; Ellesmere (Salop),
about 1886; one heard Tetney (Lines.), July 28th, 1897:
Kingwood, June 3, 1884, and Christcburch (Hants.), May 10, 1900 ;
St. Leonards, Sept. 25, 1903, and Sept. 12, 1906, and Bexhill
(Sussex), May 1, 1905 ; one seen Horning (Norfolk), Aug. 1906.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Middle and south Europe to north-west
Africa, eastwards at least to the Ural and (locally) west Siberia,
north to Baltic and Russian Baltic provinces, rare visitor to south
Sweden. Winters in tropical Africa south to Natal ; in Persia on
migration. Accidental Canaries. Replaced by another race from
Volga delta eastward to Transcaspia and Turkestan and by A. a.
orientalis in south-east Siberia, north China, Japan, and Corea.

142. Acrocephalus arundinaceus orientalis (Temm. & Schleg.)
—THE EASTERN GREAT REED-WARBLER.

SALICABIA TURDINA ORIENTALIS Temminek & Schlegel, Siebold's Fauna
Japon., Aves, p. 50, pi. xx B (1847 — Japan, Borneo, Celebes, Sumatra).
Acrocephalus arundinaceus orientalis, J. B. Nichols, Brit. B., x, p. 254.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter and summer. —
Like A. a. arundinaceus and not to be distinguished by colora-
tion. Complete moult July-December. Spring moult Feb.-April

7

338

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

confined to body-feathers, and in no case have wing-feathers or
wing-coverts been found moulting, but in two examples new tail-
feathers were growing.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

A ORIENTALIS.

Juvenile and first winter. — As described under A. a. arun-
dinaceus.

Measurements and structure. — Wing shorter than in A. a.
arundinaceus, 4th primary equal to or longer than 2nd, never
shorter than 2nd as in A. a. arundinaceus. <$ wing 80-92 mm., tail
66-77, tarsus 27-30, bill from skull 21-24 (12 measured). $ wing
77-84. Primaries : 1st minute, half to three-quarter as long as
primary -coverts, 3rd longest, 2nd 1-4 mm. shorter, 4th occasionally
equal to 3rd, but usually 1-2 mm. shorter, usually longer than 2nd,
but occasionally equal, never shorter, 5th 2-5 shorter, 6th 5-8 shorter.
Rest of structure as in A. a. arundinaceus.

Soft parts. — As in A. a. arundinaceus, but legs and feet lead-
grey or bluish -grey.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Haunts reed-beds like western race. Nest. —
Very similar to that of Great Reed-Warbler, built around two or
three reed-stems, growing in water. Eggs.— 4-5, rarely 6 ; also
similar but smaller on average, somewhat dingier in colouring, with

THE REED-WARBLER.

339

browner ground-colour and less blue, and markings smaller. Average
of 42 eggs, 21.4 x 15.5 mm. Breeding-season. — June.

FOOD. — Probably very similar to that of the western race, but
little exact data available. Lynes found beetles in stomach.

at West St. Leonards-on

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — One. Male
Sea (Sussex), Aug. 24, 1916 (ut supra).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeds in south-east Siberia, west as
far as the Argun River, in the oases of Central Asian desert, north
and middle China to the Yang-tse-kiang and Fokien, in Corea and
Japan. Migrant, passing through China and wintering as far south
as the Philippine and Sunda Islands and even Celebes and the
Moluccas, west to the Malay Peninsula and Andamans.

ACROCEPHALUS SCIRPACEUS

143. Acrocephalus scirpaceus scirpaceus (Herm.) — THE
REED-WARBLER.

TUBDCTS SCIRPACEUS Hermann, Observ. Zool., p. 202 (1804 — Alsace).
Sylvia strepera Vieillot, Nouv. Diet. d'Hist. Nat., nov. ed., xi, p. 182
(1817— France).

Acrocephalus arundinaceus (Brisson nee Newton), Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B.,
I, p. 367 (erroneous). (See also Fleming, Selby, and others.)
Acrocephalus streperus (Vieillot), Yarrell, I, p. 369 ; Saunders, p. 79
Hand-List B.B., p. 63 (1912).

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and
female. Winter. — Whole upper-
parts warm brown, rather dark
with yellowish -rusty tinge, rump
and upper tail-coverts paler and
more yellowish-rusty ; narrow
and somewhat ill-defined stripe
from nostrils, over and slightly
behind eye whitish cream-colour ;
lores and ear -co verts pale brown ;

chin, throat and centre of belly white ; breast, sides and under tail-
coverts very pale buff ; flanks dark buff ; axillaries and under
wing-coverts bufnsh-white ; tail dark brown with very narrow
whitish-cream-coloured tips and fringes to inner webs ; wing-
feathers darker brown with very narrow pale brown tips and narrow
pale brown fringes to outer webs and whitish fringes to inner webs ;
wing-coverts as mantle. This plumage is acquired by complete
moult June-Sept. Summer. — A complete moult (including wings
and tail) takes place Dec. -Jan. New plumage as winter. Abrasion
makes under-parts whiter and upper-parts slightly less tinged with
rust -colour.

Nestling. — Down absent Mouth, inside orange-yellow two

Reed- Warbler ( A. s. sdrpacem).

340 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

long oval, lateral black spots at base of tongue ; externally flanges
pale yellow.

Juvenile. — Upper-parts as adult but more rusty-brown, the
rusty colour being especially noticeable on rump, wing-coverts
and edges of innermost secondaries ; chin and throat dusky-buff
(not white) ; breast, sides and flanks more dusky, not so clear
a buff as in adult ; narrow rusty tips to tail-feathers.

First winter. — Like adults and very difficult to distinguish,
but usually more rusty-brown on upper-parts and also on edges
of innermost secondaries and greater coverts ; under-parts a shade
darker buff, but these differences disappear by abrasion. The
juvenile body-plumage and apparently lesser and median wing-
coverts are moulted July-Sept.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 62-70 mm., tail 49-55,
tarsus 23-24, bill from skull 15-17. $ wing 62-68. Primaries :
1st equal to, or 1-2 mm. shorter than primary-coverts, 3rd longest,
2nd 1 .5-3 shorter (often equal to, sometimes shorter than and more
rarely longer than 4th, exceptionally equal to 5th) 4th 1-3 shorter,
5th 3-5 shorter, 6th 5-8 shorter ; 3rd emarginated outer web, very
rarely an indication of emargination on 4th ; 2nd with a notch on
inner web falling usually between tip of 8th primary and tips of
secondaries but very rarely as high as tip of 7th primary. Outer tail-
feathers 5-8 mm. shorter than central. Tips of tail-feathers in-
clined to be pointed. Bill rather wide and flat at base, compressed
and thin at tip. Otherwise as A. a. arundinaceus.

Soft parts. — Bill : upper-mandible dark brown, under -mandible
pale flesh, sometimes yellowish ; inside mouth orange ; legs and
feet brown ; iris pale brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — A. s. macronyx (Transcaspia,
Turkestan, Persia) is considerably paler and less reddish-brown on
upper-parts and paler (less buff) on under-parts. For differences
of A. palustris and A. dumetorum see " Description " and " Measure-
ments and structure " under those species.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Seldom leaves cover of reed -beds, or osier-
beds and riverside bushes which to a lesser extent constitute its
haunts, among which it moves about with restless activity. Uniform
brown upper -parts tinged with chestnut, nearly white under-parts,
and obscure pale eye-stripe render it almost indistinguishable in
field from rarer and more local Marsh-Warbler, which however
frequents swampy thickets of meadowsweet and rank herbage rather
than reed-beds. Song, uttered by day and night, is a babbling
chatter, " churra, churra, churra," followed by a variety of rapid
notes, far less melodious and imitative than song of Marsh-Warbler
and lacking harsh notes of Sedge -War bier. Call-note, " turr."
Alarm-note a low croak.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Generally breeds in reeds on edge of stream

THE REED-WARBLER. 341

or in osiers, but occasionally in hedges or bushes at considerable
distance from water. Also in rank marsh vegetation, nettles,
willow herb, etc. Nest. — Cylindrical in shape, with deep cup,
built on to and around reeds or branches, of grasses, Confervce, reed-
flowers, etc., lined variously with grasses and feathers, wool, hair,
reed-tops, etc. Eggs. — Normally 4, occasionally 5, very rarely 6,
greenish-white, blotched and marbled to varying degree with dark
olive and ashy -grey. Varieties with almost white ground, boldly
spotted, also with dark zone or brown caps recorded. Average
of 100 British eggs, 18.3 X 13.6 mm. Breeding-season. — Variable,
most birds lay in June, but a few in latter half May. Second brood
apparently sometimes reared, as eggs taken in August.

FOOD. — Aquatic or marsh -haunting insects and their larvae, chiefly
diptera, neuroptera (smaller dragon-flies, stone-flies, etc.), lepidop-
tera, and coleoptera (especially Donacia). Spiders and aphides are
also eaten, and according to Saunders slugs and worms. Also small
molluscs (Helix) in stomach (Oldham). Naumann says currants,
elderberries, fruit of bird-cherry and dogwood are also taken.

DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. — Summer -resident. By
nature of its habitat local, but fairly distributed throughout south
and midland England, except in north Devon, Cornwall, and Scilly
Isles, where very rare. In south Wales very local (numerous only
at Llangorse Lake), and not found in Pembroke, and in north Wales
very local and rare except on Salop border, and not recorded
Anglesey. In Derby breeds only in extreme south, but ranges
further north on each side, being found in Lanes, and Yorks., but
very locally, especially in north, where it is rare, but breeds in
small numbers as far as Craven district, Nidd Valley and Ripon
(once in Wensleydale) in west, and Redcar in east. Has been
recorded as nesting once or twice in Lake District and Durham,
but otherwise unknown north of Yorks. Scotland. — Fair Isle
(Shetlands) two Sept. 1908, one Sept. 1909, one June 10, 1914.
Auskerry (Orkneys) one Sept. 1912. Ireland. — One Cooling Bank
Lightship (Wicklow), Nov. 3, 1907. One Rockabill Light (Dublin),
Oct. 20, 1908. Two obtained and three others seen Tuskar Rock
(Wexf ord), Sept .19, 1911, [One said to have been shot near Dublin
1843, and another to have been heard on the Shannon.]

MIGRATIONS. — England and Wales. — Early arrivals of summer-
residents third week April (early date 5th) ; arrival of main body
begins end April or first few days of May and continues to middle
or end of month. No evidence of any passage-movements. Depar-
ture of summer -residents begins early Aug., and lasts to end Sept.
Some evidence of passage -movement down east coast in latter
half Sept. (Late dates, Outer Dowsing Lt.-v. (Lines.), Oct. 6, 1909,
Smalls Lt. (Pembroke), Oct. 17, 1908, Norfolk, Oct. 27, 1909.^

342

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — South Sweden and Russian Baltic
Provinces to Mediterranean and north-west Africa, wintering in
Africa. Accidental Madeira. Replaced by closely -allied form from
Lower Volga to Turkestan.

ACROCEPHALUS PALUSTRIS

144. Acrocephalus palustris (Bechst.) — THE MARSH-
WARBLER.

SYLVIA PALUSTRIS Bechstein, On. Tascfcenb., p. 186 (1803 — Germany).
Acrocephalus palustris (Bechstein), Yarrell, i, p. 373 ; ill, p. viii ;
Saunders, p. 81.

c 4

A. Eeed- War bier (A. s. sdrpaceus). B. Marsh- Warbler (A. palustris). C. Blyth's

Eeed- Warbler (A. dumetorum). Note differences in relative length of 2nd primaries and

position of notch on inner web of this primary.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Very similar
to A. s. sdrpaceus but brown of upper-parts more greenish -oliva-
ceous and without any rusty tinge, rump and upper tail-coverts
paler and more olivaceous than rest of upper-parts but not rust-
coloured as in Reed-Warbler ; narrow edgings and tips of wing-
feathers rather paler and more olivaceous ; buff of under-parts and
especially flanks usually paler and of a more yellowish rather than
rusty shade. This plumage is acquired apparently by complete

THE MARSH-WARBLER. 343

moult in Aug.-Sept., but insufficient material is available to make
certain. Summer. — A complete moult (including wings and tail)
takes place apparently Feb.-Mar., but insufficient material is avail-
able to make certain. New plumage as winter but upper-parts
rather more olivaceous. Abrasion makes upper-parts considerably
paler and more greyish and rump pale earth-brown tinged oliva-
ceous. In worn plumage more distinctly different from Reed-
Warbler which does not become so greyish and is always rusty on
rump.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Specimens considered by their collectors to be of
this species appear to be indistinguishable from juvenile Reed-
Warblers.

First winter. — Apparently like adult, but no specimen in
moult examined.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 66-72 mm., tail 51-56,
tarsus 22-24, bill from skull 14-16 (12 measured). $ wing 64-72.
Primaries : 1st equal to, or 1-5 mm. shorter or 1-2 longer than,
primary-coverts, 3rd longest, 2nd 1-2 shorter (exceptionally
equal to 3rd, usually equal to and very occasionally .5-1 shorter
than 4th, always longer than 5th), 4th 1-2.5 shorter, 5th 4-5 shorter,
6th 6-9 shorter ; 3rd emarginated outer web, no emargination on
4th ; 2nd with a notch on inner web falling between tips of 6th and
8th and exceptionally 9th primaries. Outer tail-feathers 5-8 mm.
shorter than central. Tips of tail-feathers inclined to be pointed.
Bill rather wide and fiat at base, compressed and thin at tip.
Otherwise as A. a. arundinaceus.

Soft parts. — Bill : upper -mandible dark brown, under-mandible
flesh ; inside mouth yellow ; legs and feet brownish-flesh or
yellowish-flesh ; iris olive-brown.

CHARACTERS. — No subspecies. Differs from A. s. scirpaceus in
coloration and in 2nd primary being usually slightly longer com-
paratively and notch on inner web of 2nd primary usually nearer
tip of feather. Differs from A. dumetorum chiefly in slightly longer
wing and tail and in several details of wing-formula (cf. " Measure-
ments and structure ") chief of which are : A. palustris 2nd
primary longer, 4th and 5th shorter, 3rd only emarginated not 4th
or 5th, 2nd only with notch on inner web and this is much nearer
tip of feather.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Bears close resemblance to Reed-Warbler
and is often found in similar localities, but has a different carriage.
Pale flesh-coloured tarsus of Marsh-Warbler is much lighter than
slate-brown of Reed, and upper-parts are a colder more olive brown.
By far the best field-character, however, is striking and melodious
song of male, which differs widely from the well-known jerky song
of Reed-Warbler, being infinitely superior, taken in quick time and
including imitations of many other species (F.C.R.J.).

344 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Haunts osier-beds and banks of streams, but
also tangled hedge-bottoms, edges of cornfields, etc., not necessarily
near water. Nest. — Shallower and more War bier -like than that
of Reed -War bier, and fixed by " basket -handles " to supporting
vegetation ; built dry grasses, lined roots and few hairs, and
fastened to willow herb or other plants at about 2 to 4 ft. above
ground. Eggs. — 4 or 5, very rarely 6 ; ground bluish or greenish-
white, rather scantily and boldly spotted and blotched with olive-
brown and ashy shell-marks, as well as fine blackish specks.
Average of 22 British eggs, 18.9 X 14.1 mm. Breeding -season. —
About second or third week of June in England. Single-brooded.

FOOD. — Marsh -haunting insects and their larvae : diptera, neurop-
tera, lepidoptera, coleoptera, etc. Also aphides and spiders.
According to Naumann berries are also taken (currant, elder,
bird -cherry and dogwood).

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Summer-resident arriving late May or
early June. Apparently scarce and local, but distribution still
not well known. Has been recorded as nesting in : Somerset,
several districts regularly ; Dorset, 1897, (?) 1908, 1917 (probably),
1919 ; Wilts., once, 1900 ; Hants., 1907 and twice previously ;
Sussex, twice, 1903, 1917 ; Kent, twice, 1905 and 1909 ; Surrey,
once, 1907 ; Gloucester, frequently ; Oxon., annually for several
years ; Bucks., once, 1909 ; Berks., twice, 1918 ; Hunts., once,
1917 ; Cambs., 1909 and once previously ; Norfolk, possibly once
about 1880 ; Staffs., 1914, 1916, 1918 ; Warwick, 30 or 40 years ago
and 1917 ; Worcester, in some numbers. Scotland. — Vagrant,
one St. Kilda (0. Hebrides), Sept. 1910 ; Fair Isle (Shetlands) one,
Sept. 1906, one June 1913, one June 1914.

DISTRIBUTION — Abroad. — Europe from Denmark and Russian
Baltic Provinces to south Spain (?), Italy, Montenegro, and Bulgaria,
east to Ural (Orenburg) and Caspian Sea. Winters in Africa,
south to Natal and Pondoland.

ACROCEPHALUS DUMETORUM

145. Acrocephalus dumetorurn Blyth— BLYTH 'S REED-
WARBLER.

ACROCEPHALUS DUMETORUM Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, xvm, p. 815
(1849 — New name for the Sylvia montana or Acrocephalus montanusoi
Indian authors, which had been erroneously identified with Horsfield's
Sylvia montana — India).

Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth, W. E. Clarke, Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1911,
p. 70.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Coloration like
A. palustris and very difficult to distinguish but usually rather

BLYTH'S REED-WARBLER. 345

darker, more earthy-brown and less olivaceous on upper -parts, but
often no distinguishable difference. (Some undoubted adults are
inclined to be rich brown with a rufous tinge as in adult Reed-
Warbler but are usually somewhat darker.) Under-parts inter-
mediate between A. scirpaceus and A. palustris ; edges and tips of
wing-feathers not so pale as in A. palustris. This plumage is
acquired by complete moult July-No v. Summer. — The body-
feathers, usually lesser and median wing-coverts and occasionally
some greater wing-coverts and the innermost secondary are moulted
Feb.-April. New plumage of upper-parts more olivaceous earth-
brown, not such a rich brown, as in winter. When worn becomes
paler earth-brown, but is always darker than Marsh-Warbler and
without rusty -tinge of Reed -War bier.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Upper- and under-parts much like adult winter
Reed-Warbler ; fringes of wing- and tail-feathers and upper tail-
coverts especially of a decided rusty tinge. Not so rufous as
juvenile or first winter Reed-Warbler. '

First winter. — As adult but rusty fringes of wing- and tail-
feathers distinguish it. The juvenile body-feathers, lesser, median
and greater wing-coverts and innermost secondaries are moulted
Aug.-Sept., but not rest of wings or tail.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 61-65 mm., tail 49-55,
tarsus 20-24, bill from skull 15-16.5 (12 measured). $ wing 59-64.
Primaries : 1st equal to, or 1-2 mm. shorter or 1-3 longer than,
primary -co verts, 3rd and 4th longest (4th very rarely 1 mm. shorter),
2nd 3-5 shorter (sometimes equal to 5th, usually between 5th and
7th, occasionally equal to 7th) 5th '.5-2 shorter (occasionally equal
to 3rd), 6th 2-5.5 shorter ; 3rd and 4th emarginated outer webs,
5th sometimes also emarginated ; 2nd with a notch on inner web
falling short of tips of secondaries, 3rd usually with a less distinct
notch falling between tips of 8th primary and secondaries. Outer
tail-feathers 4-9 mm. shorter than central. Tips of tail-feathers
inclined to be pointed. Bill rather wider at base than either
A. s. scirpaceus or A. palustris, tip compressed and thin. Other-
wise structure as A. a. arundinaceus.

Soft parts. — Bill : upper-mandible dark brown, lower-mandible
flesh ; legs and feet brownish -flesh ; iris pale brown.

CHARACTERS. — No subspecies. Upper-parts usually darker and
more earth-brown and not so rusty as in A. s. scirpaceus nor so
olivaceous as A. palustris, differing from both in details of wing-
formula and emargination of primaries.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Accounts rather contradictory : in India said
to build domed nest of grasses in thick bushes, but in Russia
described as building nest much like Marsh -War bier's, but lined
hair. Eggs. — 4-5, occasionally 6. Variable : some pink ground,

346 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

blotched or spotted pinkish-brown and grey ; others, closely
resembling Marsh-Warbler's ; a third type has ground suffused
brownish -grey with brown and ashy spots, etc. Average of 52
eggs, 17.6 x 13.7 mm. Breeding-season. — June.

FOOD. — Insects, but exact data not available.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Eight or nine. One Fair Isle
(Shetlands), Sept. 29 and 30, 1910 (ut supra) ; one Spurn Point
(Yorks.), Sept. 20, 1912 (J. K. Stanford, Brit. B., vi, p. 217) ; one
Holy Island (Northumberland), Sept. 25, 1912 (H. F. Witherby,
I.e., p. 206) ; four or five single birds Fair Isle, Sept. 24, 26, 29, 30
and Oct. 1, 1912 (Duchess of Bedford and W. E. Clarke, Scot. Nat.,
1913, p. 28) ; one Dudgeon Lt. ship (Norfolk), Oct. 20-21, 1912
(Bull. B.O.C. Mig. Rep. xxxiv, p. 271).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Central Asia from Himalayas north-
ward, to Transcaspia, Altai, Turkestan, west Siberia, and parts of
European Russia. Winters in India, south to Ceylon and Burma.

ACROCEPHALUS SCHCENOB^NUS

146. Acrocephalus schcenobaenus (L.) — THE SEDGE-
WARBLER.

MOTACILLA SCHCENOB^ENUS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 184 (1758 —
" Habitat in Europa." Restricted typical locality : S. Sweden).
Acrocephalus phragmitis, Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B., i, p. 352 ; Saunders,
p. 85.
Acrocephalus schasnobcenus (Linnaeus), Yarrell, I, p. 376.

Moustached Warbler (Lusciniola m. melanopogon) . B. Sedge- Warbler (Acrocepfialus
schcenobcenus). C. Aquatic Warbler (A. aquaticus). From above.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Whole crown
with broad brown-black streaks each feather edged with brown ;
back of neck, mantle and scapulars more uniform brown with much
fewer, smaller and less dark streaks ; back, rump and upper tail
coverts tawny (varying in shade) and uniform save for occasional

THE SEDGE-WARBLER. 347

dark shaft -lines ; broad and distinct stripe from nostrils, over and
behind eye pale cream-colour ; centre of lores dusky ; ear-coverts
yellowish -brown ; chin, centre of throat and centre of breast and
belly white or whitish-cream, breast and sides of throat and under
tail-coverts pale buff to tawny-buff ; exceptionally with a few
dusky spots on sides and base of throat and upper-breast ; flanks
darker and more tawny ; axillaries and under wing-coverts white
or whitish-cream with dusky centres ; tail-feathers dark brown
narrowly edged pale brown ; wing-feathers blackish-brown narrowly
edged on inner webs whitish and outer webs pale brown, tips
whitish-brown, innermost secondaries broadly edged pale brown ;
primary-coverts blackish-brown with very narrow edges and tips
of pale brown ; rest of wing-coverts same but with broad edges and
tips. This plumage is acquired by complete moult July-Aug.
Summer. — A complete moult (including wings and tail) takes place
Jan. -April. New plumage as winter but dark streaks on mantle
rather less prominent and never with spots at base of throat or on
upper-breast but occasionally with a few spots on sides of throat.

Nestling. — Down absent. Mouth, inside orange -yellow, two
black oblong spots situated laterally on tongue-spurs, externally
flanges pale yellow.

Juvenile. — Resembling adult but edgings of feathers of upper-
parts paler and more yellowish -brown especially noticeable on
crown ; back, rump and upper tail-coverts more yellowish, less
tawny ; sides and base of throat and upper-breast more or less
spotted, feathers having small dusky-brown tips ; sides, flanks and
under tail -co verts usually less tawny than adult, but this varies
in shade.

First winter. — Somewhat intermediate between juvenile and
adult. Dark streaks on mantle more prominent than in juvenile
or adult ; brown of upper -parts not usually quite so pale and
yellowish as in juvenile but distinctly more yellowish than in adult ;
base of throat and upper-breast usually spotted as in juvenile but
occasionally without spots ; under-parts (allowing for variation)
usually paler than in adult. The juvenile body -plumage is moulted
July-Sept., but apparently not wing-coverts and not wing- or
tail-feathers. Summer. — Moult as in adult after which resembles
adult.

Measurements and structure.— $ wing 63-71 mm., tail 47-55,
tarsus 21-22.5, bill from skull 13-15 (12 measured). $ wing 63-70.
Primaries : 1st minute, 1-7 mm. shorter than longest primary-
covert, 3rd longest, 2nd 1-2 shorter or equal to 3rd, 4th 1-4 shorter,
5th 4-6 shorter, 6th 7-8 shorter ; 3rd emarginated on outer web ;
2nd with a notch on inner web falling between tips of 7th and 9th
primaries. Tail rounded, 12 feathers, central pair longest, rest
graduated, outermost being 4-8 mm. shorter than central, tips of
feathers inclined to be pointed. Under tail -co verts about three-
fourths as long as outer tail-feathers. Bill rather finer than in

348 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Reed -War bier and not so broad at base. Nostrils mostly bare.
Rictal bristles finer and weaker.

Soft parts. — Bill black-brown with base of lower mandible
yellowish-flesh ; gape orange ; legs and feet pale dun-grey ; iris
brown.

CHARACTERS. — No subspecies. For differences of A. aquaticus
see that species. Black streaked crown and mantle distinguishes
it from other British Acrocephali and small 1st primary from
Lusciniola melanopogon.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — More catholic than Reed -War bier in its
habitat, is often found in hedgerows and tangled vegetation at some
distance from water, though its main haunts are osier-beds and
thickets by waterside. Less skulking in behaviour than Reed-
Warbler and readily distinguished from that species and Marsh-
Warbler by its variegated head and back and distinct eye-stripe.
As loquacious as its congeners, sings by night and day, but song
wants the mellow quality of the Marsh -Warbler's, although equally
imitative, and has harsh notes that the Reed -War bier's lacks.
Alarm -note a low croak.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in rank vegetation ; osier-beds, etc.,
but also in hedgerows and bushes at a distance from water. Nest . —
Generally within a foot or two of the ground, but exceptionally
4 or 5 ft. and even 10 ft. above it. Rather bulky, but not so deep
or cylindrical as Reed-Warbler, moss and dead grasses as founda-
tion arid built of stalks and grass, generally lined hair, occasionally
a few feathers. Eggs. — 5-6, rarely 7, not unlike Yellow Wagtail's,
being so thickly speckled with ochreous that ground is often hidden,
generally a dark hair-streak. A pink type has occasionally been
recorded and white eggs or almost white with few markings occur
exceptionally. Average of 100 eggs, 17.7 X 13.4 mm. Breeding-
season. — About May 20- June 10. Second brood sometimes reared.
Incubation. — Period in incubator, hatched on 15th day (W. Evans).
Fledging-period. — 10 days (Howard) ; 13-14 days (Brock).

FOOD. — Insects and their larvae : diptera, neuroptera, small coleop-
tera. Also aphides, spiders, and according to Saunders small slugs
and worms ; Saxby also mentions small worms and Naumann elder-
berries.

DISTRIBUTION. — England, Wales, and Ireland. — Summer -resident.
Generally distributed. Occasionally occurs in Oct. (probably on
passage) and exceptionally in winter. Scotland. — Generally dis-
tributed but rarer in north, and very rare north-west ; scarce
Orkneys ; only once Shetland, but regular migrant spring, rare
autumn, Fair Isle ; scares breeder in some I. Hebrides, but absent
from others ; very rare vagrant 0. Hebrides (Barra).

THE AQUATIC WARBLER. 349

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Early arrivals of summer -residents
second week April (early date 2nd), main arrival begins last week
April (first week May in some years) and becomes merged in move-
ments of passage-migrants, that last from first week May to first
week June and take place by both east and west coast routes
(Scillies to Solway and Channel to Forth) and northern isles.
Departure of summer-residents begins end July (early date Channel
Islands Lt. 16th), heaviest period latter half Aug. and first half
Sept. Becomes merged into movements of passage-migrants that
begin first week Aug. and last to end Sept. both east and west coast
routes (as spring) being used. (Late dates St. Catherine's Lt. (Isle
of Wight), Oct. 2 ; Eddystone Lt. (Cornwall), Oct. 3 ; Skerries Lt.
(Anglesey), Oct. 6.)

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — From about lat. 70° north in Sweden,
the Murman Coast and Archangel, Ob and Yenisei throughout
western Siberia and Altai Mountains, Russia and Europe, but rare
or absent from Spain and Greece, wintering in Asia Minor and
Africa. Accidental Madeira.

ACROCEPHALUS AQUATICUS

147. Acrocephalus aquaticus (Gm.) — THE AQUATIC
WARBLER.

MOTACILLA AQTJATICA Gmelin, Syst. Nat., i, ii, p. 953 (1789 — No locality
given. Ex Scopoli, who described birds from Carniola or Venetia).
Acrocephalus aquaticus (J. F. Gmelin), Yarrell, i, p. 380 ; Saunders, p. 87 .

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male, and female. Winter. — Broad line down
centre of crown pale yellow-buff, fore-head tawny-buff, sides of
crown brown-black feathers narrowly edged buff ; nape buff
narrowly streaked brown to brown-black ; mantle and scapulars
more tawny-buff or pale tawny-brown and with broader and very
prominent brown-black streaks ; rump same but with narrower
streaks ; upper tail-coverts tawny-brown with dark brown shaft-
streaks ; broad and distinct stripe from nostrils over and behind
eye pale yellow-buff ; lores creamy-white ; ear-coverts pale yellow-
brown streaked brown-black on upper portion ; chin and centre of
belly white to yellowish-white ; sides of throat, breast, flanks and
under tail-coverts pale yellow-buff to pale tawny-buff with varying
number of very narrow dark brown streaks on base of throat,
breast and flanks (but often these streaks are absent) ; under tail-
coverts sometimes with brown shaft-streaks ; axillaries and under
wing-coverts white with dusky centres ; tail-feathers : most of
outer webs and edges of inner webs pale brown or tawny-brown,
centres dark brown ; wing-feathers dark brown narrowly edged on
inner webs whitish and on outer webs pale brown, tips whitish-
brown, innermost secondaries black-brown broadly edged and
tipped yellowish or tawny-buff to pale tawny-brown ; primary-

350 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

coverts black-brown with very narrow edges and tips ot pale brown ;
greater and median coverts as innermost secondaries ; lesser wing-
coverts greyish -bro wn . This plumage is acquired by complete
moult in late June to Sept. Summer. — The body -feathers are
moulted in April but apparently not wing- or tail-feathers nor
wing-coverts. Plumage much as winter but centre of crown and
pale portions of mantle and scapulars more greyish less yellowish ;
under-parts paler buff or cream and brown-black streaks on breast
and flanks much more prominent and more numerous and apparently
never absent. In much worn plumage the upper-parts become
less tawny, more greyish-brown, with heavy dark streaks, and under-
parts become white with dark streaks on upper-breast and flanks
very prominent.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like adult winter, but edges of feathers of crown
and mantle more whitish not so yellowish, and black streaks on
mantle perhaps rather more prominent. Apparently without
streaks on upper-breast.

First winter. — Like adult. The juvenile body-plumage is
apparently moulted in autumn but no specimens in actual moult
have been available.

Measurements and structure. — <§ wing 62-67 mm., tail 48-51,
tarsus 19-22, bill from skull 12-13.5 (12 measured). $ wing 61-64.
Primaries : 1st minute, 1-3 mm. shorter (very exceptionally 1-2
longer) than longest primary-covert, 3rd longest, 2nd equal to or
1 mm. shorter, 4th 1-3 shorter, 5th 3-6 shorter, 6th 6-9 shorter ;
3rd emarginated on outer web ; 2nd with a notch on inner web
falling between tips of 6th to 9th primaries. Outer tail-feathers
8-10 mm. shorter than central. Tips of tail-feathers rather more
pointed than in Sedge-Warbler. Other structure as Sedge -War bier.

Soft parts. — Bill dark brown, basal part of lower mandible
flesh ; legs and feet pale yellowish-flesh ; iris brown.
CHARACTERS. — No subspecies. Conspicuous pale line down centre
of crown distinguishes it from Sedge-Warbler, also streaks on
upper-parts always more prominent, ground-colour being paler,
and rump is distinctly streaked, while tail-feathers are paler and in
summer streaks on breast and flanks prominent.
BREEDING-HABITS. — Little reliable information : nests in marshes
among clumps of sedge or willow bushes, not far from ground.
Nest. — Said to be smaller and deeper than Sedge-Warbler's, built
of grasses and bents, cobwebs and down, lined generally with
horsehair, sometimes feathers. Eggs. — 4 to 6, but little material
available. Closely resemble Sedge-Warbler's, pale yellowish,
closely freckled with brownish -yellow, sometimes a zone at big end
and often a dark hair-streak. Average of 52 eggs, 17.1 X 13 mm.
Breeding-season. — Said to be rather earlier than Sedge -War bier's ;
probably mid-May to June,

GENUS HYPOLAIS. 351

FOOD. — Chiefly insects : diptera, neuroptera, coleoptera (Apion,
Sitones, Phytonomus, Phytobius, Bagous, Lyprus, Galleritca, Donacia,
Cyclonotori) and orthoptera (Forficula). Jackel also records small
mollusca (Planorbis).

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Twenty-one authentic examples ob-
tained, and several others seen, chiefly Sept., but also Aug. and
Oct., as follows : Cornwall (Eddystone), one ; Hants., two ; Isle of
Wight, four ; Sussex, seven and several seen ; Kent, one and several
seen ; Norfolk, five and one seen ; Leicester one. Scotland. —
One Fair Isle (Shetlands) Oct. 23, 1914. Ireland.— One Bull Light
(Cork) Sept. 20, 1903 ; one Tuskar Light (Wexford) Aug. 9, 1913.

DISTRIBUTION.— Abroad. — Central and south Europe (but absent
from south of Balkan Peninsula), and north-west Africa. In south-
east Europe and Egypt on migration ; appears to occur in winter
in north-west Africa, but winter -quarters not known for certain.

Genus HYPOLAIS Kaup.*

HYPOLAIS Kaup.f Skizz. Entw. & Nat. Syst. Eur. Thierw., p. 96 (1829 —
Monotype according to p. 191 : " S. hypolais " ; the diagnosis of the genus
shows that the author by " S. hypolais " meant Hypolais icterina, not the
bird probably named S. hippolais by Linnaeus).

Structurally very close to Acrocephaliis, but tail almost or
quite square. Bill flattened and wide. Sexes alike, young like
old. Nests open. Eggs pink or rosy lilac, spotted. Seven species
in Palaearctic region, three have occurred in Great Britain. Migra-
tory. Double moult.

Key to species of genus HYPOLAIS.

Upperside greenish, underside yellow : . . 2

Upperside brownish, underside whitish H. pattida, p. 356

1st primary stiff er, generally shorter than primary-

2 I coverts, 2nd longer than 5th H. icterina, p. 352

1st primary softer, longer than primary-coverts, 2nd

shorter than 5th H. polyglotta, p. 354

* Phyllopsettsta Billberg, Syn. Faun. Scand., p. 53 (1828 — Monotype
" P. hippolais L.") should be the correct name, according to Mathews, Austr.
Avian Rec., n, p. 46. Billberg's name, however, cannot be accepted, as no
diagnosis is given and Linne's Motacilla hippolais is not the Icterine Warbler !

f In the B.O.U. List of B.B., 1915, p. 78, the name Hypolais is attributed
to Brehm ; Brehm, 1828, however, wrote Hippolais, and his name ia a
" women nudum " ; cf. Opinion 48, Intern. Comm. Nomencl.

352 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

HYPOLAIS ICTERINA

148. Hypolais icterina (Vieill.)— THE ICTERINE WARBLER.

SYLVIA ICTERINA Vieillot, Nouv. Diet. d'Hist. Nat., nouv. ed., xi, p. 194
(1817 — France).

Hypolais hypolais Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B., i, p. 381 ; and others.
Hypolais icterina (Vieillot), Yarrell, i, p. 360 ; Saunders, p. 75.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. —
Whole upper -parts uniform brownish -olive ; stripe
from nostrils to eye and narrow ring round eye
pale yellow ; ear -coverts pale yellowish-brown ;
whole under-parts pale yellow ; sides of breast
and flanks slightly tinged brownish ; axillaries and
under wing-coverts very pale yellow ; tail-feathers
black-brown, outer pair very narrowly bordered
whitish ; rest fringed brownish -olive on outer webs ;
primarie.s and secondaries black-brown, tips and
inner webs narrowly fringed whitish, outer webs very pale olive-
brown ; primary, greater and median coverts dark brown fringed
and tipped as outer webs of secondaries ; lesser coverts olive.
This plumage is acquired by complete moult in July-Sept.
Summer. — A complete moult (including wings and tail, in any case
in some individuals) takes place in Feb. -Mar. New plumage as
winter but upper-parts less brownish and more olive, and under-
parts of a decidedly deeper yellow.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like adult but whole upper -parts brown with only
a tinge of olive ; tail- and wing-feathers and wing-coverts fringed
brown ; sides of breast and flanks browner than adult, rest of under-
parts pale yellow as adult winter.

First winter. — Like adult but upper -parts and wing-coverts
rather less olive and under-parts very pale yellow. The juvenile
body-plumage, lesser and median wing-coverts and innermost
secondaries are moulted in Aug. -Nov., but not rest of wings nor
tail. Summer. — Like adults and moult apparently same but wings
and tail probably always moulted.

Measurements and structure. — ^ wing 76-81 mm., tail 52-56,
tarsus 18-21, bill from skull 12-15 (12 measured). $ wing 72-78.
Primaries : 1st equal to or 1-2 mm. shorter or longer than longest
primary-covert, 3rd longest, 4th occasionally as long but usually
1 mm. shorter, 5th 3-5 shorter, 6th 8-10 shorter, 2nd between 4th and
5th, occasionally equal to 4th ; 3rd and 4th and sometimes 5th
(but not so clearly) emarginated outer webs. Secondaries rather
shorter than 10th primary, tips rounded. Tail fairly square,
tips of feathers rounded. Bill broad and flat at base. A few
rather stiff rictal and nasal bristles. Most of nostrils bare of
feathers.

THE ICTERINE WARBLER. 353

Soft parts. — Bill brown, lower mandible yellow (inside mouth
bright orange) ; legs and feet lead-blue ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS. — No subspecies. 2nd primary being longer than 5th
distinguishes it from H. polyglotta, the only other Hypolais with
yellow under-parts.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — The Icterine and Melodious Warblers attract
attention at once by their peculiar songs and bright yellow colour-
ing of under-parts, which at once distinguish them from all allied
species on British List. Icterine is the larger, and male has an
extraordinary song, uttered with great energy, generally while bird
is in motion among the branches, lacking in melody, made up for
by vehemence (F.C.R.J.).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds in gardens, osier-beds, hedgerows, etc.,
placing neatly built nest in fork of bough, often of lilac, syringa or
osier, from 4 to 8 ft . from ground as a rule . Nest. — Built of vegetable
down, grasses, wool, etc., interwoven with bark-fibre or roots,
decorated outside with birch-bark or bits of paper, and lined grass,
roots and hair, sometimes feathers. Eggs. — 4-5, rarely 6, ground
dull rose or very pale pinkish-violet, sparingly spotted and streaked
black. Average of 142 eggs, 18.3 X 13.4 mm. Breeding-season. —
From end May or early June : mid- June in Scandinavia.
Incubation. — 13 days ; by both sexes.

FOOD. — Chiefly insects and their larvae: coleoptera, diptera, lepi-
doptera (smaller moths), orthopteia (earwigs). Saunders says
" principally insects and small snails," the latter presumably picked
off plants. Ripe fruit (cherries and currants) freely eaten, also
berries of elder and bird-cherry.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Fifteen obtained and others seen,
mostly Sept., but one Aug., three June, two May and one April.
Isle of Wight (St. Catherine's Light) one ; Sussex three ; Kent two
obtained and two seen, and one seen Kentish Knock Lt.-v. ;
Norfolk seven procured, two seen (all north coast) ; Yorks. one
taken, another seen ; Northumberland one. Scotland. — Fair
Isle (Shetlands), one June 1908, three June 1911, five Aug. 1912,
one May 1913, one June 1914 ; Lerwick (Shetland) one May 1910 ;
Pentland Skerries (Orkneys) two June 1914. Ireland. — One
Dunsinea (Dublin), June 8, 1856 ; one Tuskar Rock (Wexford),
Sept. 2, 1914.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Greater part of Europe (except extreme
north, west France, Spain, and Greece), and perhaps north-west
Africa (north Algeria) where however breeding not certain and
probably only late migrant ; wintering in tropical Africa.

2 A

354

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

HYPOLAIS POLYGLOTTA

149. Hypolais polyglotta (Vieill.) — THE MELODIOUS
WARBLER.

SYLVIA POLYGLOTTA Vieillot, Nouv. Diet., nouv. 6d., xi, p. 200 (1817 —

France).

Hypolais polyglotta (Vieillot), Saunders, p. 77.

C 7

A. Icterine Warbler (Hypolais icterina). B. Melodious Warbler (H. polyglotta). C. Olivaceous
Warbler (H. p. dceica). Note difference in lengths of 1st and 2nd primaries.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. — So much like H. icterina
in coloration as not to require separate description. Upper -parts
usually browner and less olive and eye-stripe and under-parts
usually of a deeper yellow. Moults as in H. icterina but in autumn
from Aug.-Oct.

Nestling. — Not examined. Inside mouth orange, two dark
spots at base of tongue (H. Lynes.)

Juvenile. — Very nearly resembling juvenile H. icterina but
upper-parts usually a shade paler and more buffish-brown and
under-parts perhaps rather more creamy.

First winter. — Upper parts darker brown than H. icterina,
under-parts jj<*le creamy -yellow. The juvenile body-plumage
is moulted in autumn but apparently not wing-coverts nor wing-
and tail-feathers. Summer. — Moult apparently as in H. icterina
after which becomes as adult.

THE MELODIOUS WARBLEE. 355

Measurements and structure,— •<$ wing 64-69 mm., tail 49-55,
tarsus 19-22, bill from skull 12-14.5 (12 measured). $ wing 63-66.
Primaries : 1st 2-8 mm. longer than longest primary -co vert, 3rd and
4th longest, 5th occasionally as long, usually .5-2 mm. shorter, 6th
2-5 shorter, 2nd usually between 6th and 7th, occasionally between
5th and 6th or 7th and 8th ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs.
Other structure as in H . icterina.

Soft parts. — Bill dark brown, lower mandible yellowish-
flesh (inside mouth bright orange) ; legs and feet grey, tinged
olive ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS. — No subspecies. 2nd primary being shorter than
5th distinguishes it from H. icterina, besides other differences in
wing -formula and shorter wing.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Lemon -yellow colouring of under-parts dis-
tinguish this species from all allies except Icterine. Melodious
Warbler is rather smaller, slightly darker on crown and wings,
and has a different song, less vehement and persistent (F.C.R.J.).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds usually in bushes by side of streams,
but occasionally in scrub on hillsides. Nest. — Neatly built of
vegetable down and grasses, lined with down, roots, hair and
occasionally feathers, placed in fork of bush about 3 to 5 ft. from
ground. Eggs. — Normally 4, sometimes only 3, and occasionally 5.
Ground-colour dull rose with violet tinge, varying in depth, and
black spots and streaks. Average of 100 eggs, 17.7 X 13.2 mm.
Breeding -season. — Latter half May onwards in south Europe.
Apparently two broods, second late June.

FOOD.— Chiefly insects and their larvae : few definite data available,
Diptera freely taken ; Lynes found hymenoptera (ants), and J. H.
Stenhouse flies, small beetles and grasshoppers in stomach.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Only three obtained. Male, Burwash
(Sussex), April 30, 1897 (N. F. Ticehurst, Zool., 1897, p. 333).
Male, Ninfield (Sussex), May 10, 1900 (W. R. Butterfield, Ibis,
1900, p. 569). Male near Sandplace, Looe (Cornwall), May 12, 1905
(J. Clark, Zool., 1907, p. 282). This, or the Icterine, several times
reported as seen and heard singing, notably in Pembroke in summer
1886, and in south-east Devon near Lyme Regis in May, 1897,
and in some numbers in May, 1898, when they were said to be
nesting. Eggs, apparently of this, but possibly of preceding
species, were taken at Lancing (Sussex) about 1893, and near
Croydon (Surrey) in 1884. Scotland. — Female, Isle of May (Forth),
Sept. 27, 1913 (E. V. Baxter and L. J. Rintoul, Scot. Nat., 1913,
p. 273). Ireland.— One, Old Head Light, Kinsale (Cork), Sept. 23,
1905 (R. M. Barrington, Irish Nat., 1906, p. 157). One said to have
been seen and heard singing at Coollatin (Wicklow), May, 1886.

2 A 2

356 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — France, with exception of northernmost
departments (north of Somme), south-west Europe and north-west
Africa, Italy. Rare visitor to Belgium, Heligoland, Bohemia and
Moravia. Accidental Madeira. Winters in west Africa.

HYPOLAIS PALLIDA

150. Hypolais pallidaelaeica (Linderm.) — THE OLIVACEOUS
WARBLER.

SALICAKIA EL^EICA Lindermayer, Isis, 1843, pp. 342, 343 (Greece).
Hypolais p. pallida* T. Parkin, Brit. B., ix, p. 198.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Whole upper-
parts uniform pale greyish-brown with an olivaceous tinge ; narrow
stripe from base of bill and over eye creamy-white ; ear-coverts
and sides of neck very pale brown ; whole under -parts including
axillaries and under tail-coverts creamy-white, sides of breast
and flanks tinged very pale brown ; tail-feathers dark brown,
inner webs very narrowly margined creamy-white and outer webs
of outermost pair pale dusky sometimes whitish ; primaries and
secondaries dark brown with inner webs narrowly fringed white
and outer webs fringed pale brown ; all wing-coverts dark brown
fringed and tipped pale brown as rest of upper -parts. This plumage
is acquired by complete moult in July-Oct. Summer. — A complete
moult (including wings and tail) takes place Jan.-March. New
plumage as winter.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like adult and only distinguishable by looser
structure of feathers.

First winter. — Like adult. The juvenile body-plumage, median
and lesser wing-coverts and innermost secondaries are moulted
July-Oct. but not rest of wings or tail.

Measurements and structure. — £ wing 64-68 mm., tail 50-55,
tarsus 20-23, bill from skull 12.5-14, width at base 4.75-6 (12
measured). $ wing 63-65. Primaries : 1st 3-7 mm. longer than
longest primary -co vert, 3rd and 4th about equal and longest,
5th sometimes equal biit usually 1-2 mm. shorter, 6th 2-5 shorter,
7th 5-8 shorter, 2nd somewhat variable usually equal to 6th,
sometimes between 5th and 6th or 6th and 7th, occasionally
between 7th and 8th ; 3rd to 5th emarginated on outer webs.
Secondaries rather shorter than 10th primary, tips rounded.

* The example recorded by Mr. T. Parkin has been examined by me
(by courtesy of the owner, Mr. J. B. Nichols) and I find it to belong to the
more greyish northern form and not to the typical Egyptian form. I have
also compared the specimens collected by Lindermayer which are in the
Brehm collection at Tring. — E.H.

THE OLIVACEOUS WARBLER. 357

Tail fairly square, tips of feathers rounded. Bill broad and fl%t
at base, somewhat pronounced ridge to culmen. A few rather
stiff rictal and nasal bristles. Most of nostrils bare of feathers.
Soft parts. — Bill dark brown, lower mandible flesh ; legs and
feet grey-brown ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — H. p. pallida (Nile Valley)
is of a warmer tone of brown on upper -parts, H. p. opaca (Spain,
north-west Africa) has considerably larger bill and is usually
slightly more tinged with olive on upper-parts, H. p. reiseri (southern
Tunisia and southern Algeria) has smaller bill and is considerably
paler on upper-parts. H. rama is much like H. p. elwica but has
longer 1st primary and 2nd primary is shorter than 7th.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Its uniform pale brown upper -parts and
wide bill are diagnostic. It is restless but not shy and is fairly
easily observed and is rather partial to gardens and orchards.
Its song is soft and pleasing though rather rambling (H.F.W.).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds generally in bushes and scrub about
3 ft. from ground, also in gardens and trees occasionally as high
as 10 ft. Nest. — Neatly built of vegetable down and fibres or roots
and grasses. Eggs. — Very often 3, sometimes 4, dull greyish-
white ground as a rule, with black streaks and spots. Average of
105 eggs, 17.4x13.3 mm. Breeding-season. — letter part May and
June.

FOOD. — Probably entirely aphides and other insects from leaves of
trees and bushes, but exact data lacking.

DISTRIBUTION. — England.— One. Male, near St. Leonards-on-Sea
(Sussex), May 20th, 1915 (ut supra).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeds in Balkan Peninsula from
Dalmatia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria southwards ; also in
Greek Islands, Asia Minor, Cyprus, Crete, Palestine, Meso-
potamia, Transcaucasia, Turkestan, Persia and Transcaspia.
Winters in Baluchistan, southern Arabia, east Africa to Albert
Nyanza. Replaced by other forms in Nile Valley and eastern
Sudan, Spain and north-west Africa and in oases of western Sahara.

Genus SYLVIA Scopoli.

SYLVIA Scopoli, Annus I. Histor. — Nat., p. 154 (1768 — Type by subse-
quent designation, Gray, 1840 : S. melanocephala)

Bill not compressed, culmen more or less curved, rictal bristles
less developed than in Acrocephalus and Hypolais. 1st primary
and shape of tail very variable. It is, however, not wise to split
Sylvia up into two or three genera, as several species connect such

358

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

supposed genera, and we should then have to make six groups, as
was done by Kaup. Sexes sometimes alike, more often different.
Nests open, eggs spotted. Numerous species in Palsearctic region,
northern forms migratory.

Key to species of genus SYLVIA.

1st primary a little shorter than or equal
to primary-coverts, both webs of outer
tail-feathers almost entirely white

1st primary much shorter than primary-
coverts, little if any white on outer
tail-feathers 2

1st primary distinctly longer than
primary-coverts, inner web of outer
tail-feathers, if at all, not more than
half white 4

S.riippetti,p. 375

Secondaries with rufous edges.
Secondaries without rufous edges . 3

Outer tail-feathers with some white, tail
over 66 mm

Outer tail-feathers without any white,
tail under 66 mm

Tail longer than wing, outer tail-feather
more than 1 cm. shorter than middle

Tail not longer than wing, outer tail-
feather not more and mostly much less
than 1 cm. shorter than middle . 5

S. communis, p. 369

S. niaoria, p. 359
S. borin, p. 364

S. undata, p. 383

S. hortensis, p. 361
S. atricapilla, $ ad., p. 366

Whig 79 mm. or more, crown dull black

or grey

Wing under 79 but over 70, crown

glossy black

Wing under 79, but over 60, crown

rufous S. atricapilla, $, p. 367

Wing under 70, crown glossy black . S. melanocephala, £ ad., p. 377
Wing under 70, crown grey or brown 6

Tail blackish, back dark brown .

Tail brown, upper-parts dark grey or
paler brown 7

Throat rufous, upper-parts ashy .
Throat not rufous, upper-parts pale
brownish 8

Throat white

S. mdanocephala, $, p. 378

S. cantillans, $ ad., p. 380

S. curruca, p. 372

Throat buff S. cantillans, ? and juv., pp. 380-1

THE BARRED WARBLER. 359

SYLVIA NISORIA

151. Sylvia nisoria nisoria (Bechst.) — THE BARRED
WARBLER.

MOTACILLA NISOEIA Bechstein, Gem. Naturg. Deutechl., rv, p. 580 (1795 —

Middle and N. Germany).

Sylvia nisoria (Bechstein), Yarrell, in, p. ix ; Saunders, p. 51.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 12). — Adult male. Winter. — Whole upper-
parts greyish-brown, feathers of fore-head and crown with not very
conspicuous pale buff or greyish-white tips ; feathers of mantle
and scapulars rather browner and with only faint indications of
huffish tips ; rump paler and feathers with more distinct greyish-
white tips with faint dark penultimate line ; upper tail-coverts
same but greyer not so brown and tips rather whiter ; lores greyish-
white ; ear-coverts pale brown ; chin, throat, breast and belly white ;
feathers of sides of throat, breast and sides and upper flanks with
dark grey crescentic bars ; lower flanks and under tail-coverts
darker, feathers being huffish-brown with whitish tips and dark
brown penultimate bars ; axillaries huffish-white with brown bars ;
tail brown-grey with narrow white tips and narrow white margin
to inner webs, outer pair with outer edge of outer web and most
of inner web towards the tip white, next two pairs without white
on outer web, but with more white on tip than the rest ; primaries
and secondaries dark grey-brown with very narrow greyish -white
edges to outer webs, wider and whiter edges to inner webs and tips
white, innermost secondaries with huffish-white or pale buff tips and
fringes ; primary-coverts as primaries ; greater coverts as inner-
most secondaries ; median coverts same but with rather whiter tips
with inconspicuous dark penultimate bars ; lesser coverts greyer
and with much smaller whitish tips. This plumage is acquired by
complete moult July-Aug. Summer. — A moult which varies much
individually in extent takes place in April and probably often
earlier. The body -feathers are mostly renewed and a varying
number of tail-feathers, inner secondaries and lesser, median and
greater wing-coverts but not primary -co verts or primaries. New
feathers of upper-parts and wing-coverts greyer than winter and
with white or whitish tips with blackish penultimate bars ; except
for centre of breast and belly whole under-parts become barred with
crescentic bands of dark grey-brown ; new tail-feathers are greyer
and have more white at tips, while two outer pairs usually have
considerably more white on inner webs than in winter, but amount
of white varies considerably individually, as does the barring on
upper- and under-parts and the shade of grey of upper-parts.

Adult female. Winter. — Like adult male winter, but upper-
parts browner, pale tips of feathers less whitish and less noticeable ;
under-parts with barring only on sides of breast and flanks, and
these are paler and less strongly barred ; axillaries without bars ;

360 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

under tail-coverts much as in male ; tail-feathers browner, with the
white much duller and less in extent ; wing-feathers and wing-
coverts browner with tips and edgings very pale brown or whitish-
brown. Moult as in male. Summer. — Moult as in male, after which
much like adult winter male, being browner and considerably less
barred than summer male and usually with less white in tail.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile.— Whole upper-parts brown, feathers with greyish
bases and rusty tips, with no greyish tips even on upper tail-coverts ;
lores pale buff ; ear-coverts pale huffish-brown ; chin, throat and
belly buffish-white ; breast buff ; flanks and under tail-coverts
pale greyish -brown, feathers tipped buff ; tail- and wing-feathers as
adult winter female ; greater coverts brown with buff edgings and
tips ; median and lesser coverts uniform brown.

First winter. Male and female. — Like adult winter female
but males are perhaps slightly greyer on upper-parts, wings and
tail, and females usually have no trace of barring on sides of breast
and flanks. The juvenile body -feathers, lesser and median wing-
coverts and some inner greater coverts are moulted in July, but not
primary -co verts or wing- and tail-feathers. Summer. — Moult as
in adult, after which there seems no certain distinction.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 85-91 mm., tail 68-74,
tarsus 23-26, biU from skull 14-17 (12 measured.) $ wing 84-90.
Primaries : 1st one-third to half as long as primary -co verts, 3rd
longest, 2nd occasionally as long but usually as 4th .5-1 mm. shorter,
5th 3-5 shorter, 6th 6-8 shorter ; 3rd and 4th distinctly and 5th
very slightly, emarginated outer webs. Secondaries equal to or
rather shorter than 10th primary, tips rather square. Tail square
except that outermost pair are 4-5 mm. shorter, 12 feathers, tips
rounded. Bill fairly strong, culmen slightly curved at tip. A good
many rictal and nasal bristles. Nostrils not covered by feathers.

Soft parts. — Bill dark horn, base of lower mandible brownish-
flesh ; legs and feet brownish -grey ; iris pale brownish -yellow.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — S. n. m,erzbacheri (west Siberia,
Turkestan) is, in the adult summer male, rather paler grey on upper-
parts but is often difficult to distinguish . In some plumages might
be confused with Orphean Warbler, but longer tail and different
wing-formula and whitish tips to upper tail-coverts (except in
juvenile) distinguish it.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Distinguished by its large size and pale colora-
tion and comparatively long tail. Slight barring of young bird in
autumn is not noticeable in the field. Rather skulking in habits
(H.F.W.).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in hedges, low bushes or scrub as a rule
within a few feet of ground and only exceptionally at a height above
it. Nest. — Built of bents and grasses, lined horsehair and fine

THE ORPHEAN WARBLER. 361

roots. Eggs. — Normally 5, occasionally 6 or only 4, and very
characteristic, being as a rule faintly speckled or clouded with pale
leaden-brownish or greyish shell -mar kings on a milky or greyish-
white ground. Hartert records one clutch with bold red-brown
spots and blotches. Average of 100 eggs, 21 X 14 mm. Breeding-
season. — Usually latter half May and early June. Incubation. —
14 days : male relieving hen in mid-day (Bau). Single brooded.

FOOD. — Chiefly insects : coleoptera (Carabus, Lema, Phyllopertha,
Elater, etc.), diptera, orthoptera, and larvse of lepidoptera. Also
occasionally worms and berries (currant, cherry, elder, bird-cherry,

etc.).

DISTRIBUTION — British Isles. — Probably annual autumn passage-
migrant in small numbers east coast, northern isles and Channel,
without doubt frequently overlooked but varying in numbers from
year to year. Over forty England, about sixty Scotland, one
Wales, and three Ireland. Most in northern isles and on east coast
and in September, but also in August, October, and November,
once in April and once in June. Sometimes in some numbers as in
autumns 1912 and 1913. England. — Kent two ; Suffolk one ;
Norfolk fifteen ; Lines, seven ; Yorks. six ; Northumberland
nine; Cambs. one ; Oxon. one ; Lanes, one. Wales. — Skerries
(Anglesey) one. Scotland. — Broadford (Skye) one ; Dhuheartach
Light (Argyll) one ; St. Kilda one seen, Flannanstwo, Lewis one,
Barra, one (Outer Hebrides) ; Tiree one (Inner Hebrides) ; Fair
Isle about forty, Lerwick five (Shetlands) ; Auskerry two, Pent-
land Skerries one (Orkneys) ; Isle of May (Forth) six. Ireland.—
Belmullet (Mayo) one ; Rockabill Light (Dublin) two.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe from south Sweden, Denmark,
and Gulf of Finland, throughout Russia, locally in Germany (with
exception of west, where rare visitor only, as it is in France), Austria
and Hungary, to Rumania, Bulgaria, Montenegro, Dalmatia, and
north Italy. Winters in north-east Africa. Replaced by very
closely- allied form in west Siberia and Turkestan.

SYLVIA HORTENSIS*

152. Sylvia hortensis hortensis (Gm.)— THE ORPHEAN
WARBLER.

MOTACILLA HOBTENSIS Gmelin, Syst. Nat., i, ii, p. 955 (1789 — France and

Italy).

Sylvia orphea Temminck, Yarrell, i, p. 423 ; Saunders, p. 45.

* As explained by Hartert and others, Gmelin undoubtedly described
the Orphean Warbler as S. hortensis, as a glance at his description shows. It
is the oldest name, and must therefore be adopted.

362 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 12). — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head and
crown dull greyish-black to brownish-black ; rest of upper-parts
including upper tail-coverts uniform grey-brown ; lores and ear-
coverts rather darker than crown ; feathers above lores edged with
whitish ; chin, centre of upper -throat and centre of belly pure white ;
breast and rest of throat and belly white, more or less tinged with
bufnsh-pink ; flanks and under tail-coverts darker pinkish-buff ;
axillaties pinkish-buff ; under wing-coverts whiter with brown
bases ; tail-feathers greyish-black to brownish -black narrowly
fringed greyish -white, all except central pair with small white tips,
penultimate pair with large white tips and outer pair white with
only the shaft and inner portion of inner web brown -black ; wing-
feathers greyish- black edged whitish on inner webs and narrowly
edged greyish-white on outer webs, tips greyish-white ; innermost
secondaries and wing-coverts dark brown with greyish-brown tips
and edges. This plumage is acquired by complete moult July-
Sept. Summer. — A complete moult (including wings and tail)
takes place from Feb. to May. New plumage as winter, but crown
usually rather darker. In much worn plumage buff of breast and
flanks becomes paler "and loses much of its pink hue.

Adult female. Winter and summer. — Like adult male but fore-
head and crown not so dark ; in winter usually dark brownish-
grey not blackish, but in summer often blackish though not so dark
as adult summer male (N.B. — Variation in darkness of crown seems
to be individual and not connected with age) ; rest of upper-parts
browner not so greyish as in male ; wing- and tail-feathers browner ;
buff of under-parts usually more brownish and less pinkish.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Whole upper-parts including crown as well as wing-
coverts and innermost secondaries of a uniform brown, darker and
browner even than in adult female ; under-parts as adult female, but
buff of flanks and under tail-coverts a shade paler.

First winter. Male and female. — Like adult winter female
but crown browner and almost uniform with rest of upper-parts.
The juvenile body-plumage, wing-coverts and innermost secondaries
are moulted June-Aug., but not primary-coverts or rest of wing-
feathers or tail. First summer. — Like adults, and moult the same.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 77-83 mm., tail 65-70,
tarsus 22-24, bill from skull 15-17 (12 measured.) ? wing 73-80.
Primaries : 1st 2-6 mm. longer than longest primary -co vert, 4th
longest, 3rd usually as long but sometimes like 5th 1 mm. shorter,
2nd and 6th usually equal to each other and 4-6 shorter ; 3rd to 5th
emarginated outer webs. Secondaries rather shorter than 10th
primary, tips rather square. Tail square, except that outermost
pair are 2-3 mm. shorter, 12 feathers, tips sharply rounded. Bill
strong, culmen slightly curved. A good many fine rictal and nasal
bristles. Nostrils not covered with feathers.

Soft parts. — Bill slate-black with base of lower mandible grey ;

THE ORPHEAN WARBLER. 363

legs and feet slate -grey to greyish -brown ; iris pale yellow to
yellowish -white .

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — S. Ti. crassirostris (Balkans to
Turkestan) has usually slightly longer bill and is considerably less
buff on under-parts especially flanks and under tail -co verts which
are inclined to be grey. White in tail distinguishes it from Blackcap.
In some plumages might be confused with Barred Warbler, but
uniform upper tail-coverts, shorter tail and wing-formula always
distinguish it.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Like a large Blackcap without the definite
" cap," with a white throat and white in outer tail-feathers. The
" tut-tut " alarm-note is much like that of Blackcap and so is its
song, which, however, is more varied and less resonant (H.F.W.).

BREEDING-HABITS. — Usually nests among outer branches of trees,
5 to 8 ft. from ground, but occasionally in quite small bushes or at
considerable heights in trees. Nest. — Neatly built of grasses, roots
and bents, mixed into a few flowery weeds and down, lined finer
roots, and at times a little hair. Eggs. — 4 or 5, ground pale greenish-
white, with umber-brown spots and streaks and ashy shell -marks.
The spots frequently have soft brownish edges. Average of 100 eggs,
20 X 14 mm. Breeding-season. — From early May onward in south
Europe : late April in north Africa. Incubation. — Male takes part
(Stenhouse).

