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A
PRACTICAL TREATISE
0 F
HUSBANDRY:
Wherein are contained, many
USEFUL and VALUABLE EXPERIMENTS and OBSERVATIONS
IN THE
NEW HUSBANDRY,
Collected during a Series of Years, by the Celebrated M.DUHAMEL DU MONCEAU,
Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, Fellow of the Royal Society, London, &c.
ALSO,
The mod approved Praftice of the beft ENGLISH FARMERS,
in the Old Method of Husbandry.
with Copper-Plates of feveral new and ufeful Instruments.
Agricola incurvo terrain dimovet aratro.
Hinc anni labor ; bine patriam, parvofque nepotes
Suftinet ; bine armenta bourn, meritofqiie juvencos.
Virg. Geom-. J. 2.
LONDON:
Printed for J. Whiston and B.White in Flcet-JIrect,
R.Baldwin in Pota-najhr-Row, W. Johnston in Ludgate-jlrut,
P. Davey and B. Law in Ave-mary-Lane,
MDCCLIX.
To The Right Honourable
JACOB,
Lord Vifcount
FOLKESTONE, president;
The Right Hon. Robert, Lord Romney,
The Right Hon. George Henry, Earl of Litchfield,
The Right Hon. Simon, Earl of Har court,
The Right Hon. Hugh, Lord Willoughby, of Par ham,
The Rev. Stephen Hales, D. D.
Charles Whiiworth, Efq;
Edward Hooper, Efq;
George Eckerfall, Efq;
VI CE-PRESIDENTS;
And to the reft of the Gentlemen, who are of the
Society for the Encouragement of Arts,
Manufactures and Commerce ;
This practical Treatife of Hufbandry,
is infcribed, with the utmoft Refpecr,
By Their mojl obedient Servant,
And Sincere IFelhviJher,
March 24,
•755- John Mills.
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2010 with funding from
NCSU Libraries
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PR E F A C E.
DUHAMEL and his correfpondents have fet the world an example which has long been wanted, and greatly defired by all who have the good of then- country at heart, and are in the lead fenfible of the importance of Agriculture. They have given us a feries of experi- ments in this moil ufeful art, continued for feveral years together, with accuracy and judgment, and related in a clear, diftinct, man- ner. Theory alone can avail but little in Agriculture, which, as Dr. Home obferves, " does not take its rife originally from reafon, " but from fadt and experience. It is a branch of natural philofo- " phy, and can only be improved from a knowledge of fadls, as " they happen in nature. It is by attending to thefe fads that the " other branches of natural philofophy have been fo much advanced cl during thefe two laft ages. Medicine has attained its prefent per- " feclion, only from the hiftory of difeafes and cafes delivered " down. Chymiftry is now reduced to a regular fyftem, by the " means of experiments made either by chance or defign. But " where," continues he, " are the experiments in Agriculture to " anfwer this purpofe ? When I look round for fuch, I can find " few or none. There then lies the impediment in the way of " Agriculture. Books in that art, we are not deficient in : but the " book which we want, is a book of experiments."
After
VI
PREFACE.
After writing this, the Doctor read the three firft volumes of Experiments publifhed by M. Duhamel, and gives them the fol- lowing character.* « They are," fays he, " diftindt, exact, conclu- " five fo far as they have gone, and ftand a model for experiments " in Agriculture. 'What a fhame," adds he, " for Great Britain, " where Agriculture is lb much cultivated, to leave its exact value " to be determined by foreigners !" ■
The 4th and 5th volumes of M. Duhamel's work, which con- tain the greateft part of the truly valuable experiments of M. de Chateau-vieux, deferve flill higher commendation, and may yet more juftly be propofed as models, not only for their accuracy and fuccefs, but alfo on account of the variety of plants which he has cultivated according to the principles of the new huibandry.
The Reverend and worthy Dr. Stephen Hales, whofe name does honour to his country, and whofe ftudies have always been directed to the improvement of it, as well as to the general benefit of man- kind, has given us leave to fay of M. Duhamel's work, (which was lent to Dr. Hales as a prefent by the author,) " that the Englifh rea- " der will find therein many ufeful inftructions and hints for far- " ther improvements in hufbandry."
As M. Duhamel's five volumes were publifhed in different years, he could not give an uninterrupted account of each experiment, from its beginning ; efpecially as they were made by different perfons, and in different places : nor could he well avoid frequently repeating, or, at leaft, refuming, the heads of what had been faid before ; by which means their progrefs towards perfection is not fo obvious to the reader, as the writer of this work hopes they will appear, when ranged in the more methodical order he has endeavoured to give them. Another reafon which has induced him to give each different experiment from its very beginning, is, that he might fhew the dif- ficulties which occurred at firff, and how they were afterwards got over. He has tranflated only fuch experiments as feemed to him to carry with them a variety which may be inftructive to his country- men : * In his Principles of Agriculture and Vegetation.
PREFACE, vii
men : and to render this treatife the more ufeful, he ha? given what appeared to him beft in the modern practice of farming, either according to the old or new method. The plainnefs wherewith it is written, will ihew, that his intention was to make ic of as general ufe as poffible.
Every one who contributes to the public good, deferves applaufe ; and confequently it is due to all M. Duhamel's correfpondents. But the obligations of the public, to the two gentlemen to whom we are indebted for moft of the following experiments, are flill in- creafed, when we confider the unwearied diligence with which they puriued a fubject of fo different a nature from that of their re- spective employments. The poft of Infpector-general of the Marine of France, would, alone, have given furficient exercile to a genius !efs active than M. Duhamel's, and not allowed opportunity for his fteady and fuccefsful application to this and every other branch of natural philofophy. Tis true, the neceffary attendance on the difcharge of his more immediate bufinefs, prevented him from pur- fuing his experiments in Agriculture, fo far as he doubtlefs would otherwife have done, and from making them in that number and variety which the fubject required : but we owe to his efforts and example, the zeal with which others have been animated in their experiments : and, above all, we are indebted to him for the excel- lent inftructions we have received from M. de Chateau-vieux, who, even whilft he held the firff. Office in the City and Republic of Geneva, found time to apply himfelf with furprizing attention to this important object: j and that too at an age which generally carries with it a difpenfation from the cares and fervice of the public, to thofe who have lefs zeal for the intereft of it. The variety of his experiments, and the remarkably judicious obfervations which he makes upon them, fhew him to be poffeffed of the moft extenfive knowledge of this fubject.
Such are the laudable examples of two foreigners, for the ad- vancement of Agriculture. How far their countrymen may have profited by them, is not to our prefent purpofe to examine : we propofe them to our own, and we hope not unfuccefsfully. This kingdom has indeed produced fome inftances of the fame kind. The late Lord Townfhend thought Agriculture to be an object well
worthy
viii PREFACE.
worthy of his attention, and actually introduced the ufe of marie, and the hulbandry now followed in the county of Norfolk, which, to this day, is greatly indebted to him for fo valuable an im- provement : and furely nothing could more become his Lordfhip, than thus to dignify his retirement, by making it ufeful to the public.
The misfortune however is, that the fuccefs of thefe generous attempts of individuals, of whatever rank, is generally but too much limited} often within the bounds of a county, or two at mod : for the common farmer is perhaps the leaft inquifidve of any man, after improvements in his own bufinefs ; is frequently the moil: obftinately attached to the practice of his predeceflbrs ; and often too, we muft allow, it might not confift with prudence for him to rifque his little competence, upon the fuccefs of expe- riments.
But we promife ourfelves, that it will be the happinefs of the prefent age to fee every obftacle removed, which might retard a general improvement in Hufbandry, the genuine and original fource of the wealth and power of this Ifland, as well as of its ornament and fecurity.
The Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, have taken This under Their peculiar care : and what may we not expect from a Society, the Members whereof are fo well qualified to direct and improve the moft ufeful inquiries ; and who generoufly diftribute their private bounties, to reward the la- bour, and indemnify the charge, of" fuch experiments, as tend to promote any ufeful knowledge, or national advantage !
To return to the work before us. It is divided into four parts. The firft contains the general principles of Agriculture, together with the moft approved practice in the old huibandry ; in which the reafoning of Mr. Evelyn is chiefly followed, as the moft rational that has hitherto appeared, though undefervedly neglected by our writers on Agriculture. It is a misfortune to practical farmers, that his excellent Difcourfe of Earth, for want of having been oftener printed feparate from his other works, has not been i'o well known
to
PREFACE.
JX
to them, as a performance of that great merit deferves. Dr. Home's ingenious 'Treatife on the Principles of Agriculture, &c. deferves commendation j but it is not yet rendered fufficiently practical, to be of general ufe to farmers. The effential differences between the old and new husbandry, are pointed out and explained in this firft part.
The fecond, is confined to the culture of wheat, according to the principles of the new hufbandry, the fuperior advantage of which is proved by a feries of many experiments.
In the third part, the new hufbandry is applied to the culture of other plants ufeful to the farmer.
That the defcriptions of the feveral inflruments ufed in the new hufbandry, might not interrupt the detail of the experiments, thefe defcriptions are given in the fourth part, together with the Plates wherein thofe inftruments are reprefented.
^%®®®%®®%%®®%®%®%®®%®%%%®%%%&\
ADVERTISEMENT.
AS the French meafures are retained in the parts of this work taken from M. Duhamel, it is proper to obferve, that, fup- pofing the Englifh foot in Guildhall to be iooo, and the Paris foot in the Chatelet 1068, which is M. Greaves's calculation of their difference} the French arpent, confifting of 100 perches of 22 feet each, making in all 48400 fquare French feet, is equal to 51691 Englifh fquare feet, or to 1 acre, 29 poles, 9 paces, 1 yard, and 2 4 fquare feet, that is to fay, to very near an acre and three quarters of a rood Englifh meafure.
The French bufl.el, confifting of 4 quarters, and the quarter of 4 htrons of 36 Paris cubic inches each, contains 576 French cubic
b inches,
x PREFACE.
inches, which, in the above proportion, are equal to 6 1 5 -rVA Eng- lish inches : and confequently the French bufhel is to the Englifh, as 615 -roVff to 2178, the number of cubic inches in the Englifh bufhel : or, in other words, it is equal to one peck, 1 quart, and nearly 2 cubic inches.
The French bufhel for oats, is double that of any other grain.
The Septier contains 1 2 French bufhels.
Thefe may, perhaps, not be the exact mathematical proportions between the Englifh and French meafures, were their ftandard to be precifely afcertained, which it is not : but, at leaft, they are near enough to the proportions of the meafures commonly ufed in both countries, to anfwer all the ends they are intended for in this work.
C O N-
CONTENTS.
QF Roots,
Of Leaves, «
PART I.
CHAP. i.
CHAP. II:
CHAP. HI.
page i
3. 4
Of the Food of Plants, : : t
CHAP. IV.
Whether the mojl different kinds of Plants draw the fame fort of fub- Rance from the earthy for their Food, . • • 5
CHAP. V.
Of the diftribution of the Food of Plants within the earth t I 19
CHAP. VI.
Of Tillage,
■ i*
CHAP. VII.
Of the management of lands newly broken up, viz.
I. Q/"vVood-lands, . . , ; 1$
II. Of Heaths and Commons, . . .
III. Of Meadows and Pafture-lands, .
IV. 0/Moift Grounds, ; l i
16
iS ibid.
b*
CHAP:
CONTENTS.
xu
C H A P. VIII.
Of Manures, • . . • • itj
I. of Clay, ..... 20
II. of Sand, ..... 24
III. of Loam, . . . . .31
CHAP. IX.
Of Plowing, . • • • . -43
CHAP. X.
Of the advantage of cultivating annual plants -while they grove- , as the Viae and other perennial plants are cultivated, . . $j
CHAP. XI.
General defcription of the drill and borfe- hoeing kujbandry, for thf cul- ture of annual plants, . . . .59 Art. I. At -what depth the feed ought to be fawn, . . ibid. Art. 2. Of the quantity of feed proper to befown, . 60 Art. 3. Of the diflance at' -which the ro-ws jkould be fawn . 61
CHAP. XII.
O/" Change of Species, .... 63
CHAP. XIII
Of the common culture of -wheat, . • • .66
CHAP. XIV.
Of the culture of -wheat, according to the nrw hufbandry, ' . 70
C H A P. XV. Of the advantages of the nrw hufcandry, . 76
CHAP.
CONTENTS. xiii
CHAP. XVI.
Of the Diftempers of Corn, .... 78
viz. Mildew, . . . . . 79
Blight, . , . . . .84
Empty ears, . . . . . . . ibid.
Parched and fhritelled corn, . . . .85
Glazed corn, ...... 88
Abortive, or rickety corn, . . . ibid.
Accidents occafioned by infecls, , . .90
Smut, . . . . - \ 93
Burnt grain, . . . , 100
Ofthediflemperinrye, called ergot, . . 104
CHAP. XVII.
O/* Steeps, . , . . . 106
CHAP. XVIII.
Of Weeds, . . . . . .109
PART II.
Experiments and Reflections relative to the New Husbandry.
CHAP. I.
Experiments on wheat, . , . ; j j ^
§. I. Experiments made at Denainvilliers and Acou, in the year
17*S°> • • . . ibid.
Refult of the experiment at Denainvilliers, . .; 115
Refuli of the experiment at Acou, ' , , 1 1 6
$.11.
:>;., CONTENTS.
§. II. Contfauation of the experiments at Denainvillers and Acou, in the year 1 7 c J , . . . . 1 1 8
A V* -II- -U-A
i. ^/Denainvilliers, . . ; ibid.
2. At Acou, . . : . .120
§. III. Continuation of the experiments at Denainvilliers mid Acou, in the year 1752, . . . . ibid.
1 . At Denainvilliers, . ibid.
2. Experiments made at Denainvilliers, in order to know whether it be mo ft profitable tofow in two rows, or in three, . 121
3. Continuation of the experiments made at Acou, in the years 175 1 and 1752, . - • .122
§. IV. Experiments made at Denainvilliers in the year 1753, ibid.
§. V. Experiments made at Denainvilliers in the year 1754, 123
§. VI. Experiments made at Denainvilliers in the year 1755, ibid.
§.VII. Experiments made by M. Diancourt, in the years 1753, 1/ '54, an<li7S5, ..... ibid.
§.VIII. Experiments made by M. de la Croix, in 1755, 128
§. IX. Experiments made under the Direction ofM. RoufTel, 131
CHAP. II.
§. I. Experiments made by M. Lullin de Chateu-vieux, in the year
i75'» I42
Obfervations on the fame, : . . .145
§. II. Experiments made by M. Lullin de Chateau-vieux, in the year 1752, . H8
Experiment, No. 1, t ibid.
Experiment, No. 2, . ., . • • 15°
Comparifon of the produce of the fame field cultivated according to the old, and according to the new hufbandry, . 151
Experiment, No. 3, . . : * • '53
Experiment, No. 4, *54
Ex-
CONTENTS. xv
Experiment, No. 5, made on fields fawn In equally dijlant rows with the drill-plough, . . . . . \&
Account of the produce of the fame field fown part in the old way>
and part with the drill-plough, in September 175 1, ibid-
Experiment, No. 6, ..... 157
Experiment, No. 7, ..... . ibid.
Refections of M. de Chateau- vieux, which prove the truth of the principles on which the new bujbandry is jowided, 159
§. III. Experiments made by M. Lullin de Chateau-vieux, in the
>'ear *7$h 163
Art. 1 . Experiments made on lands laid out in beds, which had borne a fecond and third cropt with fome obfervations parti* cularly relating thereto, . . . 1 64
Experiment, No. 1, . . . . . ibid.
Experiment, No. 2, . . . .165
Experiment, No. 3, . . . .169
Obfervations on tbefe experiments, . . ibid.
Art. 2. Experiments made on lands which had borne a-firfl crop. Remarks on tbefe experiments, . . . 171
Experiment, No. 4, ibid.
Experiment, No. 5, . . • • I73
Experiment, No. 6. . . . .174
Experiment, No. 7, . . „ ibid.
Art. 3. Experiments on land laid out in beds, and of which the
firfi crop was reaped in 1753. Reflections on tbefe expert-
mmt*> ..... ibid.
Experiment, No. jL . . ' 17-
Experiment, No. 9, . .... 176
Art. 4. Experiments made on fields fown in equally dijlant rows with the drill-plough, by jeveral lovers of agriculture, 177 Experiment, No. :o, . . , , j^id.
Experiment, No. 11, . , , m j~g
Experiment, No. 12, . . . ibid.
Experiment, No. 13, ; . . .179
Expe-
xvi CONTENTS.
Experiment, No. 14, . . ibid.
Experiment , No. 15, . . . ' . 180
Art. 5. Account of the crops produced during fixtcen fucceffive years, by fields cultivated and [own in the common 'way, and of which part was conjlantly dunged ; compared with a crop of the fame fields cultivated without dung, according to the new husbandry, even fuppofing them not to yield more than they did in 1753, which was their firjl crop, and which was greatly diminifned by the unforefeen and extraordinary acci- dents already mentioned, . . . ibid.
Art. 6. Proofs that the bejl field in the country, though the greateji part of it was dunged, yielded lefs wheat than thofe of the ex- periments No. 2 and 1 1, in which no dung was ufed, 182
Art. 7. Reflections and obfervations on the practice of the new hujbandry, . . . . .185
Art. 8. General difpofition of the land for the crop of 1754, 188 Conclufion, . . . . 189
§. IV. Experiments made by M. Lullin de Chateau-vieux, in the year 1754, . . . .190
Art. 1. Experiments made on lands formed into beds, which had yielded a third and fourth fucceffive crop : with fome obfer- vations particularly relating thereto, . . 192
Experiment, No. 1, being the fourth fucceffive crop off the fame
field, ibid.
Experiment, No. 2, . . . 198
Experiment, No. 3, . . . . . 199
Remarks on thefe Experiments, . . . 200
Art. 2. Experiments made on lands laid cut in beds, and which had borne a fecond crop. Refections on tbefe Experiments, ibid. Experiment, No. 4, .... ibid.
Experiment, No. 5, . . • .201
Experiment, No. b, . . • . . 202
Experiment, No. 7, ibid.
Reflection **• the experiments contained in this article, 203
Art.
CONTENTS.
xvn
Art. 3. Experiments made on lands laid cut in beds, which had borne a fir ft crop : with an account of , he manner in winch they were tilled to prepare them for fowirg. Remarks on thefe experiments, . . . . . . 204
Experiment, No. 8, . . . ic /
Experiment, No. 9, .... ibid.
Experiment, No. 10, . . . 208
Remarks on thefe experiments, : ; . ibid.
Art. 4. Experiments made on lands laid cut in beds, which had
borne a firjl and fecond crop; together with fome inter efling
obfervations, . . . . . . 212
Experime?2t, No. 11, . . . . ibid.
Obfervations on this experiment, . . . ibid.
Experiment, No. 12, . . . .. 215
Experiment, No. 13, . . . '. 216
Art. 5. Experiments made by fever al lovers of Agriculture, on
lands fown in equally dijlant rows with the drill-plough, 217
Experiment, No. 14, . . . ibid.
Experiment, No. 15, . . . . 218
Experiment, No. 16, . . . . ibid.
Experiment, No. 17, . . . . 219
Experiment, No. 18, . . . 222
Art. 6. Summary accounts of the products of fever al pieces of land
fown in equally diflant rows with the drill-plough, 223
Experiment, No. 19, . . . ibid.
Table of the extent, fowing, and crops of different pieces of land,
in 1754, . . . . 225
Art. 7. General reflections and obfervations on the experiments con- tained in the foregoing articles, . . ibid.
Art. 8. Experiments made on beds fown with fix rows of wheat : comparifon of their produce with that of beds fown with only three rows ; and fome inquiry into what number of rows it is befltofow, . . . . .232
c Art.
XV111
CONTENTS.
Art. 9. Experiment made in order to know which is the moft profitable way of [owing the beds ; and to af certain more pre- cisely the quantity ofjeed proper to be ufed, in order to have the great ejl crop, . . . . . 234
'Table of a bedfown in clujlers with barley, and itsprodu£it 236 Remarks thereupon, . . . . 237
■Art. 10. General difpofition for the farther progrefs of the new hujbandry, and particularly for the crop of 1755, 241
V. Continuation of M. de Chateau-vieux's experiments in 1755 and 1756, ..... 242
Art. 1. "Experiments made on fields laid out in beds, the la ft made of which had borne three fucceeding crops : with obfervations relating particularly to each experiment, . . 245
Experiment, No, i,year 1755, . . ibid.
Ob/ervattons, . . . .246
No. 1. year 1756, . . . 247
Ob/ervations, ..... ibid.
Experiment, No. 2, year 1755, . . 249
Obfervations on Smyrna wheat, . . . .250
No. 2, year 1756, . .... ibid.
Obfervations, : . . . . 251
No. I. Produce of the field No. 2, during fix teen years that it was cultivated in the old way > viz. from tie harveft of the year 1730, to that of the year tj^inctttfiyely, 252
No. 2. Produce of the fame f eld during five years of culture in the new wayt . . . . 253
No. 3. Comparifon of the above product of the new culture, with that of the old, . . . . 254
No. 4. Farther comparifon of the produfhef the new hujband- ry, with that of the old, . . . ibid.
HcjiecJions and obfervations, .... ibid.
Experiment
CONTENTS.
XXX
Experiment, No. 3, . . . .256
Experiment, N. 4, year 1755, . . ibid.
— : year 1756, . . 257
Ob/ervations, . , . . . ibid.
Experiment, No. 5, year 1755, . . ibid.
year- 1756, . . . ibid.
Experiment, No. 6, year 1755, . . .258
, year 1756, . , 259
Obfervations, . , . . . ibid.
Experiment, No. y, year 1755, . . . 260
year 1756, . . . ibid.
Experiment, No. 8, year 1755, . . . 261
Experiment, No. 9, j^r 1755, . . . 26?
year ,7j6, . . . ibid.
Experiment, No. 10, year ij 55. . . . ibid.
year 1756, , . . ibid.
Experiment, No. 11, . . , . 26^
Produce of the firji and fecond crop of a field cultivated in the new way, . ... .265
Eirft year's produce of a field f own and cultivated according to the new hufbandry y ... , .'269
Obfervations, • . . # 2_f
Art. 2. Experiments made on lands fown in equally diflant rows with the drill-plough : with fame refections on 'the advan- tages of this practice % . , , , 2-.,
Experiment, No. 17, year 1755, . \ 2-.
r ; )'ear *7$(>, . . 275
Recapitulation of thefe experiments, , . 2jy
Experiment, No, 18, . , , .278
Art. 3. Shewing the product of the new bujbandry to he fvbericr to that of the old. . ... J ibid.
c z
Comparifon
xx CONTENTS.
Comparifon of the produce of land fown in equally dijlant rows with the drill plough, with that of the other land laid out in beds, . . . . 280
CHAP. III.
Of the culture of Maiz or Indian Corn, . . 283
CHAP. IV.
'Experiments on Smyrna Wheat, . ... 290
CHAP. V.
Experiments on Wheat of different countries, . . 292
^^^^aO^©^^^^^^^^^^^^©^^^^©^^!
PART. HI.
Of the Culture of Spring Corn, Millet, and Rice, Legu- minous Plants and Pot-Herbs, Flax and 'Hemp, Artifi- cial and Natural Grass, and the Vine.
CHAP. I.
Experiments on Barley, Oats, and Rye, . . . 295
§. I. Experiments made near Bourdeaux, by M. Navarre, Dean of the Court of Aids, . . . . 295
§. II. Experiments made at Avignac in Britany, by M. de Brue, . . . . . 296
§. III. Extract of a letter from a Gentleman in Poitou, 297
§. IV. Experiment on Barley, by his Excellency M. Bielinflci, Grand Marfial of Poland, . . • . . 3GI
CHAP.
CONTENTS.
xxi
CHAP. II.
Of the .culture of Millet, . \ 305
CHAP. III.
Shewing the refemblance between the culture of Rice in China, and the new method which we have propofed for the culture of Wheat, ..... 306
C HA P. IV.
Experiments on Leguminous Plants, . ■; . 309
CHAP. V.
Experiments on Pot-herbs, &c. . . : 313
CHAP. VI.
§. I. Of the common culture of Turneps, . . 323
§. II. Of the culture of Turneps according to the new hujhandry, by M. Duhamel, . . . . * 324
§. III. Experiments on Turneps cultivated according to the new kuf- bandry . . . . , 329
CHAP. VII.
Of Flax and Hemp, . . . . .334
CHAP. VIII.
§. I. Of the culture of Sainfoin, . . . 337
§. II. Experiments on Sainfoin, . . . ^ac
CHAP. IX.
§. I. Of ■ the culture of Luferne, . , :m n^
§. II. Experiments on Luferne cultivated according to the new huf- bandry, by M. de Chateau-vieux, . . 354
Account
xxii CONTENTS.
Account of the produce of Luferne planted in beds, and cultivated according to the principles of t/.v wew hufbandry : ivith fome important . reflections on the advantages which may be obtained from it, .... . 357
Remarks on the culture of Lu feme, . , . 359
Continuation of M. de Chateau- vkuxV acc-ount of his experiments m Luferne, in the years 1755 and 1756, . . 361
Olfervaiions, ... . . . 362
CHAP. X.
Of Clover, .. . . . . .367
CHAP. XL
Of Meadow crPafture Ground, . . . 370
CHAP. XII.
$. I. Of the culture of the Vine, . . . 383
§. II. Of Vineyards in England, . . . 389
§. III. Extract of a letter jrom M. Rouflel in Brie, to M. Du- hamel, ..... 403
§. IV. Experiment on the Vine cultivated according to the principles of the new hufbandry, by M. de Chateau-vieux, . 404
Of the difpofition of the Vines in the Vineyard, . 406
Of the importance of leffening the' expence of culture, by the new
difpofition oj the Vines, . . . 407
Of the means oj rendering the culture of the Vint more beneficial to
the plant and its fruit, . . . .408
§. V. Good effects of this culture proved by the produce of a bed of Vines 40 toifes long, planted in 1752, . . 41!
§. VI. Getter al directions for making Wine, . . 414
PART
CONTENT?. xxiir
PART IV.
Of the Instruments peculiar to, or ufeful in, the New Husbandry.
CHAP. J. Of Ploughs, ..... 423
§. I. Defcription of M. de Chateau-vieux'j Plough, . 42 *
M. de Chateau- vieux'.* directions for ufmg his plough, . 429
§. II. Defcription of M. Duhamel'j plough, . . 430
CHAP. II.
Of Drill-ploughs, . . . , • 432
§. I. Of Mr. Worlidge'* DrilUphugh, . . ibJd.
§• II. 0/7^ Sembrador, , .--
§- III. Of M. VandusfelV ftafc, . . .430
§. IV. Of M. Duhamel'i Drill-plough, . . ^Q
CHAP. III.
Of Horfe-hoes, . . . ,
... 445
§. I. Defcription of M. Duhamel'j light plough, . . jjk^
§• II. Defcription of M. de Chateau-vieux'i fngle cultivator, 446
§. III. Defcription of M. de Chateau-vieux'; double cultivator, 443
§. IV. Defcription of M. de Chateau-vieux* cultivator with two
mould-boards, .
Directions for ufing the cultivator with two mould-boards, by ft/de Lnateau-vieux, J
45* § . V. Defcription of M. de VilliersV cultivator, . . . 4 -
Obfervations on horf -hoeing, by M. de Villiers, . ' : 456
C H A P.
xxiv CONTENTS.
CHAP. IV. Of Granaries, ..... 459
'Experiments on ninety four cubic feet cf wheat (not dried) which was
prejerved above fix years by ventilation only, . 461
Experiment on j$ cubic feet of new wheat, extremely moifi, and
which had already contracted, a bad fmell, . . 463
Experiment on 90 cubic feet of fine wheat, which was preferved with~
out ventilation, after having been dried on a kiln, . 464
Experiment onj$ cubic jeet of fmail wheat, mixed with fmut, wiicb
had been dried on a kiln, . . . ibid.
Experiment on 825 cubic feet of fine wheat lightly kiln-dried\ and
ventilated, , . ... . . 465
Of //vMoth or Worm, .... 466
Experiment on fmutty corn, by the Rev. Dr. Hales, . ibid.
Of the Weevil, ..... 467
Experiments made at Denainvilliers, on the prefervatton cf corn, 468
Experiments on the prefervation of corn, by Dorn Edward Proven-
chere, ...... 470
Experiments on the prefervation of corn, by Dom de St. Affrique, 471 Experiments on the prefervation of corn, by M. Vandusfel, . . 472
CHAP. V.
Obfervations on the weather, during the years 1755 and 1756, by M.Duhamel, 473
A PR AC-
PRACTICAL TREATISE
O F
HUSBANDRY.
PART
I.
CHAP. I. Of ROOTS.
S the culture which is beftowed upon the pro- ductions of the earth, acts principally upon the roots, and relates more immediately to them, than to any other part of plants, we make them the fubjecT: of our firft chapter. The nice di- ftin&ions by which botanifts charadterife certain kinds of plants, would be foreign to our purpofe in this work, the fole defign of which is to treat of agriculture. We fhall therefore content ourfelves with dividing the roots of plants in general into two forts, viz. carrot or tap-
B roots,
2 . 0:F ROOTS. Part I.
roots, and creeping or fbrous-roots. The former, which are gene- rally fingle, run down altnoit perpendicularly into the earth, and the latter branch out horizontally, whence they are likewife called horizontal -roots.
The Roots which proceed immediately from the feed, are always- of the carrot or tap kind. They ftrike down perpendicularly into- the earth, 'till it becomes too hard to admit of their farther paffage : but when the foil is deep, and eafily pierced, they penetrate fome- thnes to the depth of feveral yards, unlefs they are cut or broken, in which cafe they alter their direction. This I have frequently had occafion to obferve; particularly in plants raifed in water only. The tap-roots fhoot out branches which extend horizontally; and thefe branches are ftronger, in proportion as they are nearer to the furface of that depth of earth which is ftirred by the plough or fpade.
Thefe are the roots which we call creeping, or fibrous. They extend fometimes to a confiderable diftance from the plant that pro- duces them : but then they become fo minute, that the naked eye can no longer trace them; efpecially when they have taken the tinclure of the earth that furrounds them, as they generally do.
A Carrot, for example, which feems to have only one great root furnifhed with fome fibres, pufhes its' roots, according to Mr. Tull, to a confiderable diftance : but they grow fo very flender, that they cannot be diftinguifhed from the earth that covers them, without <*reat attention. The cafe is the fame with almofr. all plants. To be convinced of this, and at the fame time to know how far the roots of any plant can extend in ground that- has been well loofened by the plough or fpade, one need only make the following, or fome other fimilar experiment.
Take a piece of ground that has not been broken up for a long time, and dig in it a triangular fpot, 80 feet long, 12 feet wide at one end, and ending in a point at the other. Sow 20 turneps in the length of this fpot, and let the earth round them be frequently dug and well hoed. When the turneps are come to their full growth, if that which is next the point is found to be the fmalleft, and the others are gradually bigger as they ftand nearer to the part of the triangle, that is, for inftance, four feet wide, it may be con- cluded that the roots of thofe bigger turneps have ipread two feet on every fide : and if the turneps are nearly of the fame fize from thence to the wideft end of the triangle, it will be reafonable to fiup-. pofe that their roots have not:extended above two feet. . ■ The.
Chap. II. O F L E A V E S. 3
The following instances fhew what efforts trees will make, to find a proper foil for the extenfion of their roots.
On examining thofe of a hedge, at the fide of which a ditch had been dug, it appeared, that after patting underneath the ditch, they re-afcended, and fpread themfelves in the plowed earth on the other fide.
I made the fame obfervation on a row of elms, which were very near being killed by the digging of a deep ditch pretty near them, in order to prevent their roots from damaging an adjacent piece of ground. The- elms mot out freth roots in the loofe mould that dropt into the ditch : thefe roots re-afcended on the other fide of the ditch, and fpread in the plowed ground, and the elms foon recovered their former vigour.
I have likewife obferved, that on digging a trench at a fmall di- ftance from a young elm, and rilling it with good mould, the roots of that elm took their direction towards the trench, and grew to a great length in it.
Mr. Duhamel, gives an infiance of two elms blown down by the wind, which had flood upwards of an hundred years, whofe origi- nal roots, being planted too deep, had not increased in all that time, but the trees had been fed by other roots which fhot out nearer the furface of the earth.
Thefe obfervations prove that roots extend themfelves to a great diftance in the earth, efpecially when the mould is loofe : and as a plant thrives in proportion to the extent of its roots, Mr. Tull juftly infers the neceffity of keeping the earth in a light ftate.
A root that has been cut or broken, never grows longer, but foon produces feveral new roots, all of which gather the proper food of the plant. Its means of fubfiftence are therefore increaied by the breaking of its roots in digging or plowing.
CHAP. II. Of LEAVES.
LE A V E S are fo neceffary to plants, that few can fubfift with- out them : for experience fhews, that if they are ftrip'd of all their leaves, they generally die. I fay generally, becaufe we fqme- times fee trees flrip'd by infects, which do not die. But I have killed trees by taking off all their leaves. Is this difference owing to the infects deftroying them by degrees, or to my pulling them
B 2 off
<tc4-
4 OF THE FOOD OF PLANTS. Part I.
off all at once ? Or is there any particular ftate of plants, in which this total Gripping of them is not of ib fatal confequence ?
The experiments of Mr. Mariotte, Dr. Woodward, and Dr. Hales, prove that the leaves are the organs of perfpiration in plants, and that the greateft part of the fap goes off that way. The reft is fpent in the increafe of the plant. We likewife know that the leaves imbibe the moifture of rain and dew, which greatly promotes the growth of the plant.
In what manner leaves may be immediate organs of the perfpira- tion of plants, or of the preparation of the fap, would be foreign to our purpofe to inquire into : but that they are organs highly ufeful, appears from the following experiments.
If half, or two thirds of the leaves of a young tree in full fap are ftript off, the tree lofes its fap in two or three days. The bark, which before feparated eafily from the wood, then adheres clofely to it. Before the leaves were ftript off, the tree might be grafted by a fcutcheon ; but the next day, the bud cannot be inferted. The tree is therefore weakened by the lofs of its leaves.
A willow, a poplar, an elm, that is fuffered to grow without be- ing lopped, will remain an age found in the trunk : on the contrary, when turned to pollards, the trunk foon grows rotten. The repeated lopping of the branches is therefore very prejudicial.
The fine fhort grafs which covers the lawns of England, is the only plant that can bear frequent clofe mowing or eating. This grows the more beautiful for it ; but all others are killed thereby.
What we have faid fhews that leaves, in whatever light they are confidered, are of the greateft advantage to plants : and confequently that fain-foin, luferne, clover, &t. are greatly hurt when they arc fed too clofe by cattle, efpecially when young. We cannot therefore approve the practice of farmers, who turn in their flocks to feed on their wheat when it is too rank. This we fhall have occafion to. fpeak more fully of hereafter.
CHAP. III.
Of the Food of PLANT £
SALT, air, fire, water, and earth, form, perhaps, the food of plants. But without entering into that detail, we may, with Mr. Tull, confider earth reduced to very minute particles, as the chief part of that food, feeing that plants- become earth by putrefac- tion;
Chap. IV. OF THE FOOD OF PLANTS. 5
tion ; and the other principles ferve, perhaps, only to render earth fit for the nourishment of plants.
Salt, for example, may attenuate earth, water may enlarge its particles, and air and fire give it a due motion and activity : but earth feems to be the effential part. The plant would indeed die, if deprived of the other elements : but without earth, not even a fkele- ton of it would remain.
The earth we are fpeaking of, is not a fimple elementary earth, or caput mortuum ; for all the principles we have mentioned, may be extracted from the dead plants. It may hence be admitted, that earth is the principal food of plants : efpecially as it is known, that too great a quantity of fait renders earth barren,- too much water drowns and rots plants, too much air dries up their roots if expofed to it, and too much heat (or fire) burns them. But plants are not hurt by too much earth : for if a plant languishes when its roots are buried too deep, . it ought not to be imputed to the quantity of earth that covers thofe roots, but to its not, enjoying the moifture of the dew, the warmth of the fun, the influences of the air, &c . .
But- it is not 1 of a Treatife of Agriculture, to enter into
the -difcuffion of fo difficult a queftion as what is the real food of: plants. We fhall therefore, with Mr. Tull, confider earth greatly, attenuated, as the immediate food of plants, without deciding whe- ther it be fimple, elementary, and void of all other fubftance.
Of whatever nature the fubftance which nourishes plants may be,, we (hall examine in the next chapter whether it be nearly the fame: for different kinds of plants.
•CHAP. IV.
JVbether the tnojl different kinds of Plants draw the fame fort of fubjlance from the earth, for their Food. .
IT is generally thought that each different fpecies of plants is fed by different juices... The. chief arguments for. and againft this opinion, are as follows. .
1. It does .not feem probable, fay thofe who are for it, that the fame homogeneous matter can be the food of fo- many plants, which differ fo widely from each other in their fh ape, colour, tafte, and. properties.
To this it is anfwered ; that there is no doubt but that the particles which plants appropriate to themfelves, take different forms in each
plant % ;
6 OF THE FOOD OF PLANTS. Parti.
plant : but it does not at all follow, that they were not the fame in the earth.
What would induce me to thirik them the fame, is, that plants rob one another, if I may fo fay, of the nourimment that is in the earth. For, if a lettice, for example, drew from the earth a food different from that of endive, a lettice planted among endive would not 'only thrive better than if planted among other lettice, but as VM! as if no other plant was near it : but we know by experience that this lettice would thrive very poorly, and confequently that plants, tho' of different fpecies, do hurt and rob one another.
To prove that the fame juice takes different qualities in the veffels of the fame plants, I need but mention an experiment which I made long ago. I grafted a young lemen, of the fize of a pea, by the ftalk, upon the branch of an orange-tree. It grew there, ripened, and retained its quality of lemon, without partaking in any fhape of that of the orange. The juices of the orange-tree muft there- fore have changed their nature at once, on their paffing into the lemon.
2. Why is barley or oats fown after wheat, but becaufe the wheat has drained the earth of thofe. juices only which are proper for its own fpecies ; and the juices proper for the nourifhment of barley, cr oats, ftill remain in the earth ?
The anfwer is, i . If barley grows well after wheat, for no other reafon than becaufe the earth has' retained that kind of juice which is proper for its nourishment, it would follow that we might expecT: a good crop from wheat fown upon barley ftubble, becaufe the barley had not confumed the juices fit for the nourifhment of wheat. Yet we may be fure the crop would be very bad ; becaufe wheat never thrives well, but upon land that is in fine tilth. If barky was to be fowed in land in as good condition, we mould be mare certain of an excellent crop. But as barley is lefs valuable than wheat, and does not require fo loofe a mould, it is fowed after only two plowings. 2. If each plant drew from the earth none but thofe juices which are proper to its fpecies, why need the land be refted every third year ? We need only fow wheat the firft year, barley the fecond, oats the third, peas the fourth, and turneps the fifth ; fo that if wheat were to be fown again, it would be on land that had refted five years from that kind of grain.
The mofr. ignorant in farming will allow, that only poor crops will be obtained by fuch management ; becaufe all forts of plants
exhauft
Chap. IV. OF THE FOOD OF PLANTS. 7
exhauft the earth : and befides, during the fallow, great pains is taken in plowing, by which means the earth is broken, the fpaces between its particles are multiplied, and confequently it is rendered fit for producing plants which require a fine tilth, fuch as wheat, and is not exhaufred by other productions.
In fhort, if each plant drew from the earth only the particular juice proper for itfelf, poppies, thirties, &c. which kill wheat, would do it no hurt. Wheat might, in that cafe, grow as well in a, common, as in a well plowed field. Let it not be alledged, that it is the ftalks of weeds which hurt the wheat, and not the roots by the juices they confume ; for if dry branches were to be fet in Inch numbers as to make a greater made than thofe weeds, they would not equally hurt the growth of the wheat.
Thofe who think that every plant. draws a particular juice from the earth, allow that the fubftances proper for the nourishment of tacb plant, ought to be diflblved in a quantity of water fufficient to convey them into the plant. But if weeds abforb all that water, none will remain for the nourishment of the plant that is cul- tivated.
An obfervation which feems to me of greater force than .thofe I have yet mentioned, is, that a poor land, when refted, pro- duces of itfelf a number of plants ; and after having continued to feed thofe .productions for years together, without any culture, it is ftill able to bear fome good crops. The reafon of this is faid to be, that the plants which grow fpontaneoufly upon that land, have not exhaufted the fubftance which is necefiary for the food of wheat.
It is likewife obferved that lands which have long borne fain-foin or luferne, afterwards produce very fine wheat.
Anficer. This obfervation feems to contradict the opinion of plants of different fpecies, being nourished by the fame .kind of juices. But it is to be obferved, I. That lands are neither fo fpeedily, nor fo well improved by being refted, as by proper culture. 2. While land is retted, the rains, dews, and winds, lodge in it many particles fit for the nourishment of plants. The grafs or weeds which grow on it afford food to cattle, which enrich the land with their dung ; and the roots and leaves of the grafs or weeds rot and add to its fertility. In fuch poor loofe lands, thefe rich particles fink lower than the roots of common grafs reach, and are thereby heaped up till the land is plowed, and then they become the food of
wheat,
8 OF THE FOOD OF PLANTS. Parti.
wheat, &c. If tap- rooted grafTes grow in it, their roots enrich the •ground greatly when they putrify in it ; belldes that fuch plants drop many of their leaves, which like wife rot, and by (hading the earth, .greatly mellow it.
Another observation which does not agree with the identity of food we have hitherto fuppofed, is, that maflin corn, which is a mixture of wheat and rye, Succeeds in fuch light foils, better than wheat alone ; and that a mixture of oats and vetches thrives very well, where oats alone would fcarcely grow.
To this it may be anfwered, that thofe mixtures of wheat and rye, or oats and vetches, thrive better together, than wheat or oats would do alone, beeaufe the rye and vetches, being quick growers in fuch ground, fhelter the wheat and oats from the (torching fun and drying winds, till they have attained fufficient ftrength to refift them. From what has been faid, I think we may conclude; i . That many plants of different fpecies feed on nearly the fame fubftance.
2. That there is no plant which does not rob thofe that are within its reach, of fome part of their food.
3. That the foil which once is good for one kind of plant, will always be able to fupply it with food, provided it be cultivated properly.
If thefe propofitions are true, it follows that there is no neceffity to change the fpecies of plants from one year to another, on account -of the different nourifhment which the earth is fuppofed to yield them.
It cannot however be denied, but that, in following the common principles of agriculture, there is an advantage in fowing different plants fucceffively in the fame land. But this may be owing to three caufes, very different from thofe to which we have oppofed feveral objections.
The firrt, is the quantity of food which is neceffary to fome plants.
The fecond, is the particular conftitution of each plant ; fome be- ing more tender than others.
The third, the degree of tillage which each plant requires.
All plants do not draw a like quantity of nourifhment from the earth. A proof of this is, that there are poor light grounds which produce rye, millet, and buck-wheat, but cannot produce wheat, or even oats.
On
Chap. IV; OF THE FOOD OF PLANTS. 9
On the other hand, there are plants whofe roots can force their way into a very hard foil, which others cannot penetrate. For in- ffance, I believe the roots of oats pierce a hard ground more eafily than the roots of barley : for I have {ccn oats do tolerably well in ftiff lands that had been plowed but once ; whilft at lead two plowings are neceffary, in loofer foils, to have a good crop of barley.
It may be inferred from hence, that, in the common huibandry, oats ought to follow wheat : for as wheat is lowed foon after har- veft, there would be fcarcely time to plow the earth once ; whereas it mud be plowed at leaft three times, if one would have a good crop of wheat.
With regard to oats and barley, as they are not fown till fpring, there is leifure enough to give 'them the neceffary plowings : and the year of fallow affords fuffieient time to give the land intended for wheat, the four plowings which are neceifary for that grain.
If therefore you would always fow wheat in the fame land, it muff, be fowed only every fecond year, and left fallow each inter- mediate year, in order to give it the neceffary plowings. By this means, I believe it woidd always produce good crops.
Mr. Tull relates a fact, which proves what we have juft advanced. A farmer fowed a very rich piece of land with wheat, in the ufual way. It grew fo rank, that it lodged, and yielded but little grain. The owner, depending on the richnefs of his ground, plowed it but once, and fowed it again with wheat, in hopes that being lefs rank than the former, it would yield him a better crop. But it happened quite otherwife. His wheat came up fo weak, that it fcarce yielded the value of the feed. A manifeft proof that wheat cannot do well in land that has not been fufficiently plowed.
Wheat thrives well after a crop of turneps : and no wonder ; for tumeps are fown in land in very fine tilth, and the earth is kept in a loofe flare while they are growing. By this means, the wheat is in land which has had more flirring than is ufually beftowed upon it. Add to this, that as cattle are generally turned into the ground to feed upon the turneps, the land is well dunged by them.
Care fhould be taken not to fow wheat on land that has been under fain-foin : for the earth which has not been plowed for the nine or ten years that the fain-foin grew on it, cannot be brought to a fuffieient tilth for wheat by one or two plowings. It may do for ■eats, which is the grain that is generally fown after it.
C Let
io OF THE FOOD OF PLANTS. Part I.
Let us conclude then, that it is poflible to have a good crop of wheat every year off the fame land. AD that is required to that end, is, to plow oftener ; to divide the particles of the earth fufficiently j to put the plants in condition to feek their neceffary food ; to hinder weeds from robbing the cultivated plants ; and laftly, to raife no more plants in a field, than it can nourifh properly. All thefe ad- vantages are obtained by the new Hufbandry.
C PI A P. V.
Of the dijlribution of the Food of Plants within the Earth.
THE food of plants, of whatfoever nature it be, is difperfed throughout every part of the earth : but it would lie ufelefs there, if plants could not get at it. They muft be able to extend their roots between the particles of the earth. Too ftiff a foil, that is to fay, a foil of which the particles lie too clofe together, hinders their extenfion. It is therefore neceffary that there fhould be fpaces between thofe particles, through which the roots may. be extended. Moll: foils have, by nature, internal pores : but they are, in general, either too few in number; or not properly fitted to the roots.
If they are too few, there will often be a want of communication betwixt one pore ?nd another; and the roots thereby impeded in their progrefs, will not be able to find the food neceffary for. the plant. This is the defect of too ftrong lands.
If the interflices are too great, the roots, paffing through them without fcarcely touching the earth, Will draw little or no affiftance from it : this is the defect of light lands.
Both thefe defects may be remedied by proper culture: for the earth contains fo great a quantity of nutritive juices, that there is no danger of exhaufting them. The only point is, to enable the roots to renp the benefit of them. It is ftill lefs to be feared, that this nourifhing juice may diffipate or wafte itfelf. Experience demon- ftrates that it cannot : for let earth be dried to ever fo great a degree, let it be pulverifed, and expofed to the fun, rain, and frofr, it will on' y become the more fertile for it.
It is certain, that water fhould diffolve the particles deftined for the food of plants ; and that this vehicle is -almoft entirely diffipated by Sranfpiration, after it has depofited in plants- what is to be converted into their fubftances. But when water .evaporates from the earth, without paffing through plants, it. does. not carry the nutritive parts
off
Chap. VI. OP TILLAGE. . tt
off with it ; fince, as we before faid, earth that is left to reft, inftead of being exhaufted, becomes more fruitful thereby.
To increafe the fertility of land, there is not fo much occafion to provide it with the fubftance which is to nourifh plants, as to difpofe it in fuch manner that the plants may, by their roots, collect and draw in thofe juices which almoft all foils are abundantly ftored with. To this end, the particles of the earth muft be fo di- vided as to leave an infinite number of frnall chafms between them, into which the roots may glide ; fo that, touching immediately the particles of the earth, they may draw the nutritive juices from them. This divifion of the earth may be effected by manures, and by tillage, as we fhall fhew in the following chapter.
CHAP. VI. Of T 1 L L A G E.
THE more the particles of the. earth are divided, the more its internal pores are multiplied : the more the furface of thofe particles is increafed, the more the earth is enabled to finifh the food of plants j and confequently the more fruitful it is rendered.
This divifion may be effected two ways : by fermentation, that is, by mixing dung with the earth ; or by breaking its parts mechani- cally, by tillage, whether it be with the fpade, plough, or hoe, or any of the different inflruments that have been invented to ftir the earth.
It is much more profitable to increafe the fruitfulnefs.of land by tillage, than by dung. i. Becaufe only a certain quantity of dung can oftentimes be had, the produce of twenty acres being fcarcely fufficient to dung one : whereas the particles of the earth may be divided and fubdivided, ad uifimtum. The benefit that can be pro- cured from dung, is therefore limited; whereas no bounds can be fet to the advantages which arife from tillage.
2. Moil plants that are rear'd in dung, have not the fine flavour of thofe that grow in a good foil which has not been dung'd. Greens and fruits are fcldom fo good in the neighbourhood of great cities, where dung abounds, as in country gardens where it cannot be fo lavifhly bellowed. But nothing is more finking than the difference between wine produced by a vine that has not been dung'd at all, and that which is made from a vine that has been greatly dung'd.
Mr. Tull goes fo far as to infihuate, that dung gives plants poifon-
C 2 ous.
l2 O F T I L L A G E. Part I.
ous, or at leaft hurtful qualities : but his arguments feem to want weight. For example, when he fays that venomous creatures are oftener found in dung than elfewhere, and mentions the toad as an inftance of it ; it may be affirmed that toads are not venomous : and if they were, is it not well known that hemlock frequently grows in gardens, clofe by a very wholefome plant ? Befides, there is great reafon to think that a plant which by its nature is poifonous> would be lefs fo when raifed in a well-dung'd ground, than if it had grown in a poor dry foil j by the fame rule that felery acquires a ftronger and higher flavour, in a poor, than in a well-dung'd foil.
3. Dung, which, according to Mr. Tull, acts by fermentation, caufes indeed an internal divifion of the particles, which may -be of great ufe : but the plough not only divides the particles, but changes their fituation, by turning the earth upfide down. The part which was expofed to the influences of the air and dews, takes the place of another part which is removed from underneath to the furface, and the earth that is turned up is penetrated by the rain and dew, and by the rays of the fun.; all which greatly conduce, to render it fertile.
4. Dung harbours infects, which afterwards feed upon the plants and fpoil them. It is well known, that when lands are dunged in which trees are planted, their roots are in great danger of being hurt by infects : and this is one of the chief reafons why florifts banifh dung from their gardens.*
5. It is true that dung is equally beneficial to light and to ftiflf grounds; but the fame may be laid of tillage ; and the following is the manner in which Mr. Tull fays this lafl acts upon bath thofe kinds of kind.
Too flxong land is that of which the parts. are fo clofe, that roots cannot penetrate them without great difficulty. Now-, if .roots can- not extend themfelves freely in the earth, they cannot draw from it the food of plants, which, for want of that food, will droop and languish. But when thofe lands fhall. have be<en divided by tillage,
when
* We invite all lovers of" agriculture to try the following method, which we think may Td£ attended with fuccefs.
Let a referve of quick-lime be kept in a very dry place. .
When von begin to make your, dunghil, fprinkle each layer of dung with quickr lime, till 'the whole is finifhed. This kills moft infedts, and perhaps enriches the dims; and renders it more ferviceable. This lime will likewife deftroy the feeds of weeds which generally are in dung, and which, hurt the wheat when, they fljoo:
Chap. VI. OF TILLAGE. 13
when their particles fhall have been fo feparated, that roots are at liberty to extend themfelves and traverfe all thofe fmall fpaces, they, will be able to fupply the plants with their neceflary food, and they will thrive apace.
Tillage is equally beneficial to light lands; but for a contrary rea- fon. The fault of thefe lands, is their having too great fpaces be- tween their particles j and as moft of thofe fpaces have no communi- cation one with another, . the roots- travelling the great cavities with- out touching the particles of the earth, draw confequently no nou- rifhment from it.. But when the particles have been broken by repeated plowings, the lefler intervals are multiplied at the expence. of the greater :. the roots have liberty to extend themfelves, and they glide in, as it were, between the particles, meeting with a certain- reflftance which is -neceflary to their taking in their nutritive juice which the earth contains.
Mr. Evelyn, quoting Sir Hugh Piatt, fays, " that if you take a " certain quantity of even the moft barren earth you can find, re- " duce it to a fine powder, and expofe it for a year to the viciflitudes " and changes of the feafons, and influences of the heavens, it will " acquire fuch a- generous and mafculine pregnancy, within that " period, as to be able to receive an exotic plant from the fartheft- " Indies, and to caufe all vegetables to profper in the moft exalted " degree, and to bear their fruit as kindly with us, as they do in " their natural climates." We are to fuppofe thefe exotics to have their due degrees of heat and moifture given them. To what (hall we afcribe this great fertility ? Moft probably it is owing chiefly to the great diviiion of the particles of the earth,, and the multiplication of their furfaces. " By this toil, {viz. pulverizing, the earth) adds " he, .'tis found, that foil may be fo ftrangely altered from its former " nature, as to render the harfh, . and moft uncivil clay, . obfequious " to the huibandman, , and to bring forth roots and plants, . which ■ " otherwife require the lightefiand holloweft moulds."
What Mr. Evelyn fays, does not, however, hold good with re- fpect to every kind of earth : for I have pulverifed ftiff clay, . and fifted it through a pretty fine fieve; notwithftanding which, after it was .-well foaked with water, it-became as clofe and compact as it vvas before I pounded and fifted it.
From this experiment it might be inferred,^ that dung is more ne- ceflary for clay lands than for any other, becaufe it. prevents the.par- ticies reuniting after. they have been divided by tillage. . But dung is
nott
14 OF TILLAGE. Part I.
not lefs necefiary for light lands, which, as they contain few nutri- tive parts, {land in need of being fupplied with them by dung.
This is nearly the fubftance of what may be faid on the Subject of dung, the ufefulnefs of which cannot be denied, (as Mr Tull feems to do) without contradicting the experience of every age and place.
But whatever advantage may be reaped from dung, by thofe who have the convenience of being plentifully provided with it, and that of collecting part of its defects by lime ; it will not be the lefs true, that it is extremely beneficial to multiply the frequent pluwings of the earth.
'Tis for this reafon that lands intended to be fown with wheat, are plowed three or four times. Some farmers who have doubled the number of plowings, have found their lands more fertilifed thereby, than if they had been greatly dunged. Three plowings extraordinary, do not coft half fo much as one dunging. Thus an ill-judged oeconomy becomes ruinous.
It follows from all this, that there is room for improvement in the culture of land. Plowing, as it is performed in fome countries, for wheat, does not meliorate Stiff lands. It only forms huge clods, which leave great cavities between them, by no means fit to fupply plants with food. This mud be allowed, after what has been faid above. It is therefore abfolutely neceflary to break- the clods thoroughly, and to reduce them to fmall particles, by plowing. The Stiff land, then grown lighter, is in a State that fuits the plants. No- thing more is wanting, but to keep it in that State by plowings made at proper feafons, as we fhall explain hereafter, to prevent it's re- turning to its former condition.
But what proves how beneficial it is in Strong lands to facilitate the paflages of the water, of the rays of the fun, and of the roots of plants, is, that their fertility is fometimes increafed by mixing them with Sand inStead of dung. Sand itfelf affords no nourishment : but by preventing the particles from re-uniting, it produces the defired good effects.
It does not appear, that light grounds require quite fo many plow- ings. It might even be feared, leaSt by frequent turning of fuch lands, and expofing their parts to the fun, they might be exhausted. But tho' the fun robs the earth of its moiSture, yet few of the par- ticles fit for the nourishment, of plants are exhausted with it ; and experience Shews, that light lands are bettered by being plowed j ei- ther
Chap. VII. OF THE BREAKING UP OF LANDS. 15
ther becaufe the breaking and ftirring of their particles renders them fitter to receive the moifture of rain and dew, to profit by the in- fluences of the air, and be penetrated by the rays of the fun ; or that, as Mr. Tull thinks, the internal pores are better fitted for the ex- tension of roots ; or again, becaufe frequent plowings deftroy weeds, which are more apt to grow in light grounds than in ftrong, efpecially when they are dunged.
To prove by an experiment, what we have juft advanced with refpect to light foils : let us fuppofe one half of a field to be indiffe- rently plowed, and the other half to be plowed extremely well. Some time after, and in dry weather, let the whole field be crofs- plowed. The land of that half of the field which was thoroughly plowed, will be of a darker colour than that of the other half which was but flightly plowed. This mews the benefit the land has received by plowing.
Some break the clods of earth with a roller. This is of great iervice when the land is not too wet,, in order to prepare it for plow- ing. But if the earth is very moift, the roller will do it more hurt than good..
Others think to fupply the want of plowing, by harrowing their )L land greatly after it has been fown. But this way of fcratching the earth is of little fervice ; and when it is moift, the horfes poach and damage it confiderably.
CHAP. VII.
Of the management of Lands newly broke up.
WE mall treat in this chapter of lands which have not been fown of a long time, and which are to be fitted for wheat or other grain.
Such lands may be divided into four claffes, viz. 1. Wood-lands, 2. Commons. 3. Pafture, or Meadow. 4. Marfhy-lands. We mall fpeak of each of them feparately. .
I. Of Wood- lands. OOD was formerly fo common, that people did not take the trouble to cut it down. When they wanted to convert a piece of wood-land into arable, they fet fire to the trees, and their afhes were thought to afford a confiderable manure. But this operation .
did..
:i6 OF THE BREAKING UP OF LANDS. Parti.
.did not exempt them from the labour of grubbing up the flumps and roots, and afterwards levelling the ground.
But timber is now fo fcarce, that great care is taken to prefcrvc jt. The frumps are grubbed up, and a profit is found even in digging up the roots.
The earth is fo thoroughly flirred by digging up the (tumps and roots, that one plowing in autumn is generally fufficient. The win- ter frofts kill the weeds, and break the clods ; and after a fecond plowing in fpring, thefe lands may b*t fown with expectation of an abundant crop : for the trees not having exhaufted the earth towards the furface, but having on the contrary manured it with their leave?, a confiderable produce may be expected for many years.
We had a fmall field, which had formerly been under wood. It produced us plentiful crops of wheat and oats for upwards of twenty years together, without being refted. 'Tis true the foil was pecu- liarly adapted to wheat, and would have been exhaufted much fooner if.it had been a poorer earth.
II. Of Heaths and Commons. TVROOM, ruihes, fern, heath, bufhes, and briars, are the gene- -"-* ral produce of heaths and commons, which it is advifeable to burn, not only becaufe their afhes enrich the earth, but likewife be- caufe the fire prevents their roots from (hooting up anew, and deftroys the greateft part of their feeds which would otherwife grow.
The fitted time for burning them is towards the end of fummer, when the plants are withered. But great care muft be taken that the fire extend no farther than is intended ; for -we have feen two thouland acres of wood burnt and entirely deftroyed by the fpreading of the fire when the grafs was dry.
This care confifts chiefly in clearing away all the grafs on the fide you would preferve from the flames, for a diftance fufficient to pre- vent all communication. The grafs that is cut down there, is fpread upon the part intended to be burnt, and ferves to kindle the fire, after it is dry.
Befides this precaution, a fair day muft be chofen, when the wind does not blow towards the wood. By kindling the fire then on the fide the wind blows from, you prevent its fpreading farther that way, and fee it remove gradually up into the heath or common. The fire fhould be carefully watched, for fear of accidents. If,
not-
Chap. VII. OF THE BREAKING UP OF LANDS. i7
notwithftanding thefe precautions, it mould extend to places intend- ed to be preferved, it may be ftopt by water if any is at hand. But the moft effectual way is to dig a trench : for by throwing up the earth on the fide where the fire is, you cover the grafs, and thereby hinder the further progrefs of the flames.
When the whole furface of the common is burnt, the roots of the different fhrubs which are fo ftrong as to flop the plough, are dug up with a pick-ax : and after the earth has been moiitened by the autumnal rains, it is plowed into high-ridges, with a ftron<* plow, and with the help of a fecond plowing in fpring, it may be Yown with oats. The fecond year, it fhould have three thorough plow- ings ; and the third year it will be fit to bear a good crop of wheat. But it mud be by dint of plowing, that the fern, rufhes, &c. are prevented from fprouting up again; for it is very difficult^ tho' not impoffible, entirely to defrroy them. The winter plowings will kill the roots, by expofing them to froft ; and the fummer plowings, by expofing them to the heat of the fun.
In many countries, the method of burning is different, and lefs liable to accidents.
They cut down the broom, thorns, and other large plants, and fell them, or lay them in their farm-yards, or roads, to make dung. The flumps are then grubbed up, and laid in heaps intermixed with fmall twigs. Thefe heaps are difpofed in a quincunx form. The whole common is afterwards pared, and the turf dried. This ope- ration rids the ground of all the young broom, and other remaining plants. The turf is laid upon the piles of roots in dry weather, and fet on lire. 1 he afh.es are then fpread, and the ground is plowed.
Mr. Worlidge advifes tiling an inftrument invented by Mr. Gabriel Piatt, for flubbing up thorny fhrubs, broom, gofs, &c. as the ealitfr and leafl expenfive way. This inftrument is like a three- grained dung-fork, but much greater and flronger : the ffale thereof like a large and ftrong leaver. This being fet about half a foot from the root of the fbrub, is drove a good depth into it with a hedgin<*- beetle. The ftale is then elevated, and a weight, or fulciment, as .he calls it, laid under it, after which it is pulled down with a rope fattened to the upper end, and wrenches up the whole buih by the roots. J
D III. of
,3 OF THE BREAKING UP OF LANDS. Part I.
III. Of Meadows and Pajlure-fands.
THIS article comprehends fain-foin, luferne, clover, and in ge- neral all grounds intended to be plowed, in order to their be- ing fown. It likewife comprehends lands which tie plowed only every eight or ten years, either becaufe they are too poor to bear a crop every year, or becaufe the country is not fufriciently inhabited for all its lands to be cultivated.
With refpect to grafs-lands of every kind, the farmer ufually con- tents himfelf with plowing them well. But as ground which has refted a long time, is very hard, it is impofiible to plow it till it has been foftened by the autumnal rains.
This plowing, which muft be performed with a ftrong plough, neceffarily leaves the land very rough and full of large clods, which are mouldered by the winter's froft and rain ; fo that a fecond plow- ing, if the fpring is not too wet, fits it for lowing oats. Wheat muft not be fown in it, till by frequent plowings the earth has been brought to a fufriciently fine tilth for that grain, which requires more nourifhment than oats.
Lands which are plowed only every eight or ten years, are com- monly burnt, that the fire may divide their particles, and the afhes of the leaves and roots add to their fertility. As this procefs may properly be called a manure, we (hall fpeak of it in the chapter of Manures.
IV. Of moiji Grounds.
WE do not mean to treat here of the draining of marfhes, but only to fpeak of fuch lands as, lying low, are overflowed with water from the neighbouring grounds ; or of thofe, which, by their holding of water, are always fo moift that they cannot be plowed.
In this cafe, if the land intended to be plowed, has any fort of declivity, it will be fufficient to furround it with a ditch, to receive the water from the neighbouring grounds, and likewife to carry off it's own too great abundance of moifture. But if there be a bottom in the middle of this land, it will be neceffary to drain it, by a ditch, which fhall empty itfelf into the furrounding ditch.
When the ground is nearly level, our farmers cut deep furrows with a trenching-plough.
The land, being thus dried, is treated in one or other of the be- fore mention'd methods.
CHAP.
Chp.VIII. OF MANURES. ,~
CHAP. VIII.
Of MANURES.
THE particular application of dung, we fhall have occafion to mention hereafter. Like other comports, it a<fts by fermen- tation; crumbling and dividing the earth very much; and therefore it is or mod fervice in the old hufbandry, in which the earth is not io much pulverried, by tillage, as in the new. The fermenting quality of dung, is chiefly owing to the falts wherewith it abounds* but a very little of thefe falts, fays Mr. Tull, applied alone to a few roots of almoft any plant, will kill it: fo very fiery and acrimonious js their nature. This defect is in fome degree remedied, either bv keep.ng the dung till it grows mild, or by mixing it with the earth fome time before the grain is fown. It is then of fuch fervice fo moft corn-fields, that little good can be done without it in the com mon hufbandry.
Lime is frequently mixed with dung, and becomes an ufeful ad- dition not only as a manure, but as it prevents the dung's being a net for infecls, fo much as it would otherwife be; and likewile helps to kill many of the feeds of weeds that are generally in k ■ tho fome, for example charlock-feeds, will remain unhurt for vears together, amid ft all the fermentation of a dunghil, and ftill retain their vegetative power; when at the fame time that continued fer- mentation has been fufficient to deftroy the power of the ftercora- ceous falts of the dun°-.
The adtion of the dung's ferment, is generally thought to afford a warmth to the infant plants, in their moft tender ftage, and the moft rigorous feafon. But this advantage is greatly counterbalanced by he dungs letting water enter its hollows, and thereby becoming in thofe parts, much colder in froft, than un-dung'd pulverifed earth' As a confirmation of this, Mr. Tull fays he has feen wheat-plants in he winter die in the very fpits of feemingly well-rotted dung; when un-dung d drill'd wheat, clofe by, and planted at the fame tfme ha flounffied all the fame winter. '
By dung we mean only the excrements of animals, and what is » fual y collected in the offices and dung-yard, which is mor^or lef ufeful in proportion to the quantity of falts it contains.
I he quantity of vegetable food made by tillage without dung is beyond companion greater than that made by dung without Sge!
D 2 This
ao OF 'MANURES. Part I.
This lad: reaches but little lower than the furface of the earth : the other extends to the whole depth of the ftaple.
Dung, without tillage, can do very little ; with fome tillage, it does fomething ; with much tillage, it pulverifes the foil in lefs time than tillage alone can do : but tillage alone, with more time, and much lefs expence, can pulverife it as well, and avoids all the inconvenien- cies of dung.
I cannot help joining with the author of the new Syftem of Agri- culture, in his fevere cenfure on our country gentlemen, p. 114. 11 It is to me," fays he " a furprizing proof of our gentlemen's inap- <c titude to this noble art, (agriculture) to fte fo many hundred " thoufand acres peftered, and corrupted, by common dung, the " bowels of which very land are loaded with inexhauftible quanti-
" ties of rich and wholefome phyfick for its own difeafes. Dung
" is not only prejudicial to fome foils, but inferior to the worft of <c other compofts, upon any. One would wonder to fee, how peo- " pie put themfelves to extraordinary charges, and the inconvenience " of fending to great diftances for horfc-dung, to manure thofe very " lands which never fail of being verg'd, or bottom'd, by a fub- " fiance of one kind or other, by far more proper for the end they " aim at : And, therefore, I lay it down as a rule, almoft without " exception, that every foil, of what nature, fituation, or condition cc foever, abounds with natural and fufficient helps for its peculiar " imperjetlions."
It will next be right to inquire what the properties and ufes of thefe natural manures are, fo much recommended by this author, and what foils they are fuited to. To this end, we fhall divide foils into three forts, viz. clay, fand, and loam ; and, in feparate articles, propofe the improvements of each.
I. Of Clay. " /^LAT" fays Mr. Evelyn, p. 22, of his Terra, " is of all M ^ other a curft ftep-dame to almoft all vegetation, as having few " or no meatus's for the percolation of the alimental fhowers, or ex- " panfion of the roots ; whether it be the voracious, hungry, weep- " ing, or cold fort. In thefe cafes laxatives are to be prefcribed, " fuch as drift fand, fmall gritty gravel, faw-dujl, with marl or " chalk, and continually vexing it with the fpade or plow ; but above " all, with feafand, where it may be procured, and the burning of " the ground to a/hes, and all that it bears, the more the better ;
for
Chap. VIII. OF MANURES. 21
"for by no lefs feverity will this ill-natur'd mould be fubdued: " rotten-wood, and the bottom of bavine-ftacks, are good ingredients " to this manure; and if it be a cold and wet fort, ftrewings of " foot are good ; if very ftiff, rubbifh of brick, lime-Jione, and fuch " trafh, may properly be laid at the bottom, and on the upper part " compojls of dung."
Rotten-wood, and faw-duft when rotted, fays Mr. Miller too, is a very good manure for flrong lands, becaufe it loofens the parts of the earth, and renders it light.
Mr. Lifle, Vol. I. p. 26. advifes, as a good way, " to tame harfh, " churlifh, obftinate clay, to fling it up in ridges in the winter, and " after the firft froft, when it thaws and molders, to fling and tem- " per amongft it afhes or chalk, or whatfoever you have to qualify " it : for the time being nickt, wherein you can catch the clayey " corpufcles under the greateft difunion and feparation, is the time " for keeping them lb, by mixing thefe other lighter bodies " amongft them, which will the longeft prevent them from their <c re-union."
Sea-fand and fhells are ufed to great advantage as a manure, in many places where they can be had without too much expence. Mr. Miller advifes them chiefly for cold ftrong land, and loam in- clining to clay. They feparate the parts ; and the falts which are contained in them, are a very great improvement of land. Coral, and fuch kind of ftony plants which grow on the rocks, are filled with falts which are very beneficial to land. But as thefe bodies are hard, the improvement is not the firft or fecond year after they are laid on the ground, becaufe they require time to pulverile them before their falts can mix with the earth to impregnate it. The con- fequence of this is, that their manure is lafting. Sand, and the fmaller kinds of ft a- weeds, will inrich land for fix or feven years ; and (hells, corals, and other hard bodies, will continue many years longer.
In fome countries, at a great diftance from the fea, great quan- tities of foflll-fhells have been difcovered, and ufed with fuccefs as manure : but thev are not near lb full of falts, as thofe fhells which are taken from the fea-fhore ; and therefore the latter are always to lie preferred.
Sea-fand is much ufed as manure in Cornwall, fays Mr. Borlace in his Natural Hiftory of that county. The beft is that which is intimately mixed with coral. ; In places where this excellent manure
is
22 OF MANURES. Part I.
is found, it is taken up by a large bag of the ftrongeft canvas, to die mouth of which is fitted an iron hoop or frame for keeping it open, and finking it to the bottom of the fea, fo as it may receive the fand and coral as it is dredged along by the bargemen. A barge load is ufually delivered for ten (hillings, or lefs if near the place of dredg- ing : and where the land is good, a barge-load will drefs an acre. It is ufed more for corn, than pafture ground?. It gives the heat of lime, and the fatnefs of oil, to the land it is laid upon. Being more folid than fhells, it conveys a greater quantity cf fermenting earth in equal fpace. Befides, it does not diffolve in the ground fo foon as fhells, but, decaying more gradually, continues longer to impart ks warmth to the juices of the earth. It is chiefly found in Falmouth harbour, and the fhores adjoining. Not only fea-fand is ufed as ma- nure by every one who has it in his reach, but after ftorms they find the alga marina, fucus, conferva, or ore- weed, one of the beft ma- nures which nature affords, fcattered in great plenty on the fhore. Being a fub-marine plant, the wind and fun foon exhale its moi- fture : the fooner therefore it is taken from the fhore, the better ; and being fpread on old and ftiff earth, then covered with fand, it foon difiolves into a fait oily fiime.
This is the mod approved way of applying it. Some lay it naked and frefh from the fea, upon their barley lands, in the end of March and beginning of April, and have a good crop of corn : but the weeds grow fo plentifully and rank afterwards, that no wholefome grafs for pafiure is to be expected for that year. SirGeorge M'Kenzie obferves (Phil. Tranf. No. 117.) that lands often ufed to this ma- nure yield bad oats, and in a fmall quantity, the hufks thicker than ordinary, and more darnel among the corn, than in lands which have not fo much ore-weed laid upon them.
The uie of fand, as Mr. Miller obferves, is to make the clayey earth fertile, and fit to feed vegetables, &c- for earth alone, we find, is liable to coalefce, and gather into a hard coherent mafs, as is ap- parent in clay; and earth thus embodied, and, as it were, glued to- gether, is no ways difpofed to nourifh vegetables : but if with fuch earth, fand, &c. i. e. hard cryfials, which are not difiolvable in water, and ftill retain their figure, be intermixed, they will keep the pores of the earth open, and the earth itfelf looie and incompact, and by that means give room for the juices to afcend, and for plants to be nourifhed thereby.
Thus, a vegetable, planted either in fand alone, or in a fat glebe,
or
Chap. VIII. OF MANURES. 23
or earth alone, receives no growth or increment at all, but is either ftarved or fuffocated : but mix the two, and the mafs becomes fer- tile. In effect, by means of fand, the earth is rendered, in fome manner, organicalj pores and interftices being hereby maintained, fomething analogous to veffels, by which the juices may be convey- ed, prepared, digefted, circulated, and at length excerned, and thrown off into the roots of plants.
" Sea-fand," continues Mr. Miller, " is accounted a very good " compoft for -ft iff ground, for it effects the two things following, " to, It makes way for the tree or feed to root in ftiff ground, and " makes a fume to feed it."
Chalk, lime, rubbifh of old houfes, or, in fhort, whatever loofens the body of the clay, are good manures.
Shell-Marie, or any marie, which, dropt into vinegar, makes a ftrong effervefcence, is a peculiarly good manure for clay : for, dif- folving eafiiy in water, it gives a freer paffage to it, whereby the clay is kept dry even in winter ; and if the clay is of a cold acid quality, the abforbent quality of the marie deftroys that acidity, and keeps the clay warm. Many late experiments prove the truth of this, its effects being much beyond what could have been expected.
In very cold moift land, fays Mr. Miller, I have frequently feen new horfe-dung buried as it came from the ftable, and always ob- ferved that the crops have fucceeded better, than where the ground was dreffed with very rotten dung.
Sheeps dung and deers dung are nearly of the fame quality, and are efteemed by fome the beft of dungs for cold clays. Some re- commend beating them into powder, and fpreading them very thin over autumn or fpring crops, about four or five loads to an acre, in the fame manner that aihes, malt-duft, &c. are ftrewed. 'But thefe light d re flings do not la ft long.
In Flanders, and other parts, they houfe their fheep at nights in places fpread with clean fand, laid about five or fix inches thick j which, being laid on frefh every night, is clear'd out once a week. This mixture of fand and dung, makes an excellent drefling for ftrong land ; for the dung and urine of the fheep is a very rich ma- nure. Mr. Quinteney thinks it the greateft promoter of fruiffiilnefs in all forts of ground. Others recommend hogs dung, as the fatteft and moft beneficial of any.
The dung of pigeons and poultry is efpecially good for cold, wet, clayey lands : but it ought to be dried before it be ftrewed, becaufe
it
24 O F M A N U R E S. Part I.
it is naturally apt to clod in wet ; and it mould be mixed with earth or fand to keep it from clogging together, that it may be flrewed thin, being naturally very hot and ftrong.
Human dung is another great improver of all cold four lands, and efpecially if it be mixed with other earths or dungs to give it a fer- mentation.
But there is not any fort of manure equal to the cleanfing of the ftreets of great cities, for all ftubborn clayey foils, the parts of which will be better feparated, and in a much lefs time, with this manure, than with any other compoft whatever.
II. Of Band.
BY the fame rule that fand fertilifes,. ftrong clayey grounds, clay meliorates light and fandy foils. But this mai ure can never have its due effect, -unlefs it be well broken, and divided into fuch fmall particles as to be able to incorporate thoroughly with the light earth.
" Arenous and fandy earth," fays Mr. Evelyn, p. 19. wants liga- " ture ; and befides, coniifting of fharp and afperous angles, wounds «' and galls, curls and dwarfs our plants, without extraordinary help, " to render the paffages more flippery and eafy : and therefore re- <w lenting chalks, or chalk-mark, is profitable, with calcinations of " turf, or fea-wrack, where it is at hand : and it the foil be exceed - " ing bibulous, fpread a layer or couch of ioami discreetly mingled,
" at the bottom, to entertain the moifture. Sand, being of an
" open and loofe contexture, is apt to put forth a forward fpring, " as more eafily admitting the folar rays : but it does not continue, " and is an infirmity which may be remedied with ham, which not " only unites it clofer for the prefent, but is capable in time to alter " and change its very nature alfo, fo as too hot a compofl be no in-
" gredient with it. If the foil be fandy, or other light mixed
** earth, imbody it with fomething of a fatter nature, as marl ; and « be fure fo to ftir and lay it (efpecially if with ham) that it may " not fink too deep, and fuddenly, as 'tis apt to do, and fo defert the " furface-mould, where it fliould do the feat, and therefore it is to " be the oftener renewed."
Dr. Lifter divides the Englifh fands into t>.vo clafTes : the firft,
{harp or red fand, confifling of fmall transparent pebbles, naturally
found on the mountains, and not calcinable : the fecond, foft or
fmooth.
Mr.
Chap. VIII. OF MANURES. 25
Mr. Miller obferves that, grounds which are fandy and gravelly, eafily admit both of heat and moifture ; but then they are liable to thefe inconveniencies, that they let them pafs too foon, and fo con- tract no ligature, or elfe retain them too long, efpecially where there is a clay bottom ; and by that means they are either parched or chilled too much, and produce nothing but mofs and cankerous infirmities ; but if the fand happens to have a furface of good mould, and a bottom of gravel or loofe ftone, though it do not hold the water, it may produce a forward fweet grafs ; and though it may be fubjecf to burn, yet it quickly recovers with the leaft rain.
Sand indeed is apt to pufli the plants that grow upon it, early in the ipring, and make them germinate near a month fooner than thofe that grow upon clay > becaufe the falts in the fand are at full liberty to be railed and put into motion, upon the leaft approach of the warmth of the fun : but then, as they are hafty, they are foon exhaled and loft.
Clay is another excellent manure, fays the author of the New Syftem-of Hufwndry, p. 1 24. and eafy. enough to be found in all places : but you muft obferve, 'tis only ufeful upon fandy grounds, or any lands of a nature entirely different from its own j among which you may reckon gravelly or pebbly foils. To thefe it brings the only part of excellence they naturally want, and confequently changes them, from what they were originally, to an equal fertility with the beft and richeft.
This will, perhaps, be ftrange news to many countrymen, who have bought dung, all their life-time, to deftroy their land with. 'Tis as great a folly, adds our author, to dung grounds which require cooling, as 'twould be thought to adminiftxx poifon, to cure a man of a fever. Our farmers are not fenfible, that the temper of the land muft, as neceffarily, be confulted, as the pulje of the patient. The dunghil enly is their univerfal refuge ; they fly to that upon all occa- fions. They mil's a crop, by dunging an improper foil ; and lay on more dung, to remedy the misfortune.
Some few years ago, continues he, a friend of mine remarkably JU experienced "the fufficiency of this obfervation. He had a couple of fields, divided by a hedge only ; neither of which was fit for corn, or feeding. He refolved to improve them both : and when they were plowed up to that intent, he found, that one was a hard brown clay, and the other a very burning gravel. He was furprifed to find thefe diametrical oppofites fuch neighbours, and fuppofed that, for
E that
26 OF MANURES. Part I.
that reafon, the hedge had been formerly made to feparate them. He pulled down the divifion, and, having laid them open, fet his men to work on trenching them fix inches deep. The earth they dug out of one trench in one field, he made them carry inftantly to •another trench in the other field, in wheel-barrows ; by this means interchangeably mingling the gravel with the clay, and the clay with
the gravel. When this was done, he had it plow'd all over
with a deep cutting plow, and -has fow'd it every feafon fince with the richeft grains. The effect of this is, that he has not now a finer or more mellow piece of ground in his eftate. The very nature of the land is altered, and there remains no vifible difference between the two divifions, but the whole is converted into a good hazel- mould, and produces a plump round corn, and as plentiful harveiis as any foil in the kingdom.
The practice of the North-Riding of Yorkfhire, as related by Dr. Lifter, Phil. TranfaB. No. 225. fhews to how great advantage clay is made ufe of there, as a manure. The clay is of a blueifh colour, not fandy at all, but very ponderous. They dry it about Midfummer, on the declivity of a hill, and lay 100 loads on an acre of ground of a light fandy foil. They obferve, that for three or four years it continues yet in clods upon the land ; and that the firfr year, the land lb manured bears rank ill-coloured and brcad-grain'd barley, but afterwards a plump round corn like wheat. This clay manuring will, by certain experience, laft above forty years in the ground, and then it muff, be clayed again. This fandy ground, unlefs clayed, will bear nothing but rye, whatever other manure they uie.
Clay becomes a much better manure when mixed with lime, than perhaps either of them are fingly. The lime corrects the bad qua- lities of the clay, by rendering it more friable.
Sea-owfe, that is, the fettling of the tides on fhores and level places, between low and high-water mark, is a manure of incom- parable excellence for many forts of lands ; but is, on others, to be avoided, as a certain bane to whatever part 'tis mixed with. Loofe fandy foils are peculiarly benefited by it.
The cleaning of ponds and ditches becomes likewife here an ex- cellent manure, confifting of the putrified animal and vegetable bodies mixed with the rich earth depofited there by rains, &c. The fame may be faid of the mud in rivers, where, by the ftag-
nating,
Chap.VIIL OF MANURES. 27
rating, or want of current in the vvater, the rich particles carried down by it have time to fubfide.
But of all the manures for fandy foils, none is fo good as mark. There are many different kinds and colours of it, feverally diftin- guifhed by many writers ; but their virtue is the fame ; and they may all be ufed upon the fame ground, without the fmalleft diffe- rence in their effect.
The colour is, either red, brown, yellow, blue, grey, or mix'd. It is to be known by its pure and un-compounded nature. There are many marks to diffinguifh it by ; fuch as its breaking into little' iquare bits ; its falling eafily to pieces, by the force of a blow, or upon being expofed to the fun, and the froft; its feeling fat and oily,
and fhining when 'tis dry. But the moil: unerring way to judge
of marie, and know it from any other fubftance, which may appear like it, is, to break a piece as big as a large nutmeg, and, when 'tis quite dry, drop it to the bottom of a glafs of clear water, where, if it be right, it will diffolve and crumble, as it were to duff, in a very little time, mooting up many fparkles to the furface of the water.
In many places, marie difcovers itfelf to the moft negligent eye; efpecially upon the fides of broken hills, or deep hollow roads, in meff counties in England. Many rivers poffefs an inconceivable trcafure, on both their fides, which is plunder'd by every flood. B°igy fond* frequently cover it ; and, in fuch, it feldoni lies above three feet deep. 'Tis fomewhat lower, under ffiff clays, and marjhy ici-cl grounds. Moft fandy lands abound in it, in their loweff places, at fometimes three feet depth, and fometimes feven, nine, or more. As for the marie itfelf, 'tis feldom you can find its depth ; for, when the upper cruff of the earth is once removed, all you can fee, or dig, is marie, as deep as ever you can go. There are few, if any, inftances of a marle-pit's being exhaufted.
Nothing is more common, in moft places, than to find the ditches which inclofe a field, dug down fo deep that they have pe- netrated fix or feven inches into a bed of marie that lies under them, without the farmer's taking any notice of it, tho' the prodigious fhooting and increafe of the grafs which is put forth by the marie thrown up upon the fides of the bank, might, one would think, be a./ne.ns of Covering it. Where the marie is thus, by accident, difclofed, it not only turfs the fides and tops of the banks, and thereby fecures them again ft all injuries of weather, but makes the
E 2 grafs
28 OF. MANURES. Part I.
grafs grow to iuch furprizing length and thicknefs, that, when beaten down by winds, it hangs along as if it thatch'd the earth which nourifh'd it, and carries off the rain, without permitting any considerable quantity to enter through it.
The author of the New Syftem of Agriculture, p. 1 1 8. recom- mends, as a very eafy and infallible method of difcovering whether there is any marie in places it may be thought to lie under, to have three augers made, cf near an inch diameter, with an iron handle fix'd crofs-wife to each ; the bitts of thefe augers to be pretty large, and tenacious of what they pierce. One of them may be three feet long, the fecond fix, and the third ten. When you would try the place you have hopes from, carry thither thefe augers* and let a fervant take the firfl, and wring it into the earth, by twitting at each end of the handle. He muff, draw it out as often as it has pierced a new depth of fix inches, to cleanfe and examine the bitr,
and obferve what he draws up in it. If you find nothing bat
common earth within the reach of this firft auger, let him thruft the fecond down the hole which was made by the former, and pro- ceed in the fame manner, till he has wrung this alfo up to its handle ; and then let him do the fame by the third auger 5 always remembering to examine the auger bitt after each new progrefs of fix inches.
By this means you will certainly, and without charge or hazard, difcover not only what marie is under your foil, but whether any other thing of value lies concealed there, fuch as chalk, coals, fuller's earth, or quarries- of ftone, many of which are hid, and quite unthought of, in places where their value, was it known, is ten times more than that of the whole eftate which covers them.
Our author relates on this occafion, a (lory of a Dutchman who was caft away upon the coaft of Norfolk, and carried before a juftice of peace, who, underftanding that he had fkill in draining, took him one morning into a field in which he had begun a woik of that na- ture. The Dutchman perceived a whitifh kind of earth, which had been caft out of one of the trenches, and examined it with more than ordinary earneftnefs. The juftice afked him, if it were of any value in Holland ? The failor anfwered, that it was fold in his coun- try at an extraordinary rate ; that it came to Delft, and other places, down the Rhine, from a little village about twenty miles above Frankfort, and was ufed for making the fineft fort of earthen-ware. The juftice thereupon fent a fample of it to Holland, and finding
the
Chap. VIII. OF MANURES. 29
the matter exactly as it had been reprefented, became a merchant of this product of his own land, and in a few years got ten thoufand pounds by it.
Though, as was obferved before, there is fcarce any fuch thing as exhauftinga marle-pit, there is however, now and then, an incon- veniency attending fuch as dig too deep in level lands inclineable to wetnefs in the winter : for the fprings will fometimes break in upon your pit, and much increafe the labour of your workmen, and your own expences. There are little engines to be made, which, turning in a femi-circular frame, will catch the wind at every point, and, by the force of their motion, pump up van: quantities of water, and, by that means, eafe this inconvenience, which, however, had much better be prevented ; and that may infallibly be done, by working wide and- mallow, in fuch places, as you fufpect to be watry.
This author feems never to have feen fnell-marle, by his not mentioning it. It is often found under mofs, or that black earth ulually dug up for fevvel, or where there has been a bed of a river or running water ; the fhells in it having, probably, belonged for- merly to fome living creatures. Whoever finds this marie, finds a mine of great value. It is one of the bell and moft general manures in nature. It is proper for all foils, and peculiarly fo for clay, as already obferved. This effervefces ftrongly with all acids, which is perhaps chiefly owing to the fhells. There are very good marks which (hew nothing of this effervefcence : and therefore the above author judged right, in making its folution in water, the diftinguim- ing mark.
The fame writer, fpeaking of the quantity of manure proper to be laid upon light Tandy foils, whether it be chalk, marie, clay, Jfreep's dung prepar'd with earth, not fand \ fea-owfe, of the clofeft, black, fat kind, mud, or the product of your jlercorary, lays, five and twenty load of the Ian; is the quantity moft proper; thirty of chalk-, of mark, at kafl an hundred ; and of clay, a little more : twenty load of fheep's dung, and ' as much of fea-owfe; and, if you uk mud, lefs than forty or fifty load will be too little. Whichever of thefe manures is ukd, care fhould be taken that the plowman turns it in, as fad as it is brought on, and fpread upon the furface.
I cannot difmifs this article without mentioning an obfervation made by an ingenious gentleman, on reading Pliny's account (c. 6 )
of the ufe of mark in Britain, by the Romans. It may be worth
while to obferve, favs he, that Pliny is very particular on the Hate
of
3o OF MANURES. Part I.
of agriculture in Britain in his days ; and whoever will be at the pains to read what he fays on that head, will have fufficient reafon to think, that, we are ftill far below the point, to which the Romans had then brought it in this ifland. And this, I believe, cannot be faid of anv other art or fcience, which, like this, is independent of what is called genius, or of the powers of the imagination. In all others of this kind, we excell, not oniy our neighbours, but every nation that has gone before us ; men of every rank and order lending a helping hand to forward and improve this art, or that fcience. But agricul- ture, which was the favourite employment of the greater! Roman fenator, in his retreat from bufinefs, has (till of late) with us been left to the feeble efforts of the poor and illiterate peafant. What elfe, for example, but their grofs ignorance and inattention, can account for the neglect of ufing marie in the improvement of particular foils ? Pliny fpeaks of it as a particular fpecies of improvement, which obtained in Britain and Gaul. He calls it the fat of the earth, and compares it to the glands in the human body, which are lapped in a coat of fat. And as this practice (as it would feem) had no place in Italy, it fhews how attentive the Romans were to agriculture, vvhere- ever their arms carried them, that in fpite of the continual alarms they lived in from the natives here and in Gaul, yet they found time to" difcover and perfect a fpecies of improvement in a particular manner fuited to the foil and climate, and, of all others, the cheapeft and moll: lafting.
I muff farther obferve, with Dr. Home, that there is a body very fimilar to marie in its appearance, but very different from it in its effects, and often found in the fame bed with the beft marie. It is of a darkifh lead colour. Inftead of fertilizing the ground, it renders the beft foils incapable of bearing any kind of vegetables for many years. I have feen the fpots on which it was laid, entirely barren three years after. I have heard of its effects continuing in other places for a much longer time ; nor is it certainly known when its bad effects will end. A body fo very deflructive to agriculture, deferves to be well characterifed, in order to be ihnnned; and well examined, that we may know whence proceeds this noxious quality, and how to cure it when it has taken place.
Marie takes a fmooth polifh from the inftruments with which it is wrought. A piece of this taken up, which has not been much ex- pofed to the influence of the air, differs greatly in tafte, from marie. Inftead of the fmooth unctuous tafte of the latter, it is acid, and re- markably
Chap. VIII. OF MANURES. 31
markably aftringent. It agrees with marie, in crumbling in water ; but then it differs remarkably from it, in railing no effervefcence with acids, nor in the leaft deftroying their acidity. It turns the fyrup of violets red 5 which fhews that it contains an acid : whereas marie, like all abforbent earth, gives it a green colour.
It appears from experiments made by the doctor, that this fub- ftance confifts of an earthy body like clay, about one eighteenth part of fait of fteel, and a fmall proportion of the vitriolic acid : and he concludes, that marie is the proper cure where this noxious earth has been inadvertently ufed, becaufe it corrects the acid, and decompofes the fait.
III. Of Loam. r O AM, being free from the too great ftiftnefs of clay, and the too A-v little cohefion of fand, in order to its due culture, feems only to ftand in need of being kept in good tilth, and fupplied at proper fea- fons with fuch fubftances as the experience of ages has fhewn to con- tain in them matter fit for the nourishment of plants, or at leaft to be endued with the power of rendering the earth fruitful. Such fubftances we mall therefore call general manures. Of thefe, dungs of all kinds, putrid, vegetable and animal fubftances, afhes of vege- tables, and even of fea-coal and peat, foot, and lime, are the chief.
Dungs, as Mr. Miller obferves, are defigned to repair the decays of exhaufted worn-out lands, and to cure the defects of land, which are as various in their qualities as the dungs are, that are ufed to me- liorate and reftore them. Some lands abound too much in coldnefs, moifture, and heavinefs ; others again are too light and dry ; and fo, to anfwer this, fome dungs are hot and light, as that of fheep, horfes, pigeons, &c. others again are fat and cooling, as that of oxen, cows, hogs, &c. And as the remedies that are to be ufed, muft be contrary to the diftempers they are to cure; fo the dung of oxen, cows, and hogs, muft be given to lean, dry, light earths, to make them fatter and clofer j and hot and dry dungs to meliorate cold, moift, and heavy lands.
There are, continues he, two peculiar properties in dung: the one is to produce a certain fenfible heat, capable of producing fome confiderable effect, which properties are feldom found but in the dung of horfes and mules, while it is newly made, and a little moift : the other property of dung is, to fatten the earth, and render it more fruitful,
The
S2 OF MANURES. Parti.
The dang of.horfes and mules is an admirable fertilizer : but care muft be taken not to lay too much of it on corn lands, becaufe it produces abundance of ftraw.
Horfe-dung, being of. a very hot nature, is beft for cold lands, and cow dung for hot lands ; and being mixed together, way make, a very good manure for moil: forts of foils, and for fome they may be mixed with earth.
The dung of pigeons and fowls is fo rich, that it is generally ufed for a dreiiing to plants whilft they are growing. That of pigeons, fays Mr. Miller, is the bell fuperricial improvement that can be laid on meadow or corn land: but before it is ufcd, it co-Jit to have lain abroad out of the dove-houfe fome time, that the air may have a little fweetened it, and mollified the fiery heat that is in thefe di^igs.
The dung of poultry being hot and fill of falts, tends much to fa- cilitate vegetation : and is abundantly quicker in its operation, than the dung of animals which feed on herbs.
To animal fubftances belong all parts of their bodies, as flcfb, blood, fhavings of bones, hoofs, rags of their wool or hair, &c.
Mr. Evelyn fays, the blood and fiefh of animals is much mere powerful for the enriching of land, than their dung and excrements, and is computed at twenty times the advantage ; and to the fame ad- vance above this, is hair and calcined bones. Woollen rags are pecu- liarly ufeful for light foils. They fhould be chopt fmall, abou: an inch or two fquare, and fcattered on the earth at the fecond plowing ; for being thereby covered, they will begin to rot by feed time. They imbibe the moifture of dews and rain, and retain it long ; and, as Dr. Home obferves, therebv keep light foils in a moift ftate. The fame may be laid of the hoofs of cattle, wh.n fei upright in the earth, as Mr. Ellis directs. They hold the rain that drops into them, and it putrifies there, till, being worked out by fucceding fhowers, it falls upon the furrounding eanh, and communicates a great fertility to it. -—-Sea-fhells may likewife be included urfder this head : but we have already fpoken of them, in the article Clay.
Vegetables afford great abundance of excellent manure. The cuf- tom of plowing in green fucculent plants, is very ancient. All the Roman authors fpeak of it particularly. Buck wheat and vetches are the two plants moil frequently fown in England for that purpofe ; and the time of plowing them in, is when they are in bloom, being then in their moft fucculent ftate. Some farmers plow in their fecond crop of clover, to enrich the land for wheat in the autumn.
This
Chap. VIII. OF MANURES. 33
This fhould be done early enough to give the plants fufficient time to putrify thoroughly before the grain is fowed : otherwife it might prove prejudicial, by bringing on a heat which would hurt the corn. Sea-weeds of all forts are a moft profitable manure to be plowed in.
Rotten vegetables of moft forts, fays Mr. Miller, greatly enrich land : fo that, where other manure is fcarce, thefe may be ufed with great fuccefs. The weeds of ponds, lakes, or ditches, being dragged out before they feed, and laid on heaps to rot, will make excellent manure ; as will moft other forts of weeds. But wherever any of thefe are employed, they fhould be cut down as foon as they begin to flower : for if they are fuffered to ftand until their feeds are ripe, the land will be ftored with weeds, which cannot be deftroyed in two or three years ; nay, fome kind of weeds, if they are permitted to ftand fo long as to form their feed, will perfect them after they are cut down, which may be equally prejudicial to the land : therefore the fureft way is to cut them down juft as they begin to flower ; at which time moft forts of vegetables are in their greateft vigour, being then ftronger and fuller of juice, than when their feeds are farther advanced : fo that at that time they abound moft with falts, and therefore are more proper for the intended purpofc. In rotting thefe vegetables, it will be proper to mix fome earth, mud, or any other fuch like Aibftances with them, to prevent their taking fire in their fermentation ; which they are very fubjedt to, when they are laid in large heaps, without any other mixture to prevent it : and it will be proper to cover the heaps over with earth, mud, or dung, to detain the falts j otherwife many of the finer particles will evaporate in fermenting. When thefe vegetables are thoroughly rotted, they will form a folid mafs, which will cut like butter, and be very full of oil, which will greatly enrich the land.
Another manure, greatly, and very properly recommended by this gentleman, is rotten tanner's bark. Oak-bark, fays he, after the tanners have ufed it for tanning of leather, when laid in a heap, and rotted, is an excellent manure, efpecially for ftifF cold land ; in which one load of this manure will improve the ground more, and laft longer, than two loads of the richeft dungs. It is better for cold ftrong land, than for light hot ground, becaufe it is of a warm nature, and will loofen and feparate the earth; fo that where this manure has been ufed three or four times, it hath made the land very loofe, which before was ftrong, and not eafy to be wrought. When this manure is laid on grafs, it fhould be done foon after
F Michael-
34 OF MANURES, Part I.
Michaelmas, that the winter rains may wafh it into the ground : for if it is laid on in the fpring, it will burn the grafs, and, inftead of improving it, will greatly injure it for that feafon. Where it is ufed for corn land, it mould be fpread on the furface before the lafi plowing, that it may be turned down, for the fibres of the corn to reach it in the fpring ; for if it lies too near the furface, it will for- ward the growth of corn in winter ; but in the fpring, when the nourifhment is chiefly wanted to encourage the Items, it will be nearly confumed, and the corn will receive little advantage from it.
Aflm of all green vegetables contain an alkaline fait, of great ufe as a manure, but eafily diflblved in water, and carried cff Greater care fhould therefore be taken to keep fuch afhes covered from the air, till ufed.
Peat-afhes are likewife of great fervice. We {hall here give Mr. Ellis's account of this manure in his own words, vol. II. p. 68. " If barley, fays he, is fown fo late as the beginning of May, lean peat-afhes in particular may be applied over it, or harrowed in with the grain : but afhes burnt from fat black peat, fuch as they dig at Newbury, are of fuch a fulphurous nature, that they are afraid to lay them on their barley ; and they do not drefs their wheat with them till the
fpring is advanced, and then they are fown over it.- The great
ufe of thefe afhes was found out about thirty (now fifty') years ago: but in a little time after they were brought into difreputi.tio:i, by their imprudently laying on too many at a time, which burnt op the corn. Afterwards they found that fix or ten bufhels were fufrlcient to be fown over an acre of wheat, peafe, turneps, clover, rape- feed, or St. Foyfie, as early as they conveniently could. But, as I faid before, they are afraid to fow it over barley, left a dry time fhould enfue, and burn it up j for thefe afhes are reckoned to contain three times as much fulphur in them, as there is in coal -afhes ; and this they reafonably imagine from their great brimffone fmell, fpark- ling and jumping, when they are ftirred as they are burning, and drying up the corn by their too great heat. Thefe peat-afhes, and likewife thofe from wood or coal, will help to keep off the flug from peafe and other grains, by the fait and fulphur contained in them, and very much conduce to their prefervation in cold wet feafons. But there is no fuch danger to be feared from the allies of that pea% which grows as a turf over fandy bottoms, as great quantities do on Leighton- heath in Bedfordfhire j for thefe are as much too lean, as the others are too rank."
SCOfy
Chap. VIII. OF MANURES. 35
Soot, either of vegetables or of coal, is reckoned a good improver of cold and moift grounds. Many find their account in ftrewing it early over their green wheat and barley : but Mr. Ellis fays, neither of them ought by any means to be footed after the 25th of April, becaufe the wheat, and generally the barley, have then done gather- ing and branching, and are upon the fp'ndle. He thinks it likewife proper to be fown over young turneps, that have all juft appeared. Care fhould be taken not to llrew it too thick ; for othervvife its hot nature might hurt the plants.
Malt-duft is a good manure for poor clayey lands ; and will often- times go farther than dung. It is moft beneficial when rain falls upon it foon after its being ftrewed, and wafhes it into the earth be- fore it has loft its ftrength. In fome parts of Berkshire, they lay the malt-duft on at the fame time that they fow the wheat, and harrow them both in together. This they find turn to good account. Some hulbandmen hold it to be better for fummer corn, than for wheat, and the reafon they affign is, that the winter corn lies a whole year in the ground, and the malt duft will have fpent its ftrength by the time the winter is over, and not hold up the corn in heart all the fummer. They fow with the wheat two quarters of malt-duft to an acre, which makes four quarters of corn meafure.
This manure is likewife a great improvement to cold grafs-grounds.
All forts of fern, ftraw, brake, ftubble, rufhes, thirties, leaves of trees, or any manner of vegetable trafh whatever, fays Mr. Wer- lidge, either caft into the yards amongft the cattle or fwine, or caft into pools or places to rot in, or mixed with other foils, help very much, and make very good compoft. The lees of wine and the grounds and fettlings of beer, ale, &c. have the fame effect.
Chalk is a lafting manure for lands that it agrees with. Pliny tells us it was the cultom of the Britons to chalk their lands, by which, fays he, they received a great improvement, which lafted their lives.
It is a general faying, that chalking is better for the father than the fon ; but experience often fhews it to be as good an improvement as dung, for twenty years together: and that clay land has been always the better for it.
There are feveral forts of chalk : fome of fo hard and indiffoluble a nature, that it is not fit to lay on lands limply as it is, but after it is burnt into lime, it becomes an excellent improver. Other forts of chalk, more unctuous and folublej being laid on lands crude as they are, and let lie till the frofts.and rain (hatter and diflblve them, prove
F 2 a very
36 OFMANURES. Part I.
a very considerable advantage to barren lands. Where any of
thefe chalks are found, Mr. Worlidge advifes proving their natures, by laying them on fome fmall portion of land, crude as they are, or by burning them into lime, if fewel be plenty, or to half- burn them ; by which, fays he, you may experimentally know the
true effects and benefits that fubjedt will yield. And although,
continues he, chalk, limply of itfelf, either burnt or unburnt, may not prove fo advantageous as many have reported, yet it is of verv great ufe to be mixed with earth and the dungs of animals, by which may be made an admirable, fare, and natural fruitful com- pofition for almoft any fort of lands, and raifeth corn in abundance.
Chalk ought never to be plowed in, either too loon or too deep. It fhould have time to crack and wafte on the furface of the earth, and not be turned down to the bottom of the furrow, left it ihould fubfide there in a mafs, and not be ftirred by fubiequent plowing-. Twelve or fourteen loads upon an acre will make fome lands produce
extraordinary crops of corn for fourteen or fifteen years together.
In the Ifle of Wight, they fometimes lay twenty- five waggon-loads of it on an acre. Their chalk is of a fat foapy kind, and they call it marie. The farmers in the hundreds of EfTex bring their chalk as far as from Gravefend, but lay not half fo much on an acre, as thofe
of the Ifle of Wight. It fhould always be fpread as foon as
pofhble after it is dug, becaufe it is apt to harden and grow ftoney in the air.
Mr. Worlidge fays, you may deal with chalky land as with clay land, though in a moderate way : for chalky land is naturally cold, and therefore requires warm applications. It is alio fad, and will therefore the better bear with light comports ; which is the reafon that chalk is fo great an improver of light, hot and dry grounds, ef- pecially after it has fuffered a calcination.
If chalk be laid on clay, fays Mr. Lille, vol. I. p. 66. it will in time be loft, and the ground again return to its clay : and if clay be laid on chalk, in time the clay will be loft, and the ground return again to its chalky fubftance. Many people, continues he, think the land on which the other is laid for a manure, being predominant, con- verts the manure into its own foil : but I conceive in both cafes the chalk and clay is, in time, filtrated through the land on which 'tis laid, and being foluble by rain into fmall corpufcles, is wafhed thro' the land on which 'tis laid ; for neither of thefe manures is able to unite in its fineft corpufcles, with the corpufcles of the land on which it
is
Chap. VIII. OFMANURES. 37
is laid, fo as to make fo frricT: an union and texture with it as the land doth with itfelf, and is therefore liable to be borne downwards with rains, till no fign of it be left.
Chalk, laid upon meadows, will enable them to give a great crop for three or four years, but it is thought afterwards to impoverish
them. Mr. Liile is of opinion, that the contrary is the cafe
with refpecl to pafture lands : becaufe the grafs being thereby greatly fweetened and increafed, keeps conftantly fo much the more ftock, by which it is maintained always in the fame vigour.
The fame gentleman aftigns the following reafons, why chalk is good for fandy and clayey foils. " I do fuppofe, fays he, that chalk, " laid on fandy or wood-feary ground laid up for pafture, may wafh *' and fink in, and fill up the interftices, and thereby confolidate and " mend the texture of fuch ground, and fweeten it, as it is a great " alkali : and tho' by time moft of the chalk may be warned down- " wards, fo that the ground may lofe the virtue, yet I do fup- " pofe the ftrength of the ground may full continue much the " better, by reafon that fuch manure having made the fword of " the grafs come thicker and fweeter, the good pafturage on both " accounts enlarges the quantity, and betters the quality of the dung " the cattle leave on it, which in return maintains a better coat and " furface to the ground : and as chalk fills up the vacuities of fandy " or wood-feary ground, fo on the contrary, it infinuates its particles " into obftinate clayey and ftrong land, and divides it, by making " in a manner a failure, thereby hollowing and mellowing it j fo " that the two contrary extreams are cured by chalk." .
As loam may be inclined either to clay or fand> the hufbandman may colled: his manure accordingly, either of dry opening ingredients, fuch as afb.es, lime, dung of fheep and hoifes, rubbifh of old houfes, &c. for the former ; or of things which give cohelion and fatnefs, fuch as dung of cows and hogs, putrid, animal and vegetable fub- ftances, marie, &c. for the latter.
Our farmers, collecting the manures they find neceffary from time to time, as they come to hand, generally heap them together in what they call dung-hills. Thefe dung- hills mould be placed where there are no running waters or fprings, that their rich juices may not be warned away. They are greatly negligent in this care. Mr. Evelyn, and the author of the New Syftem of Agriculture, call thefe aggregates of comports ftercoraries. Such mould by no means have a communication wifh any of the offices, as adviftd by the latter -, for
the
38 OF MANURE S. Part I.
the vapours arifing from the putrid dung, muft prove hurtful to the health of horfes or other cattle expofed to it in a confined place. Mr. Evelyn difapproves of laying dung in heaps in the field, expofed to the fun, rain, and drying winds, whereby all its fpirit and ftrength is carried away ; and advifes the following, as a better method of
managing our dung-hills, or fiercoraries. Let the bottom or fides
of a pit, fays he, be about four feet deep, paved with fmall chalk. or clay at the bottom, that it may hold water like a ciftern : direct your channels and gutters about your houfe and (tables to it. The pit muft be under covert, ib that the down-right rains may not fall into it. Lay a bed of dung in it a foot thick, on that a bed of fine mould, on that another bed of cyder-mere, rotten fruit, and garden offal, on this a couch of pigeons and poultry dung, with more litter, and beds of all variety of foil, and upon all this caft water plentifully from time to time.
The directions of the author of the New Syjlem of Agriculture, for making a Jiercorary, and which we much approve of, barring its being lb near the ftable as he feems to intend it, are as fol- low.
" Along the back of your ftable caufe a pit to be dug, to the depth of the foundation, or a pretty deal below it : let it be as long as the ftable, but its breadth fhould be according to the quantity of dung you have conveniencies for making : let this pit be arch'd with brick, but very (lightly, and an entrance left at one end, which may be fhut up, or open'd, by a wooden door : let the fides and bottom be firmly lin'd with ftone, and clcfely plaifter'd over with a cement, which will by no means admit moifture.
Through the wall of this itable, and about a foot or mor'e from the ground, let there be made fquare holes, which, opening into the ftercorary, from within the ftable, muft be of fufficient largenefs ior the paflage of the dung, that is, from time to time, to be fhuvell'd through them.
The ftable floor fhould be made as finooth and hard as pofiible, that the urine of the horfes may not foak into it, but descending from them to a little gutter, clofe along the wall, thence run through paffages, which are purpofely to be made, into the fter- corary.
Pipes of. earth, which coft but little, fhoald belaid, from this place, to the cow-houfe, hog-fties, and privies, that all urine of man or beaft, of any kind whatfoever, may immediately be conveyed
to
Chap. VIII. OF MANURES. 39
to mingle with the other. Into which muft be cafl all ox dung, cow dung, hogs dung, and dung of fowls ; all afhes, whether of wood, or fea-coal; the duft and lweepings of your yard and houfej all weeds, .old litter, rotten ftraw, and fpare earth, which you can get ; as alfo the wafhing of barrels, all foap-fuds, water which meat has been boil'd in, dull-water, and every fuch kind of thing, which is now thrown down the common fink, and render'd uielefs : and for the more convenient performance of all this, there may be left a pretty large fquare hole, in the outward declivity of the arch which covers the ftercorary. This hole muft have a wooden door fitted to it, which, lifting up and down, will, as occafion offers, not only ferve for taking in the things above named, but, whenever more moifture may be thought wanting, it will admit as much as is con- venient, by being left open in rainy weather, and, as foon as fhut, forbid the entrance of any more. The other door, which I fpoke cf, in one of the ends, is only to ferv'e for carrying out the dung, when it is to be made ufe of.
In fuch a fkrcorary as is here defcribed, the charge is a trifle, not worth naming, in comparifon with the profit. The dungs and other things, incorporating, and fermenting thus together, mellowed, and enriched by the fpirit of the urine, and unimpaired by the fun, rain, or wind, attain an excellence, which is befl known by the prodi- gious increafe they make in your crops ; and which demonftratively proves, that one load thus managed, is- of more effect than twenty after the common manner."
We leave to experience to determine, whether a flercorary with only a fhade thrown over it, would not nearly anfwer all the ends propofed by clofing it up, and have none of the dangers attending the other.
The method of making lime is fufficiently known. It's ufe and application, as a manure, is all that appertains to our fubjedf .
Liming of land, fays the author of the ILnglifo Improver , is of mod excellent ufe ; many barren parts of this kingdom being there- by brought to fo fertile a condition for bearing moft forts of grain, that as good wheat, barley, and peafe, as England yields, has, with the help of that manure properly diitributed, been raifed upon land, before not worth above a fhilling or two an acre. He adds, that twelve or fourteen quarters will lime an acre. Another writer fays 1 60 bufhels. The difference of the land may require a different proportion.
The
4o OF MANURES. Pari: I.
The moft natural land for lime, fays Mr. Worlidge, is the light and fandy ; the next, mixt and gravelly : wet and cold gravel is not good, and cold clay is the worft of all.
A mixture of lime, earth, and dung, together, adds he, is a very excellent compoft for land.
Mr. Evelyn advifes, for lands that want heat, to mix lime with turf and fwarth, laying them alternatively, turf on lime, and lime on turf, in heaps, for fix months, by which means it will become fo mellow, and rich in nitrous falts, as to difiblve and run like afhes, and carry a much more cheriftiing vigour, than if ufed alone in a greater quantity, and without danger of burning out and exhaufting the vegetative virtue which it mould preferve.
Lime, a little flack'd, continues he, is excellent for cold wet grounds and ftiff clays, but it over-burns drier foils. It is the very deftroyer of mofs and rufhes, as quick-lime is of furzes, being firfl extirpated.
Mr. Lifle thinks it is bift, efpecially in lands that work mellow, to fpread and plow the lime in as foon as it is flacked, rather than to let it lie long covered with the earth in heaps.
Chalk-lime is not, in his opinion, fo beneficial to land, as ftone- lime ; becaufe a greater virtue muft be attributed to the ftone-lime for its burning quality after it is laid on.
Lime, being laid on meadows or paftures, flacks and cools by flow degrees, fo as not to undergo fuch a heat and fermentation, as when it is covered with the hillocks of earth flung up in arable ; therefore, fays he, it cannot be of that great advantage to paf- ture.
The lighter the land is, the more lime it will require : the ftronger, the lefs. In forne places they lay twenty-four cr thirty quarters on an acre. The nature of the foil mufl; determine the pro- per quantity.
In Leicefterfhire they fow or fcatter the lime on wheat-land when they fow the wheat, but on barley-land the laft earth but one ; and fo plow it in, left, if they fhould fow it with the barley in the fpring, it might burn it. They lay five quarters to an acre of each, according to the meafure as it comes from the kiln, for after it is flack'd thofe five quarters will make near ten.
As the intent of liming land, is to bind it, Mr. Lifle thinks it fhould not be limed late in the year, becaufe the land being then cold and moift, and but a weak fan to confolidate it, the defign of
liming
Chap." VIII. OF MANURE S. 41
liming is fruftrated j for if it does not confolidate at firft liming, it will not afterwards.
In Shropfhire they lay dung and lime together, viz. about twenty load of dnng, and only twenty bufhels of lime on an acre.
Mr. Lifle gives it as a rule to all huibandmen, to be cautious of liming ground, and then plowing out the heart of it. I limed, fay* he, fome years ago, inWiltfhire, feven acres for an experiment, and laid down one acre to its own natural grafs in two years time, the grafs of which is to this day 40 millings an acre. The third year I laid down another acre, which is to this day worth 30 millings per acre. The reft I plowed five or fix years farther, which is not worth fifteen groats per acre. The like experience, adds he, 1 have had in burn-beaking ground.
We fhall now give our author, Mr. Duhamel's account of liming, as pradtifed in the lower Normandy.
Lime is ufed there chiefly on freiTi broke up lands. After hav- ing plowed them up, not very deep, they lay on the lime in the fol- lowing manner.
They carry on the lime as it comes from the kiln, and lay about one hundred pound weight in a heap on every fquare perch, fo that the heaps lie at a perch diftance from one another. Then they raife the earth all round the heaps, like fo many bafons : the earth that forms the fides of thefe bafons, fhould be a foot thick : and laftly, they cover the heaps, half a foot thick, with earth, in form of a dome. The lime flacks under this covering of earth, and is reduced to powder: but then it increafes in bulk, and cracks the covering of earth. If you do not carefully flop thefe cracks, the rain will get through them, and reduce the lime into a pafte which will not mix with the earth, or make a fort of mortar which will not anfwer the end propofed. The farmers are therefore very careful to ex- amine the heaps from time to time, and ftop the cracks. Some only prefs the top of the heaps with the back of a fhovel : but this prac- tice is fubjedt to an inconvenience , for if the lime is in a pafte with- in the heap, by this means you beat it fo together that it will not eafily mix with the earth ; for which reafon it is better to ftop the chinks by throwing fome frefh earth over the heap.
When the lime is thoroughly flack 'd, and reduced to powder, they cut the heaps with a fhovel, and mix the lime as well as poffi- ble with the earth that covered it, and then, throwing it up in heaps
G c gain,
42 OF MANURES. Part I,
again, leave it expofed to the air for fix weeks or two months ■ for then the rain will do no harm.
About the month of June, they fpread this mixture of lime and earth upon the land j but not by throwing it about unequally, and at random : on the contrary, they take it up by fhovelfuls, and di- ftribute it in little heaps at equal difbnces on each perch of land : they obferve that thefe little heaps promote vegetation, more than if it was fpread uniformly all over the field, and they don't mind leav- ing little intervals unlimed between each fbovelfui. They afterwards plow the field, for the laft time, very deep: then, towards the end of June, they fow buck-wheat, and cover it with the harrow ; and if anv clods remain, break them with a hoe.
Euck-wheat occupies the land about an hundred days ; fo that this grain fown about the end of June, is gathered about the end of September.
When the ftalks and roots of this plant are dead and dried, they plow them up, and immediately fow wheat, and cover it with the harrow.
About the month of July or Auguft, after the wheat crop, they plow as foon as poflible : they plow for the laft time in February or March, in order to low oats, or in April for barley ; but in this cafe they ftir the land two or three times to, make it fine.
They harrow in ail thcfe different grains, and when they are come up, they pafs a roller over the oats, and if there remain any clods in-' the barley, they break them with a hoe.
The next February or March, they plow the land again, in order. to fow it with grey peas or vetches.
After thefe pnlfe have been reaped, they give one or two plowings to prepare the land for wheat the enfuing autumn.
The year after, they fow cats, mixt fometimes with a little clover,, and then lay it down to paiture tor three or four years.
In fome new broke up lands they fow no buck- wheat, but let it: lie fallow from the moiith of March, when it was firft broken up,, till October, when they low it with wheat ; making ufe of the in- termediate time to give it feveral plowings : thefe lands being by this means much finer, they ufe little more than three-fourths of the quantity of lime above prefcribed, and generally have a better crop than when they begin with buck-wheat.
Some farmers think a perch too great a diftance for the conveni- ence of fpreading the lime; therefore they make the heaps lefs, and
increafe
Chap. VIII. O F M A N U R E 5. 43
increafe the number in proportion. Being perfuaded that lime is moil efficacious when it lies fliallow in the ground, they flrft plow it in, and then give it a feccnd plowing before they ibw, which brings it up again near the furface.
Others lay the lime in a ridge from one end of the field to the other,; which makes it eafier for them tofpread.
Mr. Duhamel relates the following fad;, as a farther inftance of the ufe of lime-ftone. " The ftone which is ufed, for building " at Deneinvilliers, fays he, is very hard, and bears polifhing like
V marble. It is intermixed here a,nd there with fhells, fome of " which are filled with a kind of oker, and others contain a cryfta- " line fubftance. Thefe {tones are fit to make lime of. Some
V workmen who were building about our houfe, cut pieces of this " ftone upon a grafs plot. When they had done their work, the " rubbifh was cleared away, and nothing left upon the grafs but the " dull: and very fmail fragments which had fallen from the ftones " in cutting them. The year following, the grafs grew furprifingly " thick in all the places where thefe ftones had been cut, was much " taller and greener than any where elfe, and preferved its vigour " for feveral years. One would fcarce have thought that fo hard a " ftone, reduced to powder, would have produced an effect like " that of marie. The goodnefs of lime, as a manure, is, perhaps, <: chiefly owing to the finenefs of the powder to which the lime- " ftones are reduced by calcination."
Burning, or, as fome call it, burn-be aking of land, may be reckoned among manures, becaufe it is a very great improvement, and only pra&ifed upon fome old pafture, or heathy, rufhy, broomy, and fuch like barren grounds, which are confiderably enriched by it; though, as the: author of the Jslew Syjlem of Agriculture juftly re- marks, lands fo improved are, for want of one obfervation, general- ly ruined, in the common practice of plowing them three or four crops fucceffively ; by which means theii;, whole fertility is moft al- furedly exhaufted, and the foil becomes incapable of vegetation, ■though affifted by the richeft .dung, or other manure, in the world. Nothing but ten or fifteen years repoie, will reftore the abufed vi- gour of -nature ; whereas, were thefe grounds ftrengthened by a little marie, chalk, or dung, between their firft harveft and their fecond feeding, the improvement would be made complete, and lading. ;No method would be more eafy ; nothing poffibly more advanta- geous.
G 2 The
44 OF MANURES. Part K
The manner of burning land is generally known to be a paring off the fibrous turf, to a confiderabls depth, in a hot feafon, which be- ing made into little hills, raii'd hollow, and at equal diftances, are fet on fire, as foon as they are dry enough to kindle, and fo burnt ia a kind of red afhes, and thofe afhes lcatter'd over the whole Air- fare : the ground is then plowed up very dial low, and the feed im- mediately fown.
This burning of ground is very coftly, and not a little tedious, becaufe the turf is raifed in a laborious manner, by the force of a man's arms and bofom, pufhing againft a thing they call a breaf;-
phio. 1 will prefent you, continues our author, with a much
neater invention, and which faves, at leaft, two thirds of the charge.
Let fome fmith in your neighbourhood, who is a ready workman, make a hollow plow-fhare, of a double form, that is, one which rifes with a fharp edge in the middle, from' the point to the top, and has z fin both ways; which fins muft alfo begin at the point, and fo run back to the fhare end. The dimenfions of this fhare wilf be two feet broad, from the extreme points of the fins behind ; one foot long, and a foot high, fomewhat like a three-edg'd fword, if it were cut off a little above the point. The three fins, or edges, mull be very well fteel'd, and the whole made as thin, and as fmooth, as
you can get it done. Into the hollow of this fhare muft be
fattened a light ftrong piece of afh, fharpen'd Joricard, to fit the bofom of the fhare, but behind, as fquare and fturdy as may be. Into this laft part muft be fix'd a ftrong piece of wood, like a Aver; not perpendicd'ar, ' but 'fomewhat hanging backward. It muft be about two feet high; and on the upper end, fhoulcr have a crofa ftaff, or other contrivance, to which muft be faftcn'd the harnefs of iuch cattle as your team confifts of. The handles of the plow, and the earth-beards to turn the turf, are alfo fix'd into this Square head; and there is no other inftruction neceflary for the ufe of this- plow, but that, when you begin upon the edge of a field, and turn one turf to the hedge, and the other to the field, the laft will cover one of the breadths you muft take at your coming back, and the point of your fhare muft, therefore, run clofe along the edge of this length of turf; by which means one fide of your plough will raife two lengths, and, throwing back the higheft, lay that uppermoft, which had before lain under. By this one obfervation, you cannot mifs the manner of plowing.
But,
Chap. VIII, OF MANURES. 45
But, as this would only raife a long unwieldly rope of turf, which it would be neceffary to cut into many hundred pieces, before it would be fit for pilings you will find the following invention of ad- mirable ufe and expedition.
Chufe the body of a fhort thick tree ; the heavier, and more fblid, the better: let it be neatly rounded, and work'd into a roller, like thofe that are ufed for leveling barley lands. This roller mufl be hoop'd round, in fix feveral places, each two foot diflant from an- other: the hoops mufl be of flrong iron, and nail'd very firmly on.
The middle part of every one of thefe hoops mufr. rife into an
edge, to about five or fix inches above the level of the hoop itfelf r thefe edges muft be very fharo, flrong, and well fteel'd, that the weight of the roller, as it goes round, may not fail to prefs them all into the earth, as deep as they can go, and yet not damage them, either by blunting, bending, or breaking.
One horfe will very well draw this roller, with which you mufl: go over the ground you intend to burn, the contrary or crofs way to that which you defign to take with your plow, before defcribed ; which will by this means turn up the turf in pieces of two foot long, and one broad, the exact fize they ought to be to form the:
httle hills above named; 1 have nothing to add upon this head,
but, that thofe who pradtife it had need be careful how they over- burn the turf, which would, in that cafe, be robb'd of much of its fertility. A gentle fire, not flaming out, but mouldering inward, is the fureft means of hitting the perfection of this work.
In like manner Mr.Worlidge cautions us againft over-burning the turf; and. the reafon is, that, in the burning of any vegetable, a gentle, eafy, and fmothering fire, does not wafte the volatile nitrous fpirit fo much as a quick fire would do,- and caufes more of it to fix and remain behind.
MofTy grounds are peculiarly benefited by being burr. t. Where much long mofs grows thick, fays Mr. Lille, tho' the ground be never fo fandy in its nature,, yet the ground underneath mufl be of a moft cold and four nature, by being kept from the fun, and the wet more fogging in it than if it had been folid earth upon it; for nothing retains moiflure longer than fuch a fpungy body, nor breaks the rays of the fun more from penetrating. " Therefore fuch ground ought to be burn-beak'd ; or the mofs harrow'd up before feeding, and burnt in heaps; but rather burn-beak'dj to deftroy the feeds of
weeds*
46 OF MA.NURES. Part I.
weeds. If any do appear afterwards, the firft year, it can be
only fome few-that lay deeper in the earth than the fire went.
We fhall conclude this article with M. Duhamel's account of bum-beaking in France.
With refpucl to lands which are plowed up but once in eight or ten years, it is the cuftom to burn them, in order that the fire may divide the particles of the earth, and that it may be fertilifed by the afhes of the roots and leaves. This operation is performed thus.
They raife the furface with a hoe, or crooked pick-ax, the iron of which is very broad and thin, cutting each turf as regular as pof- iible, about eight or ten inches fquare, and two or three inches thick.
As focn as thefe turfs are cut, they employ women to pile them fhelving one againft another, with the grafs fide inward.
When the weather is fine, the air will dry them in a couple of days, fufficiently for making the furnaces and burning them : but if it ihould prove rainy, you muff be careful to turn the turfs, for they mult be thoroughly dried before you make the furnaces we are going to fpeak of.
In forming the furnaces, they begin with raifing a fort of cylin- dric tower, of betwixt three and four feet diameter. As the walls of this little tower are made of the turfs, their fize determines the thicknefs : but in building them they always lay the grafs down- wards j and they make a door, about a foot wide, on the windward fide.
On the top of this door they lay a large piece of wood, which ferves as a lintel. Then they fill all the infide with fmall dry wood mixt with ftraw ; and finifh the furnace by making a vault of the fame turfs, like the top of an oven.
Before the vault is entirely finifhed, they light the wood that fills the furnace, and then immediately clofe up the door with turfs, and ftop the opening that was left at the top of the vault ; taking care to lay turfs on all the places where the fmoke comes out too plenti- fully, juft as the charcoal-makers do: for without that precaution, the wood will confume too faft, and the earth not be fufficiently burnt.
If you were to cover the furnaces with earth, all the crevices being too clofely ftopp'd, the fire would be extinguifh'd : but by ufing only
turfs,
Chap. VIII. OFMANURES. 47
turfs, and always laying the grafs downwards, there is air enough to keep the fire burning.
* When all the furnaces are made, the field feems covered with little hay-cocks ranged in quincunx's : but you muft watch the fur- naces till the earth is red hot, to flop with turfs any cracks that may happen, to repair fuch as may be in danger of falling, and to light again fuch as may be extinguifhed. When the earth feems all on fire, they want no farther care : even rain itfelf, tho' before much to be feared, will not hinder their being fufficiently burnt: fo you have nothing more to do but to let them go out of themfelves.
At the end of twenty-four or twenty-eight hours, when the fire is extinct, all the heaps are reduced to afhes, except fome of the tops which will remain not fufficiently burnt, they not being enough ex- pofed to the action of the fire: and 'tis for this reafon that we advife not to make the furnaces too big, becaufe, the walls being pro- portionably thick, the outfide of the turfs will not be dene enough, when the infide is overdone : for if ycu burn them like bricks, they will not be fit for vegetation. Befides, in making large furnaces you will have too far to carry the turfs. You might even make them lefs, but that it would confume too much wood. You will therefore find it neceffary to conform pretty nearly to the proportions we have prefcribed.
When the furnaces are cooled, they wait till it rains, and then fpread the burnt earth as even as pofiible, leaving none on the fpots where the furnaces flood, which ncverthelefs will produce finer grain than the reft of the field ; for which reafon they leave only fuch turfs as are not burnt -enough on thole fpots.
They immediately plow it very lightly, to begin to mix the burnt earth with the furface j but they go' deeper in the following plowings.
If you can give the firft plowing in June, and rain follows, it is pofiible to reap fome advantage from the land immediately, by fow- ing turneps, radifhes, or millet; which will not prevent your lowing wheat or rye the autumn following.
It is however beft to lofe the advantage of fuch a firft crop, that you may have the whole time to prepare the land well for the recep- tion of wheat.
Some chufe to fow rye rather than wheat, becaufe the firft pro- duction being very vigorous, wheat is more apt to be laid than rye. 1
Some
4S OF PLOWING. Part I.
Some do not fpread the burnt earth till juft before the lafr. plow- ing for wheat. They content themfelves with plowing well between the furnaces, which they take care to fet exactly in a line, in order to leave a free paflage for the plough. But this is a bad method : for, fince wheat is always apt to be laid the firft year after burning, it is better to fpread the burnt earth early, before it lofes part of its heat, and for the convenience of well preparing the land : for it is very material, that the burnt earth fhould be perfectly well mixt with the foil- It muft be owned that this method of burning is very expenfive, becaufe the labour muft. be performed by men, and that it con- fumes a great deal of wood : but it is very advantageous j for after this fingle operation, the land is better prepared than it would be by many plowings.
CHAP. IX. Of P L O W I N G.
MR. Duhamel, in the firft part of his eighth chapter, enters into a detail of the French method of plowing, which, not being io good as what is generally pradtifed in this kingdom, we fhall pafs over, and give inflead of it what appears to us the fimplefr. and mofl rational practice here.
We join with the author of the New Syftcm of Agriculture, la thinking that there is no occafion for more ploughs than two ; one for hard or heavy foils, and the other for light or mellow. There are, fays he, in England, above an hundred different forts of ploughs, and all bad- It is furprizing to fee the toil and charge fome people put themfelves to, for want of a compleat knowledge in the make and
management of this ufeful inftrumeiit. 1 have feen, continues
he, eight oxen tack'd to a plough, which the weakeft beafr. in the
team would have eafily drawn in a much heavier foil. He then
diftinguifhes the only two ploughs he thinks worth uling, by the names of the jirong and the light.
The flrong plough is to be ufed on all hard clays, ft iff binding
foils, and ftony grounds, or any lands of that nature. .It is
drawn by two oxen, nor are any more at any time necefTary. ■ ■ The following is his description of it.
Let the length of your fhare be a foot and a half; the point in- differently fharp, but very flrong : let the fhelving fide be work'd
thick,
Chap. IX. OF PLOWING. 49
thick, and without a fin, but fteel'd all along its edge, from the point to the hinder part, where its perpendicular height muft not ex- ceed fix inches. The breadth muft be juft fufficient to carry a
furrow feven or eight inches broad. In this plough, the place of the breaft-board muft be fupplied by an iron plate, which, joining to the fhare, and being part of it, is, in a bellying manner, carried back, and gradually brought to ivhebn, as if it would fall upon the furrow. This plate, being made as thin as its ufe will permit, is fupported by a pin from the plough-head, which is, in all refpects, the lame with that of the plough I before recommended for paring up
the turf of lands to be burnt. -This breaft-iron, with all the
neatnefs and facility imaginable, takes the earth, as it rifes on the fhare, and, without labouring under the load of a long furrow, turns it over as it runs along, and neither toils the oxen nor the driver.
One man is enough in all reafon to manage this plough. He guides his oxen by a goad, as ufual ; and holds the handles with a great deal lefs fatigue than in other ploughs, for they are to be fet at a large Hope, and their ends ftanding wide from each other, they have the greater power over the going of the plough. If the fhare is apt to bite, or run too deep into the ground, his leaning a little harder than ordinary, on the handles, will raife the point to what pitch he pleales ; as, on the contrary, when he lays no ftrefs upon them, the team will of courfe draw the point downward.
The light plough is properly to be ufed on fandy mellow grounds, and all fuch as are diredtly oppofite to thofe for which the Jlrong plough is recommended. It is drawn by two horfes, with no manner of difficulty j or with one, if you pleafe, for many have tried it.
The fhare of this plough, is, in a manner, the fhare of the turjing- plougb, divided into two equal parts. The fhare of the light plough fhelves only one way, as not being double, and has a breaft-iron ex- actly like that of the Jlrong plough. In all other refpecfs, it is the very fame with the /z/r/feg-plougb, even in dimensions, and therefore needs no farther defcription.
One man will hold and drive this plough, with more eafe than the ftrong one, becaufe the loads are more manageable. The reins, whereby he turns and checks the horfes, pafs through two long flits, in each handle one, and being juft of length enough to hang down five inches, or more, are prevented from being drawn back
H through
5o OP PLOWING. Part I.
through the flits, by two pieces of wood, to which their extreme ends are fattened.
Our opinion with refpect to ploughs is, that the beft is that which is the moft Ample in its make and tackle ; that requires the Jeaft ftrength to draw it, in proportion to the ftifFnefs of the foil ; and by the fhape of the earth board, is beft adapted to turn the turf, or furrow, upfide down. The wheefd ploughs are too complex : the weight of the fore-carriage, and the fri&ion of the wheels, greatly increafe their draught. The completeft plough is the Rotheran or patent plough. One man, with two horfes, will do as much in a day with that plough, and in ft iff land, as a plough with wheels,
two men, and fix horfes can do in a moderately light foil.
The principle of the Kentiih plough with the fhifting mould-board, is very good, where the land is dry and will admit of it.
The anonymous author of the New Syjiem of Agriculture makes a very good and ufeful obfervation, which it may not be improper to inlert here. 'Tis this : " When the land you are to plow, is the " fide of a very fteep hill, as it often is, 'tis downright madnefs to " proceed, as moft countrrymen do, by plowing directly up and " down the flcep. In this cafe, 'tis pity the driver is not in the place " of his team : he would then, perhaps, difcover, that 'twould be <{ the wifeft way to plow crofs the hill, by which means, the cattle cC would not only draw with the fame cafe as if they work'd on plain tc ground, but the furrows, lying athwart, would prevent the rains " from wafhing down the fatnefs of the foil, with every flood ; a ct misfortune, to which, at prefent, all thefe lands are yearly liable, " and often ruin'd, and impoverifhed by it."
M;. Tull,.for the fame reafon, advifes plowing hills nearly horizon- tally : and as a farther advantage, he obferves, that their parting fur- row , lying open, may each ferve as a drain to the ridge next below it. We fhall now give our former author's directions, as the beft we know of in fo An. 11 a compafs, for the farther management of lands according to the old hufbandry, which we have hitherto been chiefly fpeakitg of.
Common and indifferent lands, fays he, I diftinguifli into heavy and light, and comprehend, in this diftinction, every particular dif- ference of foil, which is known in this kingdom. All deep, hard clays, of what colour foever ; all ftiff, chalky, binding earths, and fuch, as after being expofed to the fun, or froft, grow hard and ftonyj with fuch as, in the violent heat of fummer, chop and cleave upon
their
Chap. IX. O F P L 0 W I N G. 51
their furface ; all thefe I call heavy lands, not only becaufe of the clofenefs and firninefs of their nature, but as they all hang heavily on the labour of the plowman and his team.
On the other hand, all fandy, mouldering, gravelly, warm, mel- low foils, all loofe and open earths, of what nature foever j all fuch as are not fticky, but will prefently dry after rain ; and, inftead of lying in huge clumps after plowing, are eafily apt to diffolve, and crumble into mould, not being fubject to bind by the heats in fum- mer and frofts in winter j all grounds of this kind, I diftinguifh by the name of light lands.
I fhall take each, of them from their firft breaking up in the turf.
Let us fuppofe then, that, at Lady-day you begin your hufbandry, and that the quantity of land you are about to break up, is an hun- dred acres. The firft thing neceffary is, carefully and judicicufiy to obferv; both the furface of your ground, and the depth of it. If you find it a good deep mould, and covered by a thick, ftrong, fibrous turf, fuch as by long lying, is become firmly rooted ; in this cafe it will be much th-. ■,'ifeft way to burn and fpread the afhes, by the rules be/or 'en, nut, by any means, omitting to manure, be- tween the '■'•'£' and the fecond foiving ; after which you may proceed iv . .., as if the turf had been plow'd in, inftead of being" burnt.
But if, on the contrary, you find your upper mould fhallow, or thin turfd, it wiil by no means be proper to burn it: you muft> therefore, take notice, whether your foil be of the light kind or the heavy. If, upon examining it by the marks above-mention'd, you find it of a heavy nature, you muft prepare your flrong plough and ox team, and take care that, in the firft breaking up, as they call it, your plowman turns the turf fide neatly downwards, and lays his furrows fo fmooth and clofe together, that, at a little diftance, a man can fcarce fee where the plough went. An acre and a half may eafily be plow'd in one day, by the ufe of this plough ; fo that, be- ginning by the firft of April, and allowing for Sundays and acciden- tal hinderances, the hundred acres will be all broke up by the middle of June at fartheft.
Between this firft plowing and the fecond, is the only proper time for laying on your manure of what kind foever. The feveral forts proper for lands of this nature, are fea-fand, common-fand, fea-owft of the lighted: kind, not fuch as is black and greafy ; fkeeps -dung,
H a mix'd.
52 O F P L O W I N G. Part I.
mix'd with fond under a cover'd fold, as before defcribed ; or, for want of any of theie, the compojl in your ftercorary.
Whichever of thefe you lie moft convenient for, you may make life of, in the following proportions : of fea-fami you muft lay uoon every acre five and twenty loads ; of common (and never lei's than a hundred, which quantity you may double, if it lies com- modioufly : twenty load of fea-owfe is fufficient ; and fifteen of freep's dung (o mingled : and if you are obliged to rely upon the af- fiftance of your ftercorary, you muft lay about twenty load upon an acre.
According to the manure you are obliged to ufe, your charge will be more or lefs confiderable in the number of carts and teams ne- ceflary : for this rule you muft be fure to obferve punctually, that the manure be all laid on- by the laft day of July ; in which time, the plowman, a labourer being employ'd to fpread the manure, as it is daily brought on, does, with the fame plough he ufed before, give the fecond ftirring to the ground, in order to turn in the rich- nels of thofe helps you have bellowed upon it. By this means the fun, high and powerful in this feafon, will be prevented from exhaling the virtue of your manure, as it always does in the com- mon way of letting it lie in little heaps in the field for a great while together.
You may obferve, that, I allow a fhorter time for this plowing, than for thejirft ; and the reafon is, becaufe the ground having been broken up before, and the turf now rotten, it is become more mel- low, and the draught fo much eafier, that a team may difpatch almoft a double quantity in a day.
It is now the time to harrow over your ground, with a heavy wide- tooth'd harrow, and a great weight laid upon it; by which means more mould will be rais'd, the clods broken into fmaller pieces, and the manure mingled with the foil in every part. It is not enough to
harrow once and away ; you muft go over the fame ground again
and again, till you have made it as fmooth and crumbly as is requisite : and this work will very well employ your team, from the end of July, to the middle of Auguft : about which time fhould be begun the third and laft plowing.
I come now to your lands of a light temper, and, for method's fake, will begin at Lady-day upon this land alfo. Here the light plough is to be ufed ; and as to the turning down the turf, and lay- ing
Chap. IX. O F P L O \V I N G. 53
ing foiooth the furrows, the fame care is to be obferved on one land, which is recommended on the other. Of this work, two holies, with the plough afore-mentioned, will conftarttly break up two acres a day ; and beginning with April, and allowing, as before, for Sundays, &c. the hundred acres will be very well plowed* for the fkft time, by the latter end of May.
Betwixt the firjl arature and thzfecond, thefe lands are alfo to re- ceive the annual recruits- which you think fit to give themj and that may be either chalk, marie, clay, Jljeep$-dung, prepar'd with earth, not /and; fea-oufe of the clofeft, black, fat kind ; all forts of mud, or, for want of either of thefe, 'your /lerccrary may fupply you.
Five and twenty load of the laft is the quantity moil proper ; thirty of chalk; of marie, at leaft a hundred j and of clay, a little more. Twenty load of prepar'd fheeps-dung, and as much of fea- owfe ; and if you ufe mud, lefs than forty or fifty load will be too little. Uie either of theft manures as your beft conveniency invites you, and, as was directed before, take care that your plowman turns it in as fall as it is brought on, and fpread upon the furface.
But here comes a neceffary caution, that your men begin to bring on the manure on that end of your hundred acres which your plow- man flrft began to break up, that the turf may be rotted before it
is turned up the fecond time. Be regardful of this rule, or you
will find the neglect of it produce a great deal of confufion.
When the manure is all turned in, bring on your heavy harrows, and go over the land fo often, as till the whole mafs is exquifitely mingled, and the mould becomes fine and dufty. You muft be doubly careful in this operation upon your light lands, which ought by the harrow to be laid as fmooth and level as a table.
About the beginning of Auguft will come on your J>>ed plowing, properly fo called upon thefe light lands, becaufe you mull here plow and yew together.
Authors give directions for plowing lands into many different forms, moftly ariling from the different natures of foils, but too often from the particular long eftablifhed cuftom of countries, without fufficiently entering into the reafon of it.
Light foils are always plowed into broad lands, unlefs a very flat fituation renders it neceffary to plow into narrow flitches for wheat.
Strong foils are, without exception, advifed to be plowed into narrow ridges.
It would be moft advifeable, always, to lay the ground level, and
without
J4 OF PLOWING. Part J,
without ridges, where practicable. In fummer fallowing, it might be ufed to great advantage even in clay lands.
In plowing wet land, for winter fallowing, I am not certain whe- ther the beft, way would not be, inftead of fingle bouts or narrow ridges, to make the ridges very broad, and lay them up very high : for if the ground is level, the water will lie in the parting thoroughs, and by foaking into the fides of the ridges, make it fo poachy, as to render it very unfit to be worked, till late in the fpring, unlefs the fezfon is very dry ; or, if there is much defcent, great part of the beft foil will be carried off.
We now return to Mr. Duhamel, who proceeds thus :
Mr. Tull fays, the produce of the earth is increafed by raifing the- ridges high, becaufe the furface is thereby enlarged. As he infifts greatly on this point, we cannot help mentioning his reafons, and thofe which induce us to differ from him.
He was fenfible it would be objected to him, that the produce of a Hoping furface is not greater than that of a plane equal in extent to the bafe of the flope : for the plants growing perpendicular to the horizontal bafe, there is no point of the flope, which does not an- fvver vertically to a point of the horizontal bafe.
But he maintains, that the produce of the earth is in proportion to the inclined or Hoping furface ; becaufe the roots have a greater ex- tent of earth to draw their nourifhment from ; and becaufe the ears of corn rifing one above another, in the manner of an amphitheatre, are better enabled to receive the influences of the air, which certainly is of fervice to vegetables.
I-fhall not infift on the perpendicular growth of the ftalks of plants, though I believe it real. But to fhew Mr. Tull, how incon- fiderable the advantage of what he recommends would be, I will fuppofe the furrows of a piece of ground plowed in broad-lands to be fix inches deep, and the ridges fix feet wide. The flope from the" bottom of the furrow to the middle of each ridge will be one foot in fix, which is confiderable : but ftill the furface of the ridges will be to that cf their horizontal bafe, only as 76 to j$. This is a fmall ad- vantage, compared to a fixth of the ground, which is taken up by the furrows, and in which no corn is planted.
But, as in all this we confider lands only relatively to the common ^method of culture, it muft he owned, that Mr. Tull might full as well not have entered into this queftion, which is quite foreign to the purpofe in hand, fince, even according to his own principle^ it
is
Chap. IX. O F P L O W I N G. 55
is beft not to fow above one third of the furface of any land.
The defign of tillage is, to deftroy weeds, and to reduce the earth to very fmall particle?. The fpade is very fit for thefe purpofes, be- caufe, by turning the ground upfide down, the weeds are covered with a quantity of earth, under which they rot. Befides, it ftirs the mould eight or ten inches deep. But this operation is tedious, labo- rious, and expenfive ; fo that it can be ufed only in gardens.
The plough is more expeditious ; but, in general, it does not ftir the earth fo deep, and often turns it over in one great clod, without breaking it into pieces ; for the coulter cuts the turf, the fhare which follows opens and raifes it up, and the mould-board turns it over all
in a lump, Mr. Tull has endeavoured to improve this tillage ;
and to that end he has invented a plough with four coulters, inftead of one. Thefe coulters are placed in fuch a manner as to cut the earth which is to be opened by the fhare, into flips of two inches breadth ; fo that when the plough opens a furrow of feven or eight inches wide, the mould-board turns over a well divided earth, which does not fall in large clods, as after the common plough. The con- fequence of this is, that, on a fecond plowing, the plough turns up an earth already confiderably broken, inftead of meeting with clods, and even turf, which, having taken frefli root fince the former plowing, is as difficult to break, as if the earth had never been plowed.
Mr. Tull fays farther, that his new plough can ftir the earth ten, twelve, or fourteen inches deep ; and as this plough makes deep furrows and very high ridges, a larger furface of the earth is expofed to the influences of the air.
When a field is intended to be broke up, which has not been plowed of a long time, the earth fhould be very moift, especially if it be a ftiffland ; for otherwife it would be fo hard, that the coulter would not be able to cut it, nor the fhare to turn it up. But when lands are in tilth, care muff be taken not to plow them when over wet ; becaufe the trampling of the horfes and the (hare itfelf will poach and as it were knead ftrong lands, almoft equal to what potters do when they prepare their clay for ufe j and thus the land is da- maged, inftead of being improved.
The four-coulter'd plough kneads the earth lefs than the common plough; becaufe the fhare of the latter raifes it up by prefTure, whereas the coulters of the former having firft cut it into fmall pieces, the fhare turns it over without hardly prefling it all.
1 Mr.
56 OF PLOWING. Part I.
Mr. Tull recommends putting all the horfes length-ways, when a foft ground is plowed ; that, by their treading all in the furrow, the earth may be lefs poached.
If the land is in good tilth, it may be plowed in dry weather: but the beft time is when it has been a little moiften'd by rain, efpe- cially for the new plough, which would not eafily go deep, if the earth was very dry.
'Tis true that as the four-coulter'd plough enters deep, and turns up a great deal of earth, a greater ftrength is required to draw it ; fo that it will be necefiary to ufe three horfes inftead of two, and four inftead of three. But the excellence of this tillage will make ample amends for that additional ex pence.
The four-coulter'd plough is ufed only for the flrft plowings, to break up frefh grounds, or give a good tilth to thofe that have not been plowed before, or that have been ill plowed for a long time. It is likewife very fit for winter plowings ; and I think Mr. Tull ufes it fometimes to make deep furrows in the middle of the alleys between the rows of corn.
But he does not pretend that all plowings mould be made with this plough. He approves of the common plough, as far as I un- derftand him, for the fummer plowings, tho' he generally employs for that ufe a lighter plough with one coulter and without any wheels, which he calls the borfe-boe -, becaufe he performs with this, what bears fome refemblance to the common hoeing. 'Tis chiefly with this that he plows the alleys, or cultivates plants while they are growing.
Mr. Tull has not only contrived inftruments to bring the earth to a proper tilth, and others to preferve it fo ; but, convinced that in the common method of fowing, the feed is neither diftributed equal- ly, nor buried at the proper depth each kind of feed requires, he has likewife invented a fowcr, or what he calls a drill-plough, which makes the furrows, drops each grain at its proper depth and diftance,
and, filling up the furrow again, covers the feed. As this in-
ftrument does not feem to us fufficiently complete, we fhall give de- fcriptions of other /ewers } which we think preferable to his, in the laft part of this work.
CHAP.
Chap, X. CULTURE OF ANNUAL PLANTS. Sy
CHAP. X.
Of the advantage of cultivating annual Plants while they grow, as the Vine and other perennial Plants are cultivated.
TH E earth is generally prepared to fit it for receiving the feeds of annual plants ; and, fome few leguminous plants excepted, all others are left to fliift for themfelves, till they have yielded that part for which they are cultivated.
But we propofe tilling the earth during the growth of annual plants, as is done with the vine and other perennials in different fea- fons of the year.
This propofition is a natural confequence of what we have faid before : for as we have fhewn that tillage is of very great fervice to plants, it is proper to make ufe of it when they are in the greatefl need of food. Tho' land be never fo well tilled in autumn, it hardens or faddens in the winter, its particles approach one another, weeds fpring up, which rob the ufeful plants of their nourishment; and at the end of the winter, the ground is in nearly the fame condi- tion as if it had not been plowed at all. Yet it is at this feafon that plants ought to fhoot with the greatefl: vigour. They confequently now ftand more in need of the plow, to deftroy weeds, to lay frefh earth to their roots in the room of that which they have ex- hausted, to break the particles of the earth anew, to enable the roots to extend themfelves, and gather that ample provifion of food of which they at this time Stand in the greateir. need.
In the common hufbandry, the whole attention is to provide a great Store of nourishment for wheat, at a time when it fcarce con- fumes any, as it then produces only a few leaves. But when the winter rains, and the firft drying heat of the fpring, have rendered the earth almoft as hard as if it had never been plowed, the wheat is abandoned to itfelf, at a time when it might, and ought to be, af- filed by proper culture.
Our farmers, in this, act as. prepofteroufly, as it would be to give a child a great deal of food, and diminish it gradually as he grows bigger.
The great advantage of having land in fine tilth before it is fowed, is univerfally allowed : but we muft not (lop at thefe firft preparations. Plants require a due culture whilft they grow, and mult not be abandoned till they come to their full maturity.
I Some
58 CULTURE OF ANNUAL PLANTS. Parti.
Some garden plants acquire great fcrength by being tranfplanted j becaufe, after having been -confined in the nurfery, they are put into large beds, where they find a new and loofe mould. The' plants of corn may be equally benefited by the plowings which Mr. Tull pro- pofes, that is to fay, by ftirring the earth near them. If any of their roots are difplaced or broke, the plant does not fuffer by it, becaul'e it fhoots out feveral inftead of one ; and moil: of the roots not having been difplaced or hurt, they continue to fupply the plant with nou- rishment, till the difplaced or broken roots have taken frefh hold of the earth ; and then the plant becomes more vigorous than before : for I have found by experience, that when a root is cut, it fails not to fhoot out feveral new ones, which are more proper to draw nourishment from the earth. The breaking of a root is therefore a means of multiplying the mouths, or rather fuckers which collect the nourifhment of plants.
Thofe who are againft thefe frequent plowings, are afraid of dry- ing the earth too much : for they fay that the moifture efcapes with greater difficulty from a hard earth, than from that which has been well ftirred by plowing.
It may be granted, that the moifture which is in the earth, does not evaporate lb eafily whilft the earth is hard, as when it is in a loofe ftate : but, in the firft place, it is certain, that that moifture will be rather hurtful than ufeful to plants.
2. Our adverfaries muft allow, that well plowed land will more readily admit the moifture of rain and dews, than land which is not fo. The following experiment proves the truth of this affer- tion.
If feveral rows of wheat are fown in a poor but well plowed land, the blades of the corn will turn yellow in fpring, efpecially in dry weather. If the ground bordering upon thefe rows be plowed deep, in fome places near, and in others at a confiderable diftance from the rows, the corn will recover its verdure firft in the places that are neareft to the new plowed ground, and afterwards gradually in the others, according to their diftance ; which proves that the wheat recovers its verdure, in proportion as its roots reach the loofe earth. This holds equally true in all plants : for Mr. Tull affirms, that he never faw a plant in a languifhing ftate, when the furround- ing earth has been well plowed ; and that, on the contrary, he has feen plants fo fituated, grow to a prodigious fize. He inftances,
among
Chap. XL CULTURE OF ANNUAL PLANTS. S9
among others, a fta'.k of mufbard, which grew fo high that a man of a common fize could not reach the top of it with his hand.
In fhort, ftirring the earth about plants while they are growing, is fo ufeful, that in fome parts of Berkshire, and in fome diftricfs of the Gatinois, they hand-hoe their wheat; and tho' this operation is expenfive, it is affirmed that the crops amply repay all the charge and trouble. How much more profitable would it be if this labour could be done at a lefs expence ? The methods propofed in the fol- lowing chapter, will fhew that it may.
CHAP. XI.
General dcfcription of the drill and horfe-hoing Hufbandry, f$r the culture of annual Plants.
AS we fli all hereafter give a particular defcription of the chief inftruments ufed in this new hufbandry, it may fuffice to fay at prefent, for the better underftanding of what follows, that the drill, which is drawn by one or two horfes, forms furrows of what depth, and at what diftance is defired, drops into the furrow the exact quantity of feed thought proper, and immediately covers it.
With regard to Mr. Tull's plough, the large one, which has four coulters, plows and breaks the earth better than the common plough : the other, which is lighter, requires lefs flrength to draw it, and yet is fufficient for (lighter work. This he calls the horfe-hoe.
We {hall now examine the three following queftions, each of them in a feparate article, viz, i. At what depth the feed ought to be fown : 2. The quantity of feed proper to be fown : and 3. The diftance at which the rows fhould be fown.
ARTICLE I.
At what Depth the Seed ought to be fown.
HP HE feeds of all plants fhould not be fown at the fame depth. -1 To fatisfy myfelf of this, I dug a trench twelve feet long, Hoping it gradually from the furface at one end, to the depth of two feet at the other. I fowed different feeds in this trench ; and having put the earth in its place, I obferved, 1. That hardly any feeds rife when buried deeper than nine inches: 2. That fome feeds rife ex- tremely well at the depth of fix inches : 3. That other feeds do not rife at all when they are above one or two inches deep. Expe-
I 2 rience
to CULTURE OF ANNUAL PLANTS. Part I.
rience (hews that the fame feeds may be buried deeper in a light, than a heavier foil ; and that feeds which lie too deep in the earth to fpring up in a dry year, may rife in a warm moift year. Expe- rience like wife teaches, that feeds which are buried too deep in the earth, will remain there ten or twenty years found and unaltered; fo that if by moving that earth they chance to be brought to the fur- face, they grow extremely well, and produce their proper plant.
It appears from hence, that each kind of grain fliould be fown at its proper depth, which is beft known by experience. Mr. Tull therefore propofes having twelve gauges or flicks, to be ufed as fol- lows. Bore a hole in one at the diftance of half an inch from the end, in the fecond at an inch, and fo on increafing half an inch to each of the twelve. Drive a peg into each of thefe holes : then, in that fort of ground where you intend to plant, make a row of twenty holes with the half-inch gauge; put therein twenty good feeds; cover them up, and ftick the gauge at the end of that row; then do the like with all the other eleven gauges : this will determine the depth at which the raoft feeds will come up, and the drill muft be lit ac- cordingly.
ARTICLE II. Of the quantity of Seed f roper to he fcivn.
"IT frequently happens in fowing by hand, that one handful is larger ■*• than another ; that the grains being fmaller, the fower takes a greater number of them into his hand. If the field is rough and full of clods, the greateft part of the. feed is collected in the hollows, whilft but little remains on the higher parts. By this means the feed is distributed very unequally.
Befides, too much feed is employed in the common way of fow- ing : becaufe, as it is buried at different depths, what is buried tco deep, does not rife at all ; whilft that which remains uncovered, is eat by birds.
Thefe inconveniences are prevented by the drill. For, i. It makes the furrows at any diftance you pleafe, and at whatever depth expe- rience has Shewn to be moft proper for the feed that is fown. 2. As the drill fills all the furrows with earth, none of the grain remains uncovered. 3. The drill drops into each furrow the exact quantity of feed that is found to be moft proper.
Every feed is therefore placed fo properly in the earth, by means
of
Chap. XL CULTURE OF ANNUAL PLANTS. 61
of the drill, that we may depend they will all do well, unlefs they are hurt by infers.
But as the drill fows only the quantity of feed that is abfolutely neceffary, one ought to be certain of the growth of every grain ; becaufe it often happens, that part of the feed is imperfect, and does hot fprout at all. As the eye cannot diftinguiih its quality, we fhould affure ourfelves of it by. experiment, by fowing fifty or an hundred grains taken by chance, but exactly numbred ; and, when they fpring up, the number of plants will fhew whether a tenth, a fixth, or a third part be deficient, and the quantity of that which is fown fhould be increafed accordingly.
It is farther propofed to fow the feeds in rows. Thefe rows fhould be fingle, double, triple, or quadruple, according to the different kind of plant intended to be cultivated, as we fhall fhew hereafter. A fpace of feven or eight inches, which Mr. Tul'l calls partition, is left between thefe rows. The fpace occupied by the rows, we fhall, with Gardeners, call the bed; and the large intervals between the beds, we fhall call alleys.
We have fhewn that the drill ought to diftrihute more or lefs feed in the rows, according to the nature of each plant. To know the fpace that fhould be left between the feeds in the rows, it is ne- ceffary to obferve how much ground a ftrong and vigorous plant of each kind takes up, that the drill may be fet fo as to drop each grain, at the diftance that a very thriving plant requires : for we may be affured that all the plants will arrive at their greateft perfection, when cultivated according to the new hufbandry.
ARTICLE III.
Of the diftance at which the rows JJ:ould be fown.
WHAT may at firft fight feem to be a confiderable objection againft the new hufbandry, is, the width of the alleys or fpaces between the beds. Many will be furprifed that fo much land fhould lie, as they think, loft. But a trial of the new method will foon remove this prejudice.
At harveft, it will be found that moft of the grains of wheat have produced twenty or thirty ftalks a-piece ; whereas, in the common hufbandry, they feldom exceed two or three. If it were poffible to diftribute each of thofe twenty or thirty ftalks in the alleys, the earth would appear as well covered as when the whole is fown in the ufual
broad-
62 CULTURE OF ANNUAL PLANTS, Parti.
broad-caft way. But as the ears are likewife larger, and filled with better grain, it follows, that, the crop is, in fact, more plentiful.
In the common way of lowing, the earth appears at ficft fight well covered with plants. But as all thefe plants cannot find Sufficient nourishment, and it is impoilible to aflifr. them by culture, many of them periSh before they ripen, the greatefl part of them remain poor and flinted, and the feed is almoft entirely loll : whereas by the new method, all the plants find fufiicient nourishment, and being affifted from time to time, by proper culture, become Strong and vigorous ; infomuch that I have Teen land cultivated in the common way, not yield the fifth part of the produce of lands fown and cultivated ac- cording to the new method.
A quick-hedge, planted between two plowed fields, of only a foot thicknefs at bottom, and eighteen feet in length, will yield at the end of fourteen years,, as much wood as a ccpfe of the fame wood, which Should be eighteen feet fquare. Yet if both be cut down every year, the copfe will yield perhaps ten times the quantity of wood that hedge would do. Why does a fpace of eighteen feet fquare planted in copfe-wood diminish in the quantity of wood it yields, more than a hedge does, after each of them has Hood feveral years ? It is evident that the difference confifts in the copfe lofing every year a great number of branches for want of air and nourish- ment, and by its not being affifted by culture. This companion Shews the great benefit that may be expected from the new huf- bandry.
If it be faid that plowing will break the roots of the plants ; I an- fwer, that fome of thefe roots will only be removed to another place and into a frefh earth, and that thofe which are broken will be fo only at their extremities, which, as we faid before, will make them fhoot out a greater number of new roots, fitter than the old ones to draw the nourilhment of plants from the earth. There is no doubt but that one of the chief advantages arifing from hoeing, digging, or plowing, is this cutting of the roots.
The plough has perhaps this advantage over the fpade, that the latter cuts all the roots it meets with; whereas the plough often does no more than remove them from one place to another, from an ex- hausted, to a frefh earth.
Befides, when land is fowed according to our method, it is lefs exhauftcd than in the common way ; or rather, it will be in a con- dition to fupply feveral crops of wheat, which will become better and
better
Chap. XII. CULTURE OF ANNUAL PLANTS; 63
better every year, becaufe the corn is fown in beds made in the middle, of the former alleys, where the earth has been thoroughly and deeply plowed. This will be more fully proved hereafter. In the mean time we (hall mention an experiment of Mr. Toll's, which confirms what we have been faying.
Half of a poor field, 'but we'll dunged, was planted in the common way with potatoes.. The other half of the fame field was planted in beds, according to the new husbandry, and plowed four times while the potatoes grew. The potatoes feemed, at firft, to thrive beft in the part that was planted in the common way ; but afterwards thofe planted in beds throve exceedingly, and yielded a moft plentiful crop, whilft the others were, fcarce worth the digging.
As it is propofed to plow the ground whilft. the plants are growing, the alleys mould be wider for large plants than for fmall ohesj for fuch as remain long 8ri'th6 erarm, 'as wheat; than for thofe which are but a fhort time on it, as barley. The breadth of the alleys mould likewife be varied, according as the earth is ftiffer or lighter. But, in general, when land is fowed with wheat, the alleys ought to be four feet, or four feet and a half wide.
CHAP. XII.
Of Change of Species.
BOTH the Englifh and French have moft of their flax feed from Flanders 3 and it is obferved that When they fow that feed, the crop of flax is much finer 'than When 'fhey fow their own.
Cauliflower feed was for a long time brought from Malta, ' melon- feeds from Italy, the feed of luferhe from Lang'uedoc j and, good farmers are very careful in changing part of their feed corn every year.
There feem to be many reafons why this practice fliould ftill be continued.
Some plants agree better with one climate than another. Such will thrive befl in the climate that may be called moft natural to them. Sickly plants never bring their feeds to perfection j and to this it is undoubtedly owing, that the feeds which are gathered in a climate that does not agree with the plant, produce that plant lefs perfect than thofe which are gathered in a climate that is natural to it.
With all the art the French make ufe of to raife melons, they fall
ftlOFt
64 OF CHANGE OF SPECIES. Parti.
fhort of thofe of Italy, where this plant grows almoft without culture*. If they did not take care to fave the feed of their beft melons, they would foon have no goodones left. But as their beft melons are inferior to thofe -of - Italy, fo their heft feed may be compared to the middling feed of that country. This ihews fufiiciently how right it is to bring the feeds of plants from thofe countries where they thrive beft.
It is evident that in the fame province, the quality of the foil may have the fame effect on corn, a^the climate has : for when plants grow ftinted and fickly in a poor foil, it is natural to believe that the feeds muft partake of the weakly diipofition of, t,he plant which produced them; and that their productions cannot be fo fine as thofe which grow from the feeds of ftrong and .healthy plants. For this reafon Mr. Tull advifes to take the feed corn from a richer foil than that in which it is to be fowed, and rather from well cultivated land, than from land that is not lb. I cannot fay I think him wrong ; tho' the contrary opinion is almoft generally received: becaufe, the firft pro- ductions of a fine good feed, being ftrong and well conditioned, more may reafbnably be expected from them, than from a poor weakly plant.
Another advantage in changing the (e^d, is, that there are fome weeds which delight in particular fpots, and do not thrive fo well elfewhere. If a farmer fows wheat of his own growth, he increafes the weeds which thrive particularly in his land ; whereas, by chang- ing his wheat, the weeds which he brings into his ground, not being in the foijl that agrees beft with them, will do lefs damage to his corn.
However, Mr. Tull thinks, that change of feed may be difpenfed with, by the means of the new hufbandry ; becaufe, by his method of culture, almoft all weeds are 'deftroyed, and the plants be- ing very ftrong, their feed ought to be preferred to any other for fowing; efpecially when they are hot foreigri"pIahts,' which" borrow their quality from the ciimate they are raifed in.
What is here advanced may admit of fome difficulty, for it is known (and Mr. Tull allows it) that fmall wheat produces as ftrong plants as the largeft. If fo, wheat that has grown in bad land, would be as good for fowing as the very fineft, provided it were well conditioned in other refpects.
* This, fays Mr. Duhamel, is difputed : for though in hot countries all melons are eatable ; yet fome pretend that there are few lo good in Italy, as at Paris and in Touraine.
Dr.
Chap.XII. OF CHANGE OF SPECIES. 65
Dr. Home, p. 136. accounts very rationally for the advantages arifing from changes of crops, from the different effects of their roots. " The fibrous rooted divide directly into fmall fibres which run in all " directions, but moftly horizontally. The carrot-rooted fend one " great ftem directly down, which has lateral fibres. The former, <c in which clafs are reckoned all the white grains, rye-grafs, &c. " confolidate the ground ; while the latter, in which clafs are reck- " oned the leguminous plants, turneps, carrots, clover, attenuate ,c and loofen the earth exceedingly. The fibrous roots muff, bind " the foil together like fo many threads, while the carrot-roots divide " like a wedge, and by their mere mechanical force, cut the earth. " The leguminous plants, by covering the foil, keep it moift, hinder " the fun from consolidating it, and deftroy weeds, which help fo " much to bind it. Perhaps the carrot-rooted may operate like wife, " by feparating more moifture from the root to keep the earth " loofe."
We (hall conclude this chapter with obferving, that when we ad- mit that plants degenerate in climates or foils which do not agree with them, we are far from thinking they change their fpecies thereby ; that wheat becomes barley, oats, tares, &c. This opinion is fo ex- ploded now, that it needs no refutation. I cannot however avoid mentioning an experiment made with great care, by a neighbour of mine in the country.
The chevalier de Laumoi, in order to fatisfy himfelf whether March wheat does really degenerate into barley, as many have af- ferted ; and well knowing it is almoft impoffible to buy wheat in which there is not fome mixture of barley, any more than it can be had abfolutely free from rye ; picked grain by grain a quantity of March wheat fufficient to fow an acre of land, and at the fame time fowed another acre with feed bought at market, without being culled. He was not furprifed, at harveft, to find barley in this laft acre ; for, as he had fowed it, it was natural he fhould reap it : but in the other acre, where he was fure he had not fowed any barley, he did not find a tingle ear of it ; nor could he, on a nice examina- tion, find one grain of barley in any of the ears. If therefore a little rye is found in wheat, and a little barley in March wheat, it is becaufe thefe grains are fowed in the fame feafon, in lands equally prepared : they are gathered in at the fame time, and laid up in the fame barn. This is more than enough to occafion the mixture that is almoft always obferved.
K After
66 COMMON CULTURE OF WHEAT. Part I.
After having mentioned the general principles on which the new hufbandry is founded, we (hall apply it to the particular culture of different plants,, fuch as wheat, turneps, fain-foin, luferne, &c. We {hall begin with wheat j. firft in the old, and then in the new way.
CHAP. XIII.
Of the common Culture of Wheat.
SOME farmers plow down their wheat ftubble immediately after harveft : fome burn the ftubble before this plowing : others de- lay this plowing till after feed-time, and others even till fpring : not only to allow time to collect the ftubble, which ferves to thatch their houfes, litter their cattle, or heat their ovens ; but likewife becaufe they are at that time furficiently employed in preparing their grounds for fowing,
Farmers feldom give this plowing, which they call Winter -fallow* ing, but to grounds newly broke up, or to that part of their land, which they intend to fow with barley or peas. They delay plowing the ground for oats, till February, or the beginning of March, that they may be fown on a frefher tilth.
Thofe who plow their ftubble immediately after harveft, are obliged to give a fecond plowing before they fow their oats. Thus all their land is winter-fallowed ; and their return at harveft generally repays this expence and labour ; for the winter fallowing is always of lingular benefit to the ground. , .
Oats are fown and harrowed during the month of March, or ia the beginning of April. When they are about four inches high, the farmer takes advantage of a fhower, which foften&the clods, to run a wooden roller over the ground, whichj by breaking the clods, lays freih earth to the roots oi' the oats, and fmooths the furface of the' field, lb that the mowers are fible to cut the oats clofe to.th§- tarth which it is very fit. they fhould, becaufe oats feldom grow high.
. Oats are reaped foon after wheat, , and then begins 'the year of faU lowing; during which the earth is prepared for receiving wheat the year following. We muft not- however think that the year of plowing, or plowings, which are given to the oats, is of no benefit to the wheat. I rather think that the land whiclvhas been twice plowed lor oats, is the better prepared for the plowings neceffary to bring it into a proper tilth for wheat. This &*&• been my reafon for
'A fty'ng
Chap. XIII. COMMON CULTURE OP WHEAT. 67
faying thus much of oats, though this chapter is more immediately intended for the culture of wheat.
The firft plowing which is given to a fallow, is to turn down the ftubble of the oats. This may be done as foon as the oats are off the ground : or it may rather be delayed till the feed time is over. 1. Becaufe it is a bufy time. 2. Becaufe by delaying it, numbers of feeds fprout up, which are fomany weeds deftroyed, 3. Becaufe the cattle enjoy the benefit of the pafture which the ftubble yields. 4. Becaufe, to perform this plowing well, it is neceffary that the earth be mciftened by fome mowers, that the plough may go as deep as the quality of the foil will admit.
This winter plowing mould be given as foon as the wheat is fown, provided the farmer is fufficiently forward in the work neceffary in fpring : and thd ground fliould be plowed deep, that it may be mel- lowed during the winter. Though the earth mould plow rough and grow hard, no inconvenience will arife from it. The winter's froft will moulder it. Therefore we think it is of great advantage to finifh this firfr. plowing before the fro ft comes on. But our farmers in " general do not begin it till after their fpring feed time is over.
As foon as the firfl plowing is finifhed, the land that was firft broke up is plowed a fecond time, or, as it is commonly expreffed, ^wy-f al- lowed. This is done about Midfummer. For this fecond plowing, the ground fhonld neither be too dry nor too moift : for if it is hard and plows rough, there are now no frofts to moulder it down. There is no harm in plowing as deep as the foil will admit of. If the ground is level, or has been plowed into broad lands, the fecond plowing is acrofs the former. If it has been plowed in ridges, the directions given in Chap. IX. are to be followed.
The laft plowing is given immediately after harveft. The diffe- rent qualities of foils, and the circumftances of the weather, will oblige the farmer fometlmes to vary the method we have hitherto laid down.
1 . Light lands are neither plowed very deep, nor fo often as ftrong foils.
2. Strong lands cannot be plowed too often. If it is poffible to break them up before the winter frofts, the earth will be mellowed and better prepared.
3. Some lands would be rendered lefs fertile by being plowed too deep. Others are benefited by deep plowing. I remember having fomewhere read of a man extremely curious in the culture of his
K 2 lands,
68 COMMON CULTURE OF WHEAