PRACTICAL NATURE STUDY

AND ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

A MANUAL FOR THE USE OF
TEACHERS AND NORMAL STUDENTS

BY
JOHN M. COULTER

Director of the Department of Botany, University of Chicago

JOHN G. COULTER

Teacher of Biology, Illinois State Normal University

ALICE JEAN PATTERSON

Teacher of Nature Study, Illinois State Normal University

NEW YORK

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
1909

COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY

CONTENTS

PAGE

PREFACE vii

PART ONE

CHAPTER

I. — NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE i

II. — THE TRAINING OF THE WORKING TEACHER . . 5

III. — THE MISSION OF NATURE STUDY .. . .11

IV. — THE DANGERS OF NATURE STUDY ... 29

V. — THE PRINCIPLES OF NATURE STUDY ... 46

VI. — THE SPIRIT OF NATURE STUDY .... 60

VII. — THE CHILD AND NATURE STUDY .... 75

PART TWO

VIII. — TOPICAL OUTLINE BY GRADES AND SEASONS . 82

IX. — TYPICAL LESSON PLANS 107

PART THREE
X. — OUTLINE IN NATURE STUDY AND ELEMENTARY

AGRICULTURE FOR RURAL SCHOOLS . . -153
XI. — SUGGESTIONS FOR RURAL SCHOOLS WITH CROWD-
ED PROGRAMMES 158

XII. — SUGGESTIONS FOR TREE STUDY .... 162

XIII. — CUTTINGS 168

XIV. — THE STUDY OF INSECTS . .- . . . .172

XV. — PLAN FOR WEED STUDY . • . . . . . 177

XVI. — STUDY OF WEATHER : 181

XVII. — BULB GARDENING . - 186

XVIII. — STUDY OF WILD FLOWERS 191

Vi CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

XIX. — LIFE IN WATER . . . . . 197

XX. — RURAL SCHOOL GARDENING .... 203
XXI. — SUGGESTIONS FOR CONDUCTING WORK IN

THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES . 207
XXII. — POLLINATION AND SEED FORMING . .210

XXIII. — PLANT BREEDING 214

XXIV. — INSECTS 217

XXV. — FUNGI AND BACTERIA 224

XXVI. — SELECTING, JUDGING, AND STORING SEED

CORN 231

XXVII. — PHYSICAL EXPERIMENTS 235

XXVIII. — SOME EFFECTS OF HEAT ON BODIES . . 241

XXIX. — METHODS OF HEATING BODIES . . . 244

XXX. — GERMINATION OF SEEDS 249

XXXI. — STUDY OF OATS 255

XXXII. — PLANT PRODUCTS . . . . . . 259

XXXIII. — SIMPLE EXPERIMENTS IN SOIL CHEMISTRY . 264
XXXIV. — SOIL AND ITS ORIGIN . . . . .277

XXXV. — SOME PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND CONDI-
TIONS OF SOIL . 280

XXXVI. — How PLANTS Do THEIR WORK ... 288
XXXVII. — How TO KEEP THE SOIL IN CONDITION TO

SUPPLY THE NEEDS OF PLANTS . .299

PART FOUR

XXXVIIL— BIRD STUDY 303

XXXIX. — SCHOOL GARDENS 314

XL. — SOME FUNDAMENTAL MISCONCEPTIONS . . 320

XLI. — THE GENERAL LIFE PROCESSES . . . 324

XLII. — EXPLANATIONS OF EVOLUTION . . . 333

XLIII. — EVOLUTION AS SHOWN BY PLANTS . . 339

INDEX 351

PREFACE

BOOKS about nature study have become numerous, perhaps
more numerous than good teachers of it. These books deal
with principles and methods and somewhat with material, so
that the student or the teacher need be at no loss for sugges-
tions. But the subject is so new and nature so extensive and
the suggestions as to use of material often so general that the
books seem to differ confusingly, and the honest seeker for
help often becomes more mystified the more he reads. In fact,
nature study is still in the period of suggestion, a period which
may be trying to the experienced teacher, but which is a neces-
sary antecedent to the period of experiment. The time has
come for extensive experiment by trained teachers, putting to
rigorous test the suggestions that seem hopeful. Teachers
will always have the last word.

It is not with the hope that this confusion of suggestions will
be cleared up that these pages are written. Their purpose is
simply to state the situation in such a way that the teacher may
become more independent in his work and thought and thereby
better able to eliminate confusion from his own particular
problem. We shall never reach general agreement in this
matter until many good teachers have conducted careful ex-
periments and their results have been sifted. Even when this
is done, teachers themselves are such variable factors that no
hard-and-fast schemes of nature study can be or ought to be
constructed, but rather an approved body of principles, the
details of whose application must be left to the individual
teacher.

vii

Viii PREFACE

Part Two of this text contains a detailed topical outline by
grades and seasons of the materials used in nature study in the
training school at the Illinois State Normal University. Though
this program has stood the test of repeated satisfactory use in
practically all its parts, and represents the result of much sifting
and rejection and rearrangement, it is by no means to be
interpreted as fixed. It represents simply the present status
of the work. Each season is certain to bring its quota of minor
modifications, either of addition or subtraction.

The detailed outlines for work upon selected topics which,
as models, follow the topical outline are believed to be rather
more definite in character than many heretofore appearing,
and are designed to be of service primarily to teachers who are
called upon to handle the subject with slight previous training.
They are not indicative of any belief on the part of the authors
that all nature study material should be so prescribed as to
manner of treatment. They represent simply an effort to ful-
fill the function suggested in the general title; to aid in making
nature study practical, not so much under ideal conditions as
under the conditions of teaching as we have them. In these
outlines references to other books for necessary information is
avoided, the design being to make each outline as nearly as
possible complete in itself and ready for use.

Part Three contains a shorter outline for the work in the
lower grades arranged according to seasons, and leading more
directly to the agricultural studies of the seventh and eighth
grades. It also contains suggestions for conducting certain
studies without having any special place on the daily program
for nature study, and in coordination with the other school
subjects. But it is principally devoted to an outline course
for elementary agriculture in the seventh and eighth grades with
most of the lessons worked out in detail. This material and
these lessons have all been used in regular class work and found

PREFACE IX

efficient under conditions similar to those of the "average"
rural school.

Part Four comprises certain chapters upon more general
topics; material which has been found serviceable for teachers
whose general science training has been slight or lacking
entirely. The aim is to provide a scientific point of view or
the materials and principles which are to be used in the work.
Here also are chapters on method in bird study and garden
management. It is a common observation that the usual
college or normal school courses in science do not adequately
prepare teachers of nature study. This appears to be due in
large part to the absence of the nature study method from these
courses; they are courses in " organized knowledge." Yet the
obligation to meet county superintendents' examinations or
university requirements for credit are obstacles at present to
much alteration of the character of these courses. To meet
this difficulty at Normal a course entitled Method in Nature
Study and Elementary Agriculture is made prerequisite to the
teaching of nature study in the training school and comes after
the conventional courses in the sciences. In this course these
chapters have been used as a text. In fact, this little book is
somewhat an outgrowth of that course.

THE AUTHORS.

PRACTICAL NATURE STUDY AND
ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE

PART ONE
CHAPTER I

NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

NATURE study seeks to bring children into intelligent
and sympathetic touch with their environment. The en-
vironment determines the material that is selected for the
lessons. In an agricultural community, for example, the
lessons must be primarily agricultural. In no other way
can nature study fulfill its mission. // makes no difference
whether we call it elementary agriculture or agricultural
nature study; it is the same thing and should be so under-
stood. It is study of plants and animals, of soils and
weather, of natural forces and phenomena, of the inter-
relations and interdependence of natural objects, of the
relation of all these to man, and of man's power in controll-
ing them and making them work for his good.

The idea appears to be prevalent in some quarters that
nature study is one thing and that elementary agriculture is
another, and that the two are somewhat antagonistic. In
fact this idea has gone far enough to elicit from one in-
fluential quarter the statement, in effect, that " nature study

2 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

and school gardens " must be got out of the schools before
elementary agriculture can be got in.

Such an idea is as unfortunate as it is erroneous. It
appears to be based on the assertion that nature study is not
" near to life," not " practical," as elementary agriculture is.
Elementary agriculture can get no nearer to life than nature
.study should, and nature study aims to get near to a broader
if not higher aspect of life than pertains to agriculture alone.
These two things are one subject; they have a common
educational value, or else none sufficient to make them
worthy of a place in the schools. It is a case of "united
they stand, divided they fall." If nature study fails to
consider economic values and the best benefits which man
may derive from nature, then it is not justified. If ele-
mentary agriculture fails to consider the response to all
nature which may be aroused in us — the one thing which
will make higher agriculture consistent with higher living
— if it is purely utilitarian and " practical," then it, too, is
not justified in a school system which aims to turn out a
higher type of man as well as a higher type of farmer.

Instead of impeding agriculture in the schools, nature
study must be there to make agriculture wholly successful.
Agriculture is called for in some courses of study in the
seventh and eighth grades, but it will never realize the
success it should have in those grades if nature study is not
taught in the lower ones. It does not take much insight
into child psychology to realize that if boys and girls have
not been trained to keep eyes and ears, mind and heart,
open to nature, if they have not acquired a taste for cultivat-
ing plants and solving problems connected with them before
they have reached the seventh and eighth grades, they are

NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE 3

not so likely afterwards to acquire a permanent and en-
thusiastic interest in agriculture.

In planning the lessons, the children rather than the
subject must be given first consideration. They, rather
than the subject, are to be taught. There is evidence that
the enthusiasm of some leaders in agricultural instruction
has tended to obscure this principle. Children must be,
met upon their own ground, along lines of their own inter-
ests. The problems they are set to working out must be
problems that appeal to them; not necessarily problems
that appeal to adult farmers. Lacking this consideration,
the very purpose for which agriculture is being introduced
into the schools will be defeated. Instead of keeping boys
on the farm we may drive them away from it.

The work should begin no later than the intermediate
grades and should be guided along lines of investigation
and problem solving as fully as the training of the teacher
permits. Nor is such training difficult to attain if serious
effort is made. It must be a study of real objects; not a
study about objects. It must include doing things, work-
ing with hands and tools as well as minds, v/lt should lead
to familiar acquaintance with the important natural ob-
jects of the environment, to observation of relationships,
to some knowledge of plant growth and propagation, to
recognition of friends and foes among insects and birds, to
some understanding of weather, etc.

By the time children have reached the seventh and
eighth grades they are ready to take up the applied
lessons in nature directly connected with agriculture as an
industry. Thus the value of such preliminary training is
twofold; the pupils gain a fund of useful knowledge as a

4 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

foundation upon which to build the "practical" work, and
they come to it with live interest and questioning minds.
Then the work is educative from the outset; broadening,
not narrowing. We do not want our country boys to
become merely efficient farmers who have learned to do
certain things that they may make more dollars. We want
them to be men who realize the larger applications of the
laws and principles they are following, men who see and
discriminate, who grasp situations, who think for them-
selves, and who have an abiding interest and enthusiasm
for their profession, looking upon their fields, orchards,
and meadows somewhat as laboratories in which to work
out experiments to the end that they may do their work
more profitably and enjoyably. We wrould have them men
who take a keen pleasure not only in making their soil more
productive, and in raising better crops and stock, but quite
as much in making the home and its surroundings and the
life within it more comfortable, more interesting, and more
beautiful. In so far as nature study does not contribute
directly to these ends it is not justified, but if it does con-
tribute to them, who shall say " it is not sufficiently related
to life"?

CHAPTER II

THE TRAINING OF THE WORKING TEACHER

Need for Effective Execution. — The immediate task in
the development of nature study is the training of teachers
to use it. Principles are sufficiently agreed upon. The
need is to put into actual effect what we already know. .
There is plenty of undigested inspiration on the subject, |
but not very much effective execution. There has been^
enough done in the way of pointing out the desirability of)
such work. Its right to a place on the programme is suffW
ciently conceded. But the potent argument which superin- \
tendents bring against allowing it that place is that teachers i .
are not sufficiently well trained to make it effective.

The too ready answer to this objection is that teachers ,
can become trained in the subject only by trying it. In
some cases in which they have been allowed to try it the
results have amply confirmed the original contention of the
superintendent. But in all these cases, so far as known,
the teachers themselves have had to bridge that large and
troublesome gap between general inspiration and specific
lessons. The most difficult part in the construction of a na-
ture study scheme was left to them. It was very nearly a
case of requiring "bricks without straw." The results,
save with the exceptional teacher, should not surprise.

Specific Lessons. — The point appears to be that the
"authorities" have failed to show inexperienced teachers

5

6 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

just how to begin; just how, step by step, to give their first
lessons. It may be argued that to outline specific lessons
violates the ideals of nature study by making it rigid and
formal. But rigidity and formality are not so characteristic
of these lessons as is definiteness, and perhaps the most
serious charge brought against nature study is that it is
indefinite. It needs to be shown that it can be taught in a
perfectly definite manner.

However, experience makes it plain that, with few
exceptions, nature study cannot gain a footing in the
schools on other and possibly more " ideal" terms. What
the untrained teacher must have before she can make a
real beginning is specific lesson plans about specific familiar
things. These suggestive lesson plans must be grounded
on good nature study principles, but they should lack noth-
ing in definiteness as to steps to be taken and results to be
achieved.

Rousing of Latent Interest. — To train in a new subject
teachers already busily occupied with the old ones is a task
beset with difficulties, but it is encouraging to find almost
everywhere teachers eager to get light in the matter as op-
portunity is afforded. And, backed by such interest, the
work is not at all difficult.

This interest, which appears to be persistent and in-
creasing in most cases, finds some explanation in the fact
that the subject takes a grip upon the teacher quite apart
from her teaching capacity alone. The little laboratory
course in outdoor work which constitutes a main part of
the training appears to stimulate latent interests which fre-
quently quite forget and run past the schoolroom. Perhaps
that "latent interest " in outdoor things is the naturalistic

TRAINING OF THE WORKING TEACHER 7

spirit which some contend to be as universal in us as a
stomach; but whatever it is, it gives rise to an enthusiasm
for country conditions and to a vision of the attractiveness
of nature which was not there before; a thing which few will
dispute to be a valuable asset for anyone, and especially
for the teacher.

Experimentation with Classes. — Also, we have found
that working teachers make decidedly better progress in a
course in nature study method than do students in the
normal school who are not engaged in practice teaching.
There is a great advantage in having one's own class for
stimulus and, to some extent, as a means for experiment.

It may be argued that the usual country teacher is not
to be trusted with " experiments " on her classes. Some
superintendents object to nature study just on the ground
that it is " experimental." They are willing to introduce it
when more definite steps of procedure have been deter-
mined, but they seem reluctant to let their teachers help
determine what these steps shall be. But nature study
will never pass the " experimental" stage in one sense; at
least never when it is a question of its introduction in a new
locality. That must always involve some experimentation.

In the same connection, what shall we say of the growth
in efficiency of teachers who are given no opportunity for
some such educational experimentation? Is there any
better means of growth than the trial of new material with
successful results, results for which the teacher can take
credit to herself rather than ascribe it to steps laid down
by another?

However, it is not desired to make claims too large. It
is not argued that nature study is alone among subjects in

8 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

affording opportunity for growth in efficiency, or that the
teacher is to work out her plan for it by experimentation
only. She must start on safe and certain ground, ground
which has not yet been any too clearly mapped out, but
she must soon arrive at the point of choosing her own path.
Nature study is peculiar in requiring such divergence from
a straight course. Its content must be as various as en-
vironments are various.

Encouragement of Initiative. — For some time we have
sought to discover what method is most serviceable in
training working teacher r in this subject. We have dealt
with average conditions and average teachers in city and
country schools. The problem has been mainly one of
fitting the subject to the teacher. The teacher has been
the starting point and the subject the goal. The most
effective part of a course so worked out has been a body of
lesson outlines upon familiar and important materials of
the environment. It has been the aim to make these
lessons explicit enough to insure definite results, and yet
not so explicit as to hinder the birth of the teacher's own
initiative. In fact, the type lessons are designed as a
means to insure properly controlled and sustained initiative
rather than in any way to interfere with it.

It is a fact that the best nature study teachers we find
are the most self-trained. It is well that this is so, for
the subject will not wait for the next generation. The
demand for ability to teach it, especially in its agricultural
aspect, is too insistent and too widespread. The alert
teacher perceives that such training is an important ad-
dition to her working capital, and to the capital from
which she can draw for enjoyment of life as well. In so

TRAINING OF THE WORKING TEACHER 9

far as she gives thoughtful attention to the working out of
lesson plans in her own school, she will be taking the best
part of a course in nature study method. She may be fol-
lowing a rigid outline of steps at first, but initiative is soon
born wherever real interest and persistence are present.

Nature Study and Biology. — The conventional ele-
mentary courses in the sciences are inadequate for training
nature study teachers. County superintendents' examina-
tions include botany and zoology, but all the rather mis-
cellaneous information necessary for passing them helps
but little in grade work. It is common to meet the teacher
who says she has tried to make her high school or normal
school science fit the case of nature study and has found
that it does not fit at all. Students who have taken botany
and zoology may be scarcely better prepared to teach
nature study in the grades than those who have not.
They have facts enough, but little conception of how to
use them to fit the case; in fact, they are in constant danger
of spoiling the whole lesson by making it too technical.

The difficulty appears to be that even high school
botany and zoology are taught as complete sciences; as
systematic courses reviewing large bodies of organized
knowledge. But nature study is not concerned with such
organization of its facts. It attempts no such bird's-eye
view of the whole field. It does not squeeze its facts into a
system, or study its objects according to a uniform labora-.
tory plan. Each object reveals a plan of its own. It is
science only as science may be defined as a certain com-
mon-sense method of coming to conclusions. Here, then,
are two very different things, and training in one hardly
prepares for the practice of the other.

10 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

Nature Study Method. — To meet this difficulty a course
in nature study method appears to be desirable, and the
following chapters are designed to furnish a guide to such
a course. The essential part of the course itself, how-
ever, is not in a book, but is in the handling of the actual
materials, outdoors or in the schoolroom, with actual
classes, and by methods in which the immediate condi-
tions, rather than the dictum of any book, will be taken as
guide.

CHAPTER III

THE MISSION OF NATURE STUDY

The Purpose in View. — Before undertaking any actual
teaching of nature study it is well to consider thoughtfully
the purpose which it has in view. If this purpose seems
desirable and attainable a stimulating motive for the work
will be obtained. In the writings on this subject various
statements as to its purpose are found, but there are no
very essential discrepancies among them. The differences
are rather in how much is included than in how much is
excluded. The following conception of purpose is of the
inclusive type, the opinion of the writer being that the
mission of nature study is much larger than it seems to look
to many who have written about it.

Interest in Men versus Interest in Nature. — One of the
tendencies of modern civilization has been to increase in-
terest in men and their affairs and to diminish intelligent
interest in nature. The former is much to be desired, but
the latter is to be deplored. It is an error to develop one
at too great expense to the other. There is no necessary
connection between increased interest in man and de-
creased interest in nature. This condition has come about
from the fact that the affairs of men have thrust them-
selves upon our attention with increasing aggressiveness,
while the affairs of nature have kept in the background.
One mission of nature study is to induce people to include

12 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

among their other interests an interest in the affairs of na-
ture in addition to the mere dollars-and-cents interest. The
result will be the introduction into life of an influence that
is restful, pleasurable, stimulating, and educative. Con-
versely it is claimed that lives which do not include some
intelligent observation of nature are denied something of the
development of mind and of character which life offers,
and are thereby more narrow.

Yet nature study is in no sense exclusive of man and
his affairs; in fact a very large part of the material it uses
falls in this category as roughly separable from "wild"
nature, but its point of view is opposed to all that is ex-
clusively utilitarian. It takes a view of nature from
nature's own viewpoint rather than from that which ex-
cludes all but the cash and comfort values.

The Point of Attack. — It is easy to state the situation,
but it is difficult to discover the methods that will bring
about the desired change. The intelligent observation of
nature seems very desirable, but to secure it under the
ordinary limitations of the schools has proved to be one of
the most elusive tasks that teachers have ever undertaken.
It has been felt that the most hopeful and definite field of
effort is with the children of the grades, for they are teach-
able, they are developing their intellectual tastes and habits,
and they will presently form the bulk of the adult population.

It does look as though the problem would be solved if
the majority of these children should discover a liking for
nature, but to hope too much for such a result is visionary,
for many things stand in the way.

Obstacles. — Conspicuous among these obstacles is the
lack of teachers trained for such work or sufficiently inter-

THE MISSION OF NATURE STUDY 13

ested in it, the lack of knowledge obtained from sufficient
experience as to the most effective methods in using the
materials of nature study with children, the overcrowding
of classes, and a generally neutral attitude of parents with
reference to it. Thus its fulfillment of the place in the
educational programme which is sought for it means not
merely the mandatory introduction of the subject into
the grades, but also it means interesting adults, training
teachers, and conducting numerous experiments as to
methods and materials. The children may be expected
to give the largest response to an educational effort to
stimulate interest in nature, but also the appeal must be
made to adults who may not have silenced completely the
" call of the wild " or who may wish to hear it again. In
these pages, therefore, while the presentation is to those
who will teach nature study, the application is also to be
extended to all who influence children or who wish valu-
able contact with nature for themselves.

A Local Study. — Nature study is necessarily restricted
in the materials it uses to those which any particular environ-
ment affords. Hence the details of nature study courses
must differ widely. The objects of nature which are of
especial interest in one community may be entirely lacking
in another. In one community the outdoor interest may
center in the forest, in another in the prairie, in another
in the fields and gardens, or in another in the seashore.
But amid these widely different details as to the materials
which nature study uses the same purpose runs and the
same results are to be obtained. It is this great variety in
the details that baffles many teachers who are more ac-
customed to follow directions than to formulate tfaqm.

14 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

But it is one of the strong arguments of the advocates of
nature study that it is a subject whose very nature requires
its teachers to be initiators rather than imitators. And
a teacher's growth in efficiency depends in part upon the
compulsion to initiate in some directions rather than to
imitate.

Difficult to Teach. — Every teacher of nature study should
have the comfort of knowing and every prospective teacher
should have the warning that the subject is a difficult one
to teach. It calls for more of originality than does the
teaching of sciences in the high schools. It demands ac-
quaintance with the local material, facility in using it, and
flexibility of presentation to a degree not dreamed of in
those orderly laboratories where the cut- and-dr ied l ' sciences"
hold sway. To ask such work of unprepared teachers and
to demand good results is unreasonable. It is not strange
that failures in teaching nature study have been numerous;
it is rather a wonder that successes have been so frequent.
Yet this fact should not produce a feeling of unrest or dis-
content with the subject among its teachers; rather it
should give confidence in the virtues of the subject itself
and courage to continue the perplexing and ever-changing
but fascinating task of its successful presentation. If
teachers are working in the dark, they should know that
this is still somewhat the condition of teachers of the sub-
ject everywhere. If they are eager for the light, they
should know it will come chiefly by continuing to work
patiently and thoughtfully. No one can rescue them ex-
cept by stimulating their own persistent effort. There are
still many stumbles to be made in nature study, but every
fall shows what to avoid next time.

THE MISSION OF NATURE STUDY 15

Variance in Definitions. — A clear definition of nature
study and an adequate statement of its purpose have been
long in coming, and perhaps have not yet arrived. But its
very breadth of purpose and fundamental importance in
education may be cited as causes of its non-definition quite
as reasonably as vagueness or educational impracticability.
A subject which some easy sentence will snugly define
has limitations in education of equally easy definition.
Protoplasm and creation and education itself are equally
lacking in adequate definitions, but no one challenges
their fundamental importance.

Nature study seeks to supply a need that is evident
enough, but whether it actually does supply it as yet is not
so evident. We find statements of its purpose ranging all
the way from the cultivation of a sentimental love for nature
to training in habits of exact observation and inference.
When there is added to this confused statement of purpose
the fact that the subject has been thrust in many cases upon
unwilling and unprepared teachers, it is no wonder that
it has been regarded by many as an indefinite, inchoate
thing, the despair of the grade teacher, and, till recently
at least, somewhat of a joke among scientists. Yet,
though its beginnings in the schools may not have been
fortunate in the majority of cases, its mission is so distinct
and valuable that it is certain to outlive many a bad start.

Helpful Contact with Nature. — The name nature study
was perhaps not a happy selection, for it hardly expresses
the idea as it is working out, but like many another name
it has become conventional, and so will serve the purpose.
It will be better to defer the selection of another name
until the thing to be named develops more definite organ-

1 6 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

ization. But, whatever the name or the definition, what
is entirely agreed upon in this connection is helpful contact
with nature, and what finds much less agreement is what
kind of nature contact is most helpful.

Nature Study a Sentiment? — The love of nature is a
sentiment that seems to belong to all healthy minded
people who revel in forest and stream and mountain and
sea like children turned out for a holiday, and just as this
sentiment is nurtured by experience the mind will retain its
healthy, natural tone. But if this were all that is meant
by " helpful contact with nature " the mission of nature
study would be hardly more than a campaign for fresh-air
outings. Yet the delight that comes from being immersed
in nature as one is immersed in air is an essential condition
and stimulus for nature study itself. Such love of nature
must be awakened or nature study will have no vitality,
and perhaps this is as far as some will go or can go. This
is fine as far as it goes, but it is not nature study. It is
only nature sentiment.

Nature Study a Science? — At the other extreme of
opinion is the claim that nature study is science. Now if
science is held to mean in this connection method rather
than matter there might be no dispute with this claim, for
science as a "method of problem, solving" begins even
in nature study. But science as ordinarily used means
organized knowledge in reference to nature. Such claim
would mean then that nature study is composed of bits of
botany, and bits of zoology, physics, geology, etc., for these
are the so-called sciences.

Any such organization of nature study would defeat
its purpose, for it is knowledge without definite organiza-

THE MISSION OF NATURE STUDY 17

tion, nature as it presents itself unanalyzed, a composite
picture of the sciences. Whenever the study of nature
enters upon organization of the whole and the pigeon-
holing of facts in some general system it becomes science,
and in our usage of the term ceases to be nature
study. The sciences are all bound up in the great bundle
of nature, and their dissociation comes sometimes later
in one's training, but in the training of most it does not
and need not come at all. Where in our educational
programmes nature study shall be said to stop and science
study to begin is a question not primarily related to this
topic. But the attitude toward nature which nature study
seeks to engender would suggest that, with opportunity,
nature study would pass into science as naturally as
the boy into the man, and with as little innate need for
a sharp line of demarcation.

Its True Place. — Between sentiment and science, there-
fore, nature study must find its place; the former is its
atmosphere, the latter may be its successor. Its mission,
or at least its opportunity, is nothing less than initial train-
ing in the scientific spirit, which when found in men who
love and cultivate nature makes of them what were once
called " naturalists." The old-time naturalist has almost
disappeared with the development of modern science, but
his spirit is the spirit of nature study. To cultivate the
scientific spirit in contact with nature is to obtain a distinct
and exceedingly valuable educative result, which makes of
nature study much more than the cultivation of a senti-
ment.

Educative Result. — What this educative result means
to us as a people may be indicated. The test of teaching

1 8 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

is the result. As one examines the product of the schools
to-day has he a right to feel satisfied? The essential
feature of the test is not to be obtained from school records,
but from the social order. Are the schools contributing to
society men and women who will improve it; men and
women who are not only sound morally but also intellectu-
ally, and who have wide interests ? Have the schools given
us men and women incapable of becoming victims of dem-
agoguery, of superstition, of hallucinations of any kind ?
It has seemed to many that our educational schemes
lack efficiency in just this direction; and that, judged by
the results, we have not hit upon just the form of training
that results in clear thinking and the prevalence of clean
truth among the greatest number of adults.

The Opportunity. — Nature study has the opportunity
to develop mental steadiness and clear thought at the
very beginning of education. The chief troubles connected
with doing this have not come from unprepared teachers
so much as from self-appointed leaders whose books and
addresses have somewhat befogged and belittled the situ-
ation. Nature study is much easier to talk about than to
teach. It lends itself peculiarly to schemes which upon
trial prove to' be visionary. It represents one of the great-
est problems of education, and it will not be solved by
schemes imposed upon teachers, but by the teachers them-
selves attempting to work out in a practical way certain
evident principles.

The Dominant Motive. — Before teaching nature study
in the grades the teacher must determine its dominant
motive; not merely its incidental advantages, which are
numerous enough. In suggesting what seems the ap-

THE MISSION OF NATURE STUDY 19

propriate dominant motive that must determine the meth-
od, we are at the parting of the ways where opinions
diverge. However, all these opinions must be tested in
the furnace of experience before any one of them can be
advocated with any boldness.

The place of nature study in elementary education is
supplementary to what may be called the conventional
education. The latter of necessity compels attention to
certain abstractions of language and of numbers that are
not of paramount interest to the pupil at the time. Any
observation of young children shows that they reach out to
the tangible things of nature about them with eager curios-
ity. The normal child is evidently born with what may
be styled tentacles of inquiry by which he relates himself
to the world about him. It has been observed that a
strictly conventional education tends promptly to cause
atrophy of these tentacles through disuse, and when later
in life the opportunity for work in science presents itself
there is no response, for loss of interest has followed loss of
power.

Tentacles of Inquiry. — An actual test whose results are
indicative of such atrophy of these native tentacles of
inquiry and the substitution of artificial ones, if any, may
be of interest. Spring twigs bearing buds were given to
two groups of children. One group consisted of children
just entering school, the average age being six. The other
group consisted of children with six years of school ex-
perience, but with no nature study. Both groups were
asked to sketch what they saw. The results were sub-
mitted to an outsider to separate the good from the bad.
This was done without difficulty or even hesitation, for

20 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

some were free and expressive, including all the conspicuous
features, while others were stiff and conventional and
omitted several of the conspicuous features. The satis-
factory sketches were all by the six-year old pupils, while
all those made by the twelve-year old pupils were deemed
unsatisfactory. The latter had been mutilated for six
years so far as their power of independent observation was
concerned. They had become apparently so dependen
upon outside authority as represented by teachers and books
that when left alone they were at sea with neither chart
nor compass. This happened to be an extreme case, for
some pupils always retain their observing powers through
their own initiative, but it is a real illustration of a general
situation.

Later Effects. — This benumbing effect of the exclusively
conventional education upon the natural interest in ob-
servation appears to have much to do with the small pro-
portion of college students attracted to the laboratories. In
colleges where some laboratory work is required of all
students it is painful to see the complete inability of the
majority to do anything at all without the most explicit
and repeated directions, and this is naturally accompanied
by a strong feeling of aversion for such work. It is really
the worst kind of drudgery in such cases to develop any
semblance of the initiative with which most of them were
probably born.

Familiar to the Child. — Nature study is the most
familiar face that greets the child upon the threshold of
education. It, of all the subjects, should serve best to keep
the tentacles of inquiry at least functional during the neces-
sary, preliminary, conventional period of education. Per-

THE MISSION OF NATURE STUDY 21

haps it is asking too much at present to permit it to do
more, for the pressure of work that seems more necessary
to living is very great, but it must be given an opportunity
to keep alive the powers of observation and of questioning.
If this is not done, the door is closed upon one half of life,
and later in education and later in life the pupil is found
to have been robbed of both opportunity and enjoyment;
the one-sided beginning continues its distorted develop-
ment to the end. If this statement of purpose be sound,
the methods of nature study are to be judged by their
success in fulfilling it.

Additional Benefits. — In view of the rather modest claim
for attention made in the preceding paragraph, the pre-
diction may be ventured that when really tried nature
study will be found perhaps more important in the prepara-
tion for living than some of the work now consuming a
large amount of time in the grades. It is not a question
of contrasting its educative value with that of other sub-
jects, for they all are able to show good reason for their
present place in the curriculum, and it has a stronger claim
to place than could be established by any such process
alone. But presently it comes to a choice among values,
and we believe that nature study will not be found among
the rejected values. It is too fundamental in its processes
and too far reaching in its results to stay among the in-
cidentals of elementary education. At present, however,
it must demonstrate its value as compared with the ac-
cepted values, and must be content with only such an
amount of time as will make the test a fair one.

The Test of Interest. — It is evident that the test of suc-
cessful nature study is interest, shown by the child who is

22 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

being taught, by the teacher, or by adults who are searching
for the most helpful contact with nature. However, this
is not all, for some teachers are able to interest children in
anything, or the interest may be spasmodic. The interest
must be shown in important things; that is in things worthy
of interest, knowledge in reference to which is a valuable
asset in one's equipment. Much of the material suggested
for nature study is trivial. It may or may not be made
interesting, but in any event it is valueless, and to study it
means going through the motions rather than doing some-
thing. Merely to observe the many differences in the
forms of leaves or in the colors of birds or butterflies is the
I observation of certain facts of nature truly enough, but
/ such facts alone are as barren as a sand bank. It is like
taking bricks and putting them into a meaningless pile
rather than into a building that means something and
abides. The test of interest, therefore, must mean inter-
est in important things.

Continuity. — Another quality which must be apparent
in the interest is continuity. Occasional interest is not the
real thing, for it disappears as difficulties or even incon-
veniences are met. The interest that counts is willing to
contribute time and labor and patience for the sake of
what they bring. This is the difference between interest
and entertainment; the former is willing to endure drudgery
which would spoil the latter. The full statement of the
test, therefore, is continuity of interest in important things.
It is almost instinctive among teachers with formal
training in methodology to demand continuity of subject
matter. They are very strenuous about one thing leading
to another in logical sequence, so that the subject as a

THE MISSION OF NATURE STUDY 23

whole may have a beginning, a gradual unfolding, and a
conclusion. .It is felt that this is the only way to " com-
plete a subject." This is really an indication of a thought-
ful teacher and is to be commended and striven for. Too
few teachers have any idea of sequence and progression for
us to criticise those who do have. Yet while in most sub-
jects this may be the effective method, it does not apply to
the study of nature, which begins anywhere, continues in
every direction, and never comes to any conclusion. Be-
sides, the continuity we are after in nature study is con-
tinuity of interest, and that pertains to the pupil and not
to the subject. The warning, then, is to watch the child
rather than the subject.

Adaptability. — A teacher of nature study had secured
from some source what seemed to her an admirable out-
line for her school. It made little difference whether it
was prepared for her neighborhood or not, for to such a
teacher an outline is something like a moral law, applicable
anywhere. This logical outline was followed with in-
flexible faithfulness, and exercise followed exercise like
the joints of an articulate. One day a small boy, who still
retained some interest in nature in spite of his teacher,
brought in a small land turtle. He was not merely inter-
ested, but excited and bubbling over with questions and a
desire to show his prize. However, the outline called for
an exercise on leaves that day, an exercise that fitted with
precision into the previous exercise and into the one to
follow. So the leaves were examined and the turtle went
out of the window. The teacher had missed an important
psychological moment so far as turtle study was concerned.
She was watching the outline rather than the pupils.

24 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

The School Garden. — Wild nature is in many respects
the ideal laboratory for nature study; the one that appeals
most to those with the nature sentiment. It is a difficult
laboratory, however, and it is perhaps best approached
and interpreted by one that is simpler and more familiar.
Besides, those who have not developed the nature sentiment,
either through lack of its possession or lack of opportunity,
cannot be drawn at once to wild nature with any feeling
of interest. For these another introductory appeal is
necessary and it is very likely to be through the near by and
the useful.

The phrase wild nature implies its correlative cultivated
nature, and here we touch human experience everywhere.
The plants and animals that man has brought under
cultivation are real exponents of nature, and as such furnish
proper material for nature study. The observation of
growing corn or sweet peas, for example, reveals the same
truths in reference to plant structure and activity that are
exhibited by their wild relatives. In fact they uncover an
even wider range of knowledge and suggestion, for plants
under cultivation teach impressively the most obvious
needs of plants, since these must be supplied by the ob-
server. Moreover, it has been found that a real knowledge
of plants comes only in connection with their cultivation.
For this reason the modern botanic garden is established
in connection writh universities, and the school garden is its
representative in the schools. The care and observation
of a few plants under cultivation open one's eyes to many
essential things in the observation of wild plants. A well-
organized school garden is not only a great but a necessary
interpreter of nature as exhibited by wild plants.

THE MISSION OF NATURE STUDY 25

Aside from the usefulness of plants and animals under
cultivation as interpreters of those that are not, they also
furnish the appeal that is strongest to many. To such per-
sons a field of wheat or a bed of radishes stands for some-
thing worth while, and any knowledge that will help in
their culture is prized. Nothing is to be gained by failing
to recognize and reckon with this attitude of mind; in fact
it has been called the genius of the age, and we must take
people where we find them. Such a point of view must be
laid hold of and used as a natural introduction to an interest
that is larger and finer.

Besides, it is not discreditable to possess an exclusively
utilitarian point of view; on the contrary, it is quite hopeful.
To relate nature study to human interests is sound pedagogy,
for intelligence in what relates to living should be a funda-
mental in education. When intelligent living has been
established, there wrill come to many the leisure and the
desire to enlarge the horizon, and to surround the circle of
living with the larger circle of purely intellectual interests.
This means that there is a field of nature study within the
circle of living, and another beyond it; but the radius of
the former is extended naturally into that of the latter.

Summary of Educative Results. — These results are in
addition to the sentiment, the pleasure, and the enlarged
interests that come from nature study and that would make
it very worthy of attention for their own sake. They will
not follow the study in many cases, and it remains to be
seen through experience whether they follow it in any con-
siderable number of cases. However, it is certain that
nature study is capable of such results and that, too, without
forfeiting any of the others. As they appear to be far the

26 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

most important and definite results, it follows that they
constitute the chief motive in instruction and determine the
method. Such results are the more hopeful when they
enter into the intellectual organization of children. Some
of them will become more apparent when methods of
study are considered.

A sustained interest in natural objects and the phenomena
of nature. This is the most obvious educative result, and
is really an opening of the world of nature to that kind of
joyful appreciation that comes to students of the world
of art, of music, or of literature. It makes life richer and
far more varied and is a great offset to the narrowing and
artificial tendencies of modern life. This is not merely
the nature sentiment to which reference has been made;
it is rather nature appreciation, which comes through a
certain amount of knowledge as to the significance of things,

Independence in observation and inference. It is aston-
ishing how few people think for themselves or perhaps
think at all. The world is full of second-hand opinions,
and almost any vagary seems to be able to get a following.
Nearly everyone has learned to depend upon teachers or
upon books for opinions, and " authority," although often
unconsciously followed, is depended upon. It may be
the authority of a person, of an organization, or of a con-
vention, but it is always very real. The whole spirit of
nature study is one constant protest against second-hand
opinions, against any bondage of the book. The authority
appealed to is direct observation, and the inference is very
cautious until repeatedly tested. It is an attitude of mind
that first demands the facts and then suspends judgment
until they are all in. Such training is fundamental, for

THE MISSION OF NATURE STUDY 27

no one possessing it will be likely to lose his intellectual
balance.

Some conception as to what an exact statement is. Very
many people are unable to make an exact statement, chiefly
because they are in no mental condition to do so. Their
ideas are vague and hazy, their thinking illogical, and their
expression wabbles. Nothing trains in clear thinking and
expression so much as accurate observation and descrip-
tion, and here again we are in the very stronghold of nature
study. To hew expression close to the line of fact may not
be called for on all occasions, as in familiar conversation,
which cannot degenerate into a series of formulas, but in
statements of fact or of belief it is demanded. It is sur-
prising and gratifying to see how rapidly young children
learn to hold steadily to what they have seen, and to state
it without exaggeration or verbiage. It is a good habit to
learn, and to learn so early that it becomes involuntary.

Some conception o) what constitutes proof. This is the
crying need of the men and women of to-day who make and
hold the most impossible connections between cause and
effect. It is in this very broad field that charlatanism of
every sort flourishes like a noxious weed, and unless this
situation is changed through the schools the dupes will
continue to multiply. They are already far too numerous
for our good, and seem to be increasing in number in spite
of increasing education. Nature study presents unrivaled
opportunity for training in proof, for it is found that a single
observation is rarely trustworthy, and that additional facts
are apt to modify the conclusion. The spirit of nature
study is necessarily conservative and is very slow to
recognize a thing as proved, for it is compelled so often to

28 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

change its conclusions. Whole systems of belief and lines
of conduct have been constructed upon a basis of claimed
fact which a child in the grades, trained in nature study,
could he understand the terminology, would reject without
hesitation. An injection of such children in large numbers
into any metropolitan community would work a revolution.
Such are the results that appear possible from well-
organized and well-conducted work in nature study, and,
if so, its greatest mission is evident, for the production of
independent and rational individuals is what society needs
to-day more than anything else.

CHAPTER IV

THE DANGERS OF NATURE STUDY

Introductory. — Even when the purpose of nature study
is clear in the mind of the teacher there are numerous pit-
falls for the unwary. They may be very readily discerned
by visiting schools or by reading books that are serving as
guides to many teachers. The earnest work of teachers
is fully appreciated, but if earnestness in certain things seems
to be misdirected it is wise to call attention to that fact.
Some of the following criticisms may develop differences
of opinion and then the teacher is to be the judge; the
justice of others is more evident, for the faults referred to
are very far from the real purpose of nature study.

The Teacher. — Here lies the fundamental danger in all
teaching. Methods and material may be well organized,
but the teacher is able to make them ineffective. This is
peculiarly true of nature study, for if it is not well done it
is worse than useless. The studies long established in
elementary schools are so well organized that even poor
teaching may result in some progress, but nature study is in
the experimental stage, and to experiment takes initiative
and ideas. As a consequence, the results obtained from
nature study have not encouraged its introduction or
maintenance to so large an extent as it deserves. It has
been decried as a fad that will die out, as a thing with no
educative value, as an impractical and nerve-racking time-

29

30 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

killer. All of these epithets have been applied to it by
those in authority in the schools, and by parents; and it is
interesting to trace the cause of such opinions. It is
usually found that such criticism is founded upon the work
of some teacher who was marking time rather than teach-
ing. One is forced to the conclusion that among the worst
foes of nature study must be counted many of its teachers.

It is often urged that this state of affairs will continue
until teachers become trained for this particular work. It
is very true that teachers should be trained in nature study,
but this is not the principal thing. University repre-
sentatives of the sciences have even urged an amount of
general knowledge of the sciences that would stagger a
university instructor. This is clearly impractical, for
grade teachers cannot obtain so extensive a training, and
if they can they will no longer consent to be grade teachers.

The principal thing is not formal training in teaching
nature study, although this is very desirable; or a university
course in all the sciences involved; but the principal thing is
the spirit in which nature study is taught. This is the first
thing, and training and knowledge will develop through
experience and wise suggestion; without it, no amount of
training and knowledge will make a successful teacher of
the subject. There are teachers with no formal training
and with no exact knowledge who have succeeded in de-
veloping almost ideal courses in nature study, judged by
all the tests we know; and there are teachers with all the
formal training of the schools who could not " make it go."
To catch by observation the qualities of an effective teacher
is like trying to catch a personality. For such a one no
rules can be formulated; he is like an artist, born with a

THE DANGERS OF NATURE STUDY 31

feeling for his work. We simply know that in our school
machine, at the points of application, we sometimes get
power and sometimes none. And yet there are certain
obvious things about a successful teacher that can be ob-
served and these ought to be helpful.

The most obvious thing in a successful teacher of nature
study is an enthusiasm for the work, and enthusiasm is
one of the most contagious things in the world. Moreover,
the enthusiasm is not assumed, but real; the outward ex-
pression of a feeling that the work is important and de-
lightful. Without this feeling, the work becomes a task
rather than an inspiration, and in such an atmosphere
nature study cannot live. Those who teach this subject,
therefore, must feel abundantly encouraged if they have a
real love for it, for all the other desirable things will follow;
but if they look upon it as an unspeakable drudgery from
which they long to be relieved, they should consider thought-
fully the purpose and principles of the subject, and see
whether a fuller understanding of it may not generate a
spark of enthusiasm that experience can fan into a flame.

Dead Work. — This means that insignificant and trivial
things are selected for observation, and when the work is
done there has been no real gain. This is a very common
pitfall even for the enthusiastic teacher, but it is almost a
sure indication of the perfunctory one. When the world is
full of important things to be observed, and when observa-
tion should accumulate a body of useful knowledge, it is
fatuous to waste time and energy upon trifles.

Just here comes a serious difficulty. How shall teach-
ers select important things and reject trivial ones unless
they have more training in the sciences ? It does not take

32 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

as much training to make such selection as may be sup-
posed. A little reading, some experience, and a few ques-
tions directed to those who know and are glad to help
will suffice. Besides, no one expects every selection of
material to be wise; even in university laboratories we are
doubtless giving much attention to certain things that will
later turn out to be of trifling importance. The best that
can be done is to avoid the obviously trivial whenever it
becomes obvious to the teacher.

There are teachers honest enough to recognize and
acknowledge that they have been dealing with trifles. They
confessed that they were " marking time"; trying to fill the
assigned period with anything that occurred to them. As
a salve to conscience the exercise was called " busy work,"
instead of nature study, and that is a capital name for all
dead work in nature study; work which keeps the pupils
busy even if they* are neither interested nor profited.
Classes are many in which leaves brought in day after day
are used in such work, presumably because they are
abundant and varied and can fill in more periods than any
other material ; but classes are still rare in which the really
important things about leaves are observed.

There seems to be an impression with some teachers
that the most important things to observe even about fa-
miliar objects are those things most unusual to the pupil's
experience. The fact is that the most important things
are the most obvious, so obvious that it almost seems foolish
to call attention to them. They are so common to the
experience of everyone that they do not seem to need con-
sideration. For example, who does not know that leaves
are green? But why? This is the question that so

THE DANGERS OF NATURE STUDY

33

universal a phenomenon should suggest, even if it remains
unanswered for the present. Who does not know of spring
flowers ? But what does this very common habit of spring
flowering mean? Nothing is more obvious than that
stems grow upward and roots downward ; but why ? The
seedling multiplies its bulk an hundredfold; but whence
and how have come the materials for this increase? It
may be almost taken as a rule that important things in
nature are those which are so common that people seem
to know about them without observation. Some teachers
have taken a whole course in nature study, and so common
were the phenomena considered and so simple was the
presentation that they claimed to have learned nothing,
when they were really dealing with the most important
materials of nature study. They demanded difficulty,
rarity, obscurity, terminology; and getting none of these
things they were as disappointed as is a hypochondriac
whose physician refuses to give some nauseous medicine.

Terminology. — There appears to be common confusion
between " terminology" and "knowledge." To learn the
technical name of an object seems to satisfy the intellectual
desire of most people in reference to it. As a well-known
botanist said in reference to the naming of plants, once so
much in vogue as botany: " It is like chasing a woodchuck
into his hole; one has only the hole to show for his effort."
A technical name explains nothing, and is merely a neces-
sary evil and necessary only to specialists. To introduce
technical terminology into nature study is as much out of
place as to introduce professional training.

With observation of leaves, which seem to be favorite
objects with many teachers, the frequent result is merely an

34 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

ability to apply the terms lanceolate, ovate, cordate, etc,,
to the proper forms; serrate, dentate, etc., to the proper
toothing; and palmate, pinnate, etc., to the proper veining.
Such work is often done seriously and with the idea that a
knowledge of these names means a knowledge of the leaf.
If a technical name is used at all it should be used like the
name of an individual; useful to distinguish the individual
upon introduction, but by no means implying acquaintance.
What we want in nature study is not a series of introduc-
tions merely, but an increasing acquaintance and fellow-
ship.

It may be claimed that we know little more about most
things than the names we have given them. This is very
true, but we can learn to ask intelligent questions, which
is far more important in this work than being supplied
simply with answers to questions. The method is more
important than the matter. This is the attitude of mind
that nature study should cultivate, rather than the idea
that a name is the end-all. That leaves vary in form,
toothing, and venation is very evident; and it is a good
thing to impress this fact and the range of variation. The
end of all this, however, is not to apply names to the varia-
tions, but to suggest the question as to what all this variation
means in the life-work of the plants. To be able to ask in-
telligent questions is after all about the best we can do in the
present state of knowledge in reference to nature.

Factitious Interest. — This means that use of playful and
imaginative devices for securing an interest that the real
object is supposed to lack. Here is where the majority
of books on nature study get in their deadly work, with
their personifications and romances. We sometimes find

THE DANGERS OF NATURE STUDY 35

so-called nature-study exercises which consist of the ex-
hibition of a flower or even a bird and the quotation of
poetry about it. This may be a charming way of making
literature more realistic, but it does not hold relationship
With the nature study here in mind. We may find this
process called the correlation of nature study and literature.
But such devices repel rather than attract strong children,
just as does the foolish and forced sprightliness of manner
of many primary teachers. The truth itself, when dis-
cerned clearly, is always attractive, and we cannot afford
to play fast and loose with it.

Just here we find large diversity of opinion, for this kind
of instruction has become so engrafted upon nature study
that to many it seems to be essential. Besides, the method
referred to obtains results that are really desirable, for it
interests and stimulates many and certainly feeds the im-
agination. The only criticism is that it is not nature study.
It is simply using the facts of nature as starting points for
flights of fancy. It shifts the interest from nature to a
figment of the imagination which does not and cannot exist
in nature. It introduces points of view that result in de-
ceptions and even hallucinations, and it is improperly
labeled nature study. Rather it is " nature fancy," and
perfectly unobjectionable when rightly named.

The race of so-called " nature fakirs" thrives in thte
atmosphere. They weave their nature fancies with great
skill, and their writings are very seductive. We acknowl-
edge and enjoy their charm, but when they pose as inter-
preters of nature they are to be denounced as frauds. Let
it be understood that all this criticism has to do only with a
proper label — a label that shall fairly represent the content.

36 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

Does this mean that instruction in nature study must
be as exact and colorless as a mathematical formula ? By
no means; but it does mean that no teaching device shall
divert attention from the real truths. Every bit of color
and glow that can be made to play about these truths is not
only legitimate but extremely desirable. This, however, is
merely good teaching, and comes naturally to teachers who
have the ability to interest children. To make nature live
is one thing; to make the imagination lively and even wild
is quite another. We may contrast the actual cases of two
teachers, each telling the story of the winter bud and its
awakening in the spring, and each holding the rapt atten-
tion of the class. One told of a sleeping princess guarded
by wonderful coverings, of the coming of the spring fairy,
of the gradual awakening, and of the unfolding into full
beauty. The other introduced no princess or fairy, but
spoke of the bud as a part of the plant, of the danger that
comes with the winter, of the way the danger is met, of
the new conditions that come with the spring, of the unfold-
ing leaves, and of the preparation for a season of service.
The pupils of the former were attracted by the princess and
the fairy ; those of the latter by the structure and significance
of the bud. No one should hesitate to decide which of these
two teachers was teaching nature.

Unwarranted Inferences. — It is astonishing how many
teachers feel under compulsion to explain everything,
when as yet most things cannot be explained. Perhaps
this arises from an anxiety lest their pupils regard them
unfit for their work. The inferences heard and read in
connection with nature study are wonderful. The wildest
guesses as to the meaning of things are made, when the

THE DANGERS OF NATURE STUDY 37

teacher or writer must be conscious of utter ignorance in
reference to the matter, or is singularly self-deluded.

The " nature fakir" is the prince of nature explainers.
Even if his observations are to be relied upon, which is far
from true in every case, his explanations are usually beyond
all reason. Especially deceptive is the explanation that
involves attributing to plants and to the lower animals the
consciousness, and motives, and methods of human beings.
More or less of this idea is implied in the terminology we
use, for we have developed no other for common use; but
it is not used with the deliberate intention of attributing
human powers to low organisms. The spines on a cactus
are very serviceable in protecting it from grazing animals,
but to teach that the cactus invented spines to use for this
purpose is to teach an untruth. In this case it happens
that the cactus grows chiefly where there are no grazing
animals to molest it, and that its spines were produced of
necessity and not from choice; and this may be taken as a
fair sample of all the wonderful and deliberate " inven-
tions" of plants.

There is an opinion current that everything in nature
is perfectly adapted to its surroundings, and perhaps this
belief explains the feeling of compulsion to explain.
Evidently many have not thoughtfully considered what
perfect adaptation would mean. It would mean absolute
stagnation; while lack of adaptation means progress.
Plants and animals are doing as well as possible under the
circumstances in which they are placed, but in general they
are changing and are far from being perfectly adapted to
environment. In fact the whole question of adaptation is
to-day an open one among biologists and no weaker point

38 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

has been found in certain theories of evolution than the
assumption that all things in nature have or have had a use
and we need be but sufficiently clever in order to discover
it. Since we are agreed that a child's interest should not
be bought by trifling with truth, all statements that plants
or animals have certain structures or habits for certain
specific purposes are to be avoided as dangerous. Such,
for example, would be the statement that flowers have
odors and colors and nectar in order to attract insects.
These characteristics may attract insects truly enough, but
the form of statement should be rather that flowers do have
such characteristics and that insects do come to them.
£The purpose idea has been greatly overemphasized. Such
instances come up in nearly every lesson, and the continu-
ous attribution of design as behind and precedent to the
facts observed will form a fundamentally misleading habit
of thought. The teacher, therefore, must be content to
observe, to explain what is evident, to leave most things
unexplained, to ask questions, to find failures; in short, to
ttake nature as a great book of truths and of puzzles. To
leave the impression that all things are understood would
be the worst possible result.

Sentimentality. — This has been referred to in the previ-
ous chapter, but, as a danger, it needs additional emphasis.
It is hard to make this criticism clear, for a certain kind of
sentiment in reference to nature is not only desirable but
necessary if there is to be success. But sentimentality is
something quite different; it is a state of feeling rather than
a state of intelligence. It has the effect of blunting keen
observation, for it responds to the total effect of wild nature
as to a general stimulus, rather than as a book to be read.

THE DANGERS OF NATURE STUDY 39

Such feeling is delightful, and the possessor ;s fortunate in
having an additional attraction to nature study. What we
are after, however, is not so much a feeling as a state of
mind that compels observation, that is interested in the
meanings of things, that is cautious in drawing conclusions,
that is making continual progress. Sentimentality may
degenerate into mawkishness, a kind of dreamy, unreal
association of ideas that is ineffective and mentally ener-
vating. There is probably too much sentimentality in
education now, or, perhaps better, too little of its converse.
If nature study is to intensify this tendency it had better
not be introduced, but if it can be used to correct it, it had
better be introduced at once everywhere.

It has been attempted to show that nature study can
produce clarity of vision, exactness of statement, definite-
ness of conclusion; in short, the most practical qualities for
successful living. If it can do all this it would seem a
perversion to use it to increase the materials for mawkish
sentimentality. The association of nature study with
poetic literature is probably largely responsible for foster-
ing sentimentality as opposed to knowledge. Because a
great poet has mentioned a yellow primrose, does the
quotation from him illuminate any fact of nature? The
primrose might illuminate the quotation, but that is a study
of literature, not of nature. The introduction of this
method was natural, for it seemed to give to nature study
a very powerful ally, but the relations have been developed
in such a way that it looks like an alliance between a lion
and a lamb. This is no criticism of poetic literature, nor of
the attempt to make it live by seeing the objects it mentions;
both appeal to the finest that is in us; but it is a criticism of

40 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

the attempt to make it engulf nature study which has a very
distinct mission of its own. The advice is, therefore, to
change the atmosphere in passing from such literature to
nature study, like the physician when passing from the
joys of social life to the study of some difficult case. The
former gives the emotions play, the latter demands mental
poise. This does not mean coldness, for it involves en-
thusiasm; but it does mean a totally different attitude of
mind. It is the cultivation of both of these sides of life
that is sought. Each needs the other as its complement,
and neither alone makes the most effective life. Let litera-
ture continue to do what it has been doing most effectively,
but let nature study also show what it is able to do.

Book Dependence. — Under this title I mean to include
all dependence upon authority, whether it is literally a
book or some teacher. Respect for the opinions of those
who are in a better position to know should be enforced
strongly at every stage of education, but this does not mean
the suppression of all initiative, the possession of only
second-hand opinions., It is not difficult to perceive that
ordinary school methods enforce intellectual dependence
upon many teachers as well as pupils. Leaning upon
authority is a deadly habit, easily acquired and broken
with great difficulty. If an offset for it can be discovered,
it is certainly desirable.

Such an offset may be provided by nature study, unless
it is used to enforce still more the habit of dependence.
Does it not furnish the main opportunity in early education
to break the shackles of the book ? When observations
are being made, the things seen are to be recorded and not
the things that ought to be seen as stated by book or teacher.

THE DANGERS OF NATURE STUDY 41

The variations in nature are so endless that no record has
kept track of them, and this is one of the beauties of nature
study, for it can be told easily whether one is really observing
or only following. As an instance may be cited an exercise
in which the teacher had distributed some seeds for ex-
amination. Among other directions was one calling for
the observation of the two coats (the directions said " in-
teguments"!). All found them except one boy, and the
teacher informed the visitor that he was always giving her
trouble, repeatedly failing to see according to directions.
In this case the boy could find only one coat, and insisted
that to get two coats this one would have to be split. It
happened that the boy was right. The teacher had learned
from some book that seeds have two integuments, and
therefore two must be observed. This is not an example
of a useful exercise, but merely an instance of misplaced
use of authority.

The fact is that technical exactness in observation is
not necessary in nature study. It demands such observa-
tions as are obvious to eyes and minds interested in nature,
but not the observations of those professionally trained.
Technical exactness at this stage of one's contact with
nature kills interest; the chief thing is to secure genuine
observation, and it is better to give this free rein, quite
independent of authority. The habit of looking into the
facts for oneself is one that cannot be acquired too early,
and it should be cultivated steadily, as an offset to the in-
tellectual dependence inevitably developed in the teaching
of certain other subjects.

Outlines. — There is a very general demand from teach-
ers for outlines. This point has been previously touched

42 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

upon but it needs to be included again in any category of
dangers. As a rule the inexperienced teacher feels more
or less at a loss and grasps at every straw of help; books,
magazines, lectures, or summer courses; and running
through it all appears to be the hope of securing a precise
outline of the work to be done.

All outlines and all uses of outlines are not to be in-
cluded in one sweeping condemnation, but they introduce
a danger that may be fatal. It is rare to find a proper
outline or an outline used properly.

Yet a plan is deemed necessary for the most effective
work. But an effective outline must be very flexible. It
should be a series of suggested possibilities rather than
of rigid prescriptions. It must adjust itself to seasonal
fluctuations, to daily changes of weather, to the chance find
in the field or material brought in, and always it must
be specially written for the local conditions. And so it
becomes amorphous to the degree that it nearly ceases to
be an outline at all. It has few definite lines of structure
and many alternative lessons. It nominates more topics
than can be covered, for many may not be available in
certain seasons. It provides on the same days lessons for
rain and lessons for shine, and just so surely as the teacher
approaches the ideal the need for any such outline van-
ishes save only to prevent the trespass of one grade upon
the general premises of another. But withal it must be ad-
mitted that with things as they are with teachers' prep-
aration good outlines sanely used are altogether useful in
practical nature study.

An outline constructed by the teacher is a good thing.
It may not be a good outline, but it is the organized ex-

THE DANGERS OF NATURE STUDY

43

pression of the teacher's thought as to the possibility of the
subject in that particular school. It is an evidence of in-
dependence, which means that the outline will be modified
for the better as experience increases.

An outline obtained from a successful teacher is also a
good thing. It will be a good outline, not to follow, but
to study. One may catch from it the principles involved,
the spirit, the methods, and the sort of material that has
proved successful. It will probably enable another teacher
to make his own outline better, but there is always
the temptation to "crib bodily" and be done with the
trouble.

No outline is altogether good except one that is made
with special reference to the particular teacher and to the
neighborhood of the particular school. That nature study
is peculiarly a local study cannot be emphasized too fre-
quently. It is for this reason that any outline must be
constructed by the individual teacher and not for teachers
in general. But when this home-constructed outline has
been completed, even it becomes a danger if it is followed
too rigidly. It is a general guide, but it cannot be a day-
by-day guide. It is impossible to foresee all the shifts that
good teaching will demand. There will come the especially
appropriate moments for different material or for arousing
new interests of the pupils or for new methods of presenta-
tion, any one of which may for the moment cast the outline
to the winds. Just as to certain speakers there come
moments of inspiration through the act of speaking, so to
teachers there come sudden inspirations in the act of teach-
ing. These should be seized upon at once, used without
reference to a programme, and recorded for future use.

44 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

When an outline becomes filled up with the records of such
experiences, it becomes very much more valuable.

The worst phase of the outline danger, however, is the
use of a borrowed one. This means that a scheme of work
constructed for one neighborhood is applied to another,
and it can hardly fail to be somewhat a misfit. The school
of a teacher in the Central West was visited. The town
was small and surrounded almost completely by a mag-
nificent forest. In her eager search for instruction and an
outline for nature study, the teacher had gone far afield,
attending a summer course given on the Atlantic coast and
securing an Atlantic coast outline. On the day of the visit
the class was observing seaweeds! They had been ob-
tained, with great trouble, from the fish market of a
neighboring city, being the sad and broken sort of sea-
weeds that come as packing. They were slimy and form-
less masses, entirely foreign to the experience of every child
in the class, or of any fortunate child anywhere. But sea-
weeds were in the outline and so they must be observed ;
and in this same outline there was not a single tree or forest
^study, the most conspicuous material of the neighborhood !
This is an extreme illustration, but it is a true one. The
contrast of regions may not be so striking in every case, but
the same lack of fitness may easily appear when a borrowed
outline is used.

Conclusions. — All the dangers enumerated above can-
not be avoided at every moment of one's progress. The
chief thing is to recognize them as dangers, and to eliminate
them as rapidly as possible. A thoroughly good course in
nature study, one that includes all the advantages and avoids
all the dangers, is a thing of slow construction; and per-

THE DANGERS OF NATURE STUDY 45

haps it is impossible of construction as yet. It is not a
question only of what material is available, it is a ques-
tion also of what material has valuable significance and
of what appeals to the children. To select appropriate
material from available material is the work of the teacher
who is experimenting with the children. No earnest
teacher of nature study need feel discouraged, for those who
write and lecture and suggest are more dependent upon the
teachers than the teachers are upon the " authorities."

CHAPTER V

THE PRINCIPLES OF NATURE STUDY

Introductory. — The title of this chapter may be mis-
leading, but it is a convenient one to cover certain general
suggestions which deal with principles as contrasted with
details, and are applicable to any detail of location and
material. Such principles are of course more clearly
developed in connection with details, and these general
statements lack something of force until they are applied
in the series of suggestive studies in Part Two.

In the preceding chapter the reader was left with a series
of things forbidden, which to some may have seemed to
include everything done in nature study. Unless something
can be substituted only damage has been done; criticism
is of no avail unless it includes constructive suggestion.
Of course things forbidden imply that the converse is
desirable, and what is said in the following pages has been
implied in the preceding ones. However, there is advan-
tage in a series of positive statements. It must be kept in
mind that these are only suggestions, but they are derived
from long experience in teaching observational subjects,
and effective methods for securing independent observa-
tion find general application at every educational level.

Objects of Common Experience. — Often the greatest
puzzle to the inexperienced teacher is the selection of
material. Since this must be done for each neighborhood,

46

THE PRINCIPLES OF NATURE STUDY 47

direction must take the form of general principles ap-
plicable to any region. The fundamental principle is to se-
lect the natural objects of most common experience — those
that thrust themselves upon the observation of everyone.
For example, in a wooded region no natural object is more
common than a tree, and in every region trees are at least
associated with parks, or streets, or dwellings. It happens
that tree studies call for somewhat special treatment, es-
pecially with lower grades, but they are not to be avoided
on that account. Tree studies are discussed as a topic in
Part Two. In an agricultural region the prominent crops
are most conspicuous, and in every region the common
garden plants, useful and ornamental, are available.
Everywhere there are the insects, and domestic animals,
and some birds, and simple physical materials in abun-
dance. It is often useful to discover the experiences of the
pupils, making a list of the natural objects that have at-
tracted their attention, and taking advantage of these con-
tacts for a beginning. Naturally the conspicuous objects
in many neighborhoods are much alike in a general way,
and an outline for one school may be fairly applicable for a
neighboring school, but there are always differences in
detail to be provided for. For example, while trees wrill
doubtless be included in most outlines, the conspicuous
and easily available trees of different regions are apt to
differ widely.

In addition to neighborhood differences in material,
there are neighborhood differences in the experiences of
pupils. The country child or village child is apt to have
cultivated a considerable acquaintance with certain plants
and animals, both wild and domestic, while the city child

48 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

is apt to be in a state of great ignorance in reference to
such things. To give to both of these experiences the same
work would result either in commonplaces to the country
child or mysteries to the city child. The average city child
labors under a great handicap in reference to nature study,
and is in peculiar need of it in its most elementary form.

All this means an adaptable teacher, one who is very
sensitive to differences of experience among pupils, who
can lay hold of any material, and who can vary the presenta-
tion according to the need. This last point is often lost
sight of and is very important. Truth is many-sided, and
it is always a question as to which side will make the most
effective first impression. This is a very real problem
which is to be solved only by the teacher. For example, is
it the individual tree that has interest, or trees massed in
a forest ? Is it the general habit of a tree that impresses
or the wonderful work it is doing? Or do trees impress
some children at all ? Quick shifts must often be made in
points of view when an effective one is stumbled upon.

Activity Rather than Structure. — Children seem to be
most interested in observing things that are doing some-
thing, and fortunately this activity represents the most
important fact in reference to any organism, for structure
finds its most important significance in the work it does.
For this reason children watch with more interest the
behavior of animals than that of plants; their activity is so
much more in evidence. However, it is not difficult to
show that plants also are very active. It is fundamental
that all studies with plants and animals should rest upon
the idea that organisms are at work; that life compels work.
This does not mean that the study of structure is to be

THE PRINCIPLES OF NATURE STUDY 49

omitted; far from it! It means simply that all structure
must be interpreted as to function so far as possible.
'Activity is to be the dominant idea. For example, the
general structure of leaves ought to be observed, but only
as leading to interpretation of their exceedingly important
work. This dominating idea determines the structures
to be observed, and eliminates all dead work. The general
habits of trees ought to be observed in relation to their
scheme for the position of branches and the display of
foliage. The structure of bird feathers or of insect mouth
parts or of gastropod shells should be studied, but always
in terms of the part they play in the economy of the animal's
daily existence.

This is not to be confused with the habit of assigning a
designed purpose, often more or less obscure and forced,
to every structure met. Warning has already been given
as to the dangers in wholesale claims of adaptations.
Where the structures observed have an obvious use that use
is to be brought out, always by the children rather than the
teacher, but the form of statement that things are thus
and so because of such a need of the organism is a form of
statement whose assumption is usually unwarranted by
the facts and is to be avoided.

To show that plants as well as animals are busily at
work simple experiments are valuable and usually arouse
decided interest. Seeds are commonly germinated in the
schoolroom in connection with nature study. Pupils in
upper grades have been heard to complain that they "had
beans in every room." The loss of interest and time in
repetition has been pointed out, but the value and interest
of germination work are enhanced by the use of various seeds

50 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

and by experiments. Germination studies should always
make clear by experiment the conditions essential to this
process, and the varying habits of different seeds. Simple
experiments demonstrating the ascent of sap, the evapora-
tion of water from the leaves, the rate of growth, and the
turning of roots toward water can be arranged with home-
made apparatus. One cannot see the sap ascending in a
tree, but after experimenting with the movement of water
in a stem he can appreciate what is going on in countless
tree trunks. One cannot see water vapor arising from
leaves, but after measuring transpiration he can appreciate
the great volume of water given out by forests, and their
value as water reservoirs.

Definiteness. — To work effectively, the teacher must
work to some definite purpose. To place material before
children, or to send them out to observe anything, without
definite knowledge on the part of the teacher as to the things
to be done and some plan of action suggested to the children
is never effective. Children have been set to observe
a tree, with no suggestion whatsoever, and without the
faintest idea as to the important points. As an experi-
ment to discover what facts about a tree impress children
the most, this is sometimes worth while, but as an ordinary
method it results in confusion. No material should be
assigned that has not been traversed previously by the
teacher, so that she knows that there are some very definite
facts in plain sight. Even in the university the laboratory
instructor must work over his material and his experiments
before each exercise, so as to be sure that what he wants is
there in good condition or that his experiment will work.
Quite as much is this needed^ in nature study, for young

THE PRINCIPLES OF NATURE STUDY 51

pupils must not be made to search long or to obtain poor
results. Lack of definiteness results in work that is con-
fusing, discouraging, and disastrous.

It is just here that the teacher's greatest skill is called
for. To give enough suggestion to make observation
definite and not to give enough to interfere with independ-
ence is sailing between Scylla and Charybdis. Either
extreme is disastrous, and the decision as to just what to
suggest and what to leave to suggest itself must always be
dependent upon the immediate circumstances both as to
material and as to pupils.

Sketching. — In connection with the observational work
there is no question as to the value of sketching; it can
hardly be called drawing. The purpose is not to make a
good sketch, but to insure accurate observation, and it is
the best teaching device known to secure this result.
Usually no one sees an object with exactness or fastens it in
his memory clearly until he attempts to reproduce it. Any
artistic skill possessed by a pupil is apt to be a danger, for
the tendency then is to make a picture rather than to record
the facts. And yet the exercise incidentally teaches one to
make lines represent facts with exactness. The peda-
gogical value of sketching in nature study, however, lies
in the effort to reproduce rather than in the accurate re-
production. A pupil whose sketch does not represent the
object, and who recognizes the fact, may have received as
much benefit from the exercise as the pupil who sketches
better. This is important to remember in criticising and
in grading pupils. In using such a device, the temptation
is to make the device the end in itself rather than its effect
upon the pupils. Sketching should measure the thought

52 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

behind it no more than does handwriting; both ought to
be as good as possible, but both are subordinate.

Individual Work. — Observation must be made as in-
dependent as possible and this means individual work
rather than general class exercises. It is hardly necessary
to argue for this method, for it lies at the very center of the
idea of the laboratory method which has penetrated and
revolutionized all education. To lean upon anyone else
for an observation is to make it ineffective, and the majority
of pupils will lean if permitted to do so. General exercises
are often conducted in which some object is held up before
the class, different things about it pointed out and named,
and an occasional question asked. Under these conditions
the pupils fall into four categories: those wh^rdo not listen,
those who do not observe, those who do not answer, and a
few eager ones who do all the listening, observing, and
answering.

Individual work means individual responsibility, a most
important lesson to learn early and to learn thoroughly.
It takes those who do not listen, or observe, or answer out
of the class of drones and makes of them workers. This
sort of work means more effort by the teacher than a
general exercise, but its results are worth much more than
the difference in trouble. To individualize material or
experiments in the classroom is simple enough, even if it is
laborious, but to individualize work in the open is often
regarded as impractical. The school garden work should
be based upon this idea of individual responsibility just
as soon as the maturity of the pupils permits; in fact, a
school garden would hardly be justified if it were made a
general exercise throughout.

THE PRINCIPLES OF NATURE STUDY 53

Although individual work is spoken of in contrast with
general exercises, this need not necessarily mean each
pupil working alone. In fact, it is often a great advantage
to break the class up into groups of two or three in the con-
duct of observations and experiments. A companion or
two in work is a great stimulus to effort, to interest, to
exactness. A pupil working alone may be careless, in-
exact, or even untruthful; but two or three working to-
gether will be almost sure to bring in honest results. Even
in the primary grades this group system appears to be
desirable in the garden work. Such separation into groups
also often arouses a desirable spirit of competition. It is
interesting and instructive to see and hear one of these
groups properly at work. The observation by one pair of
sharp young eyes is checked or supplemented by the ob-
servation of another pair equally sharp; then the discussion
comes; thenTepeated observation is made to settle dispute;
and finally the conclusion is reached. This working over
of the problem before the result is presented gives admir-
able results.

Unprejudiced Observation. — The danger which lies in
the teacher's telling too much, and the difficulty in avoid-
ing this without telling too little have been mentioned.
But the telling too much is perhaps the more serious fault,
for it leaves no effort for the pupil, while telling too little
leaves the effort, even if it results in no very definite obser-
vation.

Children in school are remarkably docile, and if told to
see a thing, the majority of them will confess to seeing it.
In the preceding chapter reference was made to a trouble-
some boy who would not see the two coats of a seed which

54 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

the teacher called for. In that particular instance the
class was almost unanimous in professing to see something
that did not exist, simply because they thought they ought
to see it. It must be evident that this result is as far as
possible from the one sought. It is just this kind of docility
that must be broken up, or the child will become a con-
firmed dependent.

This kind of dependence appears even among university
students, whose observations are not prejudiced in this
case by instructors, but by well- illustrated text-books.
This flinching from doing the one really essential thing,
when it comes to observation, is to be observed in many
ways and is to be checked at all hazards. In nature study,
text-book, or chart illustrations are not likely to prejudice,
and the teacher properly on his guard will not commit such
a blunder, but even then there are ways of dodging the
issue. There are sketches of fellow pupils that may be
used as a substitute for one's own observation; this of
course is palpable dependence. A more subtle form of
prejudiced observation is the careless or hasty look, fol-
lowed by a record made to fit general impressions rather
than the actual facts.

It is very helpful to discover the tendencies of individual
pupils in a variety of ways, trying to discover the personal
equations and then attempting to correct them. A bad
case needs to be isolated from every form of temptation,
a sort of solitary confinement, until real observation
is secured. In other cases, whose symptoms are not so
serious, occasional traps will probably bring caution and
honesty. Some cases will be found hopeless, for they are
born dependents, or they may be even persistently dis-

THE PRINCIPLES OF NATURE STUDY 55

honest. But the majority will respond and will presently
stand any test of independent, honest observation, feeling
free to contradict book, teacher, or any other authority
that does not agree with their owrn observations. This is
really the ideal result; but it is rather surprising to find
that the " spirit of contradiction" distresses many teachers
and angers some. Honest contradiction based on honest
observation means an alert, independent mind, and when
such a result is reached in the case of any pupil, then teacher
and pupil may enter into comradeship in observation, and
the further progress of both is assured.

Comparison of Results. — This deserves special atten-
tion. It ties up the bundle of observations in such a way
that they lead to a much larger outlook and the intellectual
result is of the greatest importance. In fact, observations
conducted in accordance with all the previous suggestions
seem to end somewhat blindly without the culminating
process of comparison. It would resemble reading a story
so as to become acquainted with the characters and even
interested in them and in the dramatic situations, and then
omitting the concluding pages that record the final results
and give meaning to all that has been done. It would
resemble the tracing of a series of converging lines and
stopping before they meet at some point. The intellectual
results obtained from the process of comparison follow
one another in a series so swift that one seems to compress
into a brief effort more results than have been obtained
from everything that has gone before. This point needs
somewhat close analysis to see what a rich content of results
comparison contains.

Let us suppose that various plants or animals have been

5

56 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

examined by different pupils or small groups of pupils.
The exercise may have dealt with such details that only
one kind was used, individual specimens having been
assigned to individual pupils or small groups. Or the
exercise may have been a general one, applying to a group
of types, as woodpeckers or evergreen trees. In either case
each pupil or group has made and recorded observations
that are presumably independent and honest. When all
these sets of observations are brought together and com-
pared, it will soon become apparent that there are differ-
ences. Far the most interesting way of comparing results
is to take them up item by item in a class meeting and call
for an oral statement in reference to them. Some of the
differences of statement will be so great as to appear like
contradictions. The chances are that a general oral
exercise of this kind will develop discussion and perhaps
dispute, and the more interested and eager the dispute can
become the better, for it means momentum for what must
follow, and clinches things in memory when agreement is
reached.

The next step comes so naturally that it is likely to be
proposed by the pupils themselves. Differences and even
contradictions in the results demand a reexamination of
the material, each claimant undertaking to make his claim
good to the class as a whole. This will certainly detect
and so eliminate careless observations and dishonest
claims, and will stiffen the moral backbone in future
exercises. This phase of the result, however, is only in-
cidental, for the exercise is not meant to be a trap for the
careless and the dishonest. What we have in mind are
sets of honest and good observations that show differences

THE PRINCIPLES OF NATURE STUDY 57

of varying degrees up to contradiction, and that are con-
firmed upon reexamination. This is the useful situation
to develop, and it is the usual one if the work has been
well done.

Confronted with the fact that many differences in evi-
dence are not due to mistakes but are real, the pupil has
reached an experience that is very important. He must
see for himself or be shown that while certain observed
features are different, others are similar. The result is
recognition of the facts that the characters in common are
the important ones, and that the characters which differ
are not so important, being only individual differences.
For example, a number of maples may have been under
observation, and the result will be sets of observations that
will show characters in common and characters that vary.
Those in common will be found to be the features that dis-
tinguish maples in general from other trees, while those that
vary will prove to be variations in individual maples, or
the variations which indicate the different species. Not
only will the difference between essentials and variations
be determined in this way, but the possible amount of
individual variation will often be quite impressive. It
will be realized, for example, how much maples may vary
and still be maples. Here, again, it is not a specific ex-
ercise which is recommended, but merely an illustration
given which applies to almost any material.

A few experiences of the kind suggested certainly have a
tendency to develop caution. When differences in the
results of observation develop in connection with some
subsequent exercise, there is more toleration shown, the
tone of discussion or dispute is not so confident, and the

58 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

appeal to reexamination is more immediate. To recog-
nize the fact that other people may be right even though
they seem to differ from one is making progress. Disputes
may be frequently heard among adults which children,
trained in comparisons as just indicated, would make short
work of. Herein lies a way to the attainment of the
scientific spirit, which is more important in education
than ten thousand mere facts of science.

The crowning result of this exercise, when repeated
often enough, is to teach the need and nature of adequate
proof before a statement can be insisted upon very strenu-
ously. For example, a boy claimed that oak leaves have
five lobes; he knew it because he ha,d seen an oak leaf and
counted its lobes. Another boy, who has been through the
mill described above, knows that this is not proof; that
many more oak leaves must be examined; and that very
likely the lobes will be found to vary in number. Yet
the statement of the first boy represents by far the most
common form of statement, and many people even base
important beliefs upon testimony no more critically ex-
amined than the testimony of the oak leaves by the con-
fident boy who examined one.

This tendency to confidence in conclusion based upon
few or even single observations is so general that it needs
serious attention, and any exercise that helps to correct it
cannot be repeated too frequently. One of the hardest
things in teaching experience has been to check the tend-
ency of many students to use one fact for a starting point
for a flight of fancy that is surprising. Such a tendency
is corrected when facts accumulate somewhat, and flight
in one direction is checked by a pull in some other direction.

THE PRINCIPLES OF NATURE STUDY 59

But most of us have the tendency, and the majority are so
unhampered by facts that flight is free.

There seems to be also a notion current that one may
start with a single fact of nature and by some logical
machinery construct an elaborate system and reach an
authentic conclusion, much as the world has imagined for
more than a century that Cuvier could construct a skeleton
if a single bone were furnished him. Facts are like step-
ping-stones; so long as one can get a reasonably close series
of them he can make some progress in a given direction,
but when he steps beyond them he flounders. As one
travels away from a fact its significance in any conclusion
becomes more and more attenuated; until presently the
vanishing point is reached and its power of illumination
fades like the rays of light from a candle. A fact is really
only influential in its own immediate vicinity, but the whole
structure of many a system lies in the region beyond the
vanishing point. When life and conduct are shaped by
such observation and reasoning the result is disastrous.

This dangerous tendency is so serious and fundamental
that that exercise deserves special emphasis which more
than any other single one in nature study will be found
useful in correcting it.

The suggestions just made in this chapter are intended
to be a statement of the methods by which the important
results which were mentioned at the close of the first chapter
may be obtained. It remains to apply the principles to
actual studies. If the results are important, and the prac-
tice of certain principles can secure them, and simple exer-
cises can include these principles, then there would seem
to be no reason for hesitation in making the experiment.

CHAPTER VI

THE SPIRIT OF NATURE STUDY

Introductory. — The spirit that dominates successful
work in nature study has been distinctly implied in the
preceding chapters, but it may be helpful to assemble
definite statements in regard to it into a continuous presenta-
tion. It is important for the teacher or the adult student
to appreciate what may be called the atmosphere that
vitalizes the subject. This will enable one to distinguish
between the genuine and the spurious, just as one learns
to distinguish between genuine and spurious art. This
will bring critical judgment to bear not only upon one's
own work as a teacher or a student, but also upon the
literature of the subject and the claims made by public
lecturers. Nature study has been defined as a certain
" attitude toward nature."

The ability to pass intelligent judgment upon the
increasing body of the literature of this subject is very
important to teachers and is not difficult to acquire if one
catches the spirit. It is much like judging individuals,
who for the most part soon arouse a feeling of confidence
or of distrust; it is difficult to describe just how, but the
judgment comes. Very frequent inquiries come from
teachers of nature study asking opinions concerning books,
and it is certain that the majority of teachers are often
victims to the ! plausible representations of agents. To

60

THE SPIRIT OF NATURE STUDY 6 1

such this chapter may prove helpful, for to know the spirit
of nature study is to recognize those who really represent it.

To describe an "atmosphere" is not easy, at least in
exact terms. Although real it is elusive, and can be brought
to the appreciation of anyone only through experience or
suggestion; and yet it includes certain very definite things
which may be taken to represent it as its natural expression.

Enthusiasm. — It is always characterized by enthusiasm,
which is the motive power. This is a feeling of attraction
for nature and for natural objects that compels attention.
It may be born with one or it may be acquired, but without
it nature study is as lifeless as a graven image. There is
an enthusiasm that is exuberant and fitful, now blazing
out, now dead; but the enthusiasm that counts is steady
and sustained.

It is far from safe to use enthusiasm as the only test of
an effective nature study spirit, for it may be irrational and
hence ineffective. Having been found in a person or in a
book, it is taken as the first count toward a favorable
judgment; if it is found to be lacking, no further investiga-
tion is necessary, for nothing else can take its place.

It is just at this point that differences of opinion often
arise. Enthusiasm sometimes inclines one to slur over
facts rather than to analyze them with exactness. This is
bad if carried too far, to the point of securing false results;
but up to a certain point it is far better than deadly ex-
actness. Much of the criticism by scientific men is justi-
fied, but when it demands an exactness that belongs to the
university laboratory, it misses the mark. There is a kind
of exactness that is essential in nature study, and there is
another kind that kills it. For example, it is necessary to

62 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

observe the exact sequence of events in a germinating seed,
but it is entirely out of place to insist that a seed does not
" germinate" because this function is restricted to spores. \
It is essential to see that most stems turn toward the light
and most roots turn toward the earth, if a curve is necessary
to secure these directions, but to insist upon a form of
statement that describes with exactness the response to»
the stimulus of light and of gravity is a useless analysis at
this stage of education. Total results are to be considered
primarily, and the factors which contribute to them cannot
be analyzed too critically, else teachers acquire so much
deadly dullness that they destroy all enthusiasm.

This demand for exactness that kills enthusiasm ap-
pears more in connection with terminology, perhaps, than
in a needlessly close analysis of the facts. Technical terms
are used to secure exactness, and in study of the sciences
they are absolutely necessary, but in nature study they
have small place, for the accuracy they imply is not de-
manded. To elaborate, for example, the differences be-
tween a rhizome and a tuber is perhaps necessary at
some stage of progress, but all the student of nature study
needs to know is that they are both thickened, underground
parts of plants, to be called by whatever name happens to be
convenient.

This is not a plea for inaccuracy either in observation
or in terminology, but a plea for the salvation of enthusiasm.
Anything that would diminish it must be avoided, and
experience has shown that technical exactness does this
very thing for the first contacts with nature. General
ideas, impressions if you please, come first, and when they
have been established their analysis with its terminology

THE SPIRIT OF NATURE STUDY 63

may follow. This guarding of enthusiasm constantly sug-
gests points of danger. For example, in addition to the
dangers already referred to, the repetition of similar ex-
ercises beyond the point of interest is a frequent menace
to continuous enthusiasm. Insistence in carrying through
an exercise that has been thought useful, but has proved
otherwise at the very outset, is similarly of dubious value.
In short, when interest is guarded, which has been shown
to be essential, enthusiasm is guarded.

It is a mistake to suppose that enthusiasm any more
than interest lives on excitement. Such enthusiasm is un-
healthy and cannot be sustained. It is like attempting a
continuous Fourth of July. Pupils need different treat-
ment; the exuberance of some must be toned down to a
safer level; the sluggishness of others must be stimulated
into effectiveness. It is apparent that it is no simple thing
to secure enthusiasm of the right kind and of the right
amount, but it is essential.

The questions to ask oneself, if a teacher or a student,
or to answer for one's pupils, are as follows: Has nature
any real attraction for me? Is it so attractive that I will
not be rebuffed easily? Is my enthusiasm in danger of
sweeping me off my intellectual balance and submerging
me in mere feeling ? Must things be exciting to be inter-
esting ? Ami looking at nature as a dry book of details
and terminology, which it is my duty to read? Honest
answers to these questions will go far toward determining
whether any effective enthusiasm exists.

An Open Mind. — This means a teachable mind, one
with no prejudices, and ready to receive impressions
freely. To come into contact with nature with any pre-

64 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

conceived opinions as to what it should be is to court re-
buff and perhaps blindness. There was once a time when
botanists conceived the idea that each kind of plant repre-
sented a definite type, and this type was carefully described
and named. When they visited plants in nature, they
carefully selected those individuals which represented the
preconceived type, and disregarded all the others, which
others happened to be in the large majority. In fact, one
ardent botanist called these individuals that would not
come true to type " devices of the devil." This distinct
prejudice blinded botanists to the great fact that was
thrusting itself upon their attention persistently that no
such types exist, but that variation exists everywhere. In
this case prejudice was sufficient to introduce into nature,
for these observers, a figment of their own imagination;
and it will do just the same thing for anyone who observes)
only what he thinks he ought to observe.

Here comes the danger in books and teachers, for must
one not read or hear before he can observe ? This is true,
in a sense, but not in the literal way in which it is often
taken. The books and teachers must not be taken to
direct and enforce the details of observation, but simply i
to emphasize the record of things that have been observed. '
They suggest the things to examine, but should never
determine the things seen. A botanist may describe a
plant or a zoologist an animal in considerable detail, and
yet no one may be able to find forms just like the descrip-
tions. The result of observation should be, not that no
such forms could be found, but that the forms seen differed
in several particulars.

The beauty of the open mind is that it sees what is to

THE SPIRIT OF NATURE STUDY 65

be seen, and is continually encountering facts that it never
saw in a book or heard from a teacher. The records of
nature are very meager as compared with the facts of
nature, and it is the latter that the student is exploring.
To select a few cut-and-dried things beforehand and then
to go out intb nature to find them is like matching a pat-
tern in a great department store rather than looking at its
wealth of offering. Experience is a good guide, but not
if it keeps one in a narrow path between high walls; its
use in nature study is to show that there are no boundary
walls.

Teachers may be troubled by the freedom which this
spirit produces. They have laboriously familiarized them-
selves with certain observations, and when the boundaries
are disregarded they are at a loss. Questions are asked,
material is introduced, observations are made, which are
out of bounds and hence perplexing. But the spirit is
vital, and must not be suppressed, for it is the very free-
dom of nature. The wise teacher, who does not feel com-
pelled to know everything, can guide and use it, and is
most fortunate if his work has permitted its expression.

A Spirit of Inquiry. — This is an attitude of mind es-
sential to nature study, and is also one of the most valuable
assets in life. The need of this in life may serve to illustrate
its place in nature study. In our experience we encounter
a vast body of established belief in reference to all im-
portant subjects. Not only do we encounter this in others,
but we find ourselves cherishing beliefs, often called
hereditary, but really the result of early association. Noth-
ing seems more evident than that all this established belief
belongs to one or the other of two categories; to wit, the

66 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

priceless results of generations of experience, and heirloom
rubbish. The spirit of inquiry impels one to examine the
foundations of belief. The childhood of the race accumu-
lated much which its manhood is compelled to lay aside,
and our mental stock in trade needs going over and revising
continually. This is the only way to keep trie true from
being covered over by the false.

Every part of this description applies to the need of a
spirit of inquiry in nature study. We find that there are
many cherished beliefs about nature that people have
grown up with and many of them may be on record. They
may be recited to us by friends, by teachers, or by books.
We can be sure that some of them are founded on the truth,
and that others are nonsense; and so far as opportunity
permits us, the spirit of inquiry urges us to put them to the
test. Under the last topic it was indicated that the open
mind comes into a larger and freer contact with nature
than instruction can anticipate, but the spirit of inquiry
finds part of its mission in looking into the foundation of
instruction. Old ideas of nature became crystallized into
statements, and these statements have been passed on
from one book to another, and they reappear in the in-
struction of to-day. Some of these statements stand the
test of new observation and others do not.

The spirit of inquiry, therefore, leads one to take the
statements of books and of teachers as things to be tested
before they are believed. It distinguishes clearly between
beliefs that must be taken on faith and those that need to
be accepted only after the evidence is examined. If the
teacher states that all clovers fold their leaflets toward
evening, and suggests that the observation be made, the

THE SPIRIT OF NATURE STUDY 67

pupil need not believe it until seen, and then he will prob-
ably conclude that the^teacher made too sweeping a state-
ment. It is a current belief, expressed by the name, that
all sunflowers face the sun and follow its path, and the
very first sunflower met may contradict this notion. It
is an interesting thing to collect neighborhood beliefs in
reference to nature and to check them up by a little exact
observation. It is not only interesting, but it is an ex-
ceedingly valuable exercise, and develops an attitude of
mind that is really scientific. Especially do these un-
founded beliefs prevail in connection with the cultivation
of plants, and we have seen children deliberately set to
violating every known superstition in the case of plants and
proving them worthless.

The spirit of inquiry not only compels one to examine
the foundation of current statements in reference to nature,
but it pushes observation into investigation. An open
mind sees, but the spirit of inquiry wants to know why.
The open mind sees the veins of a leaf and is not hampered
by any preconceived plan for them, but the spirit of in-
quiry wants to know what the veins mean. It is always
converting the what into why, and is an endless series of
interrogation marks. This does not mean an endless
series of answers, for that is impossible, but it will mean an
answer now and then, and a most valuable attitude of mind.

Do teachers encourage this sort of thing, or are they
inclined to suppress questions and to resent any hesitation
to believe? We have seen this tendency, but can hardly
believe that it is general. There is no surer evidence of
an awakened mind than the questioning which follows
observation.

68 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

The Desire for Truth. — This topic may seem to overlap
the last one, but it has a different application. We have
touched upon the prevailing sentimentality that infects
nature study, sentimentality that sometimes may be called
gush. It always raises a fog over the facts, and they ap-
pear unnatural and distorted. Any real desire for truth
resents this and insists that the fog be cleared away so
that things may be seen as they really are. It is just here
that the imagination becomes dangerous. This does not
mean that it is to be eliminated, but that it is to be kept
within bounds. Imagination may make facts glow or it
may conceal them.

An actual experience illustrates this point. A teacher
with a delightful power of story-telling had entertained a
class in nature study most successfully, but she had set
free her imagination in such a way that fact and fancy
were all in a jumble. Only one who knew the facts could
pick them out, and the whole description was as seductive
as one of Jules Verne's romances. Fortunately, at the
close of the exercise, questions were called for, and the
proper spirit of nature study came into evidence. A boy,
whose restlessness was in sharp contrast with the general
breathless attention, began to free his mind, and never
was a witness subjected to a more searching and persist-
ent cross-examination than was that teacher. That
boy wanted to know just what was true and what
"made up" in the account, and he did not propose
to rest until the truth had been freed from its wrap-
pings. This attitude toward truth appears to be gen-
eral among boys unless it has been unfortunately sup-
pressed.

THE SPIRIT OF NATURE STUDY 69

The honest desire for truth not only seeks to free it from
a fog bank of imagination, but also compels honest work.
Work that is part observation and part guess does not
satisfy. Of course if interest does not prompt, there is no
desire for the truth in reference to any particular exercise,
but, given enthusiasm, the real facts are discovered if they
are attainable. The same desire not only prompts to\
honest work, but mounts over all sorts of obstacles to
secure it. It is not necessary to make things easy, but
only to assure that they are really there. A boy became
interested in the length of time a certain bird sat on its nest
to hatch eggs. He might have asked some one who knew,
or possibly he might have found the information in some
book, but he wanted the truth, and thought he was able to
discover it for himself. That involved daily trips to the
nest until the truth was discovered. Some would say
that the boy's time and energy might have been better
employed, but that is very doubtful. That particular fact
at that particular time was the most important thing for
that boy, and he labored to discover the truth in a perfectly
scientific way. The illustration is an extreme one, for the
boy was exceptional, but it illustrates the compelling
power of the desire for truth.

There is reason to believe that such definite problems
can be used to great advantage at certain stages. This
does not mean problems in the university sense, but in the
school sense. It means the suggestion of a truth that may
be discovered by using a reasonable amount of time, effort,
and initiative. Children who have given symptoms of an
ability of this sort may well have problems of this kind
on hand, to be followed up on their own initiative. It is

70 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

a higher stretch of observation, for it substitutes for the
single study a continuous series of observations that are
related to one another. Some problems of this kind are
included among the suggestive studies in Part Two.

Persistence. — While this quality is most desirable in
children, and is welcome when it appears, one cannot ex-
pect them to show it very strongly developed. Nor is it
desirable with them to insist too much upon persistence,
for such driving will transform what ought to be kept at-
tractive into a hated task. But the teacher is in much
need of persistence, for the temptation is very great to
do the easier thing rather than the desirable thing.

A field trip or a park trip is often troublesome to
arrange. It takes time and planning and a control of
children under difficult conditions. To keep such a trip
from being merely an outdoor frolic, and to hold it to
anything like a class exercise is a problem that makes many
a teacher flinch, and perhaps argue herself into the belief
that it is not worth the trouble. And yet it is the ideal
exercise in nature study when well done. It is when con-
fronting such trouble that persistence comes into play.
It sees that a field trip is the thing to do, and it compels
the undertaking. Even though the first trip seems to be
a failure, persistence tries another one, and so on until the
problem is solved. It is in such things that persistence
means all the difference between success and failure.

The teacher also knows that material must be carefully
selected and examined, that some of it is a little trouble-
some to secure, that solitary trips ought to be made in ad-
vance of the class, and the temptation is to use inferior
material, to take the chances that it will show what it ought

THE SPIRIT OF NATURE STUDY 71

to, and to trust to luck for the trips. This shrinking from
a little sacrifice of comfort is very common, and makes
nature study so unsatisfactory that it becomes an increasing
burden to the teacher and to the pupil.

Persistence is needed also in the successful formulation
of many exercises. They must be repeated over and over
in different ways before they become satisfactory, and some
of them call for no little ingenuity, especially those that
call for experimental work. Suggestions from books and
from other teachers never meet all the perplexities, and
one must persistently devise things for oneself.

There are teachers of no experience or training in nature
study, but with enthusiasm and persistence, who have
worked over .their local material until they are perfectly
familiar with its possibilities, who have devised all sorts of
useful schemes for interesting the children in uncovering
it, and who have accumulated a stock of most suggestive
experiments. In short, they are exceedingly successful;
perhaps more so than if their opportunities for training
had been greater. There are other teachers of high train-
ing whose lack of persistence makes them shrink at every
trouble, even the trouble of devising something that they
had not learned. It is not the training nearly so much as
the spirit that makes for success in this work, and since it
is still experimental work, all the teachers who can think
and devise should feel compelled to do so.

In many of the most useful problems in nature study
it is necessary to carry on observations throughout the
year or through successive years. The observation of the
same plant or bird or insect at different seasons develops
the conception of life histories, which is far more im-

72 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

portant than scattered observations and should be a
dominant idea. This is especially true of tree and insect
studies which really demand such periodic observations in
order to be most successful. Observation through suc-
cessive years develops some idea of the differences in time
of development and in appearance in different years.

To carry forward the same ideas over such intervals
of time demands persistence of the first order. But the
teacher who depends upon one season to be repeated by
every other season, and has the once-for-all idea, is sure to
run on to the rocks. It may not be encouraging to teachers
to know they can never complete their equipment, and
that each succeeding year must witness the casting aside
of much that was done in the preceding one, but the
growth and the sense of satisfaction that this brings is its
own compensation, and nature responds with such at-
traction that she will be studied afresh each season for her
own sake.

A Special Subject. — This may not belong strictly to the
spirit of nature study, but it is a natural expression of it.
The teacher in conducting class exercises must traverse
broadly the materials at hand. This range of material is
so large and varied that the view must be very superficial.
It is like walking through a huge picture gallery without
stopping to study some one painting or some one master.
This first general view is just what is wanted for children,
but it is too superficial for the teacher or for the adult
student. They must look deeper for the sake of their own
development, which will bear upon their teaching, their
standing, and their happiness. No one can give more
than a superficial look at very many things, nor is the

THE SPIRIT OF NATURE STUDY 73

deeper look to be obtained through reading, although this
is a part of the process. The wise thing is to select some
special subject for individual study, which will include
much observation and some reading. The development
of a special region of the great field is a very common
characteristic of the most successful teachers. Books *
and addresses on nature study show the same tendency,
and those who really represent an experience and a
knowledge that is helpful to teachers stand for some re-
stricted field for work. One stands for plants in general,
another for trees, another for ,birds, another for insects,
another for amphibians, and so on to the end of the list.
Upon listening to the instruction of these various represen-
tatives of nature study, it would seem as if each one was
working with the only material worth while. But no
such conclusion is warranted, for this variety of material
presented only means that these individuals have become
representatives of nature study by selecting some special
material for special study. They are very familiar with it,
and so can present it effectively. These special fields are
used simply to illustrate the principles of the general field,
principles that may apply to any material. There has
been a very successful summer school of nature study in
which only trees and birds were studied; another in which
insects were the objects of chief attention. In any of these
cases it was never intended that the materials used by
these teachers with their classes should be so restricted,
and it certainly should not be. But a teacher who has
learned how to use trees and birds ought to be in a position
to include other plants and other animals in the work in
similar manner. The material used in the summer-school

74 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

classes referred to simply represented that which was most
favorable for the place and most familiar to the instructor.

Therefore every teacher of nature study is earnestly
advised to select some particular subject and to become
thoroughly acquainted with it. It may be wild plants, or
trees, or birds, or different groups of insects, or fish, or
reptiles, or domestic animals, or cultivated plants, or plant
communities, or any of the score of subjects that might
be mentioned, but let it be a choice thoughtfully made and
persistently followed. This may bring a definite prefer-
ence for a certain kind of material in teaching, but this
will not hurt; it is far better than no preference at all. We
have any number of teachers of biology, but not one of
them is good who is not biased either as a botanist or a
zoologist, and his work shows it. The same thing is true
_of 'teachers of nature study; for the good ones show a
decided preference for certain kinds of material — a prefer-
ence that is determined by familiarity.

Also this following of a specialty is more certain than
any other method to arouse a real and abiding interest in
nature, for such interest is quite sure to accompany the
acquirement of a precise and somewhat thorough knowl-
edge of any particular field. What field is chosen matters
not at all. As depth of knowledge of nature is acquired
one passes through essentially the same rich experiences
whatever the field.

CHAPTER VII

THE CHILD AND NATURE STUDY

Introductory. — In the foregoing chapters many of the
principles that should govern the teaching of nature
study have been named and emphasized. While all of
them are well worth careful consideration, none is more
important than the suggestion that a recognition of the
principle of child study should determine what we shall
teach in the different grades of the elementary schools.
Without this recognition we are likely to defeat our own
ends. Instead of bringing the children into closer, more
intelligent touch with nature we may drive them further
away from it.

Children live in a world all their own. They do not see
things as adults do, neither do they appreciate the things
that adults care for. In order that we may act intelligently
in arranging a course in nature study for children we must
catch at least a glimpse of the world in which they live
and move. We must know something of what they are,
and what they know at the different periods in their devel-
opment. At the same time we ought to have some definite
notion of what we wish them to be when they go forth from
the influence of the schools.

It is not difficult to set up an ideal of what we desire
the boys and girls to become. We would have them strong
in character, independent in thought, reliable, honest,

75

76 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

courteous, with faces turned toward the best things in life.
Nature study if properly taught will aid in bringing about
these results. It is exceptionally adapted to lead boys and
girls to become inquirers after truth and the true relations
of things, to acquire a reverence for life and living things,
to gain patience and self-control in the performance of
duties, a genuine respect for labor, and skill in handling
tools. Besides these things nature brings the children into
possession of numerous interesting and useful facts that
will be of value to them after they leave the grades whether
they pursue their education further in high schools and
colleges, or whether they go out at once into the world of
business to earn their living.

It is far easier, however, to declare what we desire the
children to become than it is to form any accurate concep-
tion of what the children really are at any period in their
school life, and what nature study has to offer that fits their
needs at this particular stage of their development. In-
dividual children of the same age or in the same grade
differ greatly from one another in natural powers, in abil-
ity to grasp new ideas, and in quickness of thought and
action. In spite of these differences children have cer-
tain characteristics which for the most part are common
to all and which make possible a workable course in
nature study.

Primary grades. — Primary children are interested
chiefly in activities, especially those activities in which
they may participate. In fact, it is by this participation
that most of their ideas are gained and fixed. They are
interested in whole objects, not in parts; in large things
rather than small ones; in the useful rather than in those

THE CHILD AND NATURE STUDY 77

objects that seem to be of no service. Their interest in
activities and objects is short lived. They do not relate
their experiences to the past, or project them into the
future. They live in the present — either in their own real
experiences or in a world of fancy built by their active
imaginations. As to their knowledge, it has been acquired
largely in connection with their home environment. They
are acquainted with the activities of the members of their
own family, the keeping of the home in order, and the
providing for the needs of the household. They know
the animals about the home and, perhaps, a few of the
plants of yard and garden.

When we consider what primary children know, in the
light of what they are, it seems that we have something
tangible on which to base an intelligent outline for their
nature work. At the same time we have an excellent op-
portunity to keep the home life and the school life in close
touch with each other and thus prevent forming the gap
that so often exists between those two great factors in the
education of children.

In carrying out the above principles we may begin our
work by directing the children's attention to those things
which nature contributes toward their needs and the needs
of the family. This brings about a visit to the garden with
a simple study of vegetables, of fruits and grains used for
food, and of the methods of gathering, storing, and pre-
serving these. It suggests a better acquaintance with the
animals that aid in the preparation of foods. This in
turn leads to a study of the care of domestic animals and
household pets. In much the same way shelter and cloth-
ing may be studied as well as trees, birds, and other wild

78 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

nature that appeals to children of this age. All the while
the activities of the children are brought into play in the
actual gathering and storing of vegetables, fruits, and seeds,
in planting seeds, and caring for their plants, clay model-
ing, making playhouses, sewing, etc.

As children grow older their outlook upon the world
becomes broader. They begin to see interrelations and
interdependence among objects in the nature world.
They see themselves as a part of this living, working uni-
verse. As a result new relations are established between
them and their environment.) They feel a consciousness
of power in the midst of their surroundings. They are
interested in the life of the community as well as in the
family, in the industries going on around them, in machinery,
how it works and how things are made. They are anxious
to make things themselves, to try new projects, to handle
tools. They are restless both in mind and body and are
desirous of working out the problems that come to them,
not by abstract reasoning so much as by manipulating
concrete objects. They do not mind hard tasks, but
they must feel the desirability of doing the things they are
asked to do.

Nature study, if wisely and judiciously handled, may
guide these impulses and desires of the child so that the
results will be healthy, vigorous growth and development.
The garden, orchard, farm crop, and forest, with all their
accompanying wealth of animal life, as well as simple
physical phenomena and appliances encountered about
the home and school, offer abundant materials that seem
to fit the needs of the intermediate grades. This material
gives the children an opportunity not only to work with

THE CHILD AND NATURE STUDY 79

hands as well as minds, a thing which appeals greatly to
them at this age, but to acquire habits of careful, thought-
ful application, and a sense of responsibility which results
in the trustworthiness we would have every boy and girl
possess. It is doubtful whether there is any other period
in the life of the child when the feeling of responsibility
can be as well and as permanently developed as in the
intermediate grades.

Grammar grades. — When the children have reached
the grammar grades their experiences are becoming more
unified ; their knowledge grouped into larger wholes. They
have discovered something of the laws that govern life
and living things. They realize that to a certain degree
they may control natural processes. They have become
to some extent investigators desiring to search out the
truth of things for themselves. They recognize more
than ever before that they are a part of the social order
in which they live and work, and begin to appreciate the
necessity of cooperation with their fellows.

Because of the above characteristics certain phases of
the nature work will appeal strongly to children of gram-
mar-school age. They will enjoy working out some of
the more intricate problems that the nature world pre-
sents. They are ready to try some simple experiments
in plant breeding, to test some of the fundamental
relations which exist between soil conditions and plant
life, to plan original designs for the artistic arrangement
of plants for ornamental purposes. They are prepared
also to group together, according to common character-
istics, the plants and animals they have become ac-
quainted with.

8o NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

Progressive work. — Throughout the entire course the
material selected gives ample opportunity to plan the work
along lines of certain fundamental principles so that it
will not be desultory, but progressive -and cumulative.
To illustrate, the study of plant propagation is begun in
the primary grades where the children plant large, easily
grown seeds, water and care for the plants. In the inter-
mediate grades seed propagation is continued, but here
the children work out some of the principles upon which
germination and plant growth depend. Other methods
of propagation are taken up by the respective grades with
reference' to the difficulties they present. Plants are grown
from bulbs, soft-wood cuttings, tuber and root cuttings,
runners, layers, taproots, buds, and finally in the grammar
grades by grafts and hard-wood cuttings.
^While adaptability to the child should always be the
first consideration in the choice of material and the method
of its presentation, the natural relations which exist among
objects and phenomena should not be lost sight of in ar-
ranging an outline.

Instead of studying weeds, insects, mammals, etc., as
isolated topics, they should be taken up in connection with
special plants or animals with which they are closely asso-
ciated ecologically or economically. This organization of
material unifies the work and makes it much more valuable
from an educative standpoint.

While the hope of fitting the nature work to the exact
needs of the child at every step in his development will,
perhaps, never be fully realized, yet, if the work is planned
and carried out along lines of the growing intelligence and
sympathies, it will fulfill its mission. It will leave the child

THE CHILD AND NATURE STUDY 8 1

better equipped to meet the exigencies of life, better dis-
ciplined, physically, mentally, and morally to do work in
the world, and it will leave an abiding interest in nature
which stimulates self-resourcefulness, and makes the world
in every aspect always a most interesting and enjoyable
place of residence.

PART TWO
CHAPTER VIII

TOPICAL OUTLINE BY GRADES AND SEASONS

[Course used in the Training School of the Illinois State Normal
University.]

THE course is based primarily on the relation of the
child to its environment. In the following outline of
material the repetition of topics is avoided in the inter-
mediate and grammar grades, but topics used in the pri-
mary grades are sometimes used again in the higher grades,
the manner of treatment being of course very different.
Except for the seasonal divisions no attempt at chronolog-
ical order is made.

FIRST GRADE

Fall. — Food: Observation and some participation in the
gathering and storage of beans, beets, tomatoes, potatoes,
and squash; the flowers and seeds of nasturtium, balsam,
and four-o'clock are also gathered in the garden; visit to a
farm; the gathering and storage of corn; visit barn, granary,
and corncrib to observe storage of crops; observe condi-
tion of fields after removal of crops; fall plowing; care of
cows, horses, and chickens; turkey in connection with
Thanksgiving.

82

TOPICAL OUTLINE BY GRADES AND SEASONS 83

Clothing: Father's work in buying; mother's work in
making; changes of clothing as related to weather; care.

Shelter: Care of the school desk; of the room by com-
mittees; of the home; sweeping and dusting without raising
dust; care of tools and toys; cleaning shoes before going into
the house.

Miscellaneous:' Migration of robins and grackles; study
of individual trees, especially norway maple, oak, and tulip
tree; uses of them made by man; observe leaves and general
contour of tree; the coloring and fall of the leaves; such
changes in the vegetation and landscape as appeal to the
children's interest; keep a calendar noting condition of sky,
direction of wind, and temperature from day to day.

Correlate work with clay molding and drawing especially
in connection with vegetables, flowers, and trees; with sewing
in connection with clothing; with construction work by
shaping houses in sand.

Winter. — Food: Visit a cellar; note stored foods and the
manner of keeping; the effects of freezing on fruits and
vegetables; visit grocery store; observe common foods in the
store and how they are kept; use, care, and habits of the
cow; make butter and cheese; the milkman, his work and
his relation to the community, suggesting social relation-
ships wider than the family ones; cook apples and cran-
berries; make candy.

Clothing: Adjustment to new weather conditions; visit
dry goods store as the source of materials from which
clothes are made; distinguish between wool, cotton, and
silk; sew articles for actual use; visit shoemaker at work;
consider source of leather.

Shelter: Heating of houses, with emphasis on fuel rather

84 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

than methods of heating; the local supply and home storage
and preparation of fuel and kindling; candles, lamps, gas,
and electric lights as different means of lighting homes;
molding of candles; uses of water in our homes; distinguish
between well and cistern water; cleanliness of house, cloth-
ing, and body; the carpenter's work; lumber yard and hard-
ware store as sources of his materials; make and furnish a
doll's house.

Miscellaneous: Squirrel, his home, habits, and relations
to man; same of bluejay and cat, with observations of all
three; wild relatives of the cat; observation of pine tree on
campus; consideration of its uses; trim a Christmas tree,
using if possible candles made by class and decorations
prepared in hand work.

Spring. — Food: Plant seeds in eggshells to take to
home or school garden and transplant; participation in the
preparation of the class garden beds, which are not assigned
to individual children in this grade but to groups; plant
four-o'clocks, nasturtiums, radish, lettuce, and beans; care
of the growing plants; spring work of the farmer; visit to
fields; plowing and sowing; preparation of the radishes
and lettuce for the home table.

Clothing: The putting off of heavy clothing and its
storage for the summer; care of the new spring clothes.

Shelter: Removal of storm doors; putting up of screens
and awnings; housecleaning; special cleaning of desks,
chairs, and blackboards; make some new furnishings for
the dollhouse.

Miscellaneous: Arrival of birds, especially robin, red-
head, grackle, flicker, bluebird, and others which especially
attract the children; watch feeding and nest-building as

TOPICAL OUTLINE BY GRADES AND SEASONS 85

circumstances permit; listen for song; the leafing of the
trees, especially of those observed in the fall; dandelion;
violet; observation in the class wild-flower patch; raise a
brood of chickens; observe Arbor Day; plant a class tree.

SECOND GRADE

Fall.— Food: Continue the observation of plants started
in school garden in previous spring, gathering fruits and
seeds; gather seeds of balsam, phlox, and sunflower for
next spring's planting; storage of seeds for winter; squashes
and pumpkins in connection with Thanksgiving, saving
seeds for spring planting; fall marketing of farm crops;
visit an elevator; cornmeal, hominy, breakfast foods, and
corns tar ch as corn products; use of corn in stock feeding;
similar study of wheat and oats products; make simplest
form of bread by mixing meal or flour with water and salt
and baking; preparation of meal or flour by grinding grains.

Clothing: Cotton; study of the plant in the garden,
gathering bolls, picking out seeds, and observing the fibers
of raw cotton; the story of cotton told with pictures; spin-
ning, weaving, and dyeing; children weave on a primitive
loom and use dyes; wool; observation of sheep; food;
manner of cropping; care; habits; compare with cows; how
is the wool obtained? story of shearing with pictures; ob-
servation of the preparation of wool for spinning and weav-
ing; children weave.

Shelter: Materials used in making homes; lumber, nails,
brick, and stone; observe the construction of a building
or a carpenter at work ; children make small bricks, mix
mortar, and build a wall of their brick.

86 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

Miscellaneous: Review of trees studied in first grade;
add soft maple, chestnut, and basswood; robin, bluebird,
and bluejay, and other conspicuous birds which may
especially attract attention on excursions.

Winter. — Food: Study of Eskimo; compare food of
Eskimo with our food; uses of refrigerator; make ice
cream; food of Indians.

Clothing: Eskimo clothing; materials used; how sewed;
dress an Eskimo doll; Indian clothing; weave a small
blanket; dress Indian doll.

Shelter: Eskimo house; materials; how lighted? how
heated? comparison with our own homes; make an Eskimo
house out of salt; make an Eskimo lamp out of clay; snow
as shelter to vegetation in our own climate; make Indian
wigwam.

Miscellaneous: Make Indian cradleboard, quiver,
canoe, and simple basket; simple pottery work; Eskimo
dog, its use and place in the home; our dog, his relations
to us, his habits, and our care of him; wild relatives of the
dog; winter birds, especially chickadee and nuthatch; place
suet on trees near schoolhouse for them; rabbit, its winter
home, habits, and relation to man; observation of tame
rabbits; tap soft maple trees near schoolhouse; make
syrup and sugar.

Spring. — Foody clothing, and shelter of Arab; compare
with ours and those of Eskimo and Indian; make Arab
tent; dress Arab doll; place of the horse in the Arab's home.

Horse: What it does for us; habits of feeding, resting,
and exercising; different kinds of horses; our care of the
horse.

Garden: Children help in the preparation of beds, but

TOPICAL OUTLINE BY GRADES AND SEASONS 87

individual beds are not assigned until the third grade; plant
phlox, sunflower, balsam, peas, squash or pumpkin, and
onions ; also repeat plants of first year if the children show
a desire to do so; peas and squash seeds planted in egg-
shells or small pots to transplant into home or school gar-
den; preparation of the early vegetables for the market;
visit to spring vegetable market.

Birds: Note arrival of common birds; special study of
blue] ay with reference to color markings; study of robin's
nest removed from tree after brood has been raised; the
duck; raise a brood of ducks.

Trees: Soft maple; flowers, fruit, and leaves, noting time
of appearance as compared with other trees; plant some of
the seeds to find whether they germinate the first season
or not; horse-chestnut; basswood.

THIRD GRADE

Fall. — Garden: Continue study of plants started in
previous spring; select the best tomatoes for seed and
prepare seed for planting next spring; gather seeds of aster,
sweet corn, and sweet peas; study of sweet pea plants,
having in view especially how they scatter their seed and
how they climb; plant hyacinth bulbs in pots for forcing
and plant out of doors in home and school gardens for
spring blooming; start geranium cuttings from plants on
the campus to be transplanted and taken home for winter
blooming; observe wild asters and wild sunflowers in com-
parison with the cultivated varieties.

In this and all later grades the children visit the school
garden in the early jail, when it is at its best, to choose as

88 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

they like and gather under direction flower and vegetable
seeds for planting in the following spring in the home
gardens.

Birds: Note especially those studied in the previous
spring; determine how late into the fall they may be seen;
pigeon; home; habits of feeding; nesting; observation of the
pigeons around the building; the kinds of pigeons; their
relation to man; caged pigeons for a time in the school-
room.

Trees: Study of the nut trees in Normal; walnut, butter-
nut, and chestnut; observe polished walnut and consider
its uses in furniture and finishings; nut trees in the woods
in this part of Illinois, especially the hickory nut; what
animals eat nuts? plant nuts; visit grocery store to observe
imported nuts; uses of the cocoanut, the largest of nuts.

Insects: Observation of insects in connection with the
tree and garden studies; blister beetles on asters; what are
they doing? butterflies on garden flowers and in campus;
what are they doing? are there many different kinds?
watch the woolly bear caterpillar and the tiger caterpillar
feeding on plants; place a few of these in a terrarium; feed
and watch them spin their cocoons, and preserve these for
next spring; open one cocoon to see what change has taken
place in the caterpillar; study cecropia moth in same way;
ants; note their homes on the campus; watch for the swarms
of flying ants that come out of their homes on warm days
in October; arrange an ant colony in the schoolroom.

Miscellaneous: Care of the yards in fall; the raking and
burning of leaves; observe the leaf mold under the pines;
what becomes of the leaves which are not raked and
burned? observe the final work in the garden in clearing

TOPICAL OUTLINE BY GRADES AND SEASONS 89

off and preparing the ground for spring; observe frost
effects on plants in the garden and on the campus; what
shall be done with valuable plants which are slightly
frosted? what can be done to prevent the killing of plants
by fall frosts ? observe the broom corn and winter wheat
growing in the garden in connection with these topics in
geography.

Winter. — Biological: English sparrow; goldfish in
aquarium in schoolroom; consider in connection with the
topic "fish as food" in the geography work; observe activ-
ities, manner of feeding, and gross structure; Easter lily
bulbs planted in the greenhouse; trees, especially poplars,
willows, and evergreens in connection with the effects of
heavy snows and frost.

In this and in all succeeding grades during the winter
term preliminary work in the greenhouse is done in connec-
tion with the plants to be studied in the spring. Cuttings
are made, seeds planted, and some transplanting is done,
A garden and greenhouse calendar is furnished to show
when all such work is due.

Physical: Thermometer; burning of wood and coal
consuming both volatile and solid matter; construction of
stoves, noting especially the air currents and the use of
dampers; use of chimneys; the two systems of heating used
in the schoolroom; ventilation of the room; heating and
ventilating system of the main building; the evaporation of
water in a few very simple quantitative experiments show-
ing the effects of extent of surface, temperature, and air
currents upon the rate; the effect of wind upon the rate of
drying of clothes, muddy walks, etc. ; observations of wind,
clouds, rain, floods, snow, hail, and frost especially in

90 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

relation to man and his activities, such as the various
effects produced by these agencies upon transportation and
crops, using local instances as examples; as storms occur,
comment and observation upon their destructive effects
on trees, etc. For one month, beginning with the day
the new moon is first to be observed, each pupil sketches
its appearance about sunset in the first half of the month
and about sunrise in the second half. The sketches are
made about every other day. When the observations are
completed an explanation is brought out by the teacher,
new moon, first quarter, full moon, and third quarter be-
ing taken into consideration. Observation of the Great
Dipper, Little Dipper, Orion, the Pleiades, and the Pole-
star. The apparent diurnal motion of the stars in relation
to the Polestar is observed.

Spring. — Garden: Indoors the children decide upon the
arrangement of the flowers in their gardens; simple plats
are drawn by the children upon which the arrangement is
indicated; the same is done with plats of the home gardens
which are brought; it is not attempted to draw these plats
exact to scale; plant sweet pea, pansy, china aster, morning
glory; tomato, sweet corn, leeks, and chives; simple indoor
experiments are made to determine the conditions under
which sweet peas will germinate and begin their growth to
best advantage, bringing out therewith what physical con-
ditions are essential to germination and continued growth;
frequent visits to the school wild flower garden, noting the
changes in appearance from one week until the next, and
the effects of weather upon the rate of development;
mandrake, bloodroot, buttercup, and spring beauty are
especially watched; in connection with mandrake and

TOPICAL OUTLINE BY GRADES AND SEASONS 91

bloodroot observation is made of the division of the plant
body into root, stem, leaves, flowers, and fruit; sketches of
these are made and their general functions brought out in
so far as can be done, using only the observations of the
children as a basis; Easter lily, started in greenhouse in
winter, is continued, being observed from time to time
throughout its development; the flower of this plant is
used to introduce the observation of petals, stamens,
pollen, and pistil without any attempt as yet at explana-
tion of their functions.

Trees: Indoor work on twigs of willow and peach early
in the season; observe the spring aspect of the nut trees
studied in the fall; watch for the growth of seedlings;
become acquainted with box-elder, sassafras, redbud, and
mulberry, relating the last to work with silkworm indicated
below.

Birds: Flicker, redhead, sapsucker, and any other
woodpeckers seen; special study of the flicker, comparing
other woodpeckers with this one; note where it is found, its
habits of moving about, feeding, and nesting; its value to
man; keep bird calendar; learn to recognize bird notes of
the birds known by sight.

A few minutes are taken every day or two in this and
succeeding grades to discuss what new bird activities have
been lately noted by pupils or teacher.

Insects: As in the fall, they are here considered inform-
ally as they are encountered in connection with plant study;
observation of the ant colonies on the campus; cocoons and
chrysalids put away in the fall are watched for the emerg-
ence of moths and butterflies; study of the silkworm; de-
velopment from the eggs, occasional visits to the large pond

92 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

on the campus and observation of the insect life there;
dragon fly larvae brought into the schoolroom and observed
in an aquarium.

Observation of oats in the garden in connection with
the geography work upon this topic.

FOURTH GRADE

Fall. — Garden: Continue the study of the plants started
in the previous spring; harvest tomatoes; decide which
varieties are preferable for food; gather seeds of aster,
pansy, and sweet pea; in anticipation of the work of the
following spring, observe the dahlia roots and the method
of storing them for the winter; gather seeds of petunia,
ten-weeks'-stock, wishbone flower (torenia), and marigold;
morning glory as a type of annual climber; compare with
sweet pea as to methods of climbing; cuttings of coleus to
pot and take home for winter; plant tulip and narcissus
bulbs at home and school; appearance of currant and
gooseberry in fall; propagate by layering.

Birds: Continue study of woodpeckers, adding nut-
hatches and brown creepers; note the different methods
of these birds in climbing the trunks of trees; determine
which of these migrate in the fall.

Trees: Continue study of those begun in the spring; add
locust and larch.

Insects: Tomato worm if found on the tomatoes grown
by the class; work out life history; ladybugs as found in
the garden; what are they doing? bees as honeymakers;
specially constructed beehive with swarm in the school-
room.

TOPICAL OUTLINE BY GRADES AND SEASONS 93

Miscellaneous: Observe flax and sorghum in the garden
in connection with the geography work on these topics;
burdock as a type of weed; compare thistle and wild carrot;
the methods of exterminating them.

Winter. — Biological: Crow; habits; detailed study of
the feathers; relation to man; evergreen trees on the cam-
pus, observation to be continued in the early spring when
the new cones are ripe.

Physical: Water supply of the school; pump connec-
tions; observation of differences in pressure at basement
and third story; basement connections; air cushions; fau-
cets; city water system; pumping station; gauge; stand-
pipe; the laying of mains, if available; connections; cut-
offs; fire plugs; city fire limits; water heating cylinders
and water fronts in stoves; Normal and Bloomington fire
departments; city sewer system; house drainage; sinks;
traps; vents; catch-basins; wells; the water plane; percola-
tion of soil moisture; suction forces and lift pumps; the
siphon; buoyancy of liquids.

Spring. — Garden: Potato; indoor study of the parts of
the tuber; the cutting of tubers for planting; discussion of
methods of planting; measure the amount to be planted;
potato scab observed if present and the method of com-
bating it discussed; experiments in connection with potato
culture; plant carrot, salsify, onions, seeds, and bulblets,
lima beans, petunia, torenia, ten-weeks'-stock, marigold,
and dahlia; garden plats drawn as indicated for preceding
grade; continue studies of tulip, gooseberry, and currant
started in the fall.

Wild Flowers: How do these plants succeed in sending
up their leaves and flowers so early ? continue observations

94 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

and discussions upon the general functions of the different
parts of the plants, limiting this work to points observable
by the children and readily appreciable deductions made
by them from observed facts; note the various devices
shown for securing the light relation as indicated by
variations in leaf pattern and position; observation of the
parts of the flowers; discussion of preservation of wild
flowers and discouragement of reckless picking; hepatica,
Indian turnip, violet, and trillium; observation of the two
kinds of flowers in the Indian turnip ; what are flowers for ?
what becomes of the pollen ? irregularity of flower parts in
the violet.

Soil: Observation of clay, sand, gravel, humus, and
garden soil; what things are found in garden soil? plant
seeds in different kinds of soil and note effect on growth;
careful observation of relation of roots to soil; experiments
showing the turning of roots toward moisture; root hairs;
observation of root tip under microscope.

Trees: American elm; general form; flower, fruit, and
leaves, noting time of appearance and maturity of each;
how long does it take to mature the fruit? adaptation for
dissemination of seeds; plant seeds; make acquaintance of
other elms on campus, English, Scotch, and Camperdown;
hackberry; sumach; haws; learn to recognize elm seedlings
and look for them along walks and fences; why should they
occur here?

Insects: Continue observation of ladybugs; how have
they spent the winter? potato beetle; relation of ladybugs
to these; sawfly larvae on gooseberry and currant; work
out their life history; look for the natural foes of these
insects; observe aphids on cockscomb galls on elm leaves.

TOPICAL OUTLINE BY GRADES AND SEASONS 95

Birds: Continue study of crow; oriole, rose-breasted
grosbeak, cardinal grosbeak, and wood thrush; excursions
on the campus outside of school hours may be necessary
for the observation of these; note habits of feeding and
nesting; relation of rose-breasted grosbeak to the potato
beetle; indoor study of nests of the birds observed.

In this as in other grades the effort is made to make
detailed study of certain birds, but the teacher must be gov-
erned in this part of the work primarily by circumstances.
Any bird not previously studied is to be studied at any time
that conditions for such study are especially favorable.

FIFTH GRADE

Fall. — Garden: Continue study of potato; harvest the
crop; measure and compare with the amount planted in
the spring; check up on the experiments started at that
time; determine what hills have given the greatest yield
and which potatoes are desirable to save for "seed";
dig dahlia roots and put away for winter; gather seeds for
home garden as indicated in earlier grades; in preparation
for next spring, gather beet seeds and preserve a few roots
from which to obtain seeds the next year; gather seeds of
salvia, lobelia, and snapdragon and put away for next
spring's planting; raspberry and blackberry; condition of
the plants in the fall, especially the canes that bore fruit
in the summer just ended; the need for pruning; the ap-
pearance of new stems; the number on each plant; propaga-
tion by tip rooting; observe strawberry plants, noting the
habits of growth and propagation; cover strawberry beds.

Trees: Ash trees on the campus; the oaks of the campus

96 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

with study of the fruit; compare with the native oaks in
neighboring woods; distinguish white from red oak by leaf
characteristics; compare acorns from several different oaks,
noting the different sizes and shapes of cup and nut; the
uses of oak for furniture and finishings, observing the
polished wood; observation of the white birch; review of
the trees studied in fourth grade; plant peach seeds to get
seedlings to bud in the following fall; leaf coloration and
fall; why do not the evergreens shed their leaves? what
trees with needle-shaped leaves do shed them? (larches);
in what parts of the leaves does the green color remain
longest? what weather conditions give us the best leaf
coloration? does a sharp frost produce better coloration?
does the loss of the leaf leave a wound which must be
healed?

Birds: Continue observation of those studied in the
previous spring; report of summer observations of these
birds; the thrushes to be seen in Normal during the fall
migration, hermit, olive-backed, and gray-cheeked; keep
a list of the birds seen during this term; study of nests after
the leaves have fallen; determine the total number to be
seen in the trees of the campus; what trees are favorite
nesting places ? what trees appear to be avoided ? how far
from the ground are the majority of the nests? report on
nests seen in other parts of the town, or in hedges along the
roads.

Insects: Grasshoppers found in the garden and on the
campus; how many different kinds? what do they eat?
how do they move about ? how do they eat ? place a few in a
terrarium in the schoolroom for observation; determine by
experiment the amounts of grass eaten; determine how the

TOPICAL OUTLINE BY GRADES AND SEASONS 97

meadow grasshopper makes its music; the snowy tree
cricket found on raspberry bushes; compare with the black
cricket; consider, as relatives of the grasshopper, the cock-
roach and methods of exterminating them in houses; ar-
range a few breeding cages to obtain eggs of the grasshopper
and cricket.

Winter. — Biological: Preparation for garden work by
planting seeds in greenhouse; study of the winter wood-
peckers, the hairy and the downy.

Physical: Simple experiments in magnetism and elec-
tricity; construction of galvanic cell; electro-magnets;
electroplating.

Spring. — Garden: Measure the fifth grade garden ac-
curately and draw to scale; different methods of propagat-
ing flowering plants; plant salvia, lobelia, snapdragon,
gladiolus, and tuberose; beets; plant seeds and set out
roots; a type of biennial; plant rutabagas, turnip, parsnip,
navy beans, mangoes, parsley; continue the study of rasp-
berry and blackberry; strawberry; uncover beds; note
propagation by runners; flower; fruit; culture; marketing.

Trees: The gray birch and the paper birch studied at
intervals during the term; the fruit; the seeds; the wood in
furniture making; the uses of the bark; flowers and fruit of
beech and ash; dig up a few of the peach seedlings planted
the previous fall to determine how the young plants get out
of the stone.

Lawns: Bluegrass; observation of its condition at the
beginning of spring; its habits of growth; the characteristics
that make it a good lawn former; the care of lawns; how
to make a good lawn; the selection of grass seed; test of
grass seed obtained in local market; dandelion as a lawn

98 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

weed; habits of growth; root; flower; fruit; what charac-
teristics make it a successful weed ? how should it be com-
bated ? its competition with the bluegrass; what advantages
does each possess over the other ? to what great plant family
does it belong ? what are the characteristics of this family ?
examine a flower head under the dissecting microscope, mak-
ing out the external appearance of the individual flower;
observe centrifugal maturing of flowers; mark dandelion
plants to determine rate of maturation of floral heads and
fruit; determine rate of growth in length of the scape after
floral maturity; determine effect of environment upon
length of scapes; plantain, crabgrass, and other lawn weeds
which may be encountered in abundance; the mole as an
enemy of the lawn; its habits; its special adaptations for its
mode of life. See also grubworm below.

Birds: Brown thrasher; wren; catbird; make and put up
boxes for the wrens.

Encourage the pupils to continue observation upon these
birds especially during the summer months. This applies
to summer studies o\ the respective birds in each grade and
under proper stimulus the interest appears to be well main-
tained through the long vacation.

Insects: Grubworms and May beetles; the grubworm
an enemy of the lawn; recall grasshopper and cricket study
in this connection; roll worms on strawberries; watch for
these moth larvae early and remove, keeping a few in a
jar in order to work out the life history; it is the second
brood that does the greatest damage.

TOPICAL OUTLINE BY GRADES AND SEASONS 99

SIXTH GRADE

Fall. — Garden: Continue the study of the plants set out
in the spring; dig and house bulbs; especial attention to
gladiolus and tuberose, noting the growth that the bulbs
have made during the season; flowers of torenia and salvia;
correlate the structure of these with the insects which visit
them and consider in general the service which insects
render to plants as agents in cross pollination, cross
pollination itself being touched upon only incidentally to
floral structure and insect activities; complete life history
of the beet; observe the entire root system; compare with
the sugar beet; show by experiment that sugar is present in
beet roots; gather seeds as usual for next spring's planting;
make soft-wood cuttings of any plants desired to take
home for winter blooming; as weeds, pigweed, purslane,
and ragweed.

Trees: Bud the peach seedlings started the fall before;
peach tree culture; comparative study of cherry and plum;
sycamore, poplars, purple beech, Kentucky coffee tree,
mountain ash.

Birds: Continue the observation of those studied in the
spring; report on summer observations, especially as to
wren and catbird; add goldfinch and junco.

Insects: Peach tree borer; flies found on the garden
plants as to habits and food; soldier beetles on the garden
plants and on goldenrod; the goldenrod gall gnat; larvae
of butterflies on borage and .sassafras; keep these in a
terrarium and observe their life histories; spiders as to
habits, homes, and food.

Sky Studies: The movements and phases of the moon;

100 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

its physical condition; changes in measured noonday
altitude and in the length of day and night; the ecliptic and
the zodiac; the apparent annual motion of the sun; the
rotation of the star sphere; the poles and the equator; the
autumn constellations; the milky way; the planets, noting
their changes of position; the general plan of the solar
system; eclipses if one occurs.

Winter. — Physical: Systems of lighting in common use;
construction and principles involved; incandescent light;
arc light; kerosene lamp; gasoline lamp; gasoline car-
bureter; acetylene lamp. Study of petroleum; crude
petroleum; production; refinement into commercial prod-
ucts. Coal gas; manufacture and combustion of coal gas;
kinds or grades of coal; peat, lignite, bituminous, cannel
and anthracite. Sources of coal and petroleum. Chem-
istry of combustion; kindling temperature and burning
point. Application of these facts to lighting studied above.
Brief reference to the history of the production of fire and
its influence upon civilization.

Spring. — Garden: Plant sweet scabious, gaillardia, cos-
mos, several varieties of poppy, California poppy; cabbage,
broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, kohl-rabi, kale,
endive; coldframe work in preparing members of the
cabbage family for transplanting; continue the study of the
annual field and garden weeds begun in the fall; complete
the work on the budded peaches; study the flower of the
peach, cherry, and the plum as representatives of the rose
family and compare with the flowers of other members of
the rose family in bloom at this time of year; consider the
formation of the fruit from the flower in these fruit trees;
note the effects of weather on the flower and fruit crops,

TOPICAL OUTLINE BY GRADES AND SEASONS ioi

noting especially the effects of severe frost on the fruit if
one occurs.

Trees: The trees of the campus; general survey; history
of the planting of the trees on the campus which fifty years
ago was a perfectly treeless piece of prairie; which of these
trees are natives of Illinois ? group the principal trees into
their botanical families; a special study of catalpa, planting
the seeds, and considering its value as a tree to be set out
on prairie soil; the planting of catalpa for railroad ties in
Illinois; study of its flower; the ways in which forests are
destroyed; what is being done to renew the forests? con-
sider the causes of the treeless prairies of this region and
note their distribution; the natural groves of the county;
compare three trees of different kinds as to the growth
which they make in one season; using poplar, willow ca-
talpa, and oak; compare rates of growth by measurements
of year-old twigs showing the large differences in growth
rate between "hard" and "soft" woods.

Birds: Meadow lark, bobolink, purple martin, swifts;
the value of the meadow lark and the bobolink in the fields;
the value of the martins and the swifts as mosquito and fly
destroyers, observing habits before drawing conclusions.

Insects: Housefly; its habits and relations to man; work
out the life history of the mosquito in an aquarium; study
the water beetles as enemies of the mosquito, watching
them in an aquarium which is also stocked with mosqui-
toes; study any insects found on the fruit trees as to their
relation to these trees.

Other Animals: Snails and slugs in relation to garden
plants; toads, frogs, and salamanders as to habits, food,
life history, and relations to man.

102 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

SEVENTH GRADE

Fall. — Garden: Continue the study of the cabbage
family, noting the parts used for food in each kind; the
methods of storing for winter use; special characteristics
of the flowers started in the spring, considering the plant
families which they represent and individual adaptations
of structure; observation and study of the uses of the various
medicinal plants and kitchen herbs grown in the garden;
select seed corn from home and school garden, noting the
desirable points in stalk and ear; the methods of storing
seed corn for winter; make grape cuttings and store for
winter; the common field weeds, especially cocklebur,
butter-print, and mustard; consider as to structure of plant
body, floral characteristics, and botanical relationships;
students work out the special characteristics which make
these successful weeds.

Insects: The insect enemies of the cabbage family;
work out the life history of the cabbage butterfly in the
schoolroom; the braconid and chalcis flies as enemies
of the cabbage butterfly; aphids found on the garden plants
and on trees and shrubs of the campus, the winter eggs of
aphids being frequently found in abundance on white pine
needles; the lacewing fly, the syrphus fly, and the ladybug
as enemies of the aphids.

Birds: Phoebe, pewee, great-crested flycatcher, least
flycatcher, and kingbird as members of the flycatcher fam-
ily; their habits and value to man.

Weather: Daily observation of the weather conditions,
at first mainly non-instrumental, and later, when the read-
ing of the instruments is learned, with fuller instrumental

TOPICAL OUTLINE BY GRADES AND SEASONS 103

data; this work finally includes barometric pressure, dry
and wet bulb reading, maximum and minimum reading,
wind direction and estimated velocity, clouds as to amount
and kind, precipitation, and the recording of dew-point
and relative humidity; in connection with the interpreta-
tion of observations and in explaining instruments, the
mechanics of liquids and gases is experimentally studied ;
study of the weather maps, monthly weather reports, and
mechanics of Weather Bureau; a notebook is kept.

Winter. — The human body.

Spring. — Garden: Corn; germination tests of the ears
gathered the previous fall; study of corn kernels as to
structure and food content; corn culture with experiments
in school and home gardens; study of corn as a plant type;
its commercial value; means of improvement of the crop;
sweet potato culture; raise plants in coldframe or green-
house; melon family; watermelon, muskmelon, citron, and
cucumber; take home for trial seeds of various varieties of
melon family; plant vinca, euphorbia, zinnia, calliopsis,
centaurea, blue sage; grape; habits of growth; flower;
fruit; methods of pruning and spraying; transplant grape
cuttings made in the previous fall; comparative study of
relatives of the grape, the five-leaved ivy, the Boston ivy,
and the wild grape; continue study of weeds begun in the
fall as to their spring aspect.

Soil Physics: Ground water; ground air; experiments to
show the conservation of moisture, porosity, capillarity, and
air spaces; show the relation of plants to soil; uses of
fertilizers.

Animals: Earthworm in connection with soil study;
beetles found on the melon vines and methods of combating

104 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

them; corn root aphis; plum curculio, and any other insects
found on the garden plants; ground squirrel; groundhog;
coon ; skunk ; gopher ; field mouse ; the groups of mammals,
emphasizing the study of domestic types whenever possible.
Birds: Review the flycatchers studied in previous fall;
shrike; native sparrows; the value of these to man; note the
characteristics of the sparrow family; group other well-
known birds into their families, such as thrushes, mocking-
bird, blackbird, woodpecker; individual field work follow-
ing outlines given by teacher and reports on same.

EIGHTH GRADE

Fall. — Garden: Continue corn; check up on the ex-
periments worked out in the home and school gardens;
observation of kaffir corn in the garden; uses, and com-
parison of structure of ear with other varieties; continue
study of melon family; reports on those grown from special
seeds at home; comparative study of the habits, flowers,
and fruits of the members of this family; sum up the
characteristics of the family; harvest the sweet potatoes,
measure, and determine the yield per acre; make cuttings
of roses; make the acquaintance of some of the desirable
varieties of apples and pears; observation of these trees and
study of general character; study the clovers, soy beans,
cowpeas, and alfalfa grown in the garden with special,
reference to their effects upon soil fertility; elements of soil
chemistry with experiments.

Insects: Insect enemies of the apple and pear; the pear-
slug, the cankerworm, scale insects, and coddling moth;
the insect enemies of other trees; white-marked tussock

TOPICAL OUTLINE BY GRADES AND SEASONS 105

moth, working out the life history; tent caterpillar; fall
web worm; any insects fbund on the corn or melons and
the methods of combating; look for their natural foes, as
parasites, predaceous insects, and birds; division of labor
and care of young among insects; mud-dauber, polistes,
hornets; bumblebee as related to the pollination of red
clover.

Birds: Special attention to the fall migrants from the
north, especially warblers and kinglets; quail and other
local game birds; their protection; the game laws of
Illinois.

Fungi: The common mushrooms; the smut on corn and
other grains; blight on pear and apple; mildew on lilac
or other plants; mold on fruit; tree fungi; study of the
methods of combating these when injurious.

Wild Plants: Study of remnants of the prairie flora; the
special characteristics of these plants.

Winter. — The human body; some simple experiments
in plant life in the greenhouse, and in bacteriology in the
biology laboratory.

Spring. — Garden: Plant alternanthera, Ian tana, helio-
trope, verbena, other flowers selected by the pupils; okra,
celery, eggplant, spinach, asparagus; experimental work in
the garden to determine methods of culture best suited to
the local conditions of soil and climate; oats; test seed for
purity and vitality; experiments to determine the desirable
depth of planting, and the amount of seed to be used per
acre; different varieties are sown by different pupils in the
home gardens; graft apple trees and set out in nursery
rows; study the culture of apple trees and the history of
their amelioration; apple culture used to exemplify the

106 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

general principles of horticulture; acquaintance with the
more successful varieties of apples; a comparative study
of the pear; apple and pear industry in Illinois; visits to a
nursery.

Insects: Any insect pests encountered in connection
with the plant studies.

Birds: The birds of prey; owls, sparrow hawk, red-
tailed hawk, sharp-shinned hawk, and others; the value of
birds of prey to the farmer; characteristics of these birds
as a group; special study of the migration of birds; con-
tinue the study of warblers.

Botany: The great plant groups; observation of the
gross anatomy of types of algae, fungi, liverworts, mosses,
fern, conifers, monocots, and dicots.

CHAPTER IX

TYPICAL LESSON PLANS

THE COW.— First Grade

LITTLE children are interested in domestic animals
both because of their large size and their familiarity in the
home environment. In developing lessons for this grade
the children have been led during the fall term, as in-
dicated in the outline, to observe something of the food,
shelter, and care of domestic animals. In the winter the
cow is taken up for a more detailed study, especially in
relation to food supply. The central thoughts are what
does the cow do for us and what should we do for the cow ?
If any observation of cows was made during the fall they
were found feeding in pastures. What were they eating ?
How were they eating ? Where are cows kept during the
winter? Draw upon the experiences and observations of
the children for answers. If practicable, visit a barn where
a cow is kept and let the children see how it is cared for.

What do cows eat in winter ? Recall the fall study of
storing food for animals. If a barn is visited note all the
different kinds of food stored here. Country children will
know that sometimes the cows are allowed to roam about
through the corn fields in winter days, eating the dry leaves
and stalks, and are sheltered only at night. Watch a cow
eat. Does she eat slowly or rapidly? Do you ever see

107

108 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

her chewing when she is standing still or lying down ? She
really chews her food over again. How does a cow drink ?
They like plenty of clean, fresh water. Notice the thick
coat of hair. Do you think this would be as warm as your
own coats and jackets?

Circumstances will determine procedure in the study of
milk as the thing which the cow gives us. In cities where
milk is delivered in bottles the study is necessarily more
limited than in the country. The different prices of milk
and cream may be considered; the times of delivery; the
habits of the milkman ; how soon must he begin his work in
the morning and where does he load his wagon? See
how the milk is kept in the wagon. If possible observe
milk trains and the cans in which milk is shipped in from
the country. Note the difference in the appearance of
milk after standing in bottles overnight. In smaller towns
where many people keep cows some of the children will
have experience in carrying milk to the neighbors. Who
does the milking ? What is done with the milk after it is
brought into the house? Is it strained and put away or
measured and sent out to customers ? What care is taken
to keep the milk clean?

What are the uses of milk ? Let the children name all
they know. How is butter made? Have the children
make butter by stirring some sour cream rapidly. This
may be done by placing the cream in a quart jar and stir-
ring with a cake spoon, or it may be accomplished by
shaking the jar vigorously, in which case the jar should not
be more than two thirds full. Cheese may also be made
in the schoolroom. Heat sweet milk to about 84° F. Put
a little rennet in the milk to curdle it. (Rennet may be

TYPICAL LESSON PLANS 109

obtained at any drug store.) Drain off the whey. Cut
the curd into small pieces and stir gently for a short time,
draining off the whey occasionally. Now heat the curd
slowly to about 92° F. It should be heated till it will string
a little. Turn over and over to get the moisture out. Salt
and mix or grind thoroughly. It is now ready to press,
after which it may be eaten immediately or allowed to stand
in a cool, well-ventilated room to ripen. Dutch cheese or
cottage cheese may also be made.

Spend some time in talking about what we may do for
cows. We should see always that they have plenty of food
and pure water, a warm shelter from storms, and clean
stalls in which to lie. And we must always take great
pains to see that the milk is kept perfectly clean.

SOFT MAPLE.— Second Grade

Since a special study of the Norway maple is made
in the first grade, this tree is revisited for the purpose of
recalling the facts previously observed. Then, as in the
first grade, the work begins with the study of an individual
tre/e rather than with soft maples in general. Compare
the general shape with that of the Norway. Is it as round ?
Has it as many branches ? Does it make as good a shade ?
Is the bark smooth or. rough? You can always tell the
soft maple by its scaly, light-colored bark. Examine trie
leaves. Are they the same color on -both sides? Can
you see why this is sometimes called the white or silver-
leafed maple? How many points do the leaves have?
Compare with the leaf of the Norway.

As an indoor exercise, have the children sketch a leaf.

HO NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

Examine the twigs. Is there any way of telling how much
they have grown in the last year? How are the leaves
arranged on the twigs? Are they closer together at the
lower end or at the tip ? Where are the buds ? Do you
find anything else on the twig ? When you feel confident
that the children know the individual tree which has been
observed, take them around to see if they can find other
soft maples. Ask them to look in yards and along the
streets for them. Be sure to call for reports upon such
observations the next day.

Watch carefully for the beginning of change in leaf
color. The children will be able to find many beautifully
colored leaves on the ground. Let them collect and press
a number of these. (They may be preserved for decora-
tive purposes by scattering a little powdered rosin over the
surface and ironing with an ordinary hot flatiron. This
makes the leaves shine and preserves their color. The
children are usually much interested. An attractive
border above a blackboard may be. made with these leaves.)

When does your soft maple finally become bare ? Are
there any leaves left on the Norway at this time? Note
the effect of a heavy rain or wind on the falling of the
leaves. Spend a little time on observing the tree after the
leaves are all off, giving special attention to the clusters of
buds near the ends of the twigs and the single buds on the
sides. Make a sketch of a twig with a memorandum of
the date. Early in the spring or latter part of the winter
tap some of the soft maples. Bore a hole through the bark
and a short distance into the wood. Place a spile to drain
the sap into a receptacle. The spile may be whittled out
of soft wood, being simply hollowed out a little to form a

TYPICAL LESSON PLANS III

trough. When does the sap run more vigorously? On
cloudy days or during sunshine ? Boil the sap down until
you have a little syrup or sugar. While the soft maple
will not yield as much sugar as the sugar maple, it yields
enough to make the process worth while from the stand-
point of the children.

Watch the bud clusters in the early spring. What is
happening to them? Place a few twigs in a bottle of
water in a schoolroom window until the buds open and
the dainty little flowers are revealed. Watch for the ap-
pearance of the flowers out of doors also. Have the smaller
buds developed into flowers ? These must be watched a
little longer to see what comes of them. Watch their un-
folding and the growth of the leaves. This can be well
studied in the schoolroom if the twigs are kept in fresh
water and in the light. Outdoor observations upon the
same point should also be made. The best results wrill be
gained by taking a few moments each day for a number of
days to note the changes that are taking place. When
these observations are finished the children will know that
a bud develops into a twig with many leaves. Leave with
them the question as to whether leaves continue to open
up at the end of the twig. Toward the end of the term
examine the twigs again with this in mind. Encourage
them to watch some particular tree during the summer to
see how long new leaves continue to appear or what other
changes may be noted.

After the flowers have disappeared watch the rapid de-
velopment of the fruit. Have three sketches made, each
at a different time, showing the growth of the seeds and the
wings* Do you find that the paired seeds are always about

112 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

the same in size? When do the seeds begin to fall?
Watch them flying down from the trees, whirling around,
fluttering like butterflies. In what way are the wings of
any help to the seeds ? How far away from the tree do the
winged seeds travel?

Gather a number of the seeds and plant them in the
school garden or in flower pots or boxes in your window
garden. Suggest to the children that they also plant some
at home. How long after the planting is it that the young
plants begin to appear? How many leaves has the little
tree at first? Do these look at all like maple leaves?
Watch for the appearance of the next leaves. Where do
they appear ? What becomes of the two long, slender leaves
which appeared first? Can you find any young maple
trees that have planted themselves ? Where are they ?

Some time should be given to a discussion of the value
of the maple. Find what uses the children can name,
such as shade, nesting and feeding places for birds, fuel,
and furniture. Are there any objections to the soft maple
as a shade and ornamental tree about the house ?

THE FLICKER.— Third Grade

The flicker is one of our most common birds. Because
of its large size, striking characteristics, and habit of nesting
near our dwelling^ it is an excellent bird to study in detail
in the lower grades. The first lesson should be an out-
door observation for the purpose of identifying it. Have
the children note the size (a little larger than a robin), the
color of the back (grayish-brown barred with black), the
red spot on the back of the head, and the black crescent

TYPICAL LESSON PLANS 113

on the breast. Note where the bird is and what it is doing.
When you are sure that the children know the bird tell
them you want them to watch the flickers about their
homes to see how many things they can find out about these
birds. Have them note especially all the different places
where the birds are seen, and what they are doing. How
does the bird's flight differ from that of a robin? What
marks aid in identifying it when flying ? (The white spot
in front of the tail and the golden yellow lining of the
wings.) At the end of a week, during which the interest
has been kept up by occasional reference to the bird, have
an indoor lesson. This should be a free expression of the
observations made by the children; good pictures of the
bird may aid in settling some points in which there is a
difference of opinion. Some points may well be left to be
settled by further outdoor observation.

In the discussion of what the children have seen, new
problems will certainly arise. For example, how does the
flicker manage to walk up a tree trunk? The children
will readily see that the short, stiff tail feathers aid the bird
in climbing, and in resting on the sides of trees and posts.
By means of pictures the teacher may bring out the special
adaptations of the toes, two pointing forward and two
backward, that enable the bird to cling securely to vertical
surfaces.

The question of the flicker's food will come up. No
doubt some of the children will report that they have seen
the birds feeding while on the ground. What were they
eating ? The answer to this may or may not be found by
observation. Some child may be fortunate enough to find
a flicker sitting on an ant-hill eating ants. But whether

114 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

the children are able to make out for themselves that
flickers eat ants or not, it is well to have them know that
during the summer and fall months more than two thirds
of the food of the flickers consists of ants.

When does the flicker make its nest? Some of the
children will have a chance to watch them digging holes
for their nests. What tools do they use in chipping out
the wood ? Their strong chisellike bills. Do both birds
work in making the nest? Tell the children that if they
have very sharp eyes they can distinguish the male from
the female by looking at the sides of the throat. The male
has a black stripe on each side of the throat. How far
from the ground are the nests made ? Compare different
ones. Watch the birds caring for the young. Listen for
the loud hissing sound made by the young while they are
still in the nest. Watch them come forth from the nest.
Can they fly well ? Few young birds can fly farther than
young flickers. Do the parents continue to feed the young
after they have left the nest? This will be easily deter-
mined , since the young beg in such a noisy manner for
just another bite that the children will be sure to hear
them.

Have the children decide whether the flickers are of
any use to us. The fact that they eat so many ants and
other injurious insects places them among our most bene-
ficial birds. Leave unanswered the problems whether
flickers use the same nest year after year, and whether they
stay with us all winter or go away in the fall as robins and
bluebirds do. A few flickers remain here over winter.
They often excavate holes in trees or buildings and remain
under shelter during the nights and very cold days. On

TYPICAL LESSON PLANS 115

warm days they sally forth to feed upon tree borers and
whatever they can find.

While a detailed study is made of the flicker the other
woodpeckers seen by the children should come in for a share
of the discussions. Even in the third grade something
may be done with a simple comparative study of the wood-
peckers. The children will be able to point out a few
characteristics that are similar in all the birds. In local-
ities where the red-headed woodpecker is abundant it will
be found fully as good for a detailed study as the flicker.
Other woodpeckers that are likely to be seen are the hairy,
downy, and sap sucker.

ANTS.— Third Grade

Almost all third-grade children have seen ants. Ask
where they have seen them and what they were doing.
The discussion will raise the question where do ants live,
and how do they care for their home and young ? If you
know of an ant's nest accessible to the school building, by
all means let the first lesson include a visit to this home.
Nests of small black and brown ants are often found under
sticks, boards, and stones. Some are found in the ground,
while others make mounds or hills which are often several
inches above the surface of the soil and several feet in
diameter. If a mound is found have the children note
whether there are any openings leading down into the
ground. How many ? Watch to see whether the ants go
in and out of these openings. Are any ants carrying things ?
With a trowel dig up a small portion of the mound. How
do the ants behave when disturbed? Is there anything

Il6 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

in the nest besides ants ? You will probably find a number
of white bodies like tiny grains of rice. These are young
ants in the condition in which they are called pupae.
They are asleep and perfectly helpless. They look like
little bags tied with a string at one end. Some day the
bags will split open and a grown-up ant will come forth.
What do the ants do with the white pupae when you stir
up a nest? These ants that you see racing around and
carrying the pupae are known as workers.

You may easily make an artificial ants' nest and keep
a few ants for observation in your schoolroom. There
are many ways of making these nests. The field nest is
easily made and is very satisfactory. Procure a piece of
window glass twelve inches long and six inches wide.
Build a wall around it about a fourth of an inch high and
half an inch wide by sticking together strips of glass.
Divide the space into three apartments by means of par-
titions made in the same way as the wall. Leave a pas-
sage between the rooms. Have a separate cover for each
apartment. The covers should be dark glass or boards.
Another simple ant's nest that answers the purpose is an
ordinary school slate. Cut a couple of passages in the
frame, get a pane of glass and a board or shingle the size
of the slate. Set the slate on two blocks of wood in a
shallow pan of water. (An ordinary baking pan will do.)
To get your ants for the nest, find an ant's home and scoop
up with a trowel a number of workers and put them
quickly into a glass jar. Collect some of the pupae. You
may also find some wriggling wormlike creatures; the
very young ants or larvae. Get as little soil as possible.
When you return to the schoolroom dump the contents of

TYPICAL LESSON PLANS 117

the jar into your nest, cover it up with glass and board.
If you succeed in getting a queen you may have a perma-
nent colony. You can tell the queen from the workers by
her large size. Without a queen, however, you can keep
the ants for several weeks ; long enough for the children to
find out many interesting things about them. If you start
your nest in the afternoon, by morning the ants will prob-
ably be well established in their new home. You may
watch them at any time by removing the board and look-
ing through the glass. The air must be kept moist in
the home or the ants will die. This may be managed by
keeping a piece of moist blotting paper or sponge in the
home. Have the children feed the ants different things;
cake crumbs, bread, bits of fruit, sugar, meat, etc. Place
the food near one of the passages and the ants will carry
it into the home. Do the ants show any preference for
special kinds of food ? Watch how they care for the pu-
pae. You will probably find that they move these from one
place to another. What effect does the light have on the
workers ?

Besides the observation in the schoolroom, encourage
the children to watch ants they may find outside. Give
them some simple problems to solve. How many different
kinds of ants can you find ? How many feet has an ant ?
How does it carry things ? Do you ever find two or three
carrying the same object? What does an ant do when it
comes to something that blocks its way, as a stick or stone;
does it crawl over or go around ? When ants get into your
pantry or cupboard do they have a definite path that they
follow as they come and go? Watch two ants that meet;
what do they do ? You will often find that they touch each

THE

Il8 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

other with their feelers as if this were their way of greeting
each other. In the fall you may find a great many ants
with wings. These are the queens and drones. The
workers never have any wings.

TOMATO.— Third Grade

Fall. — Purpose: To interest children in preparing
seeds for next spring's planting.

Have the children visit the school or home garden and
select some of the smoothest, finest tomatoes they can find;
just the kind they would like to have on their own plants
next summer. Cut these tomatoes in two crosswise, and
notice where the seeds are borne, and how they are ar-
ranged. Some of the fruit have many more seeds than
others. Have the children decide which kind they prefer.
The more seeds, the less room for the thick, juicy meat.
Remove the seeds and spread them out on a sheet of paper.
When dry place them in an envelope, label, and put away
for the winter.

Spring. — The spring work with the tomato should begin
the latter part of March, or early in April. Have the
children bring into the schoolroom some good garden soil.
Put this into a shallow box and sow the seeds, covering
them lightly with not more than half an inch of soil. Have
the children decide where the box must be kept and what
care must be given to it. Let them decide that moisture
and warmth are essential, and light after the plants are up.
Watch for the first appearance of the plants. How long
did it take the seeds to sprout ? Compare with sweet pea
in this respect. How many leaves has the little plant?

TYPICAL LESSON PLANS 119

•

Watch to see where the second pair of leaves appear. Are
these leaves the same shape as the first ones?

When the plants are three or four inches high they may
be transplanted into small flower pots, old berry boxes, or
tin cans. If the last are used, be sure that a hole is made
in the bottom of each can for drainage. However, if
the plants are not allowed to crowd one another too much,
they may be left in the large box until time to set them out
in the garden.

The plants should be set out the first or second week in
May. Have an indoor lesson to decide how and where this
is to be done. This decided, the children should do the
work of setting the plants, watering, and cultivating them.
The plants should be set in rows four or five feet apart.
Encourage the children to set out some of the plants in
their own home garden. Watch the growth of the plant
and note when the first blossoms appear. What is the
color of the tomato flowers ? When does the fruit begin to
ripen? Can the plants stand up straight when they are
loaded with fruit? It will be a good plan to use a support
to help keep the fruit up in the light and air so it will
ripen more evenly. How many tomatoes will one plant
produce ?

What is the fruit good for ? Think of all the different
dishes made from tomatoes; stews, soups, cream tomatoes,
salads, scallops, etc. How are they put away for winter
use? Our mothers can them, or they are canned in the
factories and we may buy them from the grocer.

Suggestion. — The entire fruit of the tomato as well as
the cross section are good objects for water-color work.

120 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

SWEET PEA.— Third Grade

Fall. — Problems: How does the plant hold itself up
and how does it scatter its seeds?

How tall are the sweet-pea plants ? Are the stems large
around or not? What is the shape of the stem? Car
one of these stems stand upright without a support ? Ho\^
does it hold on to the support? How have the tendril*
succeeded in taking hold of the support ? Where are the
tendrils ? How many can you find on one plant ? WThere
are the pods; near the lower part of the plant or near the
top ? How long is a pod ? Find some pods that are green
and some that are ripe. Note how they differ from one
another. How many seeds in one pod ? Find a pod thai
has no seeds left in it. Notice that the two parts are
twisted. Watch other pods to see if you can find out wh}
they curl up like this. When the seeds are ripe the pod
begins to dry. At night the dew moistens it, and in the
morning the warm sun dries it out again and it becomes
warped. All at once some day it splits open, and the twc
parts curl up and fling the seeds in every direction. If you
should leave the seeds lying on the ground over winter
some of them might grow. But if you want to be sure of a
crop of sweet peas next summer you must gather the seeds
and put them away.

Spring. — Problem: What must we do in order to ham
many beautiful sweet pea blossoms this summer?

Indoor work. Decide where, when, and how to plan*
sweet peas. These plants do well anywhere in rich
mellow soil, and in plenty of sunshine. They may bt
planted along a fence, or close to a building, or out in the

TYPICAL LESSON PLANS 121

open garden. We must make a drill at least six inches
deep, just as early as the soil is fit to work; the earlier the
better. Sow the seeds in the trench and cover with about
two inches of soil. When the plants have grown about two
or three inches in height fill the trench almost to the top
with soil leaving a slight depression to catch water. After
the soil is thoroughly soaked, fill to the top with loose soil,
or place a layer of straw on the top to hold the moisture.
When the plants have grown about four inches high have
the children decide what supports they will use for the
plants to climb. Strings fastened to a few strands of wire,
wire netting, or simply sticks from a brush pile will answer
the purpose.

Watch the growth of the plants; are they slow or rapid
growers ? Watch for the first tendrils. How do they take
hold of the support ? Do they all curl in the same direc-
tion? When do the first flowers appear? We must
learn how to remove the flowers without injuring the
plants. We must cut them with a pair of scissors, not
pull them off. Cut the stems as long as possible. It
is very essential that you keep the flowers cut if you
wish to have an abundance of flowers all summer.
This flower is a good one to study. The children
may be interested to know that it is called the butter-
fly flower. The two large petals at the sides are called
wings, the one at the top the banner or standard, and the
two that are grown together forming a little boat are
called the keel.

Recall the pods in which the children found the peas
last fall. See if they can find the part of the flower that
will make the pod. Have the children watch the sweet

122 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

peas to see if any insects visit them. What are the bees
and flies doing?

Do not try to force the study of pollination here. It
is enough for these children to see that the insects are
getting something to eat out of the flowers.

Experiments. — No seeds are better than sweet peas for
making some simple experiments in germination. If the
peas grow and work we shall try to find out under what
conditions they can do their work best.

Plant a few in dry soil; others in moist soil.

Moisten some blotting paper, put it in a tin cup, then
place on it three or four seeds that have been soaked in
water for twenty-four hours. Cover the cup so that no
light can reach the peas and keep warm and moist.

Place the same number in a glass with other conditions
exactly the same. From these the children will see that
the seeds germinate just as well in the dark as in the light,
but that they will not grow without moisture. In the same
way show that moisture and warmth are necessary for
germination.

Have the children select some of the most beautiful
flowers and allow these to mature their seeds. Keep these
as choice seeds for next year's planting.

Suggestion. — Sweet peas may be successfully grown in
window boxes in the schoolroom.

ENGLISH SPARROW.— Third Grade

No time is better for the study of the English sparrow
than the winter.

Problem. — How does the sparrow care for itself during
the winter months?

TYPICAL LESSON PLANS 123

Tell the children that you and they are going to talk
about a bird that lives around our homes. What is it?
The English sparrow. Do not let the children say just
" sparrow," for they should know that we have many
native sparrows, and that the English sparrow is only one
of a large group. Make a field trip with the children to
observe a flock of sparrows. Have them note especially
where the birds are and what they are doing.

Tell the children to watch the sparrows around their
homes. Where are they seen? What are they doing?
Are they found singly or in flocks? How many can you
count in one flock? What do they eat? You wrill have
to be careful here or the children will say all sorts of things
without having really seen any of them. Tell them to
watch for two days and then call for reports of actual ob-
servations. How do they eat? Do they ever quarrel
over bits of food? Do they like to drink water? How
do they move about on the ground? Do they walk or
hop? How do they hold their tails when they fly?

How do they keep warm in the cold weather ? Discuss
the coat of feathers. Do they exercise? Do they seek
sheltered places ? Where do they sleep at night ? Watch
to see if you can find out. Do they ever creep into sheltered

f'aces about your home?
Look closely at the sparrows you see. Are they all the
same color? The ones with the black patches on the
breasts are males, the others females. What other differ-
ences in color between males and females ?

Do the sparrows sing? How many different sounds
do they make? Do both males and females make
sounds ?

124 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

Where do sparrows like to build their nests ? What are
their nests made of ?

One of their nests may be easily obtained from a corner
in a barn or elsewhere, and kept in the schoolroom for
study. Why do they have so many feathers in their nests ?
The children will be interested to know that after the
mother bird lays the eggs the father bird carries feathers
and covers up the eggs to keep them warm.

Why are the birds called English sparrows ? Tell the
story of how they were brought here from England with
the hope that they would eat injurious insects. Instead of
proving a blessing they have become a real nuisance in
some places. Their real name is " house sparrow." Why
is this a good name for them ?

This lesson should not be finished up in a day or two.
Time should be given for the children to make actual ob-
servations which may be reported occasionally. A few
minutes may be taken for this once or twice a week just
to keep up the interest. At the end of two or three weeks
a whole period may be taken in summing up all that has
been seen and heard.

TOMATO WORM.— Fourth Grade

Fall. — Problem: To find out what the tomato worm
does, and what it becomes when it is grown up.

The tomato worm, a larva of a moth and an enemy of
the tomato, is frequently found on the tomato plants in
the summer and fall. Place about four inches of soil in
the bottom of a quart fruit jar. Break off a spray of the
plant on which the tomato worm is resting and place this

TYPICAL LESSON PLANS 125

upright in the jar. A piece of wire screening may be placed
over the mouth.

How does the worm manage to cling so securely to the
stem ? The children will be able to make out the sixteen
clamplike feet. What does it eat? When does it eat
more, during the day or night? Put some fresh tomato
leaves into the jar in the evening. Count the number put
in and determine how many it eats.

Some day the children will find the worm not on the
stem, but crawling around on the surface of the soil.
If they watch closely they may see it begin to push its
way down into the soil. Why does it bury itself alive?
What is it doing? Wait about two weeks and then very
carefully remove the soil from the jar and disclose the
tomato worm no longer a green worm, but a brown pupa.
If the children look closely they will be able to find the dry
crinkled skin that the worm shed when it changed its form.
Is the pupa alive? Can it move about? Can it eat any-
thing ? The wriggling of the back part of the body shows
that it is alive, but it does not eat or move about. Put
the soil back into the jar. Make a little furrow in the
surface. Place the pupa in this and cover lightly with soil.
Place the jar in a cool room. A basement not heated with
a furnace is a good place. The study should be com-
pleted in the spring, when the jar may be brought back to
the schoolroom. This should be done in the latter part of
May, Place a small twig of some sort in the jar. When
the brown pupa case breaks open the moth will crawl up
the twig, and remain clinging to this while its wings dry.
Have the children note the number of wings and feet, and
the large beautiful eyes of the moth. When the wings are

126 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

thoroughly dry, put the moth into your terrarium, to let
the children see how the wings are used.

Have the children watch for other moths of this kind.
They are frequently found flitting about the flower beds
during the summer evenings. What are they doing?
If the children watch closely they may be able to see the
long sucking tubes thrust into the flowers to sip the sweet
nectar.

GOOSEBERRY.— Fourth Grade

General Problems. — What are the characteristics of the
gooseberry shrub, and what methods of propagation and
culture are employed in making it productive ?

The study should begin early in the spring before the
leaves begin to appear. Note general forms of the plant.
Is it straight and tall or round and bushy ? Is there a main
stem with branches or many stems growing out close to the
ground? Are all the stems of the same size and age? Is there
any difference in color between the old wood and the new ?

Bring some twigs into the schoolroom. Can you tell
what part of the twig grew last season ? How many things
can you find on a twig ? What is the color of the buds ?
Are they opposite or alternate in arrangement? How do
buds on the older portion of the stems differ from those on
last year's twig? Where are the largest buds? What
will all of these buds become? Leave this as a problem
to solve when the buds have opened. Where are the
thorns or spines with reference to the buds ? How many
spines in a group ? Are they all the same size ? Do you
find any spines on the older parts of the twigs ? Are there
any not arranged in groups?

TYPICAL LESSON PLANS 127

Watch for appearance of the first leaves. Compare
with other shrubs and trees as to time of opening the buds.
Does frost hurt these leaves ? What is your opinion as to
the hardiness of the plant? What is the shape of the
leaves? How are they arranged, singly or in clusters?
What is the end bud becoming? The side buds? Are
there any spines on the new, growing twigs? Where are
they with reference to the leaves ?

Watch for the opening of the flowers. Are they more
numerous on the old wood or on last year's wood ? Do not
decide this too hastily. Examine a number before coming
to a conclusion. What is the position of the flowers on
the twig on the upper or lower side ? Make out the parts
of the flower. What part of the flower becomes the berry ?
Watch development from week to week. What part be-
comes the dry, brown tuft that must be taken off before
the berry is ready to use? Do we have to wait for this
fruit to get ripe before we can eat it ? This is a good type
of the true berry. Cut one in two across the middle.
What parts can you see ? Is the skin thick or thin ? What
is the color of the meat or pulp? Where are the seeds?
Is the plan of this berry anything like that of a tomato?
From this the children will conclude that the tomato is also
a berry. How about the currant ? When does the goose-
berry ripen ? Have children note time of ripening during
the vacation and report in the fall. They will find that all
the berries do not ripen at once, but that they continue to
ripen a few at a time for several weeks. What changes
occur in color as the berries mature?

How may we produce new gooseberry plants? It will
be interesting to have the children save some of the seeds

128 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

from the ripe fruit. The seeds should be taken from the
berries, washed, and thoroughly dried. While some of the
seeds will grow, this method of producing new plants is a
slow one and sometimes the seeds do not come true; that
is, they do not produce a new plant that has as good fruit
as the old one. In the fall plant the seeds in pots. Keep
some in the schoolroom, the others out of doors. Watch
for the appearance of the plants.

Another method used in propagating gooseberries is by
layering. This should be done in the latter part of the
summer or early fall. It may be done the first of the fall
term. A vigorous branch is bent down and laid upon the
ground, or in a shallow furrow. This is covered with moist
earth, well firmed about it. On top a mound of soil is
sometimes placed, or mulching of some sort to keep the
ground moist. The layer may be held down by a weight
or by means of a forked stick. In the spring the stem
of the layer may be severed from the parent plant and the
new shoot with its roots set out. The plants should be set
from three to four feet apart in rich, rather moist soil.
They will be ready to bear in a few years. To keep the
plants bearing well the oldest stems should be cut out oc-
casionally and the soil dug up around the plants once every
two or three years.

The currant should be studied in connection with the
gooseberry, noting the features in which the two plants
resemble each other, and in which they differ.

What enemies have the currant and gooseberry ? The
children may find some of the gooseberries covered with a
layer of rough, yellowish material. This is a fungous
growth that in some places is quite destructive. All

TYPICAL LESSON PLANS 129

affected berries should be burned to prevent the spread of
the disease. By spraying, this disease may be almost
wholly prevented. Another enemy of the plants is the
gooseberry or currant worm.

CURRANT OR GOOSEBERRY WORM.— Fourth Grade

General Problem. — What are the characteristics that
help to make the gooseberry worm a pest ?

After the leaves are well open, have the children look
at their gooseberry or currant bushes for flies that keep
hovering around the plants. Catch a few of these, put
them into a tumbler, and examine carefully. Are they
real flies? At first sight they look as if they might be
common house flies. How many wings has each one?
How many wings has a house fly ? True flies never have
but one pair of wings. These insects are sawflies. They
are relatives of bees and wasps.

What are they doing as they fly in and out among the
bushes ? Look on the under side of the leaves till you find
one that has rows of white eggs on it. These are the eggs
of the sawfly. How many on one leaf ? On some of the
leaves you will find tiny worms that have hatched from the
eggs. What are the worms doing ? What kind of mouths
must they have to nibble the leaves in this fashion ? They
have strong toothed jaws. Place a few of the worms on
some twigs. Keep the twigs fresh in a bottle of water.
Fresh leaves should be put in every evening. Watch them
feed and grow. These worms, as a rule, do not thrive
well for any length of time in confinement, so new ones may
be brought in from the bushes from day to day or the vari-

NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

ous stages may be found at one time, and brought in for
study. Encourage the children to observe them on the
bushes at home. How many different colors do you find
on one worm? Are they all the same color? The ones
that are pale green with yellow near the end are the oldest
ones. Do the worms keep the hinder part of the body
straight or curled? Look at a number of different ones
when they are quiet on the leaves before deciding this.
How many feet has one ? To count them hold the leaf on
a level with your eye and look under the worm. The three
pointed pairs near the head are called true feet. The six
pairs in the middle and the one at the hinder end are called
prop feet. Do you remember how many feet the woolly
bear caterpillar, or tomato worm had? They had only
eight pairs. One way you can tell sawfly larvae from
butterfly or moth larvae is by the greater number of feet.
If you have some of the light green worms with the
yellow spots put them in a jar or box with plenty of fresh
leaves. Keep a piece of mosquito netting tied over the
top. In a few days the worms disappear. What do you
find in the bottom of the box under the leaves? Those
black objects are cocoons that were woven by the worms.
After three or four days cut one of the cocoons open. What
is on the inside? Instead of the worm this sleeping
mummy is a pupa. Leave the rest of the cocoons undis-
turbed. After ten days look in the box every day. Be
sure to keep the netting tied over the top. What do you
find in the box? These insects are the grown-up saw-
flies. Look at the cocoons for openings through which
they came out. They are now ready to lay their eggs on
the gooseberry leaves to produce a new crop of worms.

TYPICAL LESSON PLANS 131

The worms that were left out of doors dropped down
to the ground and made their cocoons under the dead
leaves or other rubbish, or just under the surface of the
soil. The second brood of sawflies often eat up every leaf
left on the bushes by the first brood. When these are
grown up as larvae they spin cocoons just as the others did,
but instead of the sawflies coming out in two or three weeks
they remain as pupae in the cocoons all winter and come
out in time to lay eggs on the first leaves that appear in the
spring.

If these cocoons are close to the surface, or under dead
leaves, who will suggest a way to get rid of some of them ?
Rake up the trash in the fall and burn it. Spraying the
bushes with hellebore in the spring as soon as the worms
begin to appear is usually effective. It may be necessary
to spray several times.

The children will be interested to know that these
worms are not natives of America. They were accidentally
imported from Europe into the New England states about
fifty years ago. Since then they have spread over the
greater part of the United States.

BLUEGRASS.— Fifth Grade

Problems. — What are the characteristics of the bluegrass
that make it a good lawn plant ? What may we do to keep
our lawns beautiful ?

The work should begin with outdoor observation of
the bluegrass during the latter part of winter or very early
spring. Note the condition of the grass at this time.
What indications have you that it has lived all winter?

132 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

Upon looking closely the children will find many green
leaves close to the ground. Some of the leaves will be half
green and half dead. Have weather conditions had any-
thing to do with the number of leaves that have remained
green? Compare the grass that is found growing on a
southern slope with that on a northern or western exposure.
If the children find a spot where no green leaves are visible,
leave with them the problem whether or not the entire plant
is dead. Let them watch the spot occasionally until they
are convinced that new plants are springing up from the
ground. What makes it possible for the plant to do this ?
Dig up a small sod of bluegrass, wash all the soil out
of the roots, keep it moist, and bring it into the school-
room for study. Examine the portion of the sod that grew
above ground. Can you make out individual plants?
How are these related to one another ? Are they far apart
or close together? Look at the part that grew in the
ground. How many distinct structures do you find?
Distinguish the mass of small threadlike roots from the
underground stem or slender rootstock. Have the children
note the difference between this underground stem and
the roots. The stem has joints, thin scale leaves, and often
a bud at the end which sends up a new grass plant. Have
the children look for these new shoots. Note the direction
of growth of the rootstock. What are the advantages of
this rootstock during a severe winter ? The plants above
ground may be dead, but the rootstock will still live and
have its bud all ready to send up a new shoot when warm
weather comes. It enables the plant to spread over a
larger area. It helps to tide over a dry season as well
as a cold one.

TYPICAL LESSON PLANS 133

Propagation. — What ways are there of starting blue-
grass on our lawns ? By sods and by seeds. If good sod
can be obtained this is the quickest way to get a lawn,
but the most common way is to plant seed. Have the
children plant a few seeds in a box in the schoolroom, or
better in the schoolyard, and watch the habits of growth
of the young plants. See if the children can find out when
the sod begins to form. Plant seeds at varying depths.
Leave some almost entirely uncovered. Determine which
germinate best. Sow a small plat with pure bluegrass
seed, another with bluegrass and white clover mixed.
Which succeeds better? Procure several pieces of sod,
each about three inches square. Place these in soil about
six inches apart. Watch results. What has made it pos-
sible for these to cover the ground ? Allow some blue-
grass plants to remain unmown until they have produced
flowers and seeds. Few children recognize the plant in
this stage. When do the plants begin to send up their
flowering stems? Begin to watch for these the last of
May and first of June. From what part of the plant does
the flower stem grow? How tall do these flower stems
grow? Measure several and compare. Are there any
leaves on the flower stem ? Is this stem solid or hollow ?
Notice that the stem branches into many slender parts
which bear the small scalelike flowers. Note the color
of the branch.

Do not try to make out the parts of the flowers. The
children may be interested to know that grasses do not have
bright petals as so many other flowers do, but that they do
have stamens and pistils. The stamens may be readily
found in the bluegrass. When the flowers have become

134 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

dry have the children find the seeds. Rub the seeds out of
one panicle or flower head to determine the amount. How
many panicles does it take to produce a teaspoonful of
seeds ?

Care of the Lawn. — Everyone likes to see a smooth,
velvety lawn. Encourage the children to suggest things to
do to keep their lawns beautiful. Remove sticks, dead
leaves, paper, and weeds. If there are bare spots they
should be raked and sown with fresh seeds early in the
spring. If the lawn is uneven it should be rolled. Mow-
ing should be done often enough to keep the grass close cut.
Evening is a better time to mow during hot weather than
morning. Why? In dry weather the grass should not
be cut too close. Why? There is danger of exposing
the roots to the sun.

Suggestion. — A small bunch of flowering and fruiting
bluegrass ought to be put away for schoolroom observation.

What are some of the enemies of the lawn ? The
children will suggest many. Dandelion, plaintain, mole,
grubworm, etc.

DANDELION.— Fifth Grade

Problem. — What characteristics has the dandelion that
make it a successful lawn weed ?

The study should be taken up about the same time as
that of the bluegrass. Begin outdoor observation early
enough so that the children may see that the plant has
lived over winter. In sheltered places they will find that
some of the leaves have remained green during the cold
months.

TYPICAL LESSON PLANS 135

Habits o) Growth. — What is the relation of the leaves
to the ground ? Where are the longest leaves; at the outer
or inner part of the rosette? Where are the youngest
leaves ? Is the center of the rosette level with the surface
of the ground or below it? Are there any advantages to
the plant in growing as it does ? The children will readily
see that the plants are better protected from wind and cold
because of this habit of growth. Dig up a number of plants,
wash off the soil and bring into the schoolroom. Examine
the root. Note how long and thick it is and its direction
of growth. Compare with bluegrass roots. This kind of
root is called a fleshy tap root. Has this root any special
advantages ? Let the children think about this. Do not
try to answer it fully now. Come back to it when the beet
is studied. Have the children pull the rosettes apart, care-
fully noting what is stored away in the center of each.
They will be interested to find numbers of tiny flower buds,
some larger than a pea, some as small as a pin head. Get
the average number of buds in the specimens.

Flower and Fruit. — Note the time of the first dandelion
flowers, position of flower on the plant, length of flower
stem. Note that as the stem lengthens it does not grow
straight upward, but first bends outward. Have children
watch to see that the flowers close up at night and during
rainy, cloudy days. Bring a number of flowers into the
schoolroom. Have the children decide whether what we
call the flower is a single flower or a cluster of many
flowers. Separate the cluster of flowers and look at one
small flower. What do you see ? A small seedlike body
at the lower part, a cluster of soft hairs above this ; and the

yellow part, the petal, with the two "pollen-catchers"
10

136 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

extending above it. Have children estimate by counting
the number of flowers in three or four clusters about how
many flowers one plant will produce. If each flower makes
one seed, how many seeds will one plant produce ? How
long after the flowers begin to open until the seeds are ripe ?
How does this compare with other plants you know?
What is the position of the stem with the ripe fruit on it ?
What advantage in its standing so tall and straight?
Examine the fruit. What part of the flower has opened
up into the parachute? What has become of the seed?
What scatters the seeds of this plant?

Experiments. — These should begin with the first lessons
in early spring. Cut off the leaves of a dandelion rosette,
leaving the center uninjured. Cut another a little below
the surface of the ground. Cut a third about three inches
below the surface of the ground. Have the children try
these experiments at home as well as at school and report
results. They will find that unless the plant is cut off far
below the surface it will continue to grow. Have them
decide whether or not a lawn mower will kill dandelions,
or whether ordinary methods of weeding will do it. Plant
a few seeds to determine whether or not they grow the first
season. Study a path or some spot that has been trampled
upon to decide which can stand trampling better, blue-
grass or dandelion.

WATER BEETLES.— Sixth Grade

Water beetles are found in abundance in ponds and
pools. They may be obtained by scooping up with a dip
net, or long-handled dipper, the vegetable matter from the

TYPICAL LESSON PLANS 137

bottom of the pond. They may often be caught while
swimming by means of an ordinary insect net. During
the early spring months these beetles may be found on the
ground in the vicinity of electric lights. Two specimens
are common, the water scavenger and the cybister, a preda-
ceous diving beetle. These are easily distinguished from
each other. The water scavenger is a large, shiny black
beetle; while the cybister is a little smaller, more flat, and
has a cream-colored band extending around the body.

General Problems. — What special adaptations have these
beetles that make it possible for them to live in the water ?
Are they harmful or beneficial to man ?

The Cybister. — If possible study this beetle first in its
natural surroundings by making a visit to a pond in the
neighborhood. Capture some of them, bring into the
schoolroom, and place in an aquarium. Have the children
arrange the aquariums as nearly like the pond as possible.
Place in the bottom a few small stones or gravel, some of
the decaying vegetable matter, and a stick leaning against
the side of the jar. If you have no aquarium use a glass
jar or a large glass dish. Two or three ten-cent glass
fruit dishes will be found valuable aids in the study of
many water animals. Have the children observe the be-
havior of the beetles. Where do they stay; at the surface
of the water or at the bottom? Shade one side of the
aquarium and determine whether they prefer light or dark-
ness. Do they move around much if left undisturbed?
Try to determine when the beetles are more active; during
the day or during the night ? For detailed study place the
beetles singly in tumblers about two thirds full of water.
Two or three pupils may observe the same specimen.

138 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

Problem. — How does the beetle move? What is the
position of the body while the beetle is swimming ? How
many legs has it ? Which ones does it use most in swim-
ming? Watch carefully to see if the strokes are made
with both hind legs at the same time. Do these legs differ
from the others in structure ? Look carefully and you will
find that these legs are broad and thin and have a fringe of
long hairs on them. Watch these hairs while the beetle
is swimming to see if they change positions. When the
stroke is made the hairs are spread to make the leg more
oarlike. As the leg is lifted after the stroke the hairs droop
downward close to the leg. The children can see this per-
fectly. Watch the beetle dive to the bottom of the glass.
Does it go head first?

Problem. — How does this beetle breathe? When the
beetle is resting in the aquarium what position does it
take in the water ? You will find it hanging head down-
ward and with the tip of the abdomen protruded above the
surface. If it is suddenly disturbed it dives quickly to the
bottom while one or two small bubbles of air may be seen
coming from the tip of the wing covers. This gives a clue
to its method of breathing. When it is resting with the tip
of the body above the surface it lifts its wing covers slightly,
air rushes in, and is held by fine hairs on the back. Ar-
ranged in rows on each side of the back are breathing pores
through which the air passes into the body. The space
under the wings holds air enough to last the beetle for some
time under the water.

Problem. — How does the beetle eat, and what does it
eat? Place in the aquarium some small bits of lean meat,
fresh liver, or some fish food used for goldfish. Watch

TYPICAL LESSON PLANS 139

to see if those disappear. Place in the aquarium some
mosquito larvae (" wrigglers" or "wiggle tails") and
watch results. Let the beetle remain a few days without
food, then with a pointed stick or pair of forceps hold a
small piece of liver in the aquar um near the beetle. It
will soon detect it and swim toward it, seizing it with its
strong jaws. Note how the front feet are used in helping
to hold the bite while the beetle tears it to pieces.

Problem. — How does the beetle get from the pond to the
electric lights ? The answer to this question means a study
of wings. This is best done by means of dry specimens
with wings spread. Have the children note first on the
live specimen the line down the middle of the back where
the outer wings meet. With the dry specimen in hand note
the shape of the inner wings, and the numerous veins.
Are these wings longer or shorter than the outer ones?
Why is it that the beetle can keep them entirely concealed
when in the water ? One or two specimens should be kept
with the outer wings raised to show how the inner wings
are folded and tucked away when not in use.

The Life History. — In scooping up the debris from the
bottom of the pond in the spring you will probably capture
some of the young cybisters. They do not resemble in
any way the mature insects. They are long, slender, seg-
mented larvae with six slender legs and hornlike jaws.
Place them in an aquarium by themselves and feed them
insects, earthworms, or bits of fresh meat. The children
will soon discover that the sharp, hornlike jaws are used to
seize and kill the prey and suck the juices from their bodies.
These larvae are so fierce, and kill so many mosquito
larvae and other water insects that they are known as

140 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

water tigers. The method of breathing may be seen by
the children. At the hind end of the body are two little
projections with openings or breathing pores in them.
Watch the larvae curl the end of the body upward and
stick these projections above the surface. When the larva
is ready to change to a pupa it crawls upon the bank and
makes a small cell in the ground. It remains here three
weeks and then changes to a beetle. Some time should be
given to discussion of the value of the cybister as a mos-
quito destroyer.

The water scavenger beetle may be studied in much the
same way as the cybister. A comparative study of the
two will make a profitable lesson. The children will dis-
cover that the scavenger uses its legs differently while
swimming, that it rests with its head out of the water, that
it takes a film of air on the under side of the body, and that
it feeds upon decaying vegetable matter as well as insects.
The eggs of these beetles may be found floating upon the
water in large, white, irregular cocoons. The cocoons are
easily identified by a curious handlelike stem on one side.
There are from fifty to one hundred eggs in each cocoon.

THE CABBAGE BUTTERFLY.— Seventh Grade

General Problem. — Where do the cabbage worms come
from, and what may be done to lessen their numbers?

Ask the children to bring in cabbage leaves that have
worms on them, or pass to the school garden and examine
the cabbage plants there. Where did the worms come
from ? The children have probably seen the white cabbage
butterfly flying around the cabbage patch alighting now

TYPICAL LESSON PLANS 141

and then upon the leaves. What were they doing ? Look
on the under side of the cabbage leaves for the eggs that
the butterflies deposit there. There are small cream or
light yellow bodies standing on end on the surface of the
leaves in size not as large as the head of a pin. Are these
eggs grouped or single? Do you find as many on the
upper surface as on the lower ? Is there any advantage in
having the eggs on the lower surface?

Place the leaves on plates or in a box, to see if the eggs
will hatch. It is not necessary to wait, however, for these
tiny creatures to grow before continuing the study. Ob-
serve some of the worms or larvae that are already quite
large. Bring a number of these into the schoolroom and
place in a terrarium or box. Keep supplied with fresh
leaves.

How do they eat the leaves ? What kind of mouth parts
must they have? The children will readily see that they
must have biting jaws in order to make holes in the leaves
as they do. Place the worms on fresh leaves and let the
children notice how they eat.

How do they move about? Make out the number of
feet they have. Are all the feet of the same size and shape ?
The three pairs near the head are the true legs, the four
near the middle and the one at the hind part of the body
are pro-legs.

Watch the larvae closely when they leave the leaves
and crawl up the side of the cage. They are now getting
ready to change into pupae. How do they fasten them-
selves to the support? Notice the little bit of silk at the
hinder part of the body and the thread of silk around the
middle,

142 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

The children may not be fortunate enough to see the
larva skin split and wrinkle backward till it drops off at
the hinder end, but they will see the pupa that is left in
place of the larva. How does it differ from the larva?
Does it move about or eat ? Is it alive ? Touch it gently
to see if it moves.

If you start this study in early September, some of the
pupae will change into butterflies. This change occurs
during the summer in about ten days. Late in the fall
those that pupate remain in that stage all winter, to produce
the first generation of butterflies in the spring.

Study the butterflies. Have children watch them out
of doors to see what they are doing. They will probably
find them flitting among flowers as well as over the cabbage
patch. What are they doing on the flowers ? Leave this
as a problem. Put a few butterflies into the terrarium.
Place in it also a bottle of water containing some flowers.
Clover will serve the purpose very well. Watch to see
how the butterflies uncoil their long sucking tubes to sip
the nectar from the flowers. They will do the same thing
if you place a few drops of sweetened water in the cage.
Are all the butterflies the same color? Those that have
two black spots on the fore wing are females.

Find out to what extent the cabbage worms are con-
sidered a pest in your district? Do they feed on cauli-
flower and other members of the cabbage family ? What
may be done to keep them in check? Insect powder
diluted with seven times its bulk of flour and dusted on the
leaves is sometimes effective. Many people sprinkle the
leaves with hot water. Have the water almost boiling
when put in the watering can. By the time it reaches the

TYPICAL LESSON PLANS 143

leaves it will be hot enough to kill the worms but not injure
the plants.

What natural foes do the cabbage butterflies and their
larvae have? Many birds eat both worms and butterflies.
See if you can find any birds feeding among the cabbage.
A common foe is a small insect known as a braconid fly.

The children will often find on the cabbage leaves a
mass of yellow bodies that look like eggs. Bring some of
these into the schoolroom. Put them into a tumbler and
tie a piece of cheese cloth or netting over the top. In a
few days the glass will be swarming with tiny creatures
not much larger than gnats. Where did they come from ?
Examine the yellow mass. What do you find ? A hole in
each of the egglike bodies. When you look closely you
will see that these are not eggs but cocoons made out of
silk. The flies hatched from the cocoons. They are
parasites that help to keep the cabbage butterflies in check.
They lay the eggs just under the skin of the cabbage worm.
These eggs hatch into tiny white grubs which feed upon
the tissues of the worm. They are careful not to touch
any of the vital organs such as the heart, digestive system,
etc. Why? When they are ready to spin cocoons and
change to pupae, they burst through the skin of the worm
in a group, killing it instantly.

The braconid flies are relatives of the bees and wasps
and are not true flies. There is another parasite, a near
relative of the braconids known as chalcis fly, that feeds
upon the pupae. So sometimes you may find a swarm of
chalcis flies emerging from the pupa skin instead of a
butterfly.

The history of the cabbage butterfly in America is in-

144 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

teresting. It was imported in some way, no one knows
how, from Europe to Northeastern Canada, in 1860. In
about twenty years it had spread over the eastern half of
the continent. In five more years it was found as far west
as Denver. It is now found wherever cabbage is grown,
from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast.

THE GRAPE.— Seventh Grade

General Problems. — What do we need to know about
grapes and their culture in order to produce a good crop of
fruit?

The work should begin in the fall with the making of
cuttings. If the class has not already made a detailed
study of soft-wood cuttings, then as a preliminary lesson
soft-wood cuttings should be made with a study of the
callus, rooting, and transplanting.

Grape cuttings are made late in the fall or early winter
when the leaves have fallen off, and the plant has ceased
work for the winter. Cuttings made from hard wood at
this season are called dormant cuttings. Will you want
old wood or new for the cuttings ? They should be made
from this season's growth. Measure some of the stems to
determine the length of growth in one season. Do these
stems vary in thickness?

How many buds on one stem? How arranged?
Remove from the vine a number of branches. Make a
slanting cut through the joint or node where a bud is at-
tached. To do this place the knife on the side of the stem
opposite the bud and on a level with the top of it. Now
cut slanting downward and the knife will come out just

TYPICAL LESSON PLANS 145

below the bud. Make one clean cut; it must not be
jagged. Each cutting should have at least two good buds.

What will you do with your cuttings ? Tie a number
together and place them in moist sand in a cool place, or
they may be buried in the soil of the garden. If this is
done care should be taken not to put them where they will
stand in water. What do you want the cuttings to do
during the winter ? Just what your soft-wood cuttings did,
form a callus and start roots.

Take up the work again in the spring. The cuttings
should be set out in a row in the garden in a well-drained
spot. Set them about eight inches apart and deep enough
so that only one bud will be left above the surface of the
ground. They should not be less than six inches in the
ground. These cuttings will be ready to set out in a
permanent place in one or two years. They should be set
from six to eight feet apart. If they have made a vigorous
growth, it is best to cut them back so there will not be
more than four good buds on the stem.

In the spring take up the study of grape vines. Com-
pare with other shrubs and trees as to the time of opening
leaf buds? How does the plant climb? Where are the
tendrils situated? How many divisions in one tendril?
What does the tendril do in order to cling to a support?
Which do you think helps support the plant more, the
twining stem or the tendrils?

Watch for the flowers. Are they early or late in open-
ing ? Can you account for the late flowering ? Where are
the flowers, on last year's wood or this year's? Where
situated on the new stem ? You can readily see from this
that the flowers cannot open early. Are there flowers on

146 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

all of last year's stems? Are the flowers single or in
clusters ? Study one flower carefully, making out its parts.
The flower is an interesting one. Note how the petals are
united to form a sort of cap above the stamens and pistil.

It is only the strongest of the new branches or canes, as
nurserymen call them, that bear fruit. What may be
done to have large clusters of well-developed fruit ? It is
easy to see that too many clusters on a vine will result in
small grapes. The secret of having large clusters of good,
juicy sweet fruit is the pruning. The pruning should be
done in the winter not later than the last of February.
Since the fruit is borne on wood of the present season every
bud on last year's cane may produce a shoot that will bear
fruit. But if this should happen it would mean many
small, imperfect clusters. What may be done to remedy
this ? Cut out some of the canes, leaving the most promis-
ing ones. Those of medium thickness are usually con-
sidered best. All the long, slender ones and the stout ones
should be removed. The canes that are left should be cut
back to eight or ten buds, thus reducing the possible clusters
on each cane.

In the fall make a study of the fruit. Make a cross
section through the middle. Where are the seeds, in the
upper or lower half ? Do the number of seeds vary in the
same variety of grape ? Obtain as many different varieties
as possible and compare as to size of fruit, yield, flavor, etc.

Of the purple grapes the Concord is the most widely
grown. It is hardy and free from many of the diseases
that are likely to attack other varieties. Moore's early,
Campbell's early, and the Worden are considered by many
people good varieties.

TYPICAL LESSON PLANS 147

Of the red grapes the Delaware is best known, and with
good cultivation and spraying it is a very satisfactory
variety.

White grapes are not so widely grown as either purple
or red, but are to many persons the most delicious of all
the grapes. One of the best varieties of the white grape is
the Niagara.

If there are wild grapes, Virginia creeper or woodbine,
or Boston ivy in the vicinity make a comparative study of
these in connection with the grapes. Note difference and
resemblance. What common characteristics place these
and the grape in the same family ?

CLOVERS.— Eighth Grade

Problems. — What characteristics make red clover a good
I or age plant? Why is it a valuable plant in its relation
to soil?

If possible the first lesson should be in the field. Note
the habit of growth of the plant; a rather loose rosette close
to the ground. How many stems do you find in one rosette ?
Do the stems branch ? Where do you find the new shoots
appearing ? Is there any advantage to the plant in grow-
ing thus close to the ground with new shoots at the center ?
Bring out by discussion the chance this gives for the natural
coverings, leaves and snow, to protect the plant during the
winter. Note the arrangement of leaves and the number
of leaflets. Later compare with other clovers to deter-
mine whether this is a common characteristic of the clover
family. What special markings has the red clover leaflets ?
The light green spots. Look at the leaflets after sunset to

148 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

see if they remain in the same position as during the day-
light. Study the flowers. Are they arranged singly or in
clusters ? Have the pupils decide for themselves whether
or not a clover head is a single flower or a number of
flowers. Find the parts of one flower; compare with a
sweet pea flower. How many flowers do you find in one
head? Which flowers open first; those on the outside of
the head or those at the center ? Examine a number before
deciding. Examine some old faded flowers for the seeds;
where are they ? Does one flower produce more than one
seed? When should clover be mown to make good hay?
It should be cut just when the flowers are beginning to
fade. How does it compare with other kinds of hay?
The stems and leaves contain so much nutritious food that
it is considered one of the most important hay crops grown.
Will the plant produce a second crop? Does this second
crop produce flowers and seeds? The second crop is
frequently cut for the purpose of obtaining the seeds for
market or to sow a new plat next spring. How is the seed
obtained? By running the plants through a machine
something like a thresher, known as a clover huller.

Dig up a plant and study the root. Note size, length,
and branches. What advantage is this thick, long root
to the plant? What advantage to the soil? What else
do you find on the roots ? These small bodies are nodules
or tubercles. Where do you find the tubercles most nu-
merous ? Count the number on a small root. What are the
tubercles ? They are growths on the root caused by small
living organisms known as bacteria. These bacteria take
from the air in the soil the free nitrogen and act upon this
in the tubercles so that the plant can use it just as it can the

TYPICAL LESSON PLANS 149

more usual supply of soil nitrogen that enters through the
root hairs in solution in the soil water. From your study
of soils and the elements they contain that are used by
the plants in making foods, you know that nitrogen is often
lacking in the soil and that to supply it with commercial
fertilizers is an expensive thing to do. It is very much
cheaper to sow clover and let these bacteria gather the
nitrogen from the air and in this way give a fresh supply to
the soil.

Instead of harvesting the second crop of clover many
farmers plow it under. Why? Because the roots and
stems add nitrogen to the soil for other crops, and because
the leaves of the clover decay quickly and enrich the soil
by a fresh supply of humus. Have the pupils look for
other clovers in the neighborhood and bring in specimens
for study. Sweet clover and white clover will be found in
abundance and in some places alsike clover and alfalfa.
Note the characteristics common to these plants. Ex-
amine the roots to determine whether or not all have
nodules. Study the stem of the white clover. Note how
the plant spreads over an area. Why is it a good lawn
plant? Have grown in the school garden for a compara-
tive study a few specimen plants of other legumes than
clovers. Soy beans and cow peas should be grown as
they are often used instead of clover as nitrogen-fixing
plants.

BUMBLEBEES.— Eighth Grade

Problems. — What is the relation of bumblebees to red
clover? To what extent do these bees show division of
labor?

150 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

If the pupils study red clover in the field they will be
sure to find bumblebees. If they are quiet they will be !
able to get close enough to see what they are doing. Watch
a bee go over a head of clover. Where does it put its
tongue to get the nectar? Where is the nectar secreted
in the flower? Remove one of the flowers. Put the
lower tip of it in your mouth and you can taste the sweet
nectar at the base of the corolla tube. How far down
must the bumblebee thrust its tongue in order to procure
the nectar ? On what part of its body is it likely to collect
pollen ? Watch to see whether one bee visits several heads
in succession. Capture several bees for close observa-
tion. This may be done with an insect net, or by quickly
thrusting a pint Mason jar over a flower on which a bee is
feeding. Have the lid ready to put on the jar the instant
the bee is inside. Place the bees in a terrarium in the
schoolroom. Feed them on honey or sweetened water.
Place in a bottle of water several flowering stems of clover
or other flowers and set in the terrarium. The bees will
help themselves to the nectar. Pupils will be able to see
here better than out of doors how the tongue is used.
They can see this especially well when the bee is licking up
a drop of honey or sweetened water. Have pupils note the
covering of the body. Of what advantage is the hairy
covering in conveying pollen? Note the legs. Do the
last pair differ at all from the others ? Are there hairs on
the legs ? How many different things can you see the bee
doing with its legs ? Breathe gently on the bee and notice
how it uses its legs to clean its body. What is the color of
the wings ? How many wings ? How do they differ from
those of the honeybee? You can always tell a bumble-

TYPICAL LESSON PLANS 151

bee no matter how small it is by its brown, smoky wings.
Of what value is the bumblebee to the red clover ? It is
the chief agent in carrying pollen from one flower to
another. Without the bumblebees probably there would
be little pollination of the red clover, which would mean
great reduction in seed production.

There are many different species of bumblebees.
You can tell the difference chiefly by the size and color of
markings, some having much more yellow than others.
In habits and characteristics they are all similar. The pu-
pils should learn something of the division of labor among
them. They will be able to find the large drones and the
workers, possibly the queens. They may find a nest of
these bees and know that they live in hollows in the ground
or under brush piles. The nest of a field mouse is a com-
mon home of this bee. Only the queens live over winter.
In the spring each queen starts a colony. Having found
a suitable place for her home she gathers from flowers
quantities of pollen and some nectar. She mixes these
together and makes a pasty ball. On this she deposits
eggs, from five to twenty, which hatch into bumblebee
larvae. These feed upon the mass of pollen. When they
are grown up as larvae they spin cocoons and change to
pupae, and after about two weeks they emerge as grown-
up bees. All of the first brood are workers. They collect
pollen for the home, feed the young, and sometimes store
a little honey. The queen now gives most of her time to
depositing eggs. Late in the summer drones and queens
appear. The drones and workers die in the fall, but the
females seek a sheltered nook into which they creep and

spend the winter.
11

152 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

Following the lessons on the bumblebee their relatives
should be taken up for a comparative study. The charac-
teristics which place these insects in the same group should
be noted. Special attention should be given to the method
of caring for the young and the advance shown in division
of labor by the different families. Mud daubers, polistes,
hornets, honeybees, and ants should be taken up in order.

PART THREE
CHAPTER X

OUTLINE IN NATURE STUDY AND ELEMENTARY AGRI-
CULTURE FOR RURAL SCHOOLS

THE first part of this outline consists of topics for
the grades below the seventh. So far as possible, these
have been arranged in the order in which they may be
taken up for study. The second part includes topics for
lessons in elementary agriculture for the seventh and
eighth grades. This outline is followed by expanded treat-
ment of the topics which compose it.

FIRST PART

September

Propagation by cuttings: this should be done as early
as possible, so that the plants will get a good start before
cold weather.

Insects : select some that are of special interest from an
economic standpoint; others that are interesting in them-
selves; and help the children to understand the habits and
characteristics of all insects. Any of the following are good
types: grasshopper, cricket, tomato worm, woolly bear
caterpillar, butterflies, mud dauber, paper wasp.

Garden plants: nasturtium, sweet pea, morning-glory.

154 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

Birds: incidental observations, to be continued through
the year.

Fruits: peach, apple, pear.

October

Spiders: webs, egg cocoons, etc.

Weeds: kinds, characteristics, seed dissemination, etc.
Vines: morning-glory, grape^ etc.
Fall wild flowers, especially golden-rod.
Trees: incidental observation to be continued through-
out the year; special study of nut trees: planting of nuts.
Bulb gardening.

November

Garden plants that are still living: beet, parsnip, etc.

Forcing of bulbs.

Golden-rod galls: other galls that may be found.

Preparation of insects for winter.

Honeybees.

Effects of cold weather on plants, animals, and people.

December

Evergreen trees.

Winter birds: crow, jay, chickadee, hairy and downy
woodpecker; put up suet or bones to attract birds to the
schoolhouse.

Cat, dog, squirrel.

January

Field animals: rabbit, fieldmouse, gopher, ground
squirrel.

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE FOR SCHOOLS 155

Continue bird and tree study.
Weather: snow, sleet, and ice.

February

Domestic animals with special reference to their use and
care : horse, cow, sheep, pig.

March

Poultry: chickens, ducks, etc.
Early flowering trees.
Frog and toad eggs.
First migratory birds.
Condition of roads and fields.

April

Early wild flowers.

Small fruits : special study of strawberry and gooseberry.

Continue study of beets started in fall.

Life in water: water beetles and bugs.

Tree study with special attention to opening of buds,
care of trees; observation of Arbor Day.

Discuss making of flower beds and decide what seeds
to plant. Plant early varieties in school or house gardens.

Plant vines.

May

Continue planting seeds.

Life in water: dragon fly, mosquito, etc.

Set out geraniums kept over winter.

156 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

Study of birds that nest in the vicinity; of birds that
pass through here going farther north to nest.

Insect life in spring: ladybugs, moths, butterflies.

SECOND PART

Seventh Grade — Fall Term

Study of flowers with pollination and fertilization : corn
plant and flowers.

Plant breeding, with special reference to production of
the best types of corn.

Insects injurious to farm, garden, and fruit crops with
methods of combating.

Fungi, including fungous diseases of grains and other
plants.

Propagation by means of budding; making of a peach
tree.

Winter wheat.

Seventh Grade — Winter Term

Simple experiments in physics: evaporation and con-
densation; effects of heat on different substances; different
methods of heating bodies.

Application of physical principles to weather phe-
nomena.

Seventh Grade — Spring Term

Germination of seeds with experiments: testing seed
corn. (This may be done the latter part of the winter term
if desired.)

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE FOR SCHOOLS 157

Propagation by grafting: making of an apple tree;
apple culture in a region where apple raising is one of the
chief industries; compare pear culture.

Oats: seed testing, method of culture, varieties, etc.

Legumes: red clover, alfalfa, etc.; other forage plants.

Potato culture with experiments: this should be em-
phasized where potatoes form one of the staple crops.

Insects in connection with plants studied, such as
codling moth, cankerworm, bumblebee, potato beetle.

Eighth Grade — Fall Term

Plant products with experiments: simple experiments
in the elements of soil chemistry; elements used by plants
hrmanufacturing food products; compounds found in soil;
use of fertilizers.

Origin of soil.

Eighth Grade — Winter Term

Simple experiments in soil physics; porosity and capil-
larity; power to hold water; forms in which water exists in
the soil; air in the soil, etc.

Farm animals with methods of feeding, housing, etc.

Eighth Grade — Spring Term

Relation of plants to soil, air, and water with experi-
ments.

Work of plants in manufacturing, digesting, and storing
food.

Method of retaining the fertility of the soil.

Earthworm in relation to soil.

CHAPTER XI

SUGGESTIONS FOR RURAL SCHOOLS WITH CROWDED
PROGRAMMES

MANY rural teachers find lack of time one of the prin-
cipal obstacles to nature study work. The daily pro-
gramme is already full and local requirements may prevent
much alteration. But it is possible to do much profitable
work with nature subjects even under these conditions.
It need not involve encroachment upon time scheduled for
other work; instead it may prove a valuable adjunct for
other work, forming in some cases a center around which
other subjects may be grouped. It may be made to lend
new and attractive meaning to geography, to relate arith-
metic to actual needs in the lives of the children, and to
make possible a true interpretation of much of the reading.
It affords the best possible basis for written and oral ex-
pression. No other subject lends itself so readily to com-
position work. The pupils no longer look upon the writing
of compositions as drudgery, for they have something of
their own to write about, things they have seen and ob-
served and are interested in.

Nearly every school has a short period each day for
general exercises, a time when the minds of all the pupils
are to be centered upon the same thing. A portion of this
period may be used two or three times each week for nature

158

SUGGESTIONS FOR RURAL SCHOOLS 159

study; also an occasional recitation period in geography
and language.

Much of the observation may be done informally by
the children outside of school hours. The teacher will be
able to guide the observations along definite lines, and to
keep up the interest by skillful questions and suggestions.

To illustrate: On Monday morning say to the children
that you wonder how many things they can find out about
spiders this week. Give them a few definite suggestions,
such as, "notice in what different places you find spiders,
what they are doing, and where webs are made. How do
the webs differ from one another? Touch different parts
of a round web and note what happens," etc. On the next
day ask who has seen a spider since the day before. Let
one or two tell where they saw it. Give an additional hint
for observation, such as, " I wonder who noticed how many
legs a spider has ? " Do not let anyone tell them. Do not
take more than two or three minutes for this matter; just
enough to stimulate interest, and make the pupils eager to
see more. On Friday devote ten or fifteen minutes to the
discussion. Encourage each child to tell just what he has
found out. You probably will be surprised at the fund of
facts brought together and at the questions the children will
ask. If the interest warrants, carry the work on this day
over into the language period. Have the children tell on
paper some of the things they have learned.

Work conducted in this way is preferable, in some
respects, even to class work. Its greatest merit lies in the
fact that the children are working independently. Each is
seeing for himself, thinking for himself, and finding out his
own problems. Some will see more than others, of course,

160 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

because of natural ability and innate interest, but the slow-
est will see something and will be all the better equipped to
see more next time.

In some weeks, instead of having the entire school
working along the same lines, let one grade alone or two
grades together work up a special subject. Follow the
same general plan as that suggested above, except that two
or three minutes of a recitation period should be taken to
arouse interest and to keep it going. Toward the last of
the week use the geography or language period for reports
on observations.

The making of cuttings, bulb gardening, planting of
seeds, etc., may be done the last hour on Friday afternoon.
The work should be planned so that by division of labor
much may be accomplished in a short time. One group
may prepare the soil, another start to make the cuttings,
another get the water, and another take charge of placing
the cuttings in the propagation box. When the plants are
actually started their observation and care may be dis-
cussed as a general exercise topic.

Teachers should not feel that every subject treated in
this way must be rounded up to a finish. Indeed, no nature
study lesson can, in the true sense, ever be completed.
The children should be so guided that they will feel this,
and have a desire to go on finding out neW things, seeing
new relations, and solving new problems. Neither should
the teacher feel overwhelmed at the number of topics sug-
gested in the outline. She should not attempt too much,
but select a few lines of work that seem best adapted to the
needs of her children. She should realize that the main
purpose of the work is not to accumulate a great number of

SUGGESTIONS FOR RURAL SCHOOLS 161

facts, but to arouse the interest of the children in natural
objects, and to train them in accurate and independent
observation that they may appreciate and enjoy the world
of living objects with which they are surrounded.

Work in certain subjects, such as trees, birds, wild
flowers, and weather, may well begin at the first of the fall
term and be carried on throughout the school year. Re-
ports may be called for each week or fortnightly.

To illustrate: The teacher may state some morning,
when it happens to be true, "I saw a robin (or a meadow
lark, or a blackbird) this morning. I wonder if there are
many birds here now? Let us see what ones we can find
this week, where they are, and what they are doing." Ask
questions occasionally to keep the interest alive. When
the time for reports arrives let the children have ten or
fifteen minutes in which to talk about birds. The interest
is almost certain to be enthusiastic. In fact, a check on
excitement is sometimes desirable. A chart on which are
entered the names of birds seen each week by the children
is desirable.

CHAPTER XII

SUGGESTIONS FOR TREE STUDY

THE purpose of tree study in the grades, besides the
educational value that comes with the study of any living
object, is to lead the children to form the acquaintance of
the trees in the neighborhood, to learn how to protect and
care for them, and to appreciate the value of trees in the
industrial world and in their own lives.

For the beginning of the work select any tree that is
near the school building. If practicable, for the first
lesson take the children out to observe this tree. If not,
then ask the children how many know the name of the
tree standing at the corner of the yard? If they do not
know, tell them. Ask them to look at it closely, and tell
you to-morrow whether the trunk is smooth or rough,
whether it has many large branches, and whether the trunk
and branches are the same color. Do the branches spread
out or grow straight upward ? Does the tree make a good
shade ? What is the shape of the tree ? Stand off at some
distance and look at it. Is it round ? Is it wide at the bottom
and pointed at the top like a pyramid? Is it in the form of
a wide column, or is it shaped like an umbrella ?

The next day take a few minutes to discuss the observa-
tions of the children. Have a few twigs of the tree in the
schoolroom. Note how the leaves are arranged on the
twigs. Are they opposite or alternate. What is the shape

162

SUGGESTIONS FOR TREE STUDY 163

of a leaf? Lay the twig down on the table spreading the
leaves out ; do they overlap one another very much ? Stand
under the tree and look up. Do the leaves completely
screen the sky from your view ? Are there any leaves en-
tirely shaded by others? Are the stems of all the leaves
the same length? Where are the youngest leaves on the
twigs? How can you tell? Are all the leaves exactly
the same shape? Are they the same color on the upper
and under surface? Can you tell how much of the twig
has grown this year ? It will make an interesting exercise
to compare a number of different kinds of trees as to the
growth the twigs have made during the season.

Do you find anything else on the twig besides leaves ?
Where are the tiny buds situated ? We say when they are
situated between the leaf stem and the twig that they are in
the axil of the leaf. Is there a bud in the axil of every leaf ?
Is there a bud at the end of the twig ? What are the buds
for ? The tree, then, has been getting ready for next year.

Some of the trees will still have their fruit hanging on
them. Such are Norway maple, ash, hackberry, box-
elder, birch, catalpa, alder, sycamore, locust, and chestnut.
If these trees are selected for study, note where the fruit is
fastened to the twig and whether or not there is a cluster
of seeds. Have the seeds any special adaptation for dis-
semination ? Open up one of the so-called seeds to find the
true seed on the inside. If there are no seeds on the tree,
look on the ground for some that may have fallen off.
The sugar maple drops its fruit in the latter part of summer.
Have the children gather seeds of different kinds and plant
them.

Have the children look at home for trees of the same

1 64 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

kind that are studied at school. If you live in a prairie
region, start the children to investigate how the trees came
to be where they are. Try to discover the age of some
of the largest trees in the district. Who set them out ?
How many different kinds of trees are there in the dis-
trict? Are there any trees scattered about here and there
that were not set out by anyone ? Cotton woods, willows,
box-elders, and elms are frequently found along ditches or
fences or in the field. How did they come here ? Did the
children ever see any of the cotton with the tiny seeds
attached that fly from the cottonwoods and willows in the
middle of the summer?

If you live near a woods then study the native trees,
Select a special tree for the first detailed study, as an oak,
a hickory, or a beech. Note shape of the tree, method of
branching, appearance and color of bark. Is there more
than one kind of oak ? The shape of the oak leaves helps
to distinguish one kind from another. There are two
general shapes of oak leaves. One has the lobes rounded,
the other has lobes that are sharp and pointed. The
white bur and chestnut oaks have rounded lobes; while
black, red, pin, and scarlet oaks have pointed lobes.
Note the color of the leaves above and below. Are they
all equally smooth and shiny on both sides ?

Are there any acorns on the trees? Where are they
situated; on this year's twig or last year's? Have the
acorns stems or do they grow very close to the twig? Is
the saucer shallow or deep ? Open an acorn and see what
is inside. Are any of the acorns good to eat ? Those of
the white and chestnut oaks are relished by many people.
Plant some acorns.

SUGGESTIONS FOR TREE STUDY 165

Compare other nut trees with the oak. How many
different kinds can you find ? How are the different nuts
protected in walnut, hickory, and beech ? When do these
trees drop their nuts?

Compare trees that are growing close together with
others of the same kind that are standing at some distance
from other large trees. Why are the former more one-
sided than the latter ?

When the leaves of the tree begin to change color have
the children note the different colors. Does each kind of
tree have a special autumn color? Which ones are the
brightest? Why do the leaves change color? The
children will probably say, as they have heard others say,
that this is due to frost. But they should know that the
real reason is that the leaves have completed their work,
and that the green color fades or is replaced by the bril-
liant hues because the leaves are growing old and getting
ready to drop off.

When do the leaves begin to fall? Do some trees
finish their work and drop their leaves sooner than others ?
Do any of the trees retain their leaves after they are dry
and withered ? Does any of the fruit hang on over winter ?

At least once during the winter have the children note
the appearance of the special tree or trees studied in the
fall. Note the shape of the branches. Are the twigs
drooping or standing upright? Does this tree show any
tints of color now that could not be seen when the leaves
were on ? Can you see the buds on the twigs ?

In the spring continue the study. What do the side
buds make? The end buds? To answer this, watch the
development of the buds outside, or place twigs in glasses

1 66 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

of water in the schoolroom. Do any of the buds prove
to be flower buds? Any of the maples, elm, beech, or
box-elder are good to show the beauty of the tree flowers.
Note whether the maple and box-elder flowers all have
stamens and pistils. You will find the stamens in one
flower and the pistils in another. Watch for the develop-
ment of the fruit from the flower. The soft or white
maple and the elm both mature their seeds very early in
the spring. The elm fruit is ripe before the leaves are
fully developed. Make a special study of these seeds.
Plant some to see if they grow the first season. Why do
you find young elms along walks and 'fences ?

The uses of trees should constitute part of the work.
This may be coordinated with the geography work in the
study of lumbering, paper making, building, carpentry,
etc. Also the value of forests in soil making should be
considered.

Interesting topics for some of the older pupils to work
up are: What is being done to preserve our native forests?
What are the things that are destroying our forests? Tree
planting in prairie states. Arbor Day.

In connection with tree study Arbor Day should be
celebrated, and an effort made to set out a few shade trees
or shrubs on the school grounds. Let the children help to
decide what trees shall be planted. Some of them may
have growing about their homes seedling elms, maples,
box-elders, etc., that they will be glad to have trans-
planted to the school yard. Discuss where the trees
should be planted to give the best effect, and yet be out of
the way. If the grounds are large, a row of trees may be
planted across the back of the lot, a few along the sides,

SUGGESTIONS FOR TREE STUDY 167

and one or two in front. How to plant the trees should be
settled before attempting to set them out. Some points to
observe are the following: The hole should be large enough
to allow the roots to spread out to their full extent. It
should be deep enough so that the tree may stand three or
four inches lower than it did as a seedling. The roots
should be kept moist until ready to set in the ground.
Fine soil should be placed around the roots and packed in
carefully. As more soil is thrown into the hole, it should be
packed down firmly by tramping it with the feet. The last
two or three inches of soil should be fine and left loose to
help keep in the moisture. The soil should be moist, but
not wet. Most horticulturists believe that the trees do
better if not watered at the time of planting. The weeds
and grass should be kept down a few feet around the young
tree. Cultivation of the soil now and then by digging
around the tree not only gives a chance for the air and
water to enter the soil, but the frequent stirring of the soil
on top helps to retain the moisture.

Helpful Books and Bulletins: Our Native Trees,
Keeler; Familiar Trees and their Leaves, Mathews; Prac-
tical Tree Planting, Bulletin No. 27 of the United States
Division of Forestry; Farmers' Bulletins of the Department
of Agriculture, Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds,
No. 134; Forest Planting and Farm Management, No. 228;
Primer of Forestry, No. 173.

CHAPTER XIII

CUTTINGS

Problems. — (a) What is the best way to make successful
cuttings? (b) What are the advantages in propagating
plants by cuttings instead of seeds?

Materials Needed. — A few sharp penknives, a box
that may be set on the window sill (one the length of the
window and about six inches wide and five or six deep
will serve for a window box as well as a propagating box) ;
a common starch box or several chalk boxes will do if
the window box cannot be made. A few holes should be
bored in the bottom for drainage, and a couple of blocks
arranged on the window sill on which to set the box.
Place some clean fine sand in the box; soil will do if sand
cannot be obtained. Water the sand thoroughly and
firm it down with a flat piece of board. Make a groove
about an inch deep with an old caseknife. Your box is
now ready to receive the cuttings.

No plant is better to make successful cuttings from
than the geranium. If there are none growing on the
school grounds, some person in the neighborhood who has
plants will be glad to let you have a number of large
branches or entire plants from which to make cuttings.
Select the growing tip of a stem or branch. Cut it off
three or four inches in length just below a node or leaf.
Make one clean, horizontal cut, break off the lower leaves,

168

CUTTINGS 169

and trim the edges off the upper ones. Why is this done ?
Leave this as a problem.

Now place the cuttings in the groove made in the
propagation box. Place them an inch or more apart so
the leaves will have room enough to spread out and get the
light. When one groove is full, press the sand close to the
stem with your fingers. When all the cuttings are in,
water very thoroughly so that the sand will be washed up
close around the stems. Cover from the light for a day or
two with a paper. If the cuttings do not come to the top
of the box, a pane of glass laid over the top will keep the
moisture in and at the same time allow plenty of light.

In caring for the cuttings keep the sand moist, but not
wet. Allow them plenty of light after the first day, but
not direct sunlight. If a glass is used over the box, it
should be taken off for half an hour each day. Why?
Plants need air and this gives a chance for a fresh supply.

When the cuttings are well-rooted then comes the lesson
in transplanting. Have the children bring pots in which
they may place plants to take home. Baking-powder cans,
tomato cans, or small lard pails will serve just as well as
earthen flowerpots. With a nail make a hole in the bottom
of the can. What for? Have the children bring some
garden soil or get some from a field near by. You may use
this as it is or you may make an excellent soil for potted
plants by mixing thoroughly one part of the garden soil
with one-fourth part sand and one-fourth humus, well-
rotted leaf mold or well-rotted stable manure. Have the
soil just moist enough so that when you press a handful of it
together it will readily fall apart when dropped. Cover
the hole in the bottom of the can with a piece of brok

OFTH

i r- ri

NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

flowerpot concave side down, or place a few pebbles or
bits of broken crockery or brick in the bottom of the can.
Why do you do this?

An old caseknife or a small wooden paddle will be
found useful in removing the plants from the propagation
box. Fill the pot about half full of soil, then place the
plant in position in the middle, and hold it while you fill
in the soil around it. Press the soil down firmly with the
thumbs, water well, and set in a subdued light. After a
few days let the plant have plenty of light. Keep it well
watered, but do not allow the saucer or vessel that catches
the drainage to stand full of water. Why ? This will keep
the soil standing so full of water that it shuts out the
air and the roots need air to keep them alive.

Special Observations. — When making cuttings, place
three or four extra ones in the propagation box for ex-
amination. When time for transplanting comes, remove
the sand or soil from the ends of these to see what has
happened. Has the cut healed ? Gardeners say the stem
has formed a callus. If it does not form a callus, or heal,
it will not grow. Where have the roots come out on the
stem? Does it take some plants longer than others to
produce roots? Put in several different kinds and note
the time required. Why is it better to start cuttings in
sand or soil than in water? The plants may form a
callus and root in the water, but they are not as likely to
do well when transplanted. The roots must adjust them-
selves to entirely new conditions, and this they may not be
able to do at once and as a result the plant may die.

After the plants have been transplanted, watch the
appearance of new leaves. Where ? How does the stem

CUTTINGS 171

lengthen ? Where do new branches grow out ? How soon
do the flowers begin to make their appearance? Have
children report in regard to those they have taken home.

Let one pot remain with the same side toward the
window for a number of days. Turn the other pots every
day or two. Compare. This shows very well how plants
seek the light.

If no one can care for the plants in the schoolroom over
Saturday and Sunday fill the saucers with water Friday
night. This will provide enough moisture till Monday.
During the cold weather, if you have no cellar in which to
place the plants to keep them from freezing, make thick
covers of paper in the shape of cones and slip over the
plants, wrapping extra paper around the pots. In this
way you may keep your plants a number of weeks even in
very cold weather. Do not attempt to keep too many.

The following is a list of plants that are easily proga-
gated by means of cuttings: geraniums, coleus or foliage
plants, wandering Jew, salvia, impatiens or balsam, oxalis,
sultana, alternanthera, heliotrope.

The children will readily see the following advantages
of propagating by means of cuttings instead of seeds, (a)
They get quicker results; the plants are ready to flower in
half the time, (b) They are certain to get the same kind
of plant as the parent, while if seeds are used they may
get one color or variety when they expected another.

CHAPTER XIV

THE STUDY OF INSECTS

THERE are several good reasons why children of the
rural schools should become acquainted with the insect
life about their homes. Insects are so intimately con-
nected with the life and success of crops of all kinds that
it is much worth while for the children to know something
of the habits and life histories of these little creatures, to
recognize friends and foes, and to learn some of the ways
of combating the pests and increasing the numbers of the
beneficial ones. Aside from this practical value the study
is worth while from an educational standpoint.

It is best, except in a few cases, to study insects in
relation to some plant or plants that the children are in-
terested in.

A few simple pieces of apparatus will aid in the study.
Two or three pint, quart, and two-quart Mason jars, a few
flowerpots or small tin pails to hold soil, two or three large
lamp chimneys or lantern globes, and a wire cage or
terrarium, are desirable. The terrarium is easily made.
Get an inch board for the bottom; one about six inches
wide and two feet long makes a convenient cage to place
on a window sill. Saw out the corners, fit into each an
upright piece about fifteen inches high, nail these uprights
securely to the bottom, and then enclose the lower part of
this frame with boards about three inches high. Complete

172

THE STUDY OF INSECTS 173

the frame by nailing pieces of board to the top of the up-
rights. Cover the sides with wire screening, or mosquito
netting, and cover the top with a piece of board or panes of
glass.

A simple cage for some insects may be made from an
ordinary pasteboard shoe box. Cut rectangular pieces
out of the top and bottom of the box and replace these
with wire screening or mosquito netting. Tie a string
around the box to keep the lid on, stand it up on one side,
and you may watch the movements of grasshoppers,
katydids, etc. The grasshopper serves well as a typical
study.

Grasshoppers

The common short-horned grasshoppers of meadow
and roadside are good insects to begin with for the purpose
of getting the children acquainted with characteristics
common to all insects.

Problem. — Where do these grasshoppers live and how
do they move about?

Have the children notice the different places in which
they see these insects. Watch to see just how the insects
move out of the way. This may be left for reports from
individual observation, or it may be observed by the class
together in a field trip. It will not be difficult for the
children to see that the locomotion is a combination of
flight and hop. Where do they alight? Do they make
any effort to hide ? How does their color help to conceal
them?

Bring a few into the schoolroom. How do they move
about in the terrarium or cage ? How many legs have they ?

174 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

How do the hind legs differ from the fore legs ? Can you
find anything on the feet to keep the hopper from slipping
when he alights ? Where are the wings you saw when the
insect was flying? Gently lift the outer wings and note
the inner ones folded like fans underneath. What do
you think is the use of these outer wings ? Are they any
stronger or firmer than the inner ones ?

Problem. — What and how do grasshoppers eat ?

Where did the children find the insects? Was there
any food there? Place leaves of various kinds in the jars
with the hoppers. Do not have too many insects in one
jar. If you have them in a wire cage, place sprays of
grass, clover, etc., in a small bottle of water and set this in
the cage. How do the hoppers eat ? Let the children find
this out for themselves, even if it takes several days for
them to see the insects nibbling and chewing the leaves.

Let the children try an experiment to determine how
much one hopper will eat. Place one of the insects in a
jar, and with it a half dozen fresh blades of grass. How
many blades are left next morning ? Try it on other plants ;
clover leaves, corn, etc. Sprinkle some water on the
leaves and see if the hoppers like to drink.

Problem. — How does the grasshopper find out things?

Can it see you when you come near? Can you find
the eyes? What else do you see on the head? Try to
find out what it does with its horns or feelers. Does it
act as if it can hear ? If you raise the wings you may
see the ear spots on the back, one on each side.

Problem. — (a) When, wherey and how do grasshoppers
lay their eggs ? (b) How do young grasshoppers differ from
the grown-up ones ?

THE STUDY OF INSECTS 175

Have the children fill some of the Mason jars about a
third full of garden soil. Firm this down, and place one
or two female hoppers in each and feed them well. You
can identify the females by the four projections, the egg
placers or ovipositors, at the end of the body.

In time the hoppers will dig holes in the soil and place
their eggs in them. The children may or may not succeed
in catching the insects in the act, but they may dig up the
pods or packages of eggs. Have them find out how many
eggs in one package. Some grasshoppers lay as many as
three packages. Where do the grasshoppers out of doors
put their eggs ? When do they hatch ? Why is it that we
do not have more crops injured by grasshoppers since there
are so many eggs deposited ? Think of some of the things
that keep them in check; fall plowing, early spring plow-
ing, wet weather, which causes a disease, but, most of all,
birds. This is a good time to talk about some of the birds
that feed to a great extent upon grasshoppers. Such are
the meadow lark, quail, brown thrasher, bobolink, and
dick cissel.

While most of the young grasshoppers hatch from the
eggs in the spring, there are always a few young hoppers
to be found in the fall. Have the children search for these,
and compare them with the grown-up ones. What do
they lack that the grown-up ones have ? Are there any
beginnings of wings on their backs? It may be possible
to keep some of these till they molt and grow their wings.

How many different kinds of grasshoppers can the
children find? The little red-legged, the large dull-green,
the dusty-colored road hoppers are all plentiful.

Compare with these the long-horned grasshopper.

176 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

One of the most common of these is the meadow grass-
hopper which sits up on the stems of weeds, grasses, and
corn and sings all day long. Place a few of these in the
cage and let the children find out how they make their
music.

The crickets, also, make an interesting study in this
connection. To find out how they like to place their
eggs in cracks and crevices, place a lamp chimney on a
flowerpot full of soil. Let the chimney rest a very short
distance in the soil. Place the crickets inside the chimney,
feed them, and in time you will find they have placed their
golden eggs in the soil at the edge of the chimney.

Katydids and snowy tree crickets may be added to the
list of interesting hoppers. Cockroaches should be studied
in this connection if they are troublesome in any of the
homes.

Helpful Books and Bulletins: The Study of Insects,
Comstock; American Insects, Kellogg; Farmers' Bulletins:
United States Department of Agriculture; The Principal
Insects Enemies of Growing Wheat, No. 132; Principal
Insects Enemies of the Grape, No. 70; Three Insects Ene-
mies of Shade Trees, No. 99; The Honeybee; How Insects
Affect Health in Rural Districts, No. 155; The Principal
Household Insects; The Peach Twig Borer, No. 80; The
Control of the Codling Moth, No. 171; Insecticides and
Fungicides, No. 146; Annual Loss Occasioned by De-
structive Insects.

CHAPTER XV

PLAN FOR WEED STUDY

WEEDS may be studied either in the spring or fall
term. The study should be emphasized in the fall, chiefly
because many weeds are in flower and fruit at this season.

Ask the children to look in their gardens to see how
many different kinds of weeds are growing there, and to
bring two to school the next day. Select from those
brought in one of the most common, such as pigweed. Ask
what characteristics has this weed that make it so success-
ful. Have some of the children count the seeds on one
small stem and estimate the number of seeds on the plant.
What advantage is the great number of seeds to the plant ?
Think back to the middle of summer. Were any of these
plants prominent in your garden at that time ? Then you
thought you had all the weeds hoed out. Now you find
this tall plant with its seeds ripe. What does all this mean ?
It means that this weed makes a very rapid growth and
matures its seed in a very short time. Other advantages
may be pointed out, depending upon the weed under dis-
cussion.

Suggest to the pupils that they try to find out all they
can about weeds in their neighborhood during the next
two weeks. Have them keep a list of all they find, and
what they find out about them, noting especially where the
plants are growing, and what characteristics they have that

177

178 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

make them successful. If possible, have them record
whether the weeds are annuals, biennials, or perennials.
If these terms are new, there is no better place to explain
and illustrate this grouping of plants. Annuals are those
plants which grow from seed to seed each year, and die
away completely in the winter. Biennials require two years
to grow from seed to seed. Many common weeds are both
annual and biennial in habit. Those plants which persist
from season to season, indefinitely, by rootstock, or other-
wise, are called perennials.

Throw out hints occasionally that will keep up the
interest. How many seeds are you carrying around and
sowing when a burdock bur is fastened to your clothing ?
Why do you find some burdock plants growing in a green
rosette close to the ground, while others have tall stems
with small leaves and many burs ? What other weeds do
you find that show these same characteristics? Thistle,
wild parsnip, wild carrot, and mullein are familiar examples
of biennials.

Who knows how many seeds in one cocklebur? If
some of you find milkweed growing in a cornfield, dig
down and see if you can discover the secret as to why this
weed is hard to kill out when it gets a start. Try the wild
morning-glory in the same way. Why are dandelions and
plantain successful lawn weeds?

It will add much to the interest of weed study to have
the children make a collection of weed seeds; also of the
stems and leaves, where it is not practicable to bring in an
entire plant. The latter may be pressed and mounted.
The seeds may be placed in envelopes or bottles. Small
vials may be purchased at little expense, or brought from

PLAN FOR WEED STUDY 179

•

home. The value of such a collection lies not so much in
the collection itself as what the children gain in its making.
When the bottles are all in, have the children group them
according to places in which the weeds grow, as garden,
field, lawn, vacant lot, and roadside weeds. The seed may
also be grouped into annuals, biennials, and perennials.

At the end of the two weeks have reports made by the
children as to the weeds they have found, and what they
know about them. If the interest has been kept up, the
children will ask all sorts of intelligent questions. Follow
this with a discussion of why we consider weeds a nuisance,
or why they are detrimental to field and garden crops.
The discussion will probably bring out the facts that the
weeds shade some of the young plants; that they rob the
plants of moisture and sometimes of plant foods; that many
of them are coarse, homely plants that we do not wish to
have around; that weeds with burs are exceedingly an-
noying to animals, etc. Now ask the children to think of
all the various means used to get rid of the weeds. Bring
this up for discussion another day, and at the same time
give the older children some problems to think out.
Which are easier to get rid of, annuals or perennials?
Why do you find chiefly annuals in the gardens and peren-
nials in the lawn and pastures? Why can some weeds
stand drought better than others?

In the spring many interesting experiments may be
worked out with weed seeds. Use some of those collected
in the fall. Have the children arrange a number of tin
cans with drains and fill with good garden soil. Plant a
few seeds in each. Keep a record of number planted and
date of appearance above the ground. Note rapidity of

180 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

growth. Do all the seeds germinate at the same time?
After two or three weeks, pull up some of the weeds, such
as pigweeds and purslane. Do others now germinate and
grow ? Plant some cocklebur seeds that have been kept
in the house all winter and some that have been left out
of doors. Note results.

List of Some Common Weeds

Garden: Pigweed, amaranth, or careless weed *; purslane *;
foxtail grass x; crab grass l; smart weed *; horse weed or colt's
tail *; lamb's quarter *; spotted spurge.1

Field: Mustard *; cocklebur *; Russian thistle *; tumble
weed x; butter print or velvet leaf *; shepherd's purse; milk-
weed 3; wild morning-glory3; bindweed or wild buckwheat1;
Canada thistle3; corn cockle2; ragweed1; wild lettuce or
prickly lettuce *; wild oats x; pigeon weed or corn gromwell x;
sorrel or sour weed 3; fleabane 3; quack grass.3

Meadow: Pasture and lawns; wild carrot 2; wild parsnip 2;
sow-thistle 2; foxeye daisy; yellow or bitter dock 3; iron weed 3;
plantain 3; dandelion 3; mullein.2

Waste lands and roadsides: Burdock 2; dog fennel *; Spanish
needles *; giant ragweed 1; jimson weed *; button weed.2

Farmers' Bulletins: Weeds and How to Kill Them,
No. 28; Weeds Used in Medicine, No. 188.

1 Annuals. ' Biennials. 3 Perennials.

CHAPTER XVI

STUDY OF WEATHER

NOTHING in nature is more closely related to our
lives than weather and weather phenomena. For this
reason some time should be spent in making weather
observations, drawing conclusions, and noting effects of
weather on plant and animal life.

To bring about the best results, the study should be
continued through several months. The work may well
begin in September and be conducted as a general exercise,
but the seventh-grade pupils should be responsible for
seeing that the observations are recorded.

Start the work by asking the pupils what the term
weather means to them. The discussion will no doubt
bring out ideas of heat, rain, drought, snow, cold, clouds,
winds, storms.

In many localities September is one of the driest
months in the year. This being the case, make the first
observation in connection with drought. Start with the
problem, what is the effect of dry weather on plant life?
Ask the children to look at the plants in the garden.
What plants are best able to stand dry weather ? Which
ones are least able to stand it ? Observe the plants in the
lawn, in pastures, cornfields, oats stubble, meadows, and
roadside. Why are some of these plants able to keep
green and vigorous while others are dry and withered ?

181

182

NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

It will, of course, be impossible for the children to find
out for themselves all of the characteristics that help plants
to withstand drought; but they will be able to discover
some of the things. Dig down to find what kind of roots
the plants have that look the freshest, such as clover and
dandelion. Compare these with the roots of some that
are the most withered. Examine the leaves. Do you
find any with hairy or woolly structures that might protect
them from the heat ?

Very early in the term begin keeping a record of daily
observations of weather conditions. If there is not enough
blackboard to reserve a permanent space for the record,
procure a sheet of brown manila paper or bristol board
and make a chart by ruling off a table like that indicated
below. At the beginning of each week, appoint two of
the seventh-grade pupils to see that the record is put in
each day. If the work is not conducted as a general ex-
ercise for the entire school, then the seventh-grade pupils
may keep their own records in notebooks.

WEATHER RECORD

Date.

Hour.

Temper-
ature.

Wind
Direc-
tion.

Veloc-
ity.

Sky.

Precipita-
tion or
rainfall.

Remarks.

Sept. 15

9A.M.

Warm,

Light

Partly

Heavy thunder

65°

cloudy

shower this P.M.

These observations may be taken without instruments.
However, if the school has a thermometer, then the tem-
perature should be recorded in degrees. For tempera-

STUDY OF WEATHER 183

are the terms warm, hot, very hot, cool, cold, very cold,
and chilly may be used. The direction of the wind
may be indicated by an arrow. An arrow pointing
toward the top of the chart indicates a wind which is
traveling north. Is a wind named from the direction
it is going, or the direction from which it is coming?
What is meant by velocity of the wind? The follow-
ing terms are in use by the United States Weather
Bureau: calm, when there is no perceptible wind; light,
just moving branches; brisk, swaying branches; high,
swaying whole trees.

Under sky, record whether it is clear, partly cloudy,
or overcast.

Precipitation means falling weather of any sort, rain,
sleet, snow, etc. Under remarks, record any item of
interest that does not appear under the other headings.
Thus, for September isth, a heavy shower this afternoon,
or, for September i6th, a slight frost last night.

At the end of each month have the pupils make a short
summary derived from their observations. How many
fair days? How many cloudy? How many in which
there was precipitation ? What was the general direction
of the wind for the month ? What was the direction of the
wind when the temperature was warmest? When the
temperature was coldest? From what direction did the
rain come? From what direction did the snow come?
What was the direction of the wind during the cloudy
weather?, etc.

Have them note other relations. Is a cloudy night
warmer or colder than a clear night? You often hear

people say in the early fall : "If it clears it will freeze to-
13

184 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

night." Can you see why this is true? After you have
studied radiant heat, you will understand better how
the clouds act as a screen to keep the heat close to
the earth. Which seems colder, a windy day or a calm
one ? Why ?

After the first hard frost ask the children to note the
effect it has had upon plant life. If there are some plants
near the schoolhouse that show the effects well, make a
study of these, or, if that is impracticable, bring into the
schoolroom a few that are badly nipped and some that are
not hurt and call attention to the difference. Have the
children report on the garden plants that can stand the
frost best, and those that are easily killed. Continue this
observation at intervals during the fall and winter. Are
there any plants that remain green over winter? Note
clover, blue grass, thistle, dandelion, mullein. The last
named makes a most interesting winter study. Observe
how wonderfully the leaves are protected.

What is the effect of cold weather on insect life ? Do
the grasshoppers continue to live? Keep eyes open for
living insects. Some time you may find in the middle of
winter a house fly, a cricket, or even a tiger caterpillar that
have crept out of their winter quarters too soon.

Spend a little time discussing what effect the weather
has on ourselves; effect of cloudy weather, fair, cold, hot,
etc. Have the children think of all the different things
we do to protect ourselves from the weather, such as the
preparation of shelter, houses, clothing, the making of
fires, etc.

The seventh-grade pupils may well learn something of
the work of the Weather Bureau, with a study of weather

STUDY OF WEATHER 185

maps. These will be sent to any teacher who will use
them. Apply to the Weather Bureau office at your state
capital.

Helpful books: Weather, Barber; Practical Exercises in
Meteorology, Ward.

CHAPTER XVII

BULB GARDENING

EVERY rural and village school may have a bulb garden,
even though a small one. One of the first things to consider
is the kind of bulbs to plant. Tulips are perhaps the most
satisfactory if we are to have but one kind. Narcissuses,
crocuses, and hyacinths are good also and easily grown.

The next question to settle is, where shall the bulbs be
planted ? If there is a walk leading from the schoolhouse
door to the road, then a long bed not more than two feet
wide may be made on each side of this walk. If the coal
shed stands in a suitable place a bed may be made at the
side or end of it. If there are shrubs on the grounds,
nothing is prettier than a bed of tulips, crocuses, or hya-
cinths blossoming with these as a background.

An indoor lesson on bulbs should precede the planting.
If you have several kinds, compare them as to size and
shape. What is a bulb? Look closely at a tulip. It
resembles an onion. If we should cut it open we should
find that it is like an onion on the inside, made up of layers.
Can you tell which end will produce roots? What will
grow from the other end? The bulb is really an under-
ground stem. Do you find any little bulbs (bulblets)
fastened to the large ones ? This is the way new bulbs are
formed. If these bulblets are set out they will not blossom
for two years.

186

BULB GARDENING 187

The bulbs like rich, mellow soil. If you have a heavy
clay soil, have some of the older pupils suggest how it may
be made more mellow; by mixing with it some humus
(decayed vegetable matter). Nothing is better than well-
rotted material from around the barn. Some farmer who
is interested will haul you a little of this fertilizer some day
when he is going past the schoolhouse. Let the pupils
prepare the bed. Throw out the top soil to the depth of
six or eight inches. Put the fertilizer in to the depth of
two inches and spade this into the soil. Now throw back
not quite half of the top soil. Set the bulbs firmly in this,
about eight inches apart. Let every child plant at least
one bulb. Now throw in the rest of the soil. The bulbs
should be covered with four to six inches of soil. Another
way to plant the bulbs is to prepare the bed by digging,
putting in fertilizers, and raking till it is in good con-
dition. Cut off about nine inches from the upper part
of an old spade handle, and sharpen this or sharpen any
round stick. You now have an instrument with which
you can make holes in the bed. Into these holes drop the
bulbs and cover with soil.

What do you expect the bulbs to do this fall ? Where
is the ground warmer this time of year, six inches below
the surface or near the top ? Which part of the plant will
be likely to grow ? What we want the plant to do is to
make a good root growth this fall. Why do we not want
the upper part of the bulb to grow until spring ? We want
the roots to get a good start, for only the bulbs with good
roots will produce good flowers.

When the top layer of soil is frozen hard, then we must
cover up our bulb beds. Straw, leaves, or cornstalks may

1 88 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

be used for this. It should be four to six inches deep.
What is this done for ? It is to keep the temperature even,
so the ground will not thaw out and freeze again when the
weather changes. In early spring, will the ground under
the straw thaw out as soon as uncovered soil ? Will this
keep the plants from starting to grow early in the spring ?
This is what we want. If they were left uncovered the first
warm weather would start the plants to growing so rapidly
that they would be likely to get nipped by the later frosts.

The cover should be taken off gradually early in April.
It should all be off before the shoot appears above the
ground. When does the first bud appear? Watch the
growth and development of the shoot. How many leaves
has it? How do they unfold? Where does the flower
stem appear ? How long after the bud appears above the
ground until the plant is in flower ?

When the leaves begin to die, the bulbs may be dug up
and kept in a dry place for the summer. If you wish to
make a permanent bed plant the bulbs an inch or two
deeper. When the leaves begin to die, cut them off.
Seeds of annuals may now be planted in the bed without
injuring the bulb in any way.

If the making of bulb gardens does not seem practicable,
the growing of bulbs need not be given up altogether.
They may be planted in pots or cans and made to bloom
in the house any time during the winter or early spring.
Even if bulbs are planted out of doors, every school should
try to force a few bulbs for winter blooming.

Tulips, hyacinths, and narcissuses are all good bulbs
for forcing. The bulbs should be planted the latter part
of October or early in November. Prepare the soil as you

BULB GARDENING 189

would for transplanting cuttings. Place drains in the pots
or cans. Fill the pot a little over half full of soil and set
in the bulb. Now put in more soil till the top is just below
the surface. If you have a large pot or tin pail several
bulbs may be planted together. After planting, water till
you are certain that all the soil is thoroughly moistened.

[What do you want these bulbs to do first? Just what
they do in the outdoor beds, grow roots. In order to
make them do this we must put them in a cool, dark place.
We call this forcing the roots. The pots may be placed
in a cool cellar and covered up with a heavy box or other
object. They may be placed in a shallow hole in the
ground and covered with about three inches of soil. In
this case a thick covering of straw or leaves will prevent the
freezing of the soil so the pots may be easily removed in
the middle of winter. They may be set on the ground
along the north side of the coal shed or other buildings and
covered up with ashes. They should be left in this cool
place at least six weeks. They may be left much longer
and brought in one or two at a time as desired.

When you bring them in carefully remove one from
the soil so the children may see what has taken place.
From what points did the roots start? Are there many
roots ? What is the length of the longest ones ? Has the
shoot started to grow? What color is it? Could the
roots and shoot grow without food ? Where did they get
the food to live on ? A little discussion will bring out the
fact that some of the food stored up in the thick bulb was
used for this growth.

At first the pots should be kept in the coolest part of
the room and covered from the intense light. If the school-

190 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

room has an entry or hall that is not kept as warm as the
main room, this will be a good place to keep the plants for
several days. After this bring them into the room where
they may have plenty of light and heat, and where the
development of the leaves and flowers may be watched.

The Chinese sacred lily or the paper-white narcissus
bulb may be grown without forcing the roots, and without
soil. These are excellent bulbs for schoolroom study.
Fill a dish with small stones and support the bulbs in these.
Keep the dish full of water. The bulbs will develop and
open up their beautiful blossoms in about six weeks.

Have the children watch the development of the roots
and their growth among the stones. Which start first, the
roots or the leaves? Watch the unfolding of the leaves.
How many from one bulb ? How rapidly do they lengthen ?
Where are the flower buds situated ? Watch the stretching
up of the flower stems and the unfolding of the flower buds.
How many flowers on one stem? Do all open at one
time? How long do they stay in flower? Feel the bulb
after the plant has been in flower some time. Does it feel
as solid as when you planted it ? Why ? Allow the plant
to stand till the leaves begin to die. Now feel the bulb.
Has it become solid again ? It has been storing up more
food for the new plant next year.

Encourage the children to force bulbs at home for
winter and early spring blooming.

CHAPTER XVIII

STUDY OF WILD FLOWERS

FLOWERS appeal to children more than some other
forms of nature. Sometimes we feel that they do not
always appeal in the best way. Often there seems to be
a desire on the part of children to pluck every flower in
sight, carry it about a short time, and then throw it down
to wither with its fellows.

The special purpose of this work should be to lead the
children not only to appreciate more fully the beauty of
the wild flowers, but to enjoy seeing them as they appear
in their natural surroundings. This does not mean that
no wild flowers should be gathered by the children. The
gathering of flowers and placing them in glasses of water
in the schoolroom or house is certainly one of the pleasures
that should not *be denied. But the feeling that every
blossom must be plucked and perhaps torn to pieces before
it can be appreciated should be repressed.

Nothing is so likely to bring about this attitude of
mind toward the flowers as to make a study of them in their
natural haunts, with observations of their development
from bud to seed.

If a school building is situated near the woods, the
wild- flower study should be emphasized in the spring; if
in a prairie region, then the emphasis should be placed on
the autumn flowers. This does not mean, however, that

191

192 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

children of all schools remote from woodland should have
no opportunity of becoming acquainted with the woodland
blossoms. If woods are within six or eight miles of the
district, somebody may make a Saturday trip and bring
into the schoolroom specimens of a few common spring
flowers.

The general problem to solve in connection with spring-
flower study is, How do these plants manage to open up
their flowers and leaves so early?

Have the children watch for the earliest spring flower.
In most localities this is the hepatica, that blossoms
almost before the last snow has melted. It bears a delicate
blue, pink, or almost white flower with a fuzzy stem.
Have the children note where the hepaticas are to be
found. Do they seem to like hillside slopes, or flat, level
situations ? Are there any leaves on the plant ? Are they
this year's or last year's leaves? Where are the flower
stems attached to the plant, in the middle or around the
edges? Look carefully down among the old leaves near
the ground. What do you find? What are the buds
covered with ? Is there any advantage in this thick, fuzzy
covering ?

When do the first leaves appear? Are there any
flowers left at this time ? Notice the leaves that come out
later. Have they as thick a coat of fuzz as the early ones ?
What do you find now in* place of the flowers? Does one
flower produce more than one seed ? How many ? When
are the seeds ripe ? How are the seeds scattered ?

Does the plant die after it has matured its seeds?
Mark several plants in the woods by placing a stake near
them, and, if possible, continue the observation in the fall,

STUDY OF WILD FLOWERS 193

or, if preferred, the work may begin in the fall. Is the
plant still alive ? Are any seeds left on it ? The plant has
sown the seeds chiefly by aid of the wind. Bend down the
leaves and look carefully in the center of the plant close to
the ground. Can you find any preparation for the early
spring blossoming ? All summer the plant has been getting
ready for the early awakening next year. Its buds are all
formed and packed away in the furlike covering. Note
how late in the season the leaves remain green. Is this
a hardy or tender plant?

Hepaticas and other spring flowers may be easily trans-
ferred to the schoolroom for study. Dig up the soil at
some distance around and under them so the roots will
not be disturbed in the least. Set them in a dish or pan
with a little additional soil. Keep them moist and you will
be able to preserve them in good condition for several
weeks. When you are through with the study, what will
you do with them? One thing be sure not to do, and that
is to let them wither and die on your hands. Why not
start a wild-flower garden in a corner of the school yard?
If you have shrubs in the yard, place the plants near these.
If it does not seem practicable to start a wild-flower garden
on the school grounds, suggest to the children that they take
the plants and set them out at home. Many of the children
will be delighted to start a wild-flower garden of their own.
Try to have them imitate, so far as possible, the natural
conditions in which the plants grow, especially as regards
shade and moisture.

Watch for the succession of spring flowers. The blood
root, with its kidney-shaped leaves and pure white flower,
is an excellent specimen to study in order to see how the

1 94 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

buds come up and gradually unfold. The spring beauty
is as good a type as the hepatica with which to follow the
development through the entire term. The same outline
may be used for this, varying a little to fit the characteristics
of the plant. Place a few of the spring beauties in a glass
of water in the sunshine. After a time, remove them to a
dark corner or turn a box over them to cut off the light.
What do they do? Have the children who have any of
these growing near their homes watch them as night ap-
proaches. Can they find other flowers that close at night ?
Dig up a spring beauty. Be sure that you get all that is in
the ground. You may have to go down four or five inches.
What do you find at the end ? This tuber which is like a
small potato has in it stored-up food. What is the use of
the food? What two things do these plants do every
summer to get ready for the next year ? Make buds and
store food.

The violet is a good plant to study for the thick root-
stock which contains food, so is the trillium, the mandrake,
or May apple. The dog tooth violet and adder's tongue
have interesting bulbs from which they send up their pretty
mottled leaves. Other common spring plants worth
knowing are shooting star, buttercups, wild geranium,
anemone, Jack-5n-the-pulpit, bellwort, Solomon's seal,
blue bells, Dutchman's breeches, and toothwort.

The autumn flowers are not, as a rule, so attractive to
children as the spring flowers. However, they are worth
studying, and, like many other things, the better they are
known the more attractive they become.

In many prairie localities where the ground is all under
cultivation, only a few remnants of the fall flowers are to

STUDY OF WILD FLOWERS 195

be found. These are located mostly in corners of fields,
along roadside and ditches, and in swampy places. The
most common of these are the purple and white asters, the
wild sunflower, rosin weeds, blazing star, butterfly weed,
black-eyed Susans, and golden-rods.

How do the fall flowers differ from the spring as to
height? As to size of leaves, number of leaves? What
are the prevailing colors of fall flowers ?

A study of the cultivated sunflower of the garden may
well precede the study of the autumn flowers. Is the sun-
flower one flower or a cluster ? It is easy to see that it is
composed of numerous small flowers grouped to form a
flat head. Are all the flowers the same shape? Those
on the outside with the yellow strap are called ray flowers.
Those smaller ones with little tubular corollas are called
disk flowers. Can you find stamens and a pistil in one
tiny flower? Compare a wild sunflower with a garden
one. Has it the same kind of flowers ? The rosin weed ?
Black-eyed Susan?

The golden-rod may be studied in detail. Where is
this plant found growing? How tall is it? How are the
leaves arranged on the stem? Are there many or few
leaves ? Are the leaves soft or rough ? Examine leaves
of other autumn plants for this quality. Does the stem
branch ? Where are the flowers ? Has this plant a head of
small flowers like the sunflower ? Are the heads clustered ?
By looking closely, the children will see that the spray of
golden-rod is made up of small, loose heads and that each
of these is made up of very tiny florets. Note how very
small the single flowers are.

Notice the plant when the flowers have faded. What

196 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

has taken the place of the flowers ? What is the use of this
feathery mass? Can you find one seed with the tuft of
hairs or plume attached to it? How late do the seeds
remain on the plant? Does the entire plant die in the
fall? The pupils will not be able to answer this from
present observation, but they may from past experience.
Have they noticed whether the golden-rod appears in the
same spot year after year ? While they die down to the
ground every winter, the underground part remains alive
for many years. Is there more than one species of golden-
rod in the district?

Make a comparative study of the asters. Much of the
observation for these studies may be made as the children
are on their way to and from school.

Helpful Books: How to Know the Wild Flowers, Dana;
Field Book of American Wild Flowers, Mathews; Flowers
of Field, Hill, and Swamp, Creevey.

CHAPTER XIX

LIFE IN WATER

No phase of nature work affords more real enjoyment
as well as profit than a study of the various forms of life
found in water. The nearness of the schoolhouse to a
pond or stream must determine largely how much time
may be spent in leading the children to form the acquaint-
ance of aquatic plants and animals.

If water is near by, then the bulk of the observation
should be made out of doors. Note what plants are grow-
ing near the pond or stream. Are there any plants grow-
ing in the water ? Study some special one. Are the stems
thick or thin ? The leaves large or small ? Do the plants
stand up straight ? Are they stiff enough to stand upright
when you take them out of the water? Are the roots
anchored in the soil at the bottom of the pond ? Do you
find any plants floating in the water ?

You may find a tiny plant with roundish leaves and a
few roots dangling from beneath. This is the duckweed.
Sometimes there are so many of these growing that they
completely cover large areas of the pond. You will find,
also, long green strings of algae or pond scum. These
interesting plants have neither leaves nor roots.

Do you see any animals in the water ? You may find
the water striders or skaters, slender bugs with very long
legs, that skim orver the water as easily as boys and girls

197

198 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

slide on ice. On the surface you may find, also, the shiny
black whirligig beetles. These whirl round and round,
sometimes a large number of them together. You wonder
how they keep from bumping into one another every
minute as they circle around. Have the children keep
very. quiet as they look down into the water for animals.
They may find a few fish or frogs. Among the insects
they may see the interesting water boatmen, and the more
interesting back swimmers that glide around in the water
always with their backs downward. They may catch a
glimpse of the giant water bugs and the large black water
beetles. They will, without doubt, see the dragon and
damsel flies hovering over the water and settling down novv
and then upon a reed or grass stem.

Have the children watch to see what all these little
creatures are doing. Call for occasional reports on what
they have seen going on in and about the water.

If water is not near enough to admit of the outdoor
observations, then arrange an aquarium or several aquaria
in the schoolroom, where the habits and activities of the
water animals may be studied. Indeed, an aquarium is a
great aid to detailed study even when the out-of-door ob-
servation may be made. At the same time nothing affords
the children more genuine pleasure.

An aquarium may be made with little expense. Hodge,
in Nature Study and Life, gives directions for making
a cheap, substantial aquarium, somewhat as follows:
Decide on the size aquarium you want. It is not best to
make a very large one. Better have two small ones than
one large one. One ten inches long, eight inches high,
and five wide is a fair size for the ordinary schoolroom.

LIFE IN WATER 199

For this you will need two pieces of glass for the sides
10 X 8 inches, two for the ends 8X5, and the bottom one
10 X 5. Go to a tinner and have him make you a frame
out of angle tin to fit the glass plates.

Make aquarium cement by using eight parts by weight
of dry putty, one part red lead, and one part litharge.
Mix as wanted for use with pure raw linseed oil to the
consistency of stiff putty. To set the glass, first put on the
cement evenly all around the bottom of the frame, and
then press the glass into place. Put in the sides and ends
in the same way. Carefully put a few very limber, green
twigs into the aquarium to hold the glass in place until the
cement hardens. Cut off all the superfluous cement and
smooth neatly along the seams and angles. The aquarium
should stand at least a week to become thoroughly dry
before putting water into it.

While the aquarium described above will be found very
convenient, aquatic animals may be studied in jars of
various kinds. Candy, butter, and Mason jars are good
substitutes for more elaborate aquaria. Cheap glass
dishes that can be purchased for ten or fifteen cents serve
very well for certain aquatic animals, such as the water
bugs, beetles, and young dragon flies.

In arranging an aquarium that is to be kept perma-
nently, a good rule to follow is to make conditions as nearly
like those of the pond as possible. Let the children help
to decide what to put into it. A few inches of sand in the
bottom, a few stones, and a little of the decaying matter
found in the bottom of the pond with some of the water
plants makes a good home for any of the animals named
above. Let the children decide also what animals they

14

200 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

wish to put into the aquarium. Do not overstock. Be
careful not to put some of the fierce insects, such as cybis-
ter beetles, in the same jar with small ones.

Water bugs, whirligig beetles, and water boatmen may
all be kept for some time and studied in detail. Feed these
on bits of fresh meat, liver, or fish food.

In the spring the dragon fly is a most interesting
specimen for study. Have the children watch the insects
flying around. How many wings have they? How do
they hold them? What are they doing as they fly through
the air so hurriedly ? They are feeding upon insects which
they catch as they fly. They are sometimes called mosquito
hawks, because they catch and eat so many of these" annoy-
ing insects.

With a long-handled dipper or a garden rake scoop up
from the bottom of a pond some of the dead leaves and
trash. The latter part of April, or first of May, is a good
time to do this. You will find some peculiar-looking dark
insects among the trash. Have a jar or pail of water close
by and put them into it. These are young dragon flies.
They are called nymphs. Put a few of these into your dish
or aquarium. Feed them on earth worms or bits of fresh
meat. Put a small quantity of the pond trash in the dish.
This may contain small insects which will serve as food.
Raise some mosquito larvae as indicated at the close of the
chapter. See if the nymphs will eat these. How do the
nymphs move about? Do they swim as well as crawl?
How many legs have they ? Have they any wings ? Look
for wing pads on their backs. Can you see their eyes?
Do not feed them for a few hours, then put a small bit of
fresh meat on the end of wire and move this about before

LIFE IN WATER 2OI

them. Watch how they get hold of the meat. Keep a
piece of netting, or wire screening, over the aquarium.
Place a few upright sticks in the aquarium.

Some morning you will find, instead of a black, crawling
bug, a beautiful dragon fly in the aquarium. What did the
nymph do when it got ready to change to the grown-up
insect? Did it stay in the water? Look at the nymph
skin. How did the dragon fly get out? Look on stems
of water plants in ponds for the cast-off skins of dragon
flies. Look closely at the mature insect. Can you see its
eyes? Are they large or small? Why are large eyes an
advantage to it as it gets its food in the air? Where are
its legs; near its head or far back on the body? The legs
are used to help in catching and holding the prey. The
dragon fly really makes a basket out of its legs in which it
carries its dinner.

When the wings are thoroughly dry, remove the cover
from the aquarium and watch while the insect lifts itself
on its new wings and flies away. By what other names are
dragon flies known? Snake doctor, snake feeder, and
devil's darning needle.

Another interesting aquarium study is the development
of toads and frogs from the eggs. The eggs may be found
in ponds and pools in early spring. Frog's eggs are in
masses of white, jellylike material fastened usually to
sticks or other objects in the water. Toad's eggs are in
long ribbonlike strings of the same jellylike material. As
with all other specimens in the aquarium, care should be
taken not to have too many of the little tadpoles in the
same jar.

Goldfish are easily kept in the schoolroom and may

202 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

well be studied in detail in connection with the study of
fisheries in g^graphy.

The *lx nistory of the mosquito may easily be worked
out either in the spring or fall. Set a jar or pail of rain
water out of doors where it will not be disturbed. The
mosquitoes will find this and deposit their eggs in it. By
looking every morning you may be able to find the eggs
like bits of soot floating on the water. If you do not suc-
ceed in finding the eggs before they hatch, you will be able
to find the wrigglers that hatch from them. Put a num-
ber of these in jars or tumblers and have the children
watch from day to day and report on what they see.
After a few days keep a cover over the top of the jar to
prevent the escape of the full-grown mosquitoes.

CHAPTER XX

RURAL SCHOOL GARDENING

EVERY rural school should carry on some phase of
garden work, if nothing more than window gardening for
a portion of the year. If there is enough available space
for a small garden the work may be grouped into three
classes: (a) That which includes the propagation and
culture of ornamental plants; (b) experimental work in
growing farm and garden crops; (c) the culture of a few
industrial plants not commonly raised in the vicinity of
the school.

The ornamental plants are perhaps of the greatest im-
portance to the country schoolchildren. The educational
and aesthetic value of having a few flowering plants and
shrubs on the school grounds cannot be overestimated.
The work may well begin in the fall with the making of
cuttings and bulb gardening.

The question of where to place the plants so that they
may not infringe upon the playground of the children is not
always easy to answer. As suggested in the lesson on
bulbs and bulb gardening, a narrow bed may be arranged
on each side of the walk. If tulips are planted here in the
fall they may be replaced by geraniums in the spring or by
annual-flowering plants. If there is a fence around the yard,
then the back fence will form an admirable background
for the main flower bed. Dig the bed about three or four

203

2O4

NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

feet wide in front of the fence. Close to the fence plant
seeds that produce high plants, such as cosmos or tall
nasturtiums that will run up over the fence, golden glow,
princess feather, or four-o'clock. In front of the tall plants
put in several rows of lower plants, and in front of this a
low border plant.

Hardy plants that can stand drought fairly well should
be chosen. Nothing makes a prettier border plant than
sweet alyssum. It requires little care and continues to
bloom until after heavy frosts. Other good border plants
are portulaca, California poppy, and candytuft. For the
middle portion of the bed, sweet scabious, gaillardia,
phlox, cornflower, ageratum, low nasturtium, petunia,
marigold, larkspur, and balsam are all good.

Some attention should be given to harmony of color.
If the tall plants are yellow, such as golden glow or nas-
turtiums, then for the lower plants forms should be chosen
that harmonize with yellow. Golden glow, low nastur-
tiums, and California poppy or portulaca, make a good
color scheme. Another scheme is, princess feather or
gaillardia, sweet scabious, sweet alyssum or candytuft.
The children should help to decide what colors will look
well together.

Besides the flowering annuals, vines of various kinds
will add greatly to the beauty of the school grounds. Plant
vines to run up over the coal sheds and other outbuildings.
Of the annual vines the wild cucumber is a good one. The
seeds of this should be planted in the fall or early in March
so they may be frosted. The morning-glory is a beautiful
annual vine and a rapid grower. The principal objection
to it is the rankness of its growth.

RURAL SCHOOL GARDENING 205

Woodbine is a very satisfactory perennial vine; so is
the white clematis, and the matrimony vine. A woodbine
may be set out to climb over a building and morning-
glories planted at the foot of this. The latter will climb
up the woodbine making a very pretty effect.

A few shrubs should be found in every country school
ground. These should be arranged in clumps in one or
two corners of the yard, or near the corner of the buildings.
They should be set out close enough together to form a
mass of foliage by the time they are four or five years old.
A strip two feet wide at the base of a clump of shrubs may
be used for bulbs or for annual-flowering plants.

Some satisfactory shrubs are: flowering quince, snow-
ball, common dogwood, syringa, spiraea or bridal wreath,
and elder.

All the work should be so planned that the children
will feel a sense of ownership and take a keen interest in
keeping the grounds beautiful.

If the school grounds are large enough, a plot ten by
twenty feet may be set apart for experimental work in
agriculture and horticulture. This should be a sort of
miniature experimental station where some simple prob-
lems relating to the crops 9f the districts may be worked
out. Different varieties of oats may be planted one
year, and the yields estimated; or different kinds of
wheat, to see which seems best adapted to the soil con-
ditions. Different varieties of corn could be tried from
year to year.

A very small plot of ground might well be used for
industrial plants in order that the children may become
acquainted with plants that give them various useful arti-

206 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

cles, such as flax, cotton, hemp, sugar cane, broom corn,
castor-oil bean, and kaffir corn.

No attempt need be made to raise all of them the same
year. Raise two or three one year, and follow those by
others the next year, and so on. A few samples of each
should be put away from year to year, making in time a
valuable collection that may be used in connection with
the geography lessons.

Here, as in school gardening, everywhere the real value
comes in having the children carry the work over into the
home garden. The children should be encouraged in
every way possible to start flower gardens of their own.
Some time might well be given to the discussion of some
good varieties of flowering plants for the home, how and
where to plant them.

Books and Bulletins: The Nursery Book, Bailey; The
Practical Garden Book, Hunn and Bailey. Farmers'
Bulletins: United States Department of Agriculture; Beauti-
fying the Home Grounds, No. 185; Annual Flowering
Garden, No. 195; The School Garden, No. 218; Tomato
Growing, No. 76; Potato Culture, No. 35; The Vegetable
Garden, No. 94; Potato Diseases and their Treatment, No.
91; The Home Fruit Garden, No. 154; Strawberries, No.
198; Raspberries, No. 213; The Home Vineyard with
Special Reference to Northern Conditions, No. 156.

CHAPTER XXI

SUGGESTIONS FOR CONDUCTING WORK IN THE SEVENTH
AND EIGHTH GRADES

THE purpose of the work in the seventh and eighth
grades in addition to the training in accurate observation,
open-mindedness, and independence of thought, is to aid
the pupils in acquiring a knowledge of fundamental prin-
ciples underlying successful agriculture.

Much may be accomplished by following the same
plan as with the lower grades. Some of the general
exercise studies may be carried much farther by these
pupils. They may be given specific problems to work out,
and special reading in connection with the subject under
discussion. For example, with the study of grasshoppers,
have them find out to what extent these insects injure the
grain crops in their district; or what field birds help most
in keeping these and other insects in check. Refer them to
bulletins that will give them information along these lines.

If the work in these grades accomplishes all that it
should, it ought to have at least two recitation periods
devoted to it each week. The need of experiments as
well as observation makes this almost essential.

So far as possible, the work of each year as indicated
in the outline has been made a unit. By this arrangement
the work of the two years may alternate, a plan that works
in many country schools.

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208 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

Teachers should look over the lessons carefully in order
to plan their work successfully. Many of the experiments,
especially in soil physics and in the work of plants, must
be started several days, or in some cases weeks before
giving the lesson.

A list of bulletins that contain much helpful informa-
tion is placed at the close of each chapter. No. 195, en-
titled Some Exercises Illustrating Some Applications of
Chemistry to Agriculture will be found especially helpful in
working out the lessons in soil chemistry, and No. 186,
Exercises in Elementary Agriculture, will be helpful in the
lesson- on soil physics and the work of plants. All the
bulletins listed may be obtained free by applying to United
States Department of Agriculture.

A few pieces of apparatus are indispensable in con-
ducting the lessons in physical experiments in the seventh
grade, and in soil studies in the eighth. The following
list of necessary articles may be obtained at a very little
cost.

Alcohol lamp. This may be made from a vaseline
bottle. Get the tinner to make you a small tin tube about
an inch and a half long. Push this through the middle of
the cork and punch out the cork inside the tube. Twist
some soft string into a wick and pull it through the tube.
Fill the bottle a little over half full of alcohol. Wood
alcohol will serve as well as grain. Turn a small vial or
thimble over the wick to prevent evaporation.

A test tube. A small glass flask having a rubber
stopper with a hole in it. A measuring cup; a glass one
may be purchased for ten cents at any crockery store. A
thermometer. A long iron nail, a heavy piece of iron wire,

SUGGESTIONS FOR CONDUCTING WORK 209

or a long slender bolt. A piece of glass tubing one-fourth
inch in diameter. A piece of rubber tubing. Several
plates, saucers, and tumblers. Two tin cups. Several
pint and quart Mason jars. Half a dozen student's lamp
chimneys.

CHAPTER XXII

POLLINATION AND SEED FORMING

Problem. — What is the work o) a flower? What is
pollination and how is it secured by different flowers ?

For this study any flower in which all the parts are well
represented should be selected. Petunia, nasturtium,
morning-glory, and tomato are all good. It is well to
study more than one flower.

Find the parts of the flower: (a) corolla, composed of
petals, the colored showy part, called polypetalous when
the petals are separate as in the nasturtium, sympetalous
when the petals are grown together as in the petunia; (b)
calyx, composed of sepals, sometimes green, as in the
petunia, sometimes colored, as in the nasturtium.

Find the stamens. How many? Note the slender
filaments and the knoblike anther. Can you find any
powder (pollen) in the anther? Compare anthers in old
flowers with those newly opened. What has happened in
the older ones ? Examine the pistil. Make out the ovary
at the base, the style, and the stigma at the top. What is
the use of the stigma ? This is to catch the pollen. When
it is ripe, or just ready to catch pollen, it is sticky. When-
ever pollen is transferred from an anther to a stigma
pollination has taken place. Pollination then is the trans-
fer of pollen from anther to stigma and nothing more. It
should not be confused with the subsequent and entirely

POLLINATION AND SEED FORMING 211

lifferent act of fertilization. If the pollen is transferred
from the anther to the stigma of the same flower, it is
called close or self-pollination. If the pollen is trans-
ferred from the anther of one flower to the stigma of an-
other, it is called cross pollination. With a sharp knife
cut an ovary in two across the middle. What do you find
on the inside? Those tiny seedlike bodies are called
ovules.

Have children watch the development of a flower from
the time it opens until the seed is ripe. What parts of the
flower wither and drop off? What parts remain? What
part becomes the seed pod ? What part becomes the seed
or seeds?

Problem. — Is pollination necessary to produce seeds?

If plants are growing near the school- select some
nasturtium flowers that are just opening and carefully
remove the stamens with a pair of sharp-pointed scissors,
then cover the flower with a paper bag so that no pollen can
be conveyed from other flowers to the stigma. Treat
another flower in the same way, but leave the paper bag off.

Leave the bag on for a week or ten days, then remove
and note conditions. Cgver enough flowers in this way so
that there can be no doubt in the minds of the pupils as to
results. If there are no plants near the school, have some
of the reliable pupils start the experiments at home and
bring the plants to school for observation and study.

What are the agents that aid in transferring pollen
from one plant to another ? Have pupils watch the insects
that visit flowers or draw upon their observation and
experience. They will probably know also that the wind
as well as insects is an agent of pollination.

212 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

The children cannot see what takes place after the
pollen grain has fallen upon the stigma. But they should
know that the pollen grain germinates or sprouts on the
stigma and a small tube grows down the style into the
ovary. In this tube are certain small cells. One of these
cells unites with a cell in one of the ovules, and the new
cell formed by this union is the beginning of a new plant.
It forms the embryo, which is the essential part of the seed.
This act, the uniting of these two cells, is called fertiliza-
tion. Pollination, then, is the first act, and fertilization
the second in forming the seed. The children now see
why pollination is necessary for a plant to produce seed.

Problem.— Would it be possible for you to pollinate a
flower by hand, choosing the plant from which the pollen
is taken?

Remove the stamens of a nasturtium in flowers as in
the previous experiment, then with a brush or triangular
bit of paper transfer some pollen to the stigma. Place a
bag over it so no other pollen can get on it. This is known
as hand pollination.

Cornflower. Find, if possible, some belated corn plants
that are still young enough to show fresh tassels and silks.

How many kinds of flowers do you find on the corn?
The most prominent kind forms the tassel. Examine a
tassel. Is it a single flower or a cluster of many ? Have
these flowers bright petals as the nasturtium? What
essential part of the flower is found in the tassel? Since
only stamens are found here this is called a staminate
flower. Can you find any pollen in the stamens ? What is
the other essential organ of any flower ? When the pistils
are borne in separate flowers we call these pistillate flowers.

POLLINATION AND SEED FORMING 213

Where are the pistillate flowers of the corn? Find an ear
that is just forming, or at least a young ear. Pull off the
husks and notice the very small grains on the cob. Each
of these is an ovary. What is attached to each grain?
The silk is the style. Where is the stigma? This is at
the very tip end of the silk. If pollination takes place,
what is necessary? One grain of pollen must fall upon
the stigma of each silk. How is corn pollen scattered?
Is there much pollen produced ? What evidence have we
that the wind carries pollen long distances? Discuss at
this point what must happen in order that fertilization may
take place. The pollen grain must germinate on the
stigma and then the pollen tube must grow down through
the entire length of the style till it reaches the ovary where
the union of the two cells will occur. This, as you know,
is the beginning of a seed. Do you think that corn is
likely to be self pollinated or cross pollinated ? Why ?

CHAPTER XXIII

PLANT BREEDING

BECAUSE seeds of plants are produced by the union of
two cells, one from the pollen grain and the other in the
ovary of the pistil, it is possible to produce new varieties
or strains of certain plants. Plants, like animals, inherit
characteristics of their parents. Now, if the pollen from
one plant germinates on the stigma of another, the result
of the fertilization which follows is a seed which will prob-
ably partake of the qualities of both parents. Florists
and horticulturists have taken advantage of this to produce
new varieties of flowers and vegetables.

Of late years much has been done to improve the corn
crops by a process of breeding.

It has been ascertained by careful experiment that corn
which is cross pollinated produces stronger, better plants
than that which is self pollinated. How could you in-
sure cross pollination of a number of ears of corn? The
hand-pollination method which was tried with the nas-
turtium may be employed. This, of course, would have
to be done just at the time that the corn is in flower, or just
as it is beginning to " shoot," as farmers say. Pollen isj
collected from one plant in a sauce dish or other shallow
receptacle and the ends of the silks of another plant gently
dipped into this. Then a paper bag is tied over the ear so |
that no other pollen can reach the stigma. In this way

214

PLANT BREEDING 215

one may select desirable stalks and expect to have seeds
that will reproduce the good qualities of both parents.

There is another method that is less tedious and that is
coming more and more into practice, and that is by de-
tasseling. Some of the stalks are detasseled before the
anthers are ripe. That means, of course, that the ears on
those stalks will have to be cross pollinated.

Any boy can start a corn-breeding plot on a simple
scale on his father's farm. The first requisite is to have
the location of the plot as far from all other corn as possible.
In the center of an oat field is a good place. The next
thing is to decide what strain or variety of corn to plant.
Select an ear for each row. Number the ears and rows
alike, and then hang up the ears for future reference.
One method of selecting ears is given in the lesson on
selecting and judging seed corn. The corn should receive
the same attention as the other corn on the farm. The
rows of corn may differ from the start because of inherent
difference in the ears. If any of the rows show decided
marks of weakness, all the stalks in these should be de-
tasseled; also any undesirable stalks in any of the rows.
The tassels should be pulled off as soon as they show
plainly in the top of the stalks. In order to secure cross-
pollinated seed, one half of each row should be detasseled.
Begin at one end of the first row, and detassel to the middle;
then, beginning in the middle, detassel the other end of the
second row, and so on. From which end of each will you
choose your ears for seed ? Why ? From these stalks the
desirable ears are chosen for the breeding plot next year.
One thing to breed for is productiveness. To find which
row produced the greatest yield it will be necessary to

15

216 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

gather all the ears from each row separately and weigh,
adding to this the weight of the selected seed ears. The
most productive ears should be saved for the breeding plot
next year, while the best of the others should be saved for
general planting on the farm. Since a small breeding plot
will not produce enough seed for the entire farm, the seed
from this should be planted in a field by itself. From this
field and the breeding plot seed should be selected for the
next year's planting. In this way the productiveness of
the entire crop may be greatly increased in a few years.

Books: Plant Breeding, De Vries.

CHAPTER XXIV

INSECTS

INSECT study in the seventh and eighth grades should
be linked as closely as possible with the study of plants.
If the pupils have had no previous study of insects, then it
is better to begin with some of the large forms for the pur-
pose of getting acquainted with the characteristics common
to all insects. A grasshopper is a good type to study for
biting mouth parts; a squash or box-elder bug, for piercing
and sucking mouth.

The plant life of any locality should determine largely
the special insects to be emphasized in these grades. In
a region where corn is the chief crop, the insect pests com-
mon to this plant should constitute the bulk of the work.
In a fruit-growing community the insects found on the
fruit trees and shrubs should receive most attention.

Aphids. — Aphids or plant lice may be found on weeds,
golden glow, willows, rose bushes, cherry and plum stems,
cabbage leaves, wild lettuce, etc. They are small insects
which vary much in color. Some are almost black, some
red, some green. Have the children bring in some leaves
with aphids on them. Do all aphids on the plant look
alike ? You will probably find on one plant several stages
of the insect; some small ones without wings; some larger
with small pads; the beginning of wings on the sides; and
some that have quite large wings folded above the body.

217

218 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

These last look like small flies. What are the aphids
doing? Hold the leaf or stem on a level with the eye and
look closely at the head of the aphid to find the slender
sucking tube which is inserted in the leaf or stem. It is
just like the sucking tube of the squash bug. What kind of
food does the aphid eat, solid or liquid? Do you think
putting some poison on the surface of the leaf will kill the
aphid? Why? In order to kill these, something must be
used that will kill by coming in contact with the body.
Kerosene emulsion is a good remedy. How many legs
has an aphid? How do they hold their horns or an-
tennae?

Did you find any other insects on the plants with the
aphids? You will often find ants. What are the ants
doing? The children may or may not be able to make
out that the ants are here to get something to eat. The
aphids throw out from their bodies a sweet liquid known as
honey dew. The ants are very fond of this sweet substance,
so that wherever you find plant lice you are almost certain
to find some ants. You will often find flies, also, sipping
the honey dew.

Look at the roots of small stunted stalks of corn. You
may find some green aphids, the corn-root lice, on the
youngest, most tender roots. You are more likely to find
them in the summer, when the corn is growing vigorously,
than in the fall. You may also find a small brown ant
near the corn root, or perhaps nests of them in the corn-
field. Even if it is too late to find the corn louse this fall,
encourage the boys to look for it next year when the corn is
growing. Encourage them also to destroy any ants' nests
they may find in the cornfield or vicinity.

INSECTS 219

Why should they do this ? The female aphids lay their
shiny black, oval eggs in the ground during the fall months.
The little brown ants find these, carry them to their under-
ground homes, and keep them safely through the winter.
They often carry the eggs out into the sunshine during the
warm part of the day and back into the burrows at night.
These eggs hatch in the early spring into young aphids.
The ants at once place these on the roots of smart weeds.
When the corn is beginning to grow, the ants place the
aphids on the corn roots from which they suck the juices
with their sharp sucking tubes. The ants get their pay
for all this work in the form of honey dew which the aphids
throw out.

Each aphid that hatches from an egg is called a stem
mother. In less than a month this stem mother begins to
reproduce young. All these are females which in a month's
time begin also to produce young. So in less than two
months the stem mother may become the ancestor of
thousands of young lice. This goes on all summer. Most
of these aphids are wingless. Once in a while there is a
generation that has wings. These fly away to some other
part of the field, or to another field. Some of them drop
to the ground, and are found by ants who carry them at
once to the corn roots. In the fall a brood of true males
and females is produced. These females are the ones
that deposit eggs for the next year's crop of aphids. You
can readily see why the destruction of the ants' homes is to
be encouraged.

One of the methods employed to destroy these pests is
to break up the ground as early as possible in the spring,
and then before corn planting go over it once or twice with

220 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

disk or cultivator in order to destroy the smart weeds, and
as many of the ants' nests as possible.

The life history of all other aphids is essentially the
same as that of the corn-root louse. One reason they are
so destructive is because they multiply so rapidly.

One species of aphid is often found on the oats in early
summer. It is known in some localities as the " green
bug." It sucks the juice from the stems and leaves of the
oats and is often very destructive.

Aphids have many natural foes. Among these are the
ladybug beetles, the aphis lion, braconid and syrphus flies,
as well as a number of birds.

The White Grub. — White grubs may be studied either
in autumn or spring. They are found abundantly in the
soil of fields and gardens, in potato patches, and often in
pastures and lawns where they kill our great areas of grass.

Ask the pupils to save and bring in some white grubs.
To keep these insects alive place them in a tin can or pail
in which there is plenty of moist soil. Place on top of the
soil a piece of fresh grass sod, firm it down with your hand
gently, keep it watered but not made wet. Set the pail
aside for several days. At the end of this time carefully
lift up the sod. You will probably find some of the grubs
under it. Note the position of the body. Is there any
advantage in keeping it curled up in this fashion ? Is the
grub lying on its back or under side ? Has it a tunnel to
lie in ? What has it been doing here ? Look at the grass
roots. Can you see whether any of these have been eaten ?
Look carefully at the structure of the insect. Has it a
distinct head? How does this differ in color from the
body? Is the body hard or soft? What kind of a mouth

INSECTS 221

has the grub ? Look at the front of the head for the strong
hooklike jaws. It is with these that it bites off the roots of
plants and underground stems of plants. Do the grubs
ever kill plants iii this way ? How many legs have they ?
Where are the legs situated? What is the use of these
legs? Put the insect on the floor or desk. Can it crawl
well ? Now put it on the surface of the soil and watch to
see how it succeeds in burrowing into the ground. Is
there anything on the feet that enables it to dig easily?
Have the pupils name all the adaptation this insect has for
living in the ground rather than on the surface.

Does it do any harm besides killing out grass ? Some
of the pupils will probably know how destructive these
white grubs are in cornfields, strawberry beds, and gardens.