FOOD. — Insects and their larvae found in trees, especially lepidoptera
(moths and caterpillars), diptera, etc., but little definite information.
Berries said to be eaten in autumn, and J. H. Stenhouse found
grasshoppers and figs in stomach.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Five obtained. Female shot and
another said to have been seen near Wetherby (Yorks.), July 6, 1848
(thought to have been nesting). Young bird, said to have
been unable to fly, caught near Holloway (Middlesex), June, 1866
(Saunders, p. 45). Female shot near St. Leonards (Sussex), Oct. 7,
1903 (W. R. Butterfield, Butt. B.O.C., xiv, p. 16). Young bird
picked up near same place Sept. 16, 1905 (C. B. Ticehurst, op. c.,
xvi, p. 35). Male shot West St. Leonards, Sept. 21, 1916 (J. B.
Nichols, Brit. B., xi, p. 45).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — South-west Europe and north-west
Africa, through central parts of France in small numbers, north to
Luxembourg and Metz, west Switzerland, Italy, and Sicily. Winter-
quarters must be Africa, but not actually known. Replaced by a
closely-allied form in Asia Minor, Turkestan, Afghanistan, Persia to
Gilgit, west to Dalmatia, Herzegovina, Montenegro and Greece,
wintering in India, Arabia, and north-east Africa.

364 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

SYLVIA BORIN*

153- Sylvia borin (Bodd.)— THE GARDEN- WARBLER.

MOTACILLA BORIN Boddaert, Tabl. PI. Enl., p. 35 (1783 — ex Daubenton,
PI. Enl. 579, 2 — France).

Sylvia salicaria (Linnaeus), Yarrell, i, p. 414 ; Sylvia hortensis nee
Bechstein, Saunders, p. 49.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 12). — Adult male and female. Winter. — Whole
upper-parts uniform brown tinged olive ; upper tail-coverts with
inconspicuous pale tips ; lores and inconspicuous line over eye dull
greyish-white ; ear-coverts pale brown ; chin and throat buffish-
white ; upper-breast and flanks darker brownish-buff ; rest of
breast and belly white ; under tail -coverts pale brown with long
white tips ; axillaries bright buff to pale buff ; under wing-coverts
same with brown bases ; tail-feathers olivaceous -brown with very
narrow edgings of buffish-\*hite on inner webs and greyish on outer
webs ; wing-feathers dark brown, tips and inner webs fringed whitish,
outer webs fringed olivaceous-brown, innermost secondaries mostly
olivaceous-brown with paler edgings ; primary -coverts dark brown
fringed paler brown ; greater and median coverts olivaceous-brown
with slightly paler brown tips and fringes ; lesser coverts olivaceous-
brown. This plumage is acquired by complete moult Jaly-Sept.
Summer. — A complete moult (including wings and tail) takes place
Dec. -March and occasionally April. New plumage as winter, but
upper -parts more earth-brown, not so olivaceous. In worn plumage,
both in winter and summer, the upper-parts are greyer-brown, chin
and throat whiter, breast paler.

Nestling. — Down absent. Mouth inside bright reddish -pink,
a light purple, oval spot on each side of base of tongue ; externally
flanges yellow.

Juvenile. — As adults, but upper-parts more yellowish-brown,
often with a rusty tinge ; buff of breast and flanks darker than in
adult and tinged olivaceous ; edgings of wing-feathers and wing-
coverts more rusty-brown than in adult.

First wint&r. — As adults, and usually not possible to distinguish,
but edgings of outer greater wing-coverts, primary-coverts and
primaries, when not worn, are rather more rusty-brown. The
juvenile body-plumage, lesser and median wing-coverts, inner
greater coverts and innermost secondaries are moulted July-Sept.,
but not primary -co verts, tail-feathers nor rest of wing -feathers.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 73-82 mm., tail 51-57,
tarsus 20-22, bill from skull 11.5-14 (12 measured). $ wing 72-80.
Primaries : 1st half to two-thirds as long as primary-coverts, 3rd
longest, 2nd occasionally as long but usually 1-2 mm. shorter, 4th

* Sylvia hortensis of many authors, but S. hortensis is clearly the Orphean
Warbler ; this name not being available for the Garden-Warbler, the name
borin must be adopted. — E.H.

THE GARDEN-WARBLER. 365

1-3 shorter, 5th 5-7 shorter, 6th 7-10 shorter ; 3rd emarginated outer
web. Secondaries equal to or rather shorter than 10th primary,
tips rather square. Tail fairly square but outermost pair slightly
shorter than rest, 12 feathers, tips rather pointed. Bill rather flat
and broad at base, pointed at tip. A good many small fine rictal
and nasal bristles. Nostrils not covered by feathers.

Soft parts. — Bill dark brown, base of lower mandible yellowish-
brown ; legs and feet greyish-brown ; iris greyish-brown.

CHARACTERS. — No subspecies. Uniform brown of upper-parts and
brownish-buff of upper-breast and flanks distinguish it from other
British warblers of about the same size. Also wing -formula and
emargination of primaries differentiate it.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Obscure coloration, olive-brown above and
buffish -white below, lacking pronounced characters such as white
throat, black head or prominent eye-stripe, is perhaps itself best
clue to identity, when bird is seen, but it is even more secretive
and elusive than others of the genus, and would often escape notice
but for its song. This, a continuous sweet and mellow warble,
is softer, less rich and modulated, and much less varied than Black-
cap's full strain, although extremely difficult to distinguish from
song of that species when it lacks the customary modulations and
imitations. Alarm-note a harsh " check, check," whilst a vibrating
" chur-r " appears to express alarm in a lesser degree or perhaps
defiance.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Often nests in shrubberies and gardens, but
also in bushes, and sometimes in trees. Nesting-sites average
lower than those of Blackcap. Nest. — Of grass stalks and bents,
rather more substantial than Blackcap's ; lined finer grasses and
hair. Eggs. — Normally 4-5, rarely 6 ; 7 once or twice reported ;
on average rather larger and more glossy than Blackcap's, but not
distinguishable with certainty. Ground whitish to yellowish or
greenish, blotched and spotted with varying shades of light olive
and brown, and a few dark brown " brand-marks." Considerable
range of variation ; some eggs almost white, others clouded,
with yellowish blotches, etc. Average of 100 eggs, 20 X 14.7 mm.
Breeding -season. — Usually late in May or early in June ; excep-
tionally by May 5. Incubation. — About 13 days ; 12 (Howard) ;
shared by both sexes. Single brooded.

FOOD. — Chiefly insects in spring and early summer, especially
small caterpillars, but also small coleoptera and lepidoptera.
Also aphides, spiders, and occasionally worms ; in autumn berries
of many kinds eaten ; also fruit (currants, raspberries, etc.).

DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. — Summer -resident. Generally
distributed, but rather local and not known to breed in west Cornwall

366 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

(rare casual visitor to Scilly Isles), nor in parts of Pembroke, and
rare Anglesey and west Carnarvon. Scotland. — Rather local in
Solway area, common in Clyde and Forth areas, and in south
Perths., north of which not known to breed, and has rarely occurred.
In Shetlands, one Aug., one Oct., several May and June. In Fair
Isle fairly common on both spring- and autumn -passages, and in
Orkneys occurs frequently in autumn but seldom recorded in
spring. In 0. Hebrides, one seen Flannans (Sept.), two obtained
Barra (Oct. & Nov.), several St. Kilda (Sept.), one Lewis (Aug.).
Ireland. — Very local, unknown in most districts, but nests in various
localities in all four provinces, but chiefly near the Shannon.

MIGRATIONS. — Great Britain. — Summer-residents begin to arrive
end second week April (early dates March 25, 31, April 5 & 6), and
main body in last week April up to end May. Passage-migration
east coast from first week May to second week June. Southward
movement of summer -residents begins early Aug., larger number
leaving mid-Sept, becoming merged with passage-migrants that
pass down east coast from early Sept. (in some years early Aug.)
to first few days Oct. Occasional later stragglers Oct. 9-26.
(Late date Nov. 10, 1913 Essex.)

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe generally (except extreme north)
as far south as northern Spain in west, and Albania in east ; from
Russia eastwards to Persia, Transcaspia, and west Siberia. Winters
in Africa. Casual Maderia ; occasional Canaries. Breeding in Syria
is asserted, but requires confirmation.

SYLVIA ATRICAPILLA

154. Sylvia atricapilla atricapilla (L.)— THE BLACKCAP.

MOTACILLA ATRICAPILLA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 187 (1758 —
" Habitat in Europa." Restricted typical locality : Sweden).
Sylvia atricapilla Linnaeus, Yarrell, i, p. 418 ; Saunders, p. 47.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 12). — -Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head and
whole crown jet-black ; nape ashy -grey with occasionally a brownish
or dusky tinge ; rest of upper-parts uniform greyish olive-brown ;
lores, ear -coverts, sides of neck and sides of throat ash-grey ; chin,
centre of throat and breast paler ash-grey, chin and throat often
silvery ; lower-breast and belly white ; flanks grey tinged olivaceous ;
under tail-coverts and axillaries dark grey with white tips and
fringes ; tail-feathers greyish-black, outer webs fringed olive-
brown ; wing-feathers greyish-black, inner webs fringed white,
outer webs olive-brown, those of outer primaries being more
greyish ; primary-coverts greyish-black fringed and tipped grey ;
rest of coverts with fringes and tips greyish olive-brown as mantle.
This plumage is acquired by complete moult July-Sept. Summer. —

THE BLACKCAP. 367

The body-feathers, from one to four innermost secondaries and
varying number of inner greater coverts are moulted Jan. -March
(occasionally April) but apparently not rest of wing-coverts and
not wing- or tail-feathers. New plumage as winter. In worn
plumage upper-parts often become greyer especially rump and upper
tail -coverts.

Adult female. Winter and summer. — Resembling male but
whole crown bright red-brown ; rest of upper -parts more olive-
brown than male, not tinged with greyish ; nape as rest of upper-
parts ; lores, ear -co verts, sides of neck and sides of throat brownish-
grey ; breast and flanks pale brown sometimes with greyish tinge
but always browner than male ; tail and wings as male. Moults
as male and summer plumage as winter, but abrasion makes upper-
parts less olive and paler.

Nestling. — Down absent. Mouth inside bright pink ; two
long oval, symmetrical brownish spots at base of tongue ; externally
flanges whitish (C. B. Ticehurst, Brit. B., iv, p. 70).

Juvenile. — Much like adult female but crown in males more
blackish-brown, and in females more yellowish-brown ; mantle
usually more rusty-brown, not so olive ; edges and tips of wing-
coverts more rusty-brown ; breast and flanks considerably darker
than adult female, smoky-brown to dull yellowish-brown ; belly
dull dirty white ; under tail-coverts and axillaries pale dull buff.

First winter. Male,. — Like adult male and sometimes not to
be distinguished from it but usually feathers of crown have brown
tips and sometimes crown is a mixture of reddish-brown and black,
nape sometimes greyish olive-brown instead of ash-grey. (N.B. —
Some undoubted first winter males have jet-black crowns and ash-
grey napes, like adults, but I have not seen an undoubted adult with
brown in the crown.) The juvenile body-feathers and wing-coverts
(usually outermost greater coverts are not moulted) are moulted
June-Sept., but not primary -co verts, wing- or tail-feathers.
Summer. — Moult as adult, after which becomes like adult but
sometimes has some brown on crown.

First winter. Female. — Not to be distinguished from adult.
Moults as first winter male.

Measurements and structure.— <$ wing 70-78 mm., tail 57-64,
tarsus 21-23, bill from skull 12-14 (12 measured). $ wing 69-80.
Primaries : 1st 1-6 mm. longer than longest primary -co vert, 3rd
longest, 4th usually as long but occasionally 1 mm. shorter, 2nd
4-7 shorter, 5th 1-4 shorter, 6th 5-9 shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated
outer webs. Secondaries 3-5 mm. shorter than 10th primary,
tips rather square. Tail fairly square, but outermost pair rather
shorter than rest, 12 feathers, tips pointed. Bill rather flat and
broad at base, pointed at tip. A good many small, fine rictal
and nasal bristles. Nostrils not covered by feathers.

Soft parts. — Bill slatish-black to brownish-black, under mandible
slate ; legs and feet dark slate ; iris brown.

368 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Several forms have been separated
as distinct from the Atlantic Islands but only the rather small
and very dark S. a. heineken (Madeira and Canaries) seems certain.
Absence of white in tail and black cap of male and reddish-brown
cap of female, besides size and wing-formula, distinguish it from
other British warblers.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Ashy plumage (no white throat as in Orphean
Warbler) and jet-black crown of male are unmistakable. Female
duller, but reddish- brown crown diagnostic. Haunts woods and
coppices as well as tangled hedgerows and thickets, but perhaps
less retiring than Garden -War bier. Song, usually poured forth
from thick cover, but often in early spring from top of ash or other
tree, is a rich and varied melody, wonderfully modulated, loud for
size of the singer, and frequently mimetic. Call -note a soft whistle.
Alarm expressed by bold harsh " tac, tac, tac," whilst a churring
note seems, as with other warblers, to express anger.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests usually higher than Garden-Warbler, but
not infrequently quite low down ; occasionally high up. Breeds in
bushes (especially snowberry), hedgerows, among honeysuckle or
briars, etc. Nest. — Slightly built of bents, roots and grasses, lined
finer materials and sometimes horsehair. Eggs. — Normally 5, not
infrequently 4, and occasionally 6, varying greatly. Many have a
light buff or stone ground, clouded and blotched with brown and
ashy shell-marks and a few dark, blurred spots. The rare erythristic
type has salmon-pink ground and the markings are pinkish-brown,
or red-brown. Others are white, or white with a few very dark
spots, etc. Average of 100 eggs, 19.3x14.5 mm. Breeding -
season. — Usually during second half of May in England, sometimes
not till June, but occasionally from end of April onward.
Incubation. — 14 days ; about 15 days (Howard) ; shared by both
sexes. Said to be often double -brooded abroad, but though fresh
eggs have been taken in July, apparently seldom rears two broods
here.

FOOD. — Insects, fruit and berries. In spring, small coleoptera,
lepidoptera and their larvae, diptera, hymenoptera, etc. Also
aphides and spiders. Seen to take pea -louse (Macrosiphum) by
Collinge, and exceptionally worms. Raspberries, currants, cherries
and strawberries, as well as peas, are eaten ; also berries of ivy,
privet, elder, honeysuckle, yew, holly, mountain ash, etc., and in
south Europe, oranges and figs.

DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. — Summer-resident (occa-
sionally winter). Somewhat local, but fairly well distributed.
Rare Anglesey and Lleyn (Carnarvon). Scotland. — On west side
local as far north as Argyll., breeds Jura ; north of Ardnamurchan
only once recorded (West Ross, Nov. 23, 1905). On east side

THE WHITETHROAT. 6OV

frequent nester as far north as Dunkeld (Perth.), and farther north
breeds locally in Kincardine and Spey Valley. In other parts of
north-east chiefly known as autumn migrant, but has bred once
Loch Ness and near Beauly (Moray Firth). In Orkneys, Fair Isle,
and Shetlands fairly regular migrant in autumn (Aug.-Oct.) but
less so in spring. In Shetlands once attempted to breed, and
has probably also bred Orkneys. In 0. Hebrides straggler. Has
often occurred even in north in Nov. and two or three times in
Dec. Ireland. — Has a wide range, breeding in many counties, but
in most it is scarce and even rare, being most numerous in Wicklow.
Fairly often occurs in winter.

MIGRATIONS. — Great Britain. — -Summer-residents begin to arrive
fourth week March (early dates 10, 12), main body end second week
April to fourth week May. Small passage -movement east coast
end April to mid- June. Southward movement of summer -residents
begins mid -August, bulk leaving during latter half Sept. ; becoming
merged in movement of passage-migrants beginning about same
time, at its height between mid-Sept, and mid-Oct., and lasting
to fourth week, along east and west coasts. Later, stragglers noted
in most years up to mid -Nov. Ireland. — Some evidence of autumn
passage-movements on coasts.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe generally from about lat. 66°
north in Scandinavia to Mediterranean, west to Azores and Cape
Verde Islands, south to Marocco, Algeria and Tunisia, north of
Atlas, east to Asia Minor, Syria and Persia, in west Siberia near
Omsk. Winters in Africa and in small numbers in south Europe.
Occurs on passage in Madeira and Canary Islands, but is replaced
there as breeding-bird by closely -allied resident form.

SYLVIA COMMUNIS*

155. Sylvia comrnunis communis Lath. — THE WHITE-
THROAT.

SYLVIA COMMXJNIS Latham, Gen. Syn. Suppl., i, p. 287 (1787 — England).
Sylvia rufa (Boddaert), Yarrell, i, p. 406 ; Sylvia cinerea Bechstein,
Saunders, p. 41.

DESCRIPITON (Plate 13). — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head, crown
and nape slate-grey, feathers edged and tipped brown ; rest of
upper-parts brown but upper tail-coverts more greyish tipped
brown ; lores greyish-white ; feathers round eyelids white ; ear-
coverts brown to greyish-brown ; chin and upper-throat white ;

* This species has also been unfortunate with regard to its names. It
has often been called Sylvia rufa, but that name was based on an unrecog-
nizable figure, and more commonly S. cinerea, but Latham clearly described
the English bird as Sylvia communis sixteen years before Bechstein. — E.H.

2 B

370 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

lower-throat and upper-breast pale buffish-pink ; flanks darker
and more buff, sometimes tinged pink ; centre of lower-breast and
belly white ; under tail-coverts buff with white tips ; axillaries
and under wing-coverts pale brown with white fringes and tips ;
tail-feathers dark brown with narrow fringes and tips of very pale
brown, outermost pair with outer web and most of inner web white
(pure white or clouded with brown varying individually), pen-
ultimate pair with whiter tip than rest ; wing-feathers dark brown
tipped pale brown and edged on inner webs white, outer webs of
primaries very narrowly edged white on 2nd primary and pale
rufous-brown on rest, outer webs of secondaries more broadly
edged rufous-brown, innermost secondaries broadly tipped and
edged on both webs bright rufous-brown ; primary-coverts as
primaries ; greater coverts as innermost secondaries ; median
coverts tipped paler rufous-brown ; lesser coverts tipped slate-grey.
This plumage is acquired by complete moult Aug.-Sept. (occasion-
ally Oct. -Nov.). Summer. — A complete moult usually takes place
Jan.-Feb. (occasionally March -April) but some individuals moult
only partially. New feathers as winter, but crown and ear -coverts
greyer. Abrasion makes crown purer grey, rest of upper-parts
more greyish-brown, edgings of inner secondaries and greater
coverts paler, less bright rufous.

Adult female. Winter. — Like adult male but crown brown,
lesser wing-coverts brown not tipped grey, breast brownish-buff,
sometimes with a slight tinge of pink, flanks without any pink
tinge, white of outer tail-feathers duller and more brownish.
Summer. — Slightly greyish on crown and ear -coverts but not so
grey as male, pink tinge on breast more pronounced than in winter.

Nestling. — Down absent. Mouth inside pink posteriorly,
edges yellow, two lateral dark spots on tongue-spurs and two darkish
marks at tip of tongue, externally flanges pale yellow.

Juvenile. — Like adult female winter, but upper-parts rather
darker, chin and belly dull white, breast and flanks darker buffish-
brown than adult female (breast never with pink), median and
lesser wing-coverts more yellowish brown, white of outer tail-
feathers more dirty and brownish.

First winter. Male and female. — Like adult winter female,
but without any tinge of pink on breast, outer tail-feathers as
juvenile. The juvenile body-plumage, lesser and median wing-
coverts and some innermost secondaries are moulted July-Sept,
(occasionally Oct. -Nov.), but not greater coverts, primary-coverts,
rest of wing-feathers or tail. First summer. Male. — Moult as
adult, after which becomes greyer on crown and ear-coverts, and
pinkish on breast, but not so grey or pink as adult male but like
adult female summer. First summer. Female. — No grey on
crown nor pink on breast.

Measurements and structure— $ wing 69-75 (one 79) mm.,
tail 58-64, tarsus 21-23, bill from skull 12-13.5 (12 measured).

THE WHITETHROAT. 371

9 wing 68-75. Primaries : 1st two-thirds to three-quarters as
long as longest primary-covert (occasionally equal), 3rd and 4th
longest, 2nd and 5th, .5-2 mm. shorter, 6th 3-5 shorter; 3rd
and 4th clearly, 5th slightly, emarginated outer webs. Secondaries
2-5 mm. shorter than 10th primary, tips fairly square. Tail some-
what rounded, outermost feathers about 5 mm. shorter than central,
12 feathers, tips rather sharply sloped off. Bill rather flat and
broad at base, pointed at tip. Some small fine rictal and nasal
bristles. Nostrils not covered by feathers.

Soft parts.— Bill greyish horn-brown, base of lower mandible
bluish-flesh ; legs and feet pale brown ; iris yellowish-brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS.— S. c. icterops (Caucasus, Persia,
Turkestan) is slightly larger and has darker upper -parts and darker
wings with paler and less rufous edgings to secondaries and coverts.
Longer wing, shorter 1st primary and rufous edgings to secondaries
and greater coverts at once distinguish Whitethroat from Lesser
Whitethroat.

FIELD-CHARACTERS.— Absence of dark cap from crown, pure white
chin and throat and, in flight, the white on outer tail-feathers sepa-
rate Whitethroats from other British warblers, whilst this species
differs from Lesser Whitethroat in having rufous patch on wing.
A frequenter of hedges and thickets, and to some extent of gorse-
covered commons and open country, is less of a recluse than most
of its congeners. Song, a rapid jumble of notes sung in snatches
and with great energy, is often uttered during jerky, vertical flight
or from an exposed position, such as top of a hedge or a telegraph
wire. Call -note, " hweet, hweet, hweet." Anger expressed by a
hoarse " chur-r," and alarm by an anxious " teck, teck."

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in low bushes, hedge bottoms, brambles,
etc., usually close to ground, but occasionally at some height above
it. Nest. — Usually substantial, with deep cup, built of dead grasses,
roots, etc., and well lined with hair, generally black. Bits of down
or wool appear to be added by the hen, but nest is built by cock.
Eggs. — Normally 4-5, exceptionally 6, and very variable. Common
types have greenish or stone ground, finely speckled with ochreous
and leaden spots, but markings range from big blotches, caps, or
zones of spots to fine stippling and colour from oil -green to ochreous
or blackish. Exceptionally erythristic type with salmon-pink
ground and red-brown and grey spots, pure white eggs, or pale
bluish have been recorded. Average of 100 eggs, 18.1 X 13.8 mm.
Breeding-season. — From early May onward, but mostly in second
hah0 of month. Incubation. — 11-13 days (W. Evans) : male taking
part (E. L. Turner). Fledging-period. — 11 days (Brock). Some
birds undoubtedly rear a second brood.

FOOD. — Mainly insects and their larvae : coleoptera (Agriotes, Phyl-
lobius, Aphodius, Haltica, Apion, etc.) ; lepidoptera (larvae) ;

2B2

372 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

hymenoptera and diptera (Bibionidce and Muscidce). Also aphides
and spiders. Seen to take pea-louse (Macrosiphum). Currants,
raspberries and peas occasionally eaten ; also wild berries in
autumn.

DISTRIBUTION. — England, Wales and Ireland. — Summer-resident.
Generally distributed. Scotland. — Generally distributed in south,
and centre, thinly distributed and local in north, apparently not
breeding in north Sutherland or Caithness. In Orkneys, Fair Isle,
and Shetlands noted recently as fairly frequent passage-migrant
in autumn and in spring, and has possibly once nested Orkneys.
In I. Hebrides well known, but to O. Hebrides a somewhat rare
passage-migrant, but occasionally seen in summer and bred once
Lewis (1881) and once Barra (1900).

MIGRATIONS.— Great Britain. — Summer -residents begin to arrive
last three days March (early date 25), main body from third week
April to about third week May, but movements become merged in
those of passage-migrants that begin end April along east and west
coasts England and Wales and east coast and northern isles Scotland
and last to end first week June. Southward movement of summer-
residents begins last week July and continues throughout Aug.
and Sept., but becomes merged in passage-migration that begins
early in Sept. and lasts till first week Oct., by same route as in spring.
Stragglers recorded several times in Nov. up to 10th (Essex, 1913).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe from 65° north lat. in Scandinavia
to Mediterranean, also north Algeria and north Tunisia. Winters
in Africa and in small numbers in Canary Islands ; casual Madeira.
Replaced from Caucasus, Syria and Persia to west Siberia by
Sylvia communis icterops.

SYLVIA CURRUCA

156. Sylvia curruca curruca (L.)— THE LESSER WHITE-
THROAT.

MOTACILLA CTTBKUCA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 184 (1758 — " Habitat

in Europa." Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Sylvia curruca (Linnaeus), Yarrell, i, p. 410 ; Saunders, p. 43.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 13). — Adult male and female. Winter. — Fore-head
and crown slate-grey, tinged brown ; rest of upper-parts uniform
greyish-brown, but rump and upper tail-coverts rather greyer and
less brown than mantle ; some feathers from nostrils and over eyes
usually with slight hoary tips ; feathers round eyelids white ; lores
and ear -co verts dark brownish -grey ; chin, throat and sides of neck
white ; breast white with a pinkish tinge of varying intensity ;
belly and under tail -co verts white, latter with pale brown centres ;
flanks pale pinkish-buff ; axillaries white, tinged pinkish-buff ; tail-

THE LESSER WHITETHROAT. 373

feathers dark greyish -brown with greyish -white fringes and tips,
outermost pair with outer web white and varying amount of white
or brownish-white on inner web ; wing-feathers dark brown, inner
webs narrowly fringed white, outer webs fringed pale greyish-brown,
innermost secondaries greyish-brown ; primary-coverts dark brown
with greyish-brown fringes and tips ; greater coverts grey-brown
with paler fringes ; median and lesser coverts brown with brownish-
grey fringes and tips. This plumage is acquired by complete moult
July- Aug. Summer. — The body -feathers, four innermost secondaries,
lesser and median wing-coverts, often central pair of tail-feathers,
and rarely whole tail are moulted Jan. -Feb. (occasionally March-
April), but not primary -coverts, greater wing-coverts or rest of wing-
feathers. New plumage as winter. In worn plumage under -parts
lose pinkish-buff tinge and wing- and tail-feathers lose most of
the fringes.

Nestling. — Down absent. Mouth inside bright orange-yellow,
a brownish-black spot on each side at base of tongue ; externally
flanges pale yellow.

Juvenile. — Like adults, but crown like rest of upper -parts dingy
grey-brown, feathers with slate-grey bases ; chin, throat, sides of
neck and belly more dingy-white ; breast, flanks and under tail-
coverts pale huffish-brown ; tail- and wing-feathers and greater
wing-coverts fringed with darker and less grey-brown, median and
lesser wing-coverts browner and less grey.

First winter. — As adult, but edges of wing- and tail-feathers as
in juvenile, darker and browner than in adult ; upper-parts also a
shade browner and less greyish-brown, but these distinctions dis-
appear in worn plumage. The juvenile body -plumage and wing-
coverts are moulted June-Aug., but not primary-coverts, wing-
or tail-feathers. First summer. — Moult as adult.

Measurements and structure. — ^ wing 63-70 mm., tail 52-56,
tarsus 20-21, biU from skull 10.5-12 (12 measured). ? wing 60-67.
Primaries : 1st 2-6 mm. longer than longest primary -co vert, 3rd
and 4th longest, 2nd 2-4 shorter usually between 5th and 6th but
sometimes as long as 5th and sometimes as short as 6th, 5th .5-2
shorter, 6th 3-6 shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs. Rest
of structure as Whitethroat.

Soft parts. — Bill slate-black, base of lower mandible paler ;
legs and feet dark bluish-lead colour ; iris pale brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — S. c. affinis (Siberia, Manchuria)
is like typical form but has 2nd primary always shorter than 6th
and sometimes between 7th and 8th ; S. c. minula (Afghanistan,
eastern Turkestan) like S. c. affinis but smaller and with considerably
paler upper-parts ; S. c. halimodendri (south-eastern Kirghiz Steppe)
said to be like last but with longer bill, more brownish-grey and less
sandy back and darker crown. Want of bright rufous edgings to
secondaries and greater coverts and smaller size distinguish it from

374 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Whitethroat. For distinctions of Riippell's Warbler see under that
species.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Rather smaller than Whitethroat and under-
parts are purer white and lores and ear-coverts dark brown. Best
distinction in field, however, is absence of broad rufous edges to
secondaries. Frequents tangled hedges, thickets and gardens,
but is more retiring in habits than Common Whitethroat. Song,
a loud, rattling " sip, sip, sip," very like song of Girl Bunting, some-
times but not always preluded by a low sweet warble only audible
at close quarters, and more rarely followed by a few babbling notes.
Notes erpressing anger and anxiety are similar to those of last
species, a hoarse " curre " and a clicking " kek, kek, kek," respec-
tively.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in thick hedges, bushes and shrubs,
generally between 2 and 5 ft. from ground. Nest. — Smaller than
Whitethroat 's and lacks the thick base, built of dry stalks and roots,
lined sometimes with roots only and sometimes freely with horsehair.
Eggs. — 4-6, rather sparingly and boldly marked, often in zone,
with sepia-brown and grey shell-marks on creamy -white ground.
Some sets very sparsely marked. Average of 100 eggs, 16.5x12.6
mm. Breeding-season. — From beginning of May, exceptionally at
end April, but usually towards mid-May. Incubation. — 10-13
days, probably averaging 11 days : male takes part (E. L. Turner).
Apparently single brooded.

FOOD. — Chiefly larvae and eggs of insects, especially larval forms of
moths ; also diptera, etc. Aphides largely eaten, and occasionally
small worms (Naumann). In summer and autumn cherries,
currants and berries of many kinds, including blackberries and
elderberries. Lynes records hard seeds in stomach.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Summer -resident. Generally distri-
buted, except in extreme south-west (where it nests in Somerset
and Devon, but is only a casual autumn-migrant to Cornwall, and
has occurred only once in Scilly Isles) and in north, being local in
Cumberland, Westmorland, Durham and Northumberland. Wales.
— Fairly well distributed in eastern parts, but rare or unknown
in coastal counties on west side. Scotland. — All nesting-records
doubtful, but those from Dumfries, Ross, and Stirling may possibly
be authentic, otherwise only known as a pas sage -mi grant, rare
and occasional in Solway and Clyde areas, twice (once singing
June) west Inverness, but not known elsewhere on west side ; on
east coast seems fairly regular in small numbers on spring and
autumn-passage, having been observed for several years at Isle
of May (Forth), but on mainland very rarely recorded. Orkneys
small numbers in spring and autumn at Sule Skerry, Auskerry
and Pentland Skerries ; Fair Isle common spring (April to June)

RUPPELL'S WARBLER. 375

and autumn (Aug. to Oct.) ; Shetlands, Lerwick, three times in
autumn ; O. Hebrides, St. Kilda, several Sept. 1910, one Oct.
1911, Flannan Isles, one Sept. 1904, one May 1905, one Aug., one
Oct. 1914, Barra, one Oct. 1898. Ireland.— Four. Tearaght
Light (Kerry) Oct. 1, 1890, InishtrahuU Light (Donegal) Oct.
10, 1899, RockabiU (Dublin) May 13, 1913, Maidens (Antrim)
Sept. 19, 1915.

MIGRATIONS.— Great Britain. — Summer-residents begin to arrive
April 8th (early date March 28) ; main body third week April to
fourth week May. Passage-migration east coast and northern
isles end April to end first week June. Southward movement of
summer-residents begins end July, main body leave during middle
weeks Sept. Passage-movement east coast mid -August to first
week Oct., stragglers frequent to mid -Oct. (Late dates Lincoln
Oct. 20, 1910, Yorks. Oct. 27, 1909, Essex Nov. 30, 1912, Hereford
Dec. 15, 1910.)

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeds in Europe from about 64°-65°
in Scandinavia and north Russia to Mediterranean, east to Ural
and apparently to Caucasus, Asia Minor and Persia, but absent from
Spain. Winters principally in north-east Africa. Replaced by
other races in Siberia and central Asia, and Khirgiz Steppes.

157. Sylvia ruppelli Temm.— RUPPELL'S WARBLER.

SYLVIA BUPPELI (corr. ruppelli) Temminck, PL. Col. 245, fig. 1 (1823
— Kandia ; though occurring in Kandia (Crete) Temminck's type came
evidently from the Red Sea or from Egypt ; cf. Cretzsehmar, Atlas
Reise, p. 29).
Sylvia ruppelli H. W. Ford-Lindsay, Brit. B., vm, p. 93.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 13). — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head, lores
and crown black, feathers lightly tipped grey ; rest of upper-
parts french-grey slightly darker on upper tail-coverts ; chin
and throat black, some feathers lightly tipped white ; from base
of bill to base of ear -co verts a conspicuous white moustachial stripe ;
ear-coverts dark french-grey, sometimes almost black ; breast,
belly and under tail-coverts greyish-white tinged pink, centre of
belly pure white ; flanks and axillaries pale grey, slightly tinged
pink ; tail-feathers black, central pair and outer webs of others
tinged grey and fringed whitish, outermost pair white with only
base black, next (penultimate) pair with the tip white extending
to about distal third of inner web, next pair with smaller white
tip ; wing-feathers black, tipped and fringed on inner and outer
webs greyish-white, innermost secondaries fringed buffish-pink ;
primary-coverts as primaries ; greater coverts tinged grey and
inner ones fringed buffish-pink ; median coverts french-grey tipped
whitish ; lesser coverts french-grey. This plumage is acquired
by complete moult Sept .-Nov. Summer. — No moult, and abrasion

376 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

causes little difference except that fringes of wing- and tail-feathers
become mostly worn off and crown and throat become uniform
black.

Adult female. — Differs from adult male in having fore-head
and crown greyish-brown with varying amount of brownish-
black usually confined to centres of feathers, thus giving a somewhat
mottled appearance, but sometimes middle of crown is nearly
black ; rest of upper -parts brown with slight greyish tinge, especially
on rump ; moustachial stripe showing distinctly whiter than chin
and throat, which are usually huffish-white often more or less
mixed with blackish ; upper-breast pale buff ; flanks browner
buff ; centre of breast and belly white ; axillaries tinged buff ;
tail- and wing-feathers as adult male but much browner not so
black ; inner secondaries and greater coverts fringed pale buff.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. Male and female. — Much like adult female but
crown and throat with no trace of black ; wing-feathers and greater
coverts edged and tipped huffish-brown.

First winter and summer. Male. — As adult male but crown
not so uniformly black, often marked grey or brown ; rest of
upper-parts not so pure a grey, but tinged . brownish ; feathers
of throat more fringed white ; wing-feathers and primary-coverts
browner and edged browner ; outer greater coverts and many
of the median and lesser coverts also browner. The juvenile
body-plumage and a varying number of innermost secondaries,
inner greater coverts and some median and lesser coverts are
moulted in autumn, but not rest of wings or tail. Female. —
Difficult to distinguish from adult female, but apparently less
black on crown and none on chin and throat and edgings of wings
and wing-coverts browner.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 68-73 mm., tail 59-64,
tarsus 20.5-22, bill from skull 13-14 (14 measured). $ wing 66-69.
Primaries : 1st usually about two-thirds as long, but occasionally
as long as longest primary-coverts, 3rd and 4th longest, 2nd and
5th sometimes as long but usually 1-3 mm. shorter, 6th 3-6 shorter ;
3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries between 9th and
10th primaries or slightly shorter, tips rounded. Tail somewhat
rounded, outer three pairs being shorter than central three pairs,
12 feathers, tips rather sharply sloped off. Bill fine, somewhat
compressed, very little flattened at base. A few short, fine nasal
and rictal bristles.

Soft parts. — Bill dark horn, paler at base of lower mandible ;
legs, feet, and iris bright red-brown.

CHARACTERS. — Black crown and throat and white moustachial
stripes of male very distinctive ; female much like Lesser White-
throat, but always has some blackish markings on feathers of
crown, more white on outer tail-feathers and shorter 1st primary.

Plate 13.

10

(IlA-'-F SATTJRAJ, SIZE.)

1, Whitethroat (Sylvia c. communis), $ adult. 2, Lesser Whitethroat (S. c. curr^a)
2 adult. 3, male adult, 4, female adult Euppell's Warbler (8. ruppelli). 5, <J adult,
«, Q 1st winter Sardinian Warbler (S. m. melanoeephala). 7, $ adult, 8, O juv.
Subalpine Warbler (S. c. cantillans). 9, <J adult, 10, juvenile Dartford Warbler (S. u.
dart/ordiensis).

[Face p. 376.]

THE SARDINIAN WARBLER. 377

Female of S. melanocephala is smaller, has longer 1st and shorter
2nd primaries and graduated tail.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Black throat and white moustache con-
spicuous in male, otherwise much like Sardinian Warbler but larger,
and tail relatively shorter and squarer. Habits similar to
Sardinian. Song also similar but fuller and more musical and
frequently uttered in flight in conjunction with butterfly-like
movement of wings. Alarm-note harsher and louder, more
" chirpy " and less " wheezy " than that of Sardinian, reminding
one of two pebbles being knocked together rapidly ; occasionally
terminated by musical " pit-pit." (H. Lynes.)

BREEDING-HABITS. — Haunts bushes and thickets, especially near
lakes and watercourses. Nest. — Neatly built of dead grasses and
stalks, lined with horsehair. Eggs. — 4-5 in number, somewhat
resembling those of Spectacled Warbler ; pale greenish ground,
closely mottled all over with yellowish spots and fine grey shell-
marks. Average of 25 eggs, 17.8x13.9 mm. Breeding-season. —
May 14-28 in Asia Minor (Selous).

FOOD. — Insects, but no exact details available.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Two males, Baldslow, Hastings, Sussex,
May 5, 1914 (ut supra).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeds in Greece, Asia Minor, Crete,
and probably in Palestine and Cyprus. Passes through Egypt.
Winters in north-east Africa (Nubia, Sudan, Red Sea).

SYLVIA MELANOCEPHALA

158. Sylvia melanocephala melanocephala (Gm.) — THE
SARDINIAN WARBLER.

MOTACTLLA MELANOCEPHALA Gmelin, Syst. Nat., i, ii, p. 970 (1789 —
Sardinia).

Sylvia melanocephala, C. B. Ticehurst, Bull. B.O.C., xix, p. 105; T.
. Parkin, Brit. B., i, p. 86 ; Saunders, p. 46 (in text).

DESCRIPTION (Plate 13). — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head,
crown, nape, lores and ear-coverts glossy jet-black ; rest of upper-
parts dark ash-grey with slight brownish tinge ; chin and throat
white ; breast and beUy rather less pure white, sometimes with
slight pink tinge on upper-breast and vent ; sides and flanks ash-
grey ; tibial feathers ash-grey tipped pink ; under tail -co verts
ash-grey tipped white ; axillaries ash-grey ; under wing-coverts
whiter ; tail-feathers black fringed ash-grey, outer pair with
outer web and distal quarter to third white, next three pairs with
varying amount of white or yellowish-white at tip ; wing-feathers
brown-black, inner webs fringed whitish, outer webs fringed ash-

378 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

grey, innermost secondaries more widely fringed and tipped ash-
grey ; all wing-coverts as innermost secondaries ; outer webs
of feathers of " bastard wing " narrowly fringed whitish. This
plumage is acquired by complete moult July-Nov. (occasionally
Dec.). Summer. — The body -feathers and occasionally central
pair of tail-feathers are moulted Jan. -Mar., but not wing-feathers
nor any wing-coverts. New plumage as winter.

Adult female. Winter. — Fore-head, crown, and lores ashy-
grey, feathers with darker, sometimes blackish centres ; nape
greyish -brown ; rest of upper -parts brown but rump and upper
tail-coverts usually more greyish ; ear -coverts brownish-grey ;
chin, throat and centre of belly white ; breast and sides pale
pinkish-brown ; flanks darker brown with slight pinkish tinge ;
under tail-coverts and axillaries pale brown ; tail-feathers brown-
black fringed grey -brown, outer feathers with less pure white than
adult male ; primaries brown-black inner webs fringed dull whitish,
outer webs fringed grey-brown, secondaries same but fringes of
outer webs browner ; greater wing-coverts dark brown with paler
brown fringes and tips ; median and lesser wing-coverts with
brownish -grey fringes and tips ; outer webs of feathers of " bastard
wing " brownish -white. Moult as male. Summer. — Moult as male.
New plumage as winter.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. Male. — Much as adult female but fore-head,
crown and ear -coverts dark sooty-brown ; sides and flanks rather
paler and more buffish-brown than adult female. Female. — As
juvenile male but fore-head, crown and ear-coverts browner and
almost uniform with rest of upper -parts ; rump and upper tail-
co verts browner ; wing- and tail-feathers browner and fringes
of tail-feathers and primaries browner.

First winter. Male. — Like adult male but rather more tinged
with brown on crown and especially nape ; rest of upper-parts
more tinged with brown (occasionally, however, adults have as
much brown tinge) ; primary -co verts and wing-feathers much
browner than adult, fringes of tail-feathers not such pure grey
and outer tail-feathers usually with not such pure white. The
juvenile body-plumage, wing-coverts and three or four innermost
secondaries are moulted July -Dec., but not primary -co verts, tail
nor rest of wing-feathers. Summer. — Moult as adult but sometimes
whole tail moults. Plumage as adult but wing-feathers browner
but not so distinctly different as in winter, as those of adults become
browner by fading.

First winter. Female. — Like adult female but fore-head,
crown and ear-coverts browner ; rump and upper tail-coverts
browner ; wings and tail browner. Moult as in male. Summer. —
Moult as male, after which it is difficult to distinguish from adult
female.

THE SARDINIAN WARBLER 379

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 57-62 mm., tail 58-65,
tarsus 20-23, bill from skull 12-13.5 (12 measured). $ wing 56-63.
Primaries : 1st 2-6 mm. longer than longest primary-coverts, 3rd
to 5th equal and longest (5th rarely 1-2 shorter), 2nd 4-5 shorter
(between 7th and 8th or equal to 7th or 8th), 6th 1-3 shorter, 7th
3-5 shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries
about 2 mm. shorter than 10th primary, tips fairly square. Tail
graduated, central pair longest, outermost pair 7-12 mm. shorter,
12 feathers, tips rounded. Bill fine, base rather flatter and broader,
tip fine and compressed. A few small and fine rictal and nasal
bristles. Nostrils not covered by feathers.

Soft parts. — Bill black, base of lower mandible pale horn ;
legs and feet flesh-brown ; iris bright brown ; orbital ring and
eyelids salmon-pink in adult, pinkish-brown in juvenile.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — S. m. momus (Palestine, Syria)
is very similar but rather smaller, male is paler on under-parts
especially on flanks, female is browner on crown and has paler
and more buffish flanks ; S. m. norrisce (Fayum — Egypt) is browner
on upper -parts and has under-parts washed with pink) ; S. m.
leucogastra (western Canaries) is similar to last but with consider-
ably less white at tips of outer tail-feathers. Female S. ruppelli is
larger, has shorter 1st and longer 2nd primaries, and paler upper-
parts. S. atricapilla is much larger and has no white in tail.

FIELD -CH AR ACTERS . — Graduated, black and white tail, small
size as compared with Blackcap, black cap and pure white throat
of male are all noticeable characters, but females and young require
more careful observation and graduated tail which is constantly
spread must be looked for. Found on hills and in plains both in
trees and in short scrub. It is restless and active and easily
alarmed, when it seeks cover (but soon reappears) and utters
stuttering string of harsh alarm-notes loud for size of bird. (H.F.W.)

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in thick bushes in gardens and sheltered
places ; about 2 to 4 ft. from ground, sometimes in low branches
of trees. Nest. — Neatly and substantially built of dead stalks
and grasses, with a little down, lined with finer grasses and some-
times with roots or horsehair. Eggs. — Normally 4-5, sometimes
only 3 : Lilford reports 6 once. Variation extreme : some types
not unlike Whitethroat's, or Sedge-Warbler's, others resemble
very large and boldly marked eggs of Lesser Whitethroat, while
erythristic types are not uncommon, some being thickly speckled
with light sienna-brown and grey or boldly spotted and blotched
with sienna-red. Average of 100 eggs, 17.8 X 13.6 mm. Breed-
ing-season.— From mid-March onward in Spain, but most eggs
found in second half April. Probably rears two broods at any
rate. Incubation. — Period not known, but male shares.

380 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

FOOD. — Chiefly larvae of insects, especially smaller lepidoptera
and orthoptera. Also spiders and aphides. Fruit and berries
eaten in latter part of year.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — One, male, near Hastings (Sussex), June
3, 1907 (lit supra). A bird seen at Exmouth (Devon) April 16, 1890,
may possibly have been of this species (cf. Saunders, p. 46).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeds in south Europe, Asia Minor,
and north-west Africa, and winters partly in same countries, partly
in Sahara, Palestine, and Nubia. Replaced by allied races in
western Canaries, Fayum (Egypt) and Syria, the latter race also
wintering in Nubia.

SYLVIA CANTILLANS*

159. Sylvia cantillans cantillans (Pall.)— THE SUBALPINE
WARBLER.

MOTACILLA CANTILLANS Pallas, in Vroeg's Cat. Verzam. Vogelen, etc.,
Adumbratiuncula, p. 4 (1764 — Italy).
Sylvia subalpina Bonelli, Saunders, p. 53.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 13). — Adult male. Winter. — Whole upper-
parts ash-grey, tinged brown, especially on mantle and back ; lores
and ear-coverts as crown but slightly darker ; from base of lower
mandible a narrow white stripe forming moustachial streak ; centre
of lower-breast and belly white ; rest of under-parts varying from
pale pink to pinkish-chestnut, with narrow white tips to many
feathers ; under tail-coverts pinkish-brown with long white tips ;
tail-feathers dark greyish -brown, fringed ash-grey, outer pair with
outer web and distal quarter to half of inner web white, next three
pairs with varying amount of white at tip ; wing-feathers dark
greyish-brown, inner webs narrowly fringed whitish, outer webs of
primaries narrowly fringed brownish -white and of secondaries
fringed pale brown ; primary-coverts as primaries ; median and
lesser coverts ash-grey with dark brown bases. This plumage is
acquired by complete moult July-Sept. Summer. — No moult and
little alteration by abrasion.

Adult female. Winter. — Upper -parts pale grey-brown, some-
times some ash-grey on crown and rump ; feathers of lores with
whitish tips ; ear -co verts pale greyish -brown ; moustachial stripes
white but not very distinct ; chin, throat, breast and flanks pinkish-
buff, with some 'pink on chin, throat and breast ; white of breast
and belly rather more extensive than in male ; tail-feathers browner

* With the unfortunately unavoidable acceptance of the names in
Vroeg's Catalogue, rediscovered some years ago by Mr. Sherborn, it becomes
necessary to adopt the name cantillans, which has 56 years' priority over
subalpina ! — E.H.

THE SUBALPINE WARBLER. 381

than in male and with brown fringes, outer tail-feathers with less
and duller white ; wing-feathers and primary-coverts browner with
brown fringes ; lesser and median coverts with grey-brown, not
ash-grey fringes. Moult as male. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion
makes crown rather greyer and pink of throat and breast rather
more prominent.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Upper -parts as adult winter female but only bases
of feathers grey ; under-parts buff, whitish on chin and white in
centre of belly ; fringes of tail- and wing-feathers and wing-coverts
more rusty-brown than in adult female.

First winter. Male. — Like adult but wing- and tail-feathers
browner, not so greyish-brown and fringes more rusty- brown. The
juvenile body -plumage, lesser and median wing-coverts and probably
greater coverts and some innermost secondaries are moulted Aug.-
Sept., but not primary -coverts, wing- or tail-feathers.

First winter and summer. Female. — Like adult but upper-
parts browner, not so greyish -brown ; under-parts paler, chin,
throat and lores being buffish -white with no pink ; breast pale buff ;
flanks bright buff ; centre of belly white ; fringes of tail- and wing-
feathers and greater wing -co verts more rusty- brown.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 55-64 mm., tail 49-55,
tarsus 18-20, bill from skull 10-11.5 (12 measured). $ wing 55-60.
Primaries : 1st equal to or 1-3 mm. shorter or longer than primary-
coverts, 3rd and 4th longest, 2nd 1-4 mm. shorter, usually between
5th and 6th but sometimes as long as 5th or as short as 6th rarely
between 6th and 7th, 5th .5-2 mm. shorter, 6th 3-4 shorter ; 3rd to
5th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries 2 mm. shorter than 10th
primary, tips fairly square. Tail somewhat rounded, three outer
pairs being graduated, 12 feathers, tips rather sharply sloped off.
Bill fine, base rather flatter and broader. A few small and fine
rictal and nasal bristles. Nostrils not covered by feathers.

Soft parts. — Bill dark brown, base of lower mandible pale
brown ; legs and feet pale brown ; iris pale ochre ; orbital ring
orange.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — S. c. inornata (north-west Africa)
has throat and breast brick-red rather than pinkish ; S. c. albistriata
(south-east Europe, Asia Minor) has 2nd primary longer than 5th
and a broader white moustachial stripe. Young females are much
like some brown female Lesser Whitethroats, but are usually smaller
and with shorter 1st primary, paler lores and ear -coverts, more
buffish, less pure white chin and throat contrasted with the pure
white moustachial stripe.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Very skulking, haunting thick scrub, from
which its clicking alarm-note may be frequently heard, but only
occasional glimpses caught, when white outer tail-feathers furnish
a good character. The males utter a little song while rising and

382 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

falling in the air. Chestnut -red throat of male distinguishes
it from all the smaller warblers (except perhaps Dartford which
lacks white moustachial streak found in both sexes of Subalpine),
and red eyelids of both sexes prevent confusion with anything but
La Marmora's Warbler, in which hen has grey and not white under
surface as in Subalpine. (F.C.R.J.)

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in low bushes, sometimes evergreens,
such as myrtle, and often in cistus plants about 1 to 3 ft. from
ground. Nest. — Slight, but neat, built of dry grasses, and bits of
down or thistle, lined finer grasses or sometimes with hair or fibre.
Eggs. — 3 or 4 as a rule, rarely 5. Greenish or greyish-white in
ground-colour, with fine spots of dark umber and ashy-violet,
chiefly towards large end. A beautiful erythristic type (Spain) has
pinkish ground and bold chestnut-red spots or blotches and some-
times lavender shell -marks. Average of 69 eggs, 16.5 x 12.9 mm.
Breeding -season. — From second week April to early June, so probably
double -brooded. Incubation. — Chiefly by female, but Lynes once
records flushing male from eggs.

FOOD. — Chiefly insects and their larvae. Lynes records beetles,
caterpillars, .and a few small grass-seeds in stomach.

DISTRIBUTION.— Scotland.— Two. One St. Kilda (0. Hebrides)
June 14, 1894 (Sharpe, Bull. B.O.C., iv, p. 9). One Fair Isle
(Shetlands) adult male, May 6, 1908 (W. E. Clarke, Ann. Scot. Nat.
Hist., 1909, p. 72, and Studies in Bird Migration, n, p. 128).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Italy, Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, southern
Alps to Savoy, south-east France, Spain, and Portugal. Partially
migratory, passing through Algeria. Replaced as breeding bird
in north-west Africa, and in south-east Europe and Asia Minor,
by allied races.

SYLVIA UNDATA

160. Sylvia undata dartfordiensis Lath.* — THE DARTFORD
WARBLER.

SYLVIA DABTFORDIENSIS Latham, Gen. Syn. Suppl., i, p. 287 (1787 —

Bexley Heath, near Dartford).

MelizophUus provincialis, Selby, Brit. Orn., i, p. 219 (1833) ; Sylvia

provinciates Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B., i, p. 414.

MelizophUus undatus (Boddaert), Yarrell, I, p. 398 ; Sylvia undata

(Boddaert), Saunders, p. 55.

* The Dartford Warbler had been in the undisturbed possession of the
name provincialis for over 60 years, when Gray, and later Newton and Dresser,
correctly adopted undata; and as the British race is darker and smaller it must
be called S. u. dartfordiensis. The generic separation of Melizophilus is not
tenable. — E.H.

THE DARTFORD WARBLER. 383

DESCRIPTION (Plate 13). — Adult male. Winter. — Crown and nape
dark slate, feathers tipped dark chocolate-brown ; rest of upper-
parts dark chocolate -brown ; lores, behind eyes, ear -coverts and
sides of neck slate-grey, lores with minute ashy specks and rest with
tinge of brown ; centre of belly white ; rest of under -parts dark
brownish-pink, feathers with slight whitish edgings, flanks browner,
less pinkish, feathers of chin and throat with wedge-shaped white
tips ; under tail-coverts pinkish-brown tipped whitish ; axillaries
slate -grey tinged pink ; tail-feathers black edged slate-grey, outer
pair with tip and outer edge of outer webs dull white, next two pairs
with a little dull white at tip ; wing-feathers brown-black, inner
webs narrowly edged dull greyish, outer webs narrowly edged pale
greyish-brown but those of inner secondaries more broadly edged
and tipped rufous-brown ; primary-coverts as primaries ; greater
and median coverts as innermost secondaries ; lesser coverts dark
slate-grey with small brown tips. This plumage is acquired by
complete moult Aug.-Nov. Summer. — Apparently no moult.*
Abrasion makes crown greyer, edgings of wing-feathers paler and
ear -coverts and sides of neck purer grey ; white tips to feathers of
throat gradually wear down, while whitish edgings to feathers of rest
of under -parts wear off making them darker.

Adult female. Winter and summer. — Like adult male but crown
browner and rest of upper -parts rather paler brown ; lores, ear-
coverts and sides of neck grey-brown ; under -parts considerably
paler and browner, less pink than male ; tail and wings dark brown,
not so black, and edgings of tail-feathers greyish-brown.

Nestling. — Down absent (skin dark). Mouth inside pale dull
yellow, two black spots on tongue ; externally flanges pale dull
yellow,

Juvenile. — Somewhat like adult female but upper-parts, includ-
ing lores, ear -co verts and sides of neck, duller, more dark earth -
brown to dark sooty-brown ; under -parts brownish-buff ; centre of
belly and chin paler, sides of breast and flanks darker and browner ;
wing-coverts browner, not with such rufous edgings.

First winter. — Apparently like adults but tail-feathers of male
rather browner and with brown instead of slate-grey edgings. The
juvenile body-plumage, wing-coverts and innermost secondaries
are moulted Aug.-Nov., but not primary -co verts, tail-feathers nor
rest of wing-feathers.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 50-54 mm., tail 59-66,
tarsus 18-20, biU from skuU 11-12 (9 measured). £ wing 50-52.
Primaries : 1st 2-5 mm. longer than primary-coverts, 4th and 5th
longest, 3rd and 6th usually as long but occasionally 1 shorter, 2nd
3-7 shorter between 8th and 10th, 7th 1-2 shorter ; 3rd to 5th clearly
and 6th slightly emarginated outer webs. Secondaries 1-2 shorter

* One specimen of S. u. undata labelled February and one of S. u. toni
labelled March were moulting in the body-plumage.

384 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

than 10th primary, tips rounded. Tail graduated, two central
pairs longest, rest graduated, outermost 7-14 mm. shorter than
central, 12 feathers, tips somewhat pointed, webs being sharply
sloped off. Bill fine, base slightly flatter and broader. Some fine
rictal and nasal bristles. Nostrils not covered by feathers.

Soft parts. — Bill blackish -horn, base of lower mandible pinkish-
yellow ; legs and feet deep straw ; iris and orbital ring bright
yellow-brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — S. u. undata (south Europe) is
considerably more slate-grey and paler on upper-parts and rather
paler on under -parts ; S. u. aremorica (north-western France) is
said to be slightly paler on upper -parts than British form ; S. u. toni
(north-west Africa) is like typical form but slightly smaller ; 8. u.
corsa (Corsica, Sardinia) is as small as last but has paler and more
vinous under -parts. Small size, dark colour and long graduated
tail easily distinguish it from other British warblers.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Small size, dark coloration and long tail,
which it has a habit of holding fairly erect, makes Dartford Warbler
easy to distinguish when seen. But except in very bright weather,
when it fairly frequently appears for a moment on top of a gorse
bush, or when it has young and becomes much bolder, it requires
patient watching to see it emerge from thick cover of gorse and
heather it frequents. Harsh, somewhat prolonged " tchirr " 2 or 3
times repeated is very distinctive, sounding occasionally like White-
throat's note but of a different quality and not to be confused when
once known. Also has rather soft " tut " alarm-note and a beauti-
ful little song. Flight weak and wavering and generally quite close
to ground. (H.F.W.)

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests either in long heather or gorse. In
heather it is generally low down, but in gorse is found at varying
heights. Nest. — Compactly built of bits of ling, grasses, moss, etc.
(when built in heather may be found almost entirely built of bits
of ling), lined with a few feathers, roots, and hair, and studded
externally with cocoons of spiders. When in gorse, dwarf-furze
is also used as nesting-material. Eggs. — Normally 3-4, occasionally
5, white or greenish in ground-colour, finely spotted with olive-
brown and leaden -grey, sometimes evenly distributed or forming
zones or caps at large end. Average of 100 eggs, 17.5 x 13.2 mm.
Breeding-season. — Variable, but most eggs laid about May 20, though
fledged young have been found on May 3 and fresh eggs late in
June. Incubation. — 12-13 days (Walpole Bond) : about 12 days
(M. B. Holcombe), chiefly at any rate by hen. Fledging -period. —
About 13 days.

FOOD. — Chiefly insects : small coleoptera, lepidoptera (butterflies,
moths large and small, caterpillars) : diptera (Tipula, Muscidce,

THE RUFOUS WARBLER. 385

Cheironomidce). Also spiders (Epeira, etc.). Said to eat black-
berries in autumn (Blyth).

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Resident. Very local. Fluctuating in
numbers. Main nesting-haunts Hants, and Surrey, extending into
Isle of Wight, Dorset, Sussex, and possibly Berks, and Wilts. ; also
breeds small numbers in Cornwall and east Suffolk, probably Essex
and possibly Oxon . ; a pair or two recorded as breeding tolerably
regularly at one locality in Salop. Some evidence that a pair
bred Cannock Chase (Staffs.) about 1870, and formerly bred in
Kent, Middlesex, and Devon, but now extinct in these counties.
Recorded breeding in Somerset and Herts, requires confirmation.
Rare vagrant to other counties in southern half of England.
Recent records of stragglers are : Warwick, one Oct. 1914 ; Staffs.,
one seen March 1915 ; Kent, one Oct. 1914. Ireland. — Female
Tuskar Rock (Wexford), Oct. 27, 1912 (R. M. Barrington, Brit.
Birds, vi, p. 220).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Birds from Channel Islands and north-
west France have been separated but are doubtfully distinct from
British form. Replaced by closely-allied races in south-west Europe
and north-west Africa.

Genus AGROBATES Swains.

Agro>>ates Swainson, Nat. Hist. & Class B., n, p. 241 (1837 — Monotype :
A. gala"totes).

Differs from Sylvia by the tail, which consists of very broad
feathers and is strongly rounded ; tail is often spread out like a fan
and is cinnamon-red, the lateral rectrices with white tips and black
subterminal bars. 1st primary longer than primary-coverts, 2nd
equal to 6th or between 5th and 6th, more rarely between 6th and
7th, or between 4th and 5th. Tarsus scutellated in front. Sexes
alike, young like old. One species in several subspecies. Mediterra-
nean region and west Asia to Sudan. Nest open, eggs spotted.

AGROBATES GALACTOTES*

161. Agrobates galactotes galactotes (Temm.)— THE RUFOUS
WARBLER.

SYLVIA GALACTOTES Temminck, Man. d'Orn., ed. n, i, p. 182 (1820 —

S. Spain).

Aedon galactodes (Temminck), Yarrell, i, p. 355 ; Saunders, p. 73.

*The generic name " Aedon " has erroneously been accepted for the
Rufous Warblers. This name was first introduced by Forster, 1817, for the
Nightingales ; Boie's use of the same name for the Rufous Warblers, in
1826, is therefore null and void. — E.H.

2c

386 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Bufous Warbler (Agrobates g. galactotes). Tail from underneath.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Whole upper-
parts uniform brownish-chestnut but rump and upper tail-coverts
rather more rufous ; broad, distinct line from nostrils, over and
behind eye creamy-white ; centre of lores and line immediately
behind eye dark brown ; under eye whitish ; ear-coverts pale
brown ; under-parts sandy-white, chin, centre of belly and under
tail-coverts more whitish than breast, which is slightly darker,
and flanks, which are still darker ; tail-feathers bright rufous-
chestnut, central pair with a little blackish at tip, 2nd pair with
broad black subterminal band and narrow white tip, 3rd pair with
twice as much white at tip, 4th pair with twice as much white as
3rd, 5th pair again with twice as much white as 4th, 6th (outer-
most) pair with still more white and black subterminal band
narrower than in the other feathers ; wing-feathers dark brown,
inner webs edged pale isabelline, outer webs of primaries edged
pale chest nut -brown and of secondaries but with fringes of creamy-
white, tips of secondaries creamy-white, innermost secondaries
much as mantle with darker brown centres ; primary-coverts
dark brown, with pale brown edges and creamy tips ; greater
coverts much as primary-coverts but with broader creamy edges ;
median and lesser coverts much as mantle with creamy tips. (N.B.
— The depth of the colour in upper-parts varies somewhat.) This
plumage is acquired by complete moult in autumn, beginning
sometimes in July. Summer. — No moult and very little effect
by abrasion.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

THE RUFOUS WARBLER. 387

Juvenile. — Like adults but upper-parts rather paler and more
sandy, less chestnut ; feathers of throat, breast and sides with
dark sandy tips, giving a slightly speckled appearance ; flanks
rather paler than adult ; tail -feathers with less black than in
adults and usually with none at all on outer webs.

First winter. — Like adult. The juvenile body -feathers, and
apparently greater, median and lesser wing-coverts and two or
three innermost secondaries are moulted June-Oct., but not
primary -co verts nor rest of wing -feathers. The tail would seem
to moult, as in all winter and summer birds the tail-feathers have
well-marked black subterminal bands but no specimens actually
moulting tail have been examined.

Measurements and structure.— •<$ wing 85-91 mm., tail 68-75,
tarsus 26-28, bill from skull 18-20 (12 measured). $ wing 82-86,
tail 67-71 . Primaries : 1st 3-6 mm. longer than primary -co verts,
3rd and 4th longest, 5th sometimes as long but usually 1 mm.
shorter, 6th 3-5 shorter, 2nd 3-6 shorter ; 3rd and 4th clearly,
and 5th slightly, emarginated outer webs. Secondaries about
equal 10th primary, tips rather square. Tail rounded laterally,
outermost pair 6-10 mm. shorter than central, 12 feathers, tips
rounded. Distal half of bill compressed, basal portion broader
and flatter. Some fine, short rictal and nasal bristles. Nostrils
not covered by feathers.

