PRACTICAL

HORSESHOEING.

By G. FLEMING.

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PRACTICAL

HOESESHOEIXa

BY

G. FLEMING, F. R G. S., M. A. I., Etc.,

president of the central veterrs-ary medical soclety ; member of council
the royal college of veterinary scrgeo.ns ; veterinary surgeon, royal
engineers; author of "travels on horseback in mantchu tartary."

•• horseshoes and nORSESHOEING," " ANIMAL PLAGUES.*'

"rabies and ittdrophobia,"' etc.

WITTT TWEyTY-N'IN'E ILLUSTRATIONS.

NEW YORK:

W. R. JENKINS

850 SIXTH AVENUE.

hfcW BOLTON
y r^ ' CfcNTtR

PHEFATORY NOTE.

It is a painful reflection that the advance of civiliza'
lion seems ever to be accompanied by an aggravation of
certain evils; and in no instance is this more marked
than in the terrible amount of suffering unnecessarily-
endured by the Horse.

This animal, preeminently the most useful to man, is
the one upon which is inflicted, either wantonly, or
through sheer ignorance, or thoughtlessness, the greatest
amount of cruelty. The records of all humane societies
show that, of prosecutions for cruelty to animals, an
overwhelming majority refer to the Horse ; and of these,
a large proportion are for working-horses while suffering
from lameness, in one form or other. So frequent are
such cases, that observers have concluded that its preva-
lence must result from some specific cause, and, not un-
naturally, attention has thus been directed to the various
modes of management practised in relation to the horse's
foot, to the manner of shoeing, and, in particular, to the
way in which the hoof is prepared for the shoe.

Convinced that very much suffering results from in?

i PREFATORY NOTK

perfect knowledge of the Anatomy of the Foot, and of
the true functions of its various parts, and from conse-
quent malpractice in its treatment, especially in the ap-
plication of the shoe, the use of which is needed solely
to prevent the undue waste and wear caused by severe
labor over hard, rough, and unyielding roads, the com-
mittee of the Scottish Society for the Prevention of Cru-
elty to Animals offered, in July, 1869, a series of prizes
for " the best and most practical essays on Horseshoeing,
in connection with the comfort and soundness of the
Horse." By August, 1870, upward of forty essays were
sent in. These were submitted to Prof. Williams, Princi-
pal of the Edinburgh Veterinary College, Mr. W. Robert-
son, M. R. C. V. S., Kelso, and Mr. B. Cartledge, M. R. C.
V. S., Sheffield, Examiners of the Royal College of Vet-
erinary Surgeons, and Mr. J. C. Broad, M. R. C. V. S.,
London, by whom, after a very patient and careful ex-
amination, the prizes were awarded: the Jirst to Mr.
George Fleming, for the treatise now in the hands of the
reader ; the second to Mr. T. D. Broad, M. R. C. V. S.,
Bath ; and the third to Mr. George Armatage, M. R. C.
V. S., late Secretary of the Central Veterinary Medical
Society, London.

A large proportion of the essays exhibited much
thoughtful care in their preparation, combined at once
with scientific knowledge and practical acquaintance with
the subject in hand ; and it has been most gratifying to
find so general a concurrence among the writers in their
utter condemnation of the common but unscientific and
irrational practice of paring away the sole and frog as a

PREFATORY NOTE. 5

necessary preparation for shoeing. The unanimity ex-
hibited on this most important point sinks into compara-
tive insignificance all differences of opinion on minor
points. The committee are thus able confidently to rec-
ommend the following pages as a clear and able exposi-
tion of the views, not only of the author of one of the
best and most exhaustive works on the subject, but also
of very many of the most enlightened veterinary surgeons

of the day. ^ ^^ ^^ ^

^ H. S. A. L. Hay, V. P.,

Late Secretary Scot. Soc, P. C. A.
Edinburgh, February, 1872.

CONTENTS

FAcn

Prtfatory Note . 3

Importance of the Art 9

Anatomy of the Horsk's Foot .12

The Hoop ' 19

The Wall 19

The Horny Sole 21

Tlie Horny Frog 22

Tlie Coronary Frog-Band or Perioplc 23

Growth of the Hoof 29

Shoeing 34

Preparing the Hoof 37

Levelling the Wall 38

Shortening the Wall 39

Paring the Sole 45

Faring the Frog , . 50

Opening-up the Heds • . 51

The Shoe 53

Weight 54

Calldns 67

Size .59

Objects to be attained 60

Pattern of Shoe recommended . , . . . . 62

8 CONTENTS.

The Shoe — cordinv^ed.

PACIB

Varieties of Shoes , . G9

Material 70

Nail-holes .. ...«.., .70
ArpLYixG THE Shoe ......... 76

Hot and Cold Fitting 78

The Nails 81

Driving ilie Nails 81

Conclusion of tJie Operaiion 82

Rasping 83

Laying down Clips 86

Vakious Methods of Shoeing 90

Winter Shoeing 95

Shoeing of Defective Limbs 99

Generax Management of the Horse's Joot . . . . 101

Streets and Roads . . • 103

Imstruction of Farrier:} IO5

PEACTICAL HOESESHOEING.

BIPORTANCE OF THE ART.

It requires but little observation and reflection, one
would think, in order to arrive at the conclusion that the
art of " Horseshoeing " is not only an important one, so
far as civilization and the ordinary every-day business of
life is concerned, but that the successful utilization of the
horse, together with its welfare and comfort, in a great
measure depend upon the correctness of the principles on
which its practice is based, and the mode in which these
principles are carried out by the artisan.

For proof of this we have but to glance at the immense
traffic in our great towns and cities, in which the horse
figures so prominently, at the same time remembering
that, without a defence to its hoofs, this invaluable ani-
mal would be almost — ^if not quite — valueless, in conse-
quence of the hardness of our artificial roads, and the
great efforts demanded from him ; or, studying the anat-
omy and functions of the limbs and feet, to call to mind
how these are wonderfully calculated to serve most essen-
tial purposes in locomotion and weight-sustaining, and
how necessary it is, at the same time, that their natural
adaptability be as little as possible thwarted or annulled
by the interference of man in his endeavor to protect or
aid theuL

10 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

From the earliest ages, the horse's foot and its envel-
op, the hoof, have been looked upon by horsemen as the
principal region of the animal's body to which care and
attention should be directed ; as, when these become in-
jured or diseased — no matter how perfect and sound the
other parts may be — the quadruped's services are dimin-
ished or altogether lost.

Consequently, the preservation of these in an efficient
and healthy state has ever been the aim of those who
valued the horse for the immense advantages his services
were capable of conferring on mankind; and, in later
years, those who have been moved by the sacred impulse
of humanity toward the lower creatures have not forgot-
ten how much the noble animal may suffer from unskilful
management of its feet, through the neglect or ignorance
of those who have the special care of these organs.

At a very early period in the domestication of the
horse, and particularly in Western regions, it must have
been soon discovered that at certain seasons, on particu-
lar soils, and especially when called upon to perform anj'-
great amount of travelling and load-carrying, the horn
composing the hoof underwent an amount of wear greater
than Nature could compensate for, and that the living
sensitive structures within, becoming exposed and irrita-
ted by contact with the ground, gave rise to pain, lame-
ness, and inability to work.

To guard against this serious result, the ingenuity of
man must have been severely tested in devising a suitable
and durable protection for the ground-surface of the hoof ;
and, among the many contrivances proposed, the most
notable, and by far the most valuable, has been the de-
vice of nailing a plate of metal to the outer margin or
wall of the hoof.

The antiquity of this invention is very great ; and it ia
probable that for many centuries the shoe was considered

IMPORTANCE OF THE ART. H

as nothing more than a simple defender of the hoof from
the damaging effects of attrition, and occasionally as an
aid in securing the animal's foothold during progression
on slippery ground.

As time advanced, however, and the services of the
horse became increased a hundredfold by the application
of this ingenious and simple expedient, the sciences of an-
atomy and physiology began to embrace the horse in
their domain; and, crude as they were at first, it is to be
feared that, when they were extended to the investigation
of the structure and functions of the foot, the useful and
comparatively harmless protection of early days was made
subservient to the most varied and fantastic theories, and
it must be admitted that for many years horseshoeing, so
far from proving a boon to horse-owners, and a preserver
of horses' feet, has been far from yielding the benefits its
scientific and reasonable application should afford ; indeed,
it would be no exaggeration to assert that the predomi-
nating principles and practice of this art have been emi-
nently ^lestructive to horses, and a source of great loss to
their owners.

These principles were founded on a misconception of
the functions of the foot, and of the part assumed by the
hoof in locomotion ; and their speedy popularization was
due to the fact that they were congenial to the whims of
fashion, and were deemed essential to the improvement
of Nature : commending themselves to unreasoning and
unreasonable minds like the fashions of cropping horses'
and dogs' ears, cutting, nicking and docking tails, and
other cruel fancies of depraved tastes.

The amount of injury inflicted by an unscientific
method of shoeing may be very much greater than a cur-
sory inquiry would lead one to believe. To those experi-
enced among horses, and who have directed their atten-
tion closely to the subject, the proportion of animals

12 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

whose utility is directly or indirectly impaired by im-
proper treatment of their feet must appear excessive,
when compared with the other causes of inefficiency. In-
deed, maladies of the feet and limbs, due, more or less, to
faulty shoeing, form a very large percentage of the cases
usually met with in veterinary practice.

An art, therefore, which has so much influence for
good or evil, so far as the usefulness and comfort of the
horse are concerned, surely deserves the serious study of
all those who are interested in that animal. A good sys-
tem, founded on the teachings of anatomy and physiology,
and perfected by daily experience, must prove of immense
benefit to horse and owner ; while a bad system, conduct-
ed in ignorance or carelessness, cannot but bring about
pain and speedy uselessuess to the animal and loss to the
proprietor.

ANATOMY OF THE HORSE'S FOOT.

One of the primary considerations for those who have
the shoeing and management of the horse's foot, should
be the acquisition of a knowledge of its structure and
functions in health : not a profound knowledge, certainly,
such as the scientific veterinarian requires, but sufficient
to enable them to understand the situation, relation, text-
ure, and uses of the parts of the organ with which they
have more particularly to deal. If the artisan does not
possess this knowledge, is it possible that he can practise
his handicraft to advantage, or minister effectually to the
varied requirements of this organ ? It must be admitted
that he cannot do so ; and it is from neglect of this funda-
mental consideration that so much improper and vicious
shoeing prevails, and that so many horses are crippled
and prematurely worn out. By the majority of farriers
•he foot of the horse is looked upon as little, if any thing,

ANATOMY OF THE HORSE'S FOOT.

13

more than an insensible block of horn which they may-
carve and mutilate with impunity and as suits their fancy,
and for which nothing more is necessary than the attach-
ment, by an unreasonable number of nails, of a clumsy
mass of iron that may not only be unsuitable for its re-
quirements, but positively injurious to it and the other
parts of the limb. The art of farriery in this country has
never received a scientific development, but has ever been
a mere afiair of routine and tradition. Such should not
be the case ; and allusion is only made to this matter here
in order to urge most strenuously the necessity for far-
riers being properly instructed in the elements of their

Fig. 1.— Section of the Hokse's Foot. — a a, Skin of leg; bb b. extensor tendon of
foot ; c, its insertion into the foot-bone ; d (?, capsular ligament of joints ; d' d',
flexor tendon of foot inserted into sole of foot-bone («) ; e e, flexor tendon of pastern
inserted at / into tlie small pastern bone, i ; g, sliank or brge metacarpal bone ; h,
large pastern bone ; k, navicular bone ; ?, foot or pedal bone ; m, ligaments of na-
vicular bone connected with deep flexor tendon ; n, sensitive laminae, dovetailmg
with horny laminae, n' ; o, plantar cushion ; p, coronary cushion; q. homy frog; r,
wall of hoof ; t, sensitive membrane of frog and sole ; «, the face of the navicular
bone over which the flexor tendon plays— the seat of navicular disease.

art, and made to comprehend as much as may be required
of the construction and functions of the very important
organ upon which they are destined to exercise their skill.

£4 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

The horse's foot may be said, for practical purposes,
to be intended not only as an organ of support and de-
fence (or offence), but also as that part of the limb iu
which the efforts created elsewhere are concentrated, and
as the instrument through which propulsion and progres-
sion may be mainly effected. It is also largely endowed,
in a natural state, with the sense of touch, which enables
the animal to travel with safety and confidence on rough
as well as even, and on soft as well as hard ground.

When we come to examine it in a methodical and
careful manner, we find that it has for its basis the last
three bones of the limb — the small pastern, navicular, and
cofiin or pedal bone. The latter is more particularly the
foundation of the foot, and is the nucleus on which the
hoof is moulded, and which in shape it much resembles.
At its highest point in front, the large exteusor tendon
of the foot is inserted, and in the middle of its lower face
or sole is implanted the powerful tendon which' bends or
flexes the foot ; these tendons are the chief agents in pro-
gression. An elastic apparatus surrounds them and a
portion of the pedal bone, and the whole is enveloped by
a membrane that attaches the hoof in the closest possible
manner to its outer surface. Into each of the winojs or
sides of the bone (for it is crescent-shaped, the horns ex-
tending backward on each side) is fixed a large plate of
cartilage that rises above the hoof, where it may readily
be felt, and which has important relations with its fellow
on the opposite side, as well as with other elastic bodies
admirably disposed to sustain weight, prevent jar, and
insure that lightness and springiness which form so strik-
ing a feature in the horse's movements. The navicular
bone is a narrow piece, placed transversely between the
wings of the coffin bone, and is intended to tln-ow the
flexing tendon farther from the centre of motion, and thus
increase its power ; the tendon plays over its x)osterior or

ANATOMY OF THE HORSE'S FOOT. 15

lower face, and this disposition, together with the rela-
tions established between it and the pedal bone through
their connecting ligaments, and the bend the tendon
makes in passing over it, cause this part of the foot to be
one particularly liable to disease, and one especially deserv-
ing of attentive study.

The elastic apparatus of the foot consists of (1) the
lateral cartilages just mentioned; (2), a prominent ring or
cornice surrounding the upper border of the pedal bone
usually known as the " coronary-substance," but which
might be more aptly designated the " coronary cushion" ;
this fits into a corresponding concavity in the inner and

I-

at ^

Fig. 2.— Hokse's Foot divested of its II. >of.— a a, Perioplic ring ; h l>, perioplic or
coronary fissure; e c c, coronaiy cushion covered with villi; d d, white zone; ///,
vascular laminae terminating tn villi, g.

upper margin of wall of the hoof, and, besides acting as
an elastic body or cushion, performs the important func-
tion of secreting this wall or crust of the horny envelop ;
(3), a triangular body — the plantar cushion, known to
farriers as the " fatty " or " sensitive frog " (to distinguish
it from the horny frog which immediately covers it), ad-
mirably disposed between the wings of the coffin bone,
with a view to protect and sustain the flexor tendon dur-
ing its efforts, as well as to diminish concussion by its
own resiliency and by the connection it has with the elas-
tic cartilages. From its position at the back part of the
foot, and the importance of the parts it covers, this portion

16 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

of the elastic apparatus derives much interest, and must
not be overlooked by the farrier.

Besides the elastic apparatus of the foot more immedi-
ately in connection with the pedal and navicular bones,
we have the wonderful arrangement of living membrane
enveloping these parts, whose office appears to be the se-
cretion and attachment of the horny box we designate the
"hoof;" to it large quantities of blood are conveyed by
the ultimate ramifications of the arteries proceeding to the
foot, and from it by a complex distribution of veins aris-
ing from these ultimate arterial divisions, to the great
venous trunks that pass up the limb. The terminal twigs
of the sensory nerves of the foot are also freely and wisely
distributed in its substance in the form of exceedingly fine
filaments, which endow the organ with a sufficient sense
of touch to enable it to perform its varied functions with
safety and precision. A peculiar and striking disposition
of this membrane can be observed around the front and
sides of the pedal bone, when the hoof has been removed
by steeping the foot for some time in water. This dispo-
sition consists in the elevation of the membrane into par-
allel vertical leaves, which extend from the coronary cush-
ion to the lower border of the bone, and to a certain dis-
tance within its wings. These leaves, which resemble in
appearance those on the under side of a mushroom, are
known as the "vascular" or "sensitive laminae," and
number between six and seven hundred; their chief use
seems to be to affi^rd a wide and close attachment for the
wall of the hoof, within which, through their agency, tho
pedal bone is, as it were, suspended ; so that the relations
between bone and hoof are not so rigid as if they were di-
rectly united to each other. These laminae are exceeding-
ly vascular and sensitive^ and when they become inflamed
through bad shoeing, excessive travelling, or other cause,
the horse suffiars the most excruciating pain, and in a

ANATOMY OF THE HORSES FOOT. 17

large majority of cases the chronic inflammation that re-
mains produces serious alterations in the structure and
formation of the hoof, leading to more or less lameness
and diminished utility.

Besides entering into the formation of these leaves,
this membrane covers the other parts of the foot witliin
the hoof, as a sock does the human foot, and endows it
with a high degree of vitality and secretory power ; it
overspreads the coronary and pla'ntar cushions, as well as
the sole of the pedal bone, and its surface in these parts
is thickly studded with myriads of tufts or " villi," which
give it the appearance of the finest Genoa velvet. These

^■.^m-,: ^

Fig. 3. — Sensitive Sole of Hoese's Foot. — a, Cartilaginous bulbs of ibe heels, cov-
ered by sensitive membrane ; &, inflexion of the coronary cushion ; c, middle cleft
or lacuna; d d, plantar laminae; e, limit between the coronary cushion and plantar
laminae ; .// branches of the pkntar cushion ; g g ff {/, termination of the laminae in
villi; 7i h, sensitive membrane of sole covered wth innumerable fine tufts or villi ;
i, prolongation of the coronary cushion into the lateral lacuna.

minute processes vary in length from one-eighth to more
than one-fourth of an inch, and are best observed when a
foot, from which the hoof has just been removed by mace-
ration, is suspended in clear water. Examined with the
microscope, they are found to be merely prolongations
from the face of the membrane, each composed of one or
two minute arteries, which branch off into an exceedingly
fine net-work, and end in hair-like veins ; a nervous fila-
ment has also been traced into the interior, so that these

X8 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

tufts are not only vascular, but also sensitive. They play
an essential part in the formation of the hoof, and their
relations to that covering must not be neglected by the
farrier in his treatment of it.