Life Hislory.—It may not be possible for the pupils to
work out any part of the life history of this insect. It all
depends upon how old the grubs are that you are studying.
If the study is made early in September it is worth while
trying to get the pupae. To do this simply feed the grubs
plenty of grass roots by renewing the sod whenever it
begins to wither. In a few weeks the griibs will go down
into the soil, make little tunnels, and in these change to a
pupa. A pupa looks like a light, brown mummy with
undeveloped wings and legs folded close to the sides and
under part of the body.

In a few weeks the grown-up insect emerges from the
pupa but remains in the ground all winter.

The spring is by far the best time to study the grown-
up insects or beetles. These come out of their winter
quarters in great numbers during May. They are com-
monly known as June bugs.

222 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

When do you find the beetles flying around; during
the daylight or after night ? They often fly into our houses
attracted by the light. Set a lantern or lamp out on the
porch and catch a number of these for study next day.
These can easily be preserved for fall study by putting
them in a wide -mouth bottle and covering them with
alcohol. Pour a little melted paraffin or sealing wax over
the top and around the stopper to keep the alcohol from
evaporating.

How does the beetle compare with the grub as to
length and color? Which has the harder body? Which
has longer legs ? Which is stouter and thicker ? Are the
beetle's jaws as large as those of the grub? What does
the beetle eat? It is hard for the children to determine
this since the beetles eat during the night. They feed upon
the leaves of various trees, such as cottonwood, cherry,
birch, and no doubt many others. Notice their wings.
How are the outer wings related to each other ? Do they
overlap or just meet? Lift up the outer wings. How are
the inner wings folded ? Are they longer or shorter than
outer wings ? Which pair is used in flight ? What is the
use of the hard, outer pair? Watch a beetle when it
alights to see how it succeeds in tucking the inner wings
under the outer ones.

These beetles lay their eggs in the ground very often in
the cornfields. After the eggs are laid the beetles die, so
that by the last of June most of the June bugs have disap-
peared. The egg hatches into a small white grub that
begins at once to feed upon decaying matter in the soil and
later upon plant roots. When cold weather approaches it
burrows down into the ground below the frost line and re-

INSECTS

223

mains dormant during the winter. In the spring it comes
up and begins feeding again. Toward fall it probably
pupates, although it is not definitely known whether all
species of white grubs pupate the second fall or not. Some
may possibly live as grubs for three summers.

Since these insects are such pests the question of how
to get rid of them is of interest to all farmers. As yet no
good remedy has been found. One of the best known is to
turn pigs into the field whenever that is possible. The
pigs are so fond of the grubs that they will dig down into
the soil a number of inches in order to get them. Many
birds help to lessen the number of these pests. Robins are
especially fond of grubs.

CHAPTER XXV

FUNGI AND BACTERIA

THE purpose of the lessons on fungi is to help the
boys and girls gain a more intelligent idea of fungous
diseases of plants and how to combat them, as well as of
the fungi that attack fruits, vegetables, bread, etc. We
should begin the study with some of the larger forms, so
that the pupils may get a proper notion of the habits and
method of reproduction of fungi in general.

Mushrooms and Toadstools. — Have the children bring
in a number of mushrooms. They will probably call them
toadstools. The common meadow mushroom is usually
abundant in the fall, so are a number of cluster mushrooms
that grow at the base of old stumps. Where are mush-
rooms found growing? By discussion it will be brought
out that they are found in the woods, around stumps, on
trees, in meadows, around barns, etc.

How many parts do you find in your mushroom ? The
stem is called the stipe, the umbrellalike part, the pileus.
You may find small whitish threads attached to the end
of the stipe. These make up the mycelium which pene-
trates the ground or stump or whatever the mushroom may
be growing upon. What do you find on the under side of
the pileus ? Those leaflike flaps are called gills. What are
they for ? To answer this question break the stem out of
the pileus and then lay the pileus on a piece of white paper

224

FUNGI AND BACTERIA

225

with the gills downward. Leave it for twenty-four hours.
What do you find on the paper ? Rub your finger over it.
This fine powder is composed of tiny bodies like pollen
grains, each of which is called a spore. These spores are
for the production of new plants. Name some of the
things in which a mushroom differs from the other plants
you have been studying. They lack leaves, green color,
flowers, and seeds.

Mold. — About a week before time for this lesson place
moist pieces of stale bread on a piece of pasteboard and
turn tumblers over them. Have pupils examine the bread.
What is on it? On what part of the bread is the mold
most abundant? Look closely at the mold. How many
distinct parts can you see? The mass of threads is the
mycelium. Do any of the threads penetrate the bread?
Those standing out from the mycelium with tiny white or
black dots on the ends are spore-bearers and the dots are
spore cases. Touch gently with a pin a group of these
black spore cases. What happens ? The cases burst open
and a shower of minute spores come out. What are the
spores for? Let us plant some of these spores to see if
they will grow.

Moisten a fresh piece of bread and with a small stick
or end of a match transfer some of the spores to this. Plant
them in rows. Turn a tumbler over the bread and ex-
amine after forty-eight hours. Have the spores germi-
nated? Let the bread stand to find out how long before
this new crop of mold has ripe spores on it.

Another set of experiments to show that mold and
other fungi grow from spores is as follows: Procure a moldy
orange or lemon, and a perfectly sound orange. Roll the

226 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

point of a pin on the moldy orange, now insert it about one
third its length in the good orange and leave it there.
Watch developments. What is the first indication that
mold is growing on the inside ? The orange will become
soft around the pin. How long before the mold spores
begin to show on the outside ? In order to show that this is
not due to the puncture of the pin, sterilize a pin by putting
it in hot water and place it in the opposite side of the
orange. Do this when you set in the first pin. Tie a
label to each pin so that you will know which had the mold
spore on it. You will get quicker results by setting the
orange in a jar and covering the jar. Try planting the
spores of a rotten apple in a sound one. Rub some of the
spores on the unbroken skin of the apple or orange. Do
the spores grow?

Where did the mold come from on the first piece of
bread? The spores must have been on it when it was
moistened and put under the tumbler. They must have
been in the air. Why does stale bread mold more quickly
than fresh? Why does canned fruit mold? Can mold
spores be killed?

Pour boiling water over a small piece of stale bread and
turn over it a tumbler in which you have just dashed boiling
water. At the side of this place a piece of the same kind
of bread that is soaked in cold water and has a cold tumbler
turned over it. Watch for developments. Why do you
pour boiling water in fruit jars before canning the fruit?
Why should lids of the jars be sterilized in the same way?

Soak a piece of fresh bread in a half glass of water in
which you have placed a few drops of formalin. Plant
spores on this as you did on the other piece of bread. Do

FUNGI AND BACTERIA 227

these spores grow? Why? Formalin or formaldehyde
kills the spores as effectively as the hot water. However?
it cannot be used about the house for it is poison to human
beings. It can be used, however, to great advantage in
killing spores that produce fungous diseases of plants.

What conditions are best suited to the growth of some
jungi ?

Experiments. — Place some dry bread on a piece of
pasteboard and cover with a tumbler. Beside this place
some moistened bread and watch for results. Moisten
two pieces of bread and cover with tumblers. Place one
where it is warm; the other where it is cool. What con-
clusion do you come to in regard to the effect of heat and
moisture on the growth of mold?

What does the mold feed upon? The mushrooms?
The apple rot? All of these obtain food from the sub-
stances on which they grow. What part of the plant do
you think gets the food ? By discussion it may be brought
out that the threadlike mycelium which penetrates the
substances obtains the food. All fungi such as mold and
mushrooms that live upon dead organic matter are called
saprophytes.

Do all jungi live upon dead organic matter, as bread,
stumps, etc. ?

Find some lilac leaves that are covered with a white
flourlike growth. This is very abundant on most lilac
bushes in the fall. You may find it also on rose leaves.
Examine the leaves closely. You will find the white cover-
ing consists of a mass of very fine threads, the mycelium.
Here and there one of the threads pierces the skin of the
leaf. What for ? It gets food from the juices on the inside

228 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

of the leaf. Notice the clusters of small black bodies.
What do you think these are? In these spore cases are
small spores for the reproduction of the plant. This
fungus is known as lilac mildew. Since it lives upon a
living plant it is called a parasite. The plant upon which
it lives is called its host. Can you think of any other
parasitic fungi? If possible have in class some ears of
corn covered with smut. Examine this. What is it com-
posed of? The mass of black sooty material is chiefly
made of spores. What is the effect of this fungus on the
ear of corn ? The smut plants have really penetrated the
young grains of corn, and have lived upon these grains.
Has this fungus many or few spores? Much corn is
destroyed by this disease. What other grains are attacked
by smut? Both wheat and oats.

Save at harvest time a few heads of oats or wheat with
smut on them. Can you find any spores in these ? What
will every spore produce ? A new plant, which, like all the
other fungi studied, forms a mycelium. It usually begins
its growth when the oat plants are about an inch high.
The threads (hyphae) of the fungus feed upon the growing
oats, sometimes so weakening the plant that it dies. Do
you think any of the oat seeds are likely to have spores on
them if they have grown in a field where some of the heads
had been affected with smut? Can you think of anything
that might be done to kill these smut spores ?

Formaldehyde will kill these spores just as readily as it
did the mold spores. The following recipe is used by
many farmers: Put one pint of forty per cent, formalde-
hyde in thirty-six gallons of water, soak the seeds in this for
ten or fifteen minutes, and then spread out to dry. This

FUNGI AND BACTERIA 229

is sufficient for about forty bushels of seed. The seeds are
more easily handled by putting them into a gunny sack,
and putting this into the solution. Wheat smut may be
treated in the same manner.

Examine spots of rust on wheat or oats. Can you find
any spores here? Are these fungous diseases ? This is
another fungus that feeds on the inside of the leaf or stem
till it is ready to produce spores, when it sends the hyphae
to the surface and the spores are produced on the outside.
The ripe reddish-brown spores on the wheat look very
much like iron rust, hence the name.

Can you think of any other plants besides cereals that
are affected with fungous diseases? Sometimes plums,
cherries, and peaches are attacked with a brown rot or
mold while the fruit is hanging on the tree. The fruit
shrivels up and continues to cling to the tree sometimes
after the leaves have fallen off. This disease is most
common on peach trees and often destroys more than half
the crop. Have children look on their own trees at home
for the dry peach "mummies." These contain spores for
the next year's crop of rot. What should be done with the
mummy peaches that are on the ground in the fall or
winter? This disease as well as other fungous diseases
that attack fruit and leaves of trees may be prevented by
spraying the trees with mixtures that will kill the fungi.

Have the children look on their pear and apple trees
for twigs that are black, and that have on them withered
blackened leaves. This disease is called blight, and is one
of the worst of the fungous diseases to combat. It is
caused by a growth of one of the very smallest plants known.
These plants are called bacteria. They live in the sticky

230 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

layer between the wood and bark. This layer is called
the cambium. This is the part of the twig in which the
growth of new wood takes place, and these bacteria are so
numerous that they use up most of the nourishment of the
twig. As a result the twig dies and, of course, the leaves
must die too. The best way known to prevent the spread
of blight is to cut off every twig that is affected and burn it.
There are many other kinds of bacteria besides those
that cause pear blight. They are so small that it is not
practicable to attempt to study them by observation.
Many of them are not more than one twenty-five thousandth
of an inch long. It is worth while to know that while these
plants are small they are among the most important living
organisms. They are one-celled plants and reproduce by
cell division instead of by spores. That is, each cell
divides into two parts, each of which becomes a mature cell.
This division continues, making the multiplication very
rapid. Like the spores of mold, these cells float about in
the air or in water. Some cause human disease, such as
typhoid fever, diphtheria, etc. Others are beneficial to
man, such as those that cause decay of vegetable and
animal matter in the soil. Without these we could not
have any humus in the soil. The bacteria that live on the
roots of leguminous plants are beneficial. We shall see
in our study of clover just what they do for us.

Farmers' Bulletin: The Grain Smuts, No. 75.

CHAPTER XXVI

SELECTING, JUDGING, AND STORING SEED CORN

THE lesson on selecting seed corn should be given
after the corn has become fully mature and before there
are any very hard frosts.

What are some of the characteristics that should be
considered in choosing good seed corn ? One of the most
important is to choose corn that matures early enough to
escape the first heavy frosts.

A field study should be made with the class if this is
possible. Most rural districts have cornfields near the
schoolhouse. Almost any farmer will grant permission to
take the class into the field for study. If this cannot be
done then the pupils may make all the observations at
home.

First, spend a few minutes in observing the general
character of the corn plant. Note the jointed stem, the
arrangement of the leaves, how the leaves are attached, the
number of leaves, their venation, and the prop roots.
Dig around one plant and note the direction of growth and
extent of the roots. Are all the stalks equally well formed ?
Are they all standing erect?

What are desirable qualities to look for in choosing a

stalk you would like to have reproduced next year? It

should be a stout, upright stalk growing in a. hill with at

least two others, if the hills are forty or more inches apart;

16 231

232

NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

one free from suckers; and one whose ear stem is not more
than four or five inches in length. The ear or ears should
not be too low or too high, but slightly below the middle
of the stalk and convenient in harvesting. There should
be no smut. The leaves should be well formed.

Having made a study of suitable stalks, have the
children choose ears from similar stalks in their own fields.
Are all the ears on these stalks worth keeping ? What are
some of the qualities to look for in the ear ? It must be
understood that the most important character of any seed
corn is the power to reproduce abundantly, and that this
quality cannot be ascertained by examining the ear. How-
ever, there are a number of qualities that a good ear should
possess that may be determined by observation. It should
be well shaped, usually cylindrical, and well proportioned,
not long and slender, or short and stocky. The kernels
should all be of the same color and should not show any
mixing of varieties. The ears should be well matured,
sound and dry, not soft and flabby. The tip of the ear
should be well filled out; the cob round, not flattened at
the tip. The butt should be rounded with grains extending
well over the cob. There should not be wide spaces be-
tween the rows of kernels. The kernels should fit closely
together and should be of uniform length and shape. The
kernels should be long and the shape of a wedge, having
straight sides and edges. They should not be soft and
with chaffy tip caps.

Have each pupil bring ten ears from home which have
been selected from desirable stalks. Place these on the
desk with tips all pointing one way. Examine and judge
according to the points given above. Add to these the

SELECTING AND STORING SEED CORN 233

following. Measure the length of each ear and get the
average of ten. Find the average circumference one third
the distance from the butt. Find the ratio of the average
circumference to the average length. Weigh five ears.
Shell and weigh grain. Find percentage of grain; per-
centage of cob.

It will aid greatly in this work to have a sample ear of
each variety which has been raised by some reliable
corn breeder. Have the pupils put into the first class
all the ears that approach the standard ear. Discard all
others.

Encourage the pupils to select in this way a number of
ears at home to save for the spring planting.

The judging may be done by following the points in-
dicated on a score card arranged by the Corn Growers'
Association. Almost all of the points indicated above, as
well as some others, are found on one of these score cards.
Each characteristic counts so many points; for example,
if an ear is perfect in shape it scores ten, if a tip is perfect
it scores five, and so on. An ear perfect in every par-
ticular scores one hundred.

The following interesting and profitable exercise in
connection with corn study may be conducted as field
work by the class, or as individual study at home. Select
a plot in the fields ten hills each way. Find the whole
number of stalks in the square, the number with one good
ear, with two good ears, number of barren stalks, number
with suckers, number with smut. Measure the distance
between the hills and between the rows. How many
stalks should there be in each hill ? If the hills are from
forty to forty-four inches apart, there should be three good

234 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

stalks. How much does the square lack of having its full
quota of stalks ?

Weigh twenty ears and estimate number of ears in one
bushel. Find yield of plot, and of an acre.

Weigh twenty ears, hang up in a dry place, and toward
spring weigh again. Estimate percentage of shrinkage.

The next step of importance, after selecting the seed
corn, is caring for it during the winter. In the first place,
the corn should be dried as soon as possible after gathering.
It should then be stored in a dry place of even temperature.
It should not be piled up in heaps, but scattered on floors
or tied together and hung up so that it may be well ven-
tilated.

Farmers' Bulletins: The Production of Good Seed Corn,
No. 229; Corn Growing, No. 199.

CHAPTER XXVII

PHYSICAL EXPERIMENTS

Evaporation and Condensation

NATURE study does not mean a study of plants and
animals exclusively, but also a study of the soil, air,
weather, and certain phenomena that touch our lives on
every hand. Indeed, we must know something about the
underlying principles of physics before we can understand
clearly how plants and soil and weather do their work.

Water is the most familiar liquid that we know.
Water in the solid form (ice) is so common that we need
no experiment to prove it. Is it possible to change water
into a gas or vapor?

Fill a measuring cup exactly half full of water. Pour
this into an ordinary tin cup or tumbler and set in a warm
place. This should be done several hours before the class
time, or even the day before. Fill a glass flask or test tube
half full of water, place it over the flame of the alcohol
lamp till it boils vigorously. What do you see coming out
of the mouth of the flask? Look in the flask above the
boiling water, can you see anything above the water in
the flask ? Where does the steam come from that is visible
at the mouth of the flask ? It is visible here because the
vapor has begun to change back into water. Is the true
vapor of water then visible or invisible? Watch the spout

236 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

of a boiling teakettle. Can you see anything close to the
spout ? What is there, although you cannot see it ? Why
can you see steam at a short distance from the spout?
Here, of course, the invisible vapor is changing back into a
liquid state.

Now examine the cup that you set in a warm place.
Can you see any steam coming from it? Measure the
water carefully. Has any of it disappeared? What has
become of it? We say it has evaporated, which means
that the water has changed into an invisible gas or vapor.
The same thing happened as when you boiled the water,
with one difference; the evaporation went on more slowly.
When evaporation takes place rapidly we sometimes use
the term vaporize instead of evaporate.

What are some of the conditions that influence the
evaporation 0} liquids?

Experiment. — Measure exactly in the measuring cup a
half cup of water and put it into a tumbler. Put the same
amount into a shallow pan or plate, and the same into a
pickle bottle. Set the three side by side and let them stand
until the next day. Now measure carefully. From
which has the most water evaporated ? The least ? What
caused the difference ? From this we learn that extent of
surface has a certain effect on the rapidity of evaporation.
What is it?

Place equal amounts of water in two tumblers or cups
of exactly the same size and shape. Put one in a warm
place, the other in a cool place, and leave for twenty-four
hours. Measure and note difference. What is your con-
clusion as to the effect of temperature upon evaporation ?

Place equal amounts of water in cups as suggested in

PHYSICAL EXPERIMENTS 237

the above experiment. Set them side by side in a window
where there is a draught of air. If it is not freezing weather,
set them outside on the window sill. Cover one cup by
setting a sauce dish or saucer over it. Let them stand till
next day. From which has more water evaporated?
Why ? In this the temperature and surface were the same,
but above one, air currents could move freely, while above
the other they could not. What is the effect of a change
of air on the rapidity of evaporation ? Why does mud dry
up more quickly on a windy day than on a calm one?
What is the effect of a rapid change of air currents on the
drying of clothes on a line?

Place equal amounts of alcohol and water in cups
side by side. Measure after twenty-four hours. Do all
liquids evaporate at the same rate? Can you think of
other liquids besides alcohol that evaporate more rapidly
than water?

Rub a little water with your finger on the back of your
hand. Hold your hand up in the air waving it gently.
How does the wet spot feel? Touch your hand in the
same way with a drop of alcohol. Does it feel any colder
than when you touched it with the water? What is the
alcohol and the water doing? If you have a thermometer,
dip it into alcohol or water and hold it up in the air and
move it about till the liquid has all evaporated. Does
the mercury rise or fall? From all of these experiments
what do you conclude as to the effect of the evaporation of
liquids on surrounding bodies? Why do you feel chilly
when you get your clothing damp ? Why does sprinkling
the street cool the air? How is the temperature of our
bodies regulated?

238 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

What causes the water vapor to change back into water
again? Fill a tin cup or glass flask half full of water, set
it over the flame of the alcohol lamp till the water boils.
Hold a cold plate about half an inch above the flask.
What collects on the plate? Heat the plate very hot and
then hold it over the flask. Does as much water collect
on the hot plate as on the cold one? Which causes the
vapor to change back into water, heat or cold? When
vapor changes back into water .we call the process con-
densation.

Is there water vapor in the air of the room although we
cannot see it ? Place some water in a tumbler or a bright
tin cup. Now stir slowly into the water some pieces of
crushed ice, or better, some snow. If you have a ther-
mometer keep it in the mixture. Watch carefully the out-
side of the cup. Where do the drops of water come from
that collect on it ? Why does the moisture gather on this
and not on the other objects in the room?

The children may be led to see that the glass with the
ice in it is so much colder than the rest of the room that as
the air comes in contact with it the water vapor is con-
densed and changed into water. What causes dew to
gather on objects at night ? The objects cool after the sun
goes down and as the air touches the cold objects what
happens ? The more moisture there is in the air the more
quickly dew will form, other conditions remaining the
same. The temperature at which any mass of air is just
cold enough to have some of its vapor condense is called
the dew point. If you read the thermometer at the mo-
ment you saw the vapor begin to condense on the cup you
had the dew point of the air in the room.

PHYSICAL EXPERIMENTS 239

When a teakettle is boiling what is the steam that you
see ? These drops of water in the steam are so small and
so light that they float in the air, forming a small cloud.
How are the clouds formed that we see floating high in the
air above us? First we must think where the vapor of
water comes from that is in the air. The pupils will know
that evaporation is constantly taking place from the surface
of all bodies of water as well as from the soil.

Sometimes the air has just as much vapor in it as it can
possibly hold. If now it is cooled even a little, what will
happen? The vapor will condense and form a cloud.
Suppose it is cooled still more, what will happen? The
tiny drops of moisture will begin to unite and form larger
drops. Presently the drops will become so large that the
air can no longer hold them up, so they must fall and we
have rain.

Sometimes the condensed vapor falls in the form of
snow instead of rain. Why does it do this ? We cannot
hope to answer this question fully. We only know that
when vapor freezes as it condenses it forms into crystals
instead of drops.

• When a snowstorm occurs a special observation lesson
ould be given. Note the appearance of the clouds and
the direction from which the storm is coming. Are the
flakes large or small ? Examine several flakes. Are they
all the same size and shape? Find some of the small
crystals. If you have a lens, examine these to see how
many points they have. Is a flake made up of one or
more than one crystal? The snow crystals, while they
may vary in external appearance, are all built on the same
plan — that of a six-pointed star. One of the wonderful

240 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

things about crystallization is that each substance has a
definite geometrical plan upon which its crystals are built.
If the wind is blowing strongly, note how the drifts are
made. Why are these drifts in some places and not in
others? Note the drifts near buildings and trees. Can
you account for the spaces left near the trees and buildings ?
These are due to the wind currents striking the object and
rebounding, carrying the snow back with them.

In the same way, observation of sleet, hail, and rain
storms should be taken up informally as these phenomena
occur.

CHAPTER XXVIII

SOME EFFECTS OF HEAT ON BODIES

FROM our previous experiments we know that heat
aids in the evaporation of liquids.

Have some of the pupils measure a piece of heavy iron
wire, a long nail, or bolt in the following way: Lay the
nail on a piece of pine board and make a scratch across
the width of the board at each end of the nail. Now place
the nail on a shovel on top of a glowing bed of coals in the
stove. Heat it till it is red hot. Now lay it on the board,
trying to get it exactly between the scratches. What
effect has the heat had upon it? Put it out of doors till it
is cold. Try it again on the scratched board. What is
the effect of cooling it? Most solids act as this piece of
iron did. They expand when heated and contract when
cooled. Think of some practical illustrations of this.
Why heat a tire before setting it on the wheel ? Why are
bolts which are to hold together two walls often heated red
before they are put in, and the nuts tightened as the bolts
cool?

Do liquids expand when heated ? Fill a tin cup level
full of water, heat it slowly. What happens ? Put a piece
of glass tubing through a rubber stopper. Fill a glass
flask full of water. Put in the stopper. The water should
now show in the tube above the stopper. Slowly heat the
flask. What indication have you that water expands with

241

242 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

heat? When the tube is almost full of water set the flask
in a cool place. Does the water contract? When fruit
jars are filled to the top with the hot fruit, why is it that
there is a space left at the top of the jar when the fruit has
cooled ?

Will gases expand with heat? Use the same flask as
in the preceding experiment. Pour out the water and dry
the flask thoroughly. What is in the flask now that the
water is out ? Insert the stopper as before, but place over
the end of the glass tube a rubber tube at least a foot long.
Hold the end of the rubber tube under water. Now slowly
heat the flask. What happens? As you heat the air in
the flask it expands and flows out through the rubber tube
as indicated by the bubbles. Heat a bottle (a round
listerine bottle is a good kind), by rolling it over and over
on a hot stove. When hot turn it upside down in' a tumbler
one fourth full of water. Why does the water rise up in
the bottle? Heating the air expanded it so that some of
the air flowed out of the bottle. As it cooled, the air in the
bottle contracted and the pressure of air on the surface of
the water pushed the water up into the bottle.

We are now ready to conclude that heat expands solids,
liquids, and gases, and that cold contracts them. What is
the effect of heat on solids and liquids as they change
from one of these states to the other ?

Fill a cup level full of melted tallow or paraffin. Set
it in a cool place. Examine the next day. Is it still level
full? What happened to the paraffin as it cooled and
solidified? Which occupies the greater space, liquid or
solid paraffin? Melted lard, or solid lard? Which is
heavier, a cup level full of solid paraffin or the same size

SOME EFFECTS OF HEAT ON BODIES 243

cup level full of melted paraffin? Will a piece of solid
paraffin dropped into a cup of liquid paraffin sink or swim ?
Why?

Do all substances contract as they solidify? If the
weather is freezing cold, set a tin cup level full of water in
a saucer and set both out of doors overnight. Has the
water contracted or expanded as it cooled and solidified?
Why will freezing water break a pitcher or glass ? Which
is heavier, ice or water ? Put a piece of ice into a cup of
water. Does it sink or float ?

Water then differs from the other substances studied
in that it expands when it solidifies or freezes. But we
found by means of a previous experiment that water ex-
pands when heated, and contracts when cooled. There
must,, therefore, be a certain temperature at which water
reaches its greatest weight or density. This temperature
is 4° Centigrade or 39.2° Fahrenheit. If then water is
heated above 39.2°, what does it do? If it is cooled below
this temperature what does it do? If you had a cupful
of water whose temperature was 70° F. and you heated the
water, would it expand or contract ? What if you cooled
it? At what temperature would it stop contracting and
begin to expand again?

All liquids do not act as water does, but continue to
contract until they are solidified. Can you think of any
practical use that is made of this fact ? The thermometer
is constructed upon this principle. It is a small tube filled
with mercury or alcohol. When the temperature is warm
what does the mercury do ? When the temperature is cool
what does it do ? By the expansion and contraction of the
mercury we are able to measure temperature.

CHAPTER XXIX

METHODS OF HEATING BODIES

How are bodies heated? Put the end of an iron
poker into a bed of glowing coals, or the end of an iron
rod in the flame of an alcohol lamp. Allow it to remain
fifteen or twenty minutes. Is it hot at any point except
where it was surrounded by the fire? How far from this
point can you detect heat by touching it? What then
must have taken place in the piece of iron? The heat
must have traveled slowly along from the part that was in
the fire to the other parts. When heat travels from one
particle of a body to another in this way we say that the
body is heated by conduction. How is a flatiron heated ?
The handle of a skillet or stewpan?

Will heat travel by conduction equally well in all kinds
of material ? Procure a piece of a small branch of a tree
about as large around and as long as the poker or iron rod
used in the last experiment. Trim oft all the twigs. Place
this and the poker side by side in the bed of coals or in the
flame of the alcohol lamp. Leave for ten minutes. Is
the wood hot enough to burn ? Is it as hot two inches from
the heated end as the iron was? How far from the end
can you detect heat in each? What do you conclude as
to the power wood has to conduct heat compared with that
of iron? Why are wooden handles placed on iron and
steel pokers, and on some cooking utensils ?

244

METHODS OF HEATING BODIES 245

Place your hand on the windowpane, then on the wood
of the window sash. Which conducts heat from your
hand more rapidly? Since these are side by side in the
room they are at the same temperature. The glass feels
colder because it takes the heat out of your hand so rapidly.
Which is the better conductor of heat, oilcloth or carpet ?
Why are woolen clothes warmer than cotton? Have the
pupils make a list of good conductors of heat and of poor
conductors.

While many solids are good conductors of heat, liquids
and gases are very poor conductors. Air is among the
poorest conductors known. Can you think of any prac-.
tical application of this fact? Double windows make a
room warmer, not so much because of the extra panes of
glass but because of the layer of air between the two sashes.

Since air is such a poor conductor, do you think it
would be possible ever to heat a room comfortably from a
stove standing in one corner or in the middle of the room
if there were no other method of heating ? How is a room
heated ?

Light a piece of punk or a candle. A piece of punk is
better but a candle will do. When the punk is smoking
well, hold it a few inches from the stove, first on one side
and then on another. Does the smoke or candle flame in-
dicate any movement of air ? How is the air moving at the
sides of the stove ? Above the stove ? Halfway between
the stove and the* wall of the room? In the corner of
the room ? Tie the punk on the end of a pointer or long
stick and note the movement of the air near the ceiling in
different parts of the room. Is the movement of the colder
air toward the stove or away from it ? What is the direc-

246 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

tion of the heated air near the stove ? Can you account for
these movements of the air ? You have already seen that
heat expands air. Is heated air heavier or lighter than
colder air ? What does the cold air really do with the light
air?

Fill a tumbler two thirds full of very cold water. Heat
some water almost to the boiling point and put a few drops
of red or black ink in it. Now make a paper tube by
rolling up a sheet of paper. Hold this tube in the middle
of the glass of water with the end on the bottom of the glass.
Now pour some of the warm colored water into the tube.
. Watch it as it begins to come out at the bottom of the tube.
Slowly lift the tube. Why does the colored water come to
the top of the glass ? Why did the ice come to the top of the
glass of water in a former experiment ? In the same way
that the ice floats in the water, and the warm water floats
on the cold water, so the warm air floats on heavier, colder
air. Or we may say the cold air buoys up, or holds up, or
even pushes up the lighter air. Can air ever be perfectly
quiet in a room in which one portion is a little warmer
than another portion ? What will be the direction of this
movement, from light to heavy air, or from heavy to light?
With a little thinking the pupils will see that the move-
ment must always be from the heavy toward the light.

How about air out of doors? What makes it move?
When there is a difference of temperature there must be
difference in pressure, hence movement of air, or wind.
Other things as well as temperature may make the air
lighter in some places than in others. But, whatever the
cause, difference of pressure results in movement.

The method of heating by which the heated bodies

METHODS OF HEATING BODIES

247

move about from one place to another is called heating by
convection currents. When you fill a teakettle with cold
water, and set it on the stove, will there be any movement
of the water while it is heating ? Where will the warmest
water always be found, at the top or bottom ? Where will
the convection current stop ? When it all reaches the same
temperature. When will the convection current of air in a
room stop ? When you light a lamp, what is the direc-
tion of the convection current which carries fresh air to the
flame? Determine this by holding a smoking match or
piece of punk below the burner and above the chimney.

There is still another method of heating bodies. Hold
the end of the poker in the stove till it is quite hot. Take
it out and hold your hand above it. Can you feel any heat
coming from it? Hold your hand below and at the sides.
Is heat coming from it in all directions? This kind of
heat is called radiant heat. It is the heat that streams off
in straight lines from any heated body. It does not have
to have air to travel then. It is the kind of heat that we
get from the sun.

Does a stove radiate any heat? You have only to
stand in front of a hot stove to feel the heat striking your
face. Set a chair about two feet from a hot stove. After
half an hour or more feel the chair. How has it been
heated? Chiefly by radiation from the stove. How is
the schoolroom heated when it has a stove in it? A little
discussion will show that it is heated by convection currents
and radiation.

When the rays of heat strike a body, what becomes of
them ? What did the chair do with the rays from the hot

stove ? It absorbed them, or at least part of them. No
17

248 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

doubt some were reflected or thrown back. Some sub-
stances allow some rays of heat to pass through them.
This is true of glass. The rays of heat from the sun pass
through it. What use do florists make of this ?

How is the soil or ground heated ? The radiant heat
of the sun strikes it, and while some of this is reflected back
into the air, some of it is absorbed into the top layer of soil.
Just as different substances differ in their power to con-
duct heat, so some substances absorb heat more rapidly
than others.

Lay a piece of black cloth on the surface of the snow
on a sunshiny day. Beside it lay a white cloth. Under
which does more snow melt? Which absorbs more heat
from the sun ? Which is warmer, black or white clothing ?
Which will get warm sooner in the spring, a black soil or a
light-colored one?

How does a body that is heated lose its heat ? Think
again of the hot-poker experiment. Did it get cold after
you held it awhile in the air? What do you mean by
"getting cold"? It gave out, or radiated heat. How
does the earth cool ? Just as the poker did. All day long
while the sun shines the earth absorbs heat. All night long
it radiates heat. What do you think becomes of this heat
that the earth gives out? Much of it is absorbed by the air,
or rather by the water vapor in the air, and thus it warms
the air. In fact, the air is warmed much more by the heat
from the earth than it is from the direct rays of the sun
that pass through it.

CHAPTER XXX

GERMINATION OF SEEDS

FROM our study of flowers we know that fertilization
results in a seed. We are now ready to find out what a
seed is, and what it does.

In preparation for this lesson soak a number of large
beans in water overnight. Keep a few of the dry beans
for comparison. Remove the covering from a soaked
bean. What is inside? These two thickened bodies
are called seed leaves. The short rodlike sprout is
called the hypocotyl. What do you find at the inner
end of the hypocotyl? This little bunch of leaves is
the plumule. These three things, the seed leaves,
the hypocotyl, and the plumule comprise the little plant-
let in the seed. If we wish to be exact we shall call
it the embryo. Another name for the seed leaves is
cotyledon. A plant whose embryo has two cotyledons
is called a dicot. How does the soaked seed differ
from the dry one? Can you find the place where the
water entered?

What does each part of the embryo produce? To
answer this, plant some of the beans in moist sand or soil.
These may be planted several weeks before time for the
lesson. Do the seed leaves come up above the ground?
What becomes of them ? Why do they slowly shrivel up ?
The food stored in them is being used up in feeding the

249

250

NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

growing plant. What does the hypocotyl make? The
pupil will be interested to see that the lower part of it
makes root, while the upper part makes stem. What has
the plumule become? Plant some pea seeds. Do the
seed leaves come above the ground ?

Soak some corn seeds at least twenty-four hours.
Compare the dry seed with the soaked one. What part
of the seed has been changed? This shows where the
germ or embryo is located. Remove the covering from the
soaked grain. You can now see the germ, which is dirty
white in color. With a knife dig this out of the grain.
You will find that instead of two seed leaves or cotyledon?
this has but one. Plants whose seeds have but one cotyle-
don are called monocots.

Cut the embryo open to find the rodlike hypocotyl and
plumule. Which end is plumule? Which hypocotyl?
To determine this, place a few soaked grains on some moist
blotting paper or sand on a plate. Turn another plate
over this. Keep moist. In a week the seeds will be
ready to answer the question.

Is there much of the grain of corn left after the embryo
is removed? This is called the endosperm. Wliat is it
for? Leave this as a problem to be solved later if
there is any doubt in the minds of the pupils.

What conditions are necessary for the germination of
seeds? For the following experiments beans, peas, or
corn are good. Soak five seeds, place them on moist
blotting paper in a cup, and set in a warm place. Treat
five other seeds in exactly the same way, but place the cup
in a very cool place. If some one has a refrigerator, have
it placed in this. Be sure to keep both moist but not wet.

GERMINATION OF SEEDS 251

What is your conclusion as to the effect of temperature on
the germination of seeds?

Arrange two other cups as in the first experiment, but
in one put dry blotting paper and dry seeds. Place these
side by side in a warm place. What is your conclusion as
to the effect moisture has on germination ?

Arrange two cups as in the first experiment. Set them
side by side in a warm place. Leave one open to the light.
Cover the other so that the seeds will be in total darkness.
Is light necessary for germination ?

Arrange two cups as above. In one place the seeds on
moist blotting paper. Fill the other full of water. What
do the seeds lack that are covered with water ? Can they
germinate without air? Test this in another way. Pro-
cure two widermouthed bottles of the same size. Fill each
full of water and drop some dry sand into the water till it
stands an inch from the bottom in one and within an inch
of the top in the other. Let it stand till the sand has
settled, then pour off the surplus water and drop into each
five seeds. Put in stoppers and cover with melted paraf-
fin or vaseline to keep out air. Which bottle contains
more air? Note carefully to see if the amount of air
affects germination.

Does the method of planting seeds have any effect on
germination ?

Plant some corn in a pot or can in very loose soil.
Plant the same number of grain in another can, but in this
one firm the soil down on the seeds with your hand.
Watch carefully to see which germinates first. Place some
moist soil one half inch deep in a two-quart Mason jar or
a deep candy jar ; close to the glass on one side plant a grain

252 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

of corn, and on the other side a bean. Fill in an inch and
a half or two inches more soil, and plant another seed of
each kind. Continue this until the last are planted within
an inch of the top. Watch to see whether depth of plant-
ing affects germination and subsequent growth of the plant.

Plant some radish or other small seeds three inches
deep in tumblers. At the same time plant others at varying
depths, the last a little below the surface of the ground.
Note effect on growth. A good rule to follow in planting
most small seeds is to cover them with soil about four times
as deep as the seeds are wide.

Is there anything else worth considering in planting
seeds ? In putting in a farm crop or garden plant one of
the most important things is to be sure that the seeds
planted will germinate. Sometimes all of the conditions
are right but there is something wrong with the seeds
themselves. We can never be perfectly certain that a seed
has the power to awaken into a growing plant until we try
it. To make then a germination test of grains that are to
be planted is very important.

Germination test of corn. From the fall study desir-
able ears of corn have been selected from desirable stalks.
Now we must see whether or not these will grow. Six
grains from each ear should be chosen for the test, two of
these near the butt, two near the middle, and two toward
the tip. A simple method of testing is to put about three
inches of moist sand in the bottom of a box. Rule this off
into squares, two and one half inches each way. Place
six grains on each square with the germ side up. Number
the squares and ears to correspond. Place a sheet of
muslin or cheese cloth over the grains, cover with sand,

GERMINATION OF SEEDS 253

keep moist and warm. When the grains have sprouted
examine carefully and discard all ears whose six grains do
not all show vigorous germination. The test may be
made by putting moist sand or soil in a dinner plate,
dividing it into sections and planting the grains in these.
Turn another plate over the top to keep in the moisture.
Encourage the children to make a germination test for the
corn which is to be planted at home.

Home and Vacation Experiments

1 . Plant two hills six inches deep, two four inches, two
two inches. Give all the same sort of cultivation and note
results.

2. Dig up a few plants that have been growing one
week. Examine the grain to see if any changes are shown.
Repeat with other plants at the end of two weeks' growth,
and again after three and four weeks. Compare condi-
tions. What has become of all the food material that was
in the grain?

3. Cultivate one row of corn deep, and close to the
hill; another shallow, early in the season, and deeper
later in the season. This makes a good soil mulch
which keeps the moisture in the ground. Cultivation
also destroys weeds, and loosens the soil so the air may
reach the roots.

4. Secure three or four varieties of corn and distribute
different kinds to different pupils to plant half a dozen or
more hills; cultivate well and compare yields.

5. Plant seeds obtained from stalk bearing two ears
and see if you can produce many stalks with two ears.

254 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

6. Plant one stalk of corn alone in the middle of the
garden in which no other corn is grown.

7. Plant two hills of white corn and two of yellow side
by side.

8. Cover half a dozen ears with paper bags just at the
time the silk begins to grow, (a) Pollinate four ears by
hand, using pollen from same stalk; then cover with bags to
keep other pollen from falling on silks. To do this collect
some pollen in a saucer and gently rub the silk in this. (6)
Perform the same experiment with four other ears, but
use pollen from other stalks, thus cross pollinating them.
Detassel these stalks to make sure that there will be no
self-pollination. Compare results of (a) and (6).

9. Plant four hills forty-four inches apart with five
grains in each, four hills with four grains, and four with
three grains. Compare numbers of good ears produced in
each lot. Compare weight of corn raised in each lot.

10. Keep a record of the time of planting, time of
blossoming, time of maturing. Note effect of dry weather
on corn; of wet weather. Keep a list of insects you may
find on your corn plants.

Farmers* Bulletin: The Germination 0} Seed Corn,
No. 253.

CHAPTER XXXI

STUDY OF OATS

General Problems. — What varieties of oats, and what
methods of culture seem best adapted to soil and weather
conditions in the vicinity of the school ?

Begin the work with a study of the grain. Note its
shape, size, and color. Compare different varieties in
regard to these points. Remove the hull and compare
the grain with those of wheat and rye.

Ask each pupil to bring in a handful of seed oats, or
oats from the granary. Test these for purity. To do this
have the pupils spread their samples on a sheet of paper
or on the table. Look closely for foreign bodies of any
sort. Are there any weed seeds? Can you identify any
of these? Put all the weed seeds and trash in one pile and
all the oats in another. About what per cent of your
sample is oats ? If you wish to be exact, weigh the sample
before spreading it out, then weigh the pure oats and com-
pute per cent, of purity.

What other characteristic do you want your seed oats
to have? The most important quality of all is their
power to germinate. To test this place some moist sand
or soil in a dinner plate, or box. Select one hundred seeds
from your sample. Scatter these over the sand, not allow-
ing any two to touch each other. With your finger press
gently each grain so that it \vill rest firmly in the sand, but

255

256 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

not be covered. Turn another plate over this one, set in a
warm place and keep the sand moist.

Watch for the germination of the seeds. How long
after planting before the first sprout appears ? Allow the
grains to remain at least one day after germination begins,
then remove the sprouted grains daily till all have sprouted
that will. By counting the grains that are left you will be
able to determine the per cent that germinated. If you
do not wish to take the time to remove the sprouted grain
each day, allow the plate to stand three or four days after
the grains have begun to sprout, then remove those that
have failed to germinate and compute your per cent of
•germination as before. Did all the grains show equal
vigor of germination? Would you expect to get a good
stand of oats from seed whose germination test was not
higher than sixty or seventy per cent ?

When should oats be planted? Let the class discuss
this question, drawing upon their experiences for opinions.
Perhaps a good rule to follow is, Sow as early in the spring
as the soil is dry enough to work well.

What are the different methods of sowing oats ? What
is the advantage of using the drill over sowing broadcast ?
If you have a school garden measure off two plots exactly
the same size. Measure or weigh enough oats to sow one
in drills. Sow exactly the same amount on the other,
broadcast. At the harvesting determine which gives the
better yield. If this cannot be done in the school garden,
encourage some of the boys to try the experiment at home.

How many bushels of oats does it take to sow an acre ?
You will probably find differences of opinion in regard to
this, as some farmers believe in sowing the grain thicker

STUDY OF OATS

257

than others. The average, however, is from three to
three and a half bushels per acre. Does it take more or
less wheat to plant an acre ? It takes from one and a half
to two bushels of wheat.

How deep should oats be planted ? An inch of soil is
sufficient, but they may be covered deeper than this and
still do well. An experiment may be tried either in the
school garden or at home to determine what effect depth
of planting has on the development of the plant. Arrange
six drills side by side varying from one to six inches in
depth. Sow the same amount of seed in each drill; cover
and watch results. Is there any apparent difference in the
rapidity of growth ? Are the heads equally well developed ?
Is there any difference in the amount of grain produced?

Watch the development of the plant. How long after
planting till the plants appear above the ground? How
low a temperature can these young plants stand? Does
a, frost kill them ? Note the habits of growth of the plant ?
Does one root send up more than one stem ?

The following questions may be given to the pupils to
work out during vacation. When does the plant begin to
send up the flowering stem ? Wtrere is this stem situated ?
How tall does it grow ? Measure several and get the aver-
age. Are the oats throughout the field even as to height ?
[f there are spots where they are much taller or lower than
the average, see if you can account for them.

Does the flowering stem branch? This kind of a
branching flower cluster is called a panicle. If the
branches spread equally on all sides the oats are called
spreading or panicled. If the branches are more numerous
on one side than on the other they are called side oats.

258 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

Decide what kind you have growing in your field. . Look
at one of the small flowers. Can you find stamens and
pistil?

How long does it take the grain to form after the
flowers have opened? When are the grains ripe? What
change in color takes place as the grain ripens? What
part of the plant begins to change color first ? When the
leaves have turned yellow they can no longer do their
work. Which leaves continue their work longest? How
many good grains in one head of oats ? Do you find any
heads with smut on them ? How has the smut affected the
development of the grain ? What is the color of the smut
spores? Can you determine in any way what pecentage?
of the field is affected with smut ? Count the number of
blasted heads and also the good heads in ten hills in one spot
in the field. Do the same in five other spots and com-
pute the per cent. Do you find any spots of rust on the
leaves? Does this seem in any way to affect the develop-
ment of the plant?

How many different kinds of weeds are there in, the oats
field? Can you determine which are annual and which
perennial ? Are there any that ripen their seeds about the
time the oats are harvested? Do you find any weeds just
above the surface of the ground when the oats are cut?
Do these develop rapidly after harvest?

Can you find any insects on the oats? Look for the
green aphids. Are there any ladybug beetles and their
young feeding upon the aphids?

CHAPTER XXXII

PLANT PRODUCTS

THE purpose of this lesson on plant products is to
lead the pupils to discover the various substances found in
plants and to prepare them for the lessons in soil chemistry
which follow.

Have the pupils scrape as fine as possible one or two
potatoes. Place the scrapings in a tumbler of water, stir
thoroughly two or three times, and set aside to settle.
Examine the next day. What do you find in the bottom
of the tumbler ? Drain off all the water and potato pulp,
leaving nothing but the starchy-looking mass in the bottom.
Boil some water over the alcohol lamp and pour a little of
this into the tumbler, stirring until the starch thickens.
This resembles ordinary starch used for clothes. There
is a chemical test, however, that will prove beyond any
doubt that this is starch. Place a small quantity of the
starch on a plate or saucer, and then put two or three drops
of iodine on it. Tincture of iodine that may be bought
at any drug store will serve the purpose. This may be
diluted with water. What is the effect of the iodine on this
substance? The blue color indicates the presence of the
starch. The darker the blue the more starch is present.
Sometimes it is almost black. Place a drop of iodine on a
slice of potato. Does it show as much starch as that
which was cooked? The reason the latter shows more

259

260 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

starch is that the boiling water causes the walls of the starch
granules to burst open and the iodine can act more readily
upon the starch. Pour a little boiling water over some
flour and test it for starch; over cornmeal, oatmeal; corn-
starch, etc.

Soak some grains of corn for forty-eight hours, or half
an hour in hot water. Each pupil should have at least two
grains. At the pointed end of the grain find the tip cap.
Remove this. The cap may be lacking on some grains,
having been left on the cob. With a knife or a pin remove
the hull. You will see that the grain is covered with a thin,
smooth material that with care may be scraped off with
a knife. This is called horny gluten. Now dig out the
germ or embryo. (See lesson on germination of seeds.)
Split open the remaining part of the grain. How many
kinds of material are left? Place the white, granular
material found near the top of the grain in a pile. Add to
it the same kind of material found near the tip. Put the
hard, solid-looking substance in another pile. You now
have six different substances found in your grain of corn.
Test each of these with iodine, just as you did your potato
starch and flour. It is better to crush them as much as
possible before putting on the hot water. What part
shows the most starch ? It is probable that the soft granu-
lar part will turn the darkest blue. This part is known as
crown starch. The solid, hard part, if thoroughly boiled,
will show some starch. This is called horny starch.
What parts do not contain any starch? This means of
course that there must be some substances other than starch
in the grain of corn.

Remove some fresh embryos from soaked grains and

PLANT PRODUCTS 261

crush them on a sheet of white writing paper. Hold the
paper between you and the light. What does this show ?
The grease spot indicates the presence of oil or fat. Test
other seeds in this way for oil, such as sunflower, squash
or pumpkin, flaxseed, etc. Have some of the pupils put a
small pinch of each of the following on a sheet of paper:
flour, cornmeal, any cereal breakfast food, buckwheat, and
ground coffee. Place the sheet in a hot oven and keep it
there several minutes. Now see whether the paper shows
that any of these things contain oil. Have the pupils name
some plants whose seeds contain so much oil that it is
extracted and used for various commercial purposes.

Besides starch and oil, plants contain other substances
known as proteids. In your physiology you may have
learned of albumen as a kind of proteid. One of the
purest types of proteid known is the white of egg. A
chemical test may be made for proteid as follows: Dissolve
in a two-ounce bottle of warm water about one fifth of an
ounce of caustic potash (potassium hydroxide). Care
should be taken not to let the potash touch the hands or
clothing. Make another solution by dissolving a piece of
copper sulphate (bluestone) about as large as a lima bean
in a two-ounce bottle of warm water. Place a small
quantity of the white of an egg on a plate or saucer and pour
a little of the first solution over it. Warm the plate gently.
Be careful not to cook the egg. Now add a little of the
second solution and stir with a splinter. What change of
color do you note ? The beautiful violet purple is due to
the presence of proteid.

Soak some beans overnight. After removing the skins,
crush the beans and place on a warm plate. Test for

262 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

proteid as you did the egg. You may have to wait several
hours before you can be sure of a change of color. A good
plan is to start a number of tests on a plate and set away
till the next day. Test different parts of the corn grain,
squash seed, etc. What part of the corn grain shows the
most proteid? What part the least?

There is another substance in plants for which you do
not need to make a chemical test. You have been testing
it all your life. Why does a sweet potato taste sweeter
than the common white potato? Name other plants that
have sugar in them. From what plants is the sugar of
commerce obtained ? All starch found in plants is changed
into sugar before it can be absorbed by plants or animals,
for starch is insoluble, and all substances absorbed by
living bodies must be dissolved.

Is there any part of your corn grain that does not seem
to have any of these substances named above? The hulls
are made up mostly of a substance called cellulose. Cellu-
lose is found in all plants, and is the material that gives
strength and firmness to the different parts. It is found
in the cell walls, in fibers of stems, roots, and leaves, as well
as in fruits and seeds. It is harder and thicker in some
parts of plants than others, as in stems, husks, and roots.
The fibers of cotton, hemp, and flax are made chiefly of
cellulose. Soak some common newspaper or writing paper
in water till all the sizing is washed out. The pulp which
remains is almost pure cellulose.

Cellulose may be obtained from plants by the following
process : Dry thoroughly some stalks of corn or sunflower.
Pulverize as fine as possible. Cover with water in which
are a few drops of sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, and boil

PLANT PRODUCTS 263

half an hour or more. Now cover with water in which
you have put a little potash, and boil again. Pour off the
liquid. The pulp that is left is chiefly cellulose.

One more substance may be found in plants. Here is
a green leaf. Just how much starch, sugar, oil, and pro-
teid it may have in it we do not know. But we do know
that it has something besides these. Place the leaf in a
bottle or tumbler and pour a little clear alcohol over it.
Cover the bottle or tumbler to prevent the evaporation of
the alcohol. Examine the next day. What has hap-
pened? The green coloring matter that the alcohol has
dissolved out of the leaf is chlorophyll. We shall find out
something about the value of this substance in a later
lesson.

Where do the plants get all of these substances? A
discussion of this question will bring out the fact that
plants manufacture them. They may then be called plant
products. It will add interest to the work to have the
pupils make a collection of these plant products. These
should be put into bottles and carefully labeled. The
following are the products most available for this purpose:

Starch — from corn or potatoes.

Sugar — ordinary cane sugar.

Oil — linseed, cottonseed, corn.

Proteid — corn, beans, peas.

Fiber — cotton, flax.

Cellulose — prepare from stems or hulls of corn.

Chlorophyll — obtain by placing green leaves in alcohol.

18

CHAPTER XXXIII

SIMPLE EXPERIMENTS IN SOIL CHEMISTRY

IN the preceding chapter it was brought out that plants
manufacture certain plant products. Now, if plants are
factories, what equipment must they have? Machinery,
power, and raw material out of which to make the starch,
sugar, etc. What is the source of this raw material ?

By discussion it may be brought out that the environ-
ment of the plant is air, soil, and soil water; hence these
are the only available sources from which the plant may
obtain raw material to make the plant products.

Just how the plants procure the raw material, and how
they make the foods, we shall take up for consideration in
some later lessons. At present we are concerned chiefly
in finding out what the materials are that the plants use in
making foods and plant tissues.

We know that we cannot find starch as starch in the
environment of the plants. We also know that starch is
made up of several substances which are united to form
what we call a chemical compound.

What is a chemical compound?

Here is some table salt which is a good illustration of a
compound. It is made by the chemical union of two things,
sodium and chlorine. Let us look at these. Do either
of them resemble salt? Yet chemists can separate salt

264

EXPERIMENTS IN SOIL CHEMISTRY 265

into these two things; although they cannot separate
sodium and chlorine into other substances, and so they are
called elements.

What then is an element? There are only between
seventy and eighty elements known. Everything else in
the world is in the form of a compound. How are com-
pounds formed? By the chemical union of two or more
elements. Just to mix the elements together will not neces-
sarily make a compound. They must unite in definite
proportions. In order to know what we mean by this you
must know that everything in the world is made up of very
small particles called molecules. The molecules are so
small that they cannot be seen by the most powerful
microscope. Each molecule is made up of still smaller
particles called atoms. Now when a chemical union takes
place a certain number of atoms of one element unite with
a certain number of atoms of another element or elements
and make a molecule of a new substance which is a com-
pound. We know that water is a chemical compound
made by the union of hydrogen and oxygen. Two atoms
of hydrogen unite with one atom of oxygen to make water,
hence we use the symbol H2O to stand for water.

Chemical unions are taking place constantly in the
world of nature.

Experiment. — Moisten a piece of iron (a nail or iron
filings) ; place the wet iron on a piece of paper exposed to
the air. Examine next day. What has happened? A
chemical combination has taken place between the iron
and the oxygen in the air. In common terms we call this
rust. It is iron oxide, or if hydrogen has also combined
with the iron and oxygen, which is probable, it is iron

266 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

hydroxide. What happens to iron of any sort when left
exposed to the air?

Another simple experiment to show a chemical com-
bination may be performed. Place a small piece of sulphur
on a bright silver coin and set the sulphur on fire. When
it has burned look at the coin. What has taken place?
The dark substance is silver sulphide. A chemical com-
bination has taken place between the sulphur and the
silver. Was all the sulphur used in making the silver
sulphide ? What did you see taking place above the coin ?
Was anything uniting with the sulphur to form the blue
flame or smoke ? This compound is sulphur dioxide. It
is a gas, and escaped into the air. How did you know it
was in the air?

Now in plants chemical combinations take place which
result in the plant products we have found. Starch is a
combination of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon. The
symbols for these are O, H, and C respectively. Proteid
is a combination of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen with
nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, and often other elements.

Plants not only succeed in uniting elements into com-
pounds, but in some cases they separate a compound into
its elements and use the elements to make a new compound.

We may succeed in separating some compounds into
their elements.

Experiment. — Heat in a test tube a level teaspoonful of
potassium chlorate mixed with the same amount of man-
ganese dioxide. After a few minutes hold a lighted splinter
in the mouth of the tube. What happens? Is there
something in the tube that was not there at the beginning,
even though you cannot see it ? The heat has caused the

EXPERIMENTS IN SOIL CHEMISTRY 267

potassium chlorate to give out some of the oxygen that
was in the combination in it. A good test for oxygen is to
hold a glowing splinter in it, and the splinter will burn very
brightly.

Where does the plant get the oxygen that it uses in
making starch ? It probably gets it, as well as the hydrogen,
from the water which it gets out of the soil. What must
first be done with the water ?

If you wish to obtain hydrogen, place in a glass jar or
wide-mouthed bottle (an olive or pickle bottle will serve
the purpose) a number of small pieces of zinc, and cover
with a solution of sulphuric acid and water; about a sixth
or seventh as much acid as water. The bubbles that are
given off are hydrogen. Be very careful not to allow the
sulphuric acid to touch your hands or clothing. Place in
the bottle in which the hydrogen is being generated a
stopper through which a glass tube passes and extends two
or three inches above. After the hydrogen has been com-
ing off for several minutes apply a lighted match to the end
of the tube. What happens? The hydrogen gas burns.
This is a good test for hydrogen. Care should be taken
not to apply the match until all the air is out of the
bottle.

Where does the plant get the carbon? This is ob-
tained from the air. How do we know that plants contain
carbon ? Place a small piece of wood (hard wood is best)
on a piece of wire screen, or on a tin pie plate, or in a test
tube. Heat by holding the flame of the alcohol lamp under
it. When it stops smoking note what is left. This char-
coal is mostly carbon. What is its color ? Think of other
plants which you have seen heated or partially burned,

268 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

such as leaves, grass, corn stalks, brush. Do you re-
member seeing any charcoal or carbon ?

We said the plant gets its carbon out of the air. Do
you think it gets it in the form in which you see the carbon
in the charcoal? It gets it in the form of a gas called
carbon dioxide, CO2. Is this gas an element or a com-
pound? How do you know? We may make some
carbon dioxide in the following manner. Place a heaping
teaspoonful of soda in a glass half full of water and add to
this a few teaspoonfuls of vinegar. Stir and see what
happens. This gas that bubbles up is carbon dioxide.
What does the CO2 tell you about a molecule of the
gas? Test for carbon dioxide with limewater. Lime-
water may be made by placing a piece of unslaked lime in
a bottle, and filling the bottle nearly full of water. Shake
well, and set aside for twenty-four hours. The clear water
on top is limewater.

Pour a little of the carbon dioxide from the glass, while
the bubbles are coming off most rapidly, into a glass which
contains a little limewater. Shake well. What change
has taken place? The milky limewater is a sure test for
carbon dioxide. Test your breath for carbon dioxide by
breathing through a straw or tube into a glass containing a
little limewater.

We have already discussed three elements that plants
use in manufacturing food. What are the other things
that are needed ? The following is a list of elements that
plants need: Oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, sulphur,
phosphorus, iron, magnesium, potassium (usually in the
form of potash), sodium, chlorine, silicon, calcium. Many
plants can get along without sodium, chlorine, and silicon.

EXPERIMENTS IN SOIL CHEMISTRY 269

How can we show that plants contain potash ? Place
some unbleached wood ashes in a dish or pan and cover
with water. Stir thoroughly several times. Allow the
mixture to settle, then pour off the water. Place some of
the water in a cup and boil till all the water is eva*porated.
The yellow ash substance that is left is potash. Test it by
moistening and rubbing between your thumb and finger.
It feels like lye or soap.

We have seen that the first three elements named above
are supplied to the plant from the water and air. Then all
the rest must be obtained from the soil.

At this point it will be worth while to take at least one
recitation period to discuss what soil is, its origin, and the
agents that have aided and are aiding in making it.

How many of the things furnished the plants by the soil
may be found as elements in the soil ? Can you find sul-
phur or phosphorus as such in the soil? (Sulphur may
be found as an element in volcanic regions.) If not, then
in what form must they exist?

Examine some sulphur, and then some calcium sulphate
or plaster of Paris. It is in this form that much of the
sulphur that is used by plants exists in the soil. Sulphuric
acid is also found in many soils.

The compounds that exist in the soil may be acids,
alkalies, or salts. We may make some simple tests to
determine which one of these three, any chemical com-
pound is.

Test for Acid. — Litmus paper is one of the simplest
tests. Place a small piece of litmus paper in weak vinegar.
What color does the paper take on ? Put a few drops of
sulphuric acid in half a glass of water and test with the

270 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

paper. What is your conclusion as to the effect of an acid
on litmus paper?

Test for Alkali. — Place a piece of the red litmus paper
that you used in an acid in a weak solution of potash and
water, ^hat change in color takes place? From this
you may draw the conclusion that litmus paper is red in
acids and blue in alkalies. Try other substances: sweet
milk, sour milk, ammonia, lime water.

Test for Salt. — Fill a glass half full of weak vinegar
and slowly add to it limewater. Test at intervals with
litmus paper. When the litmus paper does not change
color it shows that the solution has become neutral. It is
neither acid nor alkali, but a salt.

Make a weak solution of nitric acid, and add to this a
solution of caustic potash until the litmus paper shows
that the solution is neutral. You now have a salt known as
potassium nitrate or saltpeter. You can get the nitrate
by evaporating the water.

It is in the form of nitrates that most of the nitrogen
that plants use is obtained. There is plenty of nitrogen
in the air, but plants cannot use this. They must get all
their nitrogen from the soil.

Soils may contain more acids than are good for plants.
We may test soils for acidity and alkalinity just as we tested
other things.

Boil a sample of soil to be tested in a small quantity of
water. Let it settle, and when perfectly clear pour off the
liquid into a white dish and test with litmus paper. You
may have to leave the paper in for some time. If the paper
turns red, what is your conclusion in regard to the soil?
If blue ? If there is no change of color ?

EXPERIMENTS IN SOIL CHEMISTRY 271

A simple method of testing soil is as follows: Make a
paste out of soil and water. Place one end of a small
strip of litmus paper in the paste. Allow it to stand for an
hour or more, and then note whether or not the color has
changed. This should be tried several times before a con-
clusion is reached. Have the children bring in small
quantities of soil from fields and gardens. Test these
different kinds for acidity and alkalinity.

If a soil is acid, mix a small quantity of lime with it and
test again. If a sufficient quantity of lime is applied the
acid is neutralized and the soil is sweetened.

Let us now look over the remaining substances given
to plants by the soil and try to get some idea of how they
exist in the soil. Iron is found chiefly in the form of iron
oxides. What are these combinations of? Silicon is
largely in sand. Some plants seem to be able to get along
without this. Calcium is in the limestones. Burn a piece
of lime rock. It now becomes quicklime. Is it easily
broken ? Put it in water to see if it will dissolve. Potas-
sium is in the form of potassium carbonate. Chlorine is in
combination with sodium, while the sodium is frequently
obtained from another compound, sodium bicarbonate.
Phosphorus is in the form of phosphates and phosphoric
acid.

It is easy to see that sodium cannot exist in the soil as
an element. Place a small piece on the surface of water in
a pan or dish. What does it do? It unites at once with
the water. In the laboratory it must be kept under kero-
sene or naphtha.

It may be shown also that phosphorus cannot exist as
an element in the soil. In the laboratory it is kept under

272 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

water. It has such an affinity for oxygen that the moment
it is exposed to the air it begins to unite with oxygen.
Place a small piece, not larger than a sweet-pea seed, on a
porcelain dish and watch it. It slowly unites with the
oxygen of the air. Care should be taken not to touch
phosphorus with the finger, or to leave it where it will
touch anything that will burn.

Phosphoric acid may be obtained by burning a bone,
pulverizing it, and placing it in a bottle with a weak solution
of sulphuric acid. The lime of the bone and the sulphuric
acid unite and leave the clear liquid, the phosphoric acid,

Now make a collection of as many of the elements and
compounds used by plants as you can get.

Some time should be taken at this point for the dis-
cussion of what is meant by fertility of the soil. Of the
ten elements that all plants must have, seven are supplied
by the soil. Name these seven. Where do the plants get
oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon? If any of the elements
supplied by the soil are lacking or are not in an available
form, we say the soil is poor, or is lacking in fertility. There
are many physical conditions as well as plant materials that
help to make soil fertile. These will be discussed in a
later lesson. But all the proper physical conditions known
will not make a fertile soil if it lacks any of the elements
that plants must have in order to manufacture their plant
products.

Most of the substances used by plants exist in such
abundance in the soil that there is little danger of their
becoming exhausted. Three elements, however, that all
farm crops use are not so abundant. These are phos-
phorus, potassium, and nitrogen. In some places calcium

EXPERIMENTS IN SOIL CHEMISTRY 273

also is lacking. If fields are cultivated year after year the
plants are constantly removing these substances from the
soil. If nothing is done to return these substances of
course the soil becomes so deficient in these plant materials
that plants cannot thrive in it. It is very important that
farmers see to it that the lack is supplied in some way.

There are several ways in which the soil may be kept
with a sufficient amount of plant materials. Among these
are the application of barn manures, the plowing under of
green crops, and the use of commercial fertilizers.

Among the commercial fertilizers, the following are in
common use:

For nitrogen, dried blood is used. This contains twelve
to fourteen per cent of nitrogen. Sodium nitrate is also
used, and this contains about fifteen per cent nitrogen.

For phosphorus, steamed bone meal is used, which con-
tains about twelve or fourteen per cent of phosphorus.
Rock phosphate is also used.

For potassium, potassium chloride is used, which has
forty to forty-two per cent of potassium. Kainit, which
contains twelve per cent of potassium, is also used.
Potassium carbonate in the form of wood ashes is also
used.

Lime is used as a fertilizer either in the form of gypsum,
quicklime, or slaked lime. While most soils have enough
lime to supply the needs of the plants, lime is, nevertheless,
of considerable value to any soil that has become acid, as we
have already seen by experiment. It also helps to unlock
the unavailable potash, phosphorus, and nitrogen in some
soils, and changes them to a form available for plant use.
Why do soils become sour ?

274 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

There are a number of agencies that tend to make soils
sour, especially soils that are constantly undergoing cultiva-
tion. In our study of fungi we discussed the bacteria that
cause organic matter in the soil to decay. Now as this
matter decays, acids of various kinds are given off. An-
other acid in the soil is carbon 'dioxide, some of which is
carried into the soil by the rain. Sulphuric and nitric acids
are also found in soils. Some of the nitric acid is formed
in the following way: When stable manure is plowed into
the soil certain bacteria feed upon it, making it decay, and
at the same time making part of it into ammonia. Other
bacteria feed upon the ammonia, making part of it into
nitric acid. Some of this acid remains in the soil, but some
of it unites with potassium or magnesium and forms
nitrates. It is in the form of these nitrates that plants
obtain the nitrogen from the soil.

From our study of clover and other legumes we know
that nitrogen may be also supplied by growing those plants
that produce root tubercles.

If possible, add to your collection samples of the com-
mercial fertilizers. In connection with this work a num-
ber of experiments in pot culture should be started. The
following is a list that has been tried successfully. Others
may suggest themselves to you.

Have the children bring in some soil from a field or
garden near the schoolhouse. If you have a- school garden
choose part of the soil from that. Use flower pots seven
or eight inches in diameter or small tin buckets or boxes.
If the latter are used be sure to provide for drainage.
Plant oats, or spring wheat, or some flowering plants like
nasturtium or zinnia.

EXPERIMENTS IN SOIL CHEMISTRY 275

No. i. Leave the soil as it was when brought in. This
we call a check pot.

No. 2. Mix thoroughly with the soil four grams of
dried blood or the same amount of potassium nitrate or
sodium nitrate.

No. 3. Potassium chloride four grams, or same amount
of kainit.

No. 4. Bone meal six grams, or same amount of sodium
phosphate.

No. 5. Mix together four grams of dried blood and six
grams of bone meal.

No. 6. Mix four grams of potassium chloride and six
grams of bone meal.

No. 7. Potassium chloride four grams, and dried blood
four grams, or saltpeter.

No. 8. Potassium chloride four grams, dried blood or
saltpeter four grams, and bone meal six grams.

No. 9. No fertilizer, hence another check pot.

No. 10. A small handful of slaked lime.

It will be of interest to start the same experiments in
different soils. If some of the children will bring in some
worn-out soil, a set of experiments in this will probably
bring some good results.

Have the children bring in some soil in which red
clover has been growing. Place some of it in a hot
oven for an hour or more. This will kill the bacteria
that are in it. Put this in a pot and plant red clover
seeds in it.

Place in another pot some of the soil that has not been
sterilized and plant clover in this. Water and treat both
exactly alike. When the plants have grown to be quite

276 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

large, dig up and examine the roots for tubercles. Why
do you find them on one and not on the other ?

These experiments may be varied by inoculating some
clover seed and planting in some of the sterilized soil. This
may be done by pouring some water over soil in which
bacteria are present and shaking thoroughly. When the
water is clear, pour over the clover seeds and plant.

Books and Bulletins: Principles of Agriculture, Bailey;
United States Department of Agriculture: Simple Exercises
Illustrating Some Applications of Chemistry to Agriculture;
Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin 195. Farmers'
Bulletins: The Liming of Soils, No. 77; Soil Fertility,
No. 257; Renovation of Work-out Soils, No. 245; Soil In-
vestigations in the United States, No. 169.

CHAPTER XXXIV

SOIL AND ITS ORIGIN

SINCE soil is so closely related to plant life and in-
directly to all life, we shall be interested to know something
about its origin and formation.

In preparation for this lesson, have the pupils bring in
different kind of soil: gravel, sand, clay, or silt, obtained
from the excavations of a well or for a building; loam, the
ordinary soil of field or garden; and humus, thoroughly
decayed leaf mold, old logs, or stumps from the woods.
If the pupils cannot procure these, the teacher should get
together a collection of the different kinds of soil. To the
above should be added pieces of rock of various kinds.

What is soil ? Lead the pupils to give their opinions.
We usually think of soil as the upper layer of earth capable
of supporting plant life. How thick is this true soil ? It
varies from a few inches to several feet. What is under
this ? If you have ever looked at the side of a freshly dug
ditch or well could you see a difference in the appearance
of the portion of the soil near the surface and that below ?
This lower, lighter colored portion is called subsoil. This
varies from a few inches to several hundred feet in thick-
ness. It varies also as to material. Sometimes it is sand,
sometimes gravel, sometimes very fine clay, sometimes
coarser clay or silt. Under this subsoil or mantle rock, as
it is sometimes called, is bedrock. Everyone who has ever

277

278 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

heard about boring wells knows that often the well digger
strikes solid rock and must abandon the excavation at
that point. Some of the bed rock juts out of hillsides only
a few feet below the surface, and in some places it is found
on the surface. The kinds of bedrock differ in different
regions.

If we look back far enough into the history of the earth,
we find evidences of a time when there was no soil as we
know it to-day. The surface was covered with solid rock,
wrinkled and ridged into mountains and valleys. All soil
has been formed from the breaking up of this solid rock.

How many agents can you think of that have helped to
break up this solid rock and make it into soil ? Change of
temperature from hot to cold has done much to break up
rock and make finer the broken rock. How does heat
affect most substances ? How does cold affect them ? If
these rocks expand when heated and contract when cooled,
what is likely to happen if they are heated and then cooled
rapidly? Did you ever spatter a drop of cold water on a
hot lamp chimney ? Why did it break ?

Freezing not only helps to break up solid rock, but helps
to pulverize soil. In your study of the effect of freezing on
water, what did you find out ? If water settles in the cracks
and crevices of rocks and then freezes, what will happen ?

Experiment. — Make a ball of garden soil by moistening
it and working it like dough. Now put it in the oven or on
top of the stove and let it get dry and hard. Pour some
water over it and set it out of doors where it will freeze.
What is the effect?

Rain, wind, and snow all help to disintegrate the rock.
Running water plays an important part, not only in helping

SOIL AND ITS ORIGIN 279

to grind rocks slowly into soil but also in carrying the soil
from one place to another. One of the chief agents in
making the soil in much of the United States was the gla-
ciers, of which you have learned in your geography. These
great bodies of ice came moving down over the country
from the north, grinding up the rocks and soil, carrying
vast masses of this ground-up material long distances, and
finally depositing them far from the places where they were
ground up.

Plants help also in breaking up rock. They do this in
two ways; by their roots penetrating rocks and soil, and by
an acid that they give out from their roots which acts
chemically upon the soil, dissolving it.

Besides all this broken-up rock, which is inorganic
matter, the soil, as we know it, has the humus or organic
matter in it. This is the part of the soil that gives it its
black color. It is, as we shall find out later, a most im-
portant part of the soil. Bacteria are constantly at work
on the humus in the soil, making new compounds, setting
free elements, and making the soil finer. So we can think
of the soil not as made, but as being made. It is con-
stantly changing, not only physically but chemically. It
is losing some things and gaining some, and where it is
under cultivation the gain and loss depend largely upon the
methods used in cultivating it.

19

CHAPTER XXXV

SOME PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND CONDITIONS OF SOIL

IN the preceding lessons we have learned that plants
use certain elements in manufacturing their foods and
products, and that they get these elements from compounds
which they obtain from the air, water, and soil. The
question now arises, how do plants get hold of this raw
material? In order to answer tljis question, we must
understand something about the physical conditions of the
soil as well as its chemical composition. In the first place,
plants cannot use the materials of the soil unless they are
soluble in water. What do we mean by this ?

Experiment. — Put some salt or sugar into a glass full
of water. Drop it in a little at a time, stirring gently until
it disappears. Since it dissolves it is said to be soluble in
water. Drop a little sulphur into the water and stir. Is
it soluble or insoluble? Try some chalk dust. Place a
few small pieces of limestone or marble in a tumbler.
Cover it with water and stir. Do they dissolve? Drop a
little acid into the tumbler. What is the effect ? Does the
acid aid in dissolving the rock?

We have already learned that acids of various kinds are
found in the soil. Some of these acids are valuable in
helping to change insoluble substances into soluble ones.
Of course we know that a soil may become too sour for

280

PROPERTIES AND CONDITIONS OF SOIL 281

plants to thrive well in it. Nevertheless, some acids are in-
dispensable.

If the raw material must be dissolved in water before
entering the plant, it is evident that there must be sufficient
water in the soil for this purpose. What is the source of the
soil water ? What becomes of the rain that falls upon the
earth ? Some runs off into streams, some evaporates, but
some soaks into the ground. What becomes of this
water ?

Experiment. — Place a handful of pebbles or gravel in
the bottom of a tumbler or, better, a quart jar. Cover
the gravel with a piece of wire screening or cheese cloth.
Then fill the jar with fine soil from a field or garden. Pour
me water on the soil. What does it do? As it soaks
into the soil, can you see it between the particles? Pour
n more until you can see water standing in the spaces
Between the pebbles in the bottom of the jar. When rain
ralls on the ground it does just what this water did. It
percolates slowly downward through the soil till it is stopped
)y an impervious layer, just as the bottom of the jar
itopped this. If it keeps on raining, what will happen ?
Pour more water into the jar until it stands on top of the
:ioil. Does this ever happen in the fields? Set the jar
iiside in a warm place till the water stands only a few inches
in the bottom.

The water that completely fills the spaces in the soil
and moves slowly downward by the force of gravity is
known as free water. Plants do not use this free water.
What part of the soil in the jar now has free water? If
the top layer of the soil seems very dry, remove it and lay
it aside. Take in your hand a little of the moist soil.

282 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

Does this have water standing in it ? Where is the moist-
ure ? This is called capillary water because it is found in
the pores of the soil. It is sometimes called film water,
because it forms a film around each particle.

Put a smooth pebble into some water. Take it out
and you can see a layer of water around it. This illus-
trates how each tiny particle of the soil holds a film of
moisture. Capillary water is that which is used by the
plants.

There is another form in which water is found in the
soil. This form is known as hygroscopic water. This is
held so firmly around the soil particles that it is very hard
to remove. Put a little very fine dry soil into a test tube
and heat it to a high temperature over the alcohol lamp.
What evidence have you that this dry soil had some
moisture in it?

Do different kinds of soil influence the amount of water
that soaks into the ground, and the amount retained?
Before answering this question let us become better ac-
quainted with the different soils. You have in your col-
lection several different kinds of soil; gravel, sand, silt or
clay, loam, and humus. Which is composed of the
coarsest particles ? Rub a little of each kind between your
thumb and finger. How do they differ? If you have a
lens, spread a little of each on white paper and examine
carefully. How do the particles of sand look ? Note the
jagged edges of the hardest particles. Can you find any
sand particles in the loam? In the clay?

Place some sand in a large iron spoon and heat it red
hot over the alcohol lamp? Does it burn? Try clay,
humus, loam. Which ones burn? It is the organic

PROPERTIES AND CONDITIONS OF SOIL 283

matter or humus in the loam that burns. If a spoon and
alcohol lamp are wanting, this experiment may be easily
performed by placing the soils on a shovel on a bed of coals
in the stove.

Which of the soils have the greatest capacity to take in
rain?

Experiment. — For this experiment you will need five
straight-topped lamp chimneys. Those belonging to the
student's lamp are best. Tie firmly over the top of each a
piece of cheese cloth or thin muslin. Now fill the chimneys
with equal amounts of different kinds of soil. If you have
both clay and silt use those and omit the gravel. The soils
should not contain lumps or coarse material. Firm the
soil by jarring the chimneys on the table. Have some boy
make a rack for the chimneys by boring or cutting a hole
for each in a board. The holes should be large enough to
allow the chimneys to slip through to the large portion
near the base. This board may be nailed to two uprights
or may be set on two blocks so that cups or tumblers may
be placed under the chimneys to catch the drippings.
Having measured a definite amount of water, pour it
slowly into one of the chimneys, noting the length of time
that transpires till the water begins to drop below into the
tumbler. Keep a record of the amount of water you pour
in. Do the same with each of the other chimneys. Which
soil took in the water most rapidly ? Which drained most
readily? Which was most porous? Which took in the
water most slowly? Which is capable of holding the
greatest amount of moisture ? To determine this, measure
the amount of water that dropped from each chimney and
compare with amount poured in.

284 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

Vary this experiment by filling one chimney with clay,
and another with the same kind of clay mixed with an
equal amount of humus. Pour the water in as before.
What is the effect of humus on the porosity of the soil?
It will take several days to complete these experiments.
In the meantime, cover the chimneys to prevent evapora-
tion of moisture from the soils.

What kind of water dripped from the soils ? This was,
of course, the free water that in a field could be removed
by under drainage. The most common method of under
drainage is by tiles made for this purpose. Later we shall
see that drainage benefits the soil in many ways. From
your experiments, which do you think stands more in need
of under drainage, a field with a sandy subsoil or one with
a heavy clay?

Is there any water left in the soil after the free water
has all dripped out? What becomes of this capillary
water ?

Fill a tumbler with moist soil. Over it invert another
tumbler the same size. Set it aside. Examine after
twenty-four hours. What do you find on the inverted
tumbler? Where did the moisture come from? What
may be done to prevent the evaporation of water from the
soil ? Again place moist soil in the tumbler. Put on top
a layer of very dry, fine soil, one inch deep. Invert a
tumbler over this as before, and note whether or not any
evaporation takes place. If the moisture in the top layer
of soil evaporates, does this in any way affect the moisture
farther down in the soil ? There is a movement of capil-
lary water through the soil which we can best understand
by some experiments.

PROPERTIES AND CONDITIONS OF SOIL 285

Fill the lamp chimneys once more with the different
kinds of dry soil. Stand them in a dish or pan of water so
that the mouth over which the cheese cloth is tied will rest
about half an inch in the water. What happens ? What
makes the water creep upward in the soils ?

Hang a towel over a desk so that about an inch of the
corner will rest in a dish of water sitting on the floor.
What takes place? The same thing is happening in the
towel and in the soil. The water is slowly rising. This
is due to what is known as capillarity or capillary attrac-
tion. To explain fully why this takes place would take us
too far into the subject of physics. It is enough for us to
know that liquids rise long distances through small tubes
or pores. We have a good illustration of this in the ordi-
nary lamp wick which conveys oil from the bowl of the
lamp to the top of the wick.

In which kind of soil does the water rise most rapidly ?
In which does it reach the greatest height ? If a field has
an abundance of water in the subsoil this may be lifted by
capillarity to the place where it will be of use to the growing
plants. What becomes of this water as it reaches the sur-
face of the ground ? May much of it be lost to the plants
by evaporation? Is there anything that may be done to
prevent this waste of moisture during the dry, summer
months ? We saw that a layer of fine, dry soil on the moist
soil in the tumblers retarded evaporation. Now place in
two tin pails (lard or syrup pails will serve the purpose)
equal amounts of moist soil. Firm the soil slightly by
jarring the pails. Set them side by side. Leave one un-
disturbed, but in the other stir thoroughly the upper two
inches of soil every day. Weigh at the end of a week.

286 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

Which has retained the most moisture? Why? Which
will keep the more moisture, a field in which the soil is
frequently stirred on top with a cultivator or one which is
left undisturbed ? Can you see why this is true ?

Place a lump of loaf sugar so that the lower part will
rest in some red or black ink. Does the ink rise by capil-
larity to the top of the sugar ? Place another lump beside
this one with a layer of granulated sugar scattered over
the top. Does the ink rise as rapidly through the loose
sugar as through the lump ? Why ?

In the same way, as long as the soil is left alone, the
water is constantly moving by capillarity to the surface and
evaporating. A layer of dry soil on top stops the capillary
flow of water and the moisture is conserved for the use of
the plants.

Vary the soil experiments by mixing humus with clay
in one chimney and with sand in another, and by putting
lumpy soil in one and fine soil in another.

In your study of germination of seeds you found that
warmth was one of the conditions that affected the germi-
nation. Does moisture in any way affect the temperature
of the soil?

Experiment. — For this experiment you will need two
cans; baking powder or tomato cans. In the bottom of
one punch a number of holes for drainage. Fill them with
the same kind of soil, and water thoroughly so that some
water stands on the top. Set them side by side in a warm
place, or in bright sunshine. Insert a thermometer an
inch under the surface of each and take readings several
times during the day. Which shows the Higher tempera-
ture at first? Later in the day? What is happening in

PROPERTIES AND CONDITIONS OF SOIL 287

the one that has holes in the bottom ? What is your con-
clusion as to the effect of drainage on temperature of soil ?
Other conditions being the same, which will give you the
warmer soil in the spring, a field that has under drainage
or one which has not?

Thus far we have seen that the soil contains water and
certain chemical compounds that are used by the plants,
also that different kinds of soil differ in regard to their
physical properties. We are now ready to find out some-
thing about the relations of plants to the soil and water.

Farmers' Bulletins: Exercise in Elementary Agriculture:
Office of Experiment Station, Bulletin 186; Management of
Soils to Conserve Moisture, No. 266; Soil Moisture, etc.;
No. 87; Some Soil Problems for Practical Farmer, No. 306;
Farm Drainage, No. 40.

CHAPTER XXXVI

HOW PLANTS DO THEIR WORK

WE are now ready to consider plants in relation to
their environment and find out something about how they
do their work. One of the first questions that comes to
us is, how do roots of plants get the water with the other
raw material from the soil ?

Experiment. — Put some moist blotting paper or sand
in a dinner plate. Scatter over this at some distance apart
a number of radish or oat seeds. Turn another plate over
this to keep in the moisture and set in a warm place.
Water if necessary. At the same time plant a few seeds
in a pot or can of soil. After five or six days examine the
plants in the plate. What do you find on the roots?
Those delicate threadlike structures are root hairs. On
what part of the roots do you find them most abundant ?
Watch a plant for several days to see whether any of the
hairs wither and die and whether new ones continue to ap-
pear. Are there any at the very tip of the root? Can
you see any advantage in not having root hairs here?
Note what direction the tips take as they grow. What do
you think is the use of the root hairs ? If the little plants
were growing in the soil instead of on blotting paper the
root hairs would penetrate the spaces between the particles
of soil. Pull up one or two of the little plants that are
growing in the pot. Do any of the soil particles cling to the

288

HOW PLANTS DO THEIR WORK 289

roots? They are really clinging to the root hairs. Of
course in pulling up the plants you pulled off most of these
delicate hairs. If, then, these hairs are penetrating the
spaces between the soil particles are they in close con-
tact with the film water on the particles? They are
so surrounded with this moisture that they absorb it.
The next experiment will help you to see how they do
this.

Experiment. — Remove the shell from the large end of
an egg, leaving a space about as large as a quarter. Be
careful not to break the skin. This is easily done by
gently striking the egg till the shell is full of small cracks,
then picking it off in little pieces. Make a small hole
through both shell and skin at the small end of the egg.
Over this, place the end of a glass tube four or five inches
long. Stick the tube firmly to the egg by means of sealing
wax or paraffin. Another way to fasten the tube on is
as follows: cut from the lower end of a candle a piece about
one-half inch long, bore a hole in this just the size of the
tube. This may be done by pushing a nail through it.
Heat the end gently, and stick it to the egg, so that the hole
in the candle covers up the small hole in the egg. Heat a
long nail or piece of wire and rub it over the edges of the
candle, fastening it more securely to the egg. Now place
the tube in the hole in the candle, and with the hot wire
fasten it securely. Fill a wide-mouthed bottle, a pickle or
olive bottle, with water and set the egg with the large end
in the mouth of the bottle so that the membrane will be
surrounded by the water. Set it aside for a few hours or
overnight and then examine. What has happened ?
What pushed the white of egg up into the tube? Lift up

290 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

the egg and examine the lower part. Does it seem to have
anything more in it than when you placed it on the bottle?
The fact is that water has passed through the membrane
into the egg. So much has gone in that some of the white
of egg has been pushed up into the tube. The process by
which liquids or gases pass through animal or plant mem-
brane is called osmosis.

This process may be shown in another way. Have a
butcher remove a piece of the thin membrane from a leg
of lamb or mutton, or when butchering time comes have
some of the pupils save the skin or pericardium that sur-
rounds a pig's heart. You can spread this out, dry it,
and keep it any length of time. Tie a piece of this mem-
brane over the large end of a student's lamp chimney,
moistening it thoroughly, first by soaking in a little warm,
soapy water. Fill a tumbler two-thirds full of water
colored with red ink. Place in the lamp chimney a little
clear water so it will stand about an inch and a half from
the bottom. Now hang the chimney so it will rest in the
colored water. Set aside for a few hours and then note
what has taken place. Has any water passed into the
chimney through the membrane? Instead of water in
the chimney place some thick syrup and hang it in the
water.

How do these experiments show what is taking place
in the soil between the water and the root hairs? The
walls of the root hairs are very thin and by osmosis the soil
water with the plant materials passes readily through
them. At the same time it is probable that a little of
the thicker substance in the root hairs passes out into the
soil.

HOW PLANTS DO THEIR WORK 291

It will be an easy matter to show that roots seek moist-
ure. Remove a portion of the bottom of a chalk box.
Tack a piece of wire screening over the hole. Now put into
the box about three inches of moist sand or sawdust.
Place directly over the screening three or four beans or
grains of corn. Set the box upon blocks. Keep the sand
moist. Lift up the box occasionally and examine from
beneath. Can you see the roots? Did any of them grow
through the wire ? Why did they turn backward ?

This characteristic of roots to seek moisture may be
shown in another way. Trim a little off the side of a chalk
box lid so you may push it down into the box, making a
partition through the middle. Near the bottom of this
partition cut or bore a hole as large as a half dollar, and
tack a piece of wire screening over it. Place clean sand or
soil in the box, and plant beans or corn on one side. After
the seeds have germinated, put a very little water on the
side of the partition where the plants are growing; just
enough to keep them alive. Keep the other side well
moistened. After two weeks, carefully dig down and
examine the roots. Have you any evidence that the roots
seek moisture?

If in a field the level of the free water lies near the sur-
face in the spring, will the young plants send their roots
very far down into the soil ?

Experiment. — Take two tin cans. In the bottom of
one punch holes for drainage. Fill each with moist soil
and plant corn or beans. Set them side by side. Place
exactly the same amount of water in each from day to day.
Do not water too much. After a few weeks note the effect
on the roots. Which have sent their roots farther down?

292 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

Does under drainage tend to make a long or short root
system? Which plants will fare better during the dry
season, those whose roots have grown to a good depth or
those whose roots are near the surface ?

To prove how dependent plants are upon water, try the
following experiment. Have growing side by side in pots
or cans plants of the same kind : sunflowers, beans, or any
house plant. Give to one all the water needed. From
the other withhold water entirely for a number of days.
What is the result ? Now begin to water the wilting plant
and note effects. What is it that helps to hold an herba-
ceous plant rigid and upright ? Is this an important use
of water in plants ?

It is possible to determine with some accuracy how
much water plants contain. Pull up two or three plants.
Weeds will serve the purpose well. Wash the soil off the
roots and weigh the plants. Spread them out on a sheet of
paper in the room and weigh at intervals of three or four
days. Do they continue to lose water for any length of
time ? By what physical process are they losing the water ?

Can you think of any way that we may prove whether
or not it is the water alone that supplies the needs of the
plants ? Has rain water any of the chemical compounds
in it that soil water contains?

Experiment. — Fill two pots or cans with clean sand,
fine gravel, or sawdust. Plant in each three or four beans,
peas, or sunflowers. Water one with rain water, the other
with well water. If you wish to be certain that the water
contains plant food, stir a quantity of rich soil having plenty
of humus into some rain water, let it stand several days,
then drain off the water and use this instead of well water

HOW PLANTS DO THEIR WORK 293

for the second pot. This solution should be renewed at
least once a week.1

We have now seen that that soil water with raw
material goes into the roots. We have also seen that one
function of this water is to hold the plant rigid. We are
now ready to ask, Where does this water go, and what
finally becomes of it?

Experiment. — Cut off a growing twig from a maple,
or box-elder tree; also the stem of a growing bean or sun-
flower close to the ground. The plant should be at least
five inches high. Place these cut stems in a tumbler half
full of water to which you have added a tablespoonful of
red ink. Allow these to stand twenty-four hours. With a
sharp knife slice off small sections of the stems and ex-
amine closely. Through what part of the tree stem did the
water travel upward? This is called the wood, the soft
portion in the middle is the pith, and the portion outside
the woody part is the bark. If you look at this closely
you will see that it is made up of three layers — the brown
epidermis on the outside, the green layer in the middle,
and the white bast on the inside. The sticky layer between
the bast and the wood is the cambium. Where did the
water travel upward in the sunflower? In the bean?
Those spots are made of woody fibers and correspond to
the wood in the maple twig. You will remember in the
study of germination of seeds that we classified plants into
dicots and monocots. Is a bean a dicot or a monocot?

1 The above experiment may be tried by using food tablets in the
water. These tablets contain the same kind of compounds found in the
soil. They may be procured at ten cents a box with directions for using
from Edward F. Bigelow, Stamford, Conn.

294 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

All the stems you have examined thus far are dicots.
Through what part of the stem of a dicot, then, does the
water move upward ?

Place some monocot stems in the red ink solution to
determine where the water travels through them. A corn
plant nine or ten inches high, a stem of a tulip flower, a
trillium, an asparagus stem, or any lily will do for this
experiment. The spots in the sections show the ends of
bundles of fiber. So in monocots the water travels through
these fiber bundles.

Is all the water taken into the plant used in the plant ?

Experiment. — Cover with glazed or writing paper the
top of a pot in which a plant is growing vigorously. To
do this slit the paper to the center and cut out a space big
enough for the stem. Now slip the paper around the stem
and tie around the top of the pot. Turn a glass jar over
the plant and let it stand in the light a few hours. What
do you find on the glass ? Where did the drops of water
come from? This process is called transpiration. The
leaves transpire, or give out moisture constantly. With a
microscope we should be able to find in the thin skin or
covering of a leaf small openings. These are called
stomata. One is a stoma. It is through these that trans-
piration chiefly takes place. If you have a pair of bal-
ances you can find out by a simple experiment which side
of a leaf contains the more stomata. Take from a bean,
sunflower, geranium, or nasturtium two leaves of the same
size. Balance these on the pans of the scales after having
covered the upper surface of one leaf and the lower surface
of the other with vaseline. Watch for several hours.
Which one has lost the least water during this time ? What

HOW PLANTS DO THEIR WORK 295

does this show as to where transpiration takes place more
rapidly ?

We are now ready to find out something about the way
in which plants manufacture their products. To under-
stand this we must know something about leaves.

Examine a leaf of any plant. What are its parts —
stem or petiole, expanded portion or blade. Hold the leaf
between you and the light. What do you see in it ? How
are the veins arranged in a bean leaf, maple, sunflower ?
These are net- veined leaves. How are the veins arranged
in a corn leaf? In grass? These are parallel veins. What
is the use of the veins? By discussion the value of the
veins in holding the leaf spread* will be brought out.
Place a twig with growing leaves in a tumbler of water
colored with red ink. After twenty-four hours examine
the petiole, the veins. What do you conclude? If you
can procure a thick leaf, as live-for-ever, tulip, or hepatica,
have the pupils peel off a little of the skin or epidermis.
Even a thin leaf may have a little of the covering removed,
enough to lead the pupils to see that the entire leaf is
covered with a thin, almost transparent skin. What is""
under the skin? This green, granular mass is chiefly
chlorophyll bodies. If the pupil could see a cross sectior
of a leaf highly magnified he would find it built up of cells
one layer above another. Each cell has a thin wall and
contains a number of green, roundish bodies called chloro-
phyll bodies, and a mass of colorless protoplasm. The
protoplasm is the living part of the leaf, and is the machin-
ery that manufactures the plant products. But just as
any machinery must have power to make it run, so must

the protoplasm of the leaf. What is the power ?
20

296 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

Experiment — Fill a box or dinner plate with soil and
sow some oats or wheat seeds. After the grains are
sprouted, cover one-half the plants with a box or tin can.
Give all the plants the same amount of water. After a
week compare the plants grown under cover with those
grown in the light. What do the former lack ? What is
your conclusion as to the ability of the plants to make
chlorophyll without light? Can the plant make starch
without chlorophyll?

Experiment. — Cut two thin slices from the end of a
cork stopper. Place one slice on the upper surface of a
leaf of a vigorously growing geranium, or better, a nas-
turtium and the other slice directly beneath. Stick a
couple of pins through them to hold them on. Leave
them till the afternoon of the next day if the sun has been
shining. Now remove the leaf from the plant and the
piece of cork from the leaf. Boil the leaf in water for a few
minutes. Soak the leaf for several days in strong alcohol.
Change the alcohol until you are sure all the chlorophyll
is dissolved out. Rinse out the alcohol with plenty of
water, then place the leaf in iodine for fifteen or twenty
minutes. Rinse off with water. Does any part of the leaf
show the presence of starch? Is there any starch where
the leaf was covered from light with the slice of cork ? It is
a good thing to try several leaves at once. Some will
probably be much more successful than others.

Without light, then, plants cannot make chlorophyll,
and without the chlorophyll no starch, protein, or other
product can be made by the protoplasm. The light then
is the power that runs the machinery, but the chlorophyll
is the connecting link between the power and the machine.

.

:OW PLANTS DO THEIR WORK 297

In some way it succeeds in hitching them together so that
they may do their work.

We have only to think back to our study of soil chem-
istry to remember that starch is made out of oxygen and
hydrogen from the water, and carbon from carbon dioxide
of the air, and that proteids contain these three elements
with the addition of nitrogen from nitrates, sulphur,
phosphorus, etc., from the soil. The leaves take in the
carbon dioxide probably through their stomata. What
must be done with this compound before the plant can use
the carbon? If the protoplasm decomposes the carbon
dioxide and uses the carbon, what becomes of the oxygen?
It is thrown out of the leaf into the air. Therefore,
when a plant is actively engaged in manufacturing starch
it -is taking carbon dioxide from the air and giving out
oxygen. Could this process be carried on during the
night? Why?

The question now arises, what do the plants do with the
starch proteids and oils that they make ? By discussion the
facts may be brought out that the starch by a process
something like digestion in our bodies is changed into
sugar, and that this and the other foods are conveyed in
liquid form from the leaves to all parts of the plants when
they are used in the growth of these parts. Some of the
food is stored for future use. Recall the study of potato,
corn seeds, biennial roots, etc.

Dig up some corn plants that have been growing two
or three weeks. Examine the grains. What has become
of their contents ?

But plants need something besides food in order to live
and grow. They are like animals in this respect. They

298 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

must have air to breathe as well as food to eat. They
cannot live without the oxygen of the air any more than
animals can. In our study of germination we proved that
air was necessary for the beginning of growth from the
seed. Is it necessary for further growth of the plants ?

Experiment. — Place a plant that is growing in a very
small pot or can in a quart Mason jar. Put water enough
in the jar to stand almost to the top of the pot. Screw the
top on tightly, using a rubber as in canning fruit. Allow
it to stand several days. What takes place? What have
you deprived the plant of? The plant droops because
you have cut off the supply of fresh air or oxygen. If
you leave it long enough here it will die. Do the roots
need oxygen as well as the leaves and stem ? In a can or
pot in which a corn or other plant is growing, pour water
until the soil is completely saturated and the water stands
on top around the stem. Now set the plant in a jar of
water completely covering the brim of the pot. Keep in
this condition several days and note effect. What part of
the plant is deprived of air? Is there any air in the soil
when all the spaces between the soil particles are filled
with water? Fill a tumbler full of dry soil. Pour water
in one spot. Watch for bubbles of air that the water is
driving out. What happens to corn or oats on which the
water stands for several days? They are "drowned out"
because air is cut off from their roots. It is well to know
that plants in the act of breathing throw out carbon
dioxide just as animals do. It is worth while knowing also
that breathing or respiration in plants goes on all the time
both night and day.

CHAPTER XXXVII

HOW TO KEEP THE SOIL IN CONDITION TO SUPPLY THE
NEEDS OF PLANTS

Now that we know something about the needs of
plants and the work they do, we are ready to consider what
may be done not only to produce good crops, but to insure
the production of good crops in the future.

One thing to be considered is tillage. This is of two
kinds: the breaking up or the plowing in preparation
for the seed, and the cultivation of the soil when the crop
is growing. The plowing may be done in the fall or spring.
Can you think of any advantages of fall plowing? What
is the effect of freezing on the soil? There may be some
disadvantages in fall plowing in some localities. Where
there is a subsoil of sand, heavy rains may wash out or
leach from the soil some of the soluble compounds that
with the spring plowing might have been saved for the
plants. One of the most important things to think about
in tillage is the preparation of the seed bed, so that it may
be fine and fit for the seeds.

Experiment. — Plant some corn seeds in a pot contain-
ing coarse, lumpy soil. In another plant seeds containing
the same kind of soil that has been made fine. Water
both. In which do the seeds germinate first? Which
plants thrive best after germination?

What are some of the other benefits due to tillage ? It
299

300 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

increases the depth of the soil. How does it do this?
Which is better, shallow plowing or deep ? Why ? If year
after year only the upper three or four inches of soil are
turned over, this will become so depleted of its plant foods
that it will be 1 1 worn out." Besides, the lower layer of soil
will become so packed and sour that it will be utterly unfit
for the plant roots. How will deeper plowing prevent this ?
Tillage also aids in the saving of moisture. How? It
also loosens the soil so that it will hold more air and be
better ventilated. It kills out the weeds, and thus prevents
a loss of plant foods and water. By breaking up the soil
particles it renders the plant foods more available. It
turns under vegetation and thus increases the amount of
humus in the soil.

The second thing to consider in helping the soil to
supply the needs of plants is drainage. We have already
seen some of the advantages of under drainage. It ren-
ders the soil more porous. It increases the temperature
in the spring. It gives an opportunity for better ventila-
tion. It results in a deeper root system. Proper tillage
and drainage then are two very important forces in main-
taining good physical conditions of the soil.

The rotation of crops is another important considera-
tion. Agriculturists are coming to believe more and more
that to grow the same kind of crop in a field year after year
will result in absolute ruin to the soil. There are several
reasons for this. One is that certain kinds of crops use
more of one kind of plant material than of others. After a
number of years the soil is so lacking in this particular
compound that it is difficult to grow any kind of a crop in
it. Another probable reason is that each plant gives out

HOW TO KEEP THE SOIL IN CONDITION

301

a certain amount of organic waste matter into the soil.
When a plant has been grown for a term of years in one
locality, the soil becomes so full of this poisonous waste that
the plant can no longer thrive in it. This substance is not
so poisonous to other plants, and thus by a wise rotation of
crops this waste need not result in disadvantage to the
plants. Rotation also gives an opportunity to kill out
weeds that are likely to persist if the same crop is grown
year after year.

Every region must settle for itself the crops that are to
be rotated ; but every farmer in any locality should adopt
a definite system of plant rotation. In the Middle West,
where corn is the staple crop, a three-year rotation is
carried on successfully in some places. This consists of
oats or wheat, clover, corn.

One important result that comes with crop rotation is
the increase of humus. Humus is added in the plowing
under of the oats or wheat stubble, as well as the stems and
roots of the clover. The value of humus in any soil cannot
be overestimated. From our experiments what do you
know of the effect of humus on the capacity of soils to hold
moisture? Besides this, humus improves the texture of
the soil, adds plant foods, and helps to make available other
plant materials that are locked up in the soil.

What are the sources of humus? We have already
mentioned the plowing under of stubble and clover. What
plant food does the clover and other legumes add to the
soil? Other crops besides legumes are^ sometimes raised
and plowed undSr for the purpose of supplying humus.
Such crops are called green manures. Rye is frequently
used in this way. Stable manure is by far the best source

302 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

of humus. It not only improves the physical condition of
the soil but adds some of the most important plant foods,
phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium. It is the most
perfect of all fertilizers.

One thing more is done in many places to keep up the
fertility of the soil, and that is the use of commercial fertil-
izers. This we have already discussed in our study of soil
chemistry. Just what plant materials may be lacking in
any soil can be told only by testing the soil, not in the
laboratory but in the field. Any boy can have a fertilizer
plot in which he can determine whether the application of
commercial fertilizers will increase the productiveness of
the soil. See suggestion for home experiment.

To sum up the whole story then. In order to increase
the fertility of the soil we must see to it that the soil is kept
in good physical condition by proper tillage, drainage, and
the addition of humus ; and that the plant materials that are
removed by the plants to manufacture their products be
returned in good measure in the form of stable manures,
leguminous plants, green manures, or commercial fertil-
izers.

Farmers' Bulletins: Beneficial Bacteria for Leguminous
Crops, No. 214; Soil Inoculation for Legumes; Bureau of
Plant Industry, No. 71; Cowpeas, No. 89; The Soybeans
as a Forage Crop, No. 58; Alfalfa or Lucerne, No. 31;
Alfalfa Growing, No. 215; Drainage of Farm Lands, No.
187; Practices in Crop Rotations, No. 289; Relation of
Sugar Beets to General Farming, No. 320.

PART FOUR
CHAPTER XXXVIII

BIRD STUDY

Reasons for Bird Study. — There are several good reasons
why bird study should find a place in our public-school
programmes.

The boys and girls should be taught to recognize the
value of birds from an economic standpoint. Few persons
who have not made a careful study of birds and their habits
have any adequate notion of what benefactors these little
creatures are to farmers, fruit growers, and gardeners.

The forces of nature are so nicely balanced that we are
scarcely aware of their existence till something disturbs the
equilibrium and we feel the resulting disorder. Because
our crops are not destroyed every year by insect pests we
give little heed to the matter, and never realize that if it
were not for the birds that keep these pests in check many
of our cultivated fields, as well as our forests, would become
"Deserts without leaf or shade."

According to Hornaday the fact is well established that
birds are less numerous in United States now than they
were a hundred years ago.

One cause of the decrease is due to the changed con-
ditions brought about by the forward movement of civiliza-
tion. As the woods have been cleared, the prairies
broken up for cultivation, and the swamps drained, nesting

303

304 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

and feeding places of many birds have been destroyed.
These birds have been compelled to do one of three things :
retreat to more inaccessible haunts, adapt themselves to the
new conditions, or give up their lives in the struggle.

While several species have become practically extermi-
nated, many have succeeded in adjusting themselves to the
changed conditions and thrive just as well, or better, under
the new order of things as under the old.

There are other causes, however, which constantly tend
toward the destruction of our birds. Among these are
cats, English sparrows, and other natural foes, besides the
indiscriminate shooting of birds on the part of many
hunters.

Another important cause is the wholesale robbing of
nests, and often the destruction of entire broods of young
birds by boys who are seized with a mania for collecting
eggs. Like many other fads the collecting craze is danger-
ously contagious. Let one boy in a village or school dis-
trict catch the disease and a score of others are attacked
immediately. The result is that almost every nest for
miles around is spied out and ruthlessly pillaged.

Occasionally this may result in value to the collector.
It may bring about a genuine love for the birds and a
knowledge of their lives and habits that is worth while, but
in ninety-nine cases out of every hundred the result is a
lessening of the number of birds without gain or profit of
any kind to the boys.

Another cause of bird destruction is the prevailing
fashion of decorating women's hats with bird skins, wings,
breasts, etc. The number of birds sacrificed for this pur-
pose every year is appalling. An editorial in the Forest and

BIRD STUDY 305

Stream a few years ago mentions a dealer who during a
three-months trip to the coast of South Carolina prepared
no less than eleven thousand and eighteen bird skins.
This is but one instance. Many others of the same sort
might be quoted. It is a well-known fact that in Florida
the white heron is becoming practically extinct because so
many of the delicate, graceful plumes known as egrets,
have been transferred from the backs of the birds to the
hats of American women.

It is also true that on many islands along the Atlantic
coast gulls, terns, and other sea birds have been almost
exterminated for the same reason.

But we must not imagine that it is only Southern and
sea birds that are slaughtered for the millinery trade.
Many bright plumaged birds of our Middle West suffer the
same fate. An Indianapolis taxidermist stated tjiat in
1895 there were shipped from that city five thousand bird
skins, all collected in the Ohio valley.

If women could be brought face to face with the facts,
if they only knew the terrible cruelty practiced in securing
bird skins, if they realized the great loss to the country due
to the destruction of so many insect eaters, the sacrifice
would be stopped. But they do not know and the de-
struction goes on.

In view of all these facts, is it not time that we make an
effort to awaken in our boys and girls a genuine interest in
the protection of our birds?

When the girls of our public schools have been thor-
oughly aroused to use their influence in the right direction,
the problem of how to prevent the killing of birds for mil-
linery purposes will be solved.

306 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

Likewise, when the boys clearly see and appreciate the
value of birds in orchard, field, and forest, the collecting of
eggs and the use of air guns and sling shot will cease.

While the first practical reason is a strong one for
urging bird study in the schools it is not the only one. The
study is worth while because of its educational value; it
quickens ears and eyes, as well as sharpens the intellect
and develops patient self-control.

Its aesthetic value is hard to estimate. Few natural
objects are so well adapted to touch the finer chords of ones
being. The beauty of form and color and song stimulates
the imagination and awakens the poetic sense.

Suggestions for Bird Study. — Bird study to be successful
must be a study of living birds in their natural haunts.
In no other way can we hope to establish a permanent
interest in the subject. While out-of-door observations
are essential, it may not be practicable for classes to make
these observations during school hours, nor is this neces-
sary. A little planning makes it possible to do the work
with ease outside of school hours. For the lower grades a
short trip at the close of school now and then is sufficient.
With the older classes early morning excursions will prove
very profitable. This is easily accomplished in towns and
villages where the children may come together without
going long distances. In rural districts the pupils may
start earlier than usual some morning and have an hour's
study before nine o'clock, or they may take time after school
for a short ramble. Numerous field trips are not neces-
sary. The study is so attractive in itself that usually two
or three excursions are sufficient to arouse the enthusiasm
to such a pitch that the teacher finds herself almost over-

BIRD STUDY 307

whelmed with descriptions of birds and questions about
birds.

The spring is undoubtedly the best season of the year
in which to emphasize bird study. For beginners no time
is better than the latter part of winter or very early spring.
Only the winter birds are to be found at this time and the
acquaintance of these may easily be made before the
migrants arrive from the south. Also the birds are less
shy, more numerous, and more musical at this season than
at any other. Then, too, the buds are only beginning to
open and the birds cannot hide behind clumps of foliage
as they are able to do later in the season.

The following are suggestions for conducting classes in
the field: Quietness on the part of every member of the
class is essential. Loud talking and laughing must not
be allowed. Move slowly and together. One member
who is inclined to chase ahead may spoil the study for all
the rest. Make the most of one bird when opportunity
offers. If two or three birds appear in the same locality
at the same time there is a temptation to try to see them
all at once. The result is that nothing definite is observed
about any one of them. Strive for accuracy of observa-
tion. Do not form the habit of making decisions without
sufficient data. One feather does not make a bird. Stop
now and then and be perfectly still in order to locate birds
by their notes. Occasionally divide the class into small
companies. Let each group take a different direction for
study. A comparison of reports from the different groups
will make a profitable exercise. Encourage the children
to feel that it is just as important to become better ac-
quainted with the birds they know already as it is to

308 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

identify new ones. Help them realize that it is not color
alone, but the habits and movements that will enable them
to identify new birds and recognize old acquaintances.
As far as possible keep your back to the sun, otherwise the
colors are likely to be misleading. Opera or field glasses
in the hands of the teacher and possibly the older pupils
aid materially in the study, but they are not indispensable.
All the larger birds and many of the smaller ones may be
identified with the unaided eye. If you know of a small
stream or pool where birds are in the habit of gathering to
drink and bathe, you may study many different specimens
by sitting quietly near the spot and watching the birds as
they come to the watering place.

A simple outline that may easily be kept in mind,
similar to the one given below, adds definiteness to the
work.

Where is the bird ? What is it doing ? What is its
size ? Compare with robin, English sparrow, or house
wren. What is the color of head, neck, back, wings, tail,
throat, breast, belly ? Color and length of bill. Do you
notice any special color markings when the bird flies ?

While the study should receive its greatest attention
during the spring months, much may be done in the fall at
the beginning of the school year. If certain birds have
been studied in the spring, observation of these should be
continued in the fall. Any difference in habits that the
birds have taken on should be noted. The young or
immature of many species differ greatly from the adults in
color markings. The fall is a good time to identify them.
Many of the summer residents gather in flocks several
weeks before starting on their journey southward. This is

BIRD STUDY 309

true of robins, bluebirds, blackbirds, cowbirds, doves,
meadow larks, song sparrows, and others. The number
of birds in a flock may be noted, where the different groups
may be found, whether or not all the individuals in a flock
look alike. A record should be kept of the date when the
last flock was seen. Watch to see if any stragglers are left
after the flocks have disappeared. During September and
October flocks of migrants that spend the summer farther
north will be found in abundance.

The winter residents begin to appear about the same
time. It is worth while to continue the observation long
enough to enable the children to determine for themselves
which birds are winter residents and which migrants.
When the leaves have fallen from the trees, nests that have
been hidden away during the summer are exposed to view.
They may be counted and in this way the number of birds
that reared young in the neighborhood be estimated.
Children who live in the country will be interested in find-
ing out how. many nests are stowed away in the osage hedge
rows that border the roadside. The location of nests may
be noted as to whether they are in a crotch or on a hori-
zontal limb, whether in a tree or bush, and how far from
the ground they are built. Determine whether certain
species of trees and shrubs are preferred to others. A few
nests may be collected and studied, noting how they are
made, the material used, the skill with which they are put
together.

The outdoor study may well be supplemented with
short exercises in the schoolroom. Fifteen or twenty
minutes a week will be ample time for this work. Give
the children a few definite points to find out about some

310 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

bird they are studying. Take a few minutes to compare
reports of these observations. Keep a list with dates of the
birds actually seen by the class in the field. Encourage
older pupils to keep individual bird calendars. Help the
children to form the habit of caring for weak and wounded
birds. Have them try to attract the birds about their
homes as described in another paragraph.

Bird study may easily be correlated with language
work and drawing. Many interesting compositions may
be written on topics that bear upon the bird study:
What I saw during an early morning bird trip. What
the woodpeckers do for us. What we may do for the
birds. What I saw a robin doing. Why should native
sparrows be protected ? The water-color hour may well
be spent now and then in painting a bird that has been seen
and admired.

How to Attract the Birds. — The number of birds in any
neighborhood depends largely upon the abundance of
food supply, the number of suitable nesting and roosting
places, and whether or not the birds feel a sense of security
against natural foes. Much may be done to make the
surroundings of our homes and schools so attractive that
the number of birds will steadily increase.

Trees and shrubs are perhaps of first importance; with-
out those we may not hope for an abundance of bird life.
While trees of any sort are better than none, some kinds
seem to have a greater attraction for birds than others.
This fact may well be taken into consideration when trees
are being set out in our yards, or along the streets and in the
parks of cities. Maples of various kinds are attractive to
robins, wood thrushes, gold finches, and other birds that

BIRD STUDY 311

like crotches in which to build their nests. Elms are re-
garded with special favor by orioles. Evergreens are
general favorites, affording nesting, feeding and roosting
places for a great variety of birds. Clumps of shrubs in the
corner of yards or gardens are not only beautiful in them-
selves, but serve as nesting places for at least half a dozen
different species.

For birds that build in cavities, boxes and other recepta-
cles may be prepared with little trouble. Any boy or girl
who knows how to use a saw, a hammer, and nails can
make a birdhouse. It is not necessary to have it fancy or
elaborate, only comfortable and roomy. Indeed, a wren
or chickadee will often choose a plain, inconspicuous cigar
or starch box in preference to a modern apartment house
painted up in bright colors. There is nothing better for
birdhouses than old weathered boards. These should be
left unpainted. If new boards are used they should be
painted a dull, dark green or a barklike gray. The
entrance for wrens and chickadees should not be more than
an inch in diameter; the size of a quarter dollar is a good
size. This is large enough to admit the wren, but too
small to allow an English sparrow to slip in. For blue
birds and martins a two- inch hole is sufficient. Other
receptacles than boxes are often received with apparent
satisfaction. Old coffee and tea pots which are fastened
up in some trees of our garden have been occupied a num-
ber of years by wrens and bluebirds.

Birds may often be induced to build near our homes by
providing them with suitable building material. Twine
strings of different colors hung upon the branches of trees
or some other accessible place usually prove a real bonanza

312 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

to orioles, as well as to yellow warblers, indigo buntings,
and cardinals. Strips of cloth an inch or so wide and a foot
or more long placed in the shrubbery will be seized eagerly
by catbirds and thrashers. Even robins will not despise a
strip of cloth or paper to work into the foundation of their
nests; but they like better than this a spot of wet soil in
the garden from which they may obtain mud for the walls
of their nests.

The problem of food supply is not a serious one for the
birds during the summer months, since at this season they
subsist chiefly upon insects. Some birds, however, vary
this insect diet with seeds and fruits of various kinds. For
this reason they have acquired a bad reputation among
fruit growers. There is little doubt that all fruit-eating
birds prefer wild to cultivated varieties. They eat the
latter because man has destroyed all of their former wild
fruit-feasting haunts. Shrubs and trees that bear wild
fruit set out in the yard, or in the corner of the orchard,
will not only save the cultivated fruit but will attract to our
premises birds that otherwise visit us but rarely.

The following trees and shrubs bear fruit that attract
the birds: wild cherry, white mulberry, mountain ash,
hackberry, dogwood, elder, and sumach. A few sunflowers
will attract flocks of merry goldfinches during the latter
part of the summer. Wild columbine and trumpet creeper
will bring the dainty hummingbirds to our very doors.

Water should be provided as well as food. Dishes
and pans kept filled with a fresh supply during the hot days
of summer will insure the visits of dozens of our most charm-
ing songsters. Common tin milk pans or granite baking
dishes serve the purpose. The water should vary from an

BIRD STUDY 313

inch to two or three in depth. It. is best to set the pans
on blocks or stakes a few feet from the ground, so that they
will be out of the reach of cats.

Winter birds may be kept about our homes by fastening
up in trees suet or long shank bones sawed in two length-
wise. Chickadees, woodpeckers, and nuthatches will find
the feast, especially during stormy weather when the doors
to their own larders are locked with snow and sleet.

Government Publications: Some Common Birds in their
Relation to Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin, No. 34; The
Horned Larks and their Relation to Agriculture; The Food
of Nestling Birds; Birds as Weed Destroyers; The Blue jay
and Its Food; The Meadow Lark and Baltimore Oriole.

Helpful Books: Birds of Village and Field, Florence
Merriam; Birds in their Relation to Man, Weed and Dear-
lorn; Handbook of North American Birds, Chapman.

Colored Bird Plates may be obtained for two cents each
]rom A. W. Mum ford, Chicago.

I

CHAPTER XXXIX

SCHOOL GARDENS

THE school garden, perhaps more than any other
phase of nature work, seems to supply a natural demand
irrespective of locality. It has a definite mission to fulfill
in the city, as well as in the village and rural school.
While its purposes may differ in different schools, its value
as a factor in education is rarely questioned. It is worth
while not only because of its practical bearings, but because
it is exceptionally valuable on its educative and aesthetic
side.

The location of the school, the size of the garden plot,
and the number of children must largely determine the
method of procedure in the management of any garden.
If the size permits, each grade should have a definite plot
set apart for its use. This should be divided into beds of
suitable size; four by ten feet with paths two feet wide
between make a workable arrangement. So far as possible
each child should be made responsible for the care of one
bed. At the same time he should feel a class interest in
the entire plot. The work of preparing the soil and form-
ing the beds should be done by the children so far as pos-
sible.

Vegetables as well as flowering plants should be rep-
resented in each plot. It is not well to have the children
attempt to grow too many different kinds of plants at one

SCHOOL GARDENS 315

time. The work may be easily made progressive, so that
new plants are grown each year and not familiar ones
repeatedly. This in itself helps intensify the interest of
the pupils. For the primary children plants that have
large seeds, that are easily grown, and that give quick
results are best. The work may be made of more value if
the children are trying to solve some definite problems in
growing their plants. These problems must necessarily
be very simple for the younger children, but should increase
in complexity from year to year.

Indoor exercises must accompany the outdoor work
if the school garden accomplishes all that it should. Often
a preliminary lesson is indispensable. In this the children
decide sometimes by experiment, sometimes by discussion,
the special method of treatment for the plant under con-
sideration. They also help decide how the various plants
are to be arranged in the beds. They should draw a plan
of their garden indicating this arrangement.

If space permits, a portion of the ground should be set
apart as a fruit garden. In this all the different kinds of
fruit that it is possible to grow in the locality should be
planted. A few rows of trees with small fruit between will
utilize all the ground. A space should be left for a small
nursery in which to exemplify different methods of propa-
gation. Another plot may well be reserved for the purpose
of growing industrial plants such as cereals, fiber plants,
forage crops, legumes, medicinal and kitchen herbs. An
experimental plot tended by the older pupils will be found
of great value. In this, problems of soil and seed may be
worked out and new varieties tested.

Some of the plants selected, both vegetables and flower-

316 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

ing plants, should be those that require their seeds to be
started in a hot bed or greenhouse. If neither of these is
accessible, the seeds may be grown in the schoolroom
window garden and transplanted into the school garden.
In some places the garden is too small to make it practi-
cable to grow all the different plants suggested above. If
the area is so small that it requires several grades to work
together, some valuable work may still be done. Vege-
tables, some flowering plants, and a few of the most im-
portant industrial plants may be grown. The work should
be made progressive from year to year instead of from
grade to grade as in larger gardens. A small corner should
always be reserved for the simple plants grown by the little
children. In the fall a portion of the ground may be cleared
off and set out in tulip and hyacinth bulbs for spring
blooming. The same bulbs may be used year after year if
they are taken up two or three weeks after the plants are
through blooming and stored in a cool, dry place for the
summer. Even in a small garden a portion of the ground
may be devoted to geraniums and coleus, from which the
children may make cuttings to take home for winter
blooming.

Proper arrangement and planting must be followed by
care and cultivation of the plants. The children must
learn when and how to water transplanted plants, how to
distinguish weeds from the crop plants; that the best time
to pull weeds is when the soil is moist; and that the ground
needs hoeing and pulverizing even if there are no weeds to
kill. Every school that attempts gardening should own
the tools necessary to carry on the work. These are a few
shovels, several rakes and hoes, not too heavy, some hand-

SCHOOL GARDENS 317

weeders and trowels, a line, measuring tape, and watering
pot. An excellent lesson that goes with the garden work
is the care of the tools. There should be some place ar-
ranged for the tools to be kept when not in use. The
children after using them should clean them, occasionally
oil them, and hang them up. A few small wooden paddles
made by the older boys will be found helpful in removing
soil from the tools.

If the school garden accomplishes all that it is capable
of accomplishing, its influence will not end with the school,
but be carried over into the home. The instruction gained
at school will find its practical application in the individual
home gardens of the children. The children should be
encouraged in every way to start home gardens. Seeds
may be procured at very low rates from several reliable
seed firms. The Federal Government sends out packages
of both flowering plants and vegetables that may be ob-
tained through your congressman. Certain experiments
may be carried on at home with better results than in the
school garden. Special attention should be given at the
beginning of the fall term to reports of observations made
during the summer vacation. An exhibit in the fall of
plants, flowers, vegetables, fruits, and seeds, from both
home and school garden, will prove an excellent incentive
for keeping up the work during the vacation.

The following illustrates a plan to make garden work
progressive and at the same time adapted to the needs of
the children at various stages in their development.

The primary children who are interested chiefly in
activities in which they participate, and who gain most of
their ideas through these activities, may plant seeds, care

318 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

for the plants, and gather their flowers and fruit, with little
attention to anything except the doing of the work. For
them plants should be chosen that yield large seeds, bright
colors, and quick results.

In the third grade, while propagation by seeds is con-
tinued, the children may work out some of the simple
principles upon which germination and plant growth
depend. In this grade the selection of seeds from desir-
able types may be first considered. Thus the children
may choose, for example, seeds from the tomatoes having
the best flavor and most meat. The children may save
these seeds, raise the plants in the greenhouse or school-
room, and transplant either to the school or home garden.

In the fourth grade propagation by bulbs, tubers, and
roots, such as tulips, onions, potatoes, and dahlias may be
introduced.

The fifth grade may be set the problem of the working
out of the life history of biennials. The beet is a good
type. Other biennials should be grown.

Among other things the sixth-grade children may study
the culture of plants in a cold frame. They should assist
in making and placing the cold frame and in caring for the
ventilation, watering, etc. Good vegetables to grow in a
cold frame are members of the cabbage family, including
several species and flowering plants such as cosmos, pansy,
sweet scabious.

The seventh and eighth grade children may grow some
of the more difficult plants, such as sweet potato, melons,
okra, celery, eggplant, spinach, and asparagus. They may
work out by experiment simple problems connected with
the relationship of the plants -to their environment. More

SCHOOL GARDENS

319

quantitative work may be done in these grades, such as the
careful measurement of the corn plots to estimate the
fraction of an acre which they represent, the weighing of
ears to find the number required to make a bushel, the
number required to plant an acre, percentage of grain to the
ear, percentage of cob, etc.

Propagation by means of cuttings may be begun in a
simple way by third-grade children, but in the seventh
grade a detailed study should be made of soft and hard-
wood cuttings, with the forming of callus, rooting, storing
of hard-wood cuttings, etc.

In the eighth grade part of the work of the boys and
girls may be differentiated. The boys may work out
special problems in the culture of farm crops and vege-
tables, while the girls may plan and work out groups of
color schemes in the flower garden.

This indicates briefly what work may be done in the
garden proper, but it does not indicate the various lines of
work which may radiate from it as a center. Instead of
studying insects, certain birds, weeds, and soils as isolated
topics, they may be studied in the garden in connection
with the plants to which they are biologically and econom-
ically related. This organization of material unifies and
increases its value from an educational standpoint. Indeed,
if the full purpose of the garden work is carried out, it
means more than the training of the hand in doing its part
of the work successfully and skillfully. It means a train-
ing of the eye to see things as they are, a training of the
mind to think logically and independently, to draw truthful
conclusions, and to recognize the dignity of this work.

CHAPTER XL

SOME FUNDAMENTAL MISCONCEPTIONS

ANY teacher using plants or animals as materials must
be much hampered unless she feels herself on pretty sure
ground with reference to what may be called the funda-
mental conceptions in biology. These are, especially, the
things which pertain to all living beings; to plants and
animals alike. With reference to many of these the best
information is, of course, inadequate, and we yet remain in
ignorance of the real fundamentals. None the less, the
forceful teacher in nature study cannot afford to get along
with the antiquated and erroneous conceptions which
remain remarkably prevalent. She must be posted as to
modern ideas concerning such matters as the relation of
light and air and food and water to life, the adaptations of
organisms to their environment, and the evolution of new
kinds. Otherwise her touch is apt to be decidedly un-
certain and wavering when it comes to dealing with many
critical matters. However thorough may be her familiarity
with details of structure and function in particular forms,
unless she has a tolerably firm grasp upon these funda-
mentals her teachings may give birth to equally funda-
mental misconceptions. However well the details may be
taught or elucidated, the value of such teaching is under-
mined if there is involved a misapprehension of general
biological laws. It is a case of building on very uncertain

320

SOME FUNDAMENTAL MISCONCEPTIONS 321

foundations, and the pupil often comes to look at all living
things from a wrong angle.

All living things work in intimate relationship with the
forces of the physical world. Life itself can do nothing
save as it draws energy from the lifeless. The life stuff of
plants and animals establishes relationships with sunlight
and the air, with laws of diffusion and evaporation, and
life depends upon taking advantage of these forces, upon
establishing these relationships. As skilful engineers have
harnessed water power, and steam, and electricity to do
their bidding, so the life stuff of plants and animals har-
nesses similar forces, till life itself is primarily a thing of
adjustment to external forces. It is these common rela-
tionships which we cannot afford to misunderstand if we
are to teach intelligently about plants and animals.

It is evaporation which does the work of delivering to
the corn leaf the materials which, transformed, will fill the
swelling kernels. It is because the laws of diffusion must
be satisfied that materials are moved in the plant body,
and the plant is served by a system of transportation which
requires no expenditure of its own energy, a method which
in economy and efficiency excels the method of the throb-
bing heart. It is sunlight which runs the delicate and
mysterious food-making mechanism in the leaves.

To study biology we must study physics and chemistry.
Nature study and elementary agriculture must include
lessons exemplifying the operation of physical laws and
simple chemical reactions. There is a common core
which runs through the activities of all living things what-
ever their special forms and structures, and it is with this
common core, in so far as we know it, with the few proc-

322 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

esses common to all forms, that the teacher needs to be on
terms of comfortable familiarity.

The prevalence among grade teachers of misconceptions
as to certain of these fundamentals is striking. Inasmuch,
however, as grade teachers are being called upon more and
more to teach about plants and animals, and few have op-
portunity to take special courses in preparation therefor,
it becomes imperative to provide, if possible, some short
cut to an adequate conception of these matters. Other-
wise the teaching will be either superficial or wrong.

A few examples may serve to make the point of the
preceding paragraph more clear. The writer finds that
far more than half of some hundreds of country teachers
who have been tested were firmly convinced that plants
"breathe carbon dioxide" while animals " breathe oxygen,"
and that leaves are to be regarded as the lungs of plants.
Bees are said to fertilize clover, the processes of fertiliza-
tion and pollination being in no sense distinguished. The
conception that "food burns in the body" appears to be
very general, while rare indeed is the teacher who is not
quite clear that air, sunlight, and water serve plants as food,
just as proteids, fats, and carbohydrates serve animals.
The idea that organs or the rudiments of them must have
preceded the use of them for some definite purpose is re-
ceived in teachers' classes as novel and diverting. Firmly
intrenched is the idea that everything in nature already has
its use or else cannot be. Animate things are conceived of
and interpreted like the inanimate creations of man; like
machines into which each cunning part has been fitted to
fulfil a certain definite function. On the other hand, with
naive inconsistency, there is general confidence that Bur-

•

SOME FUNDAMENTAL MISCONCEPTIONS 323

bank can get plants to do just what he likes, with very little
if any limitation to variation. The comparison of living
things to machines and engines and furnaces, and of
simpler forms of life with ourselves, has obscured the
facts rather than made them clear. For all this we appear
to have some of the elementary "physiologies" largely to
thank. To teach things easily they have often taught them
wrong. The two chapters which follow are devoted to
some of the topics concerning which such misconceptions
are prevalent.

CHAPTER XLI

THE GENERAL LIFE PROCESSES

IT is important to keep in mind that the fundamental
life processes of plants and animals are the same and that
whether life manifests itself in a plant or in an animal it
works in the same way.

The reason for this becomes plain when it is known that
there is only one living substance, which is known as
protoplasm. Protoplasm is not life itself, but it is the
material through which life manifests itself. Huxley
called it "the physical basis of life." Of course proto-
plasm is a substance of supreme interest, and constant
effort is being inade to discover its composition, but thus
far little more has been found out than that it is enormously
complex. It breaks up into numerous compounds, but
how these are put together in the living substance is not
known. It is this protoplasm that makes all the other sub-
stances and structures of plant and animal bodies.

In general protoplasm occurs in very small masses
known as protoplasts, and the ordinary plant or animal
body is made up of thousands or millions of these proto-
plasts. Each protoplast usually builds some kind of wall
about itself, and this wall-encased protoplast is called a cell.
In case the protoplast has no wall it is usually called a
naked cell, and these are very common especially in animal
bodies. These cells are often spoken of as the units of

324

THE GENERAL LIFE PROCESSES 325

structure in living things, because the whole body is com-
posed of them, variously fitted together. Through the walls
the protoplasts connect with one another by very delicate
strands of protoplasm, so that in reality the living substance
in a plant or animal body is a continuous substance.

Each protoplast is very definitely and intricately
organized, but for our purpose we may disregard all other
organization except the nucleus and the cytoplasm. The
nucleus is a more compact mass of protoplasm, usually
near the center of the protoplast. The more fluid proto-
plasm which envelops it and which forms a wall about
itself is the cytoplasm. In it usually are found floating
particles of various kinds, but these are not living.

In order to do its work the protoplast must be saturated
with water, for every substance that passes into it or passes
out from it must be in solution, or at least diffusible in
water. In fact the whole plant or animal body may be
conceived of as a continuous body of water in which solid
particles are arranged. Frequently the protoplasm en-
counters conditions unfavorable for its work, such as cold
or drought, and then it loses water and passes into what is
known as the quiescent condition. When suitable condi-
tions return, water is taken in and the customary activity
of the protoplasm is resumed.

To get some general notion of the ordinary work of
protoplasm one may follow the activities of a tree from the
germination of the seed to the production of seed. A plant
is selected because a very important process (food making)
goes on in green plants and does not occur in animals, and
none of the fundamental processes which occur in animals
are omitted in plants.

326 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

In the cells of the very young plant (embryo) within the
seed the protoplasts are in the quiescent condition, and
food is also stored in them. We will assume that this
stored food is in the form of starch, but it must be re-
membered that starch is only one form of stored food. In
this condition "the seed awaits the suitable conditions of
temperature, moisture, and air which will stimulate its
protoplasts to activity again. When the proper combina-
tion of these conditions arrives, water passes into the seed
in relatively great abundance, and the seed may be ob-
served to swell. This means that the protoplasts are re-
gaining water and with it the structure for work.

Then the starch food is attacked, and this involves the
very important process known as digestion. Starch is not
soluble, and therefore cannot pass through cell walls and
into protoplasts. It must be transformed into a soluble
substance, and this transformation of insoluble food into
soluble or diffusible food is digestion. Digestion puts food
into such form that it can be carried through the bodies of
plants and animals to the places where it is to be used. In
the case of starch the transformation is into a sugar, and
the active agent in causing this transformation is a peculiar
substance called an enzyme. Enzymes are manufactured
by protoplasts. There are many different kinds of enzymes
in living things, just as there are many different kinds of
substances in foods which are to be transformed in this
way. The usual enzyme which converts starch into sugar
in seeds is called diastase, and all the enzymes that have
been separated out so as to be studied have also received
names.

When the digestion of starch has transformed it into

THE GENERAL LIFE PROCESSES 327

sugar in the seed, this sugar passes in solution to the pro-
toplasts that are working. Then follows the very fun-
damental process called assimilation. The protoplast in
manufacturing things is constantly transforming its own
substance, and therefore must constantly be renewed.
Therefore it receives the sugar and other foods that come
to it and makes protoplasm out of them. Of course this is
a very complicated process, and we do not know how it
is done. We do know, however, that it is done by a series
of many steps, the substances becoming more and more
complex, until protoplasm is reached. The ordinary food
substances nearest to protoplasm are the proteids, and the
sugars and starches (carbohydrates) must be built into
proteids on their way to protoplasm. Briefly stated, there-
fore, assimilation is the transformation of food into proto-
plasm, and thus the working protoplasts are perpetually
renewed.

This brings us to the most important and least under-
stood of all the living processes. It is called respiration,
but the name is in such common misuse that it is more apt
to deceive than to explain. The protoplasm works by
constructing things from its own body, and in this breaking
up of its body to form simpler compounds oxygen takes an
important part, and this oxygen is taken in from the air.
Among the simpler compounds produced some are wastes,
among which the gas, carbon dioxide, which escapes into
the air, is most conspicuous. On account of this fact
respiration is often described as the taking in of oxygen
and the giving out of carbon dioxide, but this exchange of
gases is only the external indication that respiration, the
breaking up of protoplasm, is going on. Respiration is
22

328 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

essential to life, for unless the protoplasm can work none
of the phenomena of life appear. The germinating seed
shows that respiration is going on by taking in oxygen from
the air and giving out carbon dioxide.

The conspicuous work done by the protoplasts in the
seed is the formation of new cells, thus causing the little
plant to grow. In this work of forming new cells, each
protoplast divides, beginning with the nucleus, and a wall is
laid down between the two halves. Then each half in-
creases in size until it becomes as large as the original cell.
If every protoplast in the embryo should divide in this way,
the result would be an embryo twice as large as before. In
this way the young plant increases in size, and finally
bursts through the seed coat.

Thus the protoplasts, by digesting food, by assimilating
it, and by constantly respiring cause the plant to grow from
the embryo to the full-grown tree. Long before this growth
is completed, in fact soon after the plant escapes from the
seed, another process is necessary. The store of food laid
up in the seed is soon exhausted, and new food must be
provided.

The tree, as all green plants, has the power of manu-
facturing food, and this process is called photosynthesis.
This work can be done only by the green parts of plants,
and since the leaves constitute the larger part of the green
tissue, they are properly spoken of as the organs of photo-
synthesis or the organs of food manufacture. This process
is of supreme importance, for all life is dependent upon it.
This means that green plants make more food than they
use, and upon this surplus all other plants and all animals
live.

THE GENERAL LIFE PROCESSES 329

The materials out of which food is made are carbon
dioxide and water. The former passes directly into the
leaves from the air, while the latter passes into the roots
from the soil, is carried up through the stem, and so reaches
the leaves. For this movement of water a special region
of the plant is developed. This region is known as the
wood. In herbs it appears as fibers. It is continuous from
the root, through the stem, and out into the leaves where it
takes the form of veins. This forms a very efficient water
transporting system, but a satisfactory explanation of the
mechanics of this "ascent of sap" is yet lacking.

The protoplasts of the leaves contain green bodies
chiefly composed of protoplasm which are called chloro-
plasts. The substance in them which gives them their
green color is called chlorophyll, and it is these chloroplasts
which do this work of food making. The protoplasts of
the leaves receive carbon dioxide and water, and their
chloroplasts build these substances into food, such as sugar
and starch.

Thus we see that water and carbon dioxide are not
really plant foods as is so often stated, but they are the raw
materials out of which the food is manufactured.

The chloroplasts can work only in the light, and hence
leaves seem to seek the light. Food making stops at night.
Also, in this process, since there is more oxygen in the raw
materials than is needed in the finished product, some of
the oxygen is given off into the air as a waste. This has
led to a very general misunderstanding of this process.
Since carbon dioxide is taken in and oxygen given off, and
since this is exactly the opposite of what occurs in respira-
tion, it was long thought that plant respiration was exactly

330 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

the opposite of animal respiration. Real respiration in
plants was entirely overlooked because the volume of the
gases used in food making is so much greater than that used
in respiration as to quite obscure the latter process except
at night.

We should now see clearly that all living things "breathe
in" oxygen and " breathe out" carbon dioxide, for this
means respiration which is essential to all life. But green
plants, quite in addition to this process, also can do the
work of food making, upon which all the rest of the living
world depends, and which involves its own characteristic
intake and outgo of gases quite independently of respira-
tion.

It is well to contrast sharply this photosynthesis with
respiration, for they are very often confused. Photo-
synthesis requires light, involves an intake of carbon
dioxide and an outgo of oxygen, goes on only in cells con-
taining chloroplasts, manufactures food, and can be sus-
pended periodically (as at night). Respiration does not
require light, involves an intake of oxygen and an outgo of
carbon dioxide, goes on in every living cell, consumes food,
and must go on while life goes on.

The processes just described (photosynthesis, diges-
tion, assimilation, respiration) have to do with the ordinary
life and growth of the tree, and they are often spoken of
together as the work of nutrition. The activities of plants,
however, include not only nutrition, but also reproduction.
The work of nutrition provides for the maintenance of the
individual; the work of reproduction provides for the
maintenance of the race. The tree, which we have selected
as a representative plant, provides for reproduction by the

THE GENERAL LIFE PROCESSES 331

formation of flowers. It is impossible to say always just
what a flower is, but for our purpose it is easy enough.
The flowers of our tree contain stamens and pistils, either
both in the same flower or separated in different flowers.
It is these stamens and pistils that contain the structures
essential to reproduction. The stamen produces pollen
grains, and within the pistil there are one or more ovules
which will become seeds, if fertilization is secured. Asso-
ciated in the flower with these stamens and pistils there
may be petals and sepals, or only one of them. These are
protective structures and perhaps attractive, so that in the
wrork of reproduction they are entirely subordinate and
hence not always present.

The pollen is carried from frhe stamens to the pistil
of the same flower, or of some more or less distant flower,
the usual agents of transfer being the wind and insects.
After lodging upon the receptive surface (stigma) of the
carpel, the pollen grain sends out a tube which penetrates
the carpel, reaches an ovule, and entering the ovule, finally
comes in contact with the egg contained in the ovule.
Then the tip of the pollen tube discharges its contents, the
egg is fertilized, and this fertilized egg develops the embryo
of a new plant.

While the embryo* is developing within the ovule,
changes are taking place in the outer region of the ovule,
by which a hard coat is formed. This hard coat finally
hermetically seals the growing embryo within, which then
stops growth; the whole structure being now called the
seed. The conditions under which the embryo can resume
growth and develop into a complete plant were considered
at the beginning of this chapter.

332

NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

There are seed-producing plants whose ovules are not
enclosed by pistils; so that in them the pollen grains come
directly in contact with the ovules, and there is much less
extensive development of pollen tubes. These plants are
the pines, spruces, etc., known commonly as " evergreens,"
and scientifically as gymnosperms, which name means
" naked seeds." The other and far larger group of seed
plants is called angiosperms, which name means " enclosed
seeds."

There are also very many plants that do not produce
seeds at all in connection with their reproduction. The vis-
ble reproductive bodies are the so-called " spores." These
seedless plants, therefore, are sometimes called "spore
plants"; but this is unfortunate, because seed plants are
also spore-producing plants. The difference in the two
cases is not that one group produces seeds and the other
produces spores; but that although both groups produce
spores, in one of them the work of the spores results in
seed formation.

CHAPTER XLII

EXPLANATIONS OF EVOLUTION

THE following chapter indicates the successive appear-
ance of the great groups of plants, beginning with simple
algae and ending with complex seed plants. This is an
illustration of what is called organic evolution, which means
that the plants and animals of to-day are the modified
descendants of earlier forms. This theory of descent, as
organic evolution is often called, is now universally ac-
cepted by biologists, but they differ widely among them-
selves as to how the modifications have been brought
about. The theory of evolution is as old as our record of
human thought, and no man can be cited as its author.
The names that have been conspicuously associated with it
are the names of men who have tried to explain it. All
their explanations may prove to be inadequate, but still the
theory of evolution will remain to be explained.

The attempted explanations of evolution have been
numerous, but four great epochs in the history of the theory
are recognized, each introduced by a new explanation
which changed the point of view.

i. The first epoch was introduced in the last decade of
the eighteenth century when three men independently
proposed the same explanation of evolution. They were
Erasmus Darwin of England, St. Hilaire of France, and
Goethe in Germany. Their explanation was called the

333

334 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

4 ' theory of environment," for they believed that the effect
of environment would explain all the changes necessary in
passing from one species to another. They had observed
the seasonal changes in the plumage of birds and in the coats
of mammals, and inferred that plants and animals are
molded by changes in their environment, as clay can be
molded by the hand. This explanation was soon found
to be entirely inadequate, for the necessary changes are
too deep-seated to be brought about by such a superficial
agency. But "environment" has ever since played a very
real, even if a very subordinate, part in every evolutionary
theory.

2. The next epoch was introduced in the first decades
of the nineteenth century by the announcement of the same
explanation by two men; Lamarck of France, and Tre-
viranus of Germany. It may be called the "theory of the
effect of use and disuse," although Lamarck called it the
"theory of appetency," which means the theory of desires.
It is based upon the fact that use develops an organ and dis-
use results in its dwindling and possible disappearance.
For the sake of illustration it is sometimes called "the
law of the blacksmith's arm," because it is well known that
such use of the arm develops the muscle, and that disuse
will cause a muscle to shrivel and lose its power of funo-
tioning. This explanation of evolution was thought to be
deep-seated enough, for it could apply to every organ of
the body. Lamarck, for example, imagined an animal,
adapted to certain conditions, transferred to new condi-
tions that would mean different demands. Certain organs
would be called upon persistently that were not so im-
portant under the old conditions, and would thus be

EXPLANATIONS OF EVOLUTION

335

developed. Others, important before, would be now less
called upon, and would begin to decline. Thus the animal
would begin to change, and these changes would be handed
down to its progeny and increased by them, and so on until
practically a new animal would be the result.

It is evident that this explanation depends upon what is
called the inheritance of " acquired characters"; for the
progeny must start with all the gains acquired by the
parent, and not be- compelled to start over again. But,
now that it is generally agreed that such acquired charac-
ters are not inherited, the ' * theory of appetency " finds little
support. It has recently been revived in a modified form,
but this lies outside our purpose.

3. The next epoch was by far the most important one
in its results. It was introduced in 1859 ^7 tne appearance
of a book by Charles Darwin, entitled "The Origin of
Species by Means of Natural Selection." In this case also
the theory was announced by another observer independ-
ently, Alfred Russel Wallace. When Wallace learned that
Darwin had had the theory under consideration for twenty
years, and was prepared to present it based upon a won-
derful collection of observations, he generously withdrew
from its further development.

This epoch was the most important one because the new
theory revolutionized biology, and in fact revolutionized the
point of view in almost every department of thought. The
greatness of Darwin really consisted not so much in his
theory as in what he set men doing. He called his ex-
planation "the theory of natural selection," but it has been
freely spoken of as "Darwinism." It has been the con-
spicuous explanation of evolution for fifty years, and even

336 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

if it should now be found inadequate, its place in the
progress of knowledge is unparalleled.

The theory of Darwin is so familiar and so accessible
that a brief definition of it should suffice. Darwin ob-
served that the " ratio of increase" of plants and animals is
so high that many more forms are produced than can pos-
sibly exist. This leads to what is often called a "struggle
for existence," for out of thousands of plants or animals that
are started as spores or seeds or eggs only a single one will
survive. This means that death must be the rule and life
the exception. It was evident that this wholesale destruc-
tion of living forms must result in something of importance.
Darwin studied extensively the work of plant breeders and
of animal breeders, and showed how by selection, genera-
tion after generation, they could greatly modify plants and
animals. In fact, certain domesticated animals and cul-
tivated plants had been modified so extensively that the
wild forms from which they had come could not be identi-
fied. All these changes were made possible by the fact
that plants and animals continually vary. No plant or
animal is exactly like its parent, for there is individuality
as well as similarity. It is this tendency to vary that the
plant breeder and the animal breeder took hold of, selecting
those variations that they prefer and increasing them by
further breeding. This, of course, is " artificial selection,"
and Darwin conceived that this same process is going on in
nature by natural selection. Endless variations are pro-
duced, and nature selects by means of the struggle for ex-
istence, which is brought about by the high ratio of in-
crease. The forms selected are those that are better
adapted to their surroundings than the majority, which

EXPLANATIONS OF EVOLUTION 337

perish. Natural selection is thus said to result in the
"survival of the fittest," or it may be even more accurately
described as the " destruction of the unfit." The in-
dividuals thus preserved hand down to their progeny the
favorable variation; and, as this selection is repeated
generation after generation, the favorable variation is in-
creased, and finally a new species is the result.

This explanation is not now regarded as entirely satis-
factory, for the multiplication of facts has introduced
serious difficulties. But whether natural selection pro-
duces new species or not, it must play an important role
in the preservation of certain forms and in the destruction
of others.

4. The fourth epoch in the history of evolution was
introduced during the present decade when DeVries of
Amsterdam announced his " mutation theory." He had
observed that a certain species of evening primrose oc-
casionally produced forms so different from the parent that
he regarded them as distinct species. They were not the
small variations that Darwin used in his theory of natural
selection, but the large ones that had been called "sports,"
and had been disregarded as of any significance in the
origin of species. DeVries cultivated these plants for
many years, and observed them generation after generation.
The sports, which he called "mutations" or "mutants,"
continued to appear, but in very small numbers in propor-
tion to the total number of progeny. In this way he ob-
served this single species of evening primrose produce
several new species, all of which bred true and showed no
tendency to run back to the parent. He concluded that
new species may be thus produced "at a single bound,"

338 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

and not necessarily by the slow process of building up
small variations generation after generation by natura!
selection. Of course, natural selection will determine
which of the species thus produced will survive.

The mutation theory is so new that it is impossible tc
say at present whether it has any general application, or is
only a very occasional method. Whatever may be its fate
the epoch it introduced is the epoch of the experimenta
study of evolution, which must be the final resort in solving
such a problem.

CHAPTER XLIII

EVOLUTION AS SHOWN BY PLANTS

THE first plants lived in water, and their whole structure
was fitted to this environment. The body consisted of a
single cell, and since it was a green cell the plant could
make its own food, as we have seen. Some of these very
simple plant bodies bore threadlike extensions of their
protoplasm called cilia, and plants possessing these could
swim actively. Most of these plants, however, had no such
power. Their method of reproduction was very simple,
the single cell simply splitting and thus giving rise to two
new individuals. This method is called vegetative multi-
plication, because no special reproductive cell is devoted
to the work of reproduction, but it is done by an ordinary
working (vegetative) cell. Such simple plants as these
primitive ones exist in great abundance to-day. They
belong to the great group called Alga, and they may be
properly regarded as the forms that "started" the plant
kingdom.

Later in the evolution of plants, cells which clung to-
gether began to work together, and a body of several and
finally many cells was developed, the commonest form
among algae being a simple or branching filament. There
were also flat, platelike bodies.

In the many-celled plant bodies thus formed, special
reproductive cells soon appeared. Under certain con-

339

340 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

ditions the vegetative cells of the body produced small cells
within themselves, and these escaped into the water. Such
special reproductive cells are called spores, and as they
swim actively by means of cilia they are called swimming
spores. These spores swim about for a time, but gradu-
ally settle down, and each one produces a new plant.

Still later in the history of plants, another kind of
reproduction was developed. Swimming spores much
smaller than the ordinary ones were produced, and these
were unable to give rise to new plants. However, they
came together and fused in pairs, and the resulting cell,
produced by the fusion of two cells, did have the power of
producing a new plant. These pairing cells are gametes
and this process of cell fusion is fertilization. This
method of reproduction is the sexual method, and this
transformation of swimming spores into fusing spores or
gametes is the origin of sex.

There have thus been developed three methods of re-
production, in the following order: vegetative multiplica-
tion, reproduction by spores, and sexual reproduction. All
three methods are retained by all the higher plants.

A further advance in sex reproduction was secured by
what is called the differentiation of sex. When sex first
appeared, the pairing gametes were alike, but later they
became different. One became much larger than the
other and lost its cilia and hence the power of locomotion.
The other retained its small size and activity. These two
kinds of gametes have received different names, the large
passive one being the egg, and the small active one the
sperm. In this way not only sex, but two sexes were de-
veloped. The cell produced by the fusion of sperm and

EVOLUTION AS SHOWN BY PLANTS 341

egg is called the fertilized egg, and this process is the same
in plants and animals.

All this progress in evolution was made by the Algae
and it may be summed up as resulting in plants with many-
celled bodies reproducing by vegetative multiplication, by
swimming spores, and by fertilized eggs.

The next great advance was the emergence of plants
from the water to the land, and this important step seems
to have been responsible for all the later development of
the plant kingdom. In other words, had plants always
remained in the water, there is very good evidence for the
belief that they would never have developed into forms
much more complex than the ones which have been de-
scribed. Land plants are more complex and diversified
than water plants, just as land conditions are more varied
than aquatic conditions. Thus always, to some extent, we
find a reflection of the conditions of the environment in the
structures of the organisms which inhabit that environ-
ment.

This emergence from the water and the formation of the
land habit were accomplished by that great group of plants,
next above the Algae, which comprises the liverworts and
the mosses. The land habit means exposure to air instead
of to water, and the danger to be guarded against is the
drying out of the body. We recognize that water is the
primary need of the animal as well as the plant body, and
that the individual cells of our body require a fluid medium
for their life just as truly as a fish requires water. This
fact alone is strongly suggestive of the remote aquatic
ancestry of all living things. Plant bodies became more
compact, but for a long time could live on land only by

342 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

lying prostrate on muddy flats; such flats as we find on very
gently sloping seashores between the tide marks. Swim-
ming spores were necessarily abandoned, and light spores
for dispersal by air took their place. The gametes
(sperms and eggs) were produced in better protected
organs, with jackets of protecting cells. Such an organ
containing sperms is the antheridium, and the one contain-
ing eggs is the archegonium.

However, the greatest change introduced at this stage
of evolution was what is called the alternation o] genera-
tions, and this change profoundly affected all the future
development of the plant kingdom. Unless it is under-
stood, no true interpretation of plant-life histories is possi-
ble. In this early alternation of generations the green
plant body formed no spores, but did form the sperms and
eggs. Then the fertilized eggs, instead of producing a form
like their parent, as animal eggs do, produce an entirely
different structure. This other structure, or other plant,
produces no sperms and eggs, but does produce spores;
the plant is thus for the second time, but in a very different
way, reduced to the one-cell stage in its life history. Then
when one of these one-celled spores germinates (which it
does of course without waiting for any act of fertilization),
it produces the original sperm-and-egg-bearing plant.
In this way two really perfectly distinct plants alternate
with each other in making up the life history. The sperm-
and-egg producing generation is called the gametophyte or
gamete plant, and the other the sporophyte or spore plant.
The gametophyte is sexual, and the sporophyte is sexless,
and each in turn produces the other, and this habit con-
tinues throughout all the higher groups of plants.

EVOLUTION AS SHOWN BY PLANTS 343

In liverworts and mosses the sporophyte is small and
not green. Since it cannot make its own food it attaches
itself to the green gametophyte and lives upon it as a para-
site lives upon its host; yet it is no more an organic part of
the gametophyte generation than the mildew which grows
upon lilac leaves is a part of the lilac.

In the next higher group of plants — which is the fern
group — the next great advance is to be observed. The
sporophyte has become green, can make its own food, and
is therefore independent of the gametophyte. Not only
that, but its green tissue has developed into leaves; it has
developed roots which connect it with the soil; and run-
ning from the roots up into the leaves there appears that
elaborate water-conducting system of tissue known as the
•vascular system. This system is chiefly composed of the
woody strands so familiar as wood in the higher plants.
The ferns and their allies differ, therefore, from the liver-
worts and mosses in having independent leafy' sporo-
phytes, with roots and a vascular system.

With the large development of the sporophyte, and its
assumption of the task of food making with its large leaves,
and its continuation from season to season by means of
its fleshy underground stem, it seems natural to find the
gametophyte correspondingly reduced. In fact, although
leading an independent nutritive life, the gametophyte in
ferns is relatively inconspicuous. It looks like an ex-
ceedingly small liverwort; like a little green, heart-shaped
bit of leaf which often escapes attention entirely. It is
called the prolhallium. Thus, we see that the fern plant
of ordinary observation is a sporophyte or sexless plant,
while the moss of ordinary observation is a gametophyte or
23

344 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

sexual plant. It is no wonder that the early students of
ferns could find no sex organs, for the plants they ex-
amined were sporophytes.

Certain plants known as uclub mosses " and "ground
pines" belong to the fern group and are better than the
common ferns to illustrate the other points of advancing
differentiation which appear in this group. They are
often used for Christmas greens and are found in abundance
in the pine woods of the North. Their long prostrate
stems are thickly covered with narrow, pointed, green
leaves, giving them quite a tufted or bushy appearance, and
explaining the name ' ' ground pine." Now the sporophyte
in all members of the fern group bears on its leaves special
spore-producing organs called " sporangia." Clusters of
these sporangia forming brown dots or patches are matters
of common observation on the under sides of fern leaves.
At first, in the evolution of ferns, all the leaves bore sporangia,
but presently there appeared leaves of two kinds, one being
an ordinary foliage leaf doing exclusively the work of food
making and bearing no sporangia at all, the other doing no
ordinary foliage work and being devoted exclusively to the
bearing of sporangia. The latter kind of leaves are called
sporophylls or spore leaves. Sometimes they do some
ordinary leaf work as well as the work of sporangia pro-
ducing. Now in the club mosses we find these sporo-
phylls grouped together in a club-shaped tuft at the end of
the branches, and this definite, conelike cluster of sporo-
phylls is called a strobilus. The strobilus is a very impor-
tant organ to understand, because it is the forerunner of
that very familiar organ the flower. It is fair to say that
the flower cannot be really understood unless we under-

EVOLUTION AS SHOWN BY PLANTS

345

stand the strobilus. The pine cone furnishes perhaps the
most familiar example of a strobilus or " aggregation of
sporophylls."

The other important step which is introduced by a few
members of the fern and club-moss group has to do with
the spores. Up to this point spores are all alike. They all
produce just one kind of gametophyte, that gametophyte
bearing both kinds of sex organs — the antheridia which
contain sperms and the archegonia which contain eggs.
But now, in the few members of the fern group referred to
(selaginella, a common foliage plant in greenhouses is one
of them), two distinct kinds of spores are produced. One
of these is relatively very large and is called the megaspore.
The other is relatively very small and is called the micro-
spore. The megaspore produces a gametophyte which
bears only archegonia, and is therefore called a female
gametophyte. The microspore produces a gametophyte
which bears only antheridia, and is therefore called a male
gametophyte. This condition, in which two kinds of spores
are produced, is called heterospory. Heterospory is just as
important to understand as the strobilus, for this habit is
the forerunner of seed formation, and the seed cannot be
understood without understanding heterospory.

When heterospory appears the gametophytes become
small and parasitic, just as the sporophytes were small and
parasitic when they first appeared. In fact the gameto-
phytes of heterosporous plants are parasitic within the
spores that produce them. We see herein some explanation
of the size of the megaspores. Not only do they have to
have food stored up to provide for their own germination,
they must also provide food for the whole development of

346 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

the female gametophyte and the formation of the eggs; for
the female gametophyte, instead of developing outward
and into an independent plant, as its forerunners did, will
develop inward and live as a parasite upon its mother, the
megaspore. The sporophyte began by being dependent
upon the gametophyte, and now the gametophyte in turn
has become dependent upon the sporophyte.

The group of plants next higher than the fern plants is
the highest of all and is commonly known as the " flowering
plants," but it is better called the "seed plants." (There
are some seed plants which could hardly be said to be
flower bearers.) To understand this group one must
carry forward the ideas of strobilus and heterospory and
see how they result in flower and seed.

Among seed plants the strobilus continues for a long
time, notably so in the group to which the pines belong.
Finally a third type of leaflike structure appears and this
new member is close to the sporophylls. Presently we see
this new organ itself differentiated into two kinds, and these
are called sepals and petals, which are the most familiar
parts of a flower. Thus we may say that when a strobilus
has sepals and petals associated with its sporophylls it is a
flower. We must note that the sporophylls of a flower
were called stamens and carpels or pistils long before their
real nature was understood, and these names still persist.
It used to be thought that stamens were male organs and
the pistil the female organ, and plants which have stamens
on one individual and pistils in the flowers of another gave
rise to the idea of distinct male and female plants. But,
if the argument has been followed up to this point, the
inaccuracy of this view is perfectly obvious. The stamens

EVOLUTION AS SHOWN BY PLANTS 347

and pistils are members of a sexless generation, or sporo-
phyte. They themselves are sporophylls or spore-pro-
ducing leaves. The stamens produce that very obvious
and well-known product of flowers the pollen; and the
grains of pollen are microspores or sexless spores, which
upon germination will produce the male generation of the
plant; but they themselves are not to be confused with the
male element. They have been thus confused largely on
account of the process of transfer of pollen from stamen to
stigma at the top of the pistil. This process is commonly
called fertilization and that is the name of the sex process,
and if this were fertilization the pollen certainly would be
the male element. But this process is not fertilization.
It is pollination, and pollination is no more fertilization
than the delivery of a bar of steel at a watch factory is
the manufacture of a delicately tempered watch spring.
Fertilization occurs after pollination — it may be hours or
days or even weeks after — and it is a process which occurs
down at the very base of the pistil among those "baby
seed" organs known as ovules. It is wholly distinct and
separated by an entire generation of life history from the
deposit of the pollen grain by insect visit or uncertain breeze
upon the sticky stigma. It is also separated in position by
the commonly elongated " style" of the pistil down which
the pollen tube must grow, and it is this pollen tube which
carries the male cells.

In flowers, in addition to having the differentiation of
two kinds of spores, which we found also in some of the
fern group, we have also the differentiation of two kinds of
sporophylls. That is, the stamen is one kind of sporo-
phyll: it bears microspores which are commonly known as

348 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

pollen. The carpels, usually united to form the organ
known as the pistil, are another kind of sporophyll; they
bear the megaspores, and the megaspores are commonly
known as nothing at all because they are never seen. This
is due to the fact that they never are discharged from the
sporangium which bears them. This sporangium forms
most of the structure commonly known as the ovule.

Having noted that the state of producing two kinds of
spores is called heterospory, we can see, for the sake of
clearness, that the state of bearing two kinds of sporophylls,
each of which bears a kind of sporangium different from
that borne by the other, might be called heterosporophylly.
As a matter of fact that cumbersome word is not used, but
the fact which it names needs to be made clear, and is ex-
emplified by stamens and carpels.

Also, having noted that in heterosporous plants the
generations which result from the germination of the spores,
that is the gametophytes, are ingrowing within the spores
and parasitic, we now need to note that the next step in
this direction is the case of the ovule cited above. That
is, the megaspores were said to have no common name
because they are never seen under ordinary circumstances;
they are retained within the ovules which bear them, and
there the male generation or pollen tube, bearing the sperms,
goes in search for the eggs which have developed in the
internal, parasitic female gametophyte inside the mega-
spore. Thus we have here, added to the retention of the
gametophyte within its mother spore, the retention of the
spore itself within its mother sporangium, and with the
arrival of this step in evolution we have the arrival of that
great epoch-marking habit in plants: the seed habit.

EVOLUTION AS SHOWN BY PLANTS 349

These last points, with reference to flowers, are not at
all easy to grasp outside of a laboratory course in the sub-
ject, despite the familiarity of the material discussed, and a
restatement of the points appears desirable. In connec-
tion with this study it is desirable to have a few complete
flowers, such as any of the lily type, available for use in
identifying and making perfectly concrete the points
referred to.

Since stamens and carpels or pistils are sporophylls,
they, of course, bear the two kinds of sporangia: those
that produce microspores (pollen grains) and those that
produce megaspores. If stamens and carpels are sporo-
phylls, it follows that they cannot be sex organs, according
to the old notion, for they are structures that belong to the
sporophyte or sexless generation.

The two gametophytes (male and female) in seed plants
are found just where they occur in all heterosporous plants,
namely, within the spores that produce them. The male
gametophyte, with its sperms, is within the microspore
(pollen grain). The > female gametophyte, with its egg,
is within the megaspore. The sporangium that produces
the megaspore in seed plants has long been called the ovule,
and its greatest peculiarity is that it does not shed its spore.
Therefore, inside of the ovule is the megaspore, and inside
of the megaspore is the female gametophyte. It is no
wonder that the gametophytes (sexual plants) of seed
plants are seen only in the laboratory under the microscope,
and then only after special technic has made them
visible.

The egg produced by the female gametophyte remains
within the ovule and is there fertilized, and there produces

350 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

a young sporophyte. At the same time the ovule (spor-
angium) produces a hard coat, and the whole structure is
called the seed. In a seed, therefore, we see that three
generations are represented: the ovule (sporangium) be-
longs to the old sporophyte, and is always represented by
at least the testa or hard outer coat of the seed. Within the
outer part of the old ovule lies imbedded the female gameto-
phyte, which resulted from the germination of the mega-
spore, grew as an internal parasite, bore the now fertilized
egg, and after fertilization constitutes that part of the seed
commonly known as endosperm. Finally, and innermost,
imbedded within the female gametophyte, lies the third
generation which is included in this wonderful organ, the
seed. This innermost of the three members of the seed is the
young sporophyte of the yet undeveloped generation, and it
is called the embryo. Thus we should see that it is im-
possible to know what a seed really is unless we approach
it from the lower groups and come to an understanding of
its evolution.

INDEX

Acquired characters, 335.
Activity, 48.
Adaptability, 23.
Agriculture and Nature Study,
i.

AJgae. 339-

Alternation of generations, 342.
Animals, 103, 107.
Antheridium, 342.
Ants, 115.
Aphids, 217. .
Archegonium, 342.
Assimilation, 327.

Bacteria, 224.

Biology, Nature Study and, 9.
Birds, 87, 88, 91, 92, 95, 96,
98, 99, 101, 102, 104, 105,
106, 112, 122.

destruction, 304.

how to attract, 310.

study, 303.
Blue grass, 131.
Botany, 106.
Bulb gardening, 186.
Bumblebees, 149.
Butterfly, cabbage, 140.

Cabbage butterfly, 140.

Carpels, 348.

Cell, 324.

Child and Nature Study, 75.

Chlorophyll, 295, 329.
Chloroplasts, 329.
Clothing, 83, 84, 85, 86.
Clovers, 147.
Club mosses, 344.
Comparison, 55.
Condensation, 235.
Continuity, 22.
Corn, seed, 231.
Cow, 107.

Currant worm, 129.
Cuttings, 1 68.
Cytoplasm, 325.

Darwin, 335.
Dead work, 31.
Definiteness, 50.
Dependence, 40.
De Vries, 337.
Diastase, 326.
Digestion, 297, 326.
Drainage, 300.

Egg* 340.

Eighth-grade work, 104, 147,

149, 207.

Embryo, 331, 350.
Endosperm, 350.
Enthusiasm, 61.
Environment, 334.
Enzyme, 326.
Evaporation, 235.

352

Evolution, in plant kingdom,

339;

theories, 333.
Exactness, 27.
Experimentation, 7.

Fall work, 82, 85, 87, 92, 95,
99, 102, 104, 118, 120, 124.
Ferns, 343.
Fertilization, 340, 347.

misconception, 322.
Fertilizers, 302.
Fifth-grade work, 95, 131.
First-grade work, 82, 107.
Flicker, 112.
Flowering plants, 346.
Flowers, 346.

wild, 93, 191.
Food, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86.

manufacture, 296.
Forage plants, 147.
Fourth-grade work, 92, 124,

126, 129.
Fungi, 105, 224.

Gametes, 340.
Gametophyte, 342.
Garden, rural school, 203.

school, 314.

work, 86, 87, 90, 92, 93, 95,
97, 99, 100, 102, 103, 104,
105,118,120, 126, 144, 318.
Garden bulbs, 186.
Germination, 249.
Gooseberry, 126.

worm, 129.
Grades, primary, 76.

grammar, 79.

first, 82, 107.

second, 85, 109.

INDEX

Grades, third, 87, 112, 115,

I l8, I2O, 122.

fourth, 92, 124, 126, 129.

fifth, 95, 131.

sixth, 99, 136.

seventh, 102, 140, 144, 207.

eighth, 104, 147, 149, 207.
Grammar grades, 79.
Grape, 144.
Grasshoppers, 173.
Grub, white, 220.

Heat, effect on bodies, 241.
Heating, methods of, 244.
Heterospory, 345.
Home experiments, 253.
Horse, 86.
Humus, 301.

Independence, 26.
Individual work, 52.
Inference, 36.
Initiative, 8.
Inquiry, 65.

Insects, observations, 88, 91,
92, 94, 96, 98, 99, 101,
102, 103, 104, 106, 115,
124, 129, 136, 140, 149,
217.

study, 172.
water, 197.
Interest, 21, 26, 34.
latent, 6.

Lamarck, 334.

Land habit, 341.

Lawns, 97, 131.

Light, and food manufacture,

296.
Liverworts, 341.

INDEX

353

Manure, 302.
Maple, 109.
Megaspore, 345.
Microspore, 345.
Misconceptions, some funda-
mental, 320.
Mold, 225.
Mosses, 341.
Mushrooms, 224.
Mutation, 337.

Natural selection, 335.
Nature Study, agriculture, i.

biology, 9.

children, 75.

dangers, 29.

educative result, 17, 25.

mission, n.

obstacles, 12.

principles, 46.

science, 16.

sentiment, 16.

spirit, 60.
Nucleus, 325.

Oats, study, 255.
Observation, 53.
Osmosis, 289.
Outlines, topical, 82.

typical, 107.

use, 41.
Ovule, 349.

Persistence, 70.
Petals, 346.

Photosynthesis, 296, 328.
Physical experiments, 235.

observations, 89, 93, 97, 100.
Physiology, 288, 324.
Pistil, 346.

Plant breeding, 214.

products, 259.

work, 288.
Pollen, 348.

Pollination, 210, 331, 347.
Primary grades, work, 76.
Products, plant, 259.
Progressive work, 80.
Proof, nature of, 27.
Pro thallium, 343.
Protoplasm, 324.
Protoplasts, 324.

Reproduction, 330.
Respiration, 298, 327.

misconception, 322.
Roots, absorption of water,

290.

Rotation of crops, 300.
Rural schools, gardening, 203.

outline, 153.

suggestions, 158.

School garden, 24, 314.

for different grades, 318.
Second-grade work, 85, 109.
Seed habit, 348.

plants, 346.
Seeds, formation of, 210.

germination of, 249.
Sentimentality, 38.
Sepals, 346.
Seventh-grade work, 102, 140,

144, 207.
Sex, 340.

Shelter, 83, 84, 85, 86.
Sixth-grade work, 99, 136.
Sketching, 51.
Sky, 99.
Soil, 94, 103.

354

INDEX

Soil, chemistry, 264.

handling, 299.

origin, 277.

physical properties, 280.

test for acid, 269.

test for alkali, 270.

test for salt, 270.
Sparrow, 122.
Sperm, 340.
Sporangia, 344.
Spores, 332, 340.
Sporophylls, 344.
Sporophyte, 342.
Spring work, 83, 86, 90, 93,
97, 100, 103, 105, 118,
1 20.

Stamens, 346.
Stigma, 347.
Strobilus, 344.
Style, 347-
Sweet pea, 120.

Teachers, 29.

misconceptions, 320.

training, 5.

Tentacles of inquiry, 19.
Terminology, 33.
Third-grade work, 87, 115,

118, 120, 122.
Tillage, 299.
Toadstools, 224.

Tomato, 118.

worm, 124.
Transpiration, 294.
Trees, 87, 88, 91, 92, 94, 95,
97, 99, 101, 109.

suggestions for study, 162.
Truth, 68.

Use and disuse, 334.

Vacation experiments, 253.
Vascular system, 343.
Vegetative multiplication, 339.

Water, absorption, 290.

ascent, 293.

life, i973

loss, 294.

Water beetles, 136.
Weather, 102.

record, 182.

study, 181.
Weeds, list, 180.

plan for study, 177.
Wild flowers, study, 191.
Winter work, 83, 86, 89, 93,

97, 100, 103, 105.
Worms, tomato, 124.

currant, 129.

gooseberry, 129.

white grub, 220.

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