Soft parts. — Bill dark horn-brown, base of lower mandible
greyish-flesh ; legs and feet pale brown ; iris brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — A. g. minor (Abyssinia, north
Somaliland, south Sahara) is like A. g. galactotes but decidedly
smaller and with less black on subterminal bands of tail-feathers ;
A. g. familiaris (south Caucasus to Turkestan and Baluchistan) is
like A. g. syriacus but paler and more greyish-brown on upper-
parts. The bright rufous tail with white tips and black sub-
terminal bands distinguish the species.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — The fox-red colour of its upper-parts and
the white and black tips to the tail, which is frequently erected
and spread are very distinctive. It has a beautiful papilio-like
downward flight with uplifted wings and frequently sings as it
descends. (H.F.W.)

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds in hedges of prickly pear or bushes,
generaUy within a few feet of ground. Nest. — Roughly and un-
tidily built of grasses, fibre, bents, with a neat cup lined fine roots,
hair, etc., and almost invariably a piece of snake-skin. Eggs. —
4-5, greyish-white or greenish-grey ground, closely freckled and
spotted all over with umber and ashy-brown. Average of 113 eggs,
22.4 X 16.4mm. Breeding -season. — Most eggs laid in Spain and north
Africa in second half of May or early in June. Single brooded.

2C2

388 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

FOOD. — Obtained on ground as well as in bushes ; insects (coleop-
tera, orthoptera, larvae of lepidoptera, etc.). Also earthworms.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Five. One near Brighton (Sussex),
Sept. 16, 1854 (W. Borrer, Zool, 1854, p. 4511). One Start (Devon)
Sept. 25, 1859 (G. R. Gray, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 3, Vol.
iv, p. 399.) One Slapton (Devon) Oct. 12, 1876 (H. Nicholls,
Zool., 1876, p. 5179). One Brede (Sussex) Sept, 20, 1913 (H. W.
Ford-Lindsay, Brit. B., vn, p. 172). One Old Head of Kinsale
(Cork) Sept., 1876 (R. J. Ussher, Irish Nat., 1899, p. 52).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Southern Spain and Portugal, north
Africa, south Syria. Stray birds have been observed in Italy.
Appears in winter or on passage in oases of Great Desert.

162. Agrobates galactotes syriacus (Hempr. & Ehr.) — THE
BROWN-BACKED WARBLER.

CUKRUCA GALACTODES YAK. sYRiACA Hemprich and Ehrenberg, Symb.
Phys., fol. bb (1833— Syria [Beirut]).

Aedon familiaris, J. B. Nichols, Brit. B., i, p. 257; A. F. Griffith, Bull.
B.O.C., xxvn, p. 29. A. g. syriacus, Witherby, Brit. B., iv, p. 310.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. — Like A. g. galactotes but
crown, mantle, scapulars and back brown not chestnut and darker
than in A. g. galactotes ; rump and upper tail -co verts chestnut
as in A. g. galactotes and contrasting strikingly with rest of upper-
parts ; eye-stripe rather purer white ; under -parts greyer not
sandy-coloured ; central tail-feathers with most of outer webs
brown and tips of inner webs brown ; wing-feathers and wing-
coverts darker brown than in A. g. galactotes and edgings and tips
whiter.

Nestling and Juvenile. — (Not examined.)

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 83-89 mm., tail 62-69,
tarsus 25-27, bill from skull 17-20 (12 measured). £ wing 79-85,
tail 58-65. Primaries : 1st 1-3 mm. longer or 1-2 shorter, than
primary -co verts, 3rd and 4th longest, 2nd and 5th 1.5-2.5 mm.
shorter, 6th 5-8 shorter ; 3rd and 4th emarginated outer webs.
Other structure as A. g. galactotes.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Similar to those of Rufous Warbler, but nest is
more frequently placed in a tree, especially in olive-groves,
4 to 6 ft. from the ground. Eggs. — Also similar in type, but on
average slightly smaller. Average of 87 eggs, 21.7x16 mm.
Breeding-season. — From May 18 to June 18 in Greece : mostly late
in May or early in June. Single brooded.

FOOD.— Chiefly insects : coleoptera, orthoptera (locusts, grass-
hoppers, etc.). Also earthworms.

GENUS TURDUS. 389

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Four. Male, Hythe (Kent) July 15,
1907. Male, Ninfield (Sussex) May 13, 1910 (ut supra). Male,
Westfield (Sussex) May 7, 1915 (H. W. Ford-Lindsay, Brit. Birds,
ix, p. 155). Male, West St. Leonards (Sussex) June 8, 1918
(J. B. Nichols, op. c., xn, p. 160).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — From south Herzegovina and south
Dalraatia throughout Greece and Ionian Islands to Asia Minor and
north Syria. Winters in south Arabia, Somaliland, and east Africa
(Mombasa). Replaced in south Caucasus, Persia, Mesopotamia,
Transcaspia, Turkestan, Afghanistan, and Baluchistan by A. g.
familiaris, which winters in north-west India, Sind, and Rajpu-
tana, and has been recorded once from Heligoland.

Genus TURDUS L.

TUKDTJS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 168 (1758 — Type by sub-
sequent designation, Gray 1840 : T. viscivorus).

Middle-sized, ten-primaried Oscines. Bills more or less shorter
than head, culmen distinctly curved, cutting edge of upper
mandible distinctly notched anterior to tip. Rictal and nasal
bristles distinct. Nostril oval or roundish, partly covered by a
membrane and in varying degree by frontal feathering. Wings
long and pointed, longest primaries much exceeding secondaries.
1st primary generally much shorter than primary -co verts, sometimes
(T. merula) nearly as long. Tail usually with 12, but some (not all)
subspecies of T. dauma with 14 rectrices. Feet strong, tarsus in
front with sheath, only subdivided at base. Nests deep open cups,
eggs spotted. Almost cosmopolitan. By some ornithologists split
up into number of genera.

Key to adults of species of genus TURDUS.

I Tail with 14 rectrices, strongly rounded . . T. dauma aureus, p. 390
Tail with 12 rectrices, square or as good as
square 2

( 3rd to 6th primaries with outer webs sinuated

^ /A.tit.pnnft.t.AH V»ftfr»rA mirlrll*^

(attenuated before middle) .... T. merula, p. 418

3rd to 5th primaries with outer webs sinuated 3

Under wing-coverts white . . . . 4
Under wing-coverts not white ... 5

1 Tail-feathers with some white at tips, upper-
parts greyish-brown T. viscivorus, p. 395
Tail-feathers uniform, i.e., without white at tips,
rump grey, interscapulary region chestnut . T. pilaris, p. 392

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Abdomen black or blackish, with or without

light edges to feathers T. torquatus, p. 413

Abdomen partially or entirely white . 6

Abdomen uniform white throughout, feathers of

throat black or black with white edges . . T. ruficollis, p. 410
Abdomen, at least partially, spotted, throat white

or buff 7

Inner webs of quills and outer ones of secondaries

partially rufous T. eunomus, p. 407

No rufous on wing-feathers. ... 8

(Under wing-coverts and sides of breast bright
rufous T. musicus, p. 404
Under wing-coverts rusty-yellow, no rufous on
sides T. philomelus, p. 399

TURDUS DAUMA

163. Turdus dauma aureus Hoi.*— WHITE 'S THRUSH.

TUBDUS AUREUS Holandre, Fauna dep. Moselle, in Ann. Moselle, p 60

(1825— Metz).

Turdus Whitei Eyton, Rarer Brit. B., p. 92 (1836 — Christchurch).

Turdus varius Pallas, Yarrell, i, p. 251 ; Saunders, p. 11.

T. d. aureus Hartert, Brit. B., iv, p. 129.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 14). — Adult male and female. Winter. —
Whole upper -parts yellowish olive-brown, each feather with a broad
black tip and an olive-yellow subterminal band ; lores whitish
with faint black tips ; feathers of sides of head and under-parts
white with black tips and yellow subterminal bands ; feathers of
sides of breast olive-brown, those of centre of belly almost pure
white with only a few narrow black tips ; chin and upper-throat and
under tail-coverts white, often tinged buffish, feathers with black
tips (sometimes almost absent, sometimes well marked) ; greater
under wing-coverts with basal half black and distal half pure white,
axillaries with basal half pure white and distal half black, forming
together a broad black band under wing ; tail : two central pairs
olive-brown, next three pairs brown-black with olive-brown bases
and whitish tips, two outer pairs with larger white tips and with
brown-black bases and some olive-brown on distal portions ;
primaries and secondaries dark brown with a broad yellowish-
white band across middle of inner webs, usually commencing on
3rd primary, outer webs mostly yellowish-olive, but with dark
brown encroaching on it in an irregular line and at tip, innermost
secondaries with olive-yellow tips ; primary -coverts brown-black
at tip and base, middle of outer webs olive-yellow and of inner webs
whitish ; greater wing-coverts brown-black with broad olive-brown

* Holandre's name is two years earlier than Pallas's varius. — E.H.

WHITE'S THRUSH. 391

fringes to outer webs and olive-yellow tips ; median wing-coverts
mostly brown-black with pale, large olive-yellow tips ; lesser
wing-coverts olive-brown with very narrow blackish tips and pale
subterminal spots. This plumage appears to be acquired by
complete moult in Aug.-Sept., but no adults in actual moult have
been examined. Summer. — A moult of the body -feathers takes
place in March and April, at all events in some examples, but
insufficient material is available to determine precise extent and
regularity of moult. Abrasion both of winter feathers before this
moult and of new feathers later in summer makes upper -parts,
wings and central tail-feathers much greyer and less olive-brown.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Much like adult but with subterminal bands of
feathers of upper -parts more yellowish and not so olivaceous ;
chin and upper-throat and under tail -coverts buffish -white without
any black tips ; rest of under -parts with narrower black tips and
deeper orange-buff subterminal bands than in adult ; two central
pairs of tail-feathers with yellowish-buff tips.

First winter. — Like adults except for tips to central tail-feathers,
which are as in juvenile. The juvenile body -feathers, lesser, median
and inner greater wing-coverts are moulted in Aug.-Sept., but not
rest of greater coverts nor primary -coverts, wing- or tail-feathers.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 155-164 mm., tail 95-108,
tarsus 33-38, bill from skull 28-31 (12 measured). $ wing 154-167.
Primaries : 1st 4—14 mm. shorter than primary -co verts, 3rd longest,
4th sometimes equal but usually 1-2 mm. shorter, 2nd 5-8 shorter,
5th 8-10 shorter, 6th 20-25 shorter ; 3rd and 4th clearly, and 5th
indistinctly, emarginated outer webs. Secondaries slightly shorter
than 10th primary, tips fairly square. Tail rounded laterally,
outermost feathers being 10-1 5 mm. shorter than longest, 14feathers,
tips ending in fine point, especially in juvenile. Bill strong,
cul men slightly curved, especially at tip, upper mandible larger than
lower, with a notch on cutting edges near tip. Nostrils partly
covered by membrane but not by feathers. A good many fairly
strong rictal and nasal bristles. Frequently filoplumes on nape
numerous and projecting beyond feathers.

Soft parts. — Bill brown, with base of lower mandible yellowish ;
legs and feet pale yellowish-brown ; iris brown.
CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — T. d. major (Loo Choo Islands)
has only 12 tail-feathers and is larger ; T. d. horsfieldi (Java, Lombok)
has 14 tail-feathers but is much smaller ; T. d. dauma (Himalayas)
has only 12 tail-feathers and is smaller than T. d. aureus ; T. d.
socius (Ta-tsien-lu, China) is said to be darker ; T. d. affinis and
angustirostris (both Siam) require further confirmation. Fourteen
tail-feathers, golden and black spotted appearance of upper-parts
and broad black band under wing distinguish White's from other
British Thrushes.

392 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Very shy, usually haunting thick forest -
growth, where it is extremely difficult to observe. Apparently
a very silent bird, but is said by Japanese to possess a melancholy
song which is usually heard in overcast weather. Movements
and general appearance suggestive of Mistle-Thrush but at close
range crescentic markings distinctly visible. (Collingwood Ingram.)
BREEDING-HABITS. — Haunts deep forest with heavy undergrowth.
Nest. — Usually placed in fork of tree, about 12 to 20 ft. up, built
chiefly of moss with a few twigs and thickly lined pine-needles.
Eggs. — 4-5, occasionally 3, greenish-blue ground almost obscured
by fine reddish freckles, but generally one egg in each set shows
much more ground-colour and fewer and bolder markings. Average
size of 90 eggs, 32.6x23.9 mm. Breeding-season. — From mid-May
onward to late July in Japan. Probably double-brooded.
FOOD. — Said to consist chiefly of insects, but Swinhoe says it eats
banyan berries in spring in China. Small beetles and fibrous matter
in a Norfolk specimen (T. E. Gunn).

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Vagrant. Since the first, near
Christchurch (Hants.), Jan. 24, 1828, authentic examples have been
recorded, almost all in winter, from Cornwall, Devon, Somerset,
Gloucester, Salop, Warwick, Sussex (four), Suffolk, Norfolk, Yorks.
(five), Durham, Northumberland. In Scotland two, Hardacres
(Berwick), Dec. 1878, Aberdeen, Oct. 1913. In Ireland three,
near Bandon (Cork), Ballymahon (Longford), and Westport (Mayo).
DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — East Siberia and Japan. Winters in
south China and Formosa. Occasionally observed in Philippine
Islands, in Pegu, Assam, west Siberia, and various parts of Europe
from Urals and Scandinavia to Belgium, France, and Italy.
Replaced by other subspecies on Loo Choo (Riu Kiu) Islands, in
mountains of Java and Lombok, Himalayas (T. dauma dauma),
south India, Sechuan and Siam, the last requiring confirmation.

[NOTE. — An example of the SIBERIAN THRUSH, Turdus sibiricus sibiricus
Pal., is said to have been shot in Surrey (winter 1860-61) and another to have
been picked up at Bonchurch, Isle of Wight (winter 1874), but the evidence
is not considered sufficient (cf. Saunders, p. 12). The adult male is dark slate-
colour with a pure white eye-stripe and white centre of belly and tips of under
tail- and wing-coverts and tail-feathers, while the female is dark brown above
and whitish (feathers tipped brown) below, axillaries white with blackish tips.
It inhabits Siberia, wintering in eastern India, Andamans, south China and
Greater Sunda Islands. Has been obtained in Germany, Belgium, Holland,
France, and Bulgaria.]

TURDUS PILARIS

164. Turdus pilaris L.— THE FIELDFARE.

TURDUS PILARIS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 168 (1758 — Europe.

Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Turdus pilaris Linnaeus, Yarrell, I, p. 272 ; Saunders, p. 7.

Plate 14.

(2-5THS NATURAL SIZE.)

1, White's Thrush (Turdus d. aureus). 2, $ Adult Fieldfare (T. pilaris). 3, British
Song-Thrush (T. ph. clarkei). 4, Hebridean Song-Thrush (T. ph. hebridensis).
5, g Adult summsr, 6, Juvenile, Rock-Thrush (Monticola saxatilis).

[Face p. 392.]

THE FIELDFARE. 393

DESCRIPTION (Plate 14). — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head and
crown bluish-grey slightly tinged brownish and each feather with
brown -black centre varying in size ; nape, hind -neck, rump and
upper tail-coverts same, but without black centres and feathers
of rump usually with whitish shaft -streaks ; mantle and scapulars
dark chestnut-brown, centres of feathers blackish and tips paler
&,nd greyish ; indistinct line from nostrils, over and behind eye
greyish-white to creamy-buff ; lores and under eye black ; ear-
coverts as nape ; chin, throat and centre of breast warm buff with
brown -black streaks varying considerably in number, size and
shape ; feathers of sides of breast and flanks with brown-black
centres, bordered with rusty-buff and tipped white ; lower-breast
white, tinged buff ; belly white, some feathers with concealed dark
markings ; under tail-coverts with dark brownish-grey bases and
edgings and long white tips and centres ; axillaries and under
wing-coverts white ; tail brown-black (with obsolete dark bars
observable in certain lights), outer webs fringed greyish at base,
outer pair with narrow whitish margin at tip of inner webs ; pri-
maries brown-black, inner web greyish at base, outer webs of outer
feathers fringed grey, those of inner feathers browner ; secon-
daries with outer webs fringed more broadly with more chestnut-
brown but greyish at tips ; primary -co verts as outer primaries ;
greater and median wing-coverts with inner webs dark brown and
outer webs mostly chestnut -brown with pale grey tips ; lesser
wing-coverts with less chestnut, more grey and dark centres. This
plumage is acquired by complete moult in July-Sept. Summer. —
No moult. Abrasion makes blackish centres of feathers of crown
conspicuous, nape and rump purer grey, mantle rather paler, under-
parts less buff and dark markings more conspicuous.

Adult female. W inter.— Like adult male, but crown, nape and
rump more washed with brownish, and feathers of crown with
smaller black centres ; mantle, scapulars and edgings of secondaries
and wing-coverts paler, not such rich chestnut-brown ; throat and
breast usually paler, not such deep buff ; dark markings on flanks
browner and not so solid. Same moult as male. Summer. — Same
differences as winter, but head, nape and rump purer grey.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. Male and female. — Crown and nape greyish-brown,
feathers with whitish shaft-streaks ; rump same but rather greyer ;
upper tail-coverts same but with pale tips ; mantle and scapulars
brown, feathers with whitish to pale buff centres (varying in size)
and with blackish tips ; line from nostrils, over and behind eye
creamy-buff ; lores and line under eye blackish ; ear-coverts pale
buff marked with grey and black ; chin and centre of upper-throat
pale buff, sides and lower-throat and breast rather deeper buff,
each feather tipped with roundish black-brown spot ; rest of under-
paits white spotted same but with few spots in centre of belly

394 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

(N.B. — Under-parts thus with much more spotted appearance
than in adults) ; under tail -co verts and axillaries as adult ; tail
as adult ; wing-feathers as adult, but outer edgings of primaries
usually browner and of secondaries paler and less chestnut ; greater
wing-coverts as adult, but outer webs paler and browner (less
chestnut) and feathers with whitish tips and inner ones with whitish
shaft-lines at tip ; median and lesser coverts brown with buffish-
white tips and buff shaft -streaks.

First winter and summer. Male. — Like adult, but nape and
rump usually more tinged with brownish and not so pure grey ;
greater coverts with less chestnut edgings, and whitish tips and
usually one or two inner ones with white shaft-streak ; wing-feathers
differing slightly as in juvenile. The juvenile body-plumage,
median and lesser, and varying number of greater wing-coverts are
moulted in Aug. -Sept. but not wing- and tail-feathers nor outer
greater coverts. Female. — White tips and shaft-streaks of greater
coverts distinguish it from adult female, the other differences
observable in male being scarcely noticeable.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 140-153 mm., tail 100-110,
tarsus 31-34, bill from skull 23-24.5 (12 measured). $ wing 135-148.
Primaries : 1st about half primary-coverts, 3rd longest, 4th some-
times equal usually 1-2 mm. shorter, 2nd 5-10 shorter, 5th 5-10
shorter, 6th 20-25 shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs.
Outermost tail-feathers about 5 mm. shorter than rest, 12 feathers.
Other structure as White's Thrush.

Soft parts. — Bill in winter orange-yellow with tips of both
mandibles black-brown and most of upper mandible clouded same ;
in summer all yellow in male, but upper mandible with some brown
in female ; legs and feet brown ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS. — No subspecies. General coloration of upper-parts
together with white axillaries and large size distinguish it from
other Thrushes.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Frequents fields and open country autumn
to spring. Essentially gregarious. Feeds mostly on ground, in
loose flocks, all birds facing in same direction, but eats hedgerow
fruit in hard weather. Slate-grey neck and rump with chestnut-
brown back and brown wings and tail distinctive. In flight white
axillaries and under-wing conspicuous, as in Mistle-Thrush, but
build slighter and tail proportionately longer. Characteristic
harsh " teak, tsak, tsak," uttered when birds are disturbed and as
flocks pass from place to place. Song poor.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests usually in colonies, in woods of birch,
alder or fir, but also at times in gardens ; occasionally on wood-
stacks, rocks or huts and even on ground. Nest. — Built of grasses
with layer of mud beneath inner lining, occasionally a few twigs or a

THE MISTLE-THRUSH. 395

little moss in foundation. Eggs. — Usually 5-6, sometimes only 4,
while 7 and 8 are on record. Variable ; many like Blackbird's, but
some have bright blue ground and others are boldly blotched or
capped with red-brown. Average of 100 eggs, 28.8x20.9 mm.
Breeding-season. — In April in Poland, but May to July in Scandi-
navia ; double-brooded. Incubation. — No reliable data ; probably
chiefly by hen.

FOOD. — Varied, both animal and vegetable. Mollusca (slugs and
small land -shells) ; annelida (earthworms) ; insects (coleoptera,
diptera (larvae), etc.). Also many kinds of berries (hawthorn,
holly, mountain ash, yew, rowan, juniper, dog-rose, pyracanthus,
etc.) and swedes attacked, especially in hard weather. Grain also
taken.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Winter- visitor and passage-migrant.
Generally distributed.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — From Shetlands to Wash small
numbers arrive last week Sept. and early Oct. (early dates Sept. 7
Antrim, 16 Kent, 18 Yorks.), followed by large immigrations until
third week Nov., and spread west and south-west to winter-quarters.
Smaller streams, probably after an overland flight, pass down
west coast Scotland and through the isles, the latter reaching
winter-quarters in Ireland. Some of those passing down either
coast are passage-migrants, and leave the country from western
half of southern seaboard. Southward " weather-movements "
occur in winter. Passage-migrants arrive on south coast England
from late March through April to early May. These join our
winter- visitors, which leave much as they arrived throughout April
to early, and sometimes mid, May, and even the end of the month
in the northern isles (late dates Northants., May 23, Perthshire, June
10, 1915, Cumberland, July 11, 1918, Leicestershire, July 29, 1864).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — North Europe and north Asia, east to
Lena, south to parts of Germany, Austria and Hungary, wintering
in central and south Europe, in small numbers to north-west Africa
and north-west India. Casual Iceland, Jan Mayen, Madeira and
Canaries.

TURDUS VISCIVORUS

1 65. Turdus viscivorus viscivorus L.— THE MISTLE-THRUSH.

TURDUS VISCIVORUS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 168 (1758 — Europe.
Restricted typical locality : England ; cf. Hartert, Vog. pal. Fauna, i,
p. 647, note).
T urdus viscivorus Linnajus, Yarrell, i, p. 258 ; Saunders, p. 1.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 15). — Adult male and female. Winter. — Fore-
head, crown, nape, mantle and scapulars brown to greyish-brown,

396 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

each feather with a slightly darker shaft-streak ; back, rump and
upper tail-coverts same but feathers edged with yellowish-buff
and most of upper tail-coverts tipped greyish-white ; lores and
feathers round eyes greyish -white ; ear -co verts pale buff to whitish
with dull brown tips and edges ; chin and centre of throat bumsh-
white with a few small black- brown wedge-shaped spots ; sides of
throat and neck rather buffer, with more numerous and larger spots ;
upper-breast with very large wedge-shaped spots varying in size and
rest of under -parts with rounder spots, upper-breast and flanks
strongly washed yellowish-buff, centre of breast and belly whiter and
latter with much smaller spots ; under tail -co verts with brown bases
and edges and buffish-white tips and shaft-streaks ; axillaries white
with sometimes a dark spot at tip of one or two feathers ; under
wing-coverts white ; tail-feathers jgreyish-brown narrowly edged
greyish-buff on outer webs and greyish-white on inner webs, outer-
most pair with white tips and varying amount of white or greyish-
white on inner webs, next two pairs with much smaller white tips
on inner webs ; primaries dark brown with outer webs narrowly
edged greyish-buff, becoming white towards tips, basal portion of
inner webs white ; secondaries same but outer webs more widely
fringed creamy-buff and innermost feathers with white or whitish
tips ; primary -co verts dark brown, narrowly edged creamy or
greyish-white ; greater coverts rather paler brown with outer
webs more widely fringed buffish-cream to greyish-white ; median
coverts brown with buffish-cream to greyish-white tips ; lesser
coverts uniform brown. This plumage is acquired by complete
moult Aug. -Oct. (N.B. — Amount of buff on under-parts and
greyish tinge on upper-parts as well as colour of edgings of wing-
feathers and wing -coverts varies individually, even in fresh plumage.)
Summer. — No true moult, but a few body -feathers are frequently
renewed Jan. -March. Abrasion makes upper-parts greyer-brown
and under-parts less buff, and edgings of wing-feathers and coverts
wear off or become whiter.

Nestling. — Down, buffish-white, plentiful and fairly long.
Distribution, inner and occasionally outer supra-orbital, occipital,
spinal, humeral and ulnar. Mouth, inside bright yellow, no tongue-
spots ; externally flanges pale yellow.

Juvenile. — Whole crown, nape, back and rump usually buffish-
brown but sometimes greyish-brown or tinged olivaceous, each
feather with a darker tip and creamy-buff to whitish centre ;
mantle and scapulars darker with larger and more conspicuous
pale centres ; upper tail -coverts like rump but with less conspicuous
pale centres and pale tips ; under-parts much as adult but chin
and centre of throat usually with no spots at all and spots on rest
of under-parts rather smaller ; tail as adult ; primaries, secondaries,
primary and greater coverts as adult but edgings of outer webs
more yellowish-buff and inner greater coverts with wedge-shaped

THE MISTLE-THRUSH. 397

buff tips extending almost to the base of innermost feathers ;
median and lesser coverts like innermost greater coverts.

First winter and summer. — Like adults but usually with a few
feathers on upper-parts, especially on rump, scapulars or wing-
coverts, with pale shaft-streaks ; usually rather deeper buff on
breast, sides and flanks than adults. The juvenile body-plumage,
lesser, median and inner greater wing -coverts are moulted May -Aug.
but not outer greater coverts, primary -coverts nor wing- and tail-
feathers.

Measurements and structure. — Q wing 145-157 (one 162) mm.,
tail 100-117, tarsus 30-35, bill from skull 22-25 (12 measured).
$ wing 145-157. Primaries : 1st 8-15 mm. shorter than primary-
coverts, 3rd and 4th longest, 2nd 4-8 shorter, 5th 3-7 shorter, 6th
15-22 shorter ; 3rd to 5th clearly and 6th slightly emarginated
outer webs. Outermost tail-feathers about 5 mm. shorter than
rest, 12 feathers. Other structure as White's Thrush.

Soft parts. — Bill dark horn-brown, with base of lower mandible
yellowish ; legs and feet yellowish -brown ; iris brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — T. v. deichleri (north-west
Africa) is scarcely separable but has a slightly longer and finer
bill and is frequently greyer on upper -parts and less buff on
under -parts ; T. v. bonapartei (Turkestan, Himalayas) is larger and
upper-parts are paler and considerably greyer. White under-wing
distinguishes it at once from White's and Song-Thrushes.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Larger and greyer than Song-Thrush, with
larger and fan-shaped breast-spots. White tips to outer tail-
feathers show in flight at close quarters. White axillaries and
under-wing distinguish from other Thrushes except Fieldfare,
from which differs in more undulating flight. Juveniles sometimes
mistaken for White's Thrush. Gregarious to some extent in
autumn ; feeds much on hedgerow fruit and berries of mountain
ash and juniper at that season. Intolerant of competition by
other Thrushes for such food, and fearless in defence of nest, boldly
attacking Hawks, Crows and Magpies. Song loud and wild, a
single phrase repeated again and again, lacks variety of Song-
Thrush's. Call -note reiterated " tuc." Alarm-note a harsh, grating
le."

BREEDING-HABITS. — Usually builds in fork, or sometimes out on
bough, of a tree, often at considerable height above ground, but
also exceptionally in hedgerows or low bushes, and near the coast,
in recesses of rocks. Has also nested on buildings and holes in
walls. Nest.— Built of bents, roots, moss, etc., with earth to
solidify it, lined dry grasses, and sometimes decorated with lichens,
bits of wool, linen, rags, etc. Eggs. — Normally 4, occasionally 5,
and 6 on record. Colour ranges from tawny -cream to greenish -blue,

398 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

blotched and spotted with sienna-brown and lilac shell-marks,
while in a few cases markings are almost absent. Average of 100
British eggs, 30.7x22.8 mm. Breeding-season. — Begins February,
but many do not breed till late March or early April. Incubation. —
15th day in incubator (Evans) ; 14 days (N. M. Richardson), by
hen alone (Richardson), though Naumann says male relieves her
at mid-day. Two broods frequently reared. Fledging-period. —
13-14 days (Brock) ; 15-16 (Richardson).

FOOD. — Largely fruit and berries, but also includes mollusca
(slugs) ; annelida (worms) ; insects (coleoptera and their larvae,
lepidoptera (larvae), hymenoptera (ants), and larvae of diptera).
Also spiders, and known to kill young Song-Thrush, Blackbird
and slow-worm. Besides fruit (cherries, apples, plums and black-
currants), many kinds of berries or seeds (yew, ash, maple, rowan,
juniper, honey-suckle, hawthorn, rose, holly, ivy, bird-cherry,
mistletoe, etc.).

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Resident. Generally distributed
except in higher mountains and treeless districts, and only thinly
distributed in north-west Scotland, breeds in most I. Hebrides,
but rare vagrant in 0. Hebrides except Stornoway (Lewis), where
bred 1906 and possibly since 1902 ; rare Orkneys, but has bred ;
scarce passage -migrant Fair Isle, and rare vagrant Shetlands.
First seen in Ireland about 1800 ; has been spreading ever
since.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Many of our breeding-birds and
their young move southwards from late August onwards, some
apparently wintering in southern counties, while others cross to
Ireland and others cross overseas from early Oct . onwards . Passage-
migrants and winter-visitors arrive in northern isles and on east
coast and pass down latter and west coast (Argyll to Cornwall)
mid-Sept, to fourth week Nov. ; some perhaps pass to Ireland,
others remain as winter-visitors, while others leave by south
coast, mid-Oct. to end Nov. Winter weather-movements recorded
south, east and west coasts England and Wales in most years up
to mid-Feb. From mid-Feb. to early April return immigration
on south coast, with passage -movements in reverse direction by
same routes as in autumn (but little evidence as yet from east
coast) up to May 12 in northern isles, but hitherto not recorded
elsewhere after first week April.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — North and central and mountains of
south Europe, east to Ural and west Siberia. Winters in Mediter-
ranean countries. Replaced in north-west Africa and central Asia
and perhaps western Russia and west Mediterranean isles, by allied
forms.

THE CONTINENTAL SONG-THRUSH. 399

TURDUS PHILOMELUS*

166. Turdus philomelus philomelus Brehm — THE CON-
TINENTAL SONG-THRUSH.

TURDUS PHILOMELOS Brehm, Handb. Naturg. Vog. Deutschl., p. 382 (1831

— Middle Germany).

Turdus musicus (nori Linnaeus, 1758 !), Yarrell, i, p. 264 (part) ; Saunders,

p. 3 (part).

Turdus philomelos, Hartert, Brit. B., iv, p. 131.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Like T. ph.
darkei, but nape, mantle and scapulars paler, somewhat greyer and
not of so reddish a tinge ; rump and upper tail-coverts greyer and
more olive ; buff of under-parts paler and not so extensive, chin and
upper throat being usually whitish or very pale buff and white of
belly extending farther up breast. Moult as in T. ph. darkei.
Summer. — Same differences, but more marked, upper-parts becom-
ing considerably greyer and under-parts whiter. (N.B. — There is
considerable individual variation and a series should be compared.)

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like that of T. ph. darkei.

Measurements and structure and Soft parts. — As in T. ph.
darkei.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Can sometimes be distinguished in field from
British Song-Thrush, especially when flying low, by greyer appear-
ance, but usually no difference of which one can be certain is
apparent. Rather shyer. (H.F.W.)

BREEDING-HABITS. — Similar to those of British Song -Thrush, but
less confiding and less frequently found near dwellings. Eggs. —
Also similar, but average less in size. Average of 50, 27 X 20.2 mm.

FOOD.— Similar to that of British race. Grapes and olives taken
on Continent.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Passage-migrant and winter-visitor,
having been identified from late Sept. to early Nov. on coasts
of Northumberland, Yorks., Lines., Norfolk, and Suffolk, and
Isle of May (Forth), in April at Dorset Light, and in March and
April as well as autumn at St. Catherine's Light (Isle of Wight),
also at Mull of Galloway Light and Tarbatness (Ross.). In Oct. and
Dec. at Barnsness Lt. (Haddington). On both spring and autumn

* Generally called Turdus musicus, but Linnaeus described, in 1758,
under this name the Redwing ! His diagnosis " alis subtus ferrugineis,
linea superciliari albicante " leaves no doubt. The next oldest name for the
Song-Thrush is T. philomelos Brehm, 1831. — E.H.

400 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

passage and a few in winter at Fair Isle (Shetlands). Little so far
recorded of this form from identified examples (cf. Brit. B., iv,
pp. 246, 291), but there cannot be much doubt that it arrives
annually with the first Redwings from late Sept. throughout Oct.,
followed by stragglers to 3rd week Nov. on east coast from extreme
south of Shetlands to Norfolk. Many afterwards appear to proceed
along coasts to winter-quarters in Ireland and the Continent, others
remain as winter-residents, sometimes performing further migratory
journeys along same routes as their forerunners, when compelled by
unfavourable weather conditions. In spring this form occurs with
T. ph. clarkei amongst returning migrants on south coast in late
March and during April, and appears to continue up east coast,
and finally depart by route followed in autumn.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe generally, west Siberia to Lake
Baikal, but absent from Spain south of Cantabrian Mountains,
south Italy, and Greece. Wintering in south Europe and north
Africa in east as far south as Suakin and Khartum. Casual
Madeira, winter-visitor Canaries.

167. Turdus philomelus clarkei Hart.— THE BRITISH
SONG-THRUSH.

TTJKDUS PHILOMELOS CLARKEI Hartert, Bull. B.O.C., xxm, p. 54 (1909 —

Great Britain) ; id., Brit. B., iv, p. 131.

Turdus musicus Linnaeus, Yarrell, i, p. 264 (part) ; Saunders, p. 3 (part).

DESCRIPTION (Plates 14 and 15). — Adult male and, female. Winter. —
Crown, nape, mantle and scapulars warm brown with a reddish-
brown tinge, especially on crown, feathers of crown with darkish
centres and those of mantle usually with buffish concealed shaft -
streaks ; rump and upper tail-coverts more olive-brown ; incon-
spicuous line from base of bill over eye pale cream-coloured ;
orbital ring whitish-cream ; lores blackish -brown speckled cream ;
"ear -co verts golden -buff heavily tipped and edged black-brown ;
chin pale buff to creamy-white, centre of upper-throat same,
usually without spots ; sides of throat thickly streaked black-brown
each feather having a wedge-shaped dark mark at tip ; lower-
throat and upper-breast deeper yellowish-buff with larger and
rather more rounded and fan-shaped black-brown spots ; lower-
breast and belly white, sparsely spotted but centre of belly without
spots or with only a few small narrow ones ; sides of breast and
flanks olivaceous-buff and with browner spots ; under tail-coverts
creamy-white with huffish-brown bases ; under wing-coverts and
axillaries yellowish -buff ; tail reddish-brown ; primaries and
secondaries black-brown, most of basal portion of inner webs buff,
outer webs except at tips much as crown ; primary-coverts as
primaries with black-brown tips somewhat conspicuous ; greater

THE BRITISH SONG -THRUSH. 401

coverts with brown outer webs tipped yellowish -buff and black-
brown inner webs ; median coverts brown with large wedge»
shaped yellowish-buff tips ; lesser coverts uniform brown. This
plumage is acquired by complete moult Aug.-Sept., occasionally
Oct. Slimmer. — No moult. Abrasion makes upper -parts (except
crown) paler and slightly greyer, under-parts less buff and spots
less intense, tips of wing-coverts paler.

Nestling. — Down, golden-buff, fairly long. Distribution, inner
supra -orbital, spinal, humeral and ulnar (occasionally one or two
tufts on outer supra-orbital tract). Mouth inside golden -yellow,
no spots, externally flanges pale yellow.

Juvenile. — Like adult but feathers of upper-parts with dark
tips, those of head with faint narrow buff mesial streaks, those of
mantle with larger and conspicuous yellowish to pale buff centres
and those of scapulars with still more conspicuous and larger mesial
streaks ; rump and upper tail-coverts rather paler, sometimes
washed with buff, but with few and inconspicuous pale streaks ;
under-parts with smaller spots than in adult ; lower-breast an4
belly usually washed with buff ; flanks less olive than adult ; under
tail-coverts pale buff ; tail- and wing-feathers as adult, but inner
secondaries with very narrow yellowish-buff tips to outer webs ;
greater wing-coverts with larger yellowish-buff tips than in adult
and extending upwards as mesial streaks in varying number of
inner feathers ; median and lesser coverts as inner greater coverts
but with mesial streaks longer and more pronounced.

First winter and summer. — Like adults and only distinguishable
Avhen one or more of the inner juvenile greater coverts with a mesial
streak remains unmoulted. The juvenile body -feat hers, lesser and
median wing-coverts and three to five innermost greater coverts
are moulted July -Sept., occasionally Oct., but not wing- and tail-
feathers, primary -co verts nor rest of greater coverts.

Measurements and structure. — ^ wing 111-121 mm., tail IT— 90,.
tarsus 31-35, bill from skull 20-23 (12 measured). 9 wing 111-121.
Primaries : 1st 6-13 mm. shorter than primary -co verts (in.
juvenile and 1st winter 1st primary usually larger and longer
than in adults), 3rd longest, 4th usually as long but sometimes
1-3 shorter, 2nd and 5th 3-6 shorter (but not often equal to each
other), 6th 12-18 shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated Outer webs.
Outermost tail-feathers 3-5 mm. shorter than rest, 12 feathers.
Other structure as in White's Thrush.

Soft parts. — Bill, upper mandible black-brown, lower with
brown tip and flesh-yellow base ; legs and feet pale flesh ; iris
dark umber.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — For differences of T. ph. philo-
melus and T. ph. hebridensis see under those forms. Buff under
wing-coverts together with spotted under-parts distinguish it from
other species.

402 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Differs from Mistle-Thrush by smaller size,
olive-brown upper-parts, and smaller and rounder breast-spots.
In flight axillaries and under-wing golden-brown. Not really gre-
garious except on migration, but fortuitous assemblages often feed
in fields and open places with other Thrushes. Well-known song
more varied than Mistle-Thrush's, characterized by different phrases
each repeated three or four times. Call -note " seet," akin to but
not so soft as Redwing's. Alarm-note " ptick," and if nest be
threatened a harsh, chattering scream.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in hedgerows, bushes, among ivy,
occasionally on banks or in buildings, rarely on ground. Nest. —
Well built of grasses, roots and at times moss, leaves and twigs,
solidified with earth, and lined with smooth coating of rotten wood
or dung mixed with saliva. Eggs. — Usually 4-5, rarely 6 and some-
times only 3, while 7, 8 and even 9 eggs in one nest have been
recorded. Colour blue with greenish tinge, scantily spotted black
gr occasionally red-brown. Some sets have no markings, while a
rare variety has white ground and red-brown markings. Average
of 100 eggs, 28.7 X 20.9 mm. Breeding-season-. — Many pairs nest
in March, but breeding is not general till April, and as 2 or 3 broods
are reared eggs may be found till August. Incubation. — 13-14 days
from last egg (Evans) ; 14 days in incubator ; chiefly by hen, but
male assists. Fledging-period. — 13-14 days (Brock).

FOOD. — Feeds largely on mollusca (snails and slugs), earth-worms,
and insects (coleoptera and larvae, larvae of diptera (Tipula, etc.),
and lepidoptera, orthoptera, hymenoptera, etc.). Also spiders,
millipedes and centipedes. Soft fruits, such as strawberry, cheny,
currant and raspberry, are attacked, but only fallen apples or plums.
Various berries and seeds (including rowan, birch, yew, holly, elder,
etc.). Young fed chiefly on worms, slugs and insect larvae.
Beneficial on the whole.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Resident. Generally distributed,
but rare in Shetlands and replaced in Outer Hebrides by T. ph.
hebridensis, except at Stornoway (Lewis) where British form is
stated to breed.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — In late July and throughout August
many, especially breeders in elevated districts, pass south gradually
along all coasts. In Sept. and Oct. emigration more pronounced,
and " rushes " occur in late Oct. Later on emigratory movements
dependent on weather also occur. In Sept. and Oct. also a certain
proportion of Irish birds emigrate. Many British Song-Thrushes
winter in Ireland as well as farther south. Birds ringed as nestlings
in England have been found in winter in France and Spain. The
return migration begins on south coasts England and Ireland during

THE HEBRIDEAN SONG-THRUSH. 403

Feb., and lasts throughout March, and into April. Irish winter-
residents return about late March.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — According to a note by Baron R.
Snouckaert van Schauburg, the British form also inhabits Holland
(Orn. Monatsber., 1910, p. 158 ; cf. Brit. B., v, p. 223).

168. Turdus philomelus hebridensis Clarke. — THE HEBRI-
DEAN SONG-THRUSH.

TURDUS MUSICTJS HEBRIDENSIS Clarke, Scott. Nat., p. 53 (1913 — Barra
Outer Hebrides).

DESCRIPTION (Plate 14). — Adult male and female. — Upper-parts
darker, more earth-brown and less warm brown than in T. ph.
clarkei, and rump and upper tail-coverts more tinged with grey,
upper-parts thus more like T. ph. philomelus in tone but consider-
ably darker and without olive tinge ; under -parts much more
thickly spotted than in T. ph. clarkei or T. ph. philomelus, spots
being larger and more intense black ; less buff on under-parts than
in T. ph. clarkei ; flanks considerably darker and more smoky-brown
than in either of the other races ; under wing-coverts and axillaries
darker and richer and more cinnamon-buff ; tail, wings and
wing-coverts darker than in either of the other races.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like that of T. ph. clarkei but upper -parts darker
and pale mesial streaks consequently more accentuated ; under-
parts with less buff than in T. ph. clarkei, spots scarcely larger but
blacker ; flanks darker (more dingy) ; under wing-coverts darker
and richer as in adults.

Measurements and structure. — As in T '. ph. clarkei, but bill
rather larger on average, viz. 22-24 mm. (12 measured).

Soft parts. — Apparently as in T. ph. clarkei but possibly legs
and feet rather darker.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Owing to absence of trees nest is generally
built among rocks and heather, like that of Ring-Ouzel. Nest. —
Similar in construction to that of British Song -Thrush. Eggs. —
Also similar.

POOD. — In addition to worms, snails and insects, much of the food
of this race is obtained on the shore, marine mollusca, up to size
of whelk, being largely taken.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Apparently confined to 0. Hebrides,
but may possibly be found to inhabit some I. Hebrides also.
Has not yet been identified as migrant.

2D2

404 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

TURDUS MUSICUS*

169. Turdus musicus L.— THE REDWING.

TURDUS MUSICUS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 169 (1758— Europe.

Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Turdus iliacus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. xu, i, p. 292 (1766— non Linnaeus

1758 ! The latter is a hopeless mixture, while the name musicus is

unassailable. )

Turdus iliacus Linnsaus, Yarrell, I, p. 268 ; Saunders, p. 5.

Turdus musicus, Hartert, Brit. B., iv, p. 130.

The Reclwiugr (Turdus musicus).

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Whole upper-
parts warm brown varying somewhat in tint and shade but usually
rather darker than Turdus ph. philomelus, feathers of head with
darker centres, rump and upper tail-coverts slightly more tinged
with olivaceous than rest of upper -parts ; broad and conspicuous
stripe from nostrils, over and behind eye to back of skull pale buff
to whitish-cream, rather more buff in front of eye ; lores black-
brown ; ear -coverts dark brown with pale buff centres to some
feathers ; chin white to buffish-white. often without streaks, but
sometimes with small black-brown and buff streaks ; centre of
throat same, but with broader and larger streaks ; sides of throat
with considerably heavier streaks : sides of neck buff to pale buff,
feathers tipped dark brown ; breast pale buff to white, feathers with
wide pale brown mesial markings ; sides of belly same but with

* As stated under T. philomelus, the name musicus, as first published,
refers to the Redwing, and was only afterwards transferred to the Song-Thrush.
The name iliacus was, in the first instance, an inextricable mixture of Song-
Thrush, Redwing, and Mistle-Thrush, and could not be employed for the
Redwing for this reason, as well as because the latter was already called
musicus. — E.H.

THE REDWING. 405

smaller markings ; centre of belly white ; flanks rich chestnut,
feathers towards belly streaked pale brown ; under tail-coverts
with pale brown bases and long huffish-white tips extending up
centre of feathers in wedge-shape ; axillaries and under wing-coverts
pinkish-chestnut not so dark as flanks ; tail dark brown with very
narrow huffish-white edging at tip of inner webs of outer feathers ;
primaries and secondaries dark brown, inner webs with paler
edgings and outer webs with more yellowish-brown edgings ;
primal-coverts same but with dark tips ; greater coverts same
but with more distinctly pale edgings to outer webs, varying from
pale brown to rusty buffish-brown ; median coverts dark brown
with paler tips varying as outer edges of greater coverts ; lesser
coverts dark brown. This plumage is acquired by complete moult
in Aug.-Sept. Summer. — Xo moult. Abrasion makes upper -parts
somewhat greyer-brown and often dark centres of feathers of crown
rather prominent ; under-parts white with dark streaks more
prominent and clearer

Nestling. — Down, pale buff. Distribution, inner supra -orbital,
occipital, spinal, humeral and ulnar (from feathered skin).

Juvenile. Whole head dark brown, feathers with blackish
tips especially marked at sides of crown ; mantle and scapulars
same, but feathers with pale buff to whitish centres forming wide
and prominent streaks on scapulars ; rump and upper tail-coverts
as mantle but paler brown and with fewer and smaller (or without)
whitish centres ; eye-stripe as in adult, but usually whiter ; lores,
ear-coverts and sides of neck and throat as adult but pale parts
whiter and less buff ; chin and centre of throat buffish-white ; rest
of under-parts pale buff to whitish-buff becoming white on bslly,
each feather with black-brown tip forming spots exactly as in juvenile
Song-Thrush, spots smaller on lower belly and absent in centre ;
flanks buff with dark spots, some feathers in centre of flanks
chestnut-buff ; under tail-coverts buffish-white with pale brown
bases and tips : axillaries and under wing -co verts pale buffish-
chestnut ; tail as adult : wing-feathers as adult but two innermost
secondaries with distinct buffish-white tips to outer webs ; greater
coverts as adult but with buff tips extending upwards as mesial
streaks in varying number of inner feathers (see Plate 15) ;
median and lesser coverts dark brown with buff mesial streaks
broadening at tips of median coverts.

First winter and summer. — As adult and only to be distinguished
by white tips to innermost secondaries and pale buff tips to greater
coverts. In summer these distinctive tips often become worn off.
The juvenile body -feathers, lesser and median wing-coverts and
varying number of inner greater coverts are moulted Aug.-Sept.,
but not wing- and tail-feathers, nor primary-coverts nor rest of
greater coverts.

Measurements and structure.— $ wing 113-122 mm., tail 76-85

406 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

tarsus 29-31, bill from skull 20-22 (12 measured). $ wing 113-119.
Primaries : 1st 8-14 mm. shorter than primary-coverts, 3rd and
4th longest (4th occasionally 1 mm. shorter), 2nd 3-6 shorter, 5th
5-7 shorter, 6th 15-19 shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs.
Outermost tail-feathers very slightly shorter than rest, 12 feathers.
Other structure as in White's Thrush.

Soft parts. — Bill black-brown, base of lower mandible yellow ;
legs and feet yellowish-brown ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS. — No subspecies. Prominent eye-stripe, chestnut
under-wing and want of chestnut on primaries and secondaries
and upper wing-coverts (see T. eunomus) distinguish it from other
British Thrushes.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Size of Song-Thrush but readily distinguished
by broad buffish-white superciliary stripe and chestnut-red flanks
and axillaries. Gregarious like Fieldfare, with which it often
consorts. Call -note, a whispered " seep," often reveals migrating
birds after dark in October and November and again in March and
April. Real song, resembling that of Song-Thrush but sweeter,
never heard in this country, but flocks babble in chorus in tree-tops
on sunny days, a subdued warble punctuated by fluty " trui."

BREEDING-HABITS. — Though sometimes breeding close to Fieldfare
colonies it is net sociable in breeding-habits, nesting in trees, bushes,
stumps, or often on banks and broken ground. Nest. — Built of
grasses, twigs and earth, lined grasses and sometimes a few lichens
or bits of moss on outside. Eggs. — 5-6, with greenish ground and
usually fine markings of reddish-brown, considerably smaller than
those of most Turdidce. Average of 50 eggs, 25.8 X 18.7 mm. Breed-
ing-season.— Most eggs are laid in June and July, but also in latter
half May : double brooded. Incubation. — 14-15 days, chiefly at any
rate by female, but relieved by male about mid-daj^. Fledging-
period. — Young leave nest in 11-14 days, before they are fully
feathered.

FOOD. — Worms, mollusca (snails, including Helix aspersa, slugs,
Limax and Arion, and lacustrine mollusca), insects (coleoptera,
larvae of lepidoptera and diptera, orthoptera, etc.), and on sea-shore,
Crustacea, etc. Also berries of hawthorn, yew, rowan, holly,
Vaccinium, etc., and on Continent grapes in autumn.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles.— Winter-visitor and passage-migrant
(mid-Sept, to April and mid-May. Early dates Aug. 11, Cumber-
land, Aug. 26, co. Down. Late dates June 1, Fair Isle, June 9,
Northumberland, July 5, Cumberland). Generally distributed.

MIGRATIONS. — British leles. — Similar to those of the Fieldfare.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeding in north Europe and north
Asia, including Iceland, south in Europe to north-east corner of

THE DUSKY THRUSH.

407

east Prussia, wintering in south Europe and north-west Africa,
Persia and north-west India. Casual Greenland and Spitsbergen
and Madeira ; occasional Canaries.

TURDUS EUNOMUS

170. Turdus eunomus Temm. — THE DUSKY THRUSH.

TURDUS EUNOMUS Temminck, PI. col. 514 (1830 — Japan).

Turdus juscatus* Pallas, Zoogr. Ross.-Asiat., I, p. 451, pi. xn (1827 —

Transbaikalia).

Turdus fu8catu8 = T. dubius, Musters, Bull. B.O.C., xvi, p. 45 ; Saunders,

Brit. B., i, p. 5.

The Dusky Thrusli (Turdus eunomus).

DESCRIPTION — Adult male. Winter. — Crown, nape, mantle and
scapulars brown-black to dark brown, feathers edged dull buffish-
grey with varying amount of rusty-brown or chestnut -brown
on mantle and scapulars ; back and rump with more chestnut-
brown and sometimes mostly chestnut with little black ; upper
tail-coverts blacker ; broad and conspicuous stripe from nostrils,
over and behind eye to back of skull dull white tinged cream ;
lores and ear -co verts brown -black ; cheeks and sides of neck and
sides of throat creamy -white, spotted brown-black ; chin and
centre of throat same but without spots or with a few very small
ones ; breast brown-black to rusty-black largely concealed by
white fringes to feathers ; centre of breast and belly white ; sides

* Turdus juscatus Pallas 1827 is preoccupied by Turdus juscatus Vieillot,
Hist. Nat. Ois. Amerique Sept., n, pi. 57 bis and text (1808 — Porto Rico and
Santo Domingo).

408 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

and flanks rusty-black, but occasionally dark rusty-brown ; under
tail-coverts with long white tips and blackish bases freckled and
marked with rusty-browr ; 'axillaries and under wing-coverts
chestnut narrowly fringed whitish ; tail-feathers brown-black
edged chestnut -brown at bases ; primaries brown-black with base
and outer portion of rest of inner webs chestnut, most of outer
webs at base same and a narrow edging of chestnut on rest of outer
webs : secondaries with broader chestnut edging to outer webs
sometimes covering whole of web ; primary -coverts as primaries ;
greater coverts mostly chestnut but with varying amount of brown-
black especially at tip of inner webs, edges of outer webs at tip
burBsh-white ; median coverts chestnut with varying amount of
black, tips buffish-white ; lesser coverts more brown-black and
with very narrow buffish fringes. This plumage is acquired by
complete moult Aug. -Oct. Summer. — No regular moult, but in
some examples a number of body -feathers are renewed in March.
Abrasion makes crown blacker and chestnut -brown on mantle and
rump rather more marked, many spots wear completely off from
feathers of throat and black of breast becomes almost uniform
and flanks become darker by wearing off of white tips.

Adult female. Winter. — Upper-parts like adult male but
crown and mantle usually brown rather than black (some examples
indistinguishable in this respect), scapulars sometimes with pale
chestnut-buff markings ; chin and centre of throat more spotted
than adult male ; breast usualty (but not always) browner ; flanks
usually more rusty and less blackish, wing -feathers with only an
edging of chestnut on outer webs, less extensive, paler and less rich
than in male ; greater and median coverts also with considerably
more black than adult male and edgings duller.

Nestling. — (Not examined, but feathered skin with whitish
down on inner supra-orbital, occipital, spinal, humeral and
ulnar tracts.)

Juvenile. — Crown brown-black, feathers with narrow and
inconspicuous whitish-buff shaft-streaks ; nape same but feathers
with whitish -buff subterminal bands ; feathers of mantle with
wider and more rufous-buff shaft -streaks, those on sides of mantle
and scapulars with most of their centres rufous-buff ; rump bufnsh-
brown with paler centres and dark tips ; upper tail-coverts dark
brown with pale shafts and narrow greyish tips ; eye-stripe as
adult but much less distinct and spotted with black ; ear -coverts
brown-black mottled with buff ; cheeks, sides of neck and sides
of throat whitish -buff heavily spotted with brown-black ; chin
and centre of throat same, less heavily spotted ; breast white in
centre, buff at sides, thickly spotted brown-black, each feather
having a roundish black tip"; flanks and sides of belly same but
spots smaller ; centre of belly white ; under tail-coverts as adult
but bases paler ; under wing-coverts and axillaries as adult but

THE DUSKY THRUSH. 409

paler ; tail as adult ; wing-feathers as adult but with considerably
less chestnut on outer webs ; greater coverts brown-black edged
chestnut -brown, inner feathers with narrow chestnut -brown shaft -
streaks ; median and lesser wing-coverts brown-black with narrow
pale buff tips and wide chestnut -brown shaft -streaks. Females
appear to be browner on upper-parts and have duller edgings to
wing-feathers and greater coverts.

First winter. Male. — Upper-parts and under-parts like adult
female ; amount and richness of chestnut on wing-feathers inter-
mediate between adult female and male, tips of inner secondaries
whitish ; inner greater coverts with outer webs more mixed with
blackish than in adult male, outer feathers with paler outer edges
than in adult, some feathers often with pale shaft-mark at tip ;
median coverts usually brown-black and buff with pale mesial
lines. Sometimes very difficult to distinguish from adult male.
The juvenile body -feathers, lesser and median, and varying number
of inner greater coverts are moulted Aug. -Oct., but not rest of
greater coverts nor primary -co verts, wing- or tail-feathers.

First winter. Female. — Upper-parts browner than adult
female, feathers of lower mantle and scapulars usually with pale
chest nut -brown or buffish marks ; breast more rusty-brown, not
so black ; flanks paler rusty-brown ; sides of belly and flanks often
with spots ; wings and tail browner and edgings of wing -feathers
and greater coverts more buffish, especially those of unmoulted
outer greater coverts, which usually have clearly defined shaft-
streaks ; median and most lesser coverts with chestnut -brown
shaft-streaks.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 128-137 mm., tail 87-96,
tarsus 29-34, bill from skull 21-24 (12 measured). £ wing 122-128.
Primaries : 1st 9-16 mm. shorter than primary -co verts, 3rd and
4th longest (4th rarely 1 mm. shorter), 2nd and 5th 4-7 shorter,
6th 15-21 shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs. Outermost
tail-feathers only very slightly shorter than rest, 12 feathers.
Other structure as in White's Thrush.

Soft parts. — Bill brown -black, base of lower mandible and
cutting edge orange ; legs and feet brown ; iris bright brown.

CHARACTERS. — No subspecies. T. naumanni is somewhat similar,
but always has considerable amount of chestnut on tail-feathers,
breast and flanks chestnut. Some examples are decidedly inter-
mediate and the two species appear to interbreed. Black of breast,
chestnut on wing -feathers, coverts and axillaries and conspicuous
eye-stripe distinguish it from other British Thrushes.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Popham found nests in small trees standing
alone, occasionally also on ground, but never more than 2 feet
from it. Eggs. — 4-5, occasionally 6, once 7, ranging through same
variation as Blackbird and Fieldfare, markings being generally

410 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

fine. Average of 80 eggs, 27.8x20.6 mm. Breeding-season. —
From May 10 to mid-June on the Amur. Incubation. — No details.

FOOD. — Worms, insects, seeds and berries, but details lacking.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — One near Gunthorpe (Notts.), Oct. 13,
1905 (ut supra}. A " party " (six obtained) in neighbourhood
of Hollington and Crowhurst (Sussex), Jan. 25 to March 3, 1915
(H. W. Ford-Lindsay, Brit. B., vra, p. 267).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Siberia, wintering in China, north-west
India to Assam. Occasionally in Europe : Italy, south France,
Russia, probably Germany, Heligoland (once), Belgium, Holland,
Denmark, Norway.

TURDUS RUFICOLLIS

171. Turdus ruficollis atrogularis Temm. — THE BLACK-
THROATED THRUSH.

TURDXJS ATROGULABIS Temminck, Man. d'Orn., i, p. 169 (1820 — Austria

and Silesia).

Turdus atrigularis Temminck, Yarrell, i, p. 276 ; Saunders, p 9.

The Black- throated Thrush (Turdm r. atrogularis). First winter male.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Whole crown and nape
greyish-brown (sometimes olive-brown) feathers with blackish
centres, in some individuals showing very little, but in others well
marked and extending sometimes to upper mantle ; rest of upper-
parts uniform grey-brown (sometimes olive-brown) ; ear-coverts as
mantle ; lores, narrow line over eyes, cheeks, whole chin, throat and

THE BLACK-THROATED THRUSH. 411

upper-breast and sides of neck brown-black, each feather narrowly
fringed with dull white to buffish-white ; lower-breast and belly
dull white, somewhat mottled or faintly streaked with smoke-
brown ; flanks smoke-grey ; under tail-coverts with long white
tips and dark brown bases and rust -coloured edgings ; axillaries
orange-buff mottled with brown and edged greyish -white, inner
feathers usually paler than outer ones ; tail-feathers dark brown
with a rusty tinge on outer feathers ; wing-feathers dark brown,
inner webs edged buffish-grey, outer webs narrowly edged pale grey-
brown, sometimes with buff tinge ; primary- and greater coverts
brown with outer webs narrowly edged as wing-feathers ; median
coverts as mantle but with pale tips ; lesser coverts as mantle.
This plumage is acquired by complete moult in July -Aug., perhaps
occasionally Sept. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion gradually
makes black of throat, breast, etc., more uniform by the wearing
off of fringes of feathers.

Adult female. Winter. — Upper -parts as male but more olive-
brown, never so grey-brown as some adult males ; crown with very
little black to centres of feathers ; lores as male, but not so black ;
indistinct narrow line from nostrils over eye grey to buffish ; ear-
coverts as upper-parts ; chin, throat and cheeks white with brown-
black streaks ; upper-breast brown-black tinged rusty, feathers
with greyish to buffish fringes much wider than in adult male and
sometimes dark centres of feathers restricted to a streak ; rest of
under-parts with more smoke-brown than in adult male ; inner
webs of outer tail-feathers more tinged with rust -colour than in
adult male ; fringes of wing-feathers more huffish-brown, not so
grey. Moult as male. Summer. — Abrasion makes streaks on
throat and black-brown parts of feathers of breast more prominent .
There is considerable individual variation in amount of black-
brown on breast.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like adult female but feathers of crown with faint
narrow pale shaft -streaks and inconspicuous dark tips ; feathers
of mantle and scapulars with whitish-grey centres or mesial streaks
and dark brown tips ; back, rump and upper tail-coverts as adult
but with greyish-white shaft-streaks and tips ; lores dark brown ;
grey or pale buffish line over lores and eye, rather more marked
than in adult female ; ear-coverts brown, slightly speckled whitish ;
chin and upper -throat much as adult female ; lower-throat and
upper-breast buffish-white, each feather with a black-brown,
roundish tip ; lower-breast whiter with smaller spots ; centre of
belly white ; flanks buffish-grey, feathers with dark brown tips ;
tail- and wing-feathers as adults, but two innermost secondaries
with whitish-grey tips ; primary-coverts as adult ; greater coverts
with small greyish-white tips confined to outer webs except in
innermost feathers, which have a buffish-white wedge-shaped mark

412 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

at tip ; median coverts with more pronounced greyish-white tips
extending wedge-shaped up shafts ; lesser coverts with whitish
mesial streaks.

First uinter. Male. — Somewhat intermediate between adult
male and adult female. Upper-parts usually more brown as in
female, but sometimes as grey-brown as some adult males ; crown
with less black as in adult female ; black of lores and over eye with
more grey fringes than in adult male ; feathers of chin, throat and
breast with wider white fringes, those of chin especially being
often mostly white with only black streaks, but these parts with
more black than in adult female ; rest of plumage as adult male
but unmoulted greater wing-coverts greyish-white at tips of outer
webs. The juvenile body -feathers, lesser and median wing -co verts
and varying number of inner greater coverts are moulted Aug. -Sept.,
but not wing- or tail -feathers, primary -co verts nor rest of greater
wing-co verts. Summer. — Abrasion makes throat and breast darker
owing to wearing off of white tips, but never so dark as in adult male.
First winter. Female. — Like adult female and difficult to
distinguish except by paler and more prominent tips of greater
wing-coverts ; breast usually greyer and with less brown-black
than in adult and lower-breast and sides usually with more smoke-
brown and more streaked than adult female and much more so than
in male. (N.B. — Occasional examples, irrespective of age and sex,
are almost as rufous on the tail as examples of T. r. ruficollis and have
also a considerable amount of rufous marks on throat and breast.)

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 132-142 mm., tail 93-105,
tarsus 32-34, bill from skull 21-24 (12 measured). $ wing 128-135.
Primaries : 1st 10-15 mm. shorter than primary -coverts, 3rd and
4th longest (4th rarely 1-2 mm. shorter), 2nd 5-7 shorter, 5th 3-10
shorter (5th often equal to 2nd, but somewhat variable), 6th 16-22
shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs. Outermost tail-
feathers only slightly shorter than the rest, 12 feathers. Other
.structure as in White's Thrush.

Soft parts. — Bill dark brown with yellow base ; legs and feet
dark brown ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — In T. r. ruficollis (east Siberia)
tail-feathers are rufous except for central pair, in male throat and
breast are rufous instead of black, females are very similar to
females of T. r. atrogularis except for rufous tail-feathers and usually
rufous tinge on feathers of breast. From other British Thrushes
T. r. atrogularis may be distinguished by black of throat and breast,
rusty-buff of axillaries, uniform upper-parts, absence of rufous on
upper side of wings, and absence of distinct eye-stripe.
BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds in pine-forests, nesting in small trees,
close to trunk, from 3 to 6 feet high. Nest. — Like Blackbird's, built
of coarse, dry grass, lined mud, and inner layer of dry flat grasses.
Eggs. — 4-6, rather variable, some being of Blackbird type, but with

THE RING-OUZEL. 41 3

pronounced greenish ground and decided red-brown markings ;
others said to approach type of Mistle-Thrush, but bluer ground.
Average of 27 eggs, 29.1x21.3 mm. Breeding -season. — May and
June. Incubation. — No details.

FOOD. — Probably worms, insects and berries. Pr/ewalski records
berries of Viburnum, Cratcegus and Eleagnus, and Baker states that
flocks haunt rice-fields in India.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Four. Male Lewes (Sussex), Dec.
23, 1868 (J. Gould, Ibis, 1869, p. 128). One (said to have been with
another) near Perth, Feb., 1879 (H. M. Drummond-Hay, t.c., 1889,
p. 579). Male Newenden (Kent), Jan. 30, 1909 (T. Parkin, Bull
B.O.C., xxm, p. 57.) Male Wittersham (Kent), March 15, 1911
(N. F. Ticehurst, Bull. B.O.C., xxvii, p. 94).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — West Siberia to Altai Mountains and,
according to Sewertzow, in Turkestan. On passage or in winter
in Turkestan, Afghanistan, Persia, Baluchistan, Himalayas, and
north-west India . Once obtained in south Arabia, casual in Europe :
Finland, Norway, Denmark, Germany, Austria, Italy, France, rarer
in west. Replaced by T. ruficollis ruficollis in east Siberia.

[NOTE. — Several examples of the AMERICAN" ROBIN." Turdus migratoriiu?
migratorius L., which inhabits eastern and northern North America, and in
winter migrates to Florida, Texas, Bermudas, and exceptionally Cuba, have
been taken in the British Isles, but they had no doubt escaped from captivity.
About 1910 an attempt at introduction was made near Guildford (Surrey).]

TURDUS TORQUATUS

172. Turdus torquatus torquatus L.— THE RING-OUZEL.

TURDUS TORQUATUS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 170 (1758 — Europe.

Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Turdus torquatus Linnaeus, Yarrell, i, p. 287 ; Saunders, p. 15.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 15). — Adult male. Winter. — Whole upper-
parts brown-black, each feather fringed brownish-grey, those of
head and nape with rather browner and less grey fringes than rest ;
lores black ; ear-coverts and sides of neck as crown ; chin and
upper-throat brown-black, each feather fringed greyish-white ;
across lower -throat a broad gorget dull white, feathers tipped to-
variable extent with smoke-brown to dark brown ; rest of under-
parts brown-black, each feather fringed white to greyish -white,
under tail-coverts rather blacker, with whiter fringes and whitish
shafts ; axillaries and under wing-coverts blackish-brown, fringed
and mottled to variable extent with white ; tail brown-black, outer
feathers very narrowly fringed greyish -white ; primaries and
secondaries black-brown tinged greyish, outer webs narrowly
margined dull greyish-white rather more widely on secondaries,
inner margins of inner webs grey ; primary-coverts as primaries -f

414 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

greater coverts as secondaries ; median and lesser coverts same
but with more whitish and broader fringes. This plumage is
acquired by complete moult July-Sept. Summer. — No moult.
Abrasion has considerable effect, whole plumage becoming browner
and less black, pale fringes to feathers of upper-parts gradually
wear off, so that by May upper -parts are usually uniform ; on under -
parts whitish fringes mostly wear off except in centre of breast and
belly and under tail-coverts, gorget becomes markedly white and
very striking.

Adult female. Winter — Browner than male ; fringes to feathers
of upper-parts broader and browner ; fringes to feathers of chin
and throat broader and whiter ; gorget narrower and duller, feathers
with darker and broader fringes making gorget often inconspicuous ;
usually with some under tail-coverts with whitish mesial streaks,
not confined to shafts as is almost invariable in adult male.
Moult as male. Summer. — Browner than male ; upper-parts not
so uniform, fringes not wearing off entirely ; chin and throat still
with small whitish fringes ; gorget much duller and less white than
in male, and feathers still with remains of brown tips.

Nestling. — Down, pale buff. Distribution, inner supra-orbital,
occipital, humeral, ulnar and spinal (from half -feathered skin).

Juvenile. — Upper-parts still browner than female with tips of
feathers more rusty-brown, scapulars with white shaft -lines and
varying numbers of feathers of mantle and nape with pale or whitish
shaft-lines ; chin and centre of throat pale buff, feathers tipped
black -brown ; rest of under-parts black-brown, feathers barred
with buff or white but those of upper-breast frequently with whitish
centres and buff tips and not barred (no trace of gorget) ; under tail-
coverts with white shaft-lines and often wider mesial streaks and pale
buff tips ; tail and wing-feathers browner and edgings of wing-
feathers and greater coverts more cream-coloured, not so whitish ;
inner greater coveits with small whitish mesial fleck at tip ; median
and lesser wing-coverts dark brown edged rusty-brown and white
to cream shaft-lines broadening at tip.

First winter. Male. — Like adult male and frequently difficult
to distinguish, but sometimes gorget rather duller and feathers of
chin with broader fringes and under tail-coverts often with whitish
mesial streaks as in adult female ; outer (unmoulted) greater coverts
browner than rest and usually one of the innermost of these unmoulted
feathers with a whitish mesial fleck at tip. Some individuals appear
to have none of these distinctions and are indistinguishable from
adults. The juvenile body -feathers, lesser and median wing-coverts
and varying number of inner greater coverts are moulted Aug.-
Sept., but not wing- or tail-feathers, primary-coverts, nor rest of
greater wing-coverts. Summer. — Owing to wearing off of fringes
of feathers usually indistinguishable from adults, but occasionall}-
mesial streaks at tips of greater coverts are still well marked.

Plate 15.

(BIRDS 2-5THS NATURAL SIZE. FEATHERS NATURAL SIZE.)

1, Juvenile Mistle-Thrush (Turdus v. viscivorus). 2, Juvenile British Song-Thrush (T. ph.
clarkei). 3, Juvenile Ring-Ouzel (T. t. torquatus). 4, Juvenile J Blackbird (T. m.
merula). 5, Juvenile British Dipper (Cinclus c. britannicus). A, Inner greater covert of
juvenile Redwing (T. musfcus). B, Under tail-coverts of adult male of Ring-Ouzel (right)
and Alpine Ring-Ouzel (left.)

[Face p. 414.]

THE RING-OUZEL. 415

First ivinter and summer. Female. — Like adult female, but
gorget less distinct and often scarcely distinguishable from rest
of under -parts especially in winter ; some unmoulted juvenile
greater coverts usually with whitish mesial mark at tip as in male.

Measurements and structure. — Q wing 139-145 mm., tail 101-110,
tarsus 33-35.5, bill from skull 23-25 (12 measured). <j> wing 135-144.
Primaries : 1st 11-17 mm. shorter than primary -coverts, 3rd
longest, 4th sometimes as long, usually 1-2 shorter, 2nd 4-8 shorter,
5th 5-9 shorter, 6th 18-22 shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer
webs. Outermost tail-feathers 6-10 mm. shorter than rest, 12
feathers. Other structure as in White's Thrush.

Soft parts. — Bill mostly yellow with tips and ridge of culmen
brown-black (more yellow in summer than winter and in adult
males than in females and first winter birds) ; legs and feet brown ;
iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — For differences of T. t. alpestris
see under that form ; T. t. orientalis (Caucasus, Transcaspia) is like
T. t. torquatus on under-parts but has much more white on edgings
of wing -feathers and greater coverts. Gorget distinguishes Ring-
Ouzel from other Thrushes except in juvenile which is darker and
less buff on under-parts than Blackbird, creamy on wings, and
has different wing -formula.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Except, on migration restricted to moorland
districts and mountain ranges. Elevates tail on alighting, like
Blackbird, but old birds differ from Blackbird and all other native
Thrushes in having broad white or whitish gorget. White edging
to feathers, especially in young, gives plumage greyish cast. Fear-
less in defence of nest, will strike head of an intruder with wings,
and attacks Crows and Buzzards. Alarm-note a loud, hard " tac,
tac, tac." Song lacks mellow fluting of Blackbird's, and in June
declines to a clear piping note repeated three or four times.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Haunts moorlands, building among heather-
grown banks of water-courses, or by side of moorland tracks, and
in rocky ravines. Nest. — Chiefly built of coarse grasses, with a
few heather twigs and earth in foundation, and lined with fine dry
grasses. Eggs. — Normally 4, occasionally 5 or 3 only, and rarely
6, resembling the more boldly marked types of Blackbird's eggs,
sparsely blotched with dark red-brown and showing a good deal of
bluish -green ground. A scarce variety has a decided blue ground
with few markings. Average of 100 British eggs, 30.3x21.5 mm.
Breeding-season. — From last week April though May and even to
July : double-brooded. Incubation. — By both sexes (A. Taylor) ;
period not definitely recorded.

FOOD. — Berries (bilberry, crowberry, rowan, hawthorn, ivy, etc.)
and fruit (raspberry, cherry, gooseberry, blackberry, currant, plum,

416 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

strawberry, etc.) ; also worms, small mollusca, and insects (orthop-
tera, larvae of diptera and lepidoptera, etc.).

DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. — Summer-resident and pas-
sage-migrant, occasionally staying throughout winter. Nests
regularly in hilly districts of Cornwall, Devon and Somerset, Wales
and Welsh border, in Pennine backbone and spurs from north Staffs.,
Derby., and east Cheshire northwards to Cheviots, and on moors
of north-east Yorks. A few breed Isle of Man. Said to have
nested exceptionally in Hants., Kent, Suffolk, Norfolk, Warwick,
and other counties. Has visited most counties on migration.
Scotland. — On mainland generally distributed in summer (occasion-
ally staying winter) ; breeds in higher districts and in some localities
down to sea-level, but most common from 1,000 to 1,600 feet, and
seldom nests above 2,000 feet. Rarely breeds Orkneys, but occurs
spring and autumn, as in Shetlands, where does not breed. Nests
in most I. Hebrides, but only sporadically Skye, and not Tiree ;
in 0. Hebrides a rare visitor. Ireland. — Thinly distributed summer-
resident in wilder mountain-districts of each province, and occasion-
ally near sea -level. Occasionally remains winter.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — British breeding-birds probably reach
summer-quarters by a westerly route, arriving in extreme south-
west England, and south Ireland from second week March to early
May. Passage-migrants occur in small numbers from mid-April
to mid-May east of line from Isle of Wight to Wash, and in northern
isles (late elates May 21, June 15, Fair Isle). Breeding-haunts are
left about third week August and emigration from south coasts
begins early Sept. Occurs in most counties on autumn passage.
Departure movements become merged in those of passage-migrants
towards end Sept. (early date 23, Fair Isle), which continue to
first week Nov. East coast route (Shetlands to Channel) is very
well marked, but west coast (Outer Hebrides to Scillies and Ireland)
much less so.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Scandinavia, migrating through Europe
and wintering in Mediterranean countries. Replaced by allied
forms in mountain -systems of central and south Europe, and in
Caucasus, east to north Persia and Transcaspia, apparently also
in Atlas Mountains (Algeria).

173. Turdus torquatus alpestris (Brehm) — THE ALPINE
RING-OUZEL.

MERULA ALPESTRIS Brehm, Isis, 1828, p. 1281 (nomen nudum !) ; id.f
Handb. Naturg. V6g. Deutschl., p. 377 (1831— Tirol).

DESCRIPTION (Plate 15).— Adult male. Winter.— Like that of T.
t. torquatus but white fringes to feathers of under-parts broader

THE ALPINE RING-OUZEL. 417

and feathers of lower -breast, belly and under tail-coverts always
with white or whitish centres varying in extent ; axillaries and
under wing-coverts and inner webs of wing-feathers and edgings of
outer webs of secondaries and greater wing-coverts whiter than
in T. t. torquatus. Moult as in T. t. torquatus. Summer. — White
fringes of feathers of breast and belly being broader than in T. t.
torquatus do not wear off to same extent so that under-parts are
always whietr.

Adult female. — Browner than male ; feathers of chin and throat
with broader white fringes and black of these feathers often reduced
to a mesial streak ; breast, belly and under tail -coverts with broader
fringes and larger white centres. As compared with adult female
T. t. torquatus can always be distinguished by white centres to
feathers of breast and belly and larger white centres to under tail-
coverts as well as broader fringes to feathers of under-parts ; under-
wing and outer edgings of secondaries and greater coverts also
whiter.

Nestling . — (Not examined . )

Juvenile. — Like that of T. t. torquatus but under-parts with
white bars rather broader and more conspicuous.

First winter and summer. Male and female. — Distinguishable
from adults as in T. t. torquatus by white mesial fleck at tip of inner-
most unmoulted greater coverts, but when this is absent difficult
to distinguish with certainty. Moult as in T. t. torquatus.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 136-143 mm., tail 100-110,
tarsus 33-35.5, bill from skull 23-25 (12 measured). $ wing 132-140.
Structure as in T. t. torquatus.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Much more addicted to nesting in trees than
typical race, often building 40 feet or more above ground on branch
of spruce and seldom low down. Nest. — Similar to that of T. t-
torquatus. Eggs. — 4-5 also similar, biit perhaps paler on aver-
age showing more ground-colour. Average size of 42 eggs, 30.7 X.
22.2 mm. Breeding-season. — From end April and early May to<
July, but many pairs do not breed till late May. Probably some are
double brooded. Incubation. — Not definitely recorded.

FOOD. — Besides worms and slugs, insects, chiefly coleoptera (Cara-
bus, Staphylinus, Silpha, Cryptophagidae, Lathidrius, Byrrhus, Apho-
dius, Geotrupes, Melolontha), also diptera and larvse, and vegetable
matter in stomachs. Berries and grapes eaten in autumn.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Two or more. Male, Guestling (Sussex),
May 23, 1911 (M. J. Nicoll, Brit. B., v, p. 72). Female, near
Brighton (Sussex), March 29, 1913 (J. B. Nichols, t.c., vn, p. 117).
One said to have been of this form obtained in Yorks. early in 1893,
and another in Norfolk Sept. 18, 1894 (ZooL, 1895, pp. 56, 99).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeds in mountains of central and south

2E

418 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Europe, from Pyrenees to Alps, higher mountain-ranges of south
Germany, east to Balkans and Carpathians. On passage obtained
in Asia Minor, where it possibly breeds, also in Cyprus.

TURDUS MERULA

174. Turdus merula merula L. — THE BLACKBIRD.

TURDUS MERULA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 170 (1758 — Europe.

Bestricted typical locality : Sweden).

Turdus merula Linnaeus, Yarrell, i, p. 280 ; Saunders, p. 13.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 15). — Adult male. Winter. — Whole bird glossy
jet-black, inner margin of wing -feathers greyish. This plumage is
acquired by complete moult Aug.-Oct. (occasionally not complete
until Nov.-Dec.). Summer. — No regular moult, but frequently
some body -feathers are moulted in March. Abrasion makes wings
browner.

Adult female. Winter. — Crown, nape and mantle very dark
umber ; back, rump and upper tail-coverts slightly less brown and
more blackish ; lores freckled with paler brown ; above lores a
dull greyish line ; ear -coverts dark umber with whitish-brown
shaft-lines ; apex of chin uniform pale grey ; whole throat pale
grey to buffish-grey streaked dark umber to rufous-brown ; upper-
breast pale umber to rufous-brown, each feather with darker,
somewhat triangular mark at tip varying in shape and strength ;
lower-breast and belly varying pale brown to grey-brown, feathers
often with whitish edgings and pale shaft-lines ; sides of breast and
belly rather darker with usually some spots as on upper-breast :
flanks and under tail-coverts umber with pale shafts ; axillaries
and under wing-coverts brown with pale shafts and often with
rufous tips and edgings ; tail brown-black ; wing-feathers brown-
black with greyish margins to inner webs and outer webs deep
umber ; wing -coverts deep umber. (N.B. — There is much individual
variation in colour of under-parts, rufous tinge being sometimes
scarcely noticeable, often strong and occasionally even of a pinkish-
chestnut tint, dark markings vary greatly in intensity, ground-
colour of throat varies from very pale grey to dull huffish-grey,
belly from brown with whitish-brown edgings to dark slate-grey
with pale grey edgings.) Summer. — Abrasion makes upper -parts
rather browner, and when much worn under-parts lose much of
rufous tinge and many of dark spots.

Nestling. — Down, fairly long but rather scanty, pale buffish-
grey. Distribution, inner supra-orbital, occipital, humeral, ulnar
and spinal. Mouth inside deep yellow, no spots ; externally
flanges yellowish-white.

Juvenile. Male. — Crown, hind-neck, mantle and scapulars
dark umber, each feather with rufous mesial streaks, broader on

THE BLACKBIRD. 419

mantle than crown and broadest on scapulars ; back, rump and
upper tail-coverts black-brown usually with some mesial rufous
streaks on back, and tips of upper tail-coverts often rufous ; chin
and centre of throat rufous-buff to whitish-buff, feathers with
faint dark brown tips, sides of throat and cheeks with larger black-
brown tips forming somewhat ill -defined moustachial stripes ;
lower -throat, breast and flanks rufous-buff, feathers with black-
brown tips ; belly rather paler and less rufous with few dark tips ;
under tail-coverts brown-black with pale shaft-streaks and rufous
tips ; under wing-coverts and axillaries rufous-buff ; tail slightly
browner-black than adult ; wing-feathers and primary -co verts
.almost as biown as in adult female ; greater wing-coverts with
dark umber outer webs and pale, somewhat rufous, tips, and inner
five or six feathers with pale rufous distal shaft-streaks ; median
and lesser wing-coverts same but with much broader wredge-shaped
rufous marks at tips extending up shafts. Female. — Like male
but upper-parts less dark, tail browner, wing-feathers considerably
browner and markings on wing-coverts usually less rufescent and
less striking but intensity of rufous both in these markings and in
under-parts varies greatly in individuals of both sexes.

First winter and summer. Male. — Like adult male but browner,
not so jet-black, some feathers of crown usually, and often some
of mantle, with inconspicuous brownish edgings and most feathers of
Tinder -parts with more marked brownish or greyish edgings and
often with pale shaft -streaks, chin and upper -throat sometimes
with conspicuous grey edgings and occasionally grey with dark
streaks almost as in female ; wing-feathers and primary-coverts
browner than in adult male and unmoulted outer greater coverts
conspicuously browner (and with pale tips) than new and black
inner ones. The juvenile body-feathers, lesser and median wing-
coverts and varying number of inner greater coverts are moulted
Aug.-Oct. (occasionally extending to Nov.-Dec.), but not tail,
wing-feathers or outer greater coverts.

First urinter and summer. Female. — Like adult and often
•difficult to distinguish but upper-parts usually not quite so dark,
wings rather browner and usually unmoulted outer greater coverts
distinctly paler (and with pale tips) than new and dark umber
inner ones.

Measurements and structure— <$ wing 120-132 mm., tail 95-110,
tarsus 32-34, biU from skull 23-27 (12 measured). $ wing 121-126.
Primaries : 1st 3-7 mm. shorter than (exceptionally as long as)
primary-coverts, 4th and 5th longest, but 5th occasionally 1-2
shorter, 3rd often as long but usually 1-3 shorter, 6th 4-7 shorter,
2nd 11-16 shorter, usually between 6th and 7th, occasionally equal
to but rarely shorter than 7th ; 3rd to 6th emarginated outer
webs. Outermost tail-feathers 6-10 shorter than rest, 12 feathers.
Other structure as in White's Thrush.

2E2

420 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Soft parts. — Bill : male, adult, orange-yellow, 1st winter
blackish-horn in autumn, becoming marked with yellow towards
end of year and orange-yellow as adult by spring and sometimes
as early as January ; female, adult, dark brown usually with some
yellow marks, sometimes dull yellow with brown tip, rarely almost
as bright orange-yellow as adult male, first winter dark brown ;
legs and feet dark brown ; iris dark brown ; eyelids yellow.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — T. m. hispanice (Spain) is said
to have comparatively shorter 3rd to 5th primaries ; T. m. cabrerce
(Madeira and western Canaries) has shorter wing and tail and
slenderer bill ; T. m. azorensis (Azores) like last but still shorter
tail, also rounder wing ; T. m. mauritanicus (southern N.W. Africa)
has long tail (110-120 mm.) and female has dark grey-brown under-
parts and usually yellow bill ; T. m. algirus (N.Algeria, N. Tunisia)
as last but with shorter wing; T.-m. aterrimus (S.E. Europe, Asia
Minor) female has paler under -parts and whiter throat ; T. m. syriacus
(Syria, south Persia) male is more slate-black and female more
grey-brown, less rufous on breast and only throat streaked ;
T. m. intermedium (Turkestan) like last but larger (<$ wing 132-140) ;
T. m. maximus (Kashmir) largest (^ wing 156-160). All these races
require careful comparison. Wing -formula of Blackbird differs
from other British Thrushes.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Male's orange bill and eyo-rim, and all-black
plumage, umber-brown in female and dark brown and spotted
in young, distinctive. Fussy and garrulous, especially at roosting-
time. Notes of alarm and defiance " quilp," a thrice repeated
"mink," and, in flight, a rattling cackle " tchuk, tchuk, tchuk."
Song lacks variety of Song -Thrush's, a mellow fluting, ending in a
discordant squeak.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Usually nests within a few feet of ground in
hedges, bushes, evergreens and ivy, occasionally in sheds, on ground,
or at a considerable height in trees. Nest. — Not unlike that of
Thrush, but usually with more moss, solidified with mud and also
lined with it, but with an inner layer of dry grasses. Eggs. — 4-5,
sometimes 3 only, and rarely 6, while 7 recorded twice. Ground
normally bluish-green, sometimes freckled with red-brown or more
or less boldly marked with red-brown and grey shell-marks. Mark-
ings at times form cap or zone and a black streak is not uncommon.
Ground-colour occasionally ranges to clear blue, sometimes without
markings and rare variety is white with red-brown spots. Average
of 80 British eggs, 29.4 X 21 .6 mm. Breeding-season. — Begins
March, but is not general till April, and lasts till July as several
broods are reared. Incubation. — By hen only as a rule, 13-14
days from last egg, 14-15 in incubator (Evans) ; 14 days (Ellison).
Fledging-period. — 13-14 days (Brock).

THE ROCK-THRUSH. 421

FOOD. — Largely vegetable as well as animal. Very destructive
to fruit, especially during drought (apples, pears, strawberries,
gooseberries, cherries, etc.). Also takes berries of many species
(holly, rose, hawthorn, ivy, rowan, blackberry, cotoneaster, etc.),
and seeds of many plants. Besides earthworms, insects (coleoptera,
larvae of diptera and lepidoptera, hymenoptera (ants), orthoptera
and neuroptera), spiders, millipedes and small mollusca are also
eaten.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles.— Resident. Generally distributed,
but in 0. Hebrides and Shetlands a scarce and local breeder, though
more common in Orkneys and I. Hebrides, and much more common
in all these islands as winter-visitor. In Ireland has extended
breeding-range to extreme west of mainland, and to Achill Island
and Aran Isles.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Many home-bred birds migrate in
autumn and return in spring, especially in north Scotland and
exposed places elsewhere, many winter in southern counties, others
pass to Ireland and to the Continent. A large autumn (late Sept.
to end Nov.) immigration in northern isles and down both sides of
Great Britain, as well as in Ireland. Some of these immigrants
pass on and leave the country, others stay winter. Winter weather-
emigrations also occur. A reverse movement in spring (late Feb.
to early April) and lasting to end of April and even to beginning of
June in northern isles.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — The whole of Europe, except Spain,
where replaced — as in north-west Africa, the Atlantic islands, south-
east Europe to Persia, Syria, Turkestan to Mongolia, Himalayas
and China — by more or less closely-allied forms.

Genus MO NT 1C OLA Boie.

MONTICOLA Boie, Isis, 1822, i, p. 552. (Containing M. saxatilis and
cyaniis ( = solitarius) ; type by subsequent designation, Seebohm 1881,
not Gray : M. saxatilis}.

Resembling Turdus but, the species which has occurred in 'Great
Britain particularly, with tail much shorter, wing comparatively
longer, nearly reaching end of tail. Bill longer, nostrils generally
more exposed. Nests open, eggs uniform or spotted. Europe,
Asia and Africa.

MONTICOLA SAXATILIS

175. Monticola saxatilis (L.)— THE ROCK-THRUSH.

TURDUS SAXATILIS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. xn, i, p. 294 (1766 — " Habitat

in Helvetiae, Austriae, Borussiae montibus." Restricted typical locality :

Switzerland).

Monticola saxatilis (Linnaeus), Yarrell, i, p. 292 ; Saunders, p. 17.

422 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 14). — Adult male. Winter. — Whole upper -parts
blackish -brown, each feather with brown-buff tip and blackish sub-
terminal marks, feathers of crown, nape, upper mantle, lower rump
and many scapulars with blue-slate bases mostly concealed by tips
of feathers, feathers of lower mantle, back, upper rump and some
scapulars with white bases showing here and there ; upper tail-
coverts bright orange -chestnut with buff tips ; lores blue-slate
with buff tips ; ear -coverts, sides of neck and sides of throat buff
to whitish, feathers with black-brown subterminal crescentic
bands and slate-blue bases showing here and there ; chin and centre
of throat whitish to pale slate-blue, more uniform with few dark
crescentic bands ; rest of under -parts bright orange -chest nut,
feathers with whitish-buff tips and black-brown subterminal cres-
centic bands more circular and strongly defined on breast, straighter
and often broken into spots and sparser on belly ; under tail -co verts
same but without dark bands and only a dark spot here and there ;
axillaries and under wing-coverts bright orange -chestnut tipped
whitish ; tail-feathers bright chestnut tipped buff, central pair
with exposed part dark brown and only base chestnut, rest often
with dark brown marks on outer webs ; wing-feathers black-brown
with broad huffish-white tips and narrower pale buff fringes to
outer webs ; primary -co verts and greater wing-coverts same but
frequently with bluish tinge on fringes of outer webs ; median
and lesser coverts black-brown with buffish-white tips, one or two
inner median often with a white mesial streak. This plumage is
acquired by complete moult July-Sept. Abrasion gradually
makes pale tips of feathers of upper-parts smaller and slate-blue
bases become more exposed as well as white on back and scapulars,
pale tips of wing-feathers and wing-coverts become much worn.
Summer. — A moult confined to the body-feathers takes place
Dec. -March and occasionally a few median and lesser wing -co verts
are moulted but not re&t of wings or tail. Whole crown and nape
extending on to upper mantle, ear-coverts, sides of neck, chin and
whole throat become pale slate-blue, feathers with narrow buff
tips ; scapulars, lower mantle and rump blackish-slate with
narrow buff tips and blackish subterminal bands ; most scapulars
and feathers of lower mantle and upper rump with white
bases and feathers of middle of back white with slate- blue tips ;
upper tail-coverts and under-parts below throat bright orange-
chestnut, feathers with whitish tips but under-parts without
the blackish crescentic bands of winter plumage ; new feathers
(when present) on lesser coverts tinged slate and on median with
white mesial streaks. (N.B. — In this plumage tips of feathers
soon wear off and even by April whole head and neck are uniform
slate, white on back and scapulars gradually becomes more extended
and purer, and under-parts become uniform chestnut, while light
tips and fringes of wing-feathers and coverts wear off almost
completely.)

THE ROCK-THRUSH. 423

Adult female. Winter. — Upper -parts like adult male winter
but paler brown with scarcely any tinge of slate-blue and feathers
of lower mantle and back only with dull buffish-white bases entirely
concealed ; upper tail-coverts paler orange -chestnut than in adult
male and with blackish subterminal bands ; lores buff to whitish ;
ear-coverts, sides of neck and sides of throat as male but with
bases dull slate-grey entirely concealed ; chin and centre of throat
pale buff to creamy -white ; rest of under -parts pale buff to orange-
buff (occasionally a few feathers orange -chestnut as adult male),
feathers tipped buffish-white and with brown -black crescentic
subterminal bands more numerous than in adult male but sparse
on centre of belly ; under tail-coverts, under wing-coverts and
axillaries paler than in adult male ; tail as male ; wing-feathers
and wing-coverts as male but not so dark brown and without any
bluish tinge on outer webs of primary- and greater coverts. Moult
as in male. (N.B. — Abrasion has not a great effect as in male
but upper-parts become plainer brown by wearing off of many
pale tips.) Summer. — Moult as in male. New plumage like old
but usually more chestnut on under -parts. Abrasion causes
feathers of head and mantle to show certain amount of slate and
back buffish-white.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. Male and female. — Upper -parts much like winter
adult female but more buff, less brown and with grey bases of
feathers showing a good deal, feathers with dark brown tips as well
as penultimate bands ; under -parts buff, feathers fringed brown,
those of centre of belly and under tail-coverts uniform buff ; wings
and wing-coverts as female but browner and fringes and tips more
buff, median and innermost greater coverts and innermost second-
aries with a buff mesial spot.

First winter. Male. — Like adult male but upper-parts browner
not so blackish and bases of feathers not so blue, bases of scapulars
with less white ; wings browner and buff mesial spots on innermost
greater coverts and secondaries sometimes observable ; chin and
middle of throat whitish with only occasional slate-blue feathers ;
rest of under -parts rather paler chestnut than adult male. The
juvenile body -feathers, lesser and median wing-coverts and occa-
sionally one or two innermost secondaries and greater coverts are
moulted July-Sept., but not rest of wings or tail. Summer. — Moult
as adult male, after which it becomes (especially when abraded)
impossible to distinguish with certainty but usually has browner
wings, longer buff tips to upper-parts and some feathers of under -
parts with black crescentic bands.

First winter and summer. Female. — Apparently impossible to
distinguish with certainty from adult female.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 117-129, tail 60—66
tarsus 26-29.5, bill from skull 23-25 (12 measured). 2 wing 1 14-123

424 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Primaries : 1st minute, less than half primary-coverts, 3rd longest,
2nd occasionally as' long, usually 1-3 mm. shorter, 4th 3-5 shorter,
5th 12-15 shorter, 6th 18-22 shorter ; 3rd clearly and 4th slightly,
emarginated outer webs. Secondaries slightly shorter than 10th
primary, tips square. Tail very slightly rounded laterally, 12
feathers, tips rounded. Bill somewhat slender and culmen very
little curved except at tip, where upper mandible projects beyond
lower. Nostrils uncovered. A few small nasal and rictal bristles.
Soft parts. — Bill dark brown, paler at base of lower mandible ;
legs and feet brown ; iris dark bright brown.

CHARACTERS. — No subspecies. The short and red tail serves to
distinguish it in all plumages.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Haunts rocky ground at high elevations as a
rule. Adult male quite unmistakable ; white rump, blue head and
orange breast and tail with black wings. Female has generally
spotted appearance, which is also shared by young. Fulvous tail
with middle feathers brown forms good character for both. Song
frequently uttered on wing by male in breeding-season while flying
from point to point. (F.C.R.J.)

BREEDING-HABITS. — Haunts rocky ground, old ruins, precipices
etc. Nest. — Placed in hole among rocks or walls, and rather neatly
built of grasses, roots, and moss, lined fine grasses and roots. Eggs.
— 4 to 5, sometimes 6, pale blue, often unmarked, or with faint red-
brown spots. Slightly deeper in tint on average than eggs of Blue
Hock-Thrush. Average of 92 eggs, 25.9x19.5 mm. Breeding-
season. — First layings may be found from early May onward ; also
in June. Said to be double brooded by some writers. Incubation.
— Chiefly if not entirely by hen ; period 16 days (Naumann).

FOOD. — Insects of all kinds, including coleoptera (some very large),
orthoptera, diptera, lepidoptera, etc. Also spiders, small mollu&ca
and berries of various kinds, and probably also worms.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Five or more. One Therfield
(Herts.) May 19, 1843 (Saunders, p. 17). Male obtained and another
seen Pentland Skerries Light (Orkneys) May 17, 1910 (W. E. Clarke,
(Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1910, p. 148, 1911, p. 135). Male and
female (young) Pett (Sussex) Sept. 1 and 2, 1911 (H. W. Ford-
Lindsay, Brit. B., v, p. 130). [One said to have been seen, near
Whit by (Yorks.) June, 1852, and another said to have been shot
at Cobham (Kent).]

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — North-west Africa, south and middle
Europe (casual Heligoland), east to south Siberia and north China,
wintering in tropical Africa, north India, Buima and China.

GENUS (ENANTHE. 425

Genus CENANTHE Vieill.*

(ENANTHE Vieillot, Analyse nouv. Orn., p. 43 (1816 — Type by tauto-
nymy " Le Motteux " = Motacilla cenanthe L.) (Saxicola auct.)

Small long-winged ten-primaried Oscines with base of tail and
rump conspicuously white, rarely (in non-British species) ferru-
ginous. Distance from end of secondaries to that of primaries as
long as or longer than tarsus. 1st primary shorter, equal to or
distinctly longer than primary -co verts. Tail square or almost so.
Bill black, slender. Tarsus in front with unbroken lamina, except
at base. Rictal and nasal bristles small but distinct. Young
mostly spotted, in adults sexes in most cases different, sometimes
((E. isabellina) alike in plumage. Numerous species in Europe,
Asia, Africa, Greenland and north-eastern and north -western
North America ; sixteen species and a number of subspecies in
Palsearctic region. Nests in cavities among rocks, holes in banks
or under bushes, eggs blue, spotted as a rule.

Key to species of genus (ENANTHE.

/ Upper-parts, except base of tail and upper

I tail-coverts, blackish or dark brown. . (E. leucura, p. 446

I Upper-parts spotted ...... (E. cenanthe, deserti,

I j hispanica, pleschanka,

I and isabellina in juv. plumage

Upper-parts isabelline, grey, whitish or
brownish, or parti-coloured, but neither
uniform blackish nor spotted . . 2

Interscapular region ashy-grey, upper wing-

coverts black. ...... (E. cenanthe, <$ ad., p. 426

Interscapular region and upper wing-coverts

black ........ (E. pleschanka, <$ ad., p. 441

Interscapular region white or isabelline,

scapulars and upper wing-coverts black . (E. hispanica, <J ad., p. 435
Interscapular region and all or at least

inner wing-coverts brown or isabelline 3

Less than half of outer tail-feathers white . (E. deserti, p. 431

More than half of outer tail-feathers white 4

* The Wheatears have, for a long time, been called Saxicola without due
consideration of facts, and it has even been stated that Motacilla cenanthe
is the genotype " by subsequent designation " of Gray, 1841. This designa-
tion, however, was anticipated by Swainson, who, in 1827, designated Motacilla
rubicola as the genotype. Thus the name Saxicola must be used for the
Chats, which is lucky in so far as the usual name Pratincola is not available,
because of its use for the Pratincoles in 1798, eighteen years before. By the
method of elimination Saxicola also becomes the generic title for the Chats,
and not for the Wheatears. The next oldest name for the latter is (Enanthe
Vieillot, 1816, type by tautonymy Motacilla cenanthe L. — E.H.

426

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Under wing-coverts whitish
Under wing-coverts mostly dark
2nd primary longer than 5th .
2nd primary shorter than 5th .

More earthy-brown .
More rufescent brown

(E. isabellina, p. 443
5

(E. cenanthe, ?, p. 427
6

(E. pleschanka, $>, p. 442
(E. hispanica, ?, p. 43&

CENANTHE CENANTHE

176. CEnanthe cenanthe cenanthe (L.)— THE WHEATEAR.

MOTACILLA CENANTHE Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 186 (1758 —

Europe. Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Saxicola cenanlhe (Linnaeus), Yarrell, i, p. 347 ; Saunders, p. 19 (part).

DESCRIPTION (Plate 16). —
Adult male. Winter. — Fore-
head white, feathers with grey
tips concealing white in vari-
able degree ; rest of head,
nape, mantle, scapulars and
back pale french-grey, feathers
edged and tipped buffish-
brown (in quite fresh plumage
with very narrow faint whitish
margins) ; rump and upper
tail-coverts white ; line from
nostrils over and behind eye
white ; lores, under eye and
ear-coverts black, latter tipped
brown ; chin white ; throat
and breast pale to deep buff ;
rest of under -parts cream to
pale buff, under tail -co verts
slightly more buff ; under
wing-coverts and axillaries black, edged and tipped white ; tail-
feathers black tipped greyish-white, with white bases extending
in central pair to one-third or less but in rest to two-thirds of
length*; wing - feathers black, tipped, and outer webs edged
pale to rich buff, narrowly on primaries, more broadly on second-
aries ; greater coverts as secondaries but edgings usually greyer

The Wheatear (CEnantfie OK. cenanthe). Male

adult. Showing distribution of black in tail as

compared with other species.

* Amount of black on tail -feathers varies somewhat, but younger birds
usually have more black than adults on central tail-feathers, which are not
infrequently black to the base and very rarely so in adults. The following
measurements are taken from tip of feather to farthest extension of black.
cJ Adult winter and summer : Central tail-feathers, 28-40 mm ; outermost
tail-feathers, 16-24 mm. <$ 1st winter and 1st summer : Central tail-
feathers, 30-40 and often to base ; outermost tail-feathers, 16-25.

THE WHEATEAK. 427

and often whitish ; median and lesser-coverts black tipped
white to creamy-buff. This plumage is acquired by complete
moult July-Aug. Summer. — A moult usually confined to the
body -feathers takes place Jan. -Feb., but occasionally innermost
greater wing-coverts and rarely innermost secondary are moulted.
New plumage as winter but upper -parts more french-grey, buffish-
brown tips and edgings being smaller ; breast rather brighter buff ;
belly white ; innermost greater covert (when renewed) edged
french-grey and tipped buff. Abrasion of tips and edgings of feathers
makes wing-feathers and coverts gradually jet-black and usually
by January there are few edgings left and tips of tail-feathers are
worn off ; in winter plumage, and more markedly in summer, abrasion
gradually makes fore-head white, eye-stripe more conspicuous,
upper-parts pure french-grey, ear-coverts black and under-parts
white and sometimes almost pure white with only tinge of buff
on breast.

Adult female. Winter. — Whole upper -parts, except rump and
upper tail -co verts which are white, brown (varying from rufous
brown to buffish- brown) ; eye-stripe pale cream ; lores dusky ;
ear-coveits brown ; chin pale cream ; throat pale buff ; breast
deeper buff ; rest of under-paits creamy-buff (buff of under-parts
varies in intensity) ; tail, wing-feathers and wing-coverts as adult
'male but dark brown not black and edgings and tips especially
of wing-coverts, darker and brownish-buff to buff, never whitish.
Summer. — Moult as in male, after which upper -parts become greyer-
brown, eye-stripe white, lores darker (occasionally brown-black),
ear-coverts darker brown and under-parts paler buff. Abrasion
causes upper-parts to become grey but never so pure a grey as in
adult male, pale edgings wear off wings.

Nestling. — Down, dark grey, long and fairly plentiful except
on femoral. Distribution, inner supra-orbital, occipital, humeral,
spinal and femoral and some very short filaments on caudal tract.
Lower portion of spinal tract without down. Mouth inside pale
orange, no spots ; externally flanges very pale yellow.

Juvenile. Male and female. — Upper -parts greyish- to buffish-
brown, each feather with pale subterminal spot and narrow dark
brown tip ; rump and upper tail-coverts white to creamy-white,
feathers usually tipped very narrowly dark brown ; slight indication
of creamy eye-stripe ; ear-coverts buff edged and tipped brown ;
chin and throat creamy-white and breast rather darker buffish-
cream, feathers lightly tipped brown, giving a somewhat mottled
appearance ; belly and under tail-coverts pale cream with scarcely
any dark tips; tail-feathers, wing-feathers and greater wing-
coverts as adult female but lesser and median coverts with pale
cream wedge-shaped spots at tips.

First winter. Male and female. — Like adult winter female
and neither sex seems distinguishable, occasionally some of the

428 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

new median coverts have small white wedge-shaped spots at tips
as in juvenile. The juvenile body -feathers, lesser and median
wing-coverts are moulted in August but not tail- or wing-feathers,
primary -co verts or greater wing -co verts.

First summer. Male. — Moult as in adult after which becomes
like adult but upper -parts browner (even when much worn, never
so pure grey), ear -coverts more tipped brown, fore-head usually with
less white, belly rather more creamy and not so whitish ; tail and
especially wings and wing-coveits much browner black.

First summer. Female. — Like adult female, but individuals
with rather browner and less grey upper-parts and rather less dark
wings may be first summer birds.

Measurements and structure— <$ wing 94-98 mm. (one 100),
tail 52-60, tarsus 25-27, bill from skull 16-18 (12 measured). $ wing
89-96. Primaries : 1st 2-6 mm. shorter than primary -co verts,
3rd longest, 4th often as long, sometimes 1-2 shorter, 2nd 1-4
shorter, 5th 5-8 shorter, 6th 10-17 shorter ; 3rd and 4th primaries
emarginated outer webs. Secondaries slightly shorter than 10th
primary, tips fairly square. Tail square, but central pair shorter
than rest, 12 feathers, tips rounded. Bill somewhat slender, base
broad and rather flat, tip of upper mandible rather curved and
projecting beyond lower. Nostrils partially covered by membrane.
A few nasal and rictal bristles, the latter rather stiff.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs and feet black ; iris brown-black.

CHARACTER AND ALLIED FORMS.— In (E. ce. seebohmi (Atlas Mts.)
male has black throat but female is like typical form with slightly
paler upper-parts. For differences of (E. OP. leucorrhoa see under
that form. (E. ce,. argentea (Turkestan), (E. 02. rostrata (Syria,
Arabia) and (E. OR. nivea (Sierra Nevada, S. Spain) have slight
differences and may be separable. For differences of (E. isabellina
see under that species.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — A bird of downs and mountain -sides, sea-
cliffs, sand-dunes and waste places, where its white rump and
black wings are very conspicuous as it flies low over ground. Pale
greys and buffs and pure black and white of its plumage, its upright
carriage when at rest— usually perched on slight elevation such as
clod or stone— varied with bows and curtsies, and long hops by
which it progresses, separate it from other common British birds, but
close attention to details are necessary to distinguish it, especially
female, from other Wheatears. Song, sweet, modulated and, to
some extent imitative, is often uttered on wing. Alarm-note, a
loud " weet-chack-chack."

BREEDING-HABITS. — Frequents commons, bare hillsides, sea-shore,
warrens, etc., and breeds either in hole in ground or under stones,
in old walls, etc. Nest. — Built of grasses and sometimes moss,
lined grass and hair, feathers or bits of wool. Eggs. — Normally G,

THE GREENLAND WHEATEAR. 429

sometimes 5, occasionally 7, pale blue, unmarked in most cases,
but occasionally showing dark red-brown spots. Average of 50
eggs, 20.7x15.8 mm. Breeding-season. — Late April or early May.
Incubation. — Chiefly by hen, but male also takes part. Period
about 14 days. Usually single brooded, but said to be double
brooded in Shetlands.

FOOD. — Chiefly insects : coleoptera (Geodephaga, small Carabidce,
Staphylinidce, and Rhyncophoridce), diptera (Muscidce, Tipulidce),
hymenoptera (including Bomhus and ants), larvae of lepidoptera,
etc. Also minute land mollusca and spiders.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles.— Summer -resident ; said to winter
occasionally. Widely distributed, though local. Also passage-
migrant.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Summer-residents begin to arrive
second week March (early dates Sussex, Jan. 6, 1912 ; I. of Wight,
Feb. 22, 1913 ; Suffolk, Feb. 28, 1912 ; March 1, 5, 6.) Main
arrival end of third week March to mid-April. Passage-migration
throughout country, but specially conspicuous by east and west
coastal routes (Channel to northern isles) from last few days March
to mid -May, stragglers to nearly mid -June. Summer -residents
begin to move south mid-July and leave south coast early Aug.
(early date July 10/11, 1910 St. Catherine's Lt. (I. of Wight)),
later on movement becomes merged in that of passage-migrants
that begin to arrive in northern isles early Sept. and pass south by
east and west coastal routes, and possibly overland to some extent
as well, up to third week Oct. Evidence also of immigration on
to east coast (Forth to Thames) from about mid-Sept. Stragglers
continue to pass in most years up to mid -Nov. (late date 20, Flannan
Isles, O.H.) Evidence of passage-migration east coast Ireland,
spring and autumn.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Whole of Europe to north (and possibly
south) Spain, east, central and north Asia and northern Alaska ;
winteiing in tropical Africa. Represented by other forms in Green-
land and Iceland and in the Atlas Mountains, while distribution
and characters of others which have been separated require further
study and confirmation.

177. (Enanthe oenanthe leucorrhoa (Gm.)— THE GREEN-
LAND WHEATEAR.

MOTACILLA LEUCORHOA Gmelin, Syst. Nat., i, ii, p. 966 (1789 — Senegal).

Saxicola cenanthe (L.), Saunders, p. 19 (part).

Saxicola cenanthe leucorrhoa (Gmelin), C. B. Ticehurst, Brit. B., n, p.271.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Like adult male (Enanthe 02.
cenanthe but rather browner and less grey upper -parts, ear-coverts

430 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

usually browner, less black, throat and breast sometimes deeper
buff but this is variable. Summer. — Upper -parts seem never to
become so pure french-grey (i.e., more tinged with brown) as in
adult of typical form, throat and breast decidedly richer and
deeper buff and belly less whitish, this difference being observable
even in worn plumage.

Adult female. Winter and first winter male and female. —
Upper -parts as in typical form, under -parts as a rule deeper buff
but some examples of typical form cannot be distinguished.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like that of (E. as. cenanthe.

First summer. Male. — Upper -parts less grey than in typical
form and throat and breast decidedly richer and deeper buff and
belly less whitish.

N.B. — Moults as in (E. oe. cenanthe. The deeper buff of under -
parts is distinctive in males in spring and summer, but is an
uncertain character in autumn even when first winter and adult
birds are carefully separated. Black on tail-feathers slightly
more extended, measurements taken as in (E. oe. cenanthe being : —
$ adult winter and summer : central tail-feathers 35-42 and not
infrequently to base ; outermost tail-feathers 20-28. £ 1st winter
and 1st summer : central tail-feathers 36-44 and often to base ;
outermost tail-feathers 20-28.

Measurements and structure. — Q wing 103-108 mm. (exception-
ally as short as 100 and as long as 110), tail 58-62, tarsus 27-33,
bill from skull 17-19 (12 measured). $ wing 96-104. Structure
as in (E. oe. cenanthe.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Closely resembles Common Wheatear, but
has darker buff under-parts, is slightly larger, and frequently
perches in trees. Strictly a bird of passage, later than Common
Wheatear, and often seen in May in places where that species does
not nest.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Similar to those of Common Wheatear and
Nest also alike. Eggs. — Clutch often larger than with southern
birds, 6 to 8 and even 9 in number : similar in appearance but
slightly larger on average. Average of 40 eggs, 21.7 X 15.8 mm.
Breeding-season. — June. Hantzsch gives incubation-period in Ice-
land as 13-14 days. Single brooded.

FOOD. — Diptera and larvae, acaridae, spiders, etc. Also bits of
phanerogams and moss in stomach (Le R,oi).

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Passage-migrant through Great
Britain and Ireland.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Probably passes through most counties
as arrives on whole of southern seaboard, but travels mainly by

THE WESTERN DESERT -WHEATEAR. 431

east and west coastal routes (Channel to northern isles) and east
and west coasts Ireland, third week April to end first week June
(early dates April 1, 8-10.) Similar movements in reverse direction
autumn from last few days August (early dates Tarbatness Lt.
(E. Ross), Aug. 5, 1913, Pentland Skerries (Orkney), Aug. 7, 1912.
Bardsey Lt. (Carnarvon) Aug. 15, 1909) to second week Oct.,
stragglers to early Nov. (late dates Barra (O.H.) Nov. 17 and 18,
1911, Clyde, Nov. 30, 1913).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Greenland and north-east America west
of Davis Strait to Labrador, and apparently Iceland, though a
series from there should be re-examined, as they appear to be,
at least partly, intermediate. Migrates through north-west Africa,
Canaries, and Azores to Senegambia, in America to New York, New
Brunswick, Ontario, Bermudas, probably Colorado and Louisiana,
accidental Cuba.

CENANTHE DESERTI

178. CEnanthe deserti homochroa (Tristram) * — THE
WESTERN DESERT-WHEATEAR.

SAXICOLA HOMOCHROA Tristram, Ibis, 1859, p. 59 (" Hab. in Sahara

Tunitana." The type, a female, obtained in the Souf, near boundary

of Algeria and Tunisia. Tristram believed the female to be a different

species from the male, but the name must be adopted as it clearly

refers to the western Saharan race).

tSaxicola deserti (Temminck), Yarrell, in, p. viii ; S. deserti Ruppell,

Saunders, p. 25 (? part).

(Enanthe deserti deserti (Temm.), Hand-List Brit. B., p. 80 (1912).

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Crown and nape pale greyish
sand-colour, feathers tipped greyish ; mantle, scapulars and back
same but richer sand-colour ; rump and upper tail-coverts whitish-
buff ; stripe over and behind eye buffish-white ; lores, ear-coverts,
whole chin and throat and sides of neck extending towards nape
black, feathers slightly tipped white ; breast and flanks sandy-buff ;
centre of belly and under tail-coverts buffish-white ; under wing-
coverts and axillaries black tipped white ; all tail-feathers with
rather more than basal third white and rest black narrowly tipped
buffish-white (black measured from tip of feathers to its farthest
extension basally is from 35 to 43 mm.) ; primaries, outer webs
and tips black narrowly edged and tipped whitish, inner webs
paler and browner edged white, increasing in breadth at bases ;

* I have re-examined the female from Holderness, formerly in Mr. J. H.
Gurney's collection and now at the Tring Museum, and find it to be of the
sandy-coloured Saharan race. When I first examined this bird in 1908 I
had not the material to show that (E. d. homochroa was separable from
(E. d. deserti. — E.H.

432

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

secondaries same but with broader white edges to outer webs and
tips and more white on inner webs, innermost three secondaries
brown broadly edged sandy-buff, the innermost with most of outer
web sandy - buff ; primary-
coverts black narrowly tipped
white ; greater wing-coverts
black edged and tipped white,
innermost feathers with most
of outer webs white and inner
webs brown mixed with
white ; median and lesser
wing-coverts black tipped
sandy-buff to white, inner
feathers mostly sandy or
white with black bases. This
plumage is acquired by com-
plete moult June-Aug. Sum-
mer. — The ear-coverts and
sometimes a few feathers
on chin are moulted Feb.-
April but otherwise no moult.

ATvracirm nf tiTna anH frltrpQ rrf Th-« Western Desert-Wheatear (CEnanthe d. homo-

Abrasion of tips ana cages 01 chroa) Adult male Showi» large auiount of

feathers makes throat, wing- fciaek on tail.

and tail-feathers and outer

wing-coverts uniform black, mantle and scapulars richer sandy and

upper tail-coverts and rump whiter, while in much worn plumage

blackish-grey bases of feathers of crown and nape are disclosed

and black extending from sides of neck more prominent.

Adult female. Winter. — -Upper -parts as male but rump and
upper tail-coverts rather more buff ; lores and eye-stripe pale buff ;
ear-coverts sandy-brown to dark brown ; chin and throat buffish-
white ; axillaries and under wing-coverts white with brownish-
black bases ; rest of under-parts as male ; tail as male but browner
black ; wing-feathers browner with wider and more buff edgings
and tips ; wing-coverts browner with more sandy-buff and less
white edgings and tips. Moult as in male. Summer. — Abrasion
makes rump and under-parts whiter ; feathers of chin and throat
when much worn show dark bases ; much of buff edgings wears off
wing-feathers and wing-coverts but not to same extent as in male.
N.B.— Some females have considerable amount of brown-black
on chin and throat.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Upper-parts as adult female but each feather with
pale centre and brownish tip giving upper -parts slightly spotted
appearance ; rump and upper tail-coverts whiter than in adult
female ; lores and ear -coverts sandy-buff ; under-parts buffish-
white, feathers of throat and breast with brownish-buff tips ;

THE WESTERN DESERT-WHEATEAR. 433

tail- and wing -feathers and greater wing-coverts as adult female ;
median and lesser coverts with broad sandy-buff tips.

First winter. Male. — Like adult but feathers of chin and
throat with longer white tips sometimes almost entirely concealing
black ; tail and wing-feathers and greater wing-coverts browner-
black with broader and more sandy-buff edgings and tips as in
adult female ; inner median and lesser coverts usually with sandy-
buff and not such white tips as in adult male. The juvenile body-
feathers, lesser and median wing-coverts and varying number of
innermost greater wing-coverts and sometimes innermost secondary
are moulted June-Aug., but not primary -co verts or tail nor rest
of greater wing-coverts or wing -feathers. Summer. — Same differ-
ences as in winter but in much worn plumage only distinguishable
from adult male by browner wings.

First winter and summer. Female. — Like adult female.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 87-94 mm., tail 57-66,
tarsus 24-26, bill from skull 17-18 (12 measured). $ wing 84-89.
Primaries : 1st equal to or 1-2 mm. shorter or longer than primary-
coverts, 3rd and 4th longest, 2nd and 5th 2-5 mm. shorter, 6th
8-12 shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs. Other structure
as (E. OR. cenanthe, but central pair of tail-feathers not noticeably
shorter than rest.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs and feet, black ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — For differences of (E. d. albifrons
see under that form ; (E. d. deserti (Nubia, north Arabia) is much
like (E. d. albifrons in colour of upper-parts but with less white
on inner webs of wing-feathers and in size equals (E. d. homochroa.
For differences of (E. hispanica see " Characters " under that
species.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Haunts hummocky country in deserts, and
is rather silent, appearing for a moment and taking short flight
before again showing itself. Sand-coloured, with some black, no
white, except on rump. More black in tail and light markings on.
wings distinguish it from Black-eared and Pied Wheatears, and
black throat of male separates it at a glance from other Wheatears.
on British List. Has short song, during which it often rises per-
pendicularly in the air, but not high. (F.C.R.J.)

BREEDING-HABITS. — Found in sandy desert, nesting in burrows in
sides of hillocks or cavities among roots of bushes and in banks
of gullies. Nest. — Loosely built of dry grass-stems and dead plants,
with a few bits of wool, feathers, or hair in lining. Eggs. — 3 to 5
as a rule, rarely 6, delicate bluish-green, like those of (E. hispanica
and spotted with rusty-red, chiefly towards big end. Average size
of 43 eggs, 19.9 X 14.9 mm. Breeding-season. — From end March to
early May in north-west Africa.

2F

434 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

FOOD. — Insects and larvae, but details lacking. Diptera, numerous
small coleoptera, also orthoptera.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Female Holderness coast (Yorks.)
Oct. 17, 1885 (W. E. Clarke, P.Z.S., 1885, p. 835), is of this form.
Other Desert-Wheatears which we have not examined, are : male,
near Alloa (Clackmannan), Nov. 26, 1880 (J. J. Dalgleish, op. cit.,
1881, p. 453) ; male, near Arbroath (Forfar), Dec. 28, 1887 (H. M.
Drummond-Hay, Ibis, 1888, p. 283) ; male " near the sea " (Norfolk)
Oct. 31, 1907 (J. H. Gurney, Zool., 1908, p. 132).

DISTRIBUTION. — -Abroad. — Sahara from Cape Blanco to Natron
Valley in Lower Egypt. Replaced by (E. d. deserti in Nubia and
north Arabia to southernmost Palestine, by (E. d. albifrons in
Central Asia to Khirgiz Steppes.

179. CEnanthe deserti albifrons (Brandt) — THE EASTERN
DESERT- WHEATEAR.

SAXICOLA ALBIFBONS Brandt, Bull. Acad. St. Petersburg, n, p. 139 (1844

— W. Siberia).

Saxicola deserti atrogularis Blyth, Hartert, Vog. pal. Fauna, i, p. 684.

DESCRIPTION. — Like (E. d. homochroa but more greyish -sandy,
not so rich sandy on upper -parts and thus like (E. d. deserti but
with more white on inner webs of wing -feathers, especially noticeable
in adult male in wnich white usually extends to shaft of feathers.
Measurements. — $ wing 92-101 mm. (one 88), tail 59-67, tarsus
25-28, biU from skull 16-18 (12 measured). $ wing 87-97. Larger
than (E. d. homochroa but extreme measurements overlap.

BREEDING-HABITS. — In Turkestan breeds up to over 12,000 ft.
on steppes and sandy plains, nesting in burrows or holes in walls
of wells and under bushes. Nest. — Probably similar to that of
western race. Eggs. — 3 to 5, pale bluish-green with rusty-red
speckles and spots. Average size of 9 eggs, 20.1 X 15 mm. Breed-
ing-season.— Eggs in June on highlands of Central Asia.

FOOD. — Lynes records ants and other insects, caterpillars and in
two cases small seeds in stomach. Dickson and Ross also record
ants, and Wither by larvae of ants.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Male Pentland Skerries Light
(Orkneys), June 2, 1906 (W. E. Clarke, Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1906,
p. 138) and male Scotney (Kent), May 21, 1913 (H. W. Ford-
Lindsay, Brit. B., vii, p. 117) are of this form.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — From Khirgiz Steppes to Saissansk,
Dsungaria, Nan-Shan, Ala-Shan, Ordos, and south Kuku-Nor.
(Specimens obtained on Heligoland probably belong to this form.)
On migration through south-west Asia to south Arabia, Sokotra,
and north-east Africa.

THE WESTERN BLACK-EARED WHEATEAR.

435

(ENANTHE HISPANICA*

180. CEnanthe hispanica hispanica (L.)— THE WESTERN
BLACK-EARED WHEATEAR.

MOTACILLA HISPANICA. Linngeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 186 (1758

" Hispania." Typical locality : Gibraltar).

Saxicola stapazina (Vieillot), Yarrell, in, p. viii ; Saunders, p. 23 ;
S. stapazina (Linnaeus) nee Vieillot, id., Brit. B., i, p. 6 ; S. occidental,
id., I.e., p. 7 ; S. h. hispanica, Hartert, op.c., iv, p. 131.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult
male. Winter. — Fore-
head buff ; crown, nape
and mantle rich foxy-
buff ; scapulars black with
long rich buff tips and
varying amount of buff
on inner webs and often
some inner feathers with
no black ; back, rump
and upper tail-coverts
white tinged cream ; nar-
row line from nostrils to
lores, lores, narrow line
over eye, broad line under
eye and ear -coverts jet-
black ; chin and upper-
throat whitish-buff or jet-
black with feathers nar-
rowly tipped white (N.B.
— in black - throated ex-
amples of this form black of sides of throat does not extend so far
down as the black of ear -coverts) ; lower throat pale buff ; breast
rich buff ; rest of under-parts pale buff ; axillaries and under wing-
coverts black, narrowly tipped white ; tail-feathers narrowly tipped
white, central pair black with only basal quarter or third white, rest
mostly white with about distal quarter black, t outermost feathers
with more black which often extends to half length of feather on
outer webs ; wing-feathers jet-black with narrow pale buff tips
and edges to outer webs and whitish edges to inner webs, inner
secondaries with broader and deeper buff tips and edgings to outer

* Clearly described in 1758 as Mot. hispanica. As the black-throated
and white-throated birds (stapazina and aurita of former times) are only
dimorphisms of the same species, hispanica takes the place of both. — E.H.

•J- Black varies in extent and is often divided and broken up by white
and occasionally some inner feathers have only small black marks or no black
at all. Black measured from tip of feather to its farthest extension basally
is in outermost feather 20-32 mm. and in 4th feather from outer no black to
20 mm.

2 F2

The Western Black-eared Wheatear (CEnanthe h.

hispinica). Arlult male. Showing distribution of

black in tail as compared with other species.

436 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

webs ; primary -coverts as primaries ; greater coverts as inner
secondaries ; median coverts with narrower whitish tips ; lesser
coverts same, but with still narrower whitish tips (some entirely
black). This plumage is acquired by complete moult in July- Aug.
Summer. — A moult usually confined to ear-coverts and chin but
occasionally extending to some feathers of throat and crown takes
place Dec. -Feb. As winter, but abrasion gradually makes fore-head
and fore-part of crown whiter and often quite white, but when very
much worn black bases of feathers begin to show, nape and mantle
gradually become pale sandy- buff and occasionally in very worn
examples white with remains of buff here and there, white tips
wear off tail-feathers and buff tips and edgings of wing -feathers,
wing-coverts and axillaries gradually wear off making wings almost
uniform black except for whitish edgings of inner webs of wing-
feathers, under-parts become pale buff to almost pure white.

Adult female. Winter. — Whole head, mantle and upper-back
sandy -brown ; scapulars dark brown and bufT-brown ; lower-back,
rump and upper tail-coverts white ting d cream as in male ; lores
and feathers under eye brown (sometimes blackish), feathers with
greyish-white tips ; ear -coverts sandy-brown to dark brown and
occasionally blackish-brown ; chin and throat whitish-buff, feathers
with brown to black-brown bases varying in extent, sometimes
entirely concealed, sometimes showing more or less ; rest of under-
parts as male but buff of breast less rich ; under wing -co verts,
axillaries, wing-feathers and all wing-coverts much browner black
than adult male and with wider and more brownish-buff edgings
and tips ; tail as adult male but black browner and extending
usually farther and very rarely broken up by white. Moult as
male. Summer. — Abrasion does not make any marked difference
as in adult male . Much of pale edgings on wings remains . Abrasion
reveals black-brown bases of feathers of chin and throat and this
becomes prominent in some examples.

Nestling. — Down pale mouse-colour. Distribution, inner supra -
orbital, occipital, humeral, spinal and femoral (description from
partially feathered skin).

Juvenile. — Feathers of whole head, mantle and upper-back
with pale buff to buffish-white centres with narrow brown tips,
giving a spotted appearance ; rump and upper tail-coverts white ;
ear-coverts dark brown with pale buff shaft -streaks ; chin and
throat dull buffish-white, some feathers very slightly tipped brown ;
breast rather more buff, feathers with narrow brown tips and edges ;
rest of under-parts pale buff ; axillaries black-brown with pale
buff tips ; tail as in adults ; wing-feathers, primary- and greater
coverts as adult female ; median and lesser wing-coverts black-
brown with long whitish-buff tips.