This is all that need be said at present with regard to
the anatomy of the living parts of the horse's foot ; We
have referred to it merely to show that this organ is not
a crude block of insensitive matter, but a most wonder-
fully-constructed apparatus, possessed of qualities which
are not to be found in any other part of the body. In
constructing the foot of this noble creature, IsTature sought
to do more than merely protect the extremely delicate
and exquisitely sensitive structures contained within the
hoof from injurious contact with the ground. This re-
doubtable difficulty is comparatively insignificant in com-
parison with the other portions of the task she set her-
Bel£ It was necessary that the lower extremity of the
limb of such a glorious creation as the horse, should be an
organ endowed with the acutest sense of touch for the in-
stantaneous perception of the consistence and inequalities
of the ground over which it moved ; and, while it pos-
sessed this quality in a high degree, it was also indispen-
sable that it should be gifted with the properties of resist-
ance, pliability, and lightness to the extent necessary for
the support and progression of the body, in addition to
the rigidity essential to impulsion, the elasticity and sup-
pleness needful to avert reactions or jar, and the durabil-
ity and rapidity of renovation demanded by incessant
wear. Here we have a combination of requirements
whose simultaneous existence in one organ might almost
be deemed incompatible, so opposite do they appear : in-
sensibility with a delicate sense of touch ; resistance with
lightness, rigidity with elasticity, and suppleness with
durability.

THE HOOF. 19

THE HOOF.

The "hoof" plays no small share iii rendering the
horse such a complete animal as it is ; and, as this is the
portion of the foot which comes more immediately under
the care and manipulative skill of the farrier, its study
should be a little more detailed and minute, perhaps, than
that of the internal structures. For convenience and sim-
plicity in description, it has been divided into " wall " or
" crust," " sole," " frog," and " coronary frog-band," or
" periople." It is essential that the shoer should under-
stand the structure, nature, and uses of these parts.

The Wall of the hoof is that oblique portion which
covers the front and sides of the foot from the coronet to

! f i

d k ^

Fig. 4. — Proftle of a Five-year-old Front Hoof that had never been shod; ex-
ternal Face.— Angle of wall at toe 51°; a a^ fi-og-band or periople; &, wall; c,
toe, between which and cl is the " outside " or '■ inside '' toe or " mammilla," and be-
tween e and /the "outside" or "inside" heel.

the ground, and is suddenly inflected or bent inward at
the heels, toward the middle of the sole to form the
" bars," which are merely prolongations of its extremities ;
it constitutes tlie circumference or margin of the hoof, is
the part of the horny box that is intended more especially
to come into contact with the ground, and is that on
which the iron defence rests, and through which the far-

20 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

rier drives the nails that attach it. The inner face of its
upper edge is hollowed out into a somewhat wide concav-
ity, which receives, or rather in which rests, the coronary-
cushion ; this concavity is chiefly remarkable for being
pierced everywhere by countless minute openings which
penetrate the substance of the wall to some depth ; each
of these perforations receives one of the " villi " or minute
tufts of blood-vessels already mentioned as prolonged
from the face of the membrane covering the interior of
the foot. Below this concavity, which receives a large
share of the horse's weight, the wall is of about equal
thickness from top to bottom ; on the whole of its inner
surface are ranged thin, narrow, vertical horny plates, in
number corresponding to the vascular laminae, between
which they are so intimately received or dovetailed — a
horny leaf between every two vascular ones — that in tho
living or fresh state it is almost impossible to disunite
without tearing them. The inner face of the lower mar-
gin is united in a solid manner to the horny sole througli
the medium of a narrow band of soft, light-colored horn,
situated between the two, and which we may call the
" white line " or " zone."

The outer surface of the wall is generally smooth and
shining in the natural healthy state.

The dimensions of the wall vary in different situations ;
in front it is deepest and thickest, but toward the quar-
ters and heels it diminishes in height and becomes thin-
ner ; at its angles of inflection — the points of the heels — i-
is strong. Its structure is fibrous ; the fibres pass directly
parallel to each other from the coronet to the ground,
each fibre being moulded on, as it is secreted by, one of
the minute tufts of blood-vessels lodged in the cavity at
the coronet. Microscopically, the wall is composed of
minute cells, closely compressed, and arranged verticaUy
Around each fibre, and horizontally between the fibres. A

THE HOOF. 21

point of much practical interest is to be found in the fact,
that the fibres on the surface or outside of the waH, are
very dense, close, and hard : so dense, indeed, that the
wall of an unmutilated hoof looks like whalebone ; but to-
ward the inner surface they become softer, more spongy,
and easily cut.

The Homy Sole is contained within the lower margin
of the wall, and is a concave plate covering the lower face
of the pedal bone. In structure it is fibrous like the wall,
the fibres passing in the same direction, and formed in the
same manner by the tufts of vessels projected from the
membrane which immediately covers the bone. These
tufts penetrate the horn fibres to some depth, and, as in
the wall, maintain them in a moist, supple condition, such
as best fits them for their office.

The sole is thickest around its outer border, where it

Fig. 5.— Plantar Surface of left Fore Hoof of a Fiye-tear-old Horse that had
NEVER been shod.— a «, glomcs or heels of the fi-og ; &, median lacuna or " cleft "
of the fi-og ; c c, branches of the frog ; d d, heels, " angles of inflexion/' or " but-
tresses" of the wall of the hoof; e e, lateral lacunae or spaces between the frog and
bars ; //, inflexions of the wall or " bars ; " g, body of the frog ; h, outside quarter
of the hoof; i, inside quarter of the hoof; j, point of the frog; k, sole; 1 1, commis-
sure, " white line," or line of junction between sole and wall ; m n, mammilla ; o,
toe.

joins the wall; thinnest in the centre, where it is most
concave. A notable peculiarity in this part of the hoof,
and one which distinguishes it from the wall, is its ten-

22 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

dency to break off in flakes on the ground face when the
fibres have attained a certain length ; the wall, on the
contrary, continues to grow in length to an indefinite ex-
tent, and, unless kept within reasonable dimensions by
continual wear or the instruments of the farrier, would
in time acquire an extraordinary distortion. The horn
of the sole, for this reason, is less dense and resisting than
that of the wall, and is designed more to support weight
than to sustain wear.

The " Horny Frog " is an exact reduplication of that
within the hoof, described as the sensitwe or fatty frog.
It is triangular, or rather pyramidal in shape, and is situ-
ated at the back part of the hoof within the bars ; with
its point or apex extending forward to the centre of the
sole, and its base or thickest portion filling up the wide
space left between the inflexions of the wall. In the mid-
dle of the posterior part is a cleft, which in the healthy
state should not be deep, but rather shallow and sound
on its surface.

In structure, this body is also fibrous, the fibres pass-
ing in the same direction as those of the other portions
of the hoof; but, instead of being quite rectilinear like
them, they are wavy or flexuous in their course, and pre-
sent some microscopical peculiarities which, though inter-
esting to the comparative anatomist, need not be alluded
to here. The fibres are finer than those of the sole and
wall, and are composed of cells arranged in the same man-
ner as elsewhere in the hoof; they are formed by the
villi which thickly stud the face of the membrane covering
the sensitive frog.

The substance of the horny frog is eminently elastic,
and corresponds in the closest manner to the dense, elas-
tic, epidemic pads on the soles of the feet of such animals
as the camel, elephant, lion, bear, dog, cat, etc., and which
are evidently designed for contact with the ground, the

THE HOOF. 23

support and protection of the tendons tEat flex the foot,
to facilitate the springy movements of these creatures,
and for the prevention of jar and injury to the limbs.

In the horse's foot, the presence of this thick, com*
pressible, and supple mass of horn at the back of the
hoof, its being in a healthy unmutilated condition, and
permitted to reach the ground while the animal is stand-
ing or moving, are absolutely essential to the well-being
of that organ, more especially should speed, in addition
to weight-carrying, be exacted.

The frog, like the sole, exfoliates or becomes reduced
in thickness at a certain stage of its growth ; the flakes
are more cohesive than those of the sole.

It must be remarked, however, that this exfoliation of
the sole and frog only takes place when the more re-
cently-formed horn beneath has acquired sufficient hard-
ness and density to sustain contact with the ground, and
exposure to the effects of heat, dryness, and moisture.

The " Coronary Frog-Band^'' or " PeriopU^"^ is a con-
tinuation of the more superficial layer of the skin around
the coronet and heels, in the form of a thin, light-colored
band that descends to a variable depth on the outer sur-
face of the wall, and at the back part of the hoof becomes
consolidated with the frog, with which it is identical in
structure and texture. It can be readily perceived in the
hoof that has not been mutilated by the farrier's rasp,
extending from the coronet, where the hair ceases, to
some distance down the hoof; it is thickest at the com-
mencement of the wall, and gradually thins away into
the finest imaginable film as it approaches the lower cir-
cumference of this part. When wet it swells and softens,
and on being dried shrinks, sometimes cracks in its more
dependent parts, or becomes scaly.

The fibres composing it are very fine and wavy, as in
the frog; they likewise spring from villi which project

24 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

from the true skin immediately above the "coronary
cushion."

The use of this band would appear to be twofold : it con-
nects the skin with the hoof, and thus makes the union of
these two dissimilar textures more complete, its interme-
diate degree of density and its great elasticity admirably
fitting it for this office ; and it acts as a covering or pro-
tection to the wall at its upper part, where this is only in
process of formation, and has not sufficient resistance to
withstand the effects of exposure to the weather. The
greatest thickness and density of the band correspond to
the portion of the wall in which the villi or vascular tufts
are lodged, and here the horn is soft, delicate, and readily
acted upon in an injurious manner, by external influences.

Thus far, then, we have rapidly glanced at the
anatomy and uses of the various parts entering into the
composition of the horse's foot, and its horny box — the
hoof. It may be necessary, before we pass to the con-
sideration of the latter, as a whole, to allude to the struct-
ure and uses of that narrow strip of horu, whose pres-
ence every farrier or veterinary surgeon is cognizant of,
but whose character and functions have been strangely
left out of consideration by all anatomists hitherto. I re-
fer to the " white line '* or " zone," the slender inter-
mediate band that runs around the margin of the sole,
and connects that plate of horn so closely to the wall as
to make their union particularly solid and complete.
When preparing the border of the hoof for the reception
of the shoe, this part is easily distinguished by its lighter
color (in a dark hoof), and by its being softer and more
elastic than either the sole or wall, between which it is
situated. It would appear to be secreted by the villi
which terminate the lower end of the vascular laminae,
and the horny leaves of the wall are also received into its
substance — a circumstance that renders the junction of

THE HOOF. 26

the two more thorough. I think there can be no doubt
that the principal use of this elastic rim of horn placed
in such a situation, is to obviate the danger of fracture
to which the inferior part of the hoof— particularly the
sole — would be liable, if the junction between the hard
and comparatively inelastic sole and wall was directly
effected TV^thout the interposition of such a body.

It may be noted, that it is through this soft border of
horn that gravel and foreign matters usually find their
way to the sensitive parts of the foot, and there excite
such an amount of irritation as to lead to the formation of
matter, and cause much pain and lameness ; an accident
which the older farriers termed " gravelling."

In viewing the horse's hoof as a whole, and in the un-
shod state, we find that it presents several salient charac-
teristics, the consideration of which ought to dominate or
serve as a guide in framing rules for the observance of far-
riers in the practice of their art. The first of these is the
direction in which the wall grows in a healthy condition.

Viewed as it stands on a level surface, the hoof may
be said to be somewhat conical in shape, its upper part
being a little less than its base ; and although, geometri-
cally, its shape may be described as the frustum of a cone,
the base and summit of which have been cut by two ob-
lique planes — the inferior converging abruptly behind to-
ward the superior — yet the circumference of the hoof does
not offer that regularity which this description might im-
ply ; on the contrary, in a well-formed foot, we find that
the outline of its inferior or ground border, is notably
more salient on the outer than the inner side, giving it
that appearance which has been designated the " spread."

A cone being intersected by two planes oblique to its

axis, and not parallel to each other, gives a good idea.

nevertheless, of the obliquity which forms so marked a

feature in the hoof. Tlie degree of obliquity of the front

2

26 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

part or toe, and of the upper surface, varies with the
amount of growth ; but where this has been counterbal-
anced by a proper degree of wear, it will be remarked
that this obliquity corresponds to the inclination of the
pastern-bones immediately above the hoof, when the horse
is standing.

It will be obvious that this inclination also varies with
the breeding of the animal, and the conformation of the
limbs; so that no definite degree can be assigned. But
it must be pointed out, that giving the angle of 45°,
as is done in almost every treatise on shoeing and the
anatomy of the foot, is a grave error. Looked at in pro-
file, a hoof with this degreee of obliquity would at once
be pronounced a deformity — the slope is too great (Fig.
6) ; and if the farrier were to attempt to bring every foot

Fig. 6.

lie shod to this standard, he would inflict serious injury, not
only on the foot itself, but also on the back tendons and
the joints of the limbs. Careful measurement will prove
that the obliquity of the front of the hoof is rarely, if ever,
in a well-shaped leg and foot, above 50°, and that it is, in
the great majority of cases, nearer 56°. The sides or
" quarters " of the wall are less inclined — though the outer
is generally more so than the inner ; while the heels are
still more vertical, and the inner may even incline slightly
inward. Viewed hi profile, the posterior face of the hoof

THE HOOF. 27

will be observed to have the same degree of slope as the
front face. In height, the heels are usually a little more
than one-half that of the toe; both heels are equal in
neight.

These features, as will be seen hereafter, are sufficiently
important to be constantly remembered. The other char-
acteristics are to be found on the lower or ground face of
the hoof — ^the most important, so far as the farrier's art is
concerned.

In a natural condition, the whole, or nearly the whole
of this face comes into contact with the ground, each part
participating more or less in sustaining the weight thrown
upon the limb. On soft or uneven soil, the entire lower
border of the wall, the sole, bars, and frog, are subjected
to contact ; Nature intended them to meet the ground, and
there to sustain the animal's weight, as well as the force
of its impelling powers. But on hard or rocky land with
a level surface, only the dense, tough crust and bars, the
thick portion of the sole surrounded by them, and the
elastic, retentive frog, meet the force of the weight and
movement ; and, in both cases, not only with impunity,
but with advantage to the interior of the foot, as well as
the limb. The horn on this face is, as has been said,
dense, tough, and springy to a degree varying with the
parts of which it is composed; while its fibres are not
only admirably disposed to support weight, secure a firm
grasp of the ground, and aid the movements of the limbs,
but are also an excellent medium for modifying concussion
or jar to the sensitive and vascular structure in their vi-
cinity.

The whole circumference of the wall meets the ground,
and from the disposition of its fibres, the arrangement of
the cells which enter into their composition, and its rigid-
ity, it is admirably fitted to resist -wear and sustain press-
ure. It projects more or less beyond the level of the solo,

2S PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

and the space measured between the white zone within it
and its outer surface gives its exact thickness. This is a
fact not without interest to the farrier in the operation of
attaching the shoe by nails, as these have to be driven only
through this dense horn — which in good hoofs cannot be
eaid to much exceed half an inch in thickness — and in pro-
portion to its thinness is the necessity for carefulness and
address on his part, in order to guard against wounding or
bruising the sensitive textures.

The sole is more or less concave from its junction with
the wall ; nevertheless, even on moderately firm ground,
a portion of its circumference, which is generally the thick-
ness of the wall, takes a share in relieving the latter of
pressure. This is also a fact to be borne in mind. In soft
ground, the whole of its lower surface is made to aid in
sustaining the weight and prevent the foot sinking. But
it must be noted that the pressure of the lower face of the
pedal bone on the upper surface of the sole can never be
very great, else the sensitive membrane between them
would be seriously injured. This injury is prevented by
the coronary, and, to a lesser extent, by the plantar cush-
ion, which largely retard the descent of the bone on the
floor of the horny box.

The frog, on both hard and soft ground, is an essential
portion of the weight-bearing face. In the unshod,
healthy foot it always projects beyond the level of the
sole, and seldom below that of the wall at the heels ; in-
deed, it is found, in the majority of hoofs, either on a
level with the circumference of tliis part, or beyond it, so
that its contact with the ground is assured. Hence its
utility in obviating concussion, supporting the tendons,
and, on slippery ground, in preventing falls. In pulling
up a horse sharply in the gallop, or in descending a steep
hill, the frog, together with the angular recess formed by
the bar and wall at the heel of the hoof, are eminently

GROWTH OF THE HOOF. 29

ierviceable in checking the tendency to slip ; the animal
instinctively plants the posterior portions of the foot ex-
clusively on the ground-
Dark hoofs are generally the best; they owe their
color to the presence of minute particles of black pig-
ment, which contains a notable proportion of iron, and
are somewhat resisting and indestructible.

A good hoof should have the wall unbroken, its outer
face smooth and even ; the angle at the front not less than
50° — the lower or ground face of the front hoof should
be nearly circular in outline — the sole slightly concave at
the circumference, deeper at the centre ; the border of
the wall ought to be thick at the toe, gradually thinning
toward the heels, but at the inflexion or commencement
of the bar a strong mass of horn should be found ; the
bars should be free from fracture, and the frog moderately
developed, firm and solid.

The hind foot should possess the same soundness of
horn, though it differs from the fore hoof in being more
oval in outline from the toe to the heels ; the sole is also
more concave, the frog smaller, and the heels not so high.
The horn is usually less hard and resisting — a circum-
Btance perhaps due to the hind feet being more fi-equently
exposed to humidity in the stable than the fore ones.

GROWTH OF THE HOOF.

In any treatise on shoeing, the growth of the hoof can-
not be left out of consideration, as on it the foot, in an
noshod condition, depends for an efficient protection,
while without this process the farrier's art would quickly
be of no avail.

In its unarmed state, the hoof being exposed to con*
tinual wear on its lower surface, from contact with the

50 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

ground on which the animal stands or moves, is unceas-
ingly regenerated by the living tissues within. We have
already referred to the special apparatus which is more
immediately concerned in this work of regeneration, and
pointed out that the wall with the laminae on its inner
face * is formed from the coronary cushion at the upper
part of the foot ; the sole from the living membrane cov-
ering the lower face of the pedal bone ; and the frog from
the plantar cushion. It has been also mentioned that this
dead horny envelop, instead of being merely in juxta-
position with this exquisitely sensitive secretory mem-
brane, is everywhere penetrated to a certain depth on its
inner face (with the exception of the portion of the wall
covered with the horny leaves) by multitudes of minuto
processes named villi, which are not only concerned in
the growth of the horn-fibres, acting as moulds for them,
and endowing the hoof with that degree of lightness,
elasticity, and toughness, which are so necessary to its
efficiency, but also make this insensitive case a most use-
ful organ of touch.

The growth of the horn takes place by the deposition
of new material from the secreting surface ; this deposi-
tion is effected at the commencement or root of the fibres ;
where the horn is yet soft, and its incessant operation
causes these fibres to be mechanically extended or pushed
downward toward the ground in a mass. Once formed
they are submitted to no other change than that of be-
coming denser, harder, less elastic, and drier, as they
recede farther from the surface from which thev oriori-
nated.

So regular is this growth, generally, in every part ol

* It is generally stated that the hornv leaves are lormed bv the sensi-
tive ones, with which they are in such close union. That this is an error,
the microscope, physiology, and pathological experience, abundantly tes-
tify.

GROWTH OF THE HOOF. 31

the hoof, that it would appear that the secreting meni'
brane is endowed with an equal activity throughout.