First winter. Male. — Like adult male but upper -parts rather
browner and darker, not so bright, feathers of lores and ear -coverts-

THE WESTERN BLACK-EARED WHEATEAB. 437

and of chin and throat in black-throated examples with long buff
tips concealing the black to a considerable extent, wing-feathers,
primary -co verts and outer greater coverts browner, not jet-black
and with wider buff edgings, median and lesser wing-coverts with
much longer and buffer tips as in adult female, no constant difference
in white and black of tail but very rarely indeed with so little black
as in some adult males. The juvenile body -feathers, lesser and
median wing-coverts and varying number of inner greater coverts
are moulted July-Aug., but not wing- or tail-feathers, primary-
coverts or outer greater coverts. Summer. — Moult as adult.
Abrasion has same effect as in adult but crown and mantle usually
browner and less pale sandy-buff and a good many edgings remain
on wing-coverts and wing-feathers, which become very brown
compared to jet-black of adult, in black-throated examples whitish
tips on throat do not entirely wear off.

First winter and summer. Female. — Apparently like adult
female.

Measurements and structure. — ^ wing 86-93 mm., tail 58-66,
tarsus 22-24, bill from skull 16-18 (12 measured). $ wing 85-90.
Primaries : 1st 1-5 mm. longer than, or occasionally equal to,
primary -co verts, 3rd and 4th longest, 2nd 4-7 mm. shorter, 5th 1-3
shorter, 6th 6-10 shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs.
Best of structure as in (E. ce. cenanthe.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs and feet black ; iris brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — For differences of (E. h. melano-
leuca see under that form. Some males from western and north
Persia and Caucasus have black extended in continuous stripe from
ear-coveits to shoulder and have been separated as (E. h. gaddi,
but this appears to be an individual variation. More black on
central pair and much less black on rest of tail-feathers distinguishes
this species from (E. deserti which has distal two-thirds of all tail-
feathers black. Male of (E.p. pleschanka easily distinguished by its
black mantle, female decidedly more earth-brown and less sandy-
brown on upper -parts than (E. h. hispanica and lower part of throat
and upper- breast darker, but rarely some females of (E. p. pleschanka
are very difficult to distinguish from some females of (E. h. melano-
leuca, though mantle of latter is usually buffer and less earth-brown
and breast more sandy-buff and less brown. Juveniles of these
two species cannot be distinguished with certainty.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — A typical Wheatear, but colours contrast
much more strongly than in Common Wheatear. Habits and
general effect in eared form very similar, but grey on crown and
back of male replaced by pale creamy-brown. Male of black-
throated form is readily distinguished from Pied Wheatear by ite
creamy (not black) back and from Desert-Wheatear by its black
wings and white on tail. White rump in all stages noticeable in

438 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

flight and tail pattern distinguishes it from all Wheatears on British
List except Common and Pied. (F.C.R.J.)

BREEDING-HABITS. — Frequents rough hillsides, ruins, broken ground,
sides of water-courses, etc. Nest. — Sometimes in hole, but often in
recess on hillside sheltered by growing plant or projecting stone ;
built of bents, moss and grasses lined fine roots and often hair.
Eggs. — 4 or 5, sometimes 6, bluish-green in ground-colour, deeper
than those of Common Wheatear, and spotted with reddish-brown
with tendency to zone, but as a rule less distinctly than eggs
of eastern form. Average of 54 eggs, 19.9x15 mm. Breeding -
season. — From first week May onward and as eggs are found as late
as June and July, probably two broods are reared. Incubation. —
Apparently by hen only ; period not ascertained.

FOOD. — Little definite information, but apparently almost entirely
insects, taken on ground and on wing ; probably chiefly small
coleoptera, orthoptera and diptera.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Eleven obtained and one seen,
viz.: male (black-throated) seen Spurn (Yorks.) Sept. 18, 1892
(Saunders, p, 23) ; male near Polegate (Sussex) May 28, 1902 ;
male near Hooe (Sussex) May 22, 1905 ; male (black-throated)
near Lydd (Kent) May 23, 1906 (Saunders, Brit. B., i, pp. 6, 7) ;
male Winchelsea (Sussex) May 2, 1907 (J. B. Nichols, i.e., p. 185) ;
male (black-throated) Fair Isle Sept. 25, 1907 (W. E. Clarke, Ann.
Scot. Nat. Hist., 1908, p. 81) ; female St. Kilda (Outer Hebrides)
Sept. 21, 1911 (id., Studies in Migration, n, p. 217) ; two males
(black-throated) near Winchelsea (Sussex) May 16 and 19, 1912
(J. B. Nichols, Brit. B., vi, p. 184) ; two males (black-throated)
Hollington (Sussex) May 5, 1915 and St. Leonards Oct. 30, 1915
(H. W. Ford-Lindsay, op. cit., ix, pp. 121 and 249) ; male (black-
throated) Tuskar Eock (Wexford) May 16, 1916 (C. J. Patten,
Irish Nat., 1916, p. 100, Nov. Zool., xxrv, pp. 1-16).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Western Mediterranean countries, south
of the Alpine range and south Tyrol. Passing through the western
Sahara and observed as far south as Senegambia. Has been shot
on Heligoland. Replaced in eastern Mediterranean countries,
east to Asia Minor and Syria, by (E. hispanica melanoleuca.

181. CEnanthe hispanica melanoleuca (Giild.)— THE EASTERN
BLACK-EARED WHEATEAR.

MtrsciCAPA MELANOLEUCA Guldenstadt, Nov. Comm. Petrop., xix, p.
468 pi. 15 (1775 — Georgia, Caucasus).

Saxicola xanthomelcena Hemprich & Ehrenberg, Symb. Phys. Aves,
fol. c, aa, no. 6 (1833 — Egypt. Description of the autumn-plumage of
the black-throated form).

THE EASTERN BLACK-EARED WHEATEAR.

439

Saxicola amphileuca Hemprich & Ehrenberg, t.c., fol. bb, no. 4 (1833 —
Syria. Description of the white-throated form in summer-plumage).
Saxicola stapazina var. melanoleiica Seebohm, Hist. Brit. Birds, I, p. 307.
Saxicola stapazina Linn. (=S. aurita Temm.), M. J. Nicoll, Bull. B.O.C. ',
xvi, p. 22 ; Saxicola stapazina (Linn.), nee Vieillot, Saunders, Brit. B.,
i, p. 6.

CEnanthe hispanica xantliome^cena, (Hempr. & Ehr.), Hand-List Brit. B.,
p. 82, 1912.

1, The Western, 2, The Eastern Black-eared Wheatears (black- throated form). Adult
males, summer. Showing the difference in black on throat. N.B. — The difference
is not always so marked as in these two examples.

1, The Western, 2, The Eastern Black-eared Wheatears. Adult males, summer.
Showing difference in black on fore-head.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Like that of (E. h. hispanica
but crown dirty greyish-brown not foxy-buff ; mantle buff washed
with varying amount of greyish-brown, but paler, browner and much
less rich buff than in (E. h. hispanica ; scapulars usually entirely
black with buff tips ; black line extends from nostrils across fore-
head ; in black-throated examples black extends farther down
throat making a straight line with black of ear -co verts ; inner webs
of wing -feathers black not edged whitish. Moult as in (E. h.
hispanica. Summer. — Abrasion causes same changes as in (E. h.
hispanica but crown and mantle become whiter and often quite
white and scapulars jet-black, less worn examples usually have
some traces of brown on crown, and varying amount of sandy-buff
on mantle.

Adult female. — Like that of (E. h. hispanica but crown and
mantle dark brown, not sandy, and usually easy to distinguish
but some examples are somewhat sandy and approach dark examples
of typical form very nearly especially in worn summer plumage:

440 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Those examples with blackish on chin and throat have this extended
farther down throat than similar females of (E. h. hispanica. In
other respects like (E. h. hispanica.

Juvenile. — Like that of (E. h. hispanica.

First winter. Male. — Differing from adult male as in (E. h.
hispanica. Crown and mantle considerably darker brown and
less sandy than first winter (E. h. hispanica ; scapulars usually
darker than in (E. h. hispanica ; black line on fore-head usually
present but rarely absent ; black of throat more extended as in
adult ; inner webs of wing-feathers usually margined with dull
whitish and indistinguishable from (E. h. hispanica but occasionally
black as in adult. Moult as in (E. h. hispanica. Summer. — Crown
and mantle browner than in first summer (E. h. hispanica, some
very worn examples are almost white on these parts like adults,
but there are always traces of brown edgings. Distinctions between
two forms thus not so clear in first winter and summer as in adult
males.

Measurements, structure and soft parts. — As in (E. h. hispanica.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Very similar to those of western form. Nest. —
Also similar but generally lined with hair (Reiser). Eggs. — 4 or 5,
sometimes 6, much like those of western form, but spots on aver-
age more distinct and darker. Average of 86 eggs, 18.9x14.8
mm. Breeding-season. — From end April and early May onward.
Incubation. — By hen alone (Reiser) ; period not ascertained.

FOOD. — Probably chiefly insects. Baldamus records coleoptera
(Haltica, Carabidse, etc.), and Lynes found small snails, millipedes,
beetles, flies, ants, grubs and a few seeds.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Four obtained and two seen, viz. :
male (black-throated) near Bury (Lanes.) May about 8, 1878 (H.
Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B., i, p. 307, ZooL, 1886, p. 193); male
near Pett (Sussex) Sept. 9, 1905 (M. J. Nicoll, Bull. B.O.C.,
xvi, p. 22) ; female and male Westfield and Pevensey (Sussex)
April 21 and 30, 1914 (J. B. Nichols, Brit. B., ix," p. 121) ;
male (black-throated) seen Cleveland Hills (Yorks.) June 6, 1915
(W. S. Medlicott, op. cit., ix, p. 122) ; male (black-throated) pro-
bably of this form seen by H. Massev near Didsbury (Lanes.)
March 29, 1915 (F. C. R. Jourdain, op. cit., ix, p. 155).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — breeds from western Persia, Asia Minor
and Palestine westwards throughout Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria,
Roumania, south Russia (Crimea) to Montenegro, Croatia and
Dalmatia, and perhaps in south Italy (Apulia, Calabria, Sicily ?).
Migrates through Egypt and Nubia and winters in eastern Sudan
and Abyssinia. On passage not very rare in Italy, rare in Tripoli,
Tunisia, and Algeria. ((E. h. gaddi from west Persia is evidently
only a variety, occurring with white and black throat.)

THE PIED WHEATEAR. 441

CENANTHE PLESCHANKA

182. CEnanthe pleschanka pleschanka (Lepech.)— THE PIED
WHEATEAR.

MOTACILLA PLESCHANKA Lepechin, Nov. Comm. Petr., xiv, p. 503, pi. 14
(1770 or 1771 — Saratow on the Volga; translation in Hase, Lepechin's
Reise, i, p. 229).

Saxicola pleschanka, E. V. Baxter and L. J. Rintoul, Ann. Scot. Nat.
Hist., 1910, p. 2.

The Pied Wheatear( (Enanthe p. plescfianJca). Adult male, summer.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head, crown, nape and
hind-neck pale earth-brown, feathers with narrow paler buff tips,
and white bases showing here and there especially on hind-neck ;
mantle and scapulars black, much concealed by long brownish-buff
tips to feathers ; back, rump and upper tail-coverts white with
slight creamy tinge ; narrow line on fore-head, lores, narrow line
over eye, ear-coverts, sides of neck to shoulders, whole chin and
throat extending to upper-breast black,* feathers slightly tipped
creamy -white especially on lower throat ; sides of breast and inner
flanks (under wings) black, feathers tipped buff ; rest of under -
parts creamy-buff ; axillaries and under wing-coverts black slightly
tipped white ; tail : central pair black with about basal third
white, rest mostly white with about distal quarter black, f outer
pair with more black, extending on outer web to about half
length of feather ; wing-feathers black, primaries with narrow,
and secondaries with broader, tips and edgings of creamy to whitish-
buff ; primary -co verts as primaries ; greater coverts as secondaries ;
median and lesser coverts with narrower tips. This plumage is

* Rarely both male and female have white throats, and the female
obtained on the Isle of May was of this variety, which appears to be purely
individual, though formerly treated as a distinct species — (E. vittata.

t Black on inner feathers is often divided and broken up by white and
sometimes reduced to a spot, but appears never to be entirely absent. Black
measured from tip of feather to its farthest extent basally is in outermost
feather 20-30 mm., and in 4th feather from outer a spot to 20 mm.

442 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

acquired by complete moult in June-Sept. Summer. — A moult
usually confined to ear-coverts and chin, but occasionally extending
to throat, upper-breast and sides of neck takes place from Dec.
to Feb. and occasionally March. Plumage as winter, but abrasion
gradually makes crown, nape and hind-neck white, and mantle,
scapulars and wings nearly uniform black.

Adult female. Winter. — Crown, nape, mantle and scapulars
earth-brown, feathers with narrow pale buff tips (feathers of hind-
neck occasionally with a little white basally) ; rump and upper
tail-coverts white tinged creamy ; indistinct stripe from nostrils,
over and behind eye creamy-buff ; ear-coverts brown ; chin pale
buff ; throat varying brown to brown-black almost entirely con-
cealed by pale buff tips of feathers ; upper-breast bumsh-brown to
tawny ; sides of breast and flanks brown ; rest of under -parts
creamy -buff ; axillaries and under wing-coverts black-brown edged
and tipped whitish ; tail as male but browner ; wings and wing-
coverts dark brown with longer and buffer tips and edgings than in
male. Summer. — Moult as male. Abrasion makes upper -parts and
wings more uniform brown and reveals much of black or dark brown
bases of feathers of throat especially in those examples where this
is prominent but even the darkest always have some pale tips to
feathers.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Upper-parts much as adult female, but more
buffish-brown and each feather with whitish-buff centre towards
tip, giving upper-parts spotted appearance ; rump and upper tail-
coverts as female ; lores whitish with dark tips ; ear -coverts
brown with whitish-buff centres ; chin, throat and breast buff to
pale buff, feathers tipped dark brown ; belly creamy-white ;
tail- and wing-feathers and greater wing-coverts as adult female ;
innermost greater wing -co vert, median and lesser wing-coverts
with rather broad and somewhat wedge-shaped creamy -white tips.

First winter. Male. — Like adult male but mantle, scapulars,
wing-feathers and wing-coverts browner black and with longer
and buffer edgings and tips ; ear-coverts, chin and throat with
longer pale tips almost concealing black (thus somewhat inter-
mediate between adult male and female but more like former).
The juvenile body-feathers, median and lesser wing-coverts, and
varying number of inner greater wing-coverts and sometimes
innermost secondary are moulted July-Sept., but not primary-
coverts or tail nor rest of wing-feathers or greater coverts . Summer.
— Moult as adult. Abrasion has same effect but crown seldom
becomes so white as adult, mantle is always browner and wings
are much browner black.

First winter and summer. Female. — Apparently like adult
female.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 90-98 mm., tail 57-67,

THE ISABELLINE WHEATEAR, 443

tarsus 22-25, bill from skull 15.5-17 (12 measured). $ wing 87-95.
Primaries : 1st 1-3 inm. longer or shorter than primary -co verts,
3rd and 4th longest, 2nd 4-6 mm. shorter, 5th 1-4 shorter, 6th 8-12
shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs. Rest of structure
as in (E. ce. cenanthe.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs and feet, black ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — (E.p. cypriaca (Cyprus) is smaller
and more sandy on under-parts, in winter crown of male is blacker
and upper -parts of female are darker brown. For differences of
(E. hispanica see " Characters " under that species.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Although usually haunting stony places, fre-
quently perches on bushes and trees, often high up on latter. Con-
stantly pounces down on to ground and flies up again to its perch
in a Shrike-like fashion. Continually " bobs " its tail and is very
shy and equally conspicuous. Black back of male distinguishes
it from black-throated form of (E. hispanica but females very
difficult to identify in field. Note harsh " zach, zach." (H.F.W.)

BREEDING-HABITS. — Usually breeds in holes in river banks, but
also at times under stones. Nest. — Few details given : dry grasses,
lined roots and a feather or two. Eggs. — 4 to 6, light greenish-blue,
a few rusty spots at big end. Average size of 41, 19.3x15.1 mm.
Breeding-season. — May, in south Russia.

FOOD. — Chiefly insects, but no precise data. Lynes found seeds,
grasshopper, insects, in stomachs of (E.p. cypriaca.

DISTRIBUTION. — Scotland. — Female, Isle of May (Forth) Oct. 19,
1909 (ut supra}. Female, Swona (Orkneys) Nov. 1, 1916 (J. Bain,
Scot. Nat., 1916, p. 293).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — South Russia to Crimea, Dobrogea,
Caucasus, Transcaspia, Turkestan, Persia, Afghanistan, west Tibet,
north to south-east Siberia, and north China, also in Gilgit and north
Kashmir. On passage in north-east Africa and Arabia, also casual
in Italy, also on Heligoland. Replaced by smaller race in Cyprus.

CENANTHE ISABELLINA

183. CEnanthe isabellina (Cretzschm.)— THE ISABELLINE
WHEATEAR.

SAXICOLA ISABELLINA Cretzschmar, Atlas zu Biippells Reise, Vogel,

p. 52, pi. 34, b (1826— Nubia).

Saxicola isabellina Riippell, Saunders, p. 21.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter.— Upper parts pale sandy-
brown with more or less isabelline tinge ; feathers of lower back
joining rump isabelline ; rump and upper tail-coverts white ;

444 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

lores black, feathers tipped white ; line from nostrils over eye
white to cream ; ear-coverts pale brown to isabelline -brown
chin white to pale cream ; throat buffish-white to pale buff ; breast

1. The Isabelhne Wheats r ((Eninthe isabfllina). 2. The Greenland Wheatear ((E. ce.
leucorrhoa). Adult males. Showing difference iu size of bills.

and sides darker sandy to isabelline-buff ; centre of belly creamy-
white ; under tail-coverts pale buff ; under wing-coverts and
axillaries white with dusky bases ; tail-feathers brown -black
narrowly edged and tipped pale buff to whitish with white bases
extending in central pair to about one-third but in rest to rather
more than half of length*; wing-feathers black-brown, tipped, and
outer webs edged, pale creamy- to isabelline-buff, narrowly on
primaries more broadly on secondaries, inner webs edged white ;
primary-coverts as primaries ; greater and median coverts brown
with broad buff to pale cream edgings and tips ; lesser coverts
paler brown with paler sandy tips. This plumage is acquired by
complete moult June-Aug. occasionally Sept. and Oct. Summer. —
A moult usually confined to body -feathers, but sometimes involving
a few lesser and median wing-coverts, and rarely one or two inner-
most greater coverts and secondaries, takes place Dec. -Feb. (some-
times starting Nov.). New plumage as winter.

Adult female. Winter and summer. — Like male and moults
same.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like adult but upper-parts with more bufnsh
tinge and each feather with a faint pale mesial streak and very
narrow dark tip ; lores dusky with whitish tips ; stripe from nostril
over eye dull cream very ill-defined ; chin and centre of throat
dull white ; sides of throat and breast buff, minutely freckled
dark brown, each feather having veiy narrow dark brown tip*;
rest of under -parts pale buff ; tail- and wing-feathers, primary-
coverts and greater wing -co verts as adult, but median and lesser
coverts with pale buff wedge-shaped spots at tips.

First winter. — Like adults. The juvenile body -feat hers, lesser

* Measurements of black taken as in 057. OR. cenanthe are : c? winter and
summer, central feathers 33-43 (never black to base in J or $ at any age),
outermost 21-30 mm.

THE ISABELLTNE WHEATEAR. 445

and median wing -coverts are moulted June-Oct., but not the greater
wing-coverts, primary -co verts, wing- or tail-feathers.

Measurements and structure. — £ wing 96-106 mm., tail 56-61,
tarsus 29-33, bill from skull 19-21 (12 measured). $ wing 94-104.
Primaries : 1st 1-6 mm. shorter than primary -co verts, 3rd and
4th longest, 2nd 2-5 shorter, 5th 3-6 shorter, 6th 8-13 shorter ;
3rd and 4th, and 5th less distinctly, emarginated outer webs.
Other structure as (E. oenanthe.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs and feet black ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS. — No subspecies. Sandy upper-parts and pale under -
parts distinguish it from (E. oenanthe but some very pale examples
of females and first winter males of (E. oenanthe (especially (E. 02.
leucorrhoa) very nearly resemble (E. isabellina in colour of both
upper- and under-parts, but latter may be distinguished by having
whitish edges to inner webs of wing-feathers, and much more
white on axillaries and under wing-coverts ; usually also ear-
coverts, wing-feathers and coverts of (E. isabellina are not so dark,
and bill is almost invariably larger.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Haunts plains and stony plateaux. Perches
as much on bushes as on ground. Has a fluttering flight somewhat
like Crested Lark. Its large size and uniform pale sandy appearance
are distinctive but some very pale examples of (E. oe. leucorrhoa,
although having darker ear -coverts, might easily be mistaken for
this species in field. Has a chirping call-note and another note of a
whistling nature. (H.F.W.)

BREEDING-HABITS. — Haunts arid plains chiefly, breeding in burrows
of mammals (Lagomys, Spermophilus, Spalax). Nest. — Described
as fairly bulky, composed of dry grasses. Eggs. — 5-6, pale blue,
much like Common Wheatear and generally unmarked but said
occasionally to be marked with dark red-brown spots. Average
size of 33 eggs, 22.3 X 16.6 mm. Breeding-season. — From end March
in Transcaspia, April in Palestine and Asia, and May in central
Asia. Probably double brooded ; eggs in Palestine in June on Mt.
Hermon.

FOOD. — Probably chiefly insects, but few details available. Lynes
found ants, insects and yellow seeds in stomachs.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Four. Female, Allonby (Cumberland)
Nov. 11, 1887 (H. A. Macpherson, Ibis, 1888, p. 149). Male, Rye
Harbour (Sussex) April 17, 1911 (N. F. Ticehurst, Brit. B., v, p. 74).
Male, Eye Harbour, March 28, 1912 (H. W. Ford-Lindsay, op. cit.,
v, p. 328). Male, St. Leonards, May 10, 1912 (T. Parkin, op. cit.,
vi, p. 89).

DISTRIBUTION. — -Abroad. — From steppes of south-east Russia, Asia
Minor and Syria to Turkestan, Tibet, Mongolia, east Siberia, and

446

A PBACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

north-west China ; wintering in north-east and east Africa, south
Arabia, and west India. Casual in south-east Europe, a few times
observed in Tunisia and Algeria.

CENANTHE LEUCURA

184. GEnanthe leucura leucura (Gm.) — THE BLACK
WHEATEAR.

TTTODUS LEUCTTRUS Gmelin, Syst. Nat., i, ii, p. 820 (1789 — Gibraltar).
Saxicola leucura (Gm.), N. F. Ticehurst, Brit. B., in, p. 289.

DESCRIPTION . — Adult
male. Winter.— Whole
body - plumage black
somewhat glossy and
with slight brownish
tinge, except rump,
upper and under tail-
coverts which are
white ; some feathers of
vent and ventral end of
flanks with white tips ;
tail-feathers narrowly
tipped white : central
pair with about basal
half white and distal
half brown-black, rest
of feathers white with
black tips (black
measured from tip of
feather to its farthest
extremity basally is in
central feather 30-36
mm. and in fourth from
outer 10-15 mm. the
black often being
divided with white) ;
wing-feathers blackish-
brown, outer webs very
narrowly edged pale

brown and inner Webs Lower figure, The Black Wheatear ((Enanthe I. leucura).
pHo-pd OTPtH<»h - whifp • Upper figure, The North African Black Wheatear ((E.I.
edged greyisn - WniDe , sy^uica)f Males. Showing difference in amount of black

primary-coverts as mtaUs.

primaries ; innermost

secondaries and wing-coverts darker than rest of wing-feathers

but not so black as body -feathers. This plumage is acquired by

complete moult July to Oct. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion

makes plumage rather more brownish.

THE BLACK WHEATEAR. 447

Adult female. Winter. — As male but upper-parts browner
and duller not so glossy, more sooty brown-black, feathers of
tinder -parts, ear-coverts and sides of neck broadly margined rich
(somewhat rufous) brown ; black tips of tail-feathers measured
as in male are : central 32-37 mm. fourth from outer 10-15, some-
times divided with white. Summer. — Abrasion makes brown of
under-parts paler.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. Male. — As adult male but duller and more sooty-
black, feathers with very narrow fault greyish tips. Female. — Still
browner black than juvenile male, feathers of under-parts more
uniform than adult female and with brown tips very small and
scarcely noticeable except on belly where they are more distinct.

First winter. Male and female. — Like the adults but wing-
feathers and primary-coverts and unmoulted outer greater wing-
coverts browner. In male body -feathers are also more tinged with
brown than in adult. The juvenile body -feathers, lesser and median
wing-coverts and a varying number of greater coverts are moulted
June-Oct., but not primary -co verts, wing- or tail-feathers.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 96-100 mm., tail 64-71,
tarsus 27-28.5, bill from skull 20-22 (12 measured). £ wing 91-96.
Primaries : 1st 6-11 mm. longer than primary-coverts, 3rd to 5th
longest, 2nd 6-9 mm . shorter, 6th 2-5 shorter ; 3rd to 6th emarginated
outer webs.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs and feet black ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — For differences of CE. I. syenitica
see under that form ; CE. 1. riggenbachi (Rio de Oro) is stated to
have still more black on tail than CE. I. syenitica. Uniform black
or dark brown of body -plumage distinguishes it from other British
Wheatears.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Large size, looking as big as a Blackbird,
generally black or blackish -brown, except for white rump and white
on tail, form characters which readily distinguish both sexes and
juveniles from any other bird. Haunts rocky gorges, cliffs, etc.,
and has habits of other Wheatears, frequently spreading tail and
singing during short flights, and is as a rule a bold and lively bird,
challenging attention. (F.C.R.J.)

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in crevices and holes in rocks, walls
and caves, generally placing a wall or breastwork of loose stones
in front of nest, sometimes in considerable quantities. Nest. —
Built of grasses and dead plants, lined with feathers, wool, hair, etc.
Eggs. — 4 to 6, bluish-white with rusty-red spots, generally forming
a zone at big end. Average of 62 eggs, 24.5 X 17.8 mm. Breeding-
season. — April and May. Incubation. — Chiefly at any rate by hen .

FOOD. — Insects, but no detailed information available.

448 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Male and female near Rye Harbour
(Sussex) seen Aug. 31, 1909, and shot Sept. 2 and 16 respectively
(ut supra). Male seen (subspecies unknown) Fair Isle (Shetlands)
Sept. 28-30, 1912 (W. E. Clarke and Duchess of Bedford, Scot. Nat.,
1913, p. 26).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Portugal and Spain, Riviera, and, ap-
parently, in Sicily, but not in Greece. Replaced by (E. I. syeniiica
in north -west Africa.

185. (Enanthe leucura syenitica (Heugl.). — THE NORTH
AFRICAN BLACK WHEATEAR.

SAXICOLA SYENITICA Heuglai, Journ. f. Orn., 1869, p. 155 (El-Kab in

Upper Egypt. Type examined by Hartert).

(Enanthe teucura syeniiica, T Parkin, Brit. B., ix, p. 200.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. — Like that of (E. I. leucura but consider-
ably more tinged with brown, especially on crown, fore-part of
which in first winter and summer birds is often brown ; feathers
of vent and ventral end of flanks with more white at tips ; tail-
feathers with more black at tips than in (E. I. leucura (measured
as in (E. I. leucura black is in central feathers 34-43 mm., in fourth
from outer 12-18 mm., never divided with white as is frequently
the case in (E. I. leucura).

Adult female.— Upper-parts dark brown not brown-black
as in (E. 1. leucura ; fore-part of crown paler brown than rest of
upper-parts ; under-parts usually paler brown than in (E. I. leucura
and belly sometimes greyish ; feathers of vent and ventral end of
flanks with more white at tips ; black on tail-feathers measured
as in (E. I. leucura is in central feathers 34-40 mm. and in fourth
from outer 13-18 mm., never divided with white as is sometimes the
case in (E. I. leucura.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Except for amount of black on tail, as (E. I.
leucura, but female with feathers of under-parts more distinctly
tipped pale brown but not so much as in adult female.

Measurements.— <$ wing 92-102 mm., tail 63-68, tarsus 26-28.5,
bill from skull 19-22 (12 measured). $ wing 89-95.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests under boulders, in fissures in cliffs or
holes in steep mud-banks and builds a sloping breastwall of
flakes of stone, each about 2 inches across, on outside of nest.
Nest. — Carelessly built of dead vegetable matter and profusely
lined with hair and feathers. Eggs. — 3 to 5, white with a bluish
tinge, and sometimes boldly marked with sienna spots, often
forming zone at big end, sometimes only sparingly. Average of
60 eggs, 23.4 X 17.3 mm. Breeding -season. — March and April.
Incubation. — Chiefly at any rate by hen. Probably two broods.

THE WHINCHAT. 449

FOOD. — Insects, probably chiefly orthoptera and coleoptera, also
diptera, but little information available.

DISTRIBUTION. — England.— One. Male, Pevensey Sluice (Sussex),
June 7th, 1915 (ut supra).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Marocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Tripoli,
chiefly south of Atlas, but in places nearly to Mediterranean.
Only the type known from Egypt, so far.

Genus SAXICOLA Bechst.*

SAXICOLA Bechstein, Orn. Taschenb., i, p. 216 (1802 — Type by subsequent
designation, Swainson 1827 : S. rubicola. — Pratincola auct.)

Appears to be related to (Enanthe but resembles Flycatchers
in some ways. Bill short and strong, rictal and nasal bristles
well developed, former longer than in (Enanthe. First primary,
except in S. rubetra, longer than primary-coverts, wings not as
long as in (Enanthe, tail shorter. Sheath of tarsus undivided in
front. Sexes different, juvenile more spotted than adults. Nests
open, eggs blue, mostly spotted.

Key to species of genus SAXICOLA.

First primary not distinctly longer than primary-
coverts, 5th distinctly shorter than 3rd . . . S. rubetra, p. 449

First primary much longer than primary-coverts,

5th not distinctly shorter than 3rd . . S. torquata, p. 454

SAXICOLA RUBETRA

186. Saxicola rubetra rubetra (L.)— THE WHINCHAT.

MOTACILLA RUBETRA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 186 (1758 — Europe.

Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Pratincola rubetra (Linnaeus), Yarrell, i, p. 344 ; Saunders, p. 27.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 16). — Adult male. Winter. — Whole head black-
brown, feathers edged and narrowly tipped rufous-brown ; nape same
but edgings of feathers more bum'sh-brown ; mantle and scapulars
same but feathers with broader rufous-brown edgings and small
whitish tips ; rump and upper tail-coverts same but with black
reduced to mesial streak and subterminal mark ; broad stripe

* The name Pratincola dates from Koch, 1816, but cannot be used
because Schrank introduced it for the Pratincoles in 1798. (See note under
(E-nanthe.)— E.H.

2 G

450

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

from nostrils, over and behind eye extending to nape pale cream ;
lores and ear -coverts brown to rufous-brown ; chin and sides of
throat whitish with a line of dark brown feathers forming a some-

1. The British Stonechat (Saxicola t. hibernans). 2. The Wliinchat (S. r. rubetra).
Adult females.

what ill-defined moustachial stripe ; throat buff ; breast and flanks
deeper rufous-buff, feathers with pale buff tips and those of breast
with varying number of black-brown mesial streaks and spots
(sometimes altogether absent) ; belly and under tail-coverts pale
buff ; axillaries bufnsh-white to white with greyish-black bases
and inner webs ; under wing-coverts greyish-black with buffish-
white to white tips ; tail : central pair with basal quarter, and
rest with basal half, white, distal portions brown-black with
pale buff edgings and tips and most of outer web of outer pair
whitish ; primaries brown-black, outer webs and tips narrowly
edged buff to pale buff, inner webs edged white or pale buff extending
at extreme base to outer webs but concealed by primary-coverts
except in 6th to 9th primaries in which it usually shows beyond
coverts ; secondaries same but more broadly edged on outer webs
and only innermost three with white at base of outer webs ; primary-
coverts basal half or more white or buffish-white, distal part
brown-black edged and tipped pale buff ; greater wing-coverts
black narrowly edged and tipped pale buff, innermost four white
with varying amount of black, edged buff at tips and on outer
webs ; median and lesser coverts black with narrow buff edges and
tips, about inner half with varying amount of white and some of
innermost usually entirely white. This plumage is acquired by
complete moult July-Sept. Summer. — A moult involving the
body-feathers and usually all lesser wing-coverts but not always
the outermost, median coverts (except the outermost), three or
four innermost greater coverts, exceptionally two or three inner-
most secondaries, but not rest of coverts or wing-feathers nor any
primary-coverts or tail-feathers takes place Feb.-Mar. Upper-
parts as winter ; superciliary stripe broad and white ; moustachial
stripe blacker and more defined ; chin and line down sides of throat,
broadening to a patch at sides of base of neck, pure white ; throat,

THE WHINCHAT. 451

breast and flanks bright uniform chestnut-buff without any dark
streaks or spots ; new inner wing -coverts mostly pure white (thus
making larger white wing -spot) new outer lesser coverts black with
very narrow whitish tips. Abrasion makes upper- and under -parts
paler both in winter and summer plumage and in winter streaks
on breast become prominent by wear, while brown edgings and
tips gradually wear off wing-coverts, which become almost uniform
black in summer.

Adult female. Winter. — Like adult male but innermost
greater coverts with rather less white at base than in adult male
but as in male varying in amount ; inner median and lesser coverts
with decidedly less white than in male and apparently never wholly
white as some feathers often are in male, some innermost feathers
of all the series occasionally with whitish mesial streaks. Moult
as in male. Summer. — Moult as in male. Plumage as in adult
male but superciliary stripe not quite so distinct ; throat, breast
and flanks usually rather paler and sometimes with one or two
dark spots ; moustachial streak and ear-coverts usually rather
browner and less black ; with less white as a whole on inner feathers
of all series of wing-coverts thus forming a smaller wing-patch
but owing to variable amount of white in individuals of both sexes
some examples difficult to distinguish.

Nestling. — Down dark smoke-grey, paler at base, fairly long
and plentiful. Distribution, inner supra -orbital, occipital, spinal
and humeral : lower portion of spinal without down. Mouth
inside pale orange shading to chrome-yellow, no spots ; externally
flanges very pale yellow shading to ivory-white.

Juvenile. — Crown black-brown with some rufous-brown marks
and each feather with narrow mesial buff or rufous-buff streak ;
nape rufous -brown, feathers with pale buff tips ; mantle and
scapulars brown-black, feathers with broad rufous edgings and
pale buff mesial streaks and tips ; back and rump mottled rufous -
buff and black-brown ; upper tail-coverts rufous with buff tips
and blackish subterminal marks ; superciliary stripe pale buff
much less well defined than in adult ; ear-coverts rufous edged
and tipped blackish ; chin and throat pale buff faintly speckled
dark brown ; breast buff and rufous -buff, feathers narrowly edged
dark brown ; belly and under tail-coverts and under wing-coverts
and axillaries pale buff ; tail- and wing-feathers as adult but
bases of outer webs of 6th to 9th primaries buff not white and
innermost secondaries with considerably less white at base ;
primary-coverts black narrowly edged and tipped buff with varying
amount of white or pale buff at base ; greater coverts brown-black
edged and tipped rufous, innermost one or two feathers with pale
buff mesial streak broadening at tip ; median and lesser coverts
black- brown with mesial streaks and tips darker and more rufous
•on outer feathers, paler buff on inner feathers. N.B. — More rufous

2G2

452 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

not so black on upper -parts and generally paler under -parts than
juvenile Stonechat and with superciliary stripe.

First winter. Male,. — Like adult male but primary-coverts
as in juvenile either with no white or only bases white ; outer
greater wing-coverts browner black and with broader buff edgings
than in adult ; inner greater wing-coverts with less white at base
and sometimes unmoulted juvenile feathers with mesial white
streaks, inner median and lesser coverts with considerably less
white and none of the feathers entirely white ; primaries and
secondaries as juvenile. The juvenile body-feathers, lesser and
median wing-coverts and usually two or three innermost greater
wing-coverts are moulted June-Sept, but not rest of greater
wing-coverts and not primary -co verts, wing- or tail-feathers.
Female. — As adult female but primary-coverts and bases of
inner primaries and inner secondaries with less white as in
juvenile ; inner greater coverts usually without, but sometimes
one or two feathers with a little, white at base ; inner median
and lesser coverts with dull white tips and often with whitish
shaft -streaks.

First summer. Male and female. — Moult as in adults. Like
adults but primary -co verts, inner primaries and inner secondaries
as in juvenile and first winter with much less white ; outer un-
moulted wing-coverts (especially greater) browner and less black
than in adult.

Measurements and structure. — Q wing 74-81 mm., tail 43-48,
tarsus 21-24, bill from skull 13.5-15 (12 measured). $ wing 73-80.
Primaries : 1st equal to, or 1-2 mm. longer or shorter than,
primary -co verts, 3rd and 4th longest, 5th 2-3 mm. shorter, 2nd
2-4 shorter, 6th 5-7 shorter ; 3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs.
Rest of structure as in Stonechat but tips of secondaries
rather squarer.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs and feet black ; iris black-brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — S. r. spatzi (Dalmatia) has
edgings of feathers of upper -parts more golden- and less rufous-
brown ; S. r. noskce (Caucasus) is still paler and S. r. margaretce
(west Siberia) will probably be found to be same as 8. r. noskce.
For differences of Stonechat see under that species.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — More catholic in habitat than Stonechat,
frequenting lowland pastures and water meadows as well as
mountain slopes and furze-clad wastes. In behaviour the two
have much in common, but exhibit well marked differences in
appearance. More slender in form, Whinchat has streaked upper-
parts, prominent eye-stripe, white in male, buff in female ; breast
is buff not red ; and white at base of tail is more conspicuous at
all ages. Song, a short, hurried, and frequently repeated warble,
akin to Wheatear's rather than Stonechat 's, but call-note is like

Plate 16.

(HALF NATURAL SIZE.)

JUVENILES of 1, The Wheatear (OSnanthe ce. cunanthe). 2, The Whinchat (S. r. rubetra).

3. The British Stonechat (Saxicola t. hibernans). 4, The Redstart (Phcenicurus ph.

phcenwiirui}. '>, Tli3 Xightin<;ale (Luscinia m. megarhyncha). 6. The British Robin

(Erithanat r. melophilus).

(Face p. 452.]

THE WHINCHAT. 453

latter's, a clicking " 'tza." Alarm-note, an insistent " u-tic,
u-tic-tic."

BREEDING-HABITS. — Usually nests on ground in mowing grass in
meadows, or at foot of low bush on hillside. Nest. — Built of dry
grasses, with moss in foundation, lined with finer bents and hair.
Eggs. — 5 or more often 6, rarely 7 ; deep bluish-green, generally
with numerous very fine speckles of rusty-brown chiefly towards
big end. Average of 100 eggs, 18.6x14.3 mm. Breeding-season. —
From latter part of May and early June. Incubation. — 13-14 days,
apparently by hen only. Said by Saunders to be double brooded,
but this seems very doubtful.

FOOD. — Insects, including coleoptera (Parnus, Haltica, Harpalus,
weevils, etc.) ; diptera, larvse of lepidoptera, orthoptera (Forficula),
etc. Also spiders and earthworms, and Saunders adds small
mollusca.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Summer-resident, somewhat local,
but widely distributed and in many parts very numerous. Rare
Cornwall, very local Orkneys, a rarely observed migrant only
in Shetlands ; spring and autumn migrant Fair Isle ; breeds
very sparingly O. Hebrides. Ireland. — Breeds locally throughout
Ulster and in north-east Mayo, Leitrim, Sligo, Roscommon and
Longford, scarcer in Louth, Dublin, Wicklow, Clare and Cork :
elsewhere a rare migrant. Winters on rare occasions both Great
Britain and Ireland.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Early arrivals of summer-residents
begin end of first week April (early dates Berks. Mar. 6, 1919 ; Wilts.
Mar. 13, 1913, Mar. 15, 23, 26, 29) ; main arrival third week
April to fourth week May. Passage -migration by east coast route
(Channel to northern isles) first few days of May to end first week
June. Summer-residents begin to move south in Scotland second
week July, at end of month in north England and farther south
during Aug. Emigration from south coast fourth week Aug. to
fourth week Sept. Passage-movements east coast (northern
isles to Channel) mid-Aug. to end Sept. and stragglers in most
years to second week Oct. (late dates, Fair Isle, Oct. 15, 1913 ;
Inner Dowsing Lt.-v. (Lines.), Oct. 16, 1912 ; Cornwall, Oct. 22,
1912 ; Blackwater Bank Lt.-v. (Wexford) Nov. 9, 1890). Irish
summer -residents apparently arrive and depart mainly by south-
east and east coasts.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeding in Europe, from about lat. 70°
north in Scandinavia to Mediterranean (in Greece and south and
mid -Spain only on passage), wintering in tropical Africa. Replaced
by paler forms in south Daimatia, in the Caucasus (perhaps also
parts of Persia and Asia Minor), and west Siberia.

454 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

SAXICOLA TORQUATA

187. Saxicola torquata hibernans (Hart.)— THE BRITISH
STONECHAT.

PRATINCOLA TORQUATA HIBERNANS Hartert, Journ. f. Orn., 1910, p. 173

(England).

Pratincola rubicola (Linnaeus), Yarrell, i, p. 339 ; Saunders, p. 29 ;

P. t. hibernans, Hartert, Brit. B., in, p. 315.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 16). — Adult
male. Winter. — Crown, mantle
and scapulars brown and black,
feathers being jet - black with
long reddish - brown fringes ;
rump more uniform reddish-
brown ; upper tail-coverts white
with black pear-shaped centres
and rufous tips concealing the
white ; lores, ear-coverts, chin
and throat black, feathers with
buff tips sometimes almost con-
cealing black ; at base of sides
of neck patch of white extending The British stonechat (Saxifola ,.

towards back Of neck to shoulder hibernans). Adult male, summer.

much concealed towards shoulder

by black and rufous tips to feathers; breast, sides of belly and
flanks chestnut, feathers with narrow buff fringes ; centre of
belly and under tail-coverts pale buff ; under wing-coverts and
axillaries black, fringed and tipped white ; tail-feathers brown-
black with narrow buff fringes and tips ; wing-feathers brown-
black, inner webs edged dull white, outer webs of primaries
narrowly edged buff and of secondaries more broadly edged
rufous -buff, innermost secondary with basal half, and two next
with basal third of outer web white ; primary-coverts brown-
black with buffish-white fringes and tips ; varying number of inner
greater wing-coverts white, next outwards black and white, rest
black with rufous-buff edgings and tips ; inner median coverts white
with black bases, rest black with buff tips ; lesser coverts same
but innermost with only tips white. This plumage is acquired by
complete moult in Aug.-Sept. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion
of tips and fringes of feathers gradually causes striking change
with considerable individual variation according to amount of wear ;
throat and upper-parts becoming jet-black with few remains of
brown edgings to feathers ; upper tail-coverts black and white ;
white patches on sides of neck larger and pure white ; breast
brighter chestnut ; centre of belly and under tail-coverts whiter ;
axillaries black with little white remaining ; wing-coverts jet-black
with white patch formed by inner ones showing larger.

THE BRITISH STONECHAT. 455

Adult female. Winter. — Upper-parts much like male but black
not so intense ; upper tail-coverts with no white ; lores, ear -co verts
and cheeks brown with blackish bases ; chin buff ; throat same
but with black of proximal portion of feathers not entirely con-
cealed ; sides of neck whitish-buff tipped brownish and spotted
and streaked black ; breast and belly as male but not so bright ;
under wing-coverts and axillaries with buff to whitish-buff tips and
fringes ; tail- and wing-feathers as in male but innermost secondary
with much less white and next two with only a spot of pale buff
at bases of outer webs ; wing-coverts as in male but with much less
white On inner ones. Moult as in male. Summer. — Effect of abra-
sion less marked than in male ; upper-parts become blacker but
brown edgings to feathers, though narrower, remain ; lower part
of throat becomes partially black and neck patches larger and more
whitish and white wing-patch more distinct ; breast becomes rather
brighter.

Nestling. — Down brownish -grey, fairly long not very plentiful.
Distribution, inner supra -orbital, occipital, spinal and humeral.
Mouth inside yellow, no spots ; externally flanges whitish-yellow.

Juvenile. Male. — Crown black, each feather with narrow
mesial buff streak on distal portion ; nape same but with broader
and more wedge-shaped streaks ; mantle, scapulars and back as
nape, but with rufous markings on each side of buff wedge ; feathers
of rump and upper tail-coverts with long rufous tips and no white
on upper tail -co verts ; ear -co verts brown- black with mesial buff
streaks ; chin, throat and sides of neck greyish-buff speckled black ;
breast more rufous-buff with larger black markings ; belly and
under tail-coverts buff ; flanks same but sparsely marked black ;
under wing-coverts and axillaries buff with blackish bases ; tail
and wing-feathers and primary -coverts as adult but three innermost
secondaries with rather less white ; inner greater wing-coverts
white with buff tips and varying amount of black markings, rest as
adult ; innermost median and lesser wing-coverts with whitish-
buff wedge-shaped tips, rest with paler buff tips than in adult.
Female. — Like male but three innermost secondaries without any
white, but with small buff spot at base of outer webs, innermost
greater wing-coverts not white but like the others, except for
broader whitish -buff tips.

First winter. Male and female. — Like adult winter. The
juvenile body -feat hers, lesser, median and greater wing-coverts and
three innermost secondaries are moulted in Aug.-Sept., but not
rest of wing-feathers nor primary -co verts and tail.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 65-68 mm., tail 46-49,
tarsus 22-24, bill from skull 13-15 (12 measured). ? wing 63-67.
Primaries : 1st 5-9 mm. longer than primary-coverts, 3rd to 5th
equal and longest, 2nd 5-7 shorter, 6th 1-2 shorter ; 3rd to 6th
emarginated outer webs. Secondaries about equal to 10th primary,

456 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

tips rounded. Tail square but outermost feathers shorter than rest,
12 feathers, tips somewhat sharply sloped off. Bill fairly strong,
somewhat flat at base, tip of upper mandible slightly curved and
projecting beyond lower. Nostrils partially covered by membrane
and somewhat concealed by short feathers. A few nasal and rictal
bristles, the latter stiff.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs and feet black ; iris black-brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — 8. t. rubicola (Europe) has paler
brown fringes to feathers of upper -parts and rather paler under -
parts ; S. t. maura (Caucasus, Persia) is much paler, has white rump
and upper tail-coverts and basal half of tail white, also more white
on inner secondaries ; S. t. stejnegeri (east Siberia, north China,
Japan) has larger bill and only basal quarter of tail-feathers white ;
S. t. przewalskii (east Turkestan) much like last but larger. For
differences of S. t. indica see under that form. Black or blackish
throat, dark upper-parts and want of clearly defined eye-stripe,
measurements and wing-formula distinguish Stonechat from Whin-
chat. •

FIELD-CHARACTERS.— Characteristic of heaths and wastes, where it
moves restlessly a bout the furze or perches with fussy and assertive
alarm-notes, "hweet-chat, hweet-chat," and vibrating tail on top-
most twig of furze-bush or clump of ling. In autumn and winter
often hunts for food in very different surroundings, e.g., reed-beds
and hedgerows. Male recognized by black head, broad white
collar and conspicuous white wing-patch. Female and young duller
in colour and more like Whinchat, but lack eye-stripe and have
reddish, not buff breasts. Song a thin strain, not unlike a Hedge-
Sparrow's.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Haunts gorse-grown commons and especially
country near sea, railway cuttings, etc. Nest. — Well concealed,
usually at foot of a clump of gorse, or thick bush, and resting on
ground, with sometimes a run leading up to it. Built of moss and
grasses, sometimes bits of dead thistle, neatly lined with bents,
hair, and sometimes a few feathers. Eggs. — 5 or 6, rarely 7,
decidedly paler than Whinchat 's and much greener in tone, often
with a definite band of fine rusty specks or thickly freckled with
them. Average size of 100 British eggs, 18.8 X 14.4 mm. Breeding-
season. — First eggs are found late in March and early in April,
but also in May and even June. Double brooded. Incubation. —
14 days (Bond) ; apparently by hen alone.

FOOD. — Chiefly insects : coleoptera (Tachyporus, Stemis, Notiophihis,
Helophorus, weevils, rove-beetles, etc.) and their larvae; lepidoptera
and larvae (including larvae of Noctua and Arctia) ; diptera and
larvae, larvae of hymenoptera, orthoptera (Forficula). Also spiders,
worms and their eggs. Colthrup records young fed on chalk-hill

THE INDIAN STONECHAT. 457

blue butterfly (imagines) and E. L. Turner small lizards. Seeds
also occasionally taken.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Resident, widely distributed, but
local and uncertain, often abandoning a locality after a few years.
Most numerous in coastal regions. Very local in midland plain of
England, in Pennines, and in south-west Scotland, but more common
northwards and eastwards in Scotland. Breeds sparingly 0. Hebrides,
rarely Orkneys, and only very rare visitor to Shetlands, but to Fair
Isle regular in spring and rare in autumn.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Though partly resident as a species,
there is considerable evidence that individuals seen at other seasons
in most areas are not those that breed there in summer. In many
districts, especially inland, it is only a summer -resident. South-
ward movements throughout country and concentration in neigh-
bourhood of south coast begin second week Aug. and emigration
a week or two later continuing at intervals to beginning Nov.
Irish summer -residents emigrate, at any rate partly, Oct. and
early Nov. Evidence of passage-movements, probably of Scottish
breeding-birds down west coast (western isles to Solway) and
east coast (eastern Orkneys to Kent) second week Sept. to third
week Oct. Weather-movements in all parts may occur later.
Return immigration south coast and passage northwards inland
mid-Feb. to second week April ; summer-residents in northernmost
areas travel to some extent by coastal routes, we tern (Scillies
to western isles) mid-Feb. to first week May and east and north
coasts Ireland mid-Feb. to first week April, eastern (Kent to eastern
Orkneys and Fair Isle) end Feb. to fourth week May. Fair Isle
birds may belong to Continental race 8. t. rubicola (L.) but their
destination is unknown.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad.— Breeding bird of Portugal is not separable
from British form.

188. Saxicola torquata indica (Blyth)— THE INDIAN
STONECHAT.

PRATOTCOLA INDICA Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, xvi, p. 129 (1847 —

India).

Pratincola maura (nee Pallas), Saunders, Brit. B., i, p. 7.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Like that of S. t. hibernans
but upper -parts with longer and paler brown tips to feathers than
in either 8. t. hibernans or 8. t. rubicola ; feathers of rump and
upper tail-coverts white with rufous-buff tips ; under -parts rather
paler than in 8. t. rubicola ; under wing-coverts and axillaries with
narrower white tips ; tail-feathers with rather less than basal
quarter white (S. t. maura has tail-feathers nearly half white) ;
edgings of outer webs of wing-feathers paler and of inner webs

458 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

whiter, more white on outer webs of three innermost secondaries
and some white on fourth and sometimes on fifth ; considerably
more white on inner feathers of all wing-coverts.* Moult as in S. t.
hibernans commencing in July. Summer, — Abrasion has same
effect as in 8. t. hibernans and makes white rump and large white
wing-patch conspicuous, while belly becomes white and axillaries
and under wing-coverts almost uniform black.

Adult female. Winter. — Upper-parts much paler brown than
S. t. hibernans ; rump and upper tail-coverts whitish-buff, feathers
with rufous-buff tips ; under-parts much paler than in 8. t.
hibernans ; no white at base of tail-feathers as in male ($ 8. t.
maura has about as much white at base of tail-feathers as £ 8. t.
indica) ; edgings of wing-feathers and coverts much paler than
in S. t. hibernans and rather more white or pale buff at base of
innermost secondaries.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Upper-parts paler than in S. t. hibernans ; feathers
of rump and upper tail-coverts buffish -white at base and with
sandy-buff tips ; under-parts rather paler ; in males base of tail-
feathers white and white at base of four innermost secondaries.

First winter. — As adults. Moult as in 8. t. hibernans but
four innermost secondaries are moulted.

Measurements and structure— <$ wing 67-71 mm., tail 47-51,
tarsus 21-23, bill from skull 12.5-14 (12 measured). $ wing 66-70.
Primaries and structure as in 8. t. hibernans.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs and feet black ; iris dark brown.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Generally breeds in loose stone-walls, low thorny
bush or thick grass tussock close to ground. Nest. — Built of grass
mixed with moss, lined fine grass, hair and sometimes a few feathers.
Eggs. — 4-5, rarely 6. Similar in type to those of British Stonechat.
Average of 23 eggs, 17.7x13.78. Breeding -season.— Variable,
probably double brooded. Eggs from mid-March to June.

FOOD. — Probably very similar to British Stonechat ; chiefly insects
but no exact details available.

DISTRIBUTION. — England — Male near Cley (Norfolk) Sept. 2, 1904
(Saunders, Bull. B.O.C., xvi, p. 10, and Brit. B. I, p. 7 ; cf. Hartert,
Vffg. pal. Fauna, i, p. 708). One Isle of May (Forth) Oct. 10, 1913
(E. V. Baxter and L. J. Rintoul, Scot. Nat., 1913, pp. 273-4).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — West Siberia, Eussian Turkestan to
south Ural and western Himalayas, wintering in India generally.
Represented by S. t. hibernans in British Isles, by 8. t. rubicola*
in continental Europe from south Sweden to Mediterranean, east

* This form has not yet been proved to occur in the British Isles so far as
we are aware.

THE REDSTART. 459

to south Russia and north-west Africa, and passing through northern
Sahara on migration, by S. t. maura in Caucasus, and by other forms
in various parts of Asia and Africa.

Genus PHCENICURUS Forst.

PHCENICURUS Forster, Synopt. Cat. Brit. B., pp. 16, 53 (1817 — Type :
Sylvia phcenicurus by monotypy and tautonymy). Rulicilla of many authors.

Bill slender and pointed, nostrils in front of the frontal feather-
ing, rictal bristles distinct. Tail slightly rounded, 12 rectrices.
Rump and tail chiefly brownish-red. 1st primary longer than
primary-coverts, 2nd much shorter than 3rd, 4th and 5th ;
secondaries much shorter than primaries. Plumage soft. Sexes
different, young spotted. Nests as a rule in holes, eggs blue or
white, nearly always unspotted. Palaearctic region to tropical
Asia and Africa.

Key to species of genus PHCENICURUS.

f2nd primary equal to 7th or shorter, 3rd to 6th
attenuated on outer web Ph. ochrurus, p. 463

I 2nd primary equal to 6th or longer, 3rd to 5th

» attenuated on outer web Ph. phcenicurus, p. 459

PHCENICURUS PHCENICURUS

189. Phcenicurus phcenicurus phcenicurus (L.) — THE RED-
START

MOTACILLA PHCENICURUS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 187 (1758 —
" Habitat in Europa." Restricted typical locality : Sweden).
Ruticilla phcenicurus (Linnaeus), Yarrell, i, p. 329 ; Saunders, p. 31.

The Redstart (Phcenicurus ph. phcenicurus) . Male adult. 1, Winter; 2, Summer.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 16) . — Adult male. Winter. — Narrow band across
fore-head joining lores black, rest of fore-head and fore-part of crown
french-grey tipped brown, feathers with white bases mostly con-

460 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

cealed but showing somewhat on fore-head and especially at sides
of crown, over and behind eye and thus forming a superciliary
stripe ; rest of crown, nape, mantle and scapulars french-grey,
feathers tipped reddish-brown much concealing the grey, especially
on mantle and scapulars ; rump and upper tail-coverts bright
chestnut (latter rather darker) ; lores black ; chin and ear-coverts
same, but some feathers tipped white ; whole throat extending
to sides of neck black, feathers tipped white ; breast and flanks
pale chestnut, feathers tipped white ; belly white ; under tail-
coverts rufous-buff ; under wing-coverts and axillaries pale chest-
nut ; tail : central pair black- brown with bases and most of
outer webs chestnut, rest chestnut, sometimes with some dark
brown at tips of outer webs ; primaries and secondaries black-
brown, outer webs narrowly edged brown on outer, and buffish-
white on inner, webs, innermost secondaries more broadly edged
and tipped pale rufous-brown, often with a little french-grey
on outer webs ; primary -co verts black-brown with narrow grey-
brown edgings and tips ; greater coverts same with broader and
greyer edgings and more rufous tips ; median coverts with more
distinctly french-grey edgings and rufous tips ; lesser coverts
tipped and edged french-grey. This plumage is acquired by com-
plete moult from July to Sept. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion
of tips of feathers gradually causes marked changes. Fore-head
and varying amount of fore-part of crown become pure white ;
rest of crown, mantle and scapulars pure french-grey ; whole
throat, ear -co verts and sides of neck black ; breast and flanks
uniform chestnut ; wing-feathers and greater coverts paler brown
and edgings mostly worn off ; median coverts fringed grey with
no rufous tips and lesser coverts greyer.

Adult female. Winter. — Fore-head, crown, mantle and
scapulars brown, feathers of fore-head with concealed creamy-
white spots at their bases ; rump and upper tail-coverts as male
but not quite so bright ; lores, ear -coverts, and feathers round
eyes buff-brown ; chin and whole throat pale buff to whitish,
mottled brown especially on sides of throat ; breast and flanks
orange-buff to orange-brown (the orange tint varying in intensity),
feathers tipped whitish ; belly dull white ; under tail-coverts,
under wing-coverts and axillaries buff ; tail as male ; wing-feathers
and primary-coverts as male but rather browner and with no grey
on inner secondaries ; greater and median coverts dark brown
with rufous-brown edgings and tips ; lesser coveits same but
with long grey-brown tips. Summer. — Abrasion causes no marked
changes as in male, but fore-head often shows some creamy-white,
crown and mantle become greyer-brown, breast and flanks brighter
owing to wearing off of whitish tips of feathers. N.B.— Exception-
ally adult females have feathers of throat black with white tips,
a good deal of white on fore-head and are greyer on upper-parts

THE REDSTART. 461

and wing -coverts than normal females and thus approach somewhat
to plumage of first winter male.

Nestling. — Down dark grey, fairly long. Distribution, inner
and outer supra-orbital, occipital, spinal and humeral. Mouth
inside pale orange, no spots ; externally flanges yellowish -white.

Juvenile. Male and female. — Feathers of fore-head, crown,
nape, mantle and scapulars with grey bases (mostly concealed)
brown edges and blackish tips with pale ochreous-butf spots above
the black ; rump chestnut -buff, feathers narrowly tipped black ;
upper tail-coverts as adult ; sides of neck and under-parts pale
buff to dull white, feathers tipped dark brown, centre of belly paler
and with very little brown on tips ; under tail-coverts pale buff ;
under wing-coverts pale buff to whitish ; axillaries darker buff ;
tail and wing -feathers and primary -co verts as adult female ; greater
coverts as adult female but edgings and tips usually rather paler
and more conspicuous ; median and lesser coverts dark brown
with wedge-shaped tips buff narrowly edged with blackish.

First winter. Male. — Like adult male but feathers of upper-
parts with broader brown tips, which conceal black of fore-head
band and white of fore -head and most of grey of crown, mantle
and scapulars ; white of superciliary stripe much concealed by
brown tips ; black of lores, chin, throat and ear -coverts much
concealed (sometimes almost entirely concealed) by whitish tips ;
primaries, secondaries, primary -co verts and greater coverts as
adult female but innermost one or two greater coverts black with
greyer tips as in adult male ; median and lesser coverts as adult
male but with less french-grey. The juvenile body -feathers,
lesser and median wing-coverts and innermost two (sometimes
only one) greater coverts are moulted July-Sept., but not remiges,
rectrices, primary -co verts nor rest of greater wing-coverts.
Summer. — No moult. Abrasion causes same changes as in adult
male but french-grey of crown, mantle and scapulars never becomes
so pure, part of brown tips of feathers remaining, black of chin
and throat also has remains of whitish tips, wing-feathers are
browner and unmoulted greater coverts have no french-grey.

First winter and summer. Female. — Not definitely distinguish-
able from adult female.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 74-82 mm., tail 51-58,
tarsus 20-23, bill from skull 14-15 (12 measured). $ wing 71-79.
Primaries : 1st 2-8 mm. longer than primary-coverts, 3rd and 4th
longest, 5th 1-3 shorter, 2nd 7-10 shorter, 6th 6-9 shorter ; 3rd
to 5th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries shorter than 10th
primary, tips somewhat square. Tail fairly square but outermost
feathers shorter than rest, 12 feathers, tips sloped off. Bill fine
but flattish at base, tip of upper mandible slightly curved and
projecting beyond lower. Nostrils partially covered by membrane
but not by feathers. Some fine nasal and rictal bristles.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs and feet black ; iris dark brown.

462 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Ph. ph. algeriensis (Algeria)
has 6th primary longer than. 2nd, but this is occasionally so in
typical form and algeriensis appears a questionable form of which
I have examined only 2 examples ; Ph. ph. mesoleuca (Caucasus,
Asia Minor, Persia) male has outer webs of primaries narrowly,
and of secondaries broadly, edged white. Chestnut rump and
tail distinguish Redstart from other species except Black Red-
start which is always much darker.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Bright chestnut-red tail, very conspicuous
in flight, distinguishes Redstarts from all other British birds.
Pure white fore-head and copper-red breast of adult male Common
Redstart contrast with black breast and broad white wing-patch
of Black Redstart. Females are more alike, but Black Redstart
is darker, throat, breast and flanks being mouse-grey, whereas
Common Redstart has white throat and abdomen and rufous-
buff flanks. Juvenile Common Redstart is brownish-grey above,
mottled with dull yellow, but juvenile Black Redstart resembles
adult female. Common Redstart frequents woodlands, especially
where there is old timber, and open hilly country, where it haunts
stone walls and the buildings about upland farms. The short song,
a few jerky notes succeeded by a bubbling roll, seems to break off
before completion, a prelude rather than a finished strain. Call-
note a plaintive " wheet." Alarm-note a loud " whee-tic-tic."

BREEDING-HABITS. — In south generally nests in hole of tree or
stump, sometimes almost on ground, or at a good height ; also in
walls and occasionally in old sheds or outhouses. Farther north
a common site is in loose stone walls. Old Woodpecker holes,
Swallows' nests and discarded tins have been used as nesting-sites.
Nest. — Built of grasses, strips of bark, moss, roots and lined with
hair and feathers. Eggs. — Normally 6, sometimes 5 or 7, rarely
8 or 9, delicate pale blue, but occasionally speckled with dark red-
brown. Average of 100 eggs, 18.3 X 13.8 mm. Breeding -season. —
Occasionally early May but usually from mid -May onward.
Incubation. — Lasts 14 days (Evans), performed chiefly by hen,
if not altogether. Most birds apparently single brooded.

FOOD. — Mainly insects : coleoptera (including Phyllobius), smaller
lepidoptera and their larvae (especially larvae of Tortrices), diptera
and hymenoptera (larvae of saw-flies, etc.). Spiders also taken and
small worms have been found in stomach. Young fed chiefly on
caterpillars. Naumann states that berries (red and black elder,
juniper, etc.) are eaten.

DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. — Summer -resident (late March
to Oct.), widely distributed, but local. Uncommon as nester west
of Exeter (Devon) and unusual in Cornwall. Scotland. — Widely
distributed but local. Rare as nester in extreme north of mainland,
has not bred Orkneys and only once Shetlands (1901), but is well

THE BLACK REDSTART. 463

known in these islands and Fair Isle as spring and autumn migrant.
Breeds in Mull, but not elsewhere in I. Hebrides, but occurs regularly
on double passage at Skerry vore. Scarce autumn and rare spring
visitor to 0. Hebrides and stated to have bred Lewis 1914. Ireland.
— A few pairs used to breed regularly in Wicklow and occasionally
in Tyrone, but doubtfully now. Very scarce on migration on
south and east coasts and very rare at north and west coasts lights.
MIGRATIONS. — -Great Britain. — Summer-residents begin to arrive
end first week April (early dates, March 24-31, April 1-4) ; main
arrival early third week April to end third week May. Passage-
migration by east and west coast routes (Channel to northern
isles) mid-April to mid- June. Occasional stragglers Hebrides
and northern isles in March and early April. Summer -residents
begin to move south second week July in Scotland, end of month
in north England and by mid -Aug. farther south. Emigration
from south coast begins last few days Aug. (early date July 10-11,
1910, St. Catherine's Lt., I. of Wight) and lasts to first week Oct.,
stragglers frequent to end of month. Well marked passage-move-
ment east coast (northern isles to Channel), with evidence of
direct oversea immigration so far south as Norfolk coast, second
week Sept. to fourth week Oct., with stragglers to end of month.
Similar but much smaller and less well marked movement west
coast (Hebrides to Channel) same time. (Late dates Fair Isle
Nov. 2, Staffs. Nov. 2, 1911, Pentland Skerries (Orkney) Nov. 7,
1915.) Ireland. — Small passage-movement east coast, spring.
DISTRIBUTION.— Abroad. — Europe from North Cape to Mediterra-
nean, but in Spain absent from south, in Italy only in mountains,
and in Greece on passage ; Russia with exceptions of Steppes,
Tundras and Crimea ; in Siberia to Irkutsk and Lake Baikal.
Wintering in west and north-east Africa, casual Madeira. Replaced
by allied races in Atlas mountains (requiring confirmation), and in
Crimea, Caucasus, Transcaucasia, Asia Minor, Persia, and Bochara,
while a form described from Turkestan is so far doubtful.

PHCENICURUS OCHRURUS

190. Phcenicurus ochrurus gibraltariensis* (Gm.) — THE
BLACK REDSTART.

MOTACILLA GIBRALTARIENSIS Gmelin, Syst. Nat., I, 2, p. 987 (1789 —

Gibraltar).

Ruticilla titys (Scopoli), Yarrell, i, p. 333 ; Saunders, p. 33.

Ph. o. gibraltariensis, Hartert, Brit. B., iv, p. 132.

* The time-honoured name titys is erroneously used for the Black Redstart.
Linnaeus described under that name an old female of the Redstart, and not
a Black Redstart. Therefore gibraltariensis must be used, and as the Black
Redstart of the Caucasus is a subspecies (geographical representative) of it,
the name of the latter, being older, becomes the specific name of the Black
Redstarts.— E.H.

464 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Fore-head black, feathers
narrowly tipped grey ; crown, mantle, scapulars and back dark
french-grey more or less washed brown, feathers of mantle and

The Black Redstart (Phoenicurm o. gibraltariensis) . Adult male.

scapulars with more or less black (varying individually) above
the french-grey tips, the black mostly concealed, but showing here
and there especially in those birds which have a considerable amount
of it* (feathers of fore-part of crown very rarely have whitish centres) ;
rump and upper tail-coverts bright chestnut ; lores, ear-coverts,
sides of neck, chin, throat and breast black, feathers narrowly tipped
grey (more broadly tipped on breast) ; flanks grey often washed
yellowish-brown (varying individually) ; centre of belly greyish-
white ; under tail-coverts orange-buff ; under wing -coverts and
axillaries blackish tipped ashy-grey ; tail : central pair brown-
black with bases and fringes of outer webs chestnut, rest chestnut
usually with some dark brown at tips (varying in extent individually) ;
primaries and secondaries blackish-brown inner webs edged greyish-
white, outer webs of primaries narrowly edged same, outer webs
of secondaries and especially inner secondaries broadly edged white,
forming distinct wing-patch ; primary-coverts very dark grey
edged paler ; greater coverts blackish-brown edged and tipped grey ;
median and lesser coverts blacker tipped grey. This plumage
is acquired by complete moult Aug.-Oct. Summer. — No moult. f
Abrasion of tips of feathers makes black of mantle and under-parts
much more uniform and intense, while in much worn plumage
lesser and median wing-coverts also become almost uniform black.

* A specimen in moult from first summer to adult has new feathers of
mantle freach-grey with no black and those specimens with scarcely any
black in mantle but otherwise adult may be second winter birds.

t Two specimens were growing a few feathers on mantle, breast and throat,
in Feb. and Mar., but this appears to have been abnormal as many others
show no sign of moult in spring.

THE BLACK REDSTART. 465

Adult female. Winter. — Feathers at base of nostrils brown
to whitish-brown, rest of fore-head, crown, mantle, scapulars and
back greyish-brown ; rump and upper tail-coverts chestnut, but
duller than in male ; lores, chin and feathers round eye whitish-
brown freckled darker brown ; ear -coverts, sides of neck, breast
and flanks brown ; centre of belly brownish -white ; under tail-coverts
pale orange-buff ; under wing-coverts and axillaries brown tipped
yellowish-brown ; tail as male, but duller chestnut and central
feathers and tips of others browner not so blackish ; primaries
and secondaries brown, inner webs edged whitish and outer webs
narrowly edged pale brown to whitish ; greater wing-coverts
brown edged and tipped pale brown ; median and lesser coverts
same, but rather greyer-brown. Moult as in male. Summer. —
As winter, abrasion causing very little difference in colour.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — -Upper-parts as adult female, but of a less greyish
tone of brown and feathers very faintly tipped darker brown ; rump
chestnut -buff, feathers very faintly tipped brown ; upper tail-
coverts more chestnut and without brown tips ; lores, ear-coverts,
chin, throat and upper-breast slightly paler than upper -parts and
with dark tips of feathers rather more distinct, lower breast and
flanks paler brown and dark tips more distinct ; centre of belly buff
to whitish ; under tail-coverts deeper buff ; axillaries and under
wing-coverts as adult female ; tail as adult female ; wing-feathers
and wing-coverts as adult female, but edgings and tips of secondaries
and wing-coverts browner and not so pale and greyish.

First winter and summer. Male. — Usually like adult female
and very difficult to distinguish, but upper-parts rather browner
with less greyish tone and edgings of secondaries and outer greater
wing -co verts browner not so pale and greyish. Some first winter
males are, however, more like adult males but are more washed
with brown on upper -parts and with scarcely any black on mantle,,
with duller chestnut on rump, upper tail-coverts and tail, with
larger and more brownish tips to feathers of chin, throat and breast
and are tinged brown on flanks and breast ; primaries, secondaries
and primary -co verts brown as in juvenile but occasionally one
or two secondaries usually in one wing only are moulted (probably
accidentally) and have whitish edgings ; outer greater coverts
brown as in juvenile, varying number of inner greater coverts
(usually 3 or 4) and all median and lesser coverts blackish tipped
french-grey as in adult male. The juvenile body-feathers, lesser
and median wing-coverts, varying number of innermost greater
coverts (usually 3 or 4 but occasionally none) are moulted Aug-Sept.,
but not primaries, primary -co verts, nor usually secondaries and
not rest of greater wing-coverts.

First winter and summer. Female. — Like the brown first
winter and summer male and only to be distinguished from

2 H

466 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

adult female as described above under first winter and summer
male.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 81-90 mm., tail 58-64,
tarsus 21-24, bill from skull 13.5-15 (12 measured). £ wing 80-86.
Primaries : 1st 5-9 mm. longer than primary-coverts, 4th and 5th
longest, 3rd occasionally equal but usually 1-2 shorter, 6th 2-5
shorter, 2nd 10-12 shorter ; 3rd to 6th primaries emarginated
outer webs. Rest of structure as in Common Redstart.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris black-brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — Ph. o. ochrurus (northern Asia
Minor) male has chestnut belly and axillaries and female is paler
brown on under -parts than in Ph. o. gibaltariensis ; Ph. o. semirufa
(mountains of Syria and Palestine) male is much as in Ph. o.
ochrurus but chestnut extends rather farther up breast and female
is scarcely distinguishable from that of Ph. o. gibraltariensis ; Ph. o.
phosnicuroides (N. and E. Persia to Kashmir) male has chestnut
still farther extended, mantle is not so black and fore-part of crown
is whitish, female is paler brown especially on under -parts ; Ph. o.
rufiventris (Tibet eastwards) male is much like last but has
darker brown upper -parts and female is darker and rufous on flanks.
Chestnut rump and tail, white wing-patch of adult male and brown
under-parts of female and young male distinguish Black Redstart
from other British birds.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — A winter-visitor to this country. Any Red-
start occurring between October and March is a presumptive
Black Redstart, particularly if it be seen about sea -cliffs or the
beach. Characters distinguishing it from Common Redstart are
given under that species. Song somewhat resembles Common
Redstart's, but is uttered as if with difficulty and has some hissing
notes (Hartert). Call -note a soft "sit" or " fitz " (Saunders).
Alarm-note " feed -tec k-teck " (Hartert).

BREEDING-HABITS. — In some districts almost always inside farm
sheds or on rafters under eaves ; in others in clefts of rocks, while
in towns it may be found in holes of inhabited buildings. Nest. —
Loosely built of dry grasses, moss, fibre, etc., lined with hair and
feathers. Eggs. — 5-6, glossy white, rarely with tinge of bluish or
faint brown spots. Average size of 100 eggs, 19.4x14.3 mm.
Breeding-season. — From end April onward according to altitude.
Incubation. — Chiefly at any rate by hen, and lasts 13 days
(Naumann). Double brooded.

FOOD. — Mainly insects, especially small coleoptera, but diptera,
hymenoptera and lepidoptera and their larvae, etc., also taken.
Naumann adds spiders and millipedes (Julus) and states that
berries are only eaten during hard weather. Saunders says small
crustaceans are taken by birds wintering on coast.

GENUS LUSCINIA. 467

DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. — Passage-migrant and winter-
visitor. Normally first week Oct. to fourth week Nov. (early dates,
Suffolk, Sept. 15 and 16, 1910 ; Fastnet Lt. (Cork), Sept. 19, 1909 ;
Surrey, Sept. 25, 1912 ; Tarbatness Lt. (E. Ross.), Sept. 26, 1915 ;
Auskerry (Orkney), Sept. 29-30, 1913) ; beginning March to second
week May (late dates, Pentland Skerries (Orkney), June 11 and 12,
1914 ; Bull Rock (Cork), June 15, 1903). Regular but generally
in very small numbers along south and east coasts England as far
as Yorks., north of which, as well as on west side England north
of Bristol Channel and in Wales, it is more rarely observed. In
southern counties of England, and especially in Cornwall and
Devon, winters regularly, but elsewhere only rarely found in winter.
Reports of breeding are not substantiated. Scotland. — Of recent
years noted as fairly regular passage -migrant in very small numbers
spring and autumn at Isle of May and Fair Isle and fairly often
in Orkneys and Shetlands, but rarely observed on mainland.
On western side rare straggler : Solway (five times), Clyde (twice).
In O. Hebrides, four times Flannans and once South Uist. Once
Tiree. Ireland. — Fairly regular autumn and occasional spring
passage -migrant in south and east. Rare elsewhere. Occasionally
in winter.

DISTRIBUTION.— Abroad. — Europe from Baltic to Mediterranean,
east to Roumania and Bulgaria. Wintering partly in Europe,
but mostly in Africa . Casual in Scandinavia, once Finland and once
reported Iceland. Replaced by a number of rather different forms
in Caucasus, Armenia, Persia, Syria, Transcaspia to Turkestan,
Altai and Sayan Mountains, central Asia generally and parts of the
Himalayas to Tibet and Mongolia.

Genus LUSCINIA Forst,

LUSCINIA Forster, Synopt. Cat. Brit. B., p. 14 (1817 — Type : " Sylvia
luscinia " ( = L. megarhyncha) by monotypy and tautonymy).

This genus, as here conceived, is generally split into two, so
far as British birds are concerned, viz., Nightingales (Luscinia in
a restricted sense) and Bluethroats (Cyanecula or more correctly
Cyanosylvia), but there appear to be no valid reasons for this, as
colour alone cannot be used as a generic character. The genus,
as it is, is not easily separable from Phcenicurus, but rictal bristles
are less developed, tail shorter than in most Phoenicurus, plumage
not quite so soft. In Bluethroats sexes are different, but in Night-
ingales alike in plumage. Habits differ from those of Redstarts.
Young spotted. Nest on or near ground, or low in bushes, eggs
greenish or bluish-brown, uniform or (generally faintly) spotted.
Palsearctic region south to Atlas and Loo Choo Islands, in winter
all over Africa and parts of tropical Asia, also Alaska.

2H2

468

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Key to species of

LUSCINIA.
2

i Tail uniform . . ... ...

j Tail parti -coloured, lateral rectrices ferruginous
( at base, brown at tip

( 1st primary shorter than primary-coverts .
* j 1st primary as long as or longer than primary-

L. svecica, p. 473
L. luscinia, p. 471

coverts

. L. megarhyncha, p. 468

LUSCINIA MEGARHYNCHA

191. Luscinia megarhyncha megarhyncha Brehm — THE
NIGHTINGALE.

LUSCINIA MEGAKHYNCHOS Brehm, Handb. Naturg. Vog. Deutschl., p. 356

(1831 — Germany).

Daulias luscinia* (Linnaeus), Yarrell, i, p. 312 ; Saunders, p. 39.

DESCRIPTION (Plate
16).— Adult nude and
female. Winter. —
Whole upper - parts
rufous -brown ; upper
tail-coverts brighter
chestnut -brown ; lores
brownish -white,
feathers tipped brown;
orbital ring brownish-
white ; ear - coverts
brown mesially
streaked brownish -
white ; chin and centre
of throat dull white ;
sides of throat, upper-
breast and flanks pale
greyish-brown to pale
yellowish -brown ; rest
of breast and belly

dull white ; under tail-coverts pale creamy-buff ; under wing-coverta
brown tipped creamy-buff ; axillaries creamy-buff with brown bases ;
tail-feathers uniform chestnut -brown, central pair rather duller ;
primaries and secondaries, inner webs black-brown edged pale
brown, outer webs rufous-brown, innermost secondaries rufous-
brown on both webs ; wing-coverts rufous-brown, the greater series
having darker brown inner webs. This plumage is acquired by

* The specific name luscinia originally referred to the Thrush-Nightingale
or Sprosser, and cannot, therefore, be used for our Nightingale ! See, among
others, Sharpe, Handlist, iv, p. 153. — E.H.

A. The Nightingale (Luscinia m. megarhyncha). B. The
Thrush-Nightingale (L. luscinia). Showing differences
in wing-formula. Note especially lengths of 1st and
2nd primaries, and 3rd and 4th emarginated in Nightin-
gale and only 3rd in Thrush-Nightingale.

THE NIGHTINGALE. 469

complete moult from July to Sept. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion
causes no marked differences but upper-parts become rather paler.

Nestling. — Down greyish-black. Distribution, fairly long and
plentiful on inner supra-orbital, occipital and spinal, shorter and
more scanty on outer supra -orbital, humeral and ulnar, filaments
sometimes on femoral tracts. Mouth inside orange, no spots ;
externally flanges almost white shading to pale yellow at angle of
gape.

Juvenile. Male and female. — Whole upper -parts rufous-brown
but each feather with a paler spot near the tip and a dark brown
edging ; upper tail-coverts uniform chestnut -brown ; chin and
centre of belly dull white, feathers very narrowly tipped dark
brown ; rest of under-parts more huffish-white and feathers broadly
, tipped dark brown (thus having spotted appearance) ; under tail-
coverts buff ; under wing-coverts and axillaries as adult but rather
paler ; tail-feathers as adult but with very small pale spots at tips ;
wing-feathers as adult but innermost secondaries with small pale
rufous tips ; all wing-coverts as mantle, feathers with a pale spot
at tip and edged dark brown but in outer greater coverts spot
is not so pale and dark brown edging is very narrow.

First winter. Male and female. — Like adults except for inner-
most secondaries and outer half of greater wing-coverts, which
have pale rufous spots at their tips as in juvenile. The small
pale spots at tips of tail-feathers are usually worn off. The juvenile
body-feathers, lesser and median wing-coverts and inner half of
greater coverts are moulted July-Sept., but not remiges, rectrices,
primary -co verts nor outer half of greater coverts. Summer. —
As adult but pale tips of some of the outer greater coverts usually
still observable and even those of innermost secondaries not always
worn off.

Measurements and structure. — Q wing 82-89 mm., tail 63-67,
tarsus 26-28, bill from skull 16-18 (12 measured). Q wing 78-84.
Primaries : 1st 1-5 mm. longer than primary -co verts, occasionally
equal to them and very rarely 1 mm. shorter, 3rd longest, 4th
occasionally equal but usually 1-2 shorter, 2nd 5-9 shorter, 5th
4-6 shorter, 6th 7-10 shorter ; 3rd and 4th emarginated outer webs.
Secondaries 3-5 mm. shorter than 10th primary, tips fairly square.
Tail rounded, 12 feathers, tips sloped off. Bill fine but strong,
tip of upper mandible slightly curved and projecting beyond lower.
Nostrils partially covered by membrane but not by feathers.
Some fine and short nasal and rictal bristles.

Soft parts. — Bill dark brown, base of lower mandible pale
livid flesh ; legs and feet pale livid flesh to pale grey-brown ;
iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — L. m. golzii (Turkestan) has
longer wing and tail and is much paler, not so rufous, on upper -parts
and whiter on under-parts ; L. m. africana (Persia) is intermediate

470 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

in colour between last and L. m. megarhyncha, has wing same as
L. m. megarhyncha but tail longer (73-78 mm.). For differences of
L. luscinia see under that species. Uniform rufous-brown upper-
parts and chestnut -brown of tail distinguish adults from other
species. Juveniles are much like juvenile Common Redstarts but
more rufous on upper-parts, central tail-feathers not so dark and
other tail-feathers not so chestnut : also resemble juvenile Redbreasts
but are whiter on throat and breast, have chestnut -brown tail and
different wing -formula.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — In form, and to some extent in behaviour,
a large Redbreast with uniform russet-brown upper -parts, shading
into pale chestnut on upper tail-coverts and tail, and ashy -grey
under -parts tending to whitish on throat and abdomen. A dweller
in woods with thick undergrowth, copses and tangled hedgerows ;
would often be overlooked were it not for song, which is of great
power and variety of phrase and unique among British birds, an
impassioned outpouring impossible to set down in words, its most
striking features being a phrase of rich bubbling notes and a single
note " piou " repeated perhaps ten times in a wonderful crescendo.
Sings from mid-April to mid-June at all hours, but principally
at dusk and dawn. Call -note, a soft " weet " ; alarm-note, a
hoarse " k-r-r-r."

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in little spinneys by roadsides, woods,
thickets or sheltered by high hedgerows. Nest. — Generally on or
close to ground, but occasionally a few feet above it. Foundation
bulky, mainly oak or other dead leaves, lined with dead grasses,
sometimes hair or a few leaves. Eggs.— 4 or 5, exceptionally 6,
usually olive-greenish to olive-brown, formed by superimposing
thick brown speckling on blue ground. Some eggs show brown
markings very distinctly ; rare variety is bright blue, unmarked ;
another has brown markings on a dirty white ground. Average
size of 100 eggs, 20.5 X 15.5 mm. Breeding-season. — begins early
May, but many birds do not nest till mid-May. Incubation. — 14
days (R. Morris), by hen alone, apparently ; but Naumann says
cock shares. Single brooded.

FOOD. — Obtained principally on ground ; worms and insects,
especially coleoptera. Also larvae of lepidoptera and pupae of
ants, diptera and spiders. Fruit and berries also eaten, especially
those of elder.

DISTRIBUTION. — England and Wales. — Summer-resident (April to
mid-Sept.). Generally distributed in suitable places and locally
numerous south and east of a line joining Wash and Severn, except
in Cornwall and extreme west Somerset, where it is absent, and in
Devon, where it is confined to river-valleys a short distance inland
from south coast as far west as the Dart. In Hereford, Monmouth,

THE THRUSH-NIGHTINGALE. 471

and Glamorgan confined to southern river-valleys. North and
west of above-mentioned line becomes rapidly scarce, and is only
regular and at all numerous in river-valleys, and is sporadic and
uncertain in south Staffs., Salop, and south Derby., and only
occasional in Cheshire and the extreme east of Brecon, Montgomery,
Denbigh , and Flint. On east side locally not uncommon in Leicester,
Notts., and Lines., but thins out northwards and breeds irregularly
in southern parts of the eastern and south-eastern portions of West
Yorks., and sporadically in eastern half of North Yorks. Records
of vagrants from Bishop Rock Lt. (Scillies), Sept. 18, 1912,
Carmarthen, Cardigan, Lanes. (?), Durham, and Northumberland
(cf. Brit. B., v., pp. 2-21). Scotland. —One, Isle of May (Forth),
May 9, 1911 (Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1911, p. 132).

MIGRATIONS. — England. — Early arrivals of summer -residents second
week April (early dates 5, 7, 8) ; main arrival end third week to
end third week May. Very little information as to autumn move-
ments. Begins to move from breeding-haunts beginning Aug.
if not before, earliest emigratory record Aug. 17 Dungeness Lt.
(Kent) latest Sept. 30-Oct. 1 Hanois Lt. (Channel Islands).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe from shores of North Sea to
Mediterranean, and Black Sea, north-west Africa, Asia Minor, and
Cyprus, wintering in Africa. Casual in Madeira. Replaced by
other races in Persia, Turkestan, and Khirgiz Steppes. A Corsican
form has been separated, but appears to be untenable (Orn.
Monatsber., 1910, p. 155).

LUSCINIA LUSCINIA

192. Luscinia luscinia (L.)— THE THRUSH-NIGHTINGALE.

MOTACILLA LTJSCINIA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 184 (1758 —
" Europa." Restricted typical locality: Sweden. Linnaeus expressly
says that he did not observe the small Nightingale).

Luscinia luscinia, W. E. Clarke, Scot. Nat., 1912, p. 9 ; cf. Brit. B., v,
p. 240.

DESCRIPTION.— Adult male and female. Winter. — Whole upper-
parts dark earth-brown, tinged olivaceous, much darker than in
Nightingale and not rufous ; upper tail-coverts less olivaceous and
with a tinge of rufous ; under-parts like Nightingale but feathers
of breast with small brown centres giving breast a more or less
mottled appearance ; under -tail-coverts pale buff with some of the
feathers sometimes with a few brown bars or marks ; tail-feathers
dark rufous-brown ; wing-feathers and wing-coverts as Nightingale
but darker and less rufous. This plumage is acquired by complete
moult in July-Aug. Summer. — No moult and very little change
by abrasion.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

472 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Juvenile. — Like that of Nightingale but upper-parts less rufous ;
tail and wings darker and less rufous and spots at tips of innermost
secondaries and wing-coverts paler.

First winter. Male and female. — Like adults, except for pale
spots at tips of innermost secondaries and outer half of greater
coveits. The juvenile body -feathers, lesser, median and inner
half of greater wing-coverts are moulted July-Aug., but not remiges,
rectrices, primary -co verts nor outer half of greater wing -co verts.
Summer. — Pale tips of innermost secondaries and outer greater
coverts are usually not all worn off.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 84—92 mm. (one 95),
tail 63-71, tarsus 25-28, bill from skull 16-17 (12 measured). ?
wing 83-90. Primaries : 1st minute and about half primary-
coverts, 3rd longest, 2nd and 4th 2-5 mm. shorter, 5th 7-10 shorter,
6th 9-14 shorter ; 3rd emarginated outer web. Secondaries nearly
as long as 10th primary, tips fairly square. Rest of structure as
Nightingale.

Soft parts. — Bill dark brown, base of lower mandible pale
brown ; legs and feet pale brown ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS. — No subspecies. Dark colour and different wing-
structure distinguish it from other Nightingales.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Appearance same as Common Nightingale's,
but at close quarters spotted breast and more olivaceous colour
can be recognized. Song more powerful than Nightingale's, and
the flute-like "piou" represented by marvellously pure, bell-like
notes. Although the song is often intermingled with a rasping
" dserr," it is altogether more solemn and more beautiful than
Nightingale's, and cannot be mistaken for that of latter. (E.H.)

BREEDING -HABITS. — Haunts marshy woodlands, nesting on stump
or among low bushes near ground, and well hidden. Nest. — Built
with characteristic foundation of dead leaves, of bents, stalks, etc.,
and lined with finer grasses. Eggs. — Usually 4-5, similar in type
and range of colour to Nightingale. Average of 72 eggs, 21. 7 X
16.2 mm. Breeding-season. — Varies according to latitude from
early May to June. Incubation. — No reliable field observations,
but in confinement period 13 days, by hen only (Teschemaker).
Apparently single brooded.

FOOD. — Chiefly worms and larvae of insects, especially coleoptera,
and lepidoptera and pupae of hymenoptera (ants). Berries of elder,
etc., also eaten (Naumann).

DISTRIBUTION. — Scotland. — One Fair Isle (Shetlands), May 15,
1911 (ut supra}. [One at Smeeth (Kent) Oct. 22, 1904 (M. J. Nicoll,
Bull. B.O.C., xv, p. 20) was considered an unlikely genuine migrant
owing to the late date (cf. Hartert, i.e., p. 47 ; Saunders, Brit. B., i,
p. 8). Another said to have been taken Norfolk, June 5, 1845,

THE NORWEGIAN BLUETHROAT. 473

was not identified until many years afterwards (L. A. C. Edwards,
Brit. B., v, p. 224).]

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — South and middle Sweden, south Finland,
Denmark, a narrow belt along the Baltic in north Germany, north-
east Germany generally, Galizia, Transylvania, Roumania, Russia,
east to the Ural (Orenburg) and south-west Siberia to the Altai.
Casual and rare in west Europe. Wintering in east Africa.

[NOTK. — Two examples of the SIBERIAN RTTBY-THHOAT, Luscinia calliope
(Pallas), are said by Mr. J. P. Nunn to have been observed by him near
Westgate-on-Sea (Kent) in Oct., 1900 (c/. Saunders, Brit. B., i, p. 8), but on
this evidence the bird cannot be admitted. It breeds from Siberia to
Kamtschatka, Mongolia and north China, wintering in the Philippines, south
China and India, and has been observed in the Urals, Caucasus, south France (2),
and Italy (4).]

LUSCINIA SVECICA

193. Luscinia svecica gaetkei (Kleinschm.) — THE NOR-
WEGIAN BLUETHROAT.

EKITHACUS GAETKEI Kleinschmidt, Journ. f. Orn., 1904, p. 302 (Norwegian
Alps, but type a migrant from Heligoland).

Ruticilla suecica (Linnaeus), Yarrell, i, p. 321 ; Cyanecula suecica (Linnaeus),
Saunders, p. 35.

DESCRIPTION. — Moults like L. s.
svecica and all plumages same,
except that blue on throat of adult
male in summer is deeper in colour.
Averages longer in wing and longest
primaries longer in proportion to
secondaries than in L. s. svecica (see
" Measurements").

Measurements and structure. —
<J wing 74-79 mm., tail 53-59, tarsus
26-28, bill from skull 15-16 (12
measured). Primaries : 1st 1-4 mm.
longer than primary-coverts, 3rd The Norwegian siuethroat .(Luscinia s.
and 4th longest, 5th 1 shorter, 2nd gaetkei). Female winter.

5-7 shorter, 6th 3-6 shorter, 7th 7-10

shorter. Secondaries from tip of longest to tip of longest primary,
<$ 15-19 mm., $ 14-17.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — Frequents thickets of birch and willow,
especially in swampy places, at high altitudes in southern parts
of range, but from sea-level upwards in north. Of Robin-like habits,
but for most part shy and skulking, except when feeding young.
Male sings from elevated perch, tail in constant motion, frequently
spread and shut. Song loud, sweet, tuneful, of great variety, and
with considerable powers of mimiciy. Alarm-note a harsh " tack."

474 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

As autumn passage-migrant frequents scrub, bushes, rough grass,
potato and turnip crops in neigh boui hood of coast, very skulking
and usually only visible as it makes short dashes from one bush to
another, flying close to ground. Blue throat of male conspicuous,
but best character at all ages is dark brown tail with chestnut basal
half, visible when bird spreads it when perched, and always very
conspicuous in flight. (N.F.T.)

BREEDING-HABITS. — Haunts morasses, swampy birch forest, etc.
Nest. — On ground, well concealed, sometimes on the side of bank,
or hidden under cover of trailing juniper bushes. Eggs. — 5 to 7
in number. The eggs of all races of Bluethroat are very similar ;
greyish -green with varying amount of fine speckling of red-brown.
Breeding-season. — Latter part of June and in July. No exact
details as to incubation.

FOOD. — Gurney records Acocephalus nervosus, Philaznus spumarius
and shell of Littorina rudis in a Norfolk specimen. Collett records
insects (coleoptera and diptera and their larvae) ; also seeds and
Clausilia : Ticehurst mosquitoes. Worms are also said to be eaten.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Regular autumn passage -migrant (end
Aug.-second week Oct. most records latter half Sept. late date Oct.
31, Norfolk, 1900) and probably a regular, but seldom observed,
spring-migrant (end April-mid-June, once March 22-23, Shipwash
Lt.-v. (Suffolk) 1909, most records in May) along east coast. Rare
straggler south coast ; elsewhere not recorded. Scotland.— On
mainland only once autumn (Elgin, Sept. 15, 1890), and three times
spring (Bellhaven (E. Lothian) May or June 1868, off Aberdeen,
May 16, 1872, Carmyle, Clyde, May 14, 1910). In Fair Isle regularly
in autumn and spring, and in Isle of May fairly so in autumn.
Three Unst (Shetlands) Sept. 1902, one Monach Island Light (O.
Hebrides) Oct. 1888, four times Pentland Skerries (Orkneys) May
12, 1890, May 6 and Sept. 19, 1913, June 10, 1914, Auskerry, May
8 and Sept. 5, 1913. N.B.— It is assumed that this is the form
which occurs regularly as amongst numerous specimens examined
only one L. s. svecica has been detected.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Norwegian high mountains. Passes in
numbers over Heligoland, through Holland, and apparently north-
west Germany, France, and Spain. Replaced by allied forms in
Lapland and Sweden, and north Asia.

194. Luscinia svecica svecica (L.) — THE LAPLAND
BLUETHROAT.

MOTACILLA SVECICA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 187 (1758 — " In
Europae Alpinis." Restricted typical locality : Sweden and Lapland).
Luscinia suecica suecica, L. J. Rintoul and E. V. Baxter, Scot. Nat., i,
p. 236 (1912).

THE LAPLAND BLUETHROAT.

475

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Crown dark brown streaked
with black, forming a dark line on each side of crown ; rest of upper-
parts dark brown, slightly tinged buff especially on rump, feathers
being very narrowly fringed
buff ; upper tail - coverts
same, but with bases of
feathers bright chestnut ;
line from nostrils over eye
warm buff becoming greyer
behind eye ; lores and ear-
coverts dark brown mottled
and streaked buff ; sides of
neck greyish-brown ; mous-
tachial stripe metallic -blue,
some of the feathers lightly
tipped pale buff ; on each
side of chin and throat a
brown-black line ; chin and
centre of upper throat black
(tinged here and there blue
and sometimes with some
metallic -blue feathers ) these
colours mostly concealed in
fresh plumage by pale buff
fringes ; in centre of lower

throat orange -chest nut patch, base of feathers white or whitish ;
below this throat-spot broad band of metallic-blue, with bases of
feathers of upper portion white and of lower black and feathers lightly
tipped white ; below blue band a narrow black band, feathers tipped
white ; below this a chestnut band, feathers more or less tipped
white ; rest of breast and belly bumsh-white ; flanks greyish-brown
washed buff ; under tail-coverts buff ; axillaries and under wing-
coverts brown with long buff fringes ; tail : central pair black-brown
narrowly edged and tipped buff, rest same but with basal half of
each feather bright chestnut ; primaries and secondaries dark brown,
inner webs narrowly edged whitish and outer webs pale brown ;
all wing-coverts as mantle, feathers narrowly fringed and tipped
bumsh-brown. This plumage is acquired by complete moult Aug.-
Sept. Summer. — A moult confined to whole chin and throat
including moustachial stripes and down to and including blue breast-
band, ear-coverts and orbital feathers takes place Feb.-March and
early April. The rest of the feathers are not moulted though
occasionally a feather here and there on the body may be renewed.
New feathers of whole chin and upper throat including their sides
metallic-blue (tipped greyish when freshly grown), spot in centre
of lower throat chestnut, feathers on each side joining upper throat
and breast-band metallic -blue. Abrasion causes chestnut breast-

A. The Norwegian Bluethroat (Luscinia s

B. The Lapland Bluethroat (L. s.svedca). i
longer " wing-tip" (from tips of secondaries to tips

of primaries) in former than in latter.

476 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

band to become restricted, rest of under-parts whiter, crown less
marked with black and eye-stripe whiter.

Nestling.— (Not examined.)

Adult female. Winter.— Upper -parts, wings and tail as male ;
moustachial stripes, chin and centre of throat buff to buffish-white,
feathers here and there with dark brown spots, occasionally a few
blue feathers in moustachial stripe and throat -spot sometimes
rufous ; lines down sides of throat and breast-band brown-black,
feathers edged greyish -white, feathers of upper part of breast-band
sometimes pale metallic -blue ; rest of breast below breast-band
dull white mottled black -brown and tinged rufous-buff ; rest of
under-parts rather paler than and not so huffish as in male. Moult
as in male. Summer. — Moult as in male. Plumage usually as in
winter, but some examples acquire considerable amount of blue
in moustachial region and a little on chin.

Juvenile. Male and female. — Whole upper -parts brown-black,
each feather with a median line of buff broadening at the tip,
especially in feathers of mantle and scapulars ; upper tail-coverts
rufous, slightly fringed dark brown ; lores and ear-coverts buff,
feathers tipped black-brown ; chin pale buff, feathers lightly
tipped dark biown ; throat and breast buff, feathers widely fringed
black-brown ; flanks same but with less black-brown ; centre
of belly buffish-white speckled with black-brown ; under tail-
coverts, axillaries, under wing-coverts, tail-feathers, primaries
and secondaries as adult but innermost secondaries with more
buffish edgings and with small buff spots at their tips ; primary-
coverts with buff tips ; greater coverts with buff edgings and
tips ; median and lesser coverts with broad buff tips. N.B. —
Buff tips of wing-coverts are broader in centre of feather and thus
somewhat wedge-shaped.

First winter. Male. — Like adult male but blue of moustachial
stripe less pronounced, chin whitish, centre of throat varying
from whitish with a few rufous feathers at base to pale chestnut
but chestnut never so dark nor so extended as in adult male ;
chestnut breast-band usually paler than in adult ; primary-coverts
and outer half of greater coverts with buff tips as in juvenile and
buff tips sometimes observable on innermost secondaries but
these soon become worn off. The juvenile body -feathers, lesser
and median, and varying number of inner greater wing-coverts
are moulted Aug.-Sept., but not remiges, rectrices, primary -co verts
nor rest of greater coverts. Summer. — Moult as in adult after
which becomes like adult summer male but distinguishable by
buff tips to outer greater wing -co verts.

First winter. Female.— Like adult winter female but chin
and centre of throat whiter, without spots and very rarely with a
tinge of rufous ; very rarely indeed with even a tinge of blue on
breast-band ; wings as in first winter male. Summer. — Varies

THE WHITE-SPOTTED BLUETHROAT. 477

as adult female summer and can only be distinguished by buff
tips to greater wing-coverts as in first summer male.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 69-74 mm., tail 53-59,
tarsus 24-28, bill from skull 14-16 (12 measured). $ wing 65-74.
Primaries : 1st 2-8 mm. longer than primary-coverts, 3rd and 4th
longest, 5th occasionally equal but usually .5-2 mm. shorter, 2nd
4-8 shorter, 6th 2-4 shorter, 7th 5-7 shorter ; 3rd to 5th primaries
emarginated outer webs. Secondaries : from tip of longest to
tip of longest primary,^ 10-16 mm., $ 9-14 ; tips somewhat square.
Tail slightly rounded, 12 feathers, tips sloped off. Rest of structure
as Nightingale.

Soft parts. — Bill dark brown, base of lower mandible rather
paler ; legs and feet yellowish -brown ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS.— For differences of L. s. gaetkei
and L. s. cyanecula see under those forms ; L. s. pallidogularis
(Turkestan) is like L. s. svecica but has paler upper-parts and paler
blue throat ; while L. s. discessa (Alai) is smaller and still paler ;
L. s. robusta (east Siberia) appears to be larger and darker than
L. s. svecica ; L. s. occidentalis (south Russia) is like L. s. cyanecula
but with more or less rufous on throat -spot ; L. s. magna (south-
west Persia) appears to be larger and to have either no spot or a
small white one ; L. s. abbotti (Kashmir, east Turkestan) is stated
to be smaller and to have a very small white, or red and white
throat -spot.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Not known to differ in any way from those
of Norwegian form. Eggs. — Similar to those of other races. Aver-
age of 100 eggs, 18.5x14 mm. Breeding-season. — From mid-June
onward.

FOOD. — Lynes records diptera (small black flies), also aquatic
insects and larvae in stomach. Apparently chiefly insects and
their larvae and worms.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — One, Isle of May, September 14,
1909 (ut supra).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeds in Sweden, Lapland, north Russia
and the tundra of west Siberia, east to the Yenisei (66° N. lat.) ;
wintering in north-east Africa and occasionally also western India,
and visiting eastern Europe and Transcaspia on passage.

195. Luscinia svecica cyanecula (Wolf)— THE WHITE-
SPOTTED BLUETHROAT.

SYLVIA CYANECTTLA Wolf, in Meyer & Wolf's Taschenb. d. deutech.
Vogelk., i, p. 240 (1810 — Germany).

Cyanecula leucocyana Brehm, Yarrell, i, p. 323 (in text) ; Cyanecula
wolfi C. L. Brehm, Saunders, Brit. B., i, p. 7.

478 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male. Winter. — Like L. s. svecica but upper-
parts slightly darker in a series though individuals frequently
cannot be distinguished ; under-parts like L. s. svecica but throat -
spot instead of being chestnut is silky -white though some of the
feathers frequently have rufous -buff or chestnut tips. Moults as
in L. s. svecica. Summer. — Throat -spot silky- white varying in
size, a few of the feathers very rarely tipped chestnut, occasionally
throat is entirely blue without any spot but in such cases bases of
feathers in region of throat-spot are usually (but not invariably)
silky-white.

Female. Winter and summer. — Like that of L. s. svecica.

Juvenile. — Like that of L. s. svecica.

First winter. Male,. — Feathers of throat-spot as in adult male
but usually with more rufous-buff or chestnut on tips. Some
individuals, however, appear to be indistinguishable from some
first winter examples of L. s. svecica.

Measurements and structure. — <£ wing 73-80 mm., tail 53-57,
tarsus 26-28, bill from skull 15-16 (12 measured). Primaries :
1st 3-5 mm. longer than primary -co verts, 3rd and 4th longest,
5th occasionally equal but usually .5-2 shorter, 2nd 5-8 shorter,
6th 2-5 shorter, 7th 5-9 shorter. Secondaries from tip of longest
to tip of longest primary, <$ 10-18 mm.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Haunts low-lying, marshy ground, willow-
beds, thickets, etc. Nest. — Cleverly concealed under cover of
thick undergrowth in hollow in bank, not unlike site of Robin's
nest. Built of stalks and grasses mixed with moss and lined
horsehair, finer grasses and bits of down. Eggs. — 5 or 6, light
greyish-green with fine reddish-brown speckles at large end some-
times forming a distinct cap. Average of 100 eggs, 18.9x14.2
mm. Breeding-season. — Latter half of May ; most eggs about last
week of month. Incubation. — About a fortnight ; chiefly by
hen, relieved by male for some hours (Naumann). Probably two
broods.

FOOD. — Insects, mainly picked up on ground (small coleoptera,
aquatic insects and larvae, diptera and larvae, caterpillars, etc.) and
worms. According to Naumann berries of red and black elder, etc.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Nine males.* Near Scarborough
(Yorks.), April 12, 1876 (J. G. Tuck, Zool., 1876, p. 4976, cf. Birds
Yorks., p. 38 and Brit. B., I, p. 228). Dungeness Light (Kent)
Oct. 6, 1902 (M. J. Nicoll, Bull. B.O.C., xm, p. 14). Near Hastings

* A bird said to have been a Bluethroat was seen by Captain Hadfield at
Bonchurch, Isle of Wight, from about Feb. 1865 to Sept. 1867 and is
said to have had a spotless blue throat in the month of November 1865 ! In
Jan. 1866 another Bluethroat was recorded from the same place by the
same observer. No Bluethroats have been observed elsewhere in Great
Britain in winter.

THE CONTINENTAL ROBIN. 479

(Sussex) Sept. 1, 1905 (C. B. Ticehurst, op. c., xvi, p. 34). Fair Isle
(Shetlands) March 22, 1909, May 14, 1910 and May 9, 1913 (W. E.
Clarke, Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1910, pp. 67, 196 ; Studies in Migra-
tion, ii., p. 142, Scot. Nat., 1914, p. 54). Two, Pett Level (Sussex),
May 15 and 17, 1911 (H. W. Ford-Lindsay, Brit. B., v, p. 23, J. B.
Nichols, p. 106). St. Leonards (Sussex), Sept. 22, 1912 (N. F.
Ticehurst, op. c., vi., p. 187).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Middle Europe from France to west
Russia. Migrates through more western parts of Europe to north-
west Africa, also in lesser numbers to north-east Africa. Replaced
by closely-allied forms in south Russia generally, Persia, Trans-
caspia and Turkestan, Kashmir (Ladakh), the Karakoram, Pamir
and Alai Mountains, and in eastern Siberia.

Genus ERITHACUS Cuvier.

ERITHACUS Cuvier, Logons d'Anat. Comp., i, tab. n (1800 — Monotype :
" Le rouge-gorge, " — Motacilla Rubecula L. apud Cuvier, Tabl. e!6m. hist,
nat. Anim, p. 218, 1798).

Very near to Luscinia, but plumage softer, more copious,
tail square, even slightly emarginate, as central pair of tail-
feathers is very slightly shorter than rest. Sexes alike, young
spotted. Eggs cream-colour or pinkish-white, spotted. One
species in a number of subspecies in Palsearctic region from Atlantic
Isles to Caucasus and Persia, south to Atlas Mountains.

ERITHACUS RUBECULA

196. Erithacus rubecula rubecula (L.)— THE CONTINENTAL
ROBIN.

MOTACILLA RUBECULA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 188 (1758 —

"Europa." Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Erithacus rubecula (Linnaeus), Yarrell, i, p. 305 (part) ; Saunders, p. 37

(part).

DESCRIPTION. — Like E. r. mdophilus but upper -parts paler brown
and with more olive tinge becoming when worn in summer greyish-
brown ; throat and breast also paler being considerably more
yellowish -orange and not so rich and reddish, in worn summer
plumage difference becomes still more marked than in fresh
plumage ; flanks paler and belly with more white.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 70-76 mm., tail 54-62,
tarsus 24.5-26, bill from skull 13-16 (12 measured). 2 wing 68-73.
Structure as in E. r. melovhilus, but bill is finer.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — E. r. sardus (Corsica and Sardinia)
upper-parts darker and more olive-brown than in either E. r.

480 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

rubecula or E. r. melophilus ; E. r. wiiherbyi (Northern Atlas, Algeria)
breast reddish -orange as in E. r. melophilus upper-parts olive-brown
as in E. r. rubecula ; E. r. alias (Middle Afclas, Marocco) is darker
and more earth-coloured on upper-parts than last ; E. r. superbus
(Tenerife and Gran Canaria) upper-parts rather darker olive-brown
than in E. r. rubecula, breast rich reddish-chestnut ; E. r. hyrcanus
(north Persia) upper-parts more rusty-brown than in E. r. melo-
philus and long upper tail-coverts and outer webs of tail-feathers
rust-coloured, breast nearly as deep red as E. r. superbus ; E. r.
caucasicus (Caucasus) breast and upper-parts much as in E. r.
rubecula but long upper tail-coverts and outer webs of tail-feathers
rust -coloured. Robins are distinguished from all other British
species by uniform brown upper -parts and tail and red throat and
breast. Juveniles are much like juvenile Nightingale but are more
buff on throat and breast, have not chestnut-brown tail-feathers
and have a different wing -formula.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Dorsal surface lighter in tint and orange-
red of throat and breast rather less deep than in British Robin,
but these slight differences are barely perceptible in the field.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Not as a rule so confiding as British race and
in some districts breeds in deep forest among undergrowth and
far from houses or roads. Nest.- — Similar to that of British form.
Eggs. — 5-7, similar to those of British form. Average size of 150
eggs, 19.3x14.8 mm. Breeding-season. — -Varies according to lati-
tude ; in mountains of south Europe about April, but not till late
in May or June in north.

FOOD. — According to Naumann most orders of insects are taken, as
with the British form ; also earthworms and small slugs. List of
fruits and berries taken is however much longer (Daphne, Prunus,
Ehamnus, Euonymus, Cornus, etc.), but records of seeds are few.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Passage-migrant and winter-
resident. Examples have now been identified from Shetlands,
Orkneys, Isle of May, Fife and Isle of Wight, spring and autumn ;
from east Ross., east Lothian, Tweed, Mull of Galloway, Northumber-
land, Yorks., Lines., Norfolk, Suffolk, and east Sussex coasts and
Channel Islands in autumn and from Northumbrian coast in Dec.
and Hants, in Jan. Small numbers winter in Fair Isle, other
northern isles and St. Kilda, and it is probable that it is this race
that occasionally visits other western isles and Isle of May at this
season. Doubtless also many winter on mainland, especially in
north and in Ireland.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Passage-migrants begin to arrive
northern isles third week Sept. and continue to do so at intervals
to mid or end Nov. and pass down east and west coasts. On west

THE BRITISH ROBIN. 481

side passage can be traced through western isles to Solway. Irish
records end-Sept, to end Nov. particularly those from north-east,
north and west coasts and absence of records west coast England
and Wales at this period suggest probability of continuation of
passage of western division, but no Irish specimens have been
determined. On east side passage is traceable down whole coast
to Channel and there is evidence of direct oversea immigration
as well. Emigration from south coast (Sussex and Hants.) Oct. 4
to Dec . 1 1 . Passage throu gh Channel Is! ands mid -Sept . to beginning
Nov. Very few spring birds have been determined, but arrivals
Hants, coast recorded March 25 to April 23. Northward passage
movement recorded Isle of May end April to end May and in northern
isles second week March to third week May. Probably participates
in passage -movements as described under British race, but no proof
at present, while records in May from east and north coasts Ireland
and western isles Scotland are also probably referable to this form.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe generally up to 68° north from
France to Urals, west Siberia and west Turkestan, wintering in
Persia, and Mediterranean countries to oases of Sahara. Casual,
Jan Mayen. Replaced by allied forms in Sardinia and Corsica, in
north-west Africa, on the Canary Islands, Madeira and Azores,
north Persia and Caucasus.

197. Erithacus rubecula melophilus Hart.— THE BRITISH
ROBIN.

ERITHACUS KUBECXILA MELOPHILUS Hartert, Nov. Zool., vm, p. 317
(1901— British Isles).

Erithacus rubecula (Linnaeus), Yarrell, i, p. 305 (part) ; Saunders, p. 37
(part) ; E. r. melophilus, Hartert, Brit. B., i, p. 219.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 16). — Adult male and female. Winter. — Fore-
head extending over eyes reddish-orange ; fore-part of crown
dark olive-brown, feathers more or less washed bluish-grey ; rest
of upper -parts uniform dark olive-brown, feathers with grey bases*
but those of rump with middle portions silvery-white which shows,
if feathers are disturbed ; upper tail-coverts rufous-brown ; lores,
round eyes joining fore-head and most of ear-coverts, sides of
neck, chin, throat and breast rich reddish-orange, extending from
over eye to side of breast a fringe of bluish-grey ; centre of belly
white ; flanks pale olive-brown ; under tail-coverts pale buff ;
axillaries pale buff to whitish ; under wing-coverts deeper buff ;
tail-feathers dark brown with a tinge of rufous especially on outer
webs ; primaries and secondaries outer webs brown, inner webs
black-brown narrowly edged pale buff, innermost secondaries
more olive-brown usually (but not always) with a small buff mark
or edging at tip ; primary -coverts black-brown edged oh" ve-brown ;
greater coverts same but all feathers except inner ones, with buff

2 i

482 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

to rufous-buff tips, varying considerably in size being in some
individuals very conspicuous and in others scarcely noticeable ;
median and lesser coverts olive-brown. This plumage is acquired
by complete moult in July-Sept. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion
makes upper-parts somewhat paler and red of breast less rich.

Nestling. — Down sooty-black, long and fairly plentiful.
Distribution, inner and outer supra -orbital, occipital, spinal and
humeral (occasionally filaments on ulnar). Mouth inside yellow,
no spots ; externally flanges whitish-yellow.

Juvenile. — Feathers of upper-parts, lores and ear-coverts
buff with edgings and tips, varying in width, dark brown, giving
a spotted appearance ; rump and upper tail-coverts more rufous-
buff, feathers with narrower dark brown tips ; narrow ring round
eye buff ; chin, throat and sides of belly buff, feathers narrowly
edged brown ; breast and flanks deeper buff and brown edgings
wider ; centre of belly huffish-white faintly speckled with brown ;
under tail-coverts, axillaries and under wing-coverts buff ; tail,
primaries, secondaries and primary-coverts as adult ; greater
coverts as adult but the inner feathers also with buff tips and buff
tips to all usually paler than in adult ; median and lesser wing-
coverts as rest of upper -parts.

First uiinter and summer. — As adults. Buff tips of innermost
secondaries and greater wing-coverts vary so much in individuals
that they do not form any certain guide to age. The juvenile body-
feathers, lesser and median wing-coverts and inner greater coverts
are moulted June-Sept., but not wing- and tail-feathers, primary-
coverts nor rest of greater coverts.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 71-76 mm., tail 55-61,
tarsus 24.5-27, bill from skull 13.5-15 (12 measured). $ wing 69-74.
Primaries : Ifet 9-12 mm. longer than primary-coverts, 4th and 5th
longest, 2nd 8-13 shorter, 3rd 1-3 shorter, 6th .5-2 shorter, 7th 5-8
shorter ; 3rd to 6th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries about
equal 10th primary, tips slightly rounded. Tail fairly square,
12 feathers, tips somewhat pointed and sharply sloped off, giving
tip of tail when spread slightly forked appearance. Bill fairly
strong, tip of upper mandible slightly curved and projecting beyond
lower. Nostrils partially covered by membrane. Some fine and
short nasal bristles and a few fairly long rictal bristles. Usually
a few long filoplumes on nape projecting beyond rest of contour
feathers.

Soft parts. — Bill dark olive-brown, paler at base of lower
mandible ; legs and feet brown ; iris very dark brown.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Adults identified by uniform olive-brown
upper -parts, and bright orange-red fore-head, throat and breast,
but juveniles have no red in their coloration which is ochreous-
brown spotted and streaked with buff. Trustful — almost domesti-
cated— nature, dapper appearance and characteristic poses and

THE BRITISH ROBIN. 483

actions are too well known to require description. Song, a sweet
and somewhat plaintive warble, imitative to some extent. Call-
note, a short squeak. Another note, which functions as a call, and,
in a lesser degree, expresses defiance and alarm, is a crackling " tik-
tik-tik," heard oftenest at roosting-time. Alarm -note at nest, a
long-drawn and high-pitched " pheeze."

BREEDING-HABITS. — Widely distributed, but generally breeds near
houses or lanes, often in villages or towns where there are gardens
or parks. Nest. — Frequently on ground, occasionally in stump or
hole in tree or nesting-box, or among ivy on wall. At times also
in sheds or outbuildings, and even in old tins or kettles. Bulky
with foundation of dead leaves and moss and neatly lined with hair,
sometimes a feather or two. Eggs. — Usually 5 or 6, but 7 to 10
and even 12 on record, larger number probably due to two hens.
Ground-colour white, with fine freckles of sandy -red,which sometimes
almost obscure the ground and give appearance of uniform pale
reddish -ochreous. Sometimes markings take form of bold red-
brown spots, or form cap at large end. Average of 100 eggs, 19.8
X 15.5 mm. Breeding-season. — From end of March or early April
onward ; occasionally also in mid-winter. Two or three broods.
Incubation. — 13-14 days (W. Evans).

FOOD. — Mainly insects, coleoptera of many species, lepidoptera
(Plusia gamma and larvae of many species), diptera (eggs, larvae and
imagines), orthoptera (Forficula), hymenoptera (ants) and gall
insects (Neuroterus, etc.). Seeds (including grain and many species
of weed) and earthworms are largely eaten ; also remains of fruit
(raspberries and currants) found in pellets ejected (Oldham). In
Scotland seen to take berries of rowan ; also whortleberries.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Resident. Generally distributed,
but scarce in extreme north of Scottish mainland and in Orkneys,
and apparently absent from Shetlands ; sparingly distributed
North Uist and Lewis, and has bred Barra since 1892, but not in
other O. Hebrides. (Single birds, of which race not recorded, have
occurred occasionally Flannan Isles, spring, autumn and winter.)

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Though resident as a species con-
siderable movements of individuals and probably of all in some areas
occur, especially in Scotland and its isles and in northern parts of
England. Southward movements down east and west coasts are
well marked ; on west side, Inner Hebrides through Isle of Man
to Scillies and east coast Ireland, from beginning Aug. to mid-Sept.,
and Inner Hebrides to Solway and north and east coasts Ireland
mid-Sept, to mid-No v. (except for four records from Isle of Man
there is only one in ten years of migrating Robins on west coast
England and Wales after mid-Sept., Bardsey, Carnarvon, Oct. 29) ;
on east side (E. Ross, to Channel) from beginning of Aug. to mid-
Nov. N.B. — Records mid-Sept, to mid-Nov. probably refer in part

212

484 A PEACTICAL HANDOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

to E. r. rubecula. Many winter in parts of England particularly
in south and west and in Ireland, where birds begin to appear in
western isles end Sept. Others pass overseas from south coast
England and Ireland at intervals from mid-Sept, to third week
Nov. (early dates Aug. 10-11, St. Catherine's Lt. (I. of Wight) 1910,
15, Tuskar Rock Lt. (co. Wexford) 1912) sometimes in company
with the Continental form. Also passes through Channel Isles end
Aug. to end Nov. Birds ringed as nestlings in England have been
reported from south Holland and south-west France. Robins
(possibly both races) occur on passage at Channel Isles from third
week Feb. to end March and arrive on south coast England and
south-east coast Ireland end Feb. to end March. Northward
passage not so well recorded as autumn southward. On west side
(Bristol Channel to Inner Hebrides, and east and north coasts Ireland)
mid-Feb. to mid-April and on east side (Channel to E. Ross.) mid-
March to third week May. N.B. — Some birds from Isle of May
in May belong to British race.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Breeding-bird of Portugal appears to
be indistinguishable from E. r. melophilus. Has occurred on
migration in south Holland and south-west France, and is stated
to have occurred in Italy.

FAMILY PRUNELLUXE (« ACCENTORIIXE ").

Bill peculiar : hard, wide at base, laterally swollen appearance,
culmen rounded, distal part to nostrils slightly depressed, cutting
edges hard and contracted . Nostrils free, covered with a membrane .
Feet moderately strong, tarsus short, not much longer than middle
toe with claw, covered in front with scales, some of which are
generally more or less fused, claw of hind -toe much the longest.
Wings rounded, 1st primary very short, a little longer than or
even shorter than primary -co verts, 3rd longest, 4th and 5th a
little shorter than or as long as 3rd. Tail shorter than wing, even
or slightly emarginate . Plumage thick and fairly hard . Coloration
Sparrow-like, stomach muscular as in seed-eaters. Moves on
ground in short jumps, generally slightly moving wings at each
jump. Quiet in habits ; reminding one of Fringillidce. Eggs blue.
Systematic position uncertain, close relationship to Warblers or
Thrushes often accepted but very doubtful. Eleven species and
a number of subspecies, Europe and Asia. One genus.

Genus PRUNELLA Vieill.

PRUNELLA VieiUot, Analyse d'une nouv. Orn., p. 43 ( 181 &— Monotype :
" Fauvette de haie " = Fauvette d'hiver of Buffon, i.e., Motacilla modularis

L. Accentor of former authors, but Accentor Bechst. 1797 is a synonym of

Cinclus).

Characters of genus as indicated for family.

THE ALPINE ACCENTOR. 485

Key to species of genus PRUNELLA.

First primary longer than or as long as primary-coverts,
wings over 90 mm., tail-feathers with buff spots at
tip P. collaris,^. 485

First primary much shorter than primary-coverts,
wings under 80 mm., tail-feathers without buff spots
at tip . .P. modularis, p. 488

PRUNELLA COLLARIS

198. Prunella collaris collaris (Scop.)— THE ALPINE
ACCENTOR.

STTTRNTJS COLLARIS Scopoli, Annus i, Historico-Natur., p. 131 (1769

— Carinthia).

Accentor alpinus, Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B., i, p. 501 (also MacGillivray,

Hewitson, etc.).

Accentor collaris (Scopoli), Yarrell, i, p. 296 ; Saunders, p. 95.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and
female. Winter. — Fore-head,
crown and nape ashy grey-
brown faintly streaked dark
brown ; mantle dark brown,
feathers edged greyish-brown ;
scapulars same, but feathers
edged rufous -brown ; back and
rump much as crown but not
so ashy; upper tail -co verts \&P^ '

brown tinged varying amount of
rufous-brown, with dark

brOWTl The Alpine Accentor (Prunella c. collaris).

shaft -streaks varying in width

and whitish tips usually with a dark brown penultimate band
(whiteness of tips and markings of upper tail-coverts are variable) ;
lores and below eyes brown spotted whitish ; ear-coverts brown
not so greyish-brown as sides of neck ; chin and throat greyish-
white, feathers tipped and with a bar of black-brown giving throat
a spotted appearance ; upper-breast grey-brown, feathers at sides
tinged rufous and some feathers often with a very faint dark brown
penultimate bar ; sides of lower-breast and belly and flanks chestnut,
feathers edged white, narrowly on sides of breast, broadly on flanks,
lower feathers of which become rufous black-brown in their centres ;
centre of lower-breast and belly grey-brown, feathers tipped buffish-
white and with faint dark brown penultimate bands ; under tail-
coverts rufous black-brown broadly edged white ; under wing-
coverts and axillaries brownish-grey often tinged rusty-pink,
feathers tipped whitish and with narrow subterminal dark bands ;
tail-feathers black-brown, narrowly edged grey-brown, tips of
outer webs with small buff edging, tips of inner webs of central

486 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

feathers with large buff edging and a much clearer, paler and often
whitish, semicircular tip on inner webs of rest of tail-feathers ;
primaries dark brown, outer and inner webs narrowly edged buff
with a rather broader and paler mark at tips of feathers ; secondaries
blacker brown more broadly edged rufous-buff, inner feathers
with glossy-black centres broadly edged rufous-brown and with
whitish mark at tip ; primary-coverts black tinged brown, very
narrowly edged greyish and with broader white edging at tip of
outer webs ; greater coverts black, edged widely on basal portion
rufous grey-brown and with conspicuous white spots at tips of
outer webs ; median coverts same but without grey-brown edgings
and inner feathers with very small buffish-white tips ; lesser coverts
grey-brown. This plumage is acquired by complete moult Aug.-
Nov. Summer. — No moult and very little change by abrasion
but edgings of secondaries become paler and white tips of coverts
much restricted by wear.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Upper-parts much as adult but browner and duller,
feathers of mantle edged browner, not so grey, and those of scapulars
not so rufous, upper tail-coverts with dark brown centres edged
paler brown and with greyish-white tips ; chin and throat pale
grey tinged huffish, tips of feathers rather darker but with no
definite spotted appearance ; breast, belly, flanks and under tail-
coverts feathers with dark brown centres and broad buffish fringes ;
wing-feathers and tail-feathers as adult ; primary -co verts and
greater and median coverts as adult but browner and tips buffish,
not so white.

First winter and summer. — Like adults but primary -co verts
and greater wing-coverts browner and tips more buffish, not so
white, but difficult to distinguish with ceitainty. The juvenile
body-feathers, lesser and median wing-coverts are moulted July-
Oct. but apparently not the greater coverts and not wing-feathers,
primary -co verts nor tail.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 98-108 mm., tail 59-67,
tarsus 23-25.5, bill from skull 16-17 (12 measured). $ wing 97-106.
Primaries : 1st 4-10 mm. shorter than primary -coverts, 3rd longest,
4th usually as long but sometimes 1 mm. shorter, 2nd 1-5 shorter,
5th 1-4 shorter, 6th 6-9 shorter ; 3rd to 6th emarginated outer webs.
Secondaries about 2 mm. shorter than 10th primary, tips fairly
square. Tail fairly square, outermost pair slightly shorter than
rest, 12 feathers, tips fairly square. Upper tail-coverts long, longest
feathers being two-thirds length of tail. Bill flat and broad at
base, tapering rather abruptly to point, which is more compressed.
Nostrils slit -like being covered by membrane. A few fine nasal
bristles and some longer and stronger rictal bristles.

Soft parts. — Bill brown-black, base and most of lower mandible
yellow ; legs and feet pink-brown ; iris hazel.

THE ALPINE ACCENTOR. 487

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS.— P. c. subalpina (Greece, Balkans)
has paler and greyer upper -parts and paler chestnut flanks ; P. c.
caucasica (Caucasus, Asia Minor) much like P. c. collaris, but upper-
parts paler and less streaked but not so grey as in P. c. subalpina ;
P. c. rufilata (Turkestan) much like P. c. caucasica but chestnut
of sides of breast and flanks more uniform and more extensive
white edgings of feathers being narrow ; P. c. tibetana (eastern
Tibet) is more like typical form but has rump rusty-brown and
upper tail-coverts with considerable amount of chestnut ; P. c>
erythropygia (Japan, east Siberia, north China) is like last but
much darker ; P. c. nipalensis (Himalayas) is still darker and
feathers of mantle have rufous-brown edgings ; P. c. ripponi
(Yunnan) much like last but upper -parts very dark grey, not so
brown and edgings of feathers of mantle, rump and upper tail-
coverts not so rufous-brown. Spotted chin and throat and double
row of white spots on wing-coverts distinguish the species.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — A most retiring, quiet species, frequently
overlooked even at close quarters owing to its unobtrusive habits
and leisurely creeping movements, which are akin to those of
Hedge-Accentor. Plumage is more distinctive and handsome than
pictures prepare one for, though harmonizing wonderfully with
bare rock and stones. In the Pyrenees and Alps can usually be
found just below the snow-line. The young are clamorous and
reveal their presence, and when feathered will leave the nest in a
"stream" if disturbed. The parent is excessively solicitous, and
even before an egg is laid, will reveal the nest by walking up to
and around it in one's presence. (H. M. Wallis.)

BREEDING-HABITS. — Met with at high elevations. Nest. — Generally
in cleft of rock often sheltered by low scrub, but occasionally among
branches of small firs ; built of bents, moss, roots, and a few lichens
and feathers, lining chiefly moss, but according to some writers also
hair. Eggs. — 4-5, rarely 6, pale blue. Average of 68 eggs, 23.2 X
16.5 mm. Breeding-season. — -From beginning of June onward.
Said to be double brooded.

FOOD. — Consists largely of spiders ; also insects, coleoptera
(Curculio, Elater, Scaphidema, Felonia, etc.), orthoptera (Forficula),
hymenoptera (ants and larvae), and diptera. Naumann includes
small snails. Seeds and berries of many plants and bushes also
taken.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Twenty obtained or satisfactorily
identified between Aug. and Jan. (once in March) in following
counties : Cornwall (1), Devon (4), Somerset (1), Gloucester (1),
Hants. (1), Surrey (1), Sussex (2), Essex (1), Cambs. (2), Suffolk (2),
Yorks. (1), Warwick (1), Carnarvon (1), Fair Isle (Shetlands) (1).

488

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Mountain-systems of south and central
Europe and Mediterranean Islands (casual in Malta), but replaced
by an allied race in south-east Europe (Dalmatia to Greece), and
by others in Caucasus, Asia Minor and other parts of Asia.

PRUNELLA MODULARIS

199. Prunella modularismodularis (L.)— THE CONTINENTAL
HEDGE-SPARROW.

MOTACILLA MODULARIS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 184 (1758 —
" Habitat in Europa." Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

DESCRIPTION. — Like P.
m. occidentalis and moults
same but differs in being
paler and purer grey on
throat and breast especi-
ally in male, in belly
being usually whiter and
in 2nd primary being
longer in proportion to
7th ; 2nd being 2-4 and
sometimes as much as
5-6 mm. longer than 7th,
7th 6-9 mm. shorter than
longest primary, 6th pri-
mary 1-3 mm. shorter
than longest, usually
shorter than in P. m.
occidentalis. Colour of
upper-parts is variable
in shade, some being

darker and more rufous than others both in this form and P. m.
occidentalis, but upper-parts of P. m. modularis are usually
brighter rufous-brown than in P. m. occidentalis.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Very similar to those of British form : separate
description unnecessary. Eggs. — Also similar. Average of 83 by
Rey, 19.5 X 14.4 mm. Breeding-season. — From mid -April onward.

FOOD. — Probably very similar to that of British form, chiefly small
insects and seeds. Naumann mentions Solanum, Polygonum, Car ex,
Amaranihus, etc.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Passage-migrant and probable
winter -resident. Is only form proved to visit Fair Isle, where it
is regular, first week April to mid-May (earliest March 26, latest
May 29) and Sept. 23 to Nov. 19, most numerous last week Oct. to

A. The Continental Hed^e-Sparrow (Prunella m.

modularis). B The British Hedge-Sparrow (P.m.

occidentalis). Note loneer 2nd and shorter 7th

primaries in P. m. modularis.

THE BRITISH HEDGE-SPARROW. 489

end first week Nov. Probably regular in small numbers elsewhere
on east and perhaps west coasts, but only other specimens so far
proved are Muckle Flugga Lt. (Shetland) one April 6, 1918 (Scot.
Nat., 1919, p. 127), Auskerry (Orkney), one Oct. 1, 1913 (i.e., 1914,
p. 8), Butt of Lewis (0. H.) one Sept. 22 and one Oct. 9, 1914 (t.c.,
1915, p. 205), Isle of May (Forth) one (out of six) Sept. 24 and one
Oct. 9, 1912 (t.c., 1913, pp. 51, 53), Spurn (Yorks.) one Sept. 7, 1882
(Brit. B., m, p. 314) and one Oct. 9, 1911 (t.c., vi, p. 121), Blakeney
(Norfolk) one Oct. 17, 1919 (t.c., xra, p. 128).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe from about lat. 70° north to
Mediterranean, east to Black Sea and Urals, in south Spain and
south-east Europe only winter-visitor. Partly migratory, visiting
(rarely) north-west Africa, Asia Minor, and Syria. Replaced in
Portugal by closely-allied form.

200. Prunella modularis occidentalis (Hart.)— THE BRITISH
HEDGE-SPARROW.

ACCENTOK MODULARIS OCCIDENTALIS Hartert, Brit. B., in, p. 313 (March,

1910— British Isles).

Accentor modularis (Linnaeus), Yarrell, i, p. 301 ; Saunders, p. 93.

The British Hedge-Sparrow (Prunella m. occidentalis}.

DESCRIPTION.— A dult male. Winter. — Crown, nape and hind-neck
smoky-grey washed brown and streaked brown-black ; mantle and
scapulars varying from warm brown to rufous-brown boldly streaked
black -brown ; back, rump and upper tail-coverts varying from
uniform olivaceous -brown to rufous-brown with an olivaceous tinge ;
lores and under eyes brown-grey, feathers with short mesial streaks
of whitish-grey ; line over eye and sides of neck slate-grey tinged
brown ; ear-coverts brown streaked whitish ; chin, throat, breast
and axillaries slate-grey, hoary on chin and very narrowly tipped
brown on breast ; sides of breast and flanks yellowish-brown to
rufous-brown streaked on flanks black-brown and rufous-brown ;
belly greyish-white ; under tail-coverts dark brown widely fringed
buff ; tail black-brown fringed on outer webs rufous-brown ;
primaries and secondaries same but inner webs fringed greyish-
white and innermost secondaries with broader rufous -brown fringes

490 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

on both webs and small buff marks at tips ; primary -co verts fringed
rufous-brown and tipped black-brown ; greater coverts as second-
aries but with buff marks at tips more distinct ; median coverts
same but with very indistinct pale marks at tips ; lesser coverts
rufous-brown. This plumage is acquired by complete moult in
Aug. -Oct. Summer. — No moult. Abrasion causes upper-parts to
become rather more striated, and brown tips wear off breast -
feathers.

Adult female. — Like male but breast decidedly browner not so
grey the buffish-brown tips of the feathers being wider and more
distinct.

Nestling. — Down black, fairly long. Distribution, inner supra-
orbital, occipital, humeral, spinal, ulnar and femoral. Mouth inside
bright orange, two lateral black spots on tongue -spu.-s ; externally
flanges whitish -pink.

Juvenile. — Somewhat resembling adult but crown browner ;
feathers of nape and sides of neck fringed buffish and those of rest
of upper -parts more yellow-brown not so rufous ; chin and throat
greyish-white speckled dark grey ; breast, flanks and under tail-
covetts yellowish-buff to buff-brown, prominently streaked brown-
black ; centre of belly dull greyish-white ; tail- and wing-feathers
as adult, but buff marks at tips of median coverts more distinct.

First winter and summer. — Like adults. The juvenile body-
feathers, lesser and median wing-coverts, two or three inner greater
coverts, one or two innermost secondaries, sometimes, but appar-
ently not always, the tail-feathers are moulted Aug. -Oct. but not
primaries, primary-coverts nor rest of secondaries and greater
coverts.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 64-71 mm., tail 55-61,
tarsus 20-22, bill from skull 13-14 (12 measured). £ wing as male.
Primaries : 1st equal to, or 1-2 mm. shorter than, primary-coverts,
4th and 5th longest, 3rd and 6th sometimes as long but usually
.5-2 mm. shorter, 2nd 4-7 shorter and either equal to or 1-2 longer
or shorter than 7th (5-7 shoiter than longest) ; 3rd to 6th emar-
ginated outer webs. Secondaries about equal to 10th primary,
tips fairly square. Tail fairly square, 12 feathers, tips sharply
sloped off giving tail a slightly forked appearance. Bill rather flat
and broad at base, tapering rather abruptly to point which is more
compressed. Nostrils slit-like being covered by membrane. A
few very fine and very short nasal bristles and some longer and
stronger rictal bristles.

Soft parts. — Bill black-brown, base of lower mandible pinkish-
brown ; legs and feet pinkish-brown ; iris brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — For differences of P. m. modularis
see under that form ; P. m. orientalis (Transcaucasia) is stated to
have sides of head and neck browner not so grey and back more
rufous ; P. m. blanfordi (south-west Persia) is stated to have uniform

THE BRITISH HEDGE-SPARROW. 491

grey-brown crown with no dark centres to the feathers ; P. m.
obscura (Portugal) is very dark on upper-parts and white on belly.
Streaked upper -parts, slate-grey throat and breast and want of
white in tail distinguish the species.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Frequents open situations rather than wood-
lands ; gardens, shrubberies and hedgerows being favourite haunts.
Plumage without conspicuous feature : general coloration —
ochreous-brown, broadly streaked with umber — and pale legs and
slender bill suggest a Pipit, but build is stouter, there is no white
in tail, and, in adult, head, neck and fore-breast are slate-grey,
whilst its general demeanour is unassuming. It hops instead of
running, and often indulges in spasmodic jerking of the wings.
Song, a clear little strain, not so robust as Wren's, nor so plaintive
as Robin's, noticeable in winter and early spring when most birds
are silent. Call-note, a high-pitched piping and plaintive " peep,
peep." This call somewhat lengthened functions too as alarm-note.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Haunts gardens, hedgerows, shrubberies, build-
ing in hedges and evergreens, also in stick heaps, and occasionally
in ivy, on banks and in old nests of other birds (Blackbird, Thrush,
Swallow). Nest. — Twigs in foundation, moss, bents, a few dead
leaves, roots, etc., lined with moss and hair or wool ; feathers
occasionally freely used. Eggs. — Usually 4-5, occasionally 6,
normally rather deep blue ; very rare variety white. Average
size of 100 eggs, 19.9x14.7 mm. Breeding-season. — Normally
from April onwards, but occasionally in winter months, and as
late as August. Two or three broods. Incubation. — 12-13 days,
14th in incubator (W. Evans).

FOOD. — Spiders, insects ; coleoptera (Rhyncophoridae, Apion,
Scolytus, Helophorus, etc.), larvae of lepidoptera (Tortrix, etc.) ;
small worms ; and seeds of many plants (Spergula, Polygonum,
Atriplex, Lamium, Air a, Rumex, Ranunculus, Stellaria, Geranium,
Plantago), etc.

DISTRIBUTION.— Confined to British Isles. British Isles. — Resident.
Generally distributed, but scarcer (though increasing of recent
years) in extreme north of Scottish mainland, scarce in Orkneys,
does not breed Shetlands, common Stornoway (Lewis), scarce
elsewhere in 0. Hebrides, but has bred Uist.

MIGRATIONS. — Great Britain. — Southward movement latter half
Sept. with emigration from south coast, at any rate in some years,
early Oct. to beginning Nov. with passage through Channel Islands,
Well marked movement east coast (northern isles to Suffolk)
second week Sept. to first week Nov., though certainly that of
British race, very probably includes also passage-migrants of
Continental form. Similar movement probable, west coast, but
very few observations at present. Slight indications also of winter
weather -movements. No records of spring immigration. Passage-

492 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

movement east coast (Spurn to northern isles) third week March
to mid -May very probably includes birds of both races.

FAMILY TROGLODYTID.E.

Small and middle sized birds with short tails, short but well
developed 1st primary. Legs and feet strong, claws large, bill
narrow, elongated, nostrils free of feathers, just distal to prolonged
frontal feathering a short membrane. Rictal bristles wanting
or weak and few. Wings short and rounded, plumage thick and
soft. Rectrices soft, number variable. Sexes as a rule not different.
Nests large, ball-like or filling out cavities, with lateral entrance.
Eggs of all Palsearctic forms white, with or without reddish spots.
About 20 genera, most numerous in Neotropical region, wanting
in Australian and Pacific regions.

Key to genera of family TROGLODYTID^E.

Smaller, wings under 70 mm., tail and wings barred : Troglodytes, p. 492
Larger, wings over 80 mm., tail and wings not barred : Cinclus, p. 497

Genus TROGLODYTES Vieill.

TROGLODYTES Vieillot, Hist. Nat. Ois. Amer. Sept., n, p. 52 (" 1807 " —
Type by subsequent designation by Baird, Pacific Rail Road Rep., ix, p. 367,
1858: T.aedon).

In view of intergradation from short -tailed and short -billed
European Wrens to long-billed and long-tailed American forms
there can be no advantage in separating them into several genera.
We therefore continue to call the European Wrens Troglodytes.
They are strikingly different from all other European birds by
their small size, short tail, and barred plumage combined. Tail-
feathers 12, soft and narrow. Claws strong, curved, hind -toe
large. Wings short and rounded. Bill slightly curved, without
notch. Nostrils oval, partly covered by membrane. Tarsus in
front with distinctly separated large scutes. Juveniles very much
like adults. A number of species in North America, one in a great
number of subspecies in Europe, north to Iceland, in north-west
Africa, and in Asia to farthest east from Commander Islands and
eastern Siberia to China and Formosa.

TROGLODYTES TROGLODYTES

201. Troglodytes troglodytes troglodytes (L.) — THE WREN.

MOTACILLA TROGLODYTES Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 188 (1758—
Europe. Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Troglodytes parvulus K. L. Koch, Yarrell, i, p. 460 (part) ; Saunders,
p. 115 (part).

THE WREN. 493

DESCRIPTION (Plate 17). — Adult male and female. Winter. — Whole
upper -parts rufous-brown, amount of rufous varying considerably
individually ; fore-head, crown and nape usually darker and less
rufous than rest of upper -parts and always uniform ; upper
mantle usually same but sometimes feathers barred black-brown ;
rest of upper -parts with all the feathers barred black-brown but
extent and intensity of barring varies individually ; rump and
upper tail-coverts usually most rufous and most barred ; scapulars
sometimes with a few whitish marks and feathers of rump with
concealed whitish marks ; from nostrils, over and extending behind
eye a narrow creamy-buff to whitish stripe ; lores and ear -coverts
creamy-buff to whitish speckled and streaked brown ; chin,
throat and breast creamy-buff to whitish, feathers more or less
edged with darker buff and sometimes minutely speckled on breast
with brown ; flanks and belly same but closely barred rufous-buff
and dark brown (N.B., amount of barring and intensity of buff
on under -parts varies considerably) ; under tail-coverts rufous
barred dark brown and tipped whitish ; axillaries and under
wing-coverts whitish to pale buff usually freckled or barred with
brown but sometimes uniform ; tail rufous-brown, finely barred
black-brown ; primaries and secondaries brown-black, inner webs
narrowly edged whitish, outer webs of outer five primaries barred
whitish and rufous-buff, 6th with more rufous and rest and second-
aries rufous-brown with narrow brown-black bars, innermost
secondaries with both webs rufous-brown with narrow brown-black
bars ; primary -coverts and rest of wing-coverts rufous-brown with
narrow black-brown bars and median coverts with conspicuous
white spot at tip and a pale line on shaft of most of the feathers.
This plumage is acquired by complete moult from Aug.-Oct.
Summer. — No moult and very lit tie change in coloration by abrasion
though under -parts become rather paler and more whitish.

Nestling. — Down, greyish sooty-black, rather short and scanty
especially on spinal tract. Distribution, inner supra -orbital,
occipital and spinal. Mouth inside bright yellow, no spots,
externally flanges very pale lemon-yellow.

Juvenile. — Much like adults, upper -parts more rufous and
feathers of fore-head, crown and nape with very narrow black-brown
borders, giving these parts a less uniform appearance than in adult ;
superciliary stripe not so well marked as in adult ; ear-coverts
usually rather more streaked with dark brown than in adult ; chin,
throat and breast more buff than in adult and feathers narrowly
margined brown, giving a less uniform and more mottled appearance ;
flanks and belly more rufous-buff than in adult and with few and less
conspicuous dark brown bars ; under tail-coverts rufous, barred
brown but without white tips of adult ; tail and wing-feathers and
wing-coverts as adult but median coverts without the conspicuous
white spots at tip though they usually have an indistinct pale
mesial streak.

494 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

First winter and summer. — Like adults and there seem no
constant differences to distinguish them. The juvenile body-
feathers, lessei and median wing -coverts, 3 or 4 inner greater coverts,
sometimes innermost secondary and often (possibly always) the
whole tail are moulted Aug. -Oct. but not primaries, primary-
coverts, or rest of secondaries, nor rest of greater wing-coverts.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 46-50 mm., tail 30-33,
tarsus 17-18.5, bill from skull 12-14 (12 measured). $ wing 43-48.
Primaries : 1st about half as long as 2nd, 2nd 4-7 mm. shorter than
longest, 3rd, 4th and 5th about equal and longest but 3rd often
1-2 mm. shorter, 6th .5-1.5 shorter, 7th 2^ shorter ; 3rd to 6th
emarginated outer webs. Secondaries a little shorter than 10th
primary and about equal to 2nd, tips rounded. Tail rounded,
outermost pair markedly short, 12 feathers, tips sharply sloped off.
Bill fine and compressed, culmen slightly curved. Nostrils slit -like
being covered by membrane. No nasal bristles but a few very
fine and very short rictal bristles. Feet and claws strong and
latter curved.

Soft parts. — Bill : upper mandible, black-brown, lower pale
horn -colour ; legs and feet dull brownish -flesh ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — For differences of T. t. hirtensis
and zetlandicus see under those forms ; T. t. borealis (Fseroes) is
like T. t. hirtensis in size but intermediate in coloration and barring
between that form and T. t. troglodytes ; T. t. islandicus (Iceland)
is larger than T. t. borealis and darker brown on upper-parts ; T. t.
kabylorum (north-west Africa, Balearic Is.) is very close to T. t.
troglodytes but slightly less rufous on upper -parts and less barred on
belly ; T. t. koenigi (Corsica, Sardinia) much like last with longer 2nd
primary ; T. t. Cypriotes (Cyprus) with longer bill and more barred
under-parts ; T. t. hyrcanus (Caucasus, north Persia) is paler on upper-
parts than T. t. troglodytes but not so pale as T. t. pallidus (Turkestan,
Transcaspia) ; T. t. nipalensis (Sikkim, Nepal), T. t. tibetana
(Tibet), T. t. neglectus (western Himalayas), T. t. dauricus (Traas-
baikal) and a number of other forms in China and Japan are very
dark on upper -parts and much barred on under-parts ; T. t. palles-
cens (Commander Is. Kamtschatka) is large and pale ; other forms
inhabit N. America. Short tail, small size, and barring distinguish
Wren specifically from other British birds.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Ubiquitous, occurring at all seasons in very
diverse surroundings. At home equally in a lowland hedgerow, on
precipitous rock-faces of our highest mountains, or creeping about
the bole of some large tree. Its fearless demeanour, diminutive
proportions, short and narrow tail — usually upturned — and warm
brown coloration, are distinctive. Flight, performed by quick
beats of short wings, direct and rapid but seldom sustained. Song
a boisterous outburst, something like Hedge-Sparrow's but fuller,

THE ST. KILDA WREN. 495

and remarkably loud for size of bird . A sharp clicking " chit, chit,"
used by old and young, functions as call and alarm-note, but under
stress of excitement a hoarse " ter-tzer-tzererrrr " is uttered.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Found almost everywhere from sea-level up
to mountain -tops. Nest. — In very varied sites ; in hedges, ivy,
banks, sides of stacks, thatch, old nests of other birds (Sparrow,
Swallow, House-Martin) crevices of rock, and holes of trees. Bu:lt
of moss, dead grass, dead leaves, bracken, etc., neatly domed with
rounded entrance at side and lined warmly with feathers. Male
builds several nests, but lining is only added by the female to that
which is used for breeding. Eggs. — Usually 5-6, sometimes 7,
occasionally 8 to 11 and even 14 and 16 on record, white, spotted
rather sparingly with brownish -red chiefly at big end. Markings
sometimes absent or almost so. Average of 100 eggs, 16.5 X 12.5
mm. Breeding-season. — From latter half April onward ; double
brooded. Incubation. — Period 14-16 days from last egg (W. Evans).

FOOD. — -Insects : coleoptera, lepidoptera (larvae of Geometrae and
Noctuae) diptera (larvae of Tipulidae), neuroptera, etc. Also spiders,
aphides and seeds.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Resident. Generally distributed,
except where replaced by local forms (ut infra).

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Passage-movements along east coast
(Orkneys to Channel) (only one record Fair Isle and none certain
Shetlands) mid-Sept, to mid -Nov. and west coast (Hebrides to
N. Wales and north, east and west coasts Ireland) same period.
Emigration from south coast England and Ireland with passage
through Channel Islands, whether of British residents, passage-
migrants or both uncertain, second week Oct. to first week Nov.
Weather -movements in winter Orkneys and western isles frequent.
Return migration lasts to early May, beginning in western isles and
Orkneys in early March, but not recorded as yet from elsewhere on
east, west and south coasts or south-east coast Ireland till second
week April.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe from north Scandinavia to
Urals in east, and shores of Mediterranean, but replaced by allied
forms on some islands in north Atlantic Ocean, in Mediterranean,
north-west Africa, Caucasus and Persia, Turkestan, and other parts
of north and east Asia to Japan and Kuriles, as well as North
America.

202. Troglodytes troglodytes hirtensis Seeb. — THE ST. KILDA
WREN.

TROGLODYTES HIRTENSIS Seebohm, Zoologist, 1884, p. 333 (St. Kilda).
Troglodytes parvulus K. L. Koch, Yarrell, i, p. 460 (part) ; Saunders,
p. 115 (part) ; T. t. hirtensis Seeb., Hartert, Brit. B., i, p. 219.

496 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

DESCRIPTION (Plate \1).— Adult male and female. — Fore-head,
crown and nape uniform grey-brown, not so dark or rufous as in.
Common Wren ; rest of upper -parts brighter brown, but not rufous
and barring considerably heavier, more conspicuous and more
extended on upper part of mantle than in Common Wren ; super-
ciliary stripe whiter ; lores and ear-coverts whiter speckled and
streaked dark brown ; under -parts paler with little buff and dark
bars on flanks and belly more blackish and more conspicuous and
more often extending up sides of breast than in Common Wren ;
under tail-coverts not nearly so buff, black barring more marked
and white tips not so noticeable ; axillaries and under wing-coverts
greyish-white lightly barred blackish ; tail, wing-feathers and wing-
coverts not rufous, blackish barring darker, heavier and more
conspicuous and pale barring of outer primaries whiter and bars
narrower and more in form of spots. Moult as in Common Wren.
Summer. — Abrasion makes upper -parts paler, more grey-brown
and under-parts paler.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — tipper-parts much resembling juvenile Common
Wren but not so rufous (general colour much as in adult Common
Wren), barring rather more distinct than in juvenile Common Wren ;
superciliary stripe and ear-coverts as in juvenile Common Wren as
also rest of under-parts but margins ot feathers considerably broader
and darker and flanks and belly less rufous ; tail, wings and wing-
coverts like adult but median coverts lacking white spots as in
juvenile Common Wren.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 51-55, tail 30-37, tarsus
18-21, bill from skull 13.5-16 (11 measured). $ wing 48-52.
Structure as Common Wren, but bill thicker and stronger.
BREEDING-HABITS. — Most birds breed on face of cliffs, sheltered
by grasses, etc., but also among loose stones and in roofs of
" cleats " or sheds. Nest. — Rather large, but very similar to
that of Common Wren, built of local material. Eggs. — 4 to 6,
larger than mainland form, but similar, sometimes boldly marked.
Average of 39 eggs, 18.2x13.8 mm. Breeding-season. — Apparently
June and July.

FOOD. — No definite information, but probably like Shetland Wren
picks up small Crustacea from shore.

DISTRIBUTION. — Confined to St. Kilda (O. Hebrides), where it is
resident in all islands of group.

203. Troglodytes troglodytes zetlandicus Hart. — THE SHET-
LAND WREN.

TROGLODYTES TROGLODYTES ZETLANDICUS Hartert, Vog. pal. Fauna, i,
p. 777 (1910— Shetland Islands).

Troglodytes parvulus K. L. Koch, Yarrell, i, p. 460 (part) ; Saunders,
p. ] 15 (part) ; T. t. zetlandicus, Hartert, Brit. B., iv, p. 134.

Plate ] 7.

(WREXS HALF, DIPPERS 2-5TH3, NATURAL SIZE.)

1. The Wren (Troglodytes t. troglodytes). 2, The St. Rilda Wren (T. t. hirtensis). 3, The
Shetland Wren (T. t. zetlandicus). 4, The Black-bellied Dipper (Cinclus c. dnclus).
r>, Th3 British Dipp?r (C. e. britannicm) . 6, The Irish Dipper (C. c. hibernicus).

(Face p. 406.]

THE BLACK-BELLIED DIPPER. 497

DESCRIPTION (Plate 17). — Adult male and female. — Upper-parts
as in Common Wren but considerably darker especially crown
and nape which frequently have a blackish appearance, bars of
rest of upper-parts blacker than in Common Wren ; brown mark-
ings on lores and ear-coverts darker ; chin, throat and breast darker
brownish-buff and not whitish and barring extending farther up sides
of breast than in Common Wren ; wings darker and under wing-
coverts and axillaries more distinctly barred than in Common Wren.

Nestling and juvenile. — -(Not examined.)

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 50-54 mm., tail 30-36,
tarsus 17-20, bill from skull 14-16 (14 measured). $ wing 48-51.
Structure as Common Wren but bill thicker and stronger.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Usually breeds in crevices in face of cliff or
under shelter of turf on steep bank. Eggs. — Usually 6.

FOOD. — Saxby records small insects, earthworms and sandhoppers
(Gammarus). Florence includes small Crustacea, larva of beetle
and seaweed.

DISTRIBUTION. — Confined to Shetlands, where it is resident. The
Wren inhabiting Fair Isle appears to differ from this form.

[NOTE. — WRENS from Fair Isle and from Outer Hebrides are intermediate
between this form and T. t. troglodytes and are often as dark as T. t. zetlandicus
in colour. Ten males from Fair Isle measure : wing 48-54 mm., tail 29-32.
tarsus 18-19, bill 13-15]

Genus CINCLUS Borkh.

CINCLUS Borkhausen, Deutsche Fauna, i, p. 300 (1797 — Monotype:
Cinclus hydrophilus Borkh. = cinclus L.).

Dippers agree with Wrens in their short, rounded wing, short
tail, copious plumage, nesting-habits, notes, musty smell and other
peculiarities. They are much larger, body being almost as large
as that of a Redwing ; nostril covered by membrane, short feathers
of fore-head extending on bill to nostrils, no tictal bristles. Bill
straight, slightly depressed above nostrils. Tail short, square
or very slightly rounded, tail-feathers 12, tips square. Tarsus
long and strong, in front with a lamina, only divided into 2
scutes near base of toes. Plumage thick. Sexes alike, young
different. Eggs unspotted white. Inhabitants of mountainous
countries, Europe, northern Asia to Himalayas, China, and Formosa ;
western North America and Andes to Tucuman in Argentina.

CINCLUS CINCLUS

204. Cinclus cinclus cinclus (L.)— THE BLACK-BELLIED
DIPPER.

STTJKNUS CINCLUS Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 168 (1758—" Habitat
in Europa." Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Cinclus melanogaster, Yarrell, i, p. 244 (in text) ; Saunders, p. 97 (in text).

2 K

498 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 17). — Adult and first winter and summer. Male
and female. — Upper-parts like C. c. britannicus ; whole of lower-
breast and belly black-brown usually with a tinge of chestnut-
brown near white of upper-breast and very rarely with as much
chestnut -brown as in some examples of C. c. hibernicus. In first
winter biids the narrow dark fringes of white feathers of throat
and breast are, as in C. c. Tiibernicus, rather darker and more marked
than in C. c. britannicus.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like that of C. c. britannicus but upper-parts
considerably paler slate-grey and feathers with less dark or
broad edgings ; under-parts white, blackish edgings of feathers
being narrower.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 87-96.5 mm., tail 48-58,
tarsus 27-30, bill from skull 21-23 (12 measured). $ wing 85-93.
Structure as in C. c. britannicus.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Similar to those of British race, but nests
more frequently under natural conditions on recks and less often
in walls and buildings. Nest and Eggs. — Also similar but clutches
of 6 and 7 are recorded. Average of 54 eggs, 25.9x18.7 mm.
Breeding-season. — Usually early in June in northern Scandinavia,
but in April in the south.

FOOD. — Aquatic insect larvse and freshwater Crustacea as a rule
but on high f jeld Alston found it searching for insects on ground
and met with diptera and cokoptera (Carabidse) in stomachs.
Gurney records Gyrinus in a Norfolk specimen.

DISTRIBUTION. — England. — Vagrant. Has occurred several times
in Norfolk and Yorks. from Oct. to Feb. Examples stated to have
been of this form have also been recorded from Lines., Suffolk,
Essex, Notts., and Salop, and from Spiggie (Shetlands).
DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Scandinavia and north Russia, Russian
Baltic Provinces eouth to East Prussia where possibly not nesting
after 1900. In winter in small numbers in. north -east Germany
and east Russia. Replaced by allied races in Germany, the
Pyrenees, Spain, Alps and Italy, Corsica and Sardinia, north-west
Africa, south-east Europe, Cyprus, the Caucasus, west and central
Asia and Siberia.

205. Cinclus cinclus britannicus Tschusi — THE BRITISH
DIPPER.

CINCLUS CINCLUS BEITANNICUS Tschusi, Orn. Jahrb., xin, p. 69 (1902 —
Great Britain).

Cinclus aquaticus Bechstein, Yarrell, i, p. 241 (part) ; Saunders, p. 9T
(part) ; C. c. britannicus Tsch., Hartert, Brit. B., i, p. 220.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 17). — Adult male and female. Winter. —
Fore-head, crown and nape dark chocolate-brown ; rest of upper-

THE BRITISH DIPPER. 499

parts including upper-tail coverts dark slate-grey, each feather
broadly edged black-brown giving a somewhat mottled appearance ;
lores and ear -co verts as crown ; short line immediately over eye and
a few feathers under eye whitish ; whole of chin, throat and upper-
breast white ; lower-breast and centre of belly chestnut -brown
but lower part of belly black-brown, feathers marked with varying
amount of rufous-brown and in very fresh plumage usually with
very narrow greyish-white tips ; flanks dark slate-grey marked
dark brown ; under tail-coverts dark slate-grey very narrowly
tipped greyish -white and with a narrow subterminal rufous band ;
axillaries and under wing-coverts black-brown narrowly tipped
whitish ; tail-feathers blackish slate-grey with a brownish tinge ;
wing-feathers black-brown very narrowly tipped brownish-white,
inner webs narrowly edged greyish-white and outer webs slate-
grey, rather more broadly edged on innermost secondaries ;
primary-coverts black-brown very narrowly tipped pale brown ;
greater coverts black-brown outer webs edged slate-grey ; median
and lesser coverts black-brown tipped slate-grey. This plumage
is acquired by complete moult July-Sept. Summer. — No moult.
Abrasion of dark brown tips of feathers makes back, rump and
upper tail-coverts paler slate-grey, chocolate-brown of crown and
nape becomes paler, chestnut of breast becomes paler, while paler
tips of feathers of vent, under tail -co verts and wing-feathers wear
off as well as slate-grey edgings of wing-coverts, but there is no
very marked difference.

Nestling. — Down dark smoke-grey, long and plentiful. Distri-
bution, inner supra -orbital, occipital, humeral and spinal. Mouth
inside orange-yellow, no spots, externally flanges whitish yellow.

Juvenile. — Whole upper-parts dark slate-grey, feathers fringed
black-brown ; chin, throat and upper-breast white, each feather
tipped black-brown, lower-breast same but feathers also with,
black-brown mesial streaks and feathers of belly brownish
slate-grey with only the tips white fringed black-brown ; under
tail-coverts cinnamon-buff tipped and marked black-brown ;
axillaries and under wing-coverts dark slate broadly margined
white ; tail-feathers as adult ; wing -feathers and wing -co verts as
adult, but (except for lesser coverts) with whitish tips.

First winter and summer. Male and female. — Like adults but
easily distinguished by whitish tips of wing-feathers especially
secondaries and those of innermost greater wing-coverts and also
by feathers of lower-breast and belly having more conspicuous
greyish -white tips ; some feathers of throat and upper-breast often
have narrow and inconspicuous brown fringes but not always.
These distinctions although quite clear in fresh plumage cannot
usually be traced in summer owing to the tips being abraded. The
juvenile body-feathers, lesser and median wing-coverts and inner-
most two to four greater coverts are moulted July-Sept, but not
wing- or tail-feathers, primary-coverts nor rest of greater coverts.

2 K2

500 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 87-95 mm., tail 48-55,
tarsus 28-31, bill from skull 21-23 (12 measured). $ wing 84-92
(one 80). Primaries : 1st equal to, or 1-4 longer than, primary-
coverts, 2nd, 3rd and 4th longeet and often equal but 2nd or 4th
usually 1-2 mm. shorter than 3rd, 5th 2-5 shorter, 6th 7-10 shorter ;
3rd to 5th emarginated outer webs. Secondaries rather shorter
than 10th primary, tips rounded. Tail square but outermost pair
slightly shorter than rest, 12 feathers, tips fairly square. Upper
and under tail-coverts about three-fourths as long as tail. Bill
strong and compressed. Nostrils slit -like being covered by mem-
brane. No rictal or nasal bristles. Legs, feet and claws strong
and last somewhat curved.

Soft parts. — Bill brown -black, tinged slate at base of lower
mandible ; legs and feet black-brown, front of tarsus and toes
whitish-slate ; iris brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — C. c. aquaticus (France, Germany)
is like C. c. britannicus on belly but has paler more slate-grey
upper -parts ; C. c. pyrenaicus (Pyrenees) has upper -parts like C. c.
aquaticus but belly like C. c. cinclus ; C. c. meridionalis (Alps,
Balkans) is very near C. c. aquaticus, but crown is rather paler and
belly brighter rufous ; C. c. sapsworthi (Corsica, Sardinia) is much
like C. c. pyrenaicus but crown and nape are paler brown ; C. c.
minor (Atlas Mts.) has longer bill, pale upper -parts and pale chestnut
on belly ; C. c. caucasicus (Caucasus, Asia Minor, north Persia) has
chocolate-brown instead of chestnut -brown on lower-breast and
belly ; C. c. cashmiriensis is similar but darker brown on belly and
this extends farther over flanks and brown of nape extends on to
mantle ; C. c. rufiventris (Lebanon) like C. c. caucasicus but more
rufous on belly ; C. c. persicus (south-west Persia) paler rust-brown
belly and pale upper -parts, juvenile with very narrow dark tips
to the feathers ; C. c. leucogaster (west Siberia, Turkestan, Baikal)
white extends over belly and chocolate-brown over mantle. The
short tail, white " bib " in adult, and white under -parts and slate
upper-parts, mottled with black-brown in juvenile, are distinctive
specific characters.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — In form and behaviour unlike any other
native species. Identified at once by rotund form, pure white
throat and breast, dark upper -parts, and chestnut band on belly.
Frequents rivers, mountain torrents and tarns. Habit of curtsying
on boulder, often in mid -stream, characteristic. Food obtained
by wading, swimming and diving. Strong and rapid flight, per-
formed by continuous beats of short wings, usually follows course
of stream. Song a sprightly warble, often uttered in flight, bears
some resemblance to Wren's. Call -note a sharp " chit, chit."

BREEDING -HABITS. — Haunts rapidly flowing streams, and nests on
face of cliffs by waterside, in holes of walls, under bridges, in ivy

THE IRISH DIPPER. 501

on tree-trunks, among tree-roots, under waterfalls or on stumps,
but always over or close to water. Nest. — Cup-shaped and built
of dry grasses, moss, etc., lined with dead leaves, generally of beech
or oak, covered in and roofed with green moss with an overhung
entrance at side. Eggs. — 4-5, sometimes 6, pure white, and not
glossy. Average size of 100 eggs, 26.2 X 18.1 mm. Breeding-season. —
Usually from about end of March or early April, but occasionally
in February. Incubation. — By both sexes ; period 14-16 days, 15th
day in incubator (W. Evans). Two or even three broods.

FOOD. — Mainly larvae of aquatic insects : coleoptera (Bembidium,
Harpalus, Hydradephaga, etc.) ; neuroptera, trichoptera, etc. (larvae
of Odonata, Ephemeridse and Phryganeidae) ; hemiptera (Notonecta).
Also small aquatic mollusca and entomostraca (Dapknia). Bones
of small fishes (minnow) once or twice recorded and observed to
feed on dead trout.

DISTRIBUTION.— Confined to Great Britain. England and Wales, —
Resident in west and north England and in Wales, where there are
quickly running rocky streams, but only a rare vagrant to counties
east of Dorset, Wilts., Gloucester, Hereford, Salop, Staffs., and
Derby. Also very scarce in east Yorks., and Durham. Scotland. —
Generally distributed except in Orkneys, where only twice occurred,
and in Shetlands, where not yet recorded ; in O. Hebrides breeds
in Harris, Lewis, and Barra.

206. Cinclus cinclus hibernicus Hart.— THE IRISH DIPPER.

CINCLUS CINCLUS HiBEKNicus Hartert, Vog. pal. Fauna, i, p. 790 (1910 —
co. Cork, Ireland).

Cinclus aquaticus Bechstein, Yarrell, i, p. 241 (part) ; Saunders, p. 97
(part) ; C. c. hibernicus, Hartert, Brit. B., iv, p. 136.

DESCRIPTION (Plate 17). — Adult and first winter and summer. Male
and female. — Like C. c. britannicus but crown and nape somewhat
darker and rest of upper-parts decidedly so, tips of feathers being
blacker and broader ; under-parts with less chestnut -brown, colour
being usually less bright and not extending so far down belly, which
is black-brown but this character though very obvious in a series
is not so constant individually as darkness of upper-parts. Thus
intermediate between C. c. cinclus and C. c. britannicus in colour
of belly but upper-parts darker than either of those forms. In first
winter birds narrow dark fringes of white feathers of throat and
breast are rather darker and more marked than in C. c. britannicus.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like that of C. c. britannicus but upper-parts darker,
black -brown fringes of feathers being wider.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 86-95 mm., tail 47-56,
tarsus 29-31, bill from skull 20-22 (11 measured). $ wing 82-90.
Structure as in C. c. britannicus.

502 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Similar to those of British race as are also
Nest and Eggs, 4-5 in number. Average of 28 Irish eggs, 25.8 X
18.5 mm. Breeding-season. — From early March (occasionally in
February) onward . Double brooded .

FOOD. — Probably very similar to that of British race. Thompson
records larvae of coleoptera, larvae of Phryganeidae, remains of
Crustacea and two species of stickleback (Gasterosteus) .
DISTRIBUTION. — Confined to Ireland, where it is resident and
generally distributed in suitable localities.

FAMILY HIRUNDLNHXE.

The best defined family of British Passeres. Easily recognizable
by the wide mouth (Swifts and Goatsuckers which also have
very wide mouths have only 10 tail-feathers, besides many other
differences— see p. 5 and under " Cypseli " and " Caprimulgi "),
triangular flat beak, very short tarsus, weak feet with strong
claws, very long nine-primaried wings with first primary so much
reduced that it is outwardly invisible and can only be found by
close investigation. Catch food in flight ; almost cosmopolitan ;
the northern species strong migrants.

Key to genera of family HIRUNDINID^:.

{Tarsi and toes feathered Delichon, p. 509
Tarsi and toes unfeathered 2

(Outer tail-feathers with large roundish white spots,
throat reddish Hirundo, p. 502
Outer tail-feathers without white spots, throat white . Riparia, p. 513

Genus HIRUNDO L.

HIRUNDO Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 191 (1758 — Type by subse-
quent designation, of Gray, List Gen. B., 1840, p. 8 : Hirundo rustica L.)

Comprises the real Swallows. Tarsi and feet unfeathered,
hind -claw shorter than the digit. Rictal bristles few and weak.
Wings very long and pointed and reaching far beyond angle of
tail-fork, first developed (technically second) primary longest.
Tail forked, in adult bird lateral pair of tail-feathers greatly elon-
gated and attenuated, terminal half almost filiform. Upper-parts
glossy, fore-head and throat reddish. Eggs of British Swallow
spotted, of daurica and others pure white. Numerous extra-limital
species, all continents.

Key to species of genus HIRUNDO.

Rump like back. 4 ; • . . , ; . . H. rustica, p. 503
Rump rufous „...£?. daurica, p. 507

THE SWALLOW.

503

HIRUNDO RUSTICA

207. Hirundo rustica rustica L.— THE SWALLOW.

HIRTTNDO RUSTICA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 191 (1758 — Europe.

Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Hirundo rustica Linnaeus, Yarrell, n, p. 340 ; Saunders, p. 163.

8

The Swallow (Hirundo r. rustica). A. One half of tail of ai'ult.
B. Juvenile.

DESCRIPTION.— Adult male. Winter and summer. — Fore-head dark
chestnut ; rest of upper -parts dark metallic-blue (feathers of nape
and mantle with their concealed middle portions white, feathers
of back of crown with these portions usually brown but occasionally
buff and rarely chestnut) ; lores black ; ear-coverts, sides of
neck and broad band across lower -throat dark metallic -blue with
more or less black showing and often some chestnut feathers inter-
mixed ; chin and upper -throat dark chestnut ; rest of under -
parts varying from rufous-buff to dark creamy colour ; under
tail-coverts as belly but often deeper buff and sometimes vvdth fine
dark shaft -streaks and occasionally two longest feathers tipped
glossy green ; axillaries and under wing-coverts as belly but feathers
tipped more rufous-buff ; tail-feathers black-brown glossed metallic-

504 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

green, central pair uniform, rest with broad white patch on inner
web, in outer pair white is extended up shaft to a point ; primaries
and secondaries black-brown glossed dark metallic -green on outer
webs and tips, innermost secondaries dark metallic-blue and inner
primaries and other secondaries often with some metallic-blue ;
primary-coverts dark metallic -green often shaded metallic-blue ;
wing-coveits dark metallic-blue, innermost feathers of greater
and .median coverts with buff or greyish mark at tip of inner web.
This plumage is acquired by a very gradual moult, commencing
in Europe with body feathers and sometimes median and lesser
wing-coverts in Aug. (exceptionally July) and continuing in Africa,
whence specimens in every month from Sept. to March (exception-
ally April) are in various stages of complete moult. Out ot large
number examined I have not seen one taken in Europe which was
moulting its remiges or rectrices. Feathers of under-parts vary
much in colour individually but are more creamy or buff when
freshly moulted and become paler and in some individuals nearly
white by abrasion. Abrasion also causes loss of gloss, especially
noticeable on crown, throat-band, wings and tail.

Adult female. — As male but throat-band not so metallic-blue
being browner and usually with more chestnut feathers intermixed,
under-parts average whiter than male, but many individuals as
buff ; outermost pair of tail-feathers usually shorter than in male
(see " Measurements ").

Nestling. — Down grey, fairly long, but scanty. Distribution,
inner supra -orbital, occipital, humeral and spinal. Mouth inside
lemon-yellow, no tongue-spots, externally flanges whitish (C. B.
Ticehurst, Brit. B., n, p. 191).

Juvenile. — Resembling adult, but chestnut patch on fore -head
smaller and paler, but extending on sides of crown in an ill-defined
narrow streak above lores ; rest of upper -parts browner and with
less metallic-blue than in adult (especially on crown), feathers of
rump narrowly tipped brown ; chin and throat paler chestnut ;
band across lower -throat brown to blackish-brown, some feathers
sometimes tipped rufous-buff ; centre of breast and belly creamy-
white, sides and flanks and under tail-coverts pinkish-buff ; wing-
and tail-feathers with less gloss than in adults ; outer pair of tail-
feathers only 10 mm. or less longer than penultimate and tips
much broader than in adult, tips of rest of tail-feathers more rounded
and less pointed than in adult, white patches on inner webs con-
siderably smaller than in adults. N.B. — In worn plumage crown
and throat-band become browner and chin and throat often almost
white.

First winter and summer. — No certain distinction from adult
when tail-feathers have moulted bub judging by those in moult
throat -band usually not so bright metallic -blue, under-parts more
often rufous, outer tail-feathers not so often so long and narrow,
but all these distinctions are variable and uncertain as examina-

THE SWALLOW. 505

tion of moulting birds proves. This plumage is acquired by a
gradual complete moult as in adult but of those examined earliest
moulting wings and tail (in Africa) were in October.

Measurements and structure. — ^wing 120-129 mm., tail: central
pair 34-46, outermost pair 93-122, tarsus 10-13, bill from skull 10-12
(26 measured). $ wing 116-128, tail : central pair 40-48, outermost
pair 76-107 usually broader than in male but sometimes as narrow
(18 measured). Juvenile,^ wing 117-126, tail : central pair 40-47,
outermost pair 60-70 always broader than in adults, $ wing 113-117,
tail : outermost pair 60-64. Primaries : 1st minute about half
primary -coverts, 2nd longest, 3rd occasionally equal but usually 2-4
mm. shorter, 4th 10-13 shorter, 5th 18-22 shorter, 6th 25-31 shorter ;
primaries narrow, outer webs not emarginated. Secondaries very
short, shorter than 10th primary, tips rather deeply notched, except
innermost which are slightly longer with rounded tips. Tail deeply
forked, 12 feathers, tips sharply sloped off on inner webs and outer-
most pair greatly elongated beyond the sloping off. Bill broad
and fiat almost an equilateral triangle in shape, tip slightly curved.
Gape wide. Nostrils partially covered by membrane. Some fine
rictal and nasal bristles. Tarsi and feet very short, not feathered.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs and feet black ; iris dark brown ; base
of bill in juvenile pale yellow.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — H. r. savignii (Egypt, Nubia)
has chestnut breast and belly and white portions of tail-feathers
tinged chestnut ; H. r. transitiva (Palestine) is paler on under -
parts than last ; H. r. gutturalis (Baikal, north China, Japan) is
smaller, has white belly and chestnut of chin extends through centre
of blue throat -band ; H. r. tytleri (Kamtschatka, north-east Siberia)
is like last but has rufous belly ; H. r. erythrogastra (N. America)
has paler rufous belly.

FIELD-CHARACTERS. — In form and behaviour Swallows and Martins
are unlike any other British birds, except perhaps Swifts (which
see). Slender build, long wings rnd forked tails no less than their
great powers of flight and habit of hawking for their insect prey,
either over water or at varying heights in the open, are very
characteristic. Swallow differs from Martins in its uniform blue-
black upper-parts, elongated outer tail-feathers, and chestnut-red
throat and fore-head. Flight rapid with many twists and turns.
Less gregarious than Martins at nesting-time, but in late summer
congregates in large flocks preparatory to roosting in reed- or osier-
beds. Song, a musical twittering. Call -note, "clitt." Alarm-notes,
;'clittit" and a sharp, clear "feet-a-feet."

BREEDING-HABITS. — Widely distributed but generally nests inside
sheds and outbuildings, though in some districts many pairs breed
inside chimney stacks. Exceptionally also breeds in roofs of
caves and rarely on branches of trees. Nest. — Built of mud, but

508 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

more saucer -shaped than that of Martin, open at top and resting
on support of some kind in most cases. Exceptionally nests on
outer walls, not unlike Martin but more open at top. Lining of
grasses, feathers, etc. Eggs. — Usually 4-5, sometimes 3 or 6, and
8 on record, white, spotted finely or boldly with red -brown and
ashy shell-marks. Average of 50 British eggs, 20.2x13.9 mm.
Breeding -season. — From mid-May onward. Incubation. — Just over
15 days (Owen). Two, occasionally a third brood. Fledging-
period. — Normally 21 days (Owen).

FOOD. — Insects taken on the wing, chiefly diptera (Chironomidse,
Tipula, Empis, Borborus, Calliphora, etc.), but also coleoptera
(Curculio, Helophorus, Tachinus, Aphodius, etc.), hymenoptera
(winged ants), neuroptera (Calopteryx], and exceptionally lepi-
doptera.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Summer-resident (occasionally stay-
ing throughout winter). Generally distributed, but breeds rarely
in extreme west of Ireland, north-west of Scotland and Orkneys,
and very rarely Shetlands and O. Hebrides (Barra, 1896, and
probably on occasions in Uists and Lewis).

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Early arrivals of summer-residents
begin end of third week March (early dates Feb. 29, 1912, Cornwall,
Mar. 2, 1912, Cardigan, Mar. 5, 1918, Lanes., Mar. 6 and 13, 1913,
Scilly) ; main arrival variable, from April 1 to end second week,
merging end April into arrival of passage -migrants and continuing
to fourth week May. Passage-movements last to end first week
June with stragglers in north to end of month, and take place
throughout country, but coastal routes are well marked, especially
east (Channel to northern isles) though greater number apparently
cross North Sea without reaching latter. Western routes, west
coast, England and Wales and east coast Ireland and through
Hebrides are probably to Fseroes and Iceland. Summer -residents
begin to move south last week July and emigration from south
coasts begins second week Aug., later departures become merged
in those of passage-migrants that begin to arrive northern isles
early Sept. ; numbers in north comparatively small, but larger
on east coast, Forth southward. Numbers probably pass inland
and through country and by west coast England and Wales ; no
evidence Ireland. Passage and emigration continue to nearly
end Oct. Majority of later Oct. records are from east and south-
east coasts pointing to movement being almost entirely those of
passage -migrants ; others doubtless accounted for by lateness of
some broods which are frequent in some seasons. Stragglers
frequent in Nov. up to end third week. (Late dates Dec. 1, 1908,
Norfolk, Dec. 20, 1911, Berks., Jan. 3, 1913, Dorset, Jan. 23,
1913, Kerry). Irish summer-residents apparently arrive and
depart mainly by south-east coast. Birds ringed as nestlings in

THE KED-RTJMPED SWALLOW.

507

British Isles have been reported from western France, north-west
Spain, Cape Province, Orange Free State and East Griqualand,
and another (ringed as a breeding adult) from Natal.
DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe, north-west Africa and western
parts of Asia. Wintering in tropical and south Africa, India and
its islands. Casual Spitsbergen, Jan Mayen, Greenland and Novaya
Zemlia. Occasional Faeroes and Iceland. Replaced by allied
forms in Syria (? Asia Minor), Egypt, north Asia to Japan, and
North America, all being migrants, wintering far south.

HIRUNDO DAURICA.

208. Hirundo daurica rufula Temm.— THE RED-RUMPED
SWALLOW.

HIRUNDO RTJFTTLA Temminck, Man. d'Orn., 2, ed. in, p. 298 (1835 —

Egypt, Sicily, S. Africa, Japan. S. Africa ex Levaillant, whose locality

is not trustworthy. Japan erroneous. Restricted typical locality :

Egypt).

Hirundo rufnla, W. E. Clarke, Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1906, p. 205, 1908,

p. 83 ; Saunders, Brit. B., i, p. 11.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and
female. Winter. — A few feathers
on fore-head chestnut, rest of fore-
head and crown dark metallic-blue,
mantle and scapulars same but
middle portion of feathers white
showing here and there ; broad
band on nape extending to sides of
neck and to eye and joining line
over eye chestnut ; lower back and
rump chestnut ; lower part of rump
paler and upper tail-coverts rufous-
buff, long upper tail-coverts dark
metallic -blue ; lores buff tipped
blackish ; ear-coverts rufous -buff ;
whole under-parts buff to rufous-
buff, feathers with fine dark brown
shaft -lines much more marked in
some individuals than in others ;
short under tail-coverts buff, rest
black glossed greenish-blue and
with buff bases ; under wing-
coverts and axillaries as rest of
under - parts ; tail black - brown
glossed greenish-blue ; outer pair
of feathers sometimes with grey
mark on inner webs ; wing-feathers
same, inner webs very narrowly edged buffish, innermost secondaries

Thfi Bed-rnmped Swallow
(Hirundo d. ru/ula).

508 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

more glossed and three innermost tipped white or pale buff :
primary- and greater coverts glossed greenish-blue, inner feathers
of latter tipped buff ; median and lesser coverts more glossy and
blue. This plumage is acquired by complete moult in July-Aug.
Summer. — Apparently no moult and very little change by abrasion
but pale tips wear off innermost secondaries.

Nestling. — (Not examined.)

Juvenile. — Like adult but crown, mantle and scapulars dark
brown with slight bluish gloss on crown and more on mantle
and scapulars but much less than in adult, most feathers very
narrowly tipped buff ; nuchal collar and rump paler than in adult,
rufous-buff rather than chestnut ; long upper tail-coverts brown-
black with slight gloss and tipped buff ; under-parts paler with no
shaft -lines on belly, dark brown patch at sides of breast ; long
under tail-coverts brown-black ; tail and wing-feathers and all
wing-coverts browner and with very little gloss, secondaries narrowly
tipped buff, inner secondaries and all wing-coverts more broadly
fcipped same ; outer tail-feathers much shorter than in adult.

First urinter. — Apparently like adults. The juvenile body-
plumage is moulted in autumn often beginning in July and apparently
also wings and tail but no specimen sufficiently advanced in moult
has been available to make certain of this.

Measurements and structure. — <$ wing 117-126 mm., tail : central
pair 40-45, outermost pair 88-111, tarsus 12.5-13.5, bill from skull
9-10 (14 measured). $ wing 115-123, tail : central pair 39-47, outer-
most pair 85-102 (usually not so narrow as in male and rather more
often with grey mark on inner web but these characters are not
constant). Juvenile^ wing 116-122, tail : central pair 40-43, outer-
most pair 73-80 (broader than in adults and grey mark usually
present). Primaries : 1st minute, about half primary-coverts, 2nd
longest, 3rd 1-4 mm shorter, 4th 6-12 shorter, 5th 14-20 shorter,
6th 22-27 shorter ; outer webs not emarginated. Rest of structure
as in Swallow.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — H. d. daurica (east Siberia,
Mongolia, Kansu) has nuchal band broken centrally with metallic-
blue ; H. d. nipalensis (Himalayas, China, Japan) is similar to last but
has heavily streaked under-parts ; H. d. striolata (south China) has
whiter under-parts with still broader streaks and nuchal band is
almost obscured by metallic-blue ; H. d. erythropygia (India) is
shorter in wing and tail, has rump and shorter upper tail-coverts
deeper chestnut and fine streaks on under-parts. Chestnut nuchal
collar and rump distinguish H. d. rufula from all other British
Swallows.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — In general appearance resembles Common
Swallow and has a similar long forked tail, but is at once distinguished
by its chestnut rump, shading into white, and at closer quarters
by rufous nape. Note in flight slightly different and flight more

THE MARTIN. 509

deliberate than Swallow's. Seen from below light throat and
absence of steel blue gorget form good distinctions. (F.C.R.J.)

BREEDING-HABITS. — Breeds on cliff -faces as well as on walls of
buildings. Nest. — Built of mud, mixed with bits of grass, but
differs from that of Swallow or Martin in having entrance through
a projecting spout, so that nest is retort shaped, lined with feathers,
bits of wool, etc. Eggs. — 4-5. White. Average size of 81 eggs,
20x14.3 mm. Breeding-season. — From beginning of May onward
in Mediterranean Region. Apparently double brooded.

FOOD. — Insects taken on the wing, but exact data lacking.

DISTRIBUTION. — Great Britain. — Two obtained and two seen.
One shot (and picked up dead ten days later) and two others seen,
Fair Isle (Shetlands), June 2, 1906 (ut supra). Adult female Jury
Gap, Romney Marsh (Kent), May 16, 1909 (M. J. NicoU, Bull.
B.O.C., xxin, p. 93).

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Turkestan, Persia, Baluchistan, Afghani-
stan, Syria, Egypt (? only as migrant), Asia Minor, Cyprus, Greece,
also Marocco, western Algeria, and Tunisia. Sometimes seen
in Italy, perhaps breeding in Sicily and south Italy, has occurred
once Heligoland, and south France. Replaced by allied races in
east Siberia, Mongolia, and north China (once [two specimens] in
June in Assam), in the mountains south of the Brahmaputra,
India, south China, and the East Indian Archipelago (probably
only in winter).

Genus DELICHON Moore.

DELICHON Moore, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, xxii " 1854 " p. 104 (1855 —
Monotype : D. nipalensis Moore).

Differs from all other genera of Hirundinidce by thickly feathered
tarsus and toes. Tail forked, but lateral rectrices never greatly
attenuated and elongated. Rump white, back metallic, eggs always
white. Europe, north-west Africa, Asia.

DELICHON URBICA

209. Delichon urbica urbica (L).— THE MARTIN.

HIRUNDO TJRBICA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 192 (1758 — Europe.

Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Chelidon urbica (Linnaeus), Yarrell, n, p. 349 ; Saunders, p. 165.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and female. Winter. — Fore-head, crown,
mantle and scapulars dark metallic -blue, feathers of nape and
mantle with their central portions white often showing on nape but
usually concealed on mantle ; feathers of back brown glossed blue

510 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

and tipped white ; rump and shorter upper tail-coverts brown to
pale brown with pale buff to brownish-buff tips, longer upper
tail-coverts with their distal portions dark metallic-blue ; lores
black ; feathers under eye same
but slightly glossed blue ; chin,
throat and upper breast pale brown-
ish-buff ; at sides of upper breast
small patch of dark brown ; centre
of lower breast and belly white ;
sides and flanks pale brownish -
buff ; under tail-coverts same with
blackish shaft-lines and often with
some of the feathers with blackish-
brown marks ; under wing-coverts
brown with whitish tips ; axillaries
pale brown ; tail-feathers black-
brown with a slight greenish gloss ;
primaries and secondaries same
with pale brown edges to inner
webs, 3rd secondary from inner-
most with white tip ; primary-
coverts black-brown ; greater coverts same but with a slight gloss ;
median and lesser coverts with more blue gloss. This plumage is
acquired by moult which commences in Europe in Aug. (excep-
tionally July) with body-feathers, sometimes also wing-coverts
and some secondaries are moulted, but, usually wings and tail are
not moulted until winter. Body-plumage is moulted again Jan.-
April but material available is insufficient to decide if wings and
tail are moulted completely in autumn as they are in spring.
Rummer. — Like winter but feathers of rump usually white with
dark shaft-streaks (when newly grown tips are pale buff) some
examples (especially females) have varying number of feathers with
brown bases, but even in such examples rump in summer is never
so dark and with so much brown as in winter ; chin, throat and
upper-breast pale buff when freshly moulted, becoming white by
abrasion.

Nestling. — Down white and rather scanty. Distribution, inner
supra-orbital, occipital, humeral, spinal and femoral. Mouth inside
orange -yellow, no tongue-spots, externally flanges pale yellow
(C. B. Ticehurst, Brit. B., iv., p. 71).

Juvenile. — Whole crown dark glossy mouse -brown ; mantle
and scapulars same but tips of feathers glossed dark metallic-blue,
feathers of nape and mantle with their middle portions white often
showing on nape ; rump and shorter upper tail-coverts white,
feathers with dark brown shaft -lines and with varying amount of
brown marks at their bases and centres, longer upper tail-coverts
dark brown with small greyish tips ; chin, throat, upper-breast and
flanks pale brownish-buff, lower part of throat often whitish, sides

THE MARTIN. 511

of upper-breast darker brown than rest, forming sometimes almost
an incomplete band, rest of under-parts white ; under tail-coverts
with dark brown shaft -lines and often with irregular brown marks ;
under wing-coverts and axillaries as adult but slightly paler ; tail-
and wing-feathers and coverts dark brown, innermost secondaries
with white tips.

First winter. — New feathers like adult winter but many juvenile
feathers are retained until spring. The juvenile body-feathers
commence to moult Aug., but wing- and tail-feathers not before
Nov. Summer. — Like adult and moult same and doubtful if wings
and tail moult twice though wings commence to moult in Nov.

Measurements and structure. — £ wing 106-113 mm., tail : central
pair 35-45, outermost pair 58-63, tarsus 10.5-13, bill from skull
8.5-9 (12 measured). $ wing 104-112, tail : central pair 35-43,
outermost pair 57-63. Primaries : 1st minute about half primary-
coverts, 2nd longest, 3rd occasionally equal, rarely 1 mm. longer,
usually 1-3 shorter than 2nd, 4th 7-10 shorter, 5th 13-20 shorter,
6th 20-27 shorter, outer webs not emarginated. Secondaries very
short, shorter than 10th primary, tips rather deeply notched except
innermost which are longer with rounded tips. Tail deeply forked,
12 feathers, tips sharply sloped off on inner webs. Tarsi and feet
short and feathered. Bill broad and flat almost an equilateral
triangle in shape, tip slightly curved. Gape wide. Nostrils par-
tially covered by membrane. Some fine and short rictal and nasal
bristles.

Soft parts. — Bill black ; legs and feet pink-flesh tinged yellow
and covered with white feathers ; iris dark brown.

CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — D. u. meridionalis (north-west
Africa) has slightly shorter wing, but secondaries are proportionately
longer and birds from south-west Persia are similar ; D. u. whiteleyi
(Siberia, Manchuria) has longer upper tail-coverts white instead of
blue ; D. u. cashmiriensis (Himalayas) is smaller and has brownish
under-parts ; D. u. nigrimentalis (Fokien, China) is still smaller and
has black at point of chin ; D. u. dasypus (Japan) is much like last
but larger. White rump and under-paits, blue mantle and forked tail
with no long " streamers " and feathered tarsi and feet distinguish
House-Martin from other British Swallows.

FIELD -CHARACTERS. — Tail less deeply forked than Swallow's, and
entire under-parts pure white, but readiest distinction is white
rump which contrasts strongly with blue-black back and wings.
White-feathered legs conspicuous when bird is on ground or clinging
to nest. Essentially sociable both during nesting-season and after-
wards. Song, a contented twittering often warbled whilst clinging
to, or actually inside, nest. Call-notes, a soft " preet-a-preet " and
a coarse " screet," often uttered on wing. Alarm -note, sharp,
shrill "prt."

512 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

BREEDING-HABITS. — Usually nests on outer walls of houses under
eaves ; exceptionally also inside roofs of sheds. Also on face of sea-
cliffs and in some districts also on inland cliffs. Nest. — Generally
found in colonies, sometimes built on to one another, in shape like
a section of a cup, with narrow opening at top, built of mud
moistened with saliva and mixed with bents, etc., lined with
feathers, bits of straw, etc. Eggs. — 4-5, sometimes 3 or even 6,
white, slightly glossy. Average of 54 British eggs, 19.4x13.2 mm.
Breeding-season. — From latter part of May onward, many birds
nesting in June. Incubation. — Shared by both sexes ; period about
14 days. Double brooded, sometimes a third.

FOOD. — Insects taken on the wing, chiefly diptera, especially the
smaller species (Chironomidse, etc.), but also coleoptera (Tachyporus,
Aphodius, Coccinella, etc.), occasionally lepidoptera (Pieris, Tri-
phcena, Agrotis, etc.) and neuroptera (Oldham).

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Summer -resident. Generally dis-
tributed, but more local, especially in Ireland, than Swallow. Scarce
breeder Orkneys, only occasionally nests and not common migrant
Shetlands, and rare vagrant (about a dozen times) to O. Hebrides.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — Early arrivals of summer -residents
begin first week April (early dates Mar. 23, 1913, Devon ; Mar.
25, 1912, Sussex; Mar. 26, 1919, Somerset; Mar. 27, 1913,
Essex, 1909, Devon ; Mar. 28, 1910, Mar. 29, 1912, Mar. 30,
1907, Hants. ; Mar. 30, 1910, Salop) ; main arrival begins mid-
April (variable, second to fourth week) and lasts to end May,
becoming merged in movements of passage-migrants that pass
through country and by east coast route (Channel to northern isles)
to end first week June, with stragglers in north to end of month.
Probable passage-migration west coast also (England and Wales
and Inner Hebrides) but evidence not clear. Summer -residents
begin to move south mid-July, emigration south coast begins first
week Aug. and lasts to third week Oct., stragglers frequent to mid-
Nov. and occasional to first week Dec. (late date Jan. 10, 1912,
Hampton Court). Later part becomes combined with passage-
migration east coast (northern isles to Channel) that begins
occasionally in mid- July, but main movement in Sept. and Oct. ;
very small numbers only in north, bulk appear to arrive south of
Humber. Majority of Oct. records relate to this movement. No
evidence of passage west coast. Irish summer -residents appear
to arrive and depart mainly by south-east coast ; no evidence of
passage-migration.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe, from lat. 70° north in Scandi-
navia to Mediterranean, east to Yenisei and Turkestan. Wintering
in south-east Africa and Mossamedes, and in north-west India.
Casual Iceland and Greenland, also Madeira. Replaced by shoit-

THE 8AND-MABTDT.

513

winged form in north-west Africa, apparently south-west Persia
and Greece and possibly south Spain, by other forms in central
and east Siberia, Mongolia, Manchuria and north China, Kashmir,
south China and Japan.

Genus RIPARIA Forst.

RIPARIA Forster, Syn. Cat. Brit. B., p. 17 (1817— Monotype : Riparia
europcea Forst. = Riparia riparia).

Feet unfeathered, tail not deeply forked, its emargination not
above 10 mm. deep. Plumage rather softer than that of Swallows
and Martins. Upper-parts quite uniform, no metallic colours.
The members of the so-called " Biblis " are not structurally
separable, though they do not nest in deep holes dug into banks,
but build mud-nests, while their eggs are spotted instead of pure
white. Europe, Asia, Africa and North America.

RIPARIA RIPARIA

210. Riparia riparia riparia (L.)— THE SAND-MARTIN.

HIRUNDO RIPARIA Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, i, p. 192 (1758 Europe.

Restricted typical locality : Sweden).

Cotile riparia (Linnaeus), Yarrell, 11, p. 355 ; Saunders, p. 167.

DESCRIPTION. — Adult male and
female. Winter and summer. — Whole
upper-parts dark earth-brown,
feathers of fore -head tipped grey,
rump and upper tail-coverts slightly
paler than rest of upper-parts and
feathers when fresh with very narrow
greyish tips ; lores greyish - white,
feathers tipped dark brown ; ear-
coverts dark brown ; chin and throat
white extending to sides of neck
below ear-coverts (chin sometimes
washed with buff and occasionally
speckled with brown) ; band across
brea.st and sides of breast brown,
feathers of centre of breast-band
fringed whitish ; flanks and a few
feathers down centre of breast partly
brown and partly white ; rest of

under -parts including under tail-coverts white ; axillaries brown ;
under wing-coverts same tipped white ; tail-feathers dark brown
with a very faint greenish gloss, inner and outer webs very
narrowly edged white ; primaries blackish-brown with a very faint
greenish gloss, inner webs very narrowly edged whitish ; secondaries

2L

The Sand -Martin (Riparia ;
riparia).

514 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS.

same but outer webs also very narrowly edged grey-brown to
whitish, innermost secondaries paler not so blackish ; primary-
coverts as primaries ; rest of wing-coverts dark brown narrowly
tipped paler brown. Moult appears to be exactly same as in
Swallow, of gradual nature and apparently not a double moult
and remiges and rectrices moulted in winter quarters (Dec .-April).
Summer. — Abrasion has very little effect but pale edges of feathers
of rump and wing -co verts become worn off.

Nestling. — Down pale grey, rather short but fairly plentiful.
Distribution, inner supra-orbital, occipital, spinal and humeral.
Mouth inside pale yellow, no spots, externally flanges pale yellow.

Juvenile. — Similar to adult but feathers of upper -parts fringed
with rufous-buff to greyish-white, especially noticeable on rump
and upper tail-coverts where fringes are wider ; inner secondaries
and all wing-coverts, except primary-coverts, similarly fringed ;
feathers of centre of breast-band tipped buff ; chin and throat
usually washed with buff and often speckled with brown.

First winter and summer. — Moult of a gradual nature as in
Swallow but of specimens examined earliest moulting wings and
tail was in Dec. After moult not distinguishable from adult.

Measurements and structure. — $ wing 101-110 mm., tail :
central pair 39-45, outermost pair 49-57, tarsus 9.5-11, bill from
skull 8-9.5 (12 measured). $ wing 101-107. Primaries : 1st
minute, from \ to f primary-coverts, 2nd longest, 3rd ocasionally
equal, rarely 1 mm. longer, usually 1-3 shorter, 4th 7-10 shorter,
5th 14-18 shorter, 6th 20-26 shorter ; outer webs not emarginated.
Secondaries very short, shorter than 10th primary, tips rather
deeply notched except innermost which are longer with rounded
tips. Tail forked, 12 feathers, tips rounded. Tarsi and feet
short and bare except for some tutts of short white feathers at
back of tarsus. Bill broad and flat almost an equilateral triangle
in shape, tip slightly curved. Gape wide. Nostrils partially covered
by membrane. Some fine and short nasal and rictal bristles.

Soft parts. — Bill, legs and feet black-brown ; iris dark brown.
CHARACTERS AND ALLIED FORMS. — R. r. littoralis (Egypt, Xubia)
is smaller ; R. r. diluta (north Siberia to north-west India) is paler
on upper -parts ; R. r. ijimce (east Siberia, Japan) is darker on
upper -parts ; other (doubtful) forms have been named from western
Asia. Earth-brown upper -parts and breast-band distinguish Sand-
Martin from other British Swallows.

FIELD-CHARACTERS.— Smaller than Swallow or House-Martin, has
only slightly forked tail. Dorsally, uniform mouse-brown, below,
white with brown band on chest. Gregarious at nesting-stations
in sandpits and earthy cliffs, and, like Swallow, roosts in large flocks
in reed- and osier-beds after nesting-season. Song, a chattering
twitter lacking sweetness of Swallow's and Martin's. Call-note, a
loud, hard " sweer." Alarm-note, a harsh "ret."

THE SAND-MARTIN. 515

BREEDING-HABITS. — Nests in sand and gravel pits, banks of rivers,
railway cuttings, etc., making a burrow 2-3 feet long. Occasionally
breeds in drain pipes projecting from wall, or hole in wall, sawdust
heaps, etc. Nest. — Carelessly built of straws and freely lined
feathers. Eggs. — Usually 4-5, sometimes 3 to 6 or 7. White,
without gloss. Average of 50 eggs, 17.6x12.4 mm. Breeding-
season. — From about May 10 onward, but later in north. Double
brooded.

FOOD. — Insects taken on the wing ; chiefly smaller diptera but
undoubtedly also neuroptera.

DISTRIBUTION. — British Isles. — Summer-resident. Widely distri-
buted, but local. In Ireland more frequent than Martin. Scarce
in extreme north of Scotland and O. Hebrides, rare breeder Orkneys,
and somewhat scarce migrant, once recorded nesting, Shetlands.

MIGRATIONS. — British Isles. — -Early arrivals of summer-residents
begin middle of third week Mar. (early dates Mar. 13. Cardigan ;
Mar. 15, 1913, Cheshire) ; main arrival variable, last three days
March to second week April, lasting to beginning June ; no evidence
of passage-migration and but few birds reach northern isles.
Summer -residents begin to move south mid-July in Scotland and
early Aug. (occasionally end July) England and Wales, emigration
from south coast end (occasionally first week) Aug. to end third
week Sept. Some evidence passage-migration east coast, south of
Humber, end Aug. and Sept. none elsewhere. Stragglers frequent
to mid-Oct. (late dates, Oct. 19, 1909, S.E. Suffolk; Oct. 26,
1908, Monach Isles (O.K.) ; Oct. 30, 1911, Nov. 11, 1912, Sussex ;
Dec. 1914, Berks.). Irish summer-residents apparently arrive
and depart mainly by south-east coast ; no evidence of passage-
migration.

DISTRIBUTION. — Abroad. — Europe generally from 70° north, south
to Tunisia and Algeria, east to Siberia, Syria, Palestine, but limits
not well known, also North America. Wintering in east and south
Africa, India, also in South America. Replaced by other forms
(limits in Asia imperfectly known) in Siberia, north-west India,
Turkestan, and Nile Valley.

[NOTE. — The AMERICAN PURPLE MARTIN, Progne subis subis (L.), said
to have been shot near Kingstown, Ireland, in 1840 (Yarrell, n, p. 361 ;
Sannders, p. 166), and the AMERICAN TREE-SWALLOW, Tachycineta bicolor
(Vieill.), said to have been killed at Derby in 1850, cannot be admitted.]

INDEX OF ENGLISH NAMES.

Accentor, Alpine, 485.
Blackbird, 418.
Blackcap, 366.
Bluethroat, Lapland, 474.

, Norwegian, 473.

, White-spotted, 477.

Brambling, 95.

Bulbul, South African, 281.

Bullfinch, British, 75.

, Northern, 74.

Bunting, Black-headed, 115.

, Cirl, 120.

, Corn-, 108.

, Eastern Large -billed Reed-,

137.

, East Siberian Meadow-, 126.

, Lapland, 138.

, Little, 130.

, Meadow-, 124.

, Ortolan, 122.

, Pine-, 113.

, Reed-, 133.

, Rock-, 124.

, Rustic, 128.

, Snow-, 141.

, Western Large-billed Reed-,

136.

, Yellow, 110.

, Yellow-breasted, 117.

Chaffinch, 92.
Chiffchaff, 298.

, Scandinavian, 301.

, Siberian, 302.

Chough, 31.

, Alpine, 33.

Creeper, Tree-, British, 214.

, , Northern, 217.

, Wall, 218.

Crossbill, American White-winged, 91.

, Common, 84.

, Parrot-, 88.

, Scottish, 87.

, Two-barred, 89.

Crow, Carrion-, 13.

, Hooded, 11.

Dipper, Black-bellied, 497.

, British, 498.

, Irish, 501.

Fieldfare, 392.
Finch, Citril, 66.
Flycatcher, Brown, 287.

, Collared, 292.

, Pied, 288.

, Red-breasted, 295.

, Spotted, 284.

Goldfinch, British, 51.

, Continental, 51.

, North American, 56

Greenfinch, 47.
Grosbeak, Pine-, 81.

, Scarlet, 78.

Hawfinch, 44.
Jackdaw, 19.
Jay, British, 23.

, Continental, 27.

, Irish, 30.

Lark, Black, 149.

, Calandra, 151.

, Crested, 157.

, Eastern Short-toed, 156.

, Sky-, 166.

, Shore-, 167.

, Short-toed, 154.

, Sky-, 163.

, White-winged, 147.

, Wood-, 160.

Linnet, 68.
Magpie, 21.
Martin, 509.

, Sand-, 513.

Mynah, Indian, 39.
Nightingale, 468.

, Thrush-, 471.

Nutcracker, Slender-Billed, 26.

— , Thick-biUed, 24.
Nuthatch, British, 221.
Oriole, Golden, 40.
Ouzel, Ring-, 413.

, , Alpine, 416.

Pipit, American Water-, 186.

, Meadow-, 179.

, Red-throated, 182.

, Richard's 172.

, Rock-, 188.

, Scandinavian Rock-, 190.

, Tawny, 174.

, Tree-, 176.

, Water-, 184.

Raven, 9.

Redpoll, Coues's, 66.

, Greenland, 61.

, Holboll's, 60.

, Hornemann's, 64.

, Lesser, 62.

, Mealy, 59.

Redstart, 459.

, Black, 463.

Redwing, 404.
Robin, American, 413.

, British, 481.

, Continental, 479.

Rook, 15.

Ruby-throat, Siberian, 473.

Serin, 71.

Canary, 73.

Shrike, Corsican Woodchat, 277.
2M

518

INDEX OF ENGLISH NAMES.

Shrike, Great Grey, 263.

, Lesser Grey, 260.

, Masked, 272.

, Red-backed, 274.

, South European Grey, 266.

, Woodchat, 268.

Siskin, 54.

Snowbird, American, 145.

Snow-Finch, 98.

Sparrow, American White -throated,

145.

, British Hedge-, 489.

, Continental Hedge-, 488.

, House-, 101.

, Tree-, 104.

Starling, 34.

, Red-winged, 39.

, Rose-coloured, 37.

, Shetland, *vi.

Stonechat, British, 454.

, Indian, 457.

Swallow, 503.

, Red-rumped, 507.

Thrush, Black-throated, 410.

, British Song-, 400.

, Continental Song-, 399.

, Dusky, 407.

, Hebridean Song-, 403.

, Mistle-, 395.

, Rock-, 421.

, Siberian, 392.

, White's, 390.

Titmouse, Bearded, 256.

, British Blue, 231.

, Coal-, 235.

, Great, 227.

, Long-tailed, 248.

, Marsh-, 241.

, Willow-, 243.

, Central European Crested,

240.

, Continental Blue, 230.

, Coal-, 233.

, Great, 225.

, Irish Coal-, 237.

, Northern Crested, 239.

, Long-tailed, 246.

, Willow-, 244.

Scottish Crested, 238.

Tree-Creeper, British, 214.

, Northern, 217.

Twite, 56.

Wagtail, Ashy-headed, 197.

, Black-headed, 198.

, Blue-headed, 192.

, Grey, 202.

, Grey-headed, 196.

, Masked, 212.

, Pied, 206.

, Sykes's, 196.

Wagtail, White, 209.

, Yellow, 199.

Wall-Creeper, 218.

Warbler, American Yellow, 213.

, Aquatic, 349.

, Barred, 359.

, Blyth's Reed-, 344.

, Brown-backed, 388.

, Cetti's, 323.

, Dartford, 382.

, Dusky, 319.

, Eastern Great Reed-, 337.

, Eversmann's, 312.

, Garden-, 364.

, Grasshopper-, 330.

, Great Reed-, 335.

, Greenish, 307.

, Icterine, 352.

, Lanceolated, 333.

, Marsh-, 343.

, Melodious, 354.

, Moustached, 324.

, Northern Willow-, 306.

, Olivaceous, 356.

, Orphean, 361.

, Pallas's, 316.

, Grasshopper-, 328.

, Radde's Bush-, 320.

, Reed-, 339.

, Rufous, 385.

, Riippell's, 375.

, Sardinian, 377.

, Savi's, 326.

, Sedge-, 346.

, Subalpine, 380.

, Willow-, 304.

, Wood-, 309.

, Yellow-browed, 315.

Waxwing, 278.
Wheatear, 426.

, Black, 446.

, Eastern Black-eared, 438.

, Desert-, 434.

, Greenland, 429.

, Isabelline, 443.

, North African Black, 448.

, Pied, 441.

, Western Black-eared, 435.

, Desert-, 431.

Whinchat, 449.

Whitethroat, 369.

Wren, 492.

, American Ruby-crowned,

256.

, British Gold-crested, 252.

, Continental Gold - crested,

251.

, Fire-crested, 254.

, St. Kilda, 495.

, Shetland, 496.

GENERAL INDEX.

Scientific names as adopted in this work are printed in italic type and those
quoted as synonyms in ordinary type. English names are in small capitals.

abietina, Phylloscopus collybita,

301.

— — , Sylvia, 301.
abietinus, Phylloscopus collybita,

301.
Acanthis carduelis britannicus, 51.

linaria britannica, 62.

ACCENTOR, ALPINE, 485.
Accentor, 484.

alpinus, 485.

collaris, 485.

modularis, 489.

occidentalis, 489.

Accentoridce, 484.
Acredula caudata, 246, 248.
Acrocephalus, 334.

aquaticus, 349.

arundinaceus , 335, 339.

arundinaceus, 335.

orientalis, 337.

dumetorum, 344.

luscinioides, 326.

nsevius, 330.

palustris, 342.

phragmitis, 346.

schcenobcenus , 346.

scirpaceus, 339.

scirpaceus, 339.

— — streperus, 339.

turdoides, 335.

Aedon galactodes, 385.

familiaris, 388.

— Troglodytes, 492.
^Egiothus ro stratus, 61.
sfigithalos, 246.

caudatus, 246.

caudatus, 246.

roseus, 248.

aestiva, Dendroica sestiva, 213.
Agelaius phoeniceus, 39.
Agrobates, 385.

galactotes, 385.

galactotes, 385.

syriacus, 388.

Alauda, 163.

arborea, 160.

arvensis, 163.

Alauda arvensis arvensis, 163.

cinerascens, 166.

cinerea, 166.

scotica, 163.

brachydactyla, 154.

Calandra, 151.

campestris, 174.

cinerea, 166.

cristata, 157.

flava, 167.

longipennis, 156.

obscura, 188.

petrosa, 188.

pratensis, 179.

Rubescens, 186.

sibirica, 147.

Spinoletta, 184.

tatarica, 149

trivialis, 176.

yeltoniensis, 149.

Alaudidce, 145.
alba, Motacilla, 206.

, alba, 209.

albicollis, Muscicapa, 292.

, Zonotrichia, 145.

albifrons, CEnanthe deserti, 434.

, Saxicola, 434.

alpestris, Eremophila, 167.

, Merula, 416.

, Otocorys, 167.

, Turdus torqualus, 416.

alpinus, Accentor, 485.
Alseonax latirostris, 287.
amphileuca, Saxicola, 439.
anglica, Loxia curvirostra, 84.
anglorurn, Regulus regulus, 252
Anthus, 171.

arboreus, 176.

campestris, 174.

cervinus, 182.

littoralis, 190.

ludovicianus, 186.

obscurus, 188.

pennsylvanicus, 186.

pratensis, 179.

richardi, 172.

richardi, 172.

2 M?

520

GENERAL INDEX.

Anthus rupestris, 190.
Anthus spinoletta, 184.

littoralis, 190.

obscurus, 188.

petrosus, 188.

rubescens, 186.

spinoletta, 184.

spipoletta, 184.

trivialis, 176.

trivialis, 176.

aquatica, Motacilla, 349.
aquaticus, Acrocephalus, 349.

, Cinclus, 501.

arborea, Alauda, 160.
arborea, Lullula, 160.

, arborea, 160.

arboreus, Anthus, 176.
arundinaceus , Acrocephalus, 335.

, arundinaceus, 335.

, Turdus, 335.

arvensis, Alauda, 163.

, arvensis, 163.

ater, Parus, 233, 235.

, ater, 233.

Atricapilla, Motacilla, 366.
atricapilla, Muscicapa, 288.
atricapilla, Sylvia, 366.

, atricapilla, 366.

atricapillus , Parus, 243.
atrigularis, Turdus, 410.
atrogularis, Saxicola deserti, 434.

, Turdus, 410.

atrogularis, Turdus, ruficollis, 410.
aureola, Emberiza, 117.
aureus, Turdus, 390.
aureus, Turdus dauma, 390.
auriculatus, Lanius, 268.
aurita, Saxicola, 439.

badius, Lanius, 271.
badius, Lanius senator, 271.
baltimore, Icterus, 39.
Beema, Budytes, 196.
beema, Motacilla, 196.
beema, Motacilla flava, 196.
biarmicus, Panurus, 256.

, biarmicus, 256.

, Parus, 256.

bicolor, Tachycineta, 515.
bifasciata, Crucirostra, 89.
— — , Loxia, 89.
bifasciata, Loxia leucoptera 89.
BLACKBIRD, 418.
BLACKCAP, 366.
BLTTETHROAT, LAPLAND, 474.

, NORWEGIAN, 473.

, WHITE-SPOTTED, 477.

boarula, Motacilla, 202.
Bombycilla, 278.
cedrorum, 278

Bombycilla garrulus, 278.
Bombycillidce, 278.
borealis, Motacilla, 196.

, flava, 196.

Parus, 245.

borealis, Parus atricapillus, 245.

, Phyllopneuste, 312.

, Phylloscopus, 312.

, borealis, 312.

Borin, Motacilla, 364.
borin, Sylvia, 364.
brachydactyla, Alauda, 154.
brachydactyla, Calandrella, 154.

, brachydactyla, 154.

BRAMBLING, 95.

britannica, Acanthis linaria, 62.

britannica, Carduelis carduelis, 51.

, Sitta europcea, 221.

britannicus, Acanthis carduelis, 51.
britannicus, Cinclus cinclus, 498.

, Parus, 235.

, ater, 235.

brittanica, Certhia, 214.
brittanica, Certhia familiaris, 214.
Budytes Beema, 196.

neglectus, 199.

Rayi, 199.

Bulbul, South African, 281.
BULLFINCH, BRITISH, 75.
, NORTHERN, 74.

BUNTING, BLACK- HEADED, 115.

, CIRL, 120.

, CORN-, 108.

, EASTERN LARGE-BILLED

REED-, 137.

, EAST SIBERIAN MEADOW-

126.

, LAPLAND, 138.

, LITTLE, 130.

, MEADOW-, 124.

, ORTOLAN, 122.

, PINE- 113.

, REED-, 133.

, ROCK-, 124.

, RUSTIC, 128.

, SNOW-, 141.

, WESTERN LARGE-BILLED

REED-, 136.

, YELLOW, 110.

, YELLOW-BREASTED, 117.

Cabaret, Fringilla, 62.
cabaret, Carduelis linaria, 662.
cceruleus, Parus, 230.

, cceruleus, 230.

caesia, Sitta, 221.
Calandra, Alauda, 151.
calandra, Emberiza, 108.
, calandra, 108

GENERAL INDEX.

521

calandra, Melanocorypha, 151.

, — — - calandra, 151.

Calandrella, 153.

brachydactyla, 154.

• — brachydactyla, 154.

— longipennis, 156.

Calcarius, 137.

— lapponicus, 138.

lapponicus, 138.

calendula, Regulus calendula, 256.
calliope, Luscinia, 473.
campestris, Alauda, 174.
campestris, Anthus, 174.
canarius, Serinus, 71.
cannabina, Carduelis, 68.

, cannabina, 68.

, Fringilla, 68.

, Linota, 68.

cantillans, Motacilla, 380.
cantillans, Sylvia, 380.

, cantillans, 380.

capensis, Pycnonotus, 281.
Carduelis, 50.
cannabina, 68.

— cannabina, 68.
— — Carduelis, 51.
britannica, 51.

Carduelis, 51.

citrinella, 66.

— citrinella, 66.

— elegans, 51.

flavirostris, 56.

flavirostris, 56.

— , Fringilla, 51.

hornemanni, 64.

exilipes, 66.

hornemanni, 64.

linaria, 59.

cabaret, 62.

holboellii, 60.

linaria, 59.

rostrata, 61.

spinus, 54.

— tristis, 56.
carduelis, Carduelis, 51.
— - — , — — britannica, 51.

, — • — • carduelis, 51.

carolinus, Scolecophagus, 39.
Carpodacus, 76.

erythrinus, 78.

erythrinus, 78.

Caryocatactes, Corvus, 24.
caryocatactes,Nucifraga, 24, 26.

, caryocatactes, 24.

castaneiceps, Emberiza, 126.
castaneiceps , Emberiza cioides, 126.
caudata, Acredula, 246, 248.
caudatus, ^Egithalos, 246.

, caudatus, 246.

, Parus, 246.

cedrorum, Bombycilla, 278.
Certhia, 214.

brittanica, 214.

familiaris, 214.

brittanica, 214.

familiaris, 217.

muraria, 218.

Certhiidce., 214.
Certhiola, Motacilla, 328.
certhiola, Locustella, 328.
Cervina, Motacilla, 182.
cervinus, Anthus, 182.
cetti, Cettia, 322.

, cetti, 322.

, Sylvia, 322.

Cettia, 321.

cetti, 322.

cetti, 322.

CHAFFINCH, 92.
Chelidon urbica, 509.
CHIFFCHAFF, 298.

, SCANDINAVIAN, 301.

, SIBERIAN, 302.

Chloris, 47.

chloris, 47.

chloris, 47.

— , Loxia, 47.
chloris, Chloris, 47.

, chloris, 47.

, Coccothraustes, 47.

CHOUGH, 31.

, Alpine, 33.

Chrysomitris citrinella, 66.
da, Emberiza, 124.

, da, 124.

Cinclus, 484.

— aquaticus, 498, 501.
Cinclus dnclus, 497.

britannicus, 498.

dnclus, 497.

— hibernicus, 501.

hydrophilus, 497.

melanogaster, 497.

, Sturnus, 497.

dnclus, Cinclus dnclus, 497.
cinerascens, Alauda, 166.
cinerascens, Alauda arvensis, 166.
cinerea, Alauda, 166.

, arvensis, 166.

cinerea, Motacilla, 202.

— , cinerea, 202.

, Sylvia, 369.

cinereocapilla, Motacilla, 197.
cinereocapilla , Motacilla ftava, 197.
cioides, Emberiza, 126.
cirlus, Emberiza, 120.
Citrinella, Fringilla, 66.
citrinella, Carduelis, 66.

, citrinella, 66.

, Chrysomitris, 66.

GENERAL INDEX.

citrinetta, Emberiza, 110.

, citrinella, 110.

clarkei, Turdus philomehis, 400.
coslebs, Fringilla, 92.

, ccelebs, 92.

Coccothraustes, 44.
— chloris, 47.

Coccothraustes , 44.

Coccothraustes , 44.

, Loxia, 44.

vulgaris, 44.

Coccothraustes , Coccolhraustes, 44.

, Coccothraustes , 44.

Colceus, 18.

monedula, 19.

spermologus, 19.

collaris, Accentor, 485.

, Muscicapa, 292.

collaris, Prunella, 485.

, collaris, 485.

, Sturnus, 485.

cotturio, Lanius, 274.

, cotturio, 274.

collybita, Phylloscopus, 298.

, collybita, 298.

, Sylvia, 298.

communis, Sylvia, 369.

, communis, 369.

Coracias Galbula, 39.

Oriolus, 40.

corax, Corvus, 9.

, corax, 9.

comix, Corvus, 11.

, comix, 11.

cor one,, Corvus, 13.

, corone, 13.

Corvidce, 7.
Corvus, 8.

caryocatactes, 24.

corax, 9.

corax, 9.

comix, 11.

comix, 11.

corone, 13.

corone, 13.

frugilegus, 15.

frugilegus, 15.

glandarius, 27.

monedula, 19.

pica, 21.

spermologus, 19.

Cotile riparia, 513.
cristata, Alauda, 175.
cristata, Oalerida, 157.

, cristata, 157.

cristatus, Parus, 238, 239.

, cristatus, 239.

, Regulus, 251, 252.

CROSSBILL, AMERICAN WHITE-
WINGED, 91.

CROSSBILL, COMMON, 84.

— , PARROT, 88.

, SCOTTISH, 87.

, TWO-BARRED, 89.

CROW, CARRION-, 13.

, HOODED, 11.

Crucirostra bifasciata, 89.
Curruca galactodes, 388.

, Motacilla, 372.

curruca, Sylvia, 372.

, curruca, 372.

curvirostra, Loxia, 84, 87.

, curvirostra, 84.

Cyanecula leucocyana, 477.
suecica, 473.

— wolfi, 477.
cyanecula, Luscinia svecica, 477.

— , Sylvia, 477.
cyanus, Monticola, 421.

dartfordiensis, Sylvia, 382.
dartfordiensis , Sylvia undata, 382.
Daulias luscinia, 468.
dauma, Turdus, 390.
daurica, Hirundo, 507.
Delichon, 507.

nipalensis, 509.

urbica, 509.

urbica, 509.

Dendroica sestiva aestiva, 213.
deserti, (Enanthe, 431.

, deserti, 431.

, ? Saxicola, 431.

DIPPER, BLACK-BELLIED, 497.

, BRITISH, 498.

, IRISH, 501.

domestica, Fringilla, 101.
domesticus, Passer, 101.

, domesticus, 101.

dresseri, Parus palustris, 241.
dubius, Turdus, 407.
dumetorum, Acrocephalus, 344.

elceica, Hypolais pallida, 356.

, Salicaria, 356.

elegans, Carduelis, 51.
Emberiza, 106.

aureola, 117.

calandra, 108.

calandra, 108.

castaneiceps, 126.

Cia, 124.

cia da, 124.

cioides, 126.

castaneiceps, 126.

cirlus, 120.

citrinella, 110.

citrinella, 110.

hortulana, 122

GENERAL INDEX.

523

Emberiza leucocephala, 113.

leucocephalos, 113.

melanocephala, 115.

miliaria, 108.

nivalis, 141.

palustris, 136.

palustris, 136.

techusii, 137.

pusilla, 130.

pyrrhuloidos palustris, 136.

rustica, 128.

schceniclus, 133.

schceniclus, 133.

tschusii, 137.

Enucleator, Loxia, 81.
enucleator, Pinicola, 81.

, enucleator, 81.

, Pyrrhula, 81.

Eremophila, 167.

alpestris, 167.

flava, 167.

Erithacus, 479.

gaetkei, 473.

rubecula, 479, 481.

melophilus, 481.

rubecula, 479.

Euspiza melanocephala, 115.
erythrina, Loxia, 78.

, Pyrrhula, 78.

erythrinus , Carpodacus, 78.

, erythrinus, 78.

eunomus, Turdus, 407.
europsea, Pyrrhula, 75.

, Riparia, 513.

europcea, Sitta, 221.
eversmanni, Phyllopneuste, 306
eversmanni, Phylloscopus trochilus,

306.
excubitor, Lanius, 263.

, excubitor, 263.

exilipes, ^Egiothus, 66.

exilipes, Carduelis hornemanni, 66.

familiaris, Aedon, 388.
familiaris, Certhia, 214, 217.

, familiaris, 217.

Feldegg, Motacilla, 198.
feldegg, Motacilla flava, 198.
feldeggi, Motacilla, 198.
ferruginous, Scolecophagus, 39.
FIELDFARE, 392.
FINCH, CITBIL, 66.
flava, Alauda, 167.
flava, Eremophila alpestris, 167.

, Motacilla, 192.

, flava, 192.

flavirostris, Carduelis, 56.

, flavirostris, 56.

, Fringilla, 56.

FLYCATCHER, BROWN, 287.

FLYCATCHER, COLLARED, 292.

, PIED, 288.

, RED-BREASTED, 295.

, SPOTTED, 284.

Fringilla, 91.

Cabaret, 62.

Caelebs gengleri, 92.

cannabina, 68.

carduelis, 50, 51.

Citrinella, 66.

ccelebs, 92.

ccelebs, 92.

domestica, 101.

flavirostris, 56.

lapponica, 138.

Linaria, 59.

montana, 104.

monti/ringilla, 95.

nivalis, 98.

Schceniclus, 133.

Serinus, 71.

Spinus, 54.

Fringillidce, 42.
frugilegus, Corvus, 15.

frugilegus, 15.

fuscata, Phyllopneuste, 318.
fuscatus, Phylloscopus, 318.
, Turdus, 407.

gaetkei, Erithacus, 473.
gaetkei, Luscinia svecica, 473.
galactodes, Aedon, 385,

, Curruca, 388.

galactotes, Agrobates, 385.

, galactotes, 385.

, Sylvia, 385.

Galbula, Coracias, 39.
galbula, Icterus, 39.

, Oriolus, 40.

Galerida, 156.

cristata, 157.

cristata, 157.

Garrulus, 27.

glandarius, 27, 28.

glandarius, 27.

hibernicus, 30.

rufitergum, 28.

:, Lanius, 278.

garrulus, Ampelis, 278.
garrulus, Bombycilla, 278.
gengleri, Fringilla caelebs, 92.
gibraltariensis, Motacilla, 463.
gibraltariensis, Phcenicurus ochrurus,

463.

glandarius, Corvus, 27.
gland.arius, Garrulus, 27, 28.

, glandarius, 27.

GOLDFINCH, BRITISH, 51.

, CONTINENTAL, 51.

North American, 56.

524

GENERAL INDEX.

Gracula religiosa, 39.
graculus, Pyrrhocorax, 31, 33.
GREENFINCH, 47.
grisea, Motacilla, 202.
grisola, Muscicapa, 284.
GROSBEAK, PINE-, 81.
, SCARLET, 78.

HAWFINCH, 44.

hebridensis, Turdus musicus, 403.
hebridensis, Turdus philomelus, 403,
Herbivocula, 319.

schwarzi, 320.

hibernans, Pratincola torquata,454
hibernans, Saxicola torquata, 454.
hibernicus , Cinclus cinclus, 501.

Garrulus glandarius, 30.

, Parus, 237.

, ater, 237.

hirtensis, Troglodytes, 495.
hirtensis, Troglodytes troglodytes,

495.

Hirundinidce, 502.
Hirundo, 502.

daurica, 507.

— rufula, 507.

riparia, 513.

rufula, 507.

rustica, 502, 503.

• rustica, 503.

urbica, 509.

hispanica, Motacilla, 435.
hispanica, CEnanthe, 435.

, hispanica, 435.

Holboellii, Linaria, 60.
hoJboellii, Carduelis linaria, 60.

, Linaria, 60.

homochroa, CEnanthe deserti, 431.

, Saxicola, 431.

hornemanni, Carduelis, 64.
, hornemanni, 64.

— , Linota, 64.
hortensis, Motacilla, 361.
hortensis, Sylvia, 361.

hortensis, 361.

hortulana, Emberiza, 122.
hortulanus, Serinus, 71.
hostilis, Passer, 101.
humei, Phylloscopus, 314.
hydrophilus, Cinclus, 497.
hyemalis, Junco, 145.
Hypolais, 351.

hypolais, 352.

icterina, 352.

pallida, 356.

elceica, 356.

pallida, 356.

— polyglotta, 354.
hypoleuca, Motacilla, 288.
hypoleuca, Muscicapa, 288.

hypoleuca, Muscicapa hypoleuca,
288.

icterina, Hypolais, 352.

, Sylvia, 352.

Icterus baltimore, 39.

galbula, 39.

ignicapilla, Sylvia, 254.
ignicapillus , Regulus, 254.

, ignicapillus, 254.

iliacus, Turdus, 404.
indica, Pratincola, 457.
indica, Saxicola torquata, 457.
isabellina, CEnanthe, 443.
, Saxicola, 443.

JACKDAW, 19.
JAY, BRITISH, 28.

, CONTINENTAL, 27.

IRISH, 30.

Junco hyemalis, 145.

kleinschmidti, Parus atricapillus ,
243.
, montanus, 243.

lanceolata, Locustella, 333.

, Sylvia,333.

Laniidce, 259.
Lanius, 260.

auriculatus, 268.

badius, 271.

collurio, 274.

collurio, 274.

excubitor, 263.

excubitor, 263.

meridionalis , 266.

Garrulus, 278.

major, 263.

meridionalis, 266.

minor, 260.

nubicus, 272.

Senator, 268.

senator, 268.

badius, 271.

senator, 268.

lapponica, Fringilla, 138.
lapponicus, Calcarius, 138.

— — , lapponicus, 138.

, Plectrophanes, 138.

LARK, BLACK, 149.

, CALANDRA, 151.

, CRESTED, 157.

, EASTERN SHORT-TOED, 156.

, SKY-, 166.

, SHORE-, 167.

, SHORT-TOED, 154.

, SKY-, 163.

, WHITE-WINGED, 147.

, WOOD-, 160.

GENERAL INDEX.

525

latirostris, Alseonax, 287.
latirostris, Miiscicapa, 287.
leucocephala, Emberiza, 113.
leucocephalos, Emberiza, 113.
leucocyana, Cyanecula, 477.
leucoptera, Loxia, 89, 91.

, leucoptera, 91.

leucorhoa, Motacilla, 429.
leucorrhoa, (Enanthe o&nanthe, 429.
— — , Saxicola cenanthe, 429.
leucura, (Enanthe, 446.

, leucura, 446.

, Saxicola, 446.

leucurus, Turdus, 446.
Linaria, Fringilla, 59.

Holboelii, 60.

holboelli, 60.

— rostrata, 61.
linaria, Carduelis, 59.

, linaria, 59.

, Linota, 59.

LINNET, 68.

Linota cannabina, 68.

flavirostris, 56.

hornemanni, 64.

linaria, 59.

— rufescens, 62.
littoralis, Anthus, 190.
littoralis, Anthus spinoletta, 190.
Locustella, 326.

certhiola, 328.

lanceolata, 333.

luscinioides , 326.

luscinioides , 326.

— ncevia, 330.

— nce,via, 330.
longicauda, Mecistura, 248.
longipennis, Alauda, 156.
longipennis, Calandrella brachy-

dactyla, 156.

Lophoplianes cristatiis scotica, 238.
Loxia, 83.

bifasciata, 89.

Chloris, 47.

coccothraustes, 44.

curvirostra, 83, 84, 87.

— anglica, 84.

curvirostra, 84.

scotica, 87.

Enucleator, 81.

erythrina, 78.

leucoptera, 89, 91.

— bifasciata, 89.

leucoptera, 91.

pityopsittacus, 88.

Pyrrhula, 74.

Pytyopsittacus, 88.

pytyopsittacus, 88.

luctuosa, Muscicapa, 288.
ludovicianus, Anthus, 186.

Lugubris, Motacilla, 206.
lugubris, Motacilla, 206.
lugubris, Motacilla alba, 206.
Lullula, 160.

arborea, 160.

arborea, 160.

Luscinia, 467.

calliope, 473.

luscinia, 471.

megarhyncha, 468.

megarhyncha, 468.

megarhynchos, 468.

, Motacilla, 471.

suecica suecica, 474.

svecica, 473.

cyanecula, 477.

— gaetkei, 473.

svecica, 474.

luscinia, Daulias, 46.
luscinia, Luscinia, 471.

, Sylvia, 467.

luscinioides, Acrocephalus, 326.
luscinioides , Locustella, 326.

luscinioides, 326.

, Sylvia, 326.

Lusciniola, 324.

melanopogon, 324.

melanopogon, 324.

schwar/i, 320.

macrorhynchos, Nucifraga, 26.
macrorhynchus, Nucifraga caryo-

catactes, 26.
magna, Sturnella, 39.
MAGPIE, 21.
major, Lanius, 263.
major, Parus, 225, 227.

> major, 225.

, Pyrrhula, 74.

MARTIN, 509.

, SAND-, 513.

maura, Pratincola, 457.
Mecistura longicauda, 248.

rosea, 248.

vagans, 248.

megarhyncha, Lucinia, 468.

, megarhyncha, 468.

megarhynchos, Luscinia, 468.
melanocephala, Emberiza, 115.

, Euspiza, 115.

, Motacilla, 198, 377.

, flava, 198.

, Sylvia, 377.

, melanocephala, 377.

Melanocorypha, 146.

calandra, 151.

calandra, 151.

sibirica, 147.

yeltoniensis , 149.

melanogaster, Cinclus, 497

526

GENERAL INDEX.

melanoleuca, Muscicapa, 438.
melanoleuca, (Enanthe hispanica,

438.
melanopogon, Lusciniola, 324.

, melanopogon, 324.

, Sylvia, 324.

Melizophilus provincialis, 382.

undatus, 382.

melophilus, Erithacus rubecula, 481.
meridionalis, Lanius, 266.
meridionalis , Lanius excubitor, 266.
Merula alpestris, 416.
merula, Turdus, 418.

, merula, 418.

migratorius, Turdus migratorius,

413.

miliaria Emberiza, 108.
minor, Lanius, 260.
mitratus, Parus, 240.
mitratus, Parus cristatus, 240.
modularis, Accentor, 489.

, Motacilla, 484, 488.

modularis, Prunella, 488.

, modularis, 488.

monedula, Colaeus, 19.

— , Corvus, 19.
montana, Fringilla, 104.

, Sylvia, 344.

montanus, Passer, 104.

, montanus, 104.

Monticola cyanus, 421.
Monticola saxatilis, 421.

solitarius, 421.

Monti fringilla, 98.

— nivalis, 98.
nivalis, 98.

montifringilla, Fringilla, 95.
Motacilla, 191.

alba, 206, 209.

alba, 209.

lugubris, 206.

personata, 212.

Atricapilla, 366.

aquatica, 349.

beema, 196.

boarula, 202.

Borin, 364.

cantillans, 380.

Certhiola, 328.

— cervina, 182.

cinerea, 202.

cinerea, 202.

Curruca, 372.

Feldegg, 198.

fedeggi, 198.

flava, 192.

beema, 196.

borealis, 196.

cinereocapilla, 197.

feldegg, 198.

Motacilla flava flava, 192.

melanocephala, 198.

rayi, 199.

thunbergi, 196.

gibraltariensis, 463.

grisea, 202.

hispanica, 435.

hortensis, 361.

hypoleuca, 288.

leucorhoa, 429.

Lugubris, 206.

lugubris, 206.

Luscinia, 471.

melanocephala, 198, 377.

modularis, 484, 488.

nsevia, 330.

nisoria, 359.

CEnanthe, 426.

personata, 212.

Phcenicurus, 459.

pleschanka, 441.

Proregulus, 316.

raii, 199.

Regulus, 251.

Rubecula, 479.

Rubetra, 449.

Schcenobaenus, 346.

Sibilatrix, 309.

superciliosa, 314.

Svecica, 474.

Thunbergi, 196.

Trochilus, 304.

viridis, 196.

Yarrellii, 206.

Motacillidre, 170.
muraria, Certhia, 218.
muraria, Tichodroma, 218.
Muscicapa, 283.

albicollis, 292.

atricapilla, 288.

collaris, 292.

grisola, 284.

hypole.uca, 288.

hypoleuca, 288.

latirostris, 287.

luctuosa, 288.

melanoleuca, 438.

parva, 295.

parva, 295.

striata, 284.

striata, 284.

Muscicapidce, 282.
musicus, Turdus, 404.
musicus, Turdus, 399.
Mynah, Indian, 39.

ncevia, Locustella, 330.

, ncevia, 330.

naevius, Acrocephalus, 330.
neglectus, Budytes, 199.

GENERAL INDEX.

527

newtoni, Parus major, 227.

Oriolidcp, 39.

NIGHTINGALE, 468.

Oriolus, 40.

, THRUSH-, 471.

Oriolus, Coracias, 40.

nipalensis, Delichon, 509

galbula, 40.

nisoria, Motacilla, 359.

Oriolus oriolus, 40.

nisoria, Sylvia, 359.

oriolus, 40.

, nisoria, 359.

oriolus, Oriolus, 40.

nitidus, Phylloscopus, 307.

, oriolu.<i, 40.

nivalis, Emberiza, 141.

orphea, Sylvia, 361.

— — , Fringilla, 98.

nivalis, Montifringilla, 98.

pallida, Hypolais, 356.

, nivalis, 98.

, pallida, 356.

, Plectrophanes, 141.

palustris, Acrocephalus, 342.

, Plectrophenax, 141

, Emberiza, 136.

nubicus, Lanius, 272.

, palustris, 136.

Nuci/raga, 23.

, pyrrhuloides, 136.

caryocatacles, 24, 26.

, Parus, 241.

caryocatactes, 24.

, Sylvia, 342.

macrorhynchus, 26.

. Panurus, 256.

macrorhynchos, 26.

biarmicus, 256.

NUTCRACKER, SLENDER-BILLED, 26.

biarmicus, 257.

, THICK-BILLED, 24.

Paridce, 224.

NUTHATCH, BRITISH, 221.

Parus, 225.

ater, 233, 435.

ater, 233.

obscura, Alauda, 188.

britannicus, 235.

obscurus, Anthus, 188.

hibernicus, 237.

, spinoletta, 188.

atricapillus, 243.

obscurus, Parus cceruleus, 231.

boreafa, 245.

occidentalis, Accentor modularis,

kleinschmidti, 243.

489.

biarmicus, 256.

occidentalis, Prunella modularis, 489

borealis, 245.

, Saxicola, 435.

britannicus, 235.

oc.hrurus, Phcenicurus, 463.

cceruleus, 230, 231.

Otocorys alpestris, 167.
(En-anihe, 425.

cceruleus, 230.
obscurus, 231.

deserti, 431.

caudatus, 246.

albifrons, 434.

cristatus, 238.

— deserti, 431.

cristatus, 239.

homochroa, 431.

mitratus, 240.

hispanica, 435.

scoticus, 238.

hispanica, 435.

hibernicus, 237.

melanoleuca, 438.

major, 225, 227.

xanthomelsena, 438.

major, 225.

isabellina, 443.

newtoni, 227.

leucura, 446.

mitratus, 243.

leucura, 446.

montanus kleinschmidti, 243.

syenitica, 448.

palustris, 241.

, Motacilla, 426.

dresseri, 241.

oenanthe, 426.

parva, Muscicapa, 295.

leucorrhoa, 429.

, parva, 295.

pleschanka, 441.

parvulus, Troglodytes, 492, 495,

pleschanka, 441.

496.

, (Enanthe, 426.

Passer, 100.

, cenanthe, 426.

domesticus, 101.

Saxicola, 426, 429.

domesticus, 101.

orientalis, Acrocephalus arundina-

hostilis, 101.

ceus, 337.

montanus, 104.

, Saliearia turdina, 337.

montanus, \ 0 4.

ORIOLE, GOLDEN, 40.

Passeres, 6.

528

GENERAL INDEX.

Pastor, 37.

roseus, 37.

pennsylvanicus, Anthus, 186.
personata, Motacilla, 212.
personata, Motacilla alba, 212.
petrosa, Alauda, 188.
petrosus, Anthus spinoletta, 188.
philomelos, Turdus, 399, 400.
philomelus, Turdus, 399.

, philomelus, 399.

phoeniceus, Agelaius, 39.
Phcenicurus , 459.

, Motacilla, 459.

ochrurus, 463.

• gibraltariensis, 463.

phcenicurus, 459.

phosnicurus, 459.

phosnicurua , Phcenicurus, 459.

, phcenicurus, 459.

-, Ruticilla, 459.

phragmitis, Acrocephalus, 346.
Phyllopneuste, borealis, 312.

eversmanni, 306.

fuscata, 308.

Schwarzi, 320.

Phylloscopus, 297.

borealis, 312.

borealis, 312.

collybita, 298.

abietina, 301.

abietinus, 301.

collybita, 298.

tristis, 302.

fuscatus, 318.

humei, 314.

premium, 314.

nitidus, 307.

viridanus, 307.

proregulus, 316.

proregulus, 316.

sibilatrix, 309.

sibilatrix 309.

superciliosus, 314.

superciliosus, 314.

tristis, 302.

trochilus, 304.

— • — eversmanni, 306.

trochilus, 304.

viridanus, 307.

Pica, 21.

, Corvus, 21.

pica, 21.

pica, 21.

rustica, 21.

pilaris, Turdus, 392.
pileata, Pyrrhula, 75.
pileata, Pyrrhula pyrrhula, 75.
Pinicola, 81.

enucleator, 81.

enucleator, 81

Pinicola rubra, 81.

PIPIT, AMERICAN WATER-, 186.

MEADOW-, 179.

RED-THROATED, 182.

RICHARD'S, 172.

ROCK-, 188.

SCANDINAVIAN ROCK-, 190.

TAWNY, 174.

TREE-, 176.

WATER-, 184.

pityopsittacus, Loxia, 88.
Plectrophanes lapponicus, 138.

nivalis, 141.

Plectrophenax, 141.

nivalw, 141.

pleschanka, Motacilla, 441.
pleschanka, CEnanthe, 441.

, pleschanka, 441.

, Saxicola, 441.

polyglotta, Hypolais, 354.
— — Sylvia, 354.
pratensis, Alauda, 179.
pratensis, Anthus, 179.
Pratincola indica, 457.

maura, 457.

rubetra, 449.

rubicola, 454.

torquata hibernans, 454.

prnemium, Phylloscopus humei, 314.
Progne subis subis, 515.
Proregulus, Motacilla, 316.
proregulus, Phylloscopus, 316.

, proregulus, 316.

provincialis, Melizophilus, 382.

, Sylvia, 382.

Prunella, 484.

collaris, 485.

collaris, 485.

modularis, 488.

modularis, 485.

occidentalis, 489.

PruneMidce, 484.
pusilla, Emberiza, 130.
Pycnonotus capensis, 281.
Pyrrhocorax, 31.

graculus, 31, 33.

pyrrhocorax, 31.

, Upupa, 31.

pyrrhocorax, Pyrrhocorax, 31.
Pyrrhula, 74.

— enucleator, 81.

— europsea, 75.

erythrina, 78.

, Loxia, 74.

— major, 74.
pileata, 75.

pyrrhula, 74.

pileata, 75.

pyrrhula, 74.

pyrrhula, Pyrrhula. 74.

GENERAL INDEX.

pyrrhula, Pyrrhula pyrrhula, 74.
Pytyopsittacus, Loxia, 88.
pytyopsittacus, Loxia, 88.

raii, Motacilla, 199.
RAVEN, 9.
Rayi, Budytes, 199.
rayi, Motacilla flava, 199.
REDPOLL, COUES'S, 66.

, GREENLAND, 61.

, HOLBOLL'S, 60.

, HORNEMANN'S, 64.

, LESSER, 6"2.

, MEALY, 59.

REDSTART, 459.

, BLACK, 463.

REDWING, 404.
Regulus, 250.

calendula calendula, 256.

cristatus, 251, 252.

ignicapillus, 254.

ignicapillus, 254.

, Motacilla, 251.

• regulus, 151.

anglorum, 252.

regulus, 251.

regulus, Regulus, 251.

, regulus, 251.

religiosa, Gracula, 39.
richardi, Anthus, 172.
, richardi, 172.

RiNG-OTJZEL, 413.

, ALPINE, 416.

Riparia, 513.

europsea, 513.

riparia, 513.

riparia, 513.

riparia, Cotile, 513.

, Hirundo, 513.

riparia, Riparia, 513.

, riparia, 513.

Robin, American, 413.
ROBIN, BRITISH, 481.

, CONTINENTAL, 479.

ROOK, 15.

rosea, Mecistura, 248.

roseus, ^Egithalos caudatus, 248.

, Pastor, 37.

, Turdus, 37.

rostrata, Carduelis linaria, 61.

Linaria, 61.

rostratus, .^Egiothus, 61.
Rubecula, Motacilla, 479.
rubecula, Erithacus, 479, 481.

, rubecula, 479.

Rubescens, Alauda, 186.
rubescens, Anthus spinoletta, 186.
Rubetra, Motacilla, 449.
rubetra, Pratincola, 449.
rubetra, Saxicola, 449.

rubetra, Saxicola rubetra, 449.
rubicola, Pratincola, 454.
rubra, Pinicola, 81.
Ruby-throat, Siberian, 473.
rufa, Sylvia, 369.
rufescens, Linota, 62.
ruftcollis, Turdus, 410.
rufitergum, Garrulus glandarius, '
rufula, Hirundo, 507.
rufula, Hirundo daurica, 507.
rupestris, Anthus, 190.
ruppelli, Sylvia, 375.
rustica, Emberiza, 128.

, Hirundo, 503.

, rustica, 503.

, Pica, 21.

Ruticilla phcenicurus, 459.

suecica, 473.

titys, 463.

Salicaria elaeica, 356.

turdina orientalis, 337.

salicaria, Sylvia, 364.
saxatilis, Monti-cola, 421.

, Turdus, 421.

Saxicola, 449.

albifrons, 434.

amphileuca, 439.

aurita, 439.

deserti, 431.

atrogularis, 434.

hispanica hispanica, 435.

homochroa, 431.

isabellina, 443.

leucura, 446.

occidentalis, 435.

cenanthe, 426, 429.

leucorrhoa, 429.

pleschanka, 441.

rubetra, 449.

rubetra, 449.

stapazina, 435, 439.

syenitica, 448.

torquata, 454.

hibernans, 454.

indica, 457.

xanthomelaena, 438.

achceniclus , Emberiza, 133.

, schaeniclus, 133.

Schcenobsenus, Motacilla, 346.
schwnobcenus, Acrocephaliis, 346.
Schwarzi, Phyllopneuste, 320.

Sylvia, 320.

schwarzi, Herbivocula, 320.

, Lusciniola, 320.

scirpaceus, Acrocephalus , 339.

, scirpaceus, 339.

, Turdus, 339.

Scolecophagus carolinus, 39.
ferruginous, 39.

530

GENERAL INDEX

scotica, Alauda arvensis, 163.
, Lophophanes cristatus, 238,

308.

scotica, Loxia curvirostra, 87.
scoticus, Parus cristatus, 238.
Senator, Lanius, 268.
senator, Lanius senator, 268.
SERIN, 71.

Canary, 73.

Serinus, 71.

, canarius, 71.

serinus, 71, 73.

, Fringilla, 71.

hortulanus, 71.

serinus, Serinus canarius, 71, 73.
SHRIKE, CORSICAN WOODCHAT, 277.

, GREAT GREY, 263.

, LESSER GREY, 260.

, MASKED, 272.

, RED-BACKED, 274.

, SOUTH EUROPEAN GREY, 266.

, WOODCHAT, 268.

Sibilatrix, Motacilla, 309.
sibilatrix, Phylloscopus, 309.

, sibilatrix, 309.

sibirica, Alauda, 147.
sibirica, Melanocorypha, 147.
sibiricus, Turdus sibiricus, 392.
SISKIN, 54.
Sitta, 221.

caesia, 221.

europcea, 221.

britannica, 221.

Sittidce, 221.

Snowbird, American, 145.

SNOW-FINCH, 98.

solitarius, Monticola, 421.

Sparrow, American White-throated,

145.
SPARROW, BRITISH HEDGE-, 489.

, CONTINENTAL HEDGE-, 488.

, HOUSE-, 101.

, TREE-, 104.

spe.rmologus , Colceus monedula, 19.

, Corvus, 19.

Spinoletta, Alauda, 184.
spinoletta, Anthus, 184.

, spinoletta, 184.

Spinus, Fringilla, 54.
spinus, Carduelis, 54.
spipoletta, Anthus, 184.
stapazina, Saxicola, 435, 439.
STARLING, 34.

, Red-winged, 39.

, ROSE-COLOURED, 37.

• , SHETLAND, *vi.

STONECHAT, BRITISH, 454.

, INDIAN, 457.

strepera, Sylvia, 339.
streperus, Acrocephalus, 339.

striata, Muscicapa, 284.

, striata, 284.

Sturnella magna, 39.
Sturnus, 34.

Cinclus, 497.

collaris, 485.

vulgaris, *vi, 34.

vulgaris, 34.

zetlandicus, *vi.

subalpina, Sylvia, 380.
subis, Progne subis, 515.
suecica, Cyanecula, 473.

, Luscinia suecica, 474.

, Ruticilla, 473.

superciliosa, Motacilla, 314.
superciliosus, Phylloscopus, 314.

, superciliosus, 314.

Svecica, Motacilla, 474.
svecica, Luscinia, 473.

, svecica, 474.

SWALLOW, 503.

, RED-BUMPED, 507.

syenitica, (Enanthe leucura, 448.

, Saxicola, 448.

Sylvia, 357.

abietina, 301.

atricapilla, 366.

atricapilla, 366.

borin, 364.

cantillans, 380.

cantillans, 380.

• cetti, 322.

cinerea, 369.

collybita, 298.

communis, 369.

communis, 369.

curruca, 372.

curruca, 372.

cyanecula, 477.

dartfordiensis, 382.

galactotes. 385.

hortensis, 361.

hortensis, 361.

icterina, 352.

ignicapilla, 254.

lanceolata, 333.

luscinia, 467.

luscinioides, 326.

melanocephala, 377.

— melanocephala, 377.

melanopogon, 324.

montana, 344.

nisoria, 359.

nisoria, 359.

orphea, 361.

palustris, 342.

phcenicurus, 459.

polyglotta, 354.

provincialis, 382.

rufa, 369.

GENERAL INDEX.

531

Sylvia ruppelli, 375.

salicaria, 364.

Schwarzi, 320.

strepera, 339.

subalpina, 380.

undata, 382.

dartjordiensis, 382.

syriacus, Agrobates galactotes, 388.

Tachycineta bicolor, 515.

tatarica, Alauda, 149.

THRUSH, BLACK -THROATED, 410.

, BRITISH SONG-, 400.

, CONTINENTAL SONG-, 399.

, DUSKY, 407.

, HEBRIDEAN SONG-, 403.

, MISTLE-, 395.

, ROCK-, 421.

, Siberian, 392.

, WHITE'S, 390.

Thunbergi, Motacilla, 196.
thunbergi, Motacilla flava, 196.
Tichodroma, 218.

muraria, 218.

TITMOUSE, BEARDED, 256.

, BRITISH BLUE, 231.

, COAL-, 235.

, GREAT, 227.

, LONG-TAILED, 248.

, MARSH-, 241.

, WILLOW-, 243.

, CENTRAL EUROPEAN CRESTED,

240.

, CONTINENTAL BLUE, 230.

, COAL-, 233.

, GREAT, 225.

, IRISH COAL-, 237.

, NORTHERN CRESTED, 239.

, LONG-TAILED, 246.

— — , WILLOW-, 244.

SCOTTISH CRESTED, 238.

titys, Ruticilla, 463.
torquata, Saxicola, 454.
torguatus, Turdus, 413.

, torquatus, 413.

TREE-CREEPER, BRITISH, 214.

, NORTHERN, 217.

tristis, Carduelis, 56.

— , Phylloscopus, 302.

tristis, Phylloscopus collybita, 302.
trivialis, Alauda, 176.
trivialis, Anthus. 176.

, trivialis, 176.

Trochilus, Motacilla, 304.
trochilus, Phyllofcopus , 304.

, trochilus, 304.

Troglodytes, 492.

- aedon, 492.

hirtensis, 495.

• , Motacilla, 492.

Troglodytes parvulus, 492, 495, 496.
Troglodytes troglodytes, 492.

hirtensis, 495.

troglodytes, 492.

• zetlandicus, 496, 497.

troglodytes, Troglodytes, 492.

, troglodytes, 492.

Troglodytidce, 492.

tschusii, Emberiza paliistris, 137.

, schceniclus, 137.

turdoides, Acrocephalus, 335.
Turdus, 389.

arundinaceus, 335.

atrigularis, 410.

atrogularis, 410.

aureus, 390.

dauma, 390.

aureus, 390.

dubius, 407.

eunomus, 407.

fuscatus, 407.

iliacus, 404.

leucurus, 446.

merula, 418.

merula, 418.

migratorius migratorius, 413.

musicus, 404.

musicus, 399, 400.

hebridensis, 403.

philomelos, 399.

philomelus, 399.

clarkei, 400.

hebridensis, 403.

— philomelus, 399.

pilaris, 392.

roseus, 37.

ruficollis, 410.

atrogularis, 410.

saxatilis, 421.

scirpaceus, 339.

sibiricus sibiricus, 392.

torquatus, 413.

alpestris, 416.

torquatus, 413.

varius, 390.

viscivorus, 395.

viscivorus, 395.

Whitei, 390.

TWITE, 56.

undata, Sylvia, 382.
undatus, Melizophilus, 382
Upupa pyrrhocorax, 31.
urbica, Chelidon, 509.
urbica, Delichon, 509.

, urbica, 509.

, Hirundo, 509.

vagans, Mecistura, 248.
varius, Turdus, 390.

532

GENERAL INDEX.

viridanus, Phylloscopus, 307.
viridanus, Phylloscopus nitidus, 307.
viridis, Motacilla, 196.
viscivorus, Turdus, 395.

, viscivorus, 395.

vulgaris, Coccothraustes, 44.

, Sturnus, *vi, 34.

vulgaris, Sturnus vulgaris, 34.

WAGTAIL, ASHY-HEADED, 197.

, BLACK- HEAD ED, 198.

, BLUE-HEADED, 192.

, GREY, 202.

, GREY-HEADED, 196.

, MASKED, 212.

, PIED, 206.

, SYKES'S, 196.

, WHITE, 209.

, YELLOW, 199.

WALL-CREEPER, 218.

Warbler, American Yellow, 213.

WARBLER, AQUATIC, 349.

, BARRED, 359.

, BLYTH'S REED-> 344.

, BROWN-BACKED, 388.

, CETTI'S, 323.

, DARTFORD, 382.

, DUSKY, 319.

, EASTERN GREAT REED-, 337

, EVERSMANN'S, 312.

, GARDEN-, 364.

, GRASSHOPPER-, 330.

, GREAT REED-, 335.

, GREENISH, 307.

, ICTERINE, 352.

, LANCEOLATED, 333.

, MARSH-, 343.

, MELODIOUS, 354.

, MOUSTACHED, 324.

, NORTHERN WILLOW-, 306.

, OLIVACEOUS, 356.

, ORPHEAN, 361.

, PALLAS'S, 316.

, GRASSHOPPER-, 328.

, RADDE'S BUSH-, 320.

, REED-, 339.

WARBLER, RUFOUS, 385.

, RUPPELL'S, 375.

, SARDINIAN, 377.

, SAVI'S, 326.

, SEDGE-, 346.

, SUB ALPINE, 380.

, WILLOW-, 304.

, WOOD-, 309.

, YELLOW-BROWED, 315.

WAXWING, 278.
WHEATEAR, 426.

, BLACK, 446.

, EASTERN BLACK-EARED, 438.

, DESERT-, 434.

, GREENLAND, 429.

, ISABELLINE, 443.

, NORTH AFRICAN BLACK, 448.

, PIED, 441.

, WESTERN BLACK-EARED, 435.

, DESERT-, 431.

WHINCHAT, 449.
Whitei, Turdus, 390.
WHITETHROAT, 369.

, LESSER, 372.

wolfi, Cyanecula, 477.
WREN, 492.

, American Ruby-crowned, 256.

, BRITISH GOLD- CRESTED, 252

, CONTINENTAL GOLD-CRESTED,

251.

, FIRE-CRESTED, 254.

, ST. KILDA, 495.

SHETLAND, 496.

xanthomelsena, (Enanthe hispanica,

439.
, Saxicola, 438.

Yarrellii, Motacilla, 206.
yeltoniensis, Alauda, 149.
yeltoniensis , Melanocorypha, 149.

zetlandicus, Sturnus vulgaris, *vi.

, Troglodytes troglodytes, 496,

497.
Zonotrichia albicollis, 145.

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