But, though this equality in the amount of horn se-
creted over so wide a surface is an undoubted fact, yet it
must not be forgotten that, under the influence of certain
conditions, the growth or descent of the corneous mate-
rial may be effected in an irregular manner, either through
a particular portion of the secretory apparatus assuming
a more energetic activity, or being hindered more or less
in its function.

For instance, the way in which the foot is planted on
the ground has a most marked influence, not only on the
amOTiut of horn secreted, but also on that subjected to
wear.

"When the superincumbent weight is equally distrib-
uted over the lower face of the hoof, the foot may be said
to be properly placed as a basis of support to the limb.
But when, through mismanagement or defective form,
this base is uneven— one side higher than the other, for
example — the weight must fall on the lowest part to a
greater degree than the highest ; thus causing not only
disturbance in the dii-ection of the limb and its move-
ments, but considerably modifying the growth of the
horn. This growth is diminished at the part subjected to
most pressure — in all probability from the smaller quan-
tity of blood allowed to be circulated through the secre-
tory surface ; while to the side which is subjected to the
least compression, the blood is abundantly supplied, and
the formation of horn is consequently augmented. This
is a fact of much importance and practical interest in far-
riery, as it demonstrates that any irregularity in the dis-
tribution of the weight of the body on the foot has a pre-
judicial effect on the secreting apparatus of the organ,
and, as a result, on the form of the hoof.

When the weight is evenly imposed on the foot, tliia

iJ3 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

apparatus, being uniformly compressed throughout it£
extent, receives everywhere an equal quantity of the horn*
producing material.

It is the same with the wear of the hoof. A just dis-
position of the weight is a necessary condition of tb©
regularity of wear. While the animal is standing on un-
shod hoofs, the wear of horn is slight ; it is in movement
that it becomes increased, and this increase is generally in
proportion to the speed, the weight carried, nature of the
ground, and whether its surface be wet or dry. Each
portion of the lower face of the hoof — wall, sole, bars, and
frog — should take its share of w^ear and strain ; but it
will be readily understood that this cannot be properly
effected if the weight is thrown more upon one side than
the other; that part which receives the largest share will
be subjected to the greatest amount of loss from wear,
and this, with the diminished secretion of horn, will tend
to distort foot and limb still more.

In a well-formed leg and foot the degrees of resistance
of the different parts of the hoof are so well apportioned
to the amount of wear to be sustained, that all are equally
reduced by contact with the ground, and the whole is
maintained in a perfect condition as regards growth and
wear.

The amount of growth, even in a well-proportioned
foot, varies considerably in different animals, according
to the activity prevailing in, or the development of, the
secreting apparatus ; and in this respect the operations
of the farrier, as we will notice hereafter, are not without
much influence.

It may be laid down as a rule, that the horn grows
more rapidly in warm dry climates, than in cold wet ones ;
in healthy energetic animals, than in those whicli are soft
and weakly ; during exercise, than in repose ; in young,
than in old animals. Food, labor, and shoeing, also add

GROWTH OF THE HOOF. 33

their influence ; while the seasons are to some extent con-
cerned in the growth and shape of the hoof. In winter
it widens, becomes softer, and grows but little ; in sum-
mer it is condensed, becomes more rigid, concave, and
resisting, is exposed to severer wear, and grows more
rapidly ; this variation is a provision of Nature to enable
the hoof to adapt itself to the altered conditions it has to
meet : hard horn to hard ground, soft horn to soft ground.
In this way we can account for the influence of locality
upon the shape of the foot. On hard, dry ground, the
hoof is dense, tenacious, and small, with concave sole,
and a little but firm frog ; in marshy regions, it is large
and spreading, the horn soft and easily destroyed by wear,
the sole thin and flat, and the frog an immense spongy
mass which is badly fitted to receive pressure from slightly
hardened soil. In a dry climate, we have an animal small,
compact, wiry, and vigorous, travelling on a surface
which demands a tenacious hoof, and not one adapted to
prevent sinking ; in the marshy region we have a large,
heavy, lymphatic creature, one of whose primary require-
ments is a foot designed to travel on a soft yielding sur-
face. Change the respective situations of these two horses,
and Nature immediately begins to transform them and
their feet. The light, excitable, vigorous horse, with its
small vertical hoofs and concave soles, so admirably dis-
posed to traverse rocky and slippery surfaces, is physically
incompetent to exist on low-lying swamps ; while the un-
wieldy animal, slow-paced and torpid, with a foot perfectly
adapted to such a region — its ground face being so exteu«
sive and flat that it sinks but little, and the frog developed
to such a degree as to resemble a ploughshare in form,
which gives it a grip of the soft, slippery ground — is but
indifferently suited for travelling on a hard, rugged sur-
face. In process of time, however, the small concave
hoof expands and flattens, and the large flat one gradw

34 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

ally becomes concentrated, hardened, and hollow, to suit
the altered physical conditions in which they are placed.

The degree of health possessed by the horn-secreting
apparatus at any time has also much to do with its activ-
ity in generating new material. When its blood-vessels
become congested or contracted from some cauLe or other,
its function is in a proportionate degree suspended, and
the hoof grows in an irregular manner, and may be altered
in thickness, texture, and quality.

In the ordinary conditions of town work and stable
management, I have observed that the wall of a healthy
foot — its chief portion, so far as farriery is concerned —
grows down from the coronet at the rate of about one-
quarter of an inch per month, and that the entire wall of
a medium-sized hoof has been regenerated in from nine to
twelve months.

The process of growth can be greatly accelerated and
exaggerated by irritating the surface which throws out
tlie horn material. Thus a blister, hot iron, or any other
irritant or stimulant applied to this part, will induce not
only a more rapid formation, but one in which increased
thickness is a marked feature.

SHOEING.

In the foregoing pages we have considered the foot
of the horse in a natural condition, as perfectly adapted
for the performance of most essential functions : as a
basis of support while the animal is standing, and, in ad-
dition, as a powerful propelling instrument during pro-
gression.

We have also pointed out that the hoof which envel-
ops it, like a huge finger-nail, is admirably constructed
and endowed as an aid and protection to this organ, its

SHOEING. 35

utility mainly depending on the texture and arrangement
of the homy matter of which it is composed, and the
peculiar disposition of this in fibres of variable density,
size, and elasticity.

But these qualities of the hoof, it was again remarked,
are intimately dependent upon the manner in which the
horn-secreting surface performed its office ; as if this he-
comes diminished, weakened, or unable to supply suffi-
cient material to compensate for undue wear, the protect-
ing case soon ceases to guard the living tissues within
from injury.

In a natural state, when the equilibrium between
growth and wear is destroyed, and the latter takes place
in a rapid and unusual manner, the animal is compelled to
rest until the worn hoof has recovered its proper thick-
ness ; for acute pain results when the living parts are ex-
posed, or when the wasted horn is insufficient to guard
them against being bruised by the ground.

In an artificial condition, when the horse is employed
on hard roads, broken ground, and in a humid climate, to
carry and draw heavy loads at different degrees of ve-
locity, and forced to stand on stony pavements during
resting hours, his hoofs are unable to meet the many se-
vere demands imposed upon them.

The wear more than counterbalances the growth ; and,
therefore, it becomes an absolute necessity, if the animal is
to be continuously and profitably utilized, that an artifi-
cial protection, sufficient to meet the exigencies of the
case, be employed.

The lower border of the wall is, as we have mentioned,
the part most deeply concerned in resisting wear and
strain in the unshod state, as on it the stress chiefly falls ;
it is, consequently, the portion of the hoof that suffers
most severely from undue wear, and that which alone re-
quires protection.

36 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

This fact must have been brought prominently before
the primitive shoers thousand of years ago, as the earliest
specimens of shoes yet discovered are narrow, and in
width do not much exceed the thickness of the wall. To
guarantee this from wear was to increase the value of the
horse a thousandfold, and the simply-wrought, narrow rim
of iron, boldly and securely attached to the hoof by a
few rudely-shaped nails, was sufficient for the purpose.

But having fastened on this light metallic armature,
and allowed it to remain fixed to the hoof for a lengthened
period, it would soon be discovered that the balance be-
tween growth and wear was again disturbed, but this time
in favor of growth ; for the wall being removed from con-
tact with the ground, and the rate of growth continuing
as in the unshod state, the hoof, instead of becoming di-
minished as before, now became abnormally overgrown
and caused inconvenience. Then the shoe required to be
taken off, and the superfluous growth either removed by
instruments and the shoe replaced, or the animal made to
travel without the iron defence until it was again needed
when the hoof had become too much worn.

Such was horseshoeing, in all probability, in early
times, and such it is at the present day where utility is
not sacrificed to stupid theories or foolish practices.

The evils attending the usual methods of shoeing are,
as has been said, very serious and glaring ; and the chief
of these do not so much depend upon the faulty conforma-
tion of the shoe — though this is, in the majority of cases,
not to be exempted from blame — as upon the treatment
the hoof receives before and after the application of that
article.

To illustrate these evils, and to show how unreason-
able the modern art of farriery is, as well as how it should
be practised, we will commence with the foot of the un-
ihod colt, and, in the simplest words at our command, in-

PREPARING THE HOOF. 37

dicate the ordinary procedure in applying shoes to its
hoofs for the first time, pointing out, at each step in the
process, what is wrong and what is right, and giving
reasons for the adoption of the principles which ought to
guide the farrier in this most important operation.

PREPAEING THE HOOF.

We will premise that the young horse about to have
its hoofs armed for the first time is tolerably docile, and
that its tranquillity is not likely to be severely disturbed
by the strange manipulations to which its limbs are to be
subjected. For many months previously, its attendants
have had this ordeal in view, and in handling it have not
forgotten to manipulate its legs and feet quietly and gently
in something the same fashion that the farrier is likely to
do — even going so far in the lesson as to tap lightly on its
uplifted hoof, as if nailing on the shoe. The young creat-
ure is intelligent enough to perceive that in this no harm
or punishment is intended, and it soon becomes familiar
with the practice.

The farrier who shoes a young horse for the first oi
second time should be a patient, good-tempered man, and
an adept in the management of horses and handling their
limbs. If the operation is to be performed in a forge,
there should be as little noise of hammers or glare of fires
as possible — every thing ought to be conducted quietly^
steadily, and with kindness. Harsh treatment, or unskil-
ful handling, should be severely reprehended, and all re-
tstraint or contention ought to be dispensed with — at any
rate until gentleness and patience have been diligently era-
ployed and have failed. If accustomed to companions, it
should have one or two horses beside it in the forge.

In describing the construction of the foot, we referred

38 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

to the shape of a well-formed hoof. We will presume the
animal before us — ^like nearly every unshod horse — has
hoofs of this description.

The first step, usually, in the preparation of this part
for the shoe is to level and shorten the lower margin of
the wall, pare the sole and frog, and open up the heels.
These details may not be carried out so fully in the first
shoeing as subsequently, but we will note them as they are
commonly practised during the horse's lifetime.

Levelling the Wall is an important operation, which
but few artisans rightly understand or care to do properly.
It has been stated that unequal pressure on one side of
the foot — one side of the wall being lower than the other
— is not only injurious to the whole limb by the undue
strain it imposes on the joints and ligaments, but that it
tends to deform the hoof and modify the growth of the
horn.

It is, therefore, most essential that both sides of the
hoof be of equal depth, in addition to the whole lower
margin of the wall being level ; and to make them so, the
rasp should be applied to this border in an oblique man-
ner, across the ends of its fibres, to bring them to the
same length.

A good idea of the necessary reduction to be effected
on either side will be derived from an inspection of the
limb from the knee or hock downward when placed firmly
and straight upon the ground. Any deviation of the hoof
to the inside or outside — most frequently it is the former
— can be readily detected by looking at the leg and hoof
in front.

The ground surface of the foot should be directly trans-
verse to the direction of the pastern, and it is in maintain-
ing or restoring this relation that care and skill are re-
quired. If the pastern is perpendicular to the shank-bone,
and the two sides of the lower margin of the foot are di

PREPARING THE HOOF. 39

rectly transverse to the line passing down from these, then
the wall has only to be lowered equally on both sides, if
it be too high.

It must be remembered, in levelling both sides of the
lower surface of the hoof, that the difference of a few frac-
tions of an inch between them will cause considerable, and
perhaps very hurtful, oscillations of the weight thrown on
the limb.

A properly-instructed farrier should be able, at a glance
across the upturned foot, to discover whether it is tolerably
level. In Fig. 7 I have shown what is meant by a prop-

FiG.7.

erly-levelled hoof, the dotted line a a being directly trans-
verse to the vertical line J, and the distance from a to c
of one side being equal to that from a to c of the other.

Shortening the Wall. — Reducing the wall to proper
dimensions is another important matter in connection with
the preparation of the foot for the shoe. We have seen
that the natural and moderate wear of the unshod hoof is
compensated for by the incessant downward growth of the
horn, and that this process of wear and regeneration main-
tains the proper dimensions and just bearing of the foot.
But on the application of the shoe a barrier is at once op-
posed to the wear, while the growth is not interfered with ;
consequently, the hoof continually increases in length and
obliquity — a change which causes derangement in the dis-
position of the weight on the lower part of the leg and
foot, and other inconveniences.

40 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

In speaking of the growth of the horn, it was remarked
that in health this took place in a regular manner over
the whole surface. It seems rather contradictory, there-
fore, to assert that the hoof increases in obliquity — a|>
pears to grow faster at the toe than the heels — when, if
this statement was correct, their increase in length should
be alw^ays the same. In the unshod hoof this lengthening
of the toe is not observed ; it only occurs in one that has

been shod, and is to be accounted for by the fact that the

shoe, not being nailed back so far as the heels, is, every
time the foot falls on the ground, pressed against the horn
at these parts, and so great is this downward friction or
pressure that, after a time, not only is the hoof consider-
ably worn, but the face of the shoe is also deeply^ chan-
nelled at corresponding points. Owing to the shoe being
firmly fixed around the toe, there is no play at this part,
and hence the apparent inequality in growth between the
front and back of the hoof — a circumstance more observ-
able in the fore than the hind foot, from the heels of the

PREPARING TUE HOOF. 41

former being more under the centre of gravity, and so
having a greater weight to sustain.

The pastern and foot form part of a lever that extends
from the fetlock to the ground and supports the weight
of the body. The strain comes perpendicularly from
the shoulder to the fetlock (Fig. 8, a, c) ; but thence to
the ground it passes along the pastern and foot (c, d) —
the extremity of the lever — and these are inclined more
or less obliquely forward ; hence the charge imposed on
the limb has an incessant tendency to increase this obli-
quity by bringing the fetlock nearer the ground (b). To
resist this tendency, however, we have the two flexor ten-
dons, and the powerful suspensory ligament at the back
of the limb, which support this joint and maintain its
angle.

But it will l?e readily understood that the longer and
^ess upright this lever is, the greater is the strain and fa-
tigue thrown upon the tendons and ligament. Though
an oblique pastern may look graceful, and make the
horse's step more elastic and agreeable to the rider, yet,
when the degree of obliquity exceeds that intended by
Nature, great risk is incurred of injury to the supporting
apparatus. Hence the necessity for maintaining the hoof
at its normal angle — a necessity, however, which can
never be met, except at the moment when the animal is
newly shod ; for no sooner is the equilibrium restored be-
tween the front and back of the hoof and the shoe fast-
ened on, than it begins to be disturbed again. This in-
convenience is inevitable, from the very nature of the
means we adopt to defend the foot from injury.

On the other hand, the suspensory apparatus is lessi
severely taxed, as the lever is short and vertical : or, in
other words, as the pastern and hoof are upright. But
this, though relieving the tendons and ligament, throws
the weight too directly on the bones ; consequently tho

42 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

jar to these and the whole limb is great, and even dan-
gerous; while the back parts of the foot are unduly
strained to relieve them.

It must be, then, very evident, that levelling and
bringing the ground-face of the hoof to the necessary
length — equal on both sides from toe to heel, and justly
proportioned in depth at toe and heel — is no trifling mat-
ter, as the soundness of the limb and ease in progression
are concerned in the operation. Excessive length or ob-
liquity of hoof strains back tendons and ligament ; a
hoof long at the toe and low at the heels (Fig. 9, a b)
increases the obliquity ; on the contrary, when the heels
are high and the toe of the hoof too short (Fig. 9, c, d),
the bones suffer, and the whole limb experiences more or
less the effects of concussion.

Fig. 9.

In both cases progression is fatiguing, imperfect, and
hurtful to an extent proportionate to the excess.

Another disadvantage in shoeing, arising from the ten-
dency of the hoof to increase in length at the toe, and
also from its form, is the change in the position of the
shoe itself. The hoof being more or less conical in shaj)e,
with its base opposed to the ground, it follows that, as it
increases in length, its lower circumference also widens in
every direction ; the result is that the shoe, although at
one time accurately fitting the hoof, gradually becomes
too narrow ; at the same time the increase in length at
the toe carries the iron plate forward, away from the heels.

PREPAKING THE HOOF. 43

This is one more of the inevitable evils of shoeing, but
which, nevertheless, the skilful workman may greatly pal-
liate.

The farrier equalizes both sides of the hoof by apply-
in*^ his rasp in a sloping direction to the ground border
or end of the wall ; he also brings it to its natural angle
with the same instrument, by removing the necessary
amount of horn from the margin of the hoof at the toe
or heels : by reducing the former without interfering with
the latter, the obliquity of the foot is diminished (as in
Figs. 9, c, f?, 10, a) ; while rasping down the heels and
leaving the toe untouched increases it (Fig. 9, a, b).

Fig. 10.

In the great majority of cases, the heels, for the reason
stated, require but little interference ; the excess of growth
is nearly always at the toe, and thus no absolute rule can
be laid down as to the angle to which the hoof should be
brought. The practised eye can discern at once whether
the angle is in conformity with the natural bearing of the
limb, and will have no difficulty in adjusting it, should it
not be so, provided there is sufficient horn to spare for this
purpose.

We have previously shown that the inclination of the
front of the hoof varies from 50° to 60°, and probably
the mean between these two angles will be that usually
observed. (Fig. 9, g, e, /, is a hoof with about 52° of
obliquity; ,7, a, b, 45° ; (/, c, d, more than 60°.)

44 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

On ordinary occasions, causing the horse to stand on
a level floor, and viewing the hoof in profile a few paces
oif, is sufficient to inform one of the angle ; but to insure
attention to this matter and prevent mistakes, I have con-
trived a little instrument for my farriers, which at once
shows them the degree of obliquity, and gives them an
indication as to the amount of horn to be removed from
the toe or heels.

In the operation of levelling and shortening the hoof,
is included the general reduction of the wall.

Provided the hoof, before it comes into the hands of
the farrier, has the proper inclination and is equal on both
sides of its ground-face, but is nevertheless overgrown,
the artisan has then only to remove the excess of growth
without disturbing the relations between the several re-
gions of the wall. Or should the hoof be overgrown, too
oblique, too upright, or unequal at the sides, then in
remedying the one defect he at the same time remedies
all. The amount of horn to be removed from the margin

Fig. 11.

of the hoof will depend upon circumstances. It may be
laid down as a rule, however, that there being but littlQ
horn to remove at the heels, these should only be rasped
sufficiently to insure the removal of all loose material in-
capable of supporting the shoe ; the quarters or sides of
the hoof may require a freer application of the rasp, but

PREPARING THE HOOF. 45

as the toe is reached, a larger quantity must be removed,
as in Fig. 11, a, 5. The limit to this removal at the front
of the hoof must be when the wall is almost or quite re-
duced to a level with the strong unpared sole. It must
ever be borne in mind that, if the wall does not stand be-
yond the level of the sole, it does not require reducing.

When the circumference of the hoof has at length been
brought to a condition fit to receive the shoe, the rasp
must finish its task by removing the sharp edge, and
rounding it so as to leave a thick strong border not likely
to chip. The unshod hoof nearly always exhibits this pro-
vision against fracture of the wall-fibres.

Paring the Sole. — ^After the necessary diminution and
correction of the obliquity of the hoof, and the prepara-
tion of the bed for the shoe, the farrier usually proceeds
to pare the sole. Indeed, while the colt is still at large,
and before the time has arrived when its hoofs are to be
shod with iron, the workman is frequently called in to trim
the hoofs, and paring the lower surface is part of the oj^er-
ation.

This procedure is as barbarous as it is unreasonable,
especially when carried to the extent that has been ad-
vised in books on horseshoeing, viz., to pare the sole until
it springs to the pressure of the thumb. In the great ma-
jority of forges this most pernicious practice is carried
out, either because the owner of the horse thinks it neces-
sary, the groom or coachman that it makes the horse go
better and the feet to look well, or the farrier that it is
more workmanlike — though if he is pressed hard for any
other reason he is unable to give one of a satisfactory
character.

Like so many practices relating to the management of
the horse, this paring of the sole is absurd in the extreme,
and has not the most trifling recommendation to support it.
Unfortunately for those who recommend, and also those

^6 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

who practise it, its evil effects are not immediately appar-
ent ; a horse with his soles denuded of their horn until the
blood is oozing through them, may not at the moment
manifest any great suffering, and may even go tolerably
Bound on a level pavement, though, if he chanced to put
his foot on uneven ground or a sharp stone, his agony may
be so acute as to cause him to fall.

The paring knife is skilfully used to remove all the sur-
face horn down to that which has been most recently
formed, or is in process of forming. So anxious is the
groom or farrier that this, to them, most important opera-
tion should be carried out, that the soles are filled with
cow dung, or some other filth, for some time previously,
in order that the horn may be softened and rendered more
amenable to mutilation. When this " stopping " has not
been done, and particularly in hot, dry weather, the sole
is often so hard that it cannot be touched by the knife, in
which case, a red-hot iron is applied to the surface to
soften the horn, or hot ashes are used. Then the bars and
sole are sliced away until nothing it left but the thinnest
pellicle of their natural protection, through which not un-
frequently the blood may be oozing. This is nothing else
than downright cruelty, and should meet with the punish-
ment it so well deserves.

To remove the excessive growth of the wall is an ab-
solute necessity ; but to denude the sole of its horn is wan-
ton injury to the foot and cruelty to the animal. This is
easily accounted for. The sole only increases its sub-
stance to a certain thickness — never too much — and then
the excess is thrown off in flakes in a natural manner. In
tliis way the sensitive parts are amply protected ; the sole
can sustain a share of the weight — especially around its
margin in front, where it is strongest — and meet the
ground, however rough and stony this may be, with per-
fect impunity. This is its function.

PREPAPwING THE HOOF. 47

It has been mentioned that the horn is secreted from
the living surface, and that myriads of beautiful vasculai
and sensitive tufts dependent from this surface, enter the
horn-fibres to a certain depth, and play an important part
in the formation of the sole. The newly-formed horn is
soft and spongy, and incapable of resisting exposure to
the air, but as it is pushed further away from this surface
by successive deposits of fresh material, it becomes old
horn, loses its moisture, and in doing so acquires hardness
and rigidity sufficient to withstand external influences ;
then it is subjected to wear, and if this be insufficient to
reduce it sufficiently, it falls off in scales. But the process
of exfoliation is not a rapid one ; the flakes remain at-
tached to the solid horn beneath, more or less firmly, until
it in turn commences to loosen on the surface, and yield
new flakes, when the old ones separate. This natural
diminution in the excess of horn of the sole is a most
beneficial process for the hoof. Horn is a slow conductor
of heat and cold, and when thick, retains moisture for a
long period. These flakes, then, act as a natural " stop-
ping " to the hoof, by accumulating and retaining moist-
ure beneath, and this not only keeps the foot cool as it
slowly evaporates, but ensures for the solid and growing
horn its toughness, elasticity, and proper development.
In addition to this, every flake acts more or less as a
spring in warding off bruises or other injuries to the sole;
and thus the floor of the horny box is protected from in
jury, externally and internally.

What occurs when the farrier, following out the rou-
tine of his craft, or obeying the injunctions of those as ig-
norant as himself, or so prejudiced as not to be able to
reason, pares the sole until it springs to the pressure of
his thumb? Why, the lower surface of the foot — that
which is destined to come into contact with the ground,
and to encounter its inequalities, and which more than any

48 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

Other i^art requires to be efficiently shielded — is at once
ruthlessly denuded of its protection, and exposed to the
most serious injury. The immature horn, suddenly strip-
ped of its outer covering, immediately begins to experi-
ence the evil effects of external influences; it loses its
moisture, dries, hardens, and shrivels up ; it also occupies
a smaller space, and in doing so, the sole becomes more
concave, dramng after it the wall — for it must be remem-
bered that the sole is a strong stay against contraction
of the lower margin of the hoof — and the consequence
is, that the foot gradually decreases in size, and the quar-
ters and heels narrow. The animal goes " tender," even
on smooth ground ; but if he chance to put his mutilated
sole on a stone, what pain must he experience ! This ten-
derness on even ground or smoothly paved roads arises
from the fact, that not only is the entire sensitive surface
compressed, irritated, or inflamed by the hard, contract-
ing envelope, and the unnatural exposure to sudden
changes of heat and cold, but the little sensitive processes
contained at the upper end of each of the horn-fibres are
painfully crushed in their greatly diminished tubes, and
instead of being organs of secretion and the most delicate
touch, they are now scarcely more than instruments of
torture to the unfortunate animal. Not only is pain or
uneasiness experienced during progression, but even in the
stable the horse whose soles have been so barbarously
treated, exhibits tenderness in his feet by resting them,
and if felt, a great increase of temperature will be per-
ceived.

Owing to the secreting apparatus of the sole being
deranged through this senseless paring, the formation of
new horn takes place slowly, and it is not until a certain
quantity has been provided to compensate in some degree
for that removed, that the horse begins to stand easier,
and travel better. Scarcely, however, has the restorative

PREPARING THE HOOF. 49

process advanced to this stage, than it is time for him to
be reshod, when this part must again submit to be robbed
of its horn.

The sole having been pared too thin and concave
leaves the circumference of the hoof standing much higher
than if it had been left intact, and apparently too long ;
so the wall must be still more reduced. This is done, and
we now have the whole ground-face of the hoof so wasted
and mutilated, that should the horse chance to lose a shoe
soon after being shod, the impoverished foot cannot bear
the rude contact of the ground for more than a few yards,
and the poor creature is lame and useless.

The tenderness and lameness arising from this mal-
treatment are usually ascribed to every thing but the
right cause, and the most popular is concussion. To avert
this and protect the defenceless sole, a most absurd shoe
is required; and, still more absurd, the -natural covering
is attempted to be replaced by a plate of leather, inter-
posed between the ground and the sole, and which is
made to retain bundles of tow steeped in tar or some per-
nicious substance. It is scarcely necessary to say that
this artificial covering is but a poor substitute for that
which has been so foolishly, and with so much careful
labor, cut away ; indeed, in several respects the leather
sole, even when only placed between the wall and the
shoe, and not over the entire surface, is very objection-
able.

Seeing, therefore, the natural provision existing in the
sole of the hoof for its duninution in thickness, when
necessary, and knowing that the intact sole is the best
safeguard against injury and deterioration to this region,
it must be laid down as a rule in farriery— and from
which there must be no departure— that this part is not
to be interfered with on any pretence, so long as the foot
is in health ; not even the flakes are to be disturbed.
3

50 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING

By adhering to this rule, the horse can travel safeH
and with ease in all weathers and over any roads immedi-
ately after shoeing ; the foot is maintained in a healthy
condition ; the sole can sustain its share of the weight,
and thus relieve the wall of the hoof; and should a shoe
happen to be lost, the animal can journey a long distance
with but little injury to the organ.

Another of the many advantages derived from allow-
ing the sole to remain in its natural condition, is that on
a soft surface the hoof will not sink so deeply as one
whose sole has been hollowed out by the farrier, neither
is it so difficult to withdraw from heavy soil.

Paring the Frog. — This part of the hoof is that which,
in the opinion of the grooms and coachmen, most requires
cuttmg^ " to prevent its coming on the ground and laming
the horse ; " and this reason, together with its softer tex-
ture, causes it to be made the sport of the farrier's relent-
less knife. It is artistically and thoroughly trimmed, the
fine elastic horn being sliced away, sometimes even to the
quick, and in its sadly reduced form it undergoes the
same changes as have been observed in the pared sole.
No wonder, then, that it cannot bear touching the ground
any more than the sole. Strip the skin off the sole of a
man's foot and cause him to travel over stony or pebbly
roads ! "Would he walk comfortably and soundly ?

The artistically-shaped frog soon wastes, becomes dis-
eased, and at length appears as a ragged, foul-smelling
shred of horn, almost imperceptible between the narrow
deformed heels of the pared foot.

The function of the frog in the animal economy is one
of great moment, and has already been indicated. It is
eminently adapted for contact with the ground, and in this
resides its most important office. To remove it from the
ground and deprive it of its horn, is at once to destroy
its utility and its structure, and withdraw from the foot

PREPARING THE HOOF. 51

one of its most essential components. The longer the
frog is left untouched by the knife, and allowed to meet
the ground, the more developed it becomes ; its horn
grows so dense and resisting, yet without losing its spe-
cial properties, that it braves the crushing of the roughest
roads without suiFering in the slightest degree ; it ensures
the hoof retaining its proper shape at the heels ; is a
valuable supporter of the limb and foot while the animal
is standing or moving ; and is an active agent, from its
shape and texture, in preventing slipping ; its reduction
and removal from the ground, I am perfectly convinced
from long observation, have a tendency, directly or indi-
rectly, to induce that most painful, frequent, and incurable
malady — navicular disease, as well as other affections of
this organ.

The farrier should, therefore, leave the frog also un-
touched, unless there be flakes which are useless — though
this is extremely rare ; then these ought to be cut off. So
particular am I in this respect, however, and so well aware
am I of the fondness of the workman to cut into this
part, that I never allow any frogs to be interfered with
unless I am present. If any gravel has lodged beneath
the flakes, at the side, or in the cleft — which is most un-
frequent — this is removed by some blunt instrument.

To show the value of contact with the ground ; when
a horse with a diseased frog is brought to me, I at once
order the hoof to be so prepared or shod that this part
will immediately receive direct pressure — in a brief space
the disease disappears. Cases of what grooms call
" thrush," of many years' duration, and which had defied
all kinds of favorite dressings, have been cured, and the
rotten, wasted frogs have become sound and well devel-
oped in a few months.

Opening-up the Heels. — Having done every thing pos-
sible to ruin the sole and the frog, the farrier proceeds to

52 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

complete his work by opening-up the heels. This opera-
tion is quite as injurious — if it is not more so — than muti-
lating the sole and frog ; it consists in making a deep cut
into the angle of the wall at the heel, where it becomes
bent inward to form the bar. In the unshod, natural
state, or in the unmutilated foot, this is a particularly-
strong portion of the hoof, and serves a very useful pur-
pose, its utility being mainly owing to its strength. From
its preventing contraction of the heels, it has been named
the arc houtant or " buttress " of the foot by the French
hippotomists.

When it is hacked away by the farrier's knife, the
wall of the hoof is not only considerably weakened, but
the hoof gradually contracts toward the heels.

Horse dealers and grooms are tlie chief patrons of
" well-opened " heels, as they give the foot a false appear-
ance by making it look wider in th\s region.

The fashion of paring the sole until it yields to the
pressure of the thumb has been perpetuated through the
ignorance of those who have had the management of
horses, or the traditions and routine of the artisans who
have more especially to attend to the requirements of the
hoofs of these animals. But it must be observed that this
paring, slicing away the frog, and ojpening up the heels,
has been largely due, in later times, to the false notions
propounded by some writers regarding the functions of
the foot — such as the descent of the sole, the inability of
the frog to sustain contact with the ground, and the ex-
pansion of the back parts of the hoof every time the
weight was imposed upon it. It is scarcely necessary
here to say more than that these notions are at least ex-
tremely exaggerated, and that the practices which were
maintained to facilitate these supposed functions have
been productive of an immense amount of suifering and
loss of animal life.

THE SHOE.

53

It should be ever most strenuously insisted upon, that
the whole lower face of the hoof, except the border of the
wall, must be left in a state of nature ; the horn of the
sole, frog, and bars, has an important duty to fulfill ; it is
the natural protection to this part of the hoof, and no
protection of iron, leather, or other material is half so
efficacious ; in addition, it is a capital agent in sustaining
weight, and in keeping the whole foot healthy and perfect
in form.

THE SHOE.

The Ordinary Shoe. — The hoof having been prepared
by the farrier, according to his fancy for the reception of
the metal plate which is to garnish it, here again we find
that ignorance prevails and is productive of inconvenience

Fig. 12.

and injury. " Improved principles " demand that a par-
ticular-shaped shoe be applied ; no matter whether the an-
imal be for saddle, harness, or draught purposes, it must
have a slioe that rests only on the margin of the hoof— on
the wall. Therefore, except a narrow border to corre-
spond with this margin, the upper or foot-face of the shoe
is bevelled away, so as to leave a wide space between it
and the sole, and throw all the weight and strain on the
outer parts of the foot (Fig. 11) ; in addition to which dis-

54 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

advantage this space is admirably contrived to lodge
stones, gravel, hardened mud, or snow, and in heavy
ground it increases the suction immensely. But, as will
be easily understood from the manner in which the under-
surface of the foot has been treated, this bevelling is ren-
dered an absolute necessity if the horse is to be preserved
from immediate lameness. The sole has been pared so
thin, that so far from its being able to withstand a tolera-
bly large amount of pressure around its margin — particu-
larly toward the toe — it must be most carefully preserved
not only from contact with the shoe, but also with the
ground. This necessitates a wide surface of metal, whicli
increases the weight of the shoe, making it clumsier to
wear, and affords a large under or ground surface for slip-
ping. And even with a shoe of such dimensions the crea-
ture cannot travel at ease on stony roads, as the least pres-
sure of a stone on the tender sole causes him to limp, and
if the stone lodges in the space between shoe and sole se-
rious injury is likely to be done.

Weight. — In addition to the bevelling and the width,
the shoe in ordinary use has several other glaring defects.
One of these is generally its excessive weight ; it contains
an amount of iron far greater than is necessary to protect
the hoof from the effects of wear. One reason alleged for
the employment of these cumbrous masses of iron attached
to the ends of a horse's limbs is that they prevent concus-
sion to the foot. This any reasonable person will at once
perceive is a manifest absurdity. The hoof, by its lightness,
its texture, and the wonderful arrangement of its compo-
Dent parts, is well adapted to avert concussion ; an inelastic
heavy lump of iron firmly attached to it, and coming into
forcible collision with the ground at every step, must sure-
ly be more likely to increase this concussion than diminish
it.

There can be no difficulty, I imagine, in estimating the

THE SHOE. 55

injury inflicted by unnecessarily heavy shoes. Nature
formed the lower extremity of the limb with a view to
lightness, no less than to other important ends. The hoof-
bone is quite porous and open in texture, to diminish its
ponderosity, ^f ithout detracting from its size or stability ;
while the hoof itself is, as we have just noticed, remark-
able for the manner in which its material is arranged with
a special intention to confer light-footedness upon the an-
imal. The reason for this diminution in weight, while it
is coincident with increase in bulk, is to be found in the
fact that the muscles principally concerned in moving the
limb— swinging, straightening, and bending it backward
and forward— are all situated above the knee or hock.
The moving power is at one end of a comparatively long
lever with two arms, while the weight to be moved
is at the other extremity. The arm of the lever to
which the power is applied is very short, so that though
rapidity is gained, more power is lost, and it is palpable
that every additional ounce added to the foot must be near-
ly, if not more than equal to a pound at the shoulder.

In shoeing, this important consideration has been
strangely overlooked; and yet we cannot forget that it
has a great influence on the wear of, not only the shoe,
but also the muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints, and
even, indirectly, of the entire animal. " If, at the termin-
ation of a day's work," says an eminent French veterinary
professor, " we calculate the weight represented by the
mass of iron in the heavy shoes a horse is condemned to
carry at each step, we shall arrive at a formidable array
of figures, and in this way be able to estimate the amount
of force uselessly expended by the animal in raising the
shoes that overload his feet. The calculation I have made
possesses an eloquence that dispenses with very long com-
mentaries. Suppose that the weight of a shoe is two
pounds, it is not excessive to admit that a horse trots at

56 TRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

the rate of one step every second, or sixty steps a minute..
In a minute, then, the limb of a horse whose foot carries
two pounds makes efforts sufficient to raise a weight of
one hundred and twenty pounds. For the four limbs thig
weight in a minute is represented by 120 X 4 = 480 pounds ;
for the four feet during an hour the weight is 28,800
pounds ; and for four hours, the mean duration of a day's
work in the French omnibuses, the total amount of weight
raised has reached the enormous figure of 115,200 pounds.
But the movement communicated to these 115,200 pounds
represents an expenditure of the power employed by the
motor without any useful result ; and as the motor is a
living one, this expenditure of strength represents an ex-
haustion, or, if you like it better, a degree of fatigue pro-
portioned to the effort necessary for its manifestation."

This question of weight is one of no small moment to
the well-being and utility of the horse, and therefore de-
mands particular attention. Nature, in constructing the
animal machine and enduing it with adequate power to
sustain the ordinary requirements of organization, and
even to meet certain extraordinary demands, could scarce-
ly have been expected to provide the large additional
amount of energy necessary to swing several ounces, or
even pounds, attached to the lower extremity of the limb.
A horse shod with a two-pound shoe to each foot, travel-
ling at the rate of sixty steps in a minute for a period of
four hours, as has been stated above, carries nearly fifty-
two tons ; this weight, too, as has been stated, is most dis-
advantageously placed at the end of the long arm of the
lever. It must be remembered, also, that a two-pound shoe
is a very moderate affair when compared with many that
are worn every day in town and country, even by horsea
employed in fast work

Not only does an unnecessarily heavy slioe fatigue
and wear out the limbs sooner than a liglit one, but the

THE SHOE. 57

fatigue it induces causes it to be less durable, in propor-
tion to the quantity of iron. This is accounted for by
the manner in which the fatigued limbs drag their heavy
load along the surface of the ground. Heavy shoes also
require more and larger nails to attach them securely to
the hoof, and this in itself is an evil of no trifling magn>
tude, as we shall see presently.

The shoe, besides being heavy, may offer other serious
defects. It may be very uneven on its upper bearing sur-
face— that on which the hoof rests; it may have too
many clips, and these not well formed or situated ; its
ground surface may be unequal ; or the holes for the nails
may be badly placed, and improperly stamped.

An uneven upper surface is apt to produce lameness,
from the undue pressure it occasions on limited parts of
the hoof, and through these to the corresponding living
textures ; or it may cause the wall of the hoof to split,
etc.

Nails badly placed and improperly stamped are a pro-
lific source of injury to the foot, and the same may be
said of mal-formed or wrongly-situated clips ; and much
evil results from the ground-face of the shoe being higher
at one part than another. This inequality is in nearly
every case due to the presence of what are termed " cal-
kins " at the extremities of the branches of the slioe ; or
to one side of the plate being thicker than the other.

Calkins. — Calkins are injurious to the limb in propor-
tion to their height. When smallest tliey are an evil, as
they have a tendency, in raising the back part of the foot
higher than the front, to alter the natural direction of the
limb, and throw undue strain on the fore part. Intended
to prevent slipping, their use in this respect is but tem-
porary, unless they are made high and thick ; when their
unfavorable influence on the limb and foot is increased.
Added to this, from their throwing so much of the weight

58 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

and strain on the front of the foot, the shoe is more rapidly
worn away at the toe; so its thickness there must be
greater, and the shoe in consequence heavier, or the ani-
mal will have to be more frequently shod. From their
only lasting for a limited period, the horse, at first in-
cKned to rely on them to preserve his footing on slippery
roads, becomes timid and unsafe when they are worn
down to the surface of the shoe. By their form, and their
projecting so much beyond the level of the plate, they jar
the limb ; expose it to twists and treads sometimes of a
grave character ; induce shortening of the flexor tendons ;
and until they have been considerably reduced, interfere
with the animal's action. They are also liable to cause
the shoe to be torn ofij by getting caught between paving-
stones ; while they produce severe lacerations, should the
horse wearing them happen to kick another animal. This
is more particularly observed among army horses which
have calkins on their hind shoes — and especially when in
camp or picketed. They also throw more strain upon the
nails and the hoof itself. Neither must it be forgotten
that they remove the frog from contact with the ground.

One side of the shoe being higher than the other pro-
duces the same results as follow when the hoof is unequal
in this respect. The hind limb is more exposed to this
evil than the fore one, from calkins being most frequently
added to the hind shoes, and from the fashion of having
the inner branch thickened, but not sufficient to compen-
sate for the height of the calkin on the outer heel. This
inequality is productive of injury to the fetlock and hock
joints, and is doubtless not unfrequently the cause of that
formidable disease of the latter — spavin.

But even if the farrier has reason to apply shoes whose
ground-surface is not studded with calkins or any other
kind of "catch," he, in nearly every case of ordinary
wear, puts on one which has the whole of this surface

THE SnOE. 59

perfectly plane, and not relieved throughout its length or
width by any thing, except perhaps the groove around
its outer circumference, in which the nail holes are placed.
This wide smooth surface is evidently adapted to facilitate
slipping on smooth pavements, or even on grass or clay
land.

Size. — Besides constructing the shoe of a faulty shape,
a very common practice is to apply one smaller than the
actual contour of the ground- surface of the hoof. This
is a grave error, and in all probability arises from the
desire to make the horse's foot look neat, and to produce
fine work ; just as the maker of shoes for the human foot
thinks it the perfection of workmanship to squeeze it into
the smallest possible space. In the horse, however, small
shoes are more fruitful of lameness and chronic deformity
than even the worst-shaped cramped coverings can be for
the human organ, as the horse is compelled to wear his
tight plates day and night, and must accomplish all kinds
of severe labor in them ; while man can relieve himself of
his torturing uncomfortable boots for at least some hours
out of the twenty-four.

We shall allude to the evils of this stupid practice
hereafter ; in the mean time, it may be sufficient to point
out, that in selecting and applying a shoe smaller than
the circumference of the hoof, we are depriving the foot
and limb of a portion of their stability and weight-bear-
ing surface. The limb is, in reality, a column of support
for the body, and the hoof is the base of this column.
This base is very much wider than any other portion, and
only commences at the foot, which gradually widens tow-
ard the ground, so as to make it still more expanded and
efficient. To diminish this is to frustrate Nature's mode
of affijrding security and ease to the limb, and conse-
quently to do it harm.

The above are only some of the more prominent evils

60 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

attendant on the present method of constructing and shap-
ing the horse's shoe; others, such as making it of bad
material, altogether unlike the outline of the hoof, etc.,
we will glance at presently. We have only now to con-
sider what has been for very many years the aim of those
who, overlooking the real injury done to the foot by the
barbarous fashion of paring and rasping, imagined the
chief, if not the sole, cause of lameness and inefficiency
arose from the faulty character of the protection applied
to it, and have sought to avert these by devising various
kinds of shoes, or other methods of arming the hoof.

It is scarcely necessary to say, that from their neglect-
ing, or being unconscious of the harm that resulted from
the malpractices already indicated, their so-called improve-
ments have been impotent for good, and have soon been
consigned to forgetfulness.

Objects to be attained. — We have stated what were
the objects to be attained when shoeing was first intro-
duced. To prevent undue wear of the horn, and at the
same time to secure a good foothold for the horse, appeal
to have been all that was considered essential in the in
fancy of the art of farriery. And it must be conceded
that, even now, these are the primary advantages to be
achieved in constructing a horse-shoe, no matter what
kind of task the horse that wears it may be required to
accomplish.

There can scarcely be a doubt that any thing more
simple and efficient, and at the same time less expensive,
than a well-devised iron shoe, cannot at present be pro-
duced ; nor can the comparatively safe and ready method
of attaching it by nails be superseded by any other means
that we are acquainted with. All tentatives in this direc-
tion have failed, either because of their inefficiency or
greater expense.

Simplicity, cheapness, durability, and perfect adapta

THE SHOE. 61

bility to various requirements, are the essentials to be ob-
tained in horseshoes ; and if one or more of these is ab-
sent in any particular pattern, it can never be generally
adopted, and is certain to have but brief success.

The effects of applying an iron defence to the horse'a
foot, and securing it to the hoof by means of nails, are
no doubt a source of injury to that organ, and even with
every care a few of them are unavoidable ; but they are
increased in number and heightened in intensity when the
shoe is badly constructed and attached ; whereas, by the
exercise of a little common sense and observation, those
which are not to be avoided may be mitigated.

The foot, as has been observed, is a perfect organ,
formed in harmony with the other parts of the limbs to
meet every requirement in bearing weight and aiding
movement.

The hoof, as an integral portion of the foot, possesses
these qualities to a high degree, and, but for its inability
to withstand incessant wear, would need no assistance
from man, except perhaps a little trimming when it be-
came overgrown or irregular. Its lower margin — hard,
narrow, and projecting slightly beyond the sole— is well
adapted to support weight, withstand wear, and retain a
hold of the ground ; the concave sole, in addition to its
assisting the margin to support weight and wear, also
lends its aid in securing a foothold by its hollow surface ;
while the angle of the wall at each heel— the " buttress " —
would appear to be specially designed to afford a most
effective check to the sliding forward of the foot as the
animal suddenly pulls up when moving at a fast pace on
level ground, or attempts to stop or diminish his descent
on a slippery declivity.

Those who study the functions of the animal body,
and who have to restore these when deranged, well know
that in their attempts to keep them in a normal condition,

5j5 practical horseshoeing.

or to bring them back to a healthy state, they ransl
attend to the laws which govern these functions, and fol-
low the indications of nature. Therefore I have asked
myself if it is possible to construct a shoe which, while
cheaply and easily manufactured by any ordinary farrier,
will answer the same ends as the lower surface of the foot
does in a natural state, at the same time protecting and
supporting it, without interfering to any appreciable ex-
tent with the healthy functions of the organ. We have
seen that the ordinary shoe is extremely imperfect, if it is
not diametrically opposite to what we should consider as
calculated to protect the foot, secure a good foothold, and
Interfere but little with its functions. Instead of support-
mg the sole at its strongest part, and thus relieving the
wall from much of the strain, it rests on the wall alone ;
this is contrary to natural indications. The wide space
between sole and shoe affords lodgment to foreign bodies
which, when the sole is artistically mutilated, may do
grievous harm, and it also increases suction in soft ground ;
the hoof shows nothing of this kind. Then again, the
ground face of the shoe is a wide and smooth plane wliich,
instead of preventing slipping, conduces to it ; or thick-
ened portions project above this face, which disturb the
balance and injure the limb, while they are only of very
temporary and questionable service in insuring a firm
footing.

In the unshod hoof we see nothing of this, and we are
brought to the conclusion, which daily experience amply
confirms, that in addition to the ordinary management of
the hoof being utterly erroneous, the shoe usually applied
to it is very far from what it ought to be.

Pattern of Shoe recommended. — If the sole of the
hoof has not been mutilated by the knife, it does not re-
quire to be covered by the shoe, as Nature has furnished
an infinitely better protection. Wide-surface shoes can

THE SHOE. 63

therefore be at once dispensed with, and a narrow shoe,
made of the very best and toughest iron, adapted for
travelling on slippery roads, and for aiding foot and limb,
and sufficient to withstand wear for four or five weeks, is
all that is required. We will therefore conclude that the
upper or foot surface should be the whole width of the
shoe, and plane— not bevelled— for we have seen that the
sole was destined, particularly at its junction with the
wall in front, to sustain weight. We also know that it is
advantageous to the whole foot and limb to allow the sole
as wide and general a bearing as possible ; so that one
part may relieve the other — the sole coming to the aid of
the wall, and the frog interposing to share the fatigue im-
posed upon both, as well as to relieve the strain on the
hinder parts of the foot, flexor tendons and limb, and keep
a firm grasp of the ground by its elastic and adhesive
properties.

The shoe applied to the foot, then, should have its
hoof surface flat, in order that it may sustain the wall and
as much of this strong portion of the sole as its width
permits. This is contrary to the usual practice, which
only allows the wall to rest on a narrow surface, and
bevels off the remainder of the shoe to prevent contact
with the sole. Many years' experience of this plane foot-
surfaced shoe in various regions of the globe, and on feet
of every kind and quality, have proved the soundness of
this view. The foot is brought as near to a state of na-
ture when the greater part of its plantar surface supports
the weight of the body, as man can hope to achieve while
submitting the horse to an artificial existence.

A light thin shoe is always preferable to a heavy thick
one ; as the narrowness of the metal insures a good foot,
hold— in this respect imitating the wall — while its thin-
ness brings the sole, frog, and bars in closer approxima-
tion to the ground.

64 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

It is impossible to devise a shoe that will successfully
meet every requirement. The heavy draught - horse,
doomed to bring into play every muscle in endeavoring
to move and drag along an enormous load, must have his
feet differently armed to the hunter or race-horse, with
which speed is the chief requisite. Taking into account
the different character of the horny textures, it is none the
less true, however, that the same rule holds good in all
with regard to the sole and frog sustaining weight, though
in the slow-moving animal it is of less importance, per-
haps, than in the lighter and more fleet one. The mas-
sive draught-horse requires toe and heel projections or
" catches " on the ground-surface of the shoes, to econo-
mize his locomotive powers and to aid his powerful
efforts ; though his hoofs none the less require the observ-
ance of those conservative principles which have been so
strongly insisted upon, but which are so very seldom ap-
plied.

To give the greatest amount of strength and foothold
to the shoes of the heavy draught-horse, with the least
amount of weight, should be an object always kept in
view in making them. But, with this animal, the princi'
pal object is the preservation of the wall of the hoof in
order that it may remain sound and strong for the reten-
tion of the nails ; to assist in effecting this, the sole and
frog must be preserved intact.

The form of the shoe in all cases should in outline
resemble the shape of the ground-surface of the hoof. It
has been decided that its upper surface must be flat from
the outer to the inner margin. For horses other than
those of heavy draught, its width will of course vary ;
but it is an advantage to have it as narrow as is compati-
ble, in relation to its thickness, with the amount of wear
reqiiired from it.

The ground-face of tlie shoe is the next point for con-

THE SHOE. 65

sideration. This should always be, if possible, parallel
with its upper face : that is, the shoe ought to be plane
on both surfaces, and of the same thickness on both sides,
not only in the fore but also the hind shoes. This guar-
antees the foot and limb being kept in a natural position.
What are termed " calkins " on one or both heels are
very objectionable, for the simple reason that, as has been
stated, they raise the back part of the foot higher tlian
the front, and throw the limb forward ; unless the hoof
meets the ground in its natural direction, some portion
of the leg or foot will be certain to suffer. Therefore,
whatever device may be employed to prevent slipping
and secure a hold of the ground should not interfere with
the natural direction of the limb or foot. If calkins are
deemed necessary, then the front part of the shoe ought
to be raised to a corresponding height either by thicken-
ing its substance or adding a toe piece. In the majority
of cases, however, the use of these projections is problem-
atical, and it is certain that hundreds of horses travel
as safely without them as with them. In many of our
large towns and cities they are but little employed, and
with advantage to the legs and feet. For many years I
have not allowed a calkin to be worn on the shoes of any
of the horses in my charge, and no complaints of slipping
or insecure footing have ever been made, nor have any
reports of horses falling down either on slippery turf or
the smooth surface of paved streets, from the absence of
calkins, ever reached me. Having studied the subject ol
farriery practically, for several years, in the large citicH
of Glasgow and Manchester before entering the army, and
having during fifteen years' service been attached to those
branches in which light or riding horses and heavy or
draught-horses are employed, ray opportunities for obser-
vation have been extensive. These opportunities have
led me to form the opinion just given as to the value of

66 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

calkins. While stationed with my regiment in Edinburgh
in 1864-'65, I obtained permission to dispense with cal-
kins on the hind-shoes (they are not worn on the fore-
shoes of cavalry-horses), and though the orderly and other
duties were somewhat heavy on the streets of that city —
which are perhaps the most slippery in Britain — no acci-
dent occurred.

For more than three years I have been stationed in
a large garrison town in the south of England with
nearly three hundred horses — most of which are draught
— in my charge. The greater portion of these animals
are employed several hours every day conveying heavy
loads up and down very badly-made and excessively-steep
roads ; no calkins or toe-pieces are worn, no slipping is
ever observed, while the sprains and injuries arising from
the use of calkins are unknown.

This immunity I attribute not alone to the absence of
these projections, but to the care always taken to keep the
hoofs healthy, properly adjusted, and strong, with the
frogs resting as much as possible on the ground.

In attempting to prevent slipping, and to afford a firm
hold of the ground, without having recourse to calkins, a
great object is to diminish the wide surface of metal of
the shoe, without interfering, but as little as possible,
with its resistance to wear. The simplest method of doing
this is merely to change the bevel on the foot-surface of
the ordinary shoe to its ground-surface — making what is
now concave, flat, and what is now the flat slippery
ground-surface, concave. The effect is almost magical in
the security it gives the animal during progression, and
is best exemplified in the case of the hunter, which is
usually shod with shoes of this description. Here, again,
we are only imitating Nature by copying the concavity
of the sole. There can be no doubt whatever as to the
advantages to be gained by using such shoes. The sole

THE SHOE. 6?

is pretty well supported, as well as the whole of the wall,
by the wider surface of metal above, while the narrow
surface toward the ground affords security of tread.

For general purposes this is an excellent form of shoe,
but to make it still more efficient I devised a modification
of it some years ago, which is an exact reproduction in
iron of the ground-surface of this part of the hoof; it has
been employed on the road and in the field with most
satisfactory results both on the fore and hind feet.

In this shoe (Fig. 13), instead of the bevel on the

Fig. 13.

ground - surface gradually become shallower as it ap-
proaches the heels, as in the ordinary hunting-shoe, it be-
comes deeper, until, within an inch or two of the ex-
tremity of the branch, it has cut down through the thick-
ness of the inner border ; it then abruptly ceases, leaving
a sharp catch on each side that, like the inflexion of the
wall at this part (Fig. 5, d d), affords an excellent grip,
which moreover lasts until the shoe is quite worn out.
With a modification of this kind, three important objects
are secured : 1. The plane upper surface, resting flat and
solidly on the crust and unpared sole, leaves no space in
which foreign bodies — as clay, stones, or gravel — may
lodge, and in heavy ground suction is lessened. 2. The
metal is only removed from the parts where it can be best
spared, and where there is least wear ; consequently the

68

PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

shoe is liglitened without being weakened. 3. The level
border and extremities of the branches afford an equal
bearing for the foot, while the gradually deepening bevel,
with its sudden check, secures a permanent and powerful
catching point like that at the angle of the wall.

The shoe is easily made by any farrier, differing, as it
does, so little from the ordinary hunting-shoe, and the
shape is the same for the fore as the hind shoe, except
that the former is, of course, more circular than the latter,
to correspond with the shape of the hoof.

To make its fabrication as simple, speedy, and easy as
the ordinary shoe, I have it made in two moulds or
" cresses," which fit into the anvil. These moulds are of
iron faced with steel; one (Fig. 14) has two wide, slightly

Fig. 14.

Fig. 15.

curved transverse grooves cut on its surface, the one side
of each being shallower than the other ; in these each
branch of the shoe is moulded. The other cress (Fig. 15)
has also two indentations so formed as to cut the check
or "sunk calkin." With these moulds, the shoe is as
easily and quickly made as the common one, and requires
but little finishing. The moulds may be of three sizes,
to suit different sized feet and different kinds of work, and
can be forged by any ordinary blacksmith or farrier.

This shoe has been somewhat extensively tried by car-
riage and saddle horses, and with the very best results.
For hunting or cavalry purposes it is excellent, particu

THE SHOE. 69

larly on slippery grass-land, the sliarp point of the catch
biting the surface of the ground most effectively.

Clips, — For carriage and saddle horses and hunters,
each fore and hind shoe should have a clip drawn up at
the middle of the toe, except in special cases, as when the
horse overreaches, or, from being required to jump or any
other cause, is likely to strike any part of the back of the
fore-legs ; in which case the hind-shoes require to have a clip
at each side of the toe — none in the middle — the hoof in
front being allowed to project beyond the shoe ; the latter
should have all sharp edges carefully removed at this part,
particularly in the case of hunters.

Clips, when judiciously placed, are of service in re-
taining the shoe, and so permitting the number of nails
to be diminished ; but, as a rule, they should be as few as
possible, as they are sometimes a source of injury to the
hoof, particularly if they are situated in too close prox-
imity to the nails.

Varieties of Shoes. — Various forms of shoes have
been from time to time proposed with a view to prevent
slipping, but only those which have had their ground-
surface grooved, bevelled, or " toothed," have met with
any success. In recent times, an American shoe, the
" Goodenough," has had wonderful qualities claimed for
it in this respect. It differs but little from the common
hunting-shoe; it has several trivial projections cut on the
outer margin of its lower surface, which may prevent slip-
ping so long as they last, but in a very short time they
are worn away, and then it has nothing to recommend it
beyond the ordinary hunting-shoe. The shoe is made by
machinery.

Mr. Gray, of the Mowbray Works, Sheffield, has intro-
duced machine-made shoes faced with steel, and grooved
into two or more sharp ridges on their ground-surface.
When fitted, these shoes are tempered; consequently they

70 PRACTICAL HOKSESHOEING.

are harder than iron, should wear for a longer period, and
may thus be made made lighter. If their hardness does
not cause them to be more slippery on smooth pavement
when the ridges have become somewhat worn, than the
iron shoe, they should be an improvement, and prove
cheaper than those commonly in use.

More recently, grooved and surface-cut rolled iron bars
have been introduced with some success for the manufac-
ture of horseshoes.

Material. — Machine-made horseshoes have, unfortu-
nately, never hitherto proved successful, from the mate-
rial of which they are manufactured proving either too
Boft — when they were too rapidly worn out — or too hard,
when they had a tendency either to break or induce slip-
ping.

We have remarked how important it is that the shoes
worn by horses should be as light as possible. It is gen-
erally a good plan, if a horse wears his shoes more at one
part than another, so that they do not last a sufficient
time, to weld in a small piece of steel at that place, in-
stead of thickening the shoe, and making it heavier. The
latter method, which is that generally adopted to save
time, most frequently defeats its purpose — the increased
weight causing the animal to drag its feet heavily along
the ground instead of lifting them freely.

Lightness and durability can only be attained by em-
ploying the best material.

Nail-holes. — The form of the shoe having been decid-
ed upon, the position and shape of the nail-holes, as well
as their number, have next to be considered.

The shoe ought to be attached by nails to those parts
of the wall where the horn is strongest and toughest. In
the fore-foot, these parts are in front and along the sides
to the quarters ; there the horn becomes narrow and thin,
and the nails find less support, and are nearer to the liv

THE SHOE. n

ing textures ; this is more particularly the case toward
the heels, especially the inner one. In the hind-foot, the
wall is generally strong toward the quarters and heeL
These facts at once give us an indication as to the best
position for the nail-holes. In the fore-foot, nails can be
driven through the wall around the toe as far as the inside
quarter, and a little nearer the heel on the outside. In
the hind-foot, they may be driven around the toe, and
even up to the heels with impunity.

The form of the nail-holes is a matter of secondary
importance. The " fullering," or groove, around the bor-
der of the English shoe, though artistic looking, is a mis-
take ; it is a waste of labor and of but little, if any, ser-
vice. What is termed the " stamped shoe," is in every
way preferable. The square or somewhat oval cavity,
wide at the top and tapering toward the bottom, gives a
secure and solid lodgment to the nail-head, which of
course should fit the cavity accurately ; it does not weak-
en the shoe, is easily made, can be placed nearer the outer
or inner margin of the plate as required, and when filled
with the nail is as capable of resisting wear as any other
part of the shoe. It is usually better to have tlie nail-
holes stamped " coarse " (that is, at some distance from
the outer margin of the shoe) at points corresponding to
those parts of the hoof where the wall is strongest ; and
" finer," where the horn is thin and its fibres short.

They should not, as a rule, incline outward or inward,
but be so perforated that the nail-point can take a strong oi
weak hold of the wall, according to circumstances. If
the hoof be strong, with plenty of wall at its lower mar-
gin, then the holes may be stamped coarse, in order to
take a short but solid hold of it, by driving the nail ob-
liquely outward (as in Fig. 16, a).

The number of nail-holes through which nails are to be
driven should be as few as possible. Every nail pene-

72 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

trating the wall of the foot, no matter how skilfully it
may be placed, may be looked upon as a source of injury

Fig. 16.

to it, by splitting asunder or breaking its fibres. On the
form and weight of the shoe will greatly depend the
number of nails required to retain it. With that I have
described as used in hunting, or as modified by me, and
which rests firmly on wall and sole, as well as being as light
as is compatible with a certain period of wear, but few
nails are needed. The ordinary heavy shoe, on the con-
trary, is not only damaging to the foot, because it rests on
such a narrow basis, but also because its weight and insta-
bility necessitate its being attached by a large number of
long thick nails, wliich do great harm to the hoof.

With care in fitting a properly constructed shoe, and
skill in placing the nails firmly in sound horn, the usual
number may be considerably reduced ; so that instead of
seven to ten being required, it will be found that from
four to six are equally serviceable, and even these may be
of diminished size. For shoes worn by medium-sized
draught-horses, I seldom allow more than six nails in the
fore and seven in the hind feet ; more frequently the for-
mer are secured by five nails — three in the outside and
two in the inside branch of the shoe, and tlie latter by
three on each side.

THE SHOE. 73

The fewer the number of nail-holes, the greater is the
necessity for distributing them wide apart ; mdeed, it is a
grave blunder to cluster the nails closely together in the
hoof, as they break and weaken the horn, and attach the
shoe much Less securely than if they were spread over a
wider surface. Calkins demand the employment of addi-
tional nails, from their liability to become fixed between
stones, and also from the strain they occasion.

It must always be remembered that the retention of a
shoe for a sufficient period does not so much depend upon
the number of the nails attaching it, as upon their disposi-
tion and upon its exact fitting and solid bearing on the wall
and sole of the hoof. It should also be borne in mind that
where there is a clip there ought to be no nail; lameness
is not unfrequently produced by a tightly-adjusted clip
making so much pressure upon the nail and horn within it
as to cause pain and inflammation.

We have alluded to the various patterns of shoes in
use, and pointed out their defects and requirements. As,
in preparing the hoof, general principles were laid down
which are applicable to every kind of animal — from the
race-horse to the mammoth draught-beast employed in our
large manufacturing cities— so in the shape of the shoe
and its essential characteristics general principles must
everywhere prevail. Where speed is demanded, as in the
race-horse, hunter, etc., lightness and security of foothold
on soft or slippery land are the chief desiderata; with
coach and other draught animals of less speed, and which
are principally used on paved roads, heavier shoes are
needed to sustain wear, and they must also affiDrd security ;
but while, with the racer, hunter, and other animals near-
ly always moving over soft soil, calkins may be resorted
to without much detriment to the limb and foot, as they
sink into the ground, on the shoes of horses working on
hard roads they are objectionable for the reasons stated ;
4

74 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

if they are resorted to, their injurious action should be
averted by employing a toe-piece of the same height.

For the race-horse the narrowest iron rim is sufficient,
provided it is strong enough not to twist or bend. The
present form of shoe is not objectionable.

For hunters, hacks, and harness horses, a shoe of the
modified pattern I have described is well adapted ; even
the ordinary hunting pattern, but without the calkin on
the hind-shoe, is infinitely preferable to that used for hacks
and harness horses.

Another excellent form of shoe, introduced by Staft
Veterinary Surgeon Thacker, and which has been in use
for some time at "Woolwich on riding and harness horses,
deserves to be mentioned here. It is broader in the cover
at the toe than the heels (Fig. 17) ; at the toe it is slightly

Fig. 17.

curved upward, to remove it from the greater amount of
wear occurring at this part, and also as a safeguard against
horses' stumbling. This curve also acts as a clip to prevent
the shoe moving backward. The foot-surface is quite flat,
and rests on the sole and wall (Fig. 1*7). The ground-sur-
face (Fig. 1 8) is bevelled somewhat like the hunting or modi-
fied shoe I have described, with the intention of protecting
the heads of the nails from too much wear, and ofiering no
line or cavity whereby a stone can lodge or become wedged.
The cover or " web " of the shoe is gradually brought very

THE SHOE. 75

narrow at the heels, its outer rim corresponding exactly
with the crust, and the ends of the branches terminating at

Fig. is.

the heels of the foot, thus offering protection to the crust
only, and without presenting any surface to be trodden
upon or allowing the least suction in heavy ground.

The nail-holes are in the centre of the weh, and are di-
rected cutward, by which the nails pass obliquely across
the fibres of the wall and secure a good hold, without ap-
proaching the sensitive parts too closely. Three-fourths
of an inch is supposed to be the height necessary to drive
the nails.

There are two small clips — one on each side of the cur-
vature at the toe — and these not only support the dimin-
ished number of nails, but require that the farrier fit the
shoe to the circumference of the foot. The smallest-sized
nails should be invariably used, and fitted into each nail-
hole before applying the shoe — the shoe to be light and
made of good material. This pattern, like the modified
slioe I have proposed, is suitable for either fore or hind
feet.

It may be mentioned that, with the exception of the
two side-clips at the toe, this shoe is nearly identical in
shape with that recommended by Colonel Fitzwygram in
his excellent work on Shoeing,

76 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

APPLYING THE SHOE.

The foot having been duly prepared, and the form of
phoe decided upon, the next step is to apply the shoe to
the hoof, and retain it there by nails.

In ordinary practice the wall of the foot has been only
partially diminished, the remainder of the task being left
until the shoe has to be fitted. This causes the farrier to
have a very imperfect idea of the proper shape or size of
the hoof, and he therefore prepares a shoe which he
guesses is about the size, though in nearly every case it is
too small ; and, moulding it according to his fancy, he
proceeds to adjust the foot to it. This is done by cutting
more or less deeply into the wall at the toe, to make the
shoe appear long enough by embedding the clip deeply in
its substance, or " letting it back," as it is termed. The
consequence is, that when the shoe has been nailed on,
the basis of support of the limb is abnormally diminished,
a large portion of the wall of the hoof — its strongest por-
tion— projects beyond the shoe in front and at the sides,
and this is afterward carefully removed by the rasp, to the
great injury of the most essential portion of the hoof. In
every respect, the foot is made to fit the shape of the shoe,
and as this is generally prepared with a view only to neat-
ness or the traditions of routine, the organ suffers, to
please the fancy or fashion of the unreasoning artisan.

By our method, the horn having been reduced to
proper dimensions, the shoe is now made to exactly fit
the hoof, and to follow the outline of its lower face. The
part of the hoof intended to be protected by the iron rim
has been made as level as possible by the rasp, aided a
very little, perhaps, by the knife ; the surface of the shoe
destined to rest on this horny bed has also been made
perfectly level and smooth, particularly at the clip or

APPLYING THE SHOE. 77

flips, and it is to be correctly fitted. The farrier should
BO mould the shoe that it be an exact reproduction in out-
line of the circumference of the hoof. To make it appear
BO when applied, it may be necessary to remove a little
of the wall at the part corresponding to the clip, merely
to make the fit more accurate and not allow any portion
of the shoe to project unduly beyond the horn.

The length of the shoe will vary with the uses to
which the horse is put. For racing, hunting, and other
purposes in which the hind limbs are carried forward to
an extreme degree in propelling the body, the branches
of the fore-shoe must on no account extend beyond the
inflexion of the wall, otherwise the shoe is liable to be
torn off by the hind-foot, and the horse thrown down.
The end of the branch should also be carefully rounded
off and bevelled (as in Fig. 13), so as to leave nothing
whatever by which the hind-shoe might catch it.

With harness and draught horses this extreme care in
shortening and bevelling the heels is not so necessary ;
indeed, in the heavier and slower-paced animals, it is fre-
quently advantageous to allow the shoes to be rather
longer at the heels than the hoof itself.

As a rule, then, the shoe ought to be wide enough at
the toe, quarters, and heels, to support the entire thick-
ness of the wall, but yet not so wide or long as to en-
danger the opposite limbs by striking them, or run the
chance of being torn off by the other feet treacling upon
it ; and it should not interfere with the frog, or prevent
that organ from playing its part in the physiology of the
foot.

The adjustment of the shoe to the exact circumference
of the hoof is usually effected at the same time as the
.fitting together of the two surfaces of iron and horn
♦vhich are to remain in contact. To render both accu-
rate, the horse should always be shod at a forge. A ham*'

78 PEACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

rner and anvil are necessary to mould the heated shoe to
the requisite shape ; and it is almost, if not quite, impossi-
ble to obtain a perfectly true and solid adaptation of the
upper face of the shoe to the horn on which it is to rest,
within any reasonable time, unless it be fitted to the hoof
in a hot state.

Hot and Cold Fitting. — ^For very many years the two
systems of fitting horseshoes in a cold and a heated con-
dition to the hoofs have been extensively and severely
tested, and the result has been that cold fitting is, as a
rule, only resorted to when circumstances prevent the
adoption of the other method, or when the owner of a
horse, imagining that the hot shoe injures the foot, incurs
the risks attending a bad fit to guard against his imagi-
nary evil.

It is needless, in a brief essay like the present, to enter
into a relation of the observations and experiments which
have established the undoubted and great superiority of
what is termed " hot " to " cold " fitting. These will be
found noticed at some length in a work recently published
by me, entitled "Horseshoes and Horseshoeing." It may
be sufficient to state that the evils supposed to result from
fitting the shoes hot to the hoofs are purely chimerical.
It is true, when the sole is excessively mutilated, should
the farrier keep the heated shoe too long in contact with
it, injury would doubtless follow, but this accident is so
exceedingly rare as to be scarcely ever known, even in
forges where shoeing is performed in the most objection-
able manner. The ill efiects imagined to arise from hot
shoeing can easily be traced to the operation of other
causes, not the least of which is the fashion of paring the
lower face of the foot.

The chief objections to cold shoeing are the want of
solidity, the foot being made to fit the shoe, and the pro«
cess being more difficult and expensive.

APPLYING THE SHOE. 79

• The defective solidity is patent to every one who has
had any experience in the matter. It is impossible to
level the ends of the horn-fibres so accurately that they
will all rest evenly on the surface of the iron ; so those
which are most prominent soon giving way to pressure,
the bed of the shoe is altered, and this, becoming loose, is
either lost, or we have projecting clenches. And even
should the fibres be made perfectly level, wet softens
them, causing them to become pulpy and shorter, by
which means the seat of the shoe is impaired and the nails
lose their firm hold of the wall. Ample experience on
active service, as well as that gathered at home during
peace, has demonstrated the instability resulting from
cold fitting.

Owing to the increased trouble and loss of time in-
curred by this method in attempts to make the shoe fit
somewhat accurately, but few farriers can afford or are
willing to resort to it. Hence, when it is practised, if the
shoe is at all like the foot, it is put on, and rasp and knife
insure the hoof being made to fit it. This proceeding is
very injurious.

In hot fitting we have none of these objections. The
shoe is very readily adapted to the foot ; it is more equal-
ly applied, and rests solidly on the hoof, so that the nails
are not broken or displaced by the shoe becoming loose ;
in fine, there is a more intimate contact between the iron
and the surface of the horn. The very fact of burning or
fusinor the ends of the fibres insures a solid durable bed
which cannot be obtained otherwise, as this destroys the
spongy absorbent properties of the horn and renders it
eminently calculated to withstand the influence of moist-
ure. The effects produced on horn by the hot iron have
been compared to those of fire on pieces of wood whose
ends have been superficially carbonized before being
buried in the ground. Every one knows that this opera-

80 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

tion contributes to the preservation of the wood by pre*
serving it from the action of humidity.

Horn is a very slow conductor of heat, and it requires
a very prolonged apj^lication of the hot shoe to aifect the
hoof to any considerable depth. Three minutes' burning
of the lower face of the sole has been found necessary to
produce any indication of increase of temperature by the
thermometer on its upper surface. It is never required
that the shoe should be applied longer than a few seconds.

The hot shoe, in fusing the horn with which it comes
in contact, imprints itself like a seal in melted sealing-
wax, and in this way the two surfaces of foot and shoe
exactly coincide ; while no matter how expert the work-
man may be in using his tools to level the horn in a cold
state, he can never do it so quickly or so completely as
may be done by making an impression with the heated
shoe, and consequently establishing between the lower
margin of the hoof and the shoe an exact coaptation.

It may be added that, when the surface of the horn
has been softened by the action of caloric, the nails enter
it more readily, the clips and inequalities are more easily
embedded, and when it recovers its habitual consistency
after cooling, the union between it and the metallic parts
which are in contact becomes all the more intimate be-
cause of the slight contraction that follows the expansion
produced by the heat. Under these conditions, the horn
contracts on the shanks of the nails, and retains them
most securely.

All the highest veterinary authorities who have studied
the subject are unanimous in recommending hot fitting in
preference to cold ; the latter is only justifiable when it is
impossible to adopt the former. The red-hot shoe at once
disposes of those inequalities which cannot be discovered,
or removed by tools ; and it shows the workman at a
glance the bearing of the shoe on the hoof, as well as the

APPLYIXG THE SHOE. 81

imprint of the nail-holes. Without being reheated, any
alteration can be readily and at once effected in moulding
the shoe to the shape of the two.

The whole surface of the shoe intended to be in con-
tact with the horn should be distinctly impressed on the
contour of the hoof, so as to insure the closest and most
accurate intimacy between the two ; and this carbonized
surface should not be interfered with on any account, ex-
cept by the rasp, which is only to be employed in remov-
ing any sharpness or inequality on the extreme edge of
the wall that may have been caused in fitting.

It is necessary to bear in mind that the shoe should
be fitted at a red heat. Its application then need only
be very brief, and it is far more effective in producing a
solid level surface ; it ought not to be applied at a hlack
heat. Should the margin of the hoof not be sufficiently
levelled by the rasp before the application of the hot shoe,
a slight contact of the latter will show the inequalities,
and these may then be removed by rasp or knife. On no
occasion ought the shoe to remain longer on the hoof
than is necessary to produce a solid, perfectly level sur-
face.

TJie JS'ails. — The shoe having been made to fit the
hoof exactly, is cooled and finished with the file. It is
then ready to be attached to the hoof by nails. These
should not be unnecessarily large, as is too often the case,
but well proportioned to the size of the shoe. The heads
should only be sufficient to fill the nail-holes when sub-
jected to two or three smart blows of the hammer, and
the shanks thin. It is scarcely necessary to add that the
nails, like the shoe, should always be made of the best
iron.

Driving the Kails. — In driving the nails into the hoof^
every one should be made to pass through sound horn.
It is a mistake to place them where the wall is broken or

S2 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

perforated by previous nails, as this only makes bad worse;
and care should be taken to direct each nail so accurately
that it may make its exit at the desired point in the face
of the wall at once. Careless or unskilful driving of the
nails necessitates their being withdrawn several times be-
fore they are properly implanted, and as each nail, how-
ever carefully it may be placed in the wall at the first at-
tempt, is a source of injury by splitting asunder and per-
forating the fibres, it follows that when several attempts
have to be made the injury is proportionately increased.

A short thick hold of the wall is better than a long
thin one. If possible, no more horn should be included
within the grasp of the nail than is likely to be removed
at the following shoeing. By this means the wall is con-
stantly maintained sound.

A foot allowed to grow strong in the manner I have
described, will suffer no inconvenience in having the nails
driven tightly into the shoe and hoof after they have been
placed in the wall.

Where the hoof is thin, as at the quarters and heels
of the fore-foot, smaller and more slender nails must be
used, and these must be less tightly driven. The toe
nails should be first hammered home firmly, then the
quarter and heel nails lightly. Every nail should, form a
part of the shoe, and the head should barely project above
it ; when all are solidly disposed, they must be tightly
" drawn up " at the ends (the points having been twisted
off previously) by means of the hammer and pincers, using
the same graduated degree of force as in driving them
home.

Conclusion of the Operation. — Nothing then remains
to be done but to bend do^vn or " clench " the portion
of nail so drawn up on the face of the wall. This should
be accomplished by shortening the fragment to a proper
length by the rasp, so as to leave just enough to turn

APPLYING THE SHOE. 83

over; the rasp also removes the small barb of horn
raised in drawing up the nail, but without making a
notch, and then the clench is laid down evenly. No more
rasping or cutting should be allowed on any pretext
whatever.

Rasping. Very different to this treatment is that

practised in nearly every forge, where the front of the
hoof is rasped most unmercifully as high as the coronet.
Indeed, in the majority of books on farriery it is recom-
mended that, though the wall ought not to be rasped
above the clenches, this must be done below them ; evi-
dently ignorant of the fact that nearly as much, if not
more, harm is done by this operation below than above
these rivets.

Those who study what I have said concerning the
structure of the wall of the hoof will readily enough un^
derstand the amount of injury inflicted on the foot by
this rasping.

Over the whole external face of this part there appears
to be spread a fine translucent horn, which looks like a
varnish, whose office in all probability is to prevent undue
drying of the hoof and consequent brittleness. Imme-
diately beneath this are the dense resisting fibres of the
wall, which are intended to resist wear, and are best
adapted to support a shoe, through the medium of the
nails ; in fact, they are the fibres which ought to perform
this duty, as beneath them, toward the inside of the wall,
the horn rapidly becomes soft and spongy, and more like
the pith of a rush.

In consequence of the farrier having neglected to re-
move a sufficient amount of horn from the lower margin
of the wall, when preparing the foot for the shoe, or hav-
ing nailed on a plate too small for its natural circumfer-
ence, a large piece of the solid material projects beyond
the shoe, particularly in front and at the sides. This is

84 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

torn away by the rasp, after the clenches have been laid
down ; and when this has been done what do we see ?
The wall of the foot, instead of coming down from the
coronet to the shoe in all its integrity and evenness of
slope, as soon as it reaches the clenches is chopped ab*
ruptly downward, giving the foot a stump or club-like
appearance, and greatly diminishing the extent of its bear-
ing surface. The greatest evil, however, is the loss of the
strong tough horn, whose presence is so necessary to pro-
tect the lower margin of the hoof and afford support and
hold to the nails.

In consequence of its removal, these have nothing to
retain them but the thin pellicle of soft horn remaining,
and this being so weak, and exposed to influences it was
never intended to encounter, quickly dries up, shrivels,
becomes brittle, and cracks or breaks away in flakes.
Then we have a hoof deprived of its horn, and in as un-
natural a condition as can well be imagined ; it has been
so barbarously mutilated as to require the greatest care
next shoeing to place the nails in a shred of sound horn ;
the operation of rasping and curtailment being repeated
each time increases the evil, and should a shoe chance to
come off on the road — an accident, it may be inferred,
extremely Hkely to happen — great damage will be done
to the pared sole, and the thin, brittle, slit-up wall, and in
all probability, after a few yards travelling, the animal
will be lamed.

The morbid desire to make fine work of shoeing, when
the horse was first shod, ends in the greatest amount of
skill and labor being required to continue it, and keep the
animal to some extent fit for service, though with de-
formed feet, seriously damaged horn, and perhaps great
suffering.

The truth of this can be verified by a casual glance at
the hoofs of almost every horse that passes us in town or

APPLYING THE SHOE. 85

country — though perhaps it is most conspicuous in town-
shod horses.

One of the most serious results of this excessive mu-
tilation of the lower part of the wall is the production of
a chronic form of laminitis, marked by slight subsidence
half-way down the front of the foot and to a less degree
at the side, with an abrupt rounded protrusion of the part
that is always exposed to rasping.

This deformity, which causes pain and altered gait in
the majority of cases, arises from the irritation caused to
the sensitive parts within by the removal of their natural
protection, but more particularly from the fact that the
nails, to retain the shoe, must be driven through a sufficient
amount of the soft horn, and this brings them so near the
living parts that they press upon them to such a degree,
as to set up an acute or subacute inflammation that leads
to this deformity and its attendant lameness.

Cases of this description will be found to be by no
means uncommon among the horses in our streets, and for
many years I have been able to trace the evil effects of
the practice from their commencement until the animal
was a hopeless cripple.

When the coachman, groom, or farrier's fancy causes
the rasp to be carried above the clenches to the top of the
hoof, then of course the injury is greatly aggravated.

The thin semi-translucent horn that extends in a some-
what wide, whitish-colored band around the upper part
of the foot, is chiefly intended by Nature, I think, tc
protect the fibres of the wall from the effects of externa)
physical influences, such as heat and dryness, while they
are being secreted, or so immature as to be incapable of
resisting these influences — for it will be remembered that
the wall is formed at the coronet, and this covering guar-
antees not only the integrity of the newly-made horn-
tubes, but also maintains the secreting vessels that enter

86 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

them in a healthy condition, and competent to supply
fresh material for wear.

The destruction of this band, and the rasping of the
fibres beneath it, is detrimental to the healthy secretion
of the wall-fibres, and leads to the same result that par-
ing the sole was shown to do : shrinking of the horn-
tubes containing the tufts of vessels, wasting of these, a
diminished supply of horny material in consequence, and
a thin brittle wall that scarcely appears to grow down
at all in depth or thickness, and barely allows a shoe
to be attached to it. Sandcrack and other diseased
conditions of this part of the hoof are mainly due to this
cause.

After applying the shoe in the manner we have de-
scribed, and laying down the clenches evenly on the wall
of the hoof, no more requires to be done, unless perhaps
it be to round a little more the edge of the narrow shreds
of horn that may project on each side of the clip, and
thus prevent their liability to split. The angle of the
face of the hoof should never be interfered with after the
shoe is nailed on, but should be the same from top to bot-
tom as in the natural state. This is a matter of great
importance. Too much stress cannot be laid upon tlie
preservation of the horn of the hoof in its integrity. No
amount of rasping or artificial treatment can give the
hoof the beautiful polish it has in its natural state.

Laying down Clips, — At this stage, it is usual to ap-
ply the clip or clips more exactly and evenly to the hoof
before completing the operation of shoeing ; and even
this apparently trifling matter demands care. With gradu-
ally decreasing blows of the shoeing hammer, each clip
should be applied close to the hoof, commencing at the
bottom, where it springs from the shoe, and ascending to
its point. Clips should never be driven tight into the
hoof; this is injurious and may induce disease.

ATPLYIXG THE SHOE. 87

When, in due course, the period arrives for re-shoeing
—usually in a month or five weeks — the hoofs requii-e to
be reduced to their normal dimensions ; the rules we have
laid down for guidance are to be followed out in the most
scrupulous manner. The old shoe is to be gently re-
moved from the foot by carefully cutting away the clench-
es with the buffer ; the pincers are then to be inserted
toward the heel, between the hoof and shoe, and the lat-
ter prized steadily upward froin and across the foot.
When by this means the nails have been sufficiently
sprung, they may be withdrawn one by one. Particular
care must be taken that no clenches or broken nails re-
main in the hoof, as these are likely to turn the points of
the succeeding nails into the living parts of the foot.

Such then, on the one hand, is shoeing as it is usually
practiced, to the great injury of the horse ; and, on the
other hand, shoeing as it onght to be performed, so as to
maintain the comfort and efficiency of this noble and in-
valuable animal.

It will be observed that no claim is here made to any
wonderful novelty or discovery in the way of a shoe that
will answer every purpose, and keep every horse wearing
it in a state of health. Such an invention must be left to
those whose practical experience is of the most limited
character, and who fancy that the evils of shoeing are
concentrated in the metal plate alone. It may be sufficient
to say, in this place, that, so far as the comfort, utility,
and well-being of the horse are concerned, the preserva-
tion of the foot in health by abstaining from mutilating
and deforming it with knife and rasp, is of the highest
importance. If this be done, the shoe most appropriate for
certain purposes demands some attention, but is really a
matter of minor consideration.

Preserve the hoof intact and strong, and the animal
will travel long and soundly in a very uncouth foot arma-

88 PKACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

ture; pare and rasp it according to "improved princi-
ples," and the most labored, expensive, and artistic device
in the form of a shoe will not prevent discomfort, un-
soundness, disease, and premature uselessness.

At an early period of my professional career, I was
much dissatisfied with the results of shoeing as it is prac-
tised in ordinary forges, and with the unreasonableness
of the fashion of depriving the foot of its natural and
most efficient protection, and was soon led to perceive that
a vast majority of the horses so treated soon became de-
formed and lame in their feet ; while some of the diseases
occurring higher up in the limbs were likewise due to this
cause.

The rational method here inculcated was then adopted,
and now for very many years the only preparation the
foot has received for the shoe has been levelling the wall,
in conformity with the direction of the limb and foot, and
removing as much of its margin as will restore it to its
natural length, leaving the sole, frog, bars, and heels in
all their integrity. Such has been the treatment of the
hoofs of the horses under my care in various parts of the
world, and in far more trying circumstances at times, so
far as shoeing is concerned, than are likely to occur in the
regular work of towns ; and so strong were the hoofs, as a
rule — such solid blocks of horn did they appear, that
when a shoe was, by some rare chance, lost on a journey,
there was no danger whatever to be apprehended from
marching the horse ten, twenty, or even thirty miles,
without it. Horses have never been pricked in nailing,
anH foot diseases, it may be said, have been all but un-
known. The roughest roads and the sharpest stones can
be travelled over with impunity. Nearly every lioof
might be taken as a model, and be pronounced as perfect
ae before the animal was shod many years previously.

This abstinence from paring and rasping, it will be

APPLYING THE SHOE. 89

seen, very materially lessens the time and labor required
in the ordinary method ; indeed, nothing can be simpler
than the conservative principle of shoeing, and this sim-
plicity can be effectively carried into practice with one-
half the instruction and toil required for the popular
mode.

Other methods of shoeing have been devised from time
to time, and may be briefly referred to here.

To diminish the weight and permit a portion of the pos«
terior part of the foot to come in direct contact with the
ground along with the frog, a three-quarter shoe is often
applied — the portion of iron extending from the inside
quarter to the point of the heel being cut off, and the shoe
at this part thinned a little. The horn left unprotected is
never interfered with. This is an excellent shoe for sad-
dle and carriage, and even draught horses, which may be
employed on the worst roads while wearing it. For feet
that have suffered very much from the effects of rasping,
and paring, and which are liable to have bruised heels (or
corns), its use is attended with the greatest benefit.

The same may be said of " tips " or half-shoes. An
unreasonable prejudice appears to exist against the use of
these light, short plates ; but, if they are applied in appro-
priate cases, there can be no doubt whatever that they
are entitled to a far larger share of attention than they
have yet received. Their very limited employment hith-
erto may have arisen from the imperfect manner in which
they have been used. They protect those parts of the
wall most exposed to damage by wear, extending around
the toe and reaching no farther than the quarters ; while
the heels and frog, when left unpared and imrasped, are
strong enough to meet all demands made upon them, at
the same time they are not deprived of their physiological
functions.

In addition to these considerations, the diminution in

90 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

the weight of the shoe is a matter of some importance.
Of course, the three-quarter shoe and the tip are only re-
quired for the fore-feet ; the hind-feet shoes, so long as
they are level, are not over heavy, and do not woimd the
opposite limbs, may be of the ordinary pattern. On this
difference between the management of the fore and hind
foot we cannot too much insist. The fore-foot is particu-
larly disposed to disease and injury ; the hind-foot is won-
derfully exempt. So much is this the case, indeed, that
the proper management of the first is all important, while
the other requires but little attention. The reason of this
is due to the fact that the horizontal body, and long, heavy
neck and head of the horse, cause the largest proj^ortion
of the weight to fall upon the front pair of supporting
columns, and, through them, upon the feet : the fore-limbs
are those most concerned in supporting weight, the hind
ones in propelling the body forward. Hence the necessity
for allowing as much of the lower face of the fore-foot as
possible to come in contact with the ground ; and hence
the prevalence of disease in it when improper shoeing
limits its points of contact to the narrowest dimensions.

Various Methods of Shoeing. — Another form of shoe
is that commonly known as the " bar shoe " — a ring or
annular plate of metal which increases the surface of con-
tact by resting, to a large extent, on the frog, and allow-
ing that important body to participate in weight-bearing ;
in this way it also relieves the heels when these are weak
or injured. It is a very useful shoe, but the additional
weight given to it by the bar, and the extra strain on the
nails retaining it to the hoof, are drawbacks.

To apply a shoe in such a manner as to allow the frog
to receive a due amount of pressure, has always been the
aim of those who have made the horse's foot an object of
careful study. Even with the ordinary shoe, if it be not
too thick nor garnished with calkins, the frog, if unmuti*

APPLYING THE SHOE. 91

Jated, in the large majority of cases will rest upon the
ground for nearly the whole of its length, and sustain
beneficial wear. Nearly every one of the horses at pres-
ent in my charge, though shod with the army regulation
shoe — a very defective model — have their frogs in this
condition; while all the private horses wearing the modi-
fied shoe I have descrihed, exhibit the frog resting for
the whole of its length and breadth on the ground.

But this object, with others of importance, is perfectly
attained in what has been designated the "periplantar
shoe and method of shoeing," introduced by Veterinary
Surgeon Charlier, of Paris. Leave the hoof entirely in a
natural condition, so far as frog, sole, and wall, are con-
cerned, and imbed a narrow rim of iron, no thicker than
the wall, around the lower circumference of the foot — that
exposed to wear — ^like the iron heel of a man's boot, and
we obtain an idea of what the periplantar method of shoe-
ing really is.

The principle of this method of shoeing is, physiologi-
cally, perfectly correct. Knowing that the horse's foot is
admirably constructed to perform certain definite functions,
and that the hoof in ordinary condition is designed to act
as the medium through which the most important of these
are carried out, but that its circumference is liable to be
broken away and worn when nudely exposed, we have
only to substitute for a certain portion of this perishable
horn an equivalent portion of more durable metal, and the
hoof is secured from damage by wear, while its natural
functions remain unimpaired.

This novel method of shoeing has attracted so much
attention, and has in many instances proved so beneficial
and worthy of adoption, so far as my experience goes, that
I venture to describe, as briefly as possible, the way in
which it is carried into execution in the forge.

The sole and frog, as well as the bars, are left unpared.

92 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

The crust or wall is bevelled off at the edge by the rasp,
and by means of a special knife with a movable guide * a
groove is made along this bevelled edge to receive the
shoe. This groove is made a little shallower than the
thickness of the sole, and slightly narrower than the thick-
ness of the wall, not extending beyond the white line sep-
arating the sole from the wall (Fig. 19).

Fig. 19. •

Into this groove is fitted the shoe. This is a narrow, but
somewhat deep band of ii-on (or, as now, a mixture of iron
and steel, narrower at the to]) than the bottom, and forged
in such a manner that its front surface follows the slope of
the foot. It is perforated by from four to six oval nail-
holes of small size, and if necessary may be provided with
a clip at the toe. Its upper inner edge is rounded by the
file, to prevent it pressing too much against the angle of
the sole, and the ends of the branches are narrow and
bevelled off toward the ground (Fig. 20).

The nails are very small, and have a conical head and
neck (Fig. 21). They must be of the best quality.

* A knife of this kind which I invented, is manufactured and sold by
Messrs. Arnold & Son, Instrument Makers, West Smithficld, London.

APPLYING THE SHOE. 93

It is best to fit the shoe in a hot state, as it must have
a level bed and follow exactly the outline of the wall.

Fig. 20. Fig. 21.

After it has been fitted, it is advisable to remove, by a
small drawing-knife, a little of the horn from the angle of
the groove in the hoof, to correspond with the rounded
inner edge of the shoe. This insures a proper amount of
space between the latter and the soft horn at the margin
of the pedal bone.

In strong hoofs, the shoe is almost entirely Jburied in
the groove ; but in those which have the soles flat or con-
vex, with low heels, it is not safe to imbed it so deeply.

The application of the hot shoe in fitting should not ex-
tend beyond a very few seconds.

The shoe is nailed to the hoof in the ordinary manner
(Fig. 22). For saddle and light carriage horses, I have
usually found four nails — two on each side — for each shoe
suflicient. These should be placed wide apart at the toe
and rather close to the heel (Fig. 23, or, b). Every nail
must be driven in sound horn, otherwise the shoe, being
so narrow, may get the branch bent out, and nothing more
is needed than to lay the clenches down evenly on the
wall. "No rasping is required. When the shoe is attached
to the foot, we then perceive that a portion of the sole and

94

PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

bars, and the whole of the frog, meet the ground as in the
unshod state (Fig. 23).

The great advantages of this method of shoeing con-
sist in its simplicity, when farriers have been made to un-
derstand it ; its placing the hoof in a natural condition, so
far as its ground-face is concerned ; the small number and

Fig. 23.

size of the nails required to retain it ; the lightness of the
shoe, and the security it gives to the horse in progression.

WINTER SHOEING. 95

»

Since its introduction by M. Charlier, I have tried this
method on a large number of horses of various sizes, and
which have been employed for hunting, road, carriage,
and draught, and am perfectly satisfied that it is a valua-
ble accessory mode of defending and preserving the hoofs
and remedying their diseases or defects. It cannot be ap-
plied indiscriminately to every foot, and to make the
groove in the hoof and fit the shoe accurately, requires
some care. When the horn and metal are combined in this
way, it is somewhat astonishing for how long a period a
very light rim will sustain wear even on hard roads.

I have not tried the shoe on the hind-feet, because I
do not think it so well adapted for them ; as before men-
tioned, the front-feet only demand all our attention.

WINTER SHOEIIsra.

In such a variable climate as ours, it is not an easy
matter to provide economically and successfully for the
occurrence of frost and snow during the winter months, so
far as shoeing is concerned. Some winters are so mild,
that there is no necessity for making any difference in the
shoe, while others are so severe, and the roads are cov-
ered with ice for such a long period, that special appli-
ances must be resorted to if the services of horses are to
be made at all available.

To be generally useful, these appliances must be cheap
and simple.

The quickest, cheapest, but at the same time least
durable of these, is the "frost-nail." This is nothing
more than the ordinary horseshoe nail, with its head flat-
tened gradually to a thin edge. Two or three of the nails
are withdrawn from each side of the shoe, and replaced
by the frost-nails. The heads may be flattened in differ-

9G PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

ent directions according to circumstances. Sometimes
the heads are of steel, when of course they are more last-
ing. For short journeys, frost-nails are useful and easily
available ; but as they only last for a brief period, and as
their frequent renewal injures the hoof to some extent,
they are only to be used when the services of the horse
are not likely to be in great demand for any length of
time, or when the frost promises to be very transient.
They are best adapted for saddle and carriage horses.
To prevent injury to the hoof, and at the same time to
obtain all the advantages of frost-nails, I have often, in
the winter season, had extra holes punched in the shoes
— one at the extremity of each heel, and one on each side
of the toe. These nail-holes were large, and were stamped
so obliquely outward, that the frost-nails, when the occa-
sion required them, could be passed through them and
lapped firmly over the edge of the shoe without interfer-
ing with the hoof. They may be made altogether of soft
steel, the heads alone being tempered. I have found this
plan most convenient and efiective, as the hoof and shoe
are not disturbed, and the nails can be renewed as often
as may be necessary.

The usual plan is to remove the shoes from the hoofs
and give them sharpened calkins, and it may be toe-pieces
also sharp. This is not a good fashion if it has to be often
repeated, as the hoofs are damaged by the frequent nail-
ing, the horses are apt to be lamed, and the shoes to be-
come loose. It is for the time being, however, very effec
tive. When the calks and toe-pieces are only made of
iron, and if the ground be not covered with a sufficient
laj^er of snow to protect them to some extent, they soon
become blunted, and the shoes then require to be taken
oif and the process repeated. To remedy this, if time
permits, it is an excellent plan to weld in the calkin, or
toe-piece, or on the face of the shoe, a piece of steel (Yli^s,

WINTER SHOEING. 97

24, 25 «), which, when sharpened and tempered, U\sts a
very considerable time.

Fig. 24. FiG- 25.

In sharpening the calkins, regard must be had to their
situation— that on the outside heel maybe flattened across
the branch of the shoe (Fig. 26), but that on the inside
must be drawn as much as possible from the outer margin
of the branch (Fig. 27), in order to avoid treads and
wounds to the opposite foot.

..,.iiiiii,iiiiyiiBn;'i'

Tig.

Fig.

As a rule, it is better that toe-pieces of the same
fieight as the calkins be used on all shoes, to keep the
foot and limb from being injured.

The Canadian shoe, made of steel, concave on the
ground-surface, with the concavity forming a sharp edge
on the margin, is very useful when there is a thick layer
of ice with snow.

But perhaps the most useful and expeditious method
of making the horse useful on ice-covered roads, is by the
adoption of the screw studs. For these, each new shoe
at the commencement of the winter has a circular hole
punched at the heels, and another at the toe. This is
screwed, and into it is fitted, for ordinary wear, a flat-
headed stud (Fig. 28), which is turned in with a wrench.
These studs last for some time, and preserve the shoe
5

98 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEIXG.

from wear — when worn nearly to the level of the shoe,
they are removed and replaced by new ones. Sliould

Fig. 28. Fig. 29.

frost set in suddenly, the flat-headed studs have only to
he removed by the groom when the horse is required, and
sharp steel ones substituted. This can be done in a few
minutes.

The usual shape of the sharp stud is that of a wedge,
the screwed portion being much smaller than that pro-
jecting beyond the shoe. This is a faulty conformation,
which leads to the stud frequently working itself loose
and falling out, or breaking off at the neck, leaving the
screwed portion in the shoe.

For some years I have remedied this defect by em-
ploying steel frost-studs of a conical or pyramidal shape,
and having the portion screwed into the shoe as thick as
that projecting from it (Fig. 29). This pattern is not at
all liable to turn round and fall out on meeting the
ground ; while, being the same thickness throughout,
there is no check at the screw to weaken the stud ; con-
sequently it docs not break if carefully forged and tem-
pered.

Of all the appliances designed to enable horses to
travel safely on ice, without taking them to the forge, or
requiring the services of the farrier, none have stood the
test of trial so satisfactorily as this screw stud. I have
experimented with all the recent inventions, but have
found them either too complicated or expensive, not fit

SHOEING OF DEFECTIVE LIMBS. 99

for severe work, or else only adapted for shoes of one
pattern.

SHOEING OF DEFECTIVE LBIBS.

Shoeing is a powerful auxiliary in the hands of a com-
petent farrier for remedying the natural defects which are
not unfrequently observed in the position of the lunbs
and feet of horses ; while with the scientific veterinary
surgeon it is no less a most potent aid in curing or pallia-
tmg certain maladies or deformities of a special character.
^Perhaps the most fi'equent defects the farrier has to
contend with, are turning out or turning in the toe of
the foot ; both of which are not only unsightly, but are
productive of more or less injury to the limb from the
unequal manner in which some of its parts have then to
sustain the weight of the body.

To rectify the leg or foot when the toe turns outward,
tlie hoof should be levelled as before described, the mar-
gin of the wall at the outside toe and back nearly to the
quarter being well reduced and rounded. The clip is to
be drawn up nearer to the inside than the middle of the
toe; the shoe to be fitted close to the outside and quar-
ter, but the inside, from the quarter to the heel, should be
more full than usual. In the course of several shoeings,
by this reduction of the wall at the outside of the hoof
and the fitting of the shoe, a most noticeable improve-
ment will be efiected.

When the toe is turned inward, precisely the reverse
treatment must be followed : the inside toe must be re-
duced, the clip of the shoe formed nearer the outside toe,
and the shoe itself fitted close at the inside toe, but wide
at the outside. In both cases the shoes ought to be of
the same thickness throughout.

iOO PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

" Cutting," or striking and wounding the inner side
of the leg with the opposite foot, is sometimes a cause of
much annoyance. It may be due to weakness, fatigue, or
to a sudden change in the manner of shoeing ; in which
cases it is only temporary. But it may also arise from
malformed limbs or faulty action, and these defects may
be so exaggerated as to be scarcely, if at all, remedied by
shoeing alone.

The usual part of the hoof with which the horse
strikes the opposite limb, is the inside toe or quarter.
Whichever of these regions it may be, the hoof must con-
tinue to be levelled at right angles to the direction of the
pastern, and a shoe equally thick throughout applied, the
only difference between it and the ordinary shoe being
the removal of a portion of the iron from the margin at a
point corresponding to the portion that causes the injury
to the opposite limb ; or the shoe, instead of being nar-
rowed in the branch at this part, may be straightened, so
as to lie within the hoof. No nails are to be inserted here ;
they may be placed in front of, and behind the striking
portion — at the toe and heel. The hoof, after the appli-
cation of the shoe, may then be reduced at the quarter
with the rasp, to diminish its convexity, and thus avert
" cutting " or striking.

The periplantar method of shoeing is well adapted for
horses that " cut."

Some horses have the awkward habit of lying like a
cow with one or both fore-legs doubled up at the kne(?,
and the elbow resting on the heel of the foot. Should
the ordinary shoes be worn, it almost inevitably follow a
that the ends of the branches pressing upon the elbow will
cause the formation of a large unsightly tumor, which
may in time become an abscess or ulcerate. The preven-
tion of this is in the hands of the farrier, who has only to
shorten and smoothly round the extremities of the shoe,

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE'S FOOT. Id

BO as to keep them within the hoof. Most frequently it
is the inside heel, in which case a three-quarter shoe at
once remedies the evil.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE'S
FOOT.

After what has been said with regard to the manage-
ment of the horse's foot in shoeing, there is but little to
add concerning its general treatment ; as shoeing influ-
ences more or less, for good or for evil, the general con-
dition of tliat organ, and renders its ordinary manage-
ment either a matter of much or of trifling moment.

When it has been robbed of its horn by the farrier,
and brought to such an artificial and abnormal state as
we have indicated, then its preservation in any thing like
a healthy or efiicient condition is a matter of no small
difiiculty, and appears sometimes to demand very curious
and often by no means reasonable practices on the part
of the groom.

The most common are : applying to the face of the
wall tar, oil, fish-oil, or advertised mixtures of various
kinds to make the horn grow, prevent brittleness, cure
diseases, etc. ; and to the sole plates of leather, bolsters
of tow steeped in tar, filthy applications of cow-dung,
mud or clay, and other matters.

It is scarcely necessary to say that to the unpared and
nnrasped hoof these are not only unnecessary, but some
of them even positively hurtful. Oil, for instance, not
only renders the wall brittle, but loosens the nails;
while cow-dung, from the ammonia it contains, destroys
the frogs.

The unmutilated hoof is easily kept in health. All
It requires is keeping cool, and moistening occasionally

102 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

with cold water during hot weather or after severe exer-
tion. When a journey has been long continued and
severe, the horse should not be immediately put into a
stable, but ought to be walked gently about until the
circulation of blood in the feet has had time to accommo-
date itself to the altered conditions of rest. By this mcanfl
laminitis (inflammation of the feet) is averted.

In washing the hoofs a water-brush should not be
employed, but a soft sponge, Tvith a view to prevent the
translucent horn on the front of the wall being destroyed.

The sides and cleft of the frog may be cleaned out
occasionally with a blunt picker, though if sound this is
scarcely required.

Nothing more is needed, so far as the every-day stable
management of the foot is concerned, except to caution
the groom against cutting away the hair immediately
above the coronet, as this acts like a thatch in preserving
the frog-band at its commencement from the effects of
perspiration and moisture.

Much harm is done to horses' legs and feet by the
somewhat cruel custom of keeping them, while in the
stable, constantly tied up in one position in stalls with
sloping floors. This fashion is not only entirely opposed
to the animal's natural habits — for the horse loves to
move about and change his attitude — but the limbs and
feet, more especially the front ones, are, instead of being
rested, greatly fatigued ; and this brings about alterations
which may be none the less serious because they are not
immediate in their effects.

A loose box, even if no larger than a stall, with a
level floor, is infinitely preferable, and by all means to be
commended to those who place some value on the sound-
ness of body, eyesight, and limbs of their horses, as well
&s on their comfort.

STREETS AND ROADS. 103

STREETS AND ROADS.

The roads over which horses travel have also mucU
jiifluence for good or evil on the condition of the feet and
leo-s. In the majority of the towns and cities in Great
Britain, it would most certainly appear that considerations
for the safety, comfort, or efficiency of the thousands of
horses in daily use were altogether lost sight of or neg-
lected in constructing the public thoroughfares.

Masses of the hardest and closest-grained stone are
laid down in most streets in such a fashion, that they seem
as if purposely designed to afford an insecure foothold,
and prevent the horse's strength being profitably utilized.
These paved streets — always a source of danger to the
animals — while hindering them from employing their
force to the best advantage, are also particularly injurious
to the legs and feet, from the incessant efforts made to
maintain a footing. More especially is this the case in
wet weather, when they are covered with greasy mud,
and in summer when their dry smooth surface becomes
leaded. It is needless to say, that no kind of metal de-
fence to the hoof will for many days insure a firm foot-
hold on such roads ; and nothing but a metal defence has
ever been found suitable to the horse's foot.

Every device has been tried to meet the demands for
travelling with safety on such paved streets, and none
have proved successful. Nor is it at all likely that future
inventions will meet these demands ; the basaltic or gra-
nitic surface, perfectly smooth, and offering a most insecure
surface for fixing the foot during movement, is not at all
adapted for horse traffic.

From the durability of these roads, they may be, to
those who have to pay for their construction and mainte-
nance, more economical than others on which horses can

104 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

journey with ease and without risk of fallmg down; but
they are far from being economical to those whose carriages
and wagons traverse them. A portion of the horse's mo-
tive power is devoted to maintaining his foothold, and the
fear induced by this insecurity operates against what re-
mains being applied as profitably as it ought to be. So
that less is gained in the economy of construction and du-
rability, and in the easier traction of vehicles, than is lost
in tlie injury done to the horse's extremities, and the
waste of power required to maintain the equilibrium.

Even more injurious to feet and limbs is the barba-
rous, slovenly, and stupid method prevailing in this coun-
try of repairing macadamized roads — or what are intended
for them — by depositing a heap of angular stones in a
loose, rugged layer of uncertain depth, and compelling
horses and carriages to travel over them until they are
imbedded in a very irregular manner in the soil beneath
them. Such a practice is not only extremely short-sight-
ed on the part of those who make or repair roads in this
manner — as these roads can neither be durable nor very
serviceable — ^but also deserves the severest censure as
most cruel and destructive to horses. Xot only is the
labor in drawinor a carriaore over such a surface immense-
ly increased, and the horse's strength thereby expended,
but the unstable footing afforded by the loose masses
of stone throws a great strain in every direction upon
the legs and feet, and not unfrcquently the animal is
thrown down and gets seriously injured or blemished for
life.

If the hoofs chance to be pared and rasped according
to the groom or farrier's "improved principles," then the
consequences are greatly aggravated.

Legislation should be appealed to, to put an end to
such a disgraceful method of road making or mending,
which is only worthy of the most uncivilized countrv.

INSTRUCTION OF FARRIERS. 105

Tlie best mode of constructing and repairing our public
thoroughfares and highways, with a view not only to
economy, but to the safety and comfort of horses, is a
matter that deserves serious attention.

Taken in connection with our subject, it is one that
cannot be overlooked. We may preserve and defend
the horse's foot to the best of our ability in our forges
and stables, but if the roads over which he travels are not
adapted to his employment, our exertions on his behalf
can only be partially successful.

INSTRUCTION OF FARRIERS.

The foregoing instructions relative to shoeing are, in
substance, those which I have been in the habit, for sev-
eral years, of laying before the farriers in the different
regiments in which I have served, and with an amount of
success which amply rewarded me for the trouble I took
to see that they were carried into practice. Not only have
my own duties been considerably lightened in the greatly
diminished number of lame and unserviceable horses, but
the labors of the farriers have been considerably abbre-
viated and simplified, and by their being able to under-
stand the reasons for acting as I desired, their intelligence
was awakened, and they took an interest in carrying out
my views.

In our army this is not always the case. The subject
of farriery is often looked upon much as it is in civil life
— as a matter that concerns the farrier only, and tradi-
tion and routine extensively prevail. In saying this,
liowever, I do not intend for a moment to insinuate that
the army veterinary surgeons are averse to giving their
attention to a most important, though it may appear a
minor, part of their duty. On the contrary, many of them

106 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

do SO, and with the greatest advantage to the service ;
but there is not the same encouragement offered either to
veterinary surgeons or farriers in this respect as there is
in Continental armies. In the French army, for instance,
there are schools and professors of farriery, the most nota-
ble of these being at the cavalry school of Saumur. In
these, the farriers are regularly trained to a uniform and
upproved system before being posted to different regi-
ments, and direct encouragement is given to these mm
by the institution of competitions, in which the most suc-
cessful are rewarded by medals and gifts of money.

But not only does the French Government bestow
some care in the advancement of farriery in the army ; it
also stimulates competition and improvement among tht
civilian farriers. So late as the 28th, 29th, and 30th of
April last (1870) there was a concoiirs of " marechalerie"
at Valence, divided into two sections — a civil and a mili-
tary— presided over by two special juries composed of
eminent veterinary surgeons and professors.

At this concours, not only were models of shoes and
shod hoofs exhibited, but the farriers — civil and military
— were tested in the various operations of farriery on the
spot, by shoeing saddle, carriage, and draught horses,
draught and pack mules, and oxen. A large number of
gold, silver, and bronze medals, as well as a considerable
sum of money, were given away.

These concours cannot but effect much good, by at-
tracting attention to this very important subject, and en-
couraging good workmen.

In Belgium there are also concours^ and, if I remember
aright, farriers who attend them receive instruction from
properly-qualified veterinary surgeons, who are author-
ized to grant certificates of proficiency.

In both countries, as well as in Germany, the students
at the veterinary schools are taught the principles and

INSTRUCTION OF FARRIERS. 107

practice of shoeing, and this instruction is of great value
to them in after-life.

It is scarcely necessary to say that in this country
nothing of the kind is attempted.

The Government does nothing to improve or encour-
age veterinary science in any way ; hence the low state
of this important branch of medicine and rural economy
in Britain, and hence the enormous losses she has sus-
tained for so many years. Hence, also, the degraded and
barbarous condition of farriery, even in our cities and
towns. With the exception of, on very rare occasions,
the distribution of a prize or two at some local agricul-
tural show to farriers, who imagine that paring and rasp-
ing, and a fantastically wrought piece of iron, constitute
the acme of shoeing, the subject is thought unworthy of
notice. Even at the veterinary schools during my ma-
triculation, it was dismissed in a brief lecture of an hour,
and then pathological shoeing was chiefly referred to.
Nothing of the principles or practice was ever taught.

When the Veterinary Colleges are so indiflferent to a
matter so closely related to the comfort and eflaciency of
the horse, we cannot wonder that veterinary surgeons, as
a rule, and farriers, take but little interest in shoeing.

The remedy for this, of course, should be, in the first
place, applied to the teaching schools. The anatomy and
physiology of the horse's foot, its management in health
and disease, and the principles and practice of shoeing,
ought to be thoroughly inculcated.

It would be most advantageous if, when this course
was adopted, farriers could be prevailed upon to attend,
and, after due examination as to their competency to prac-
tise their art in a rational manner, they were to receive
certificates of proficiency as in Belgium — these certificates
carrying with them similar advantages to those that the
diploma of surgery confers upon tlie surgeon.

108 PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.

In default of this, veterinary surgeons properly quali-
fied for the duty, and possessing the necessary conve-
nience and opportunity, might be induced to receive and
instruct apprentices in farriery, granting them authorized
certificates when judged to be fit to practise the art.

Agricultural meetings should also be made the means
of instructing farriers in shoeing, and of stimulating com-
petition in the districts in which they are held. Of course
it is a sine qud non that the instructors and judges should
themselves understand the subject thoroughly.

These are the only means by which, I believe, the art
of farriery can be improved in this country, where nearly
all improvement is left to private enterprise. A profound
knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the horse's
foot is not absolutely necessary to the farrier. What I
have sketched out on these subjects in this essay, I have
generally found sufficient to enable my farriers to com-
prehend the character of the organ they were called upon
to protect and preserve, and this much was easily taught
them in a short time. I have always had more difficulty
in making them unlearn their unreasonable practices than
acquiring those which were novel, though easier ; and my
chief antagonists in all improvements have been the igno-
rant grooms and coachmen — the lovers of well pared and
rasped hoofs, oiled or blacked like a boot ; hot stables ;
physic ; bearing-reins ; blinkers ; cruppers ; powerful bits ;
and every thing, in fact, unnatural and injurious to the
horse.

THE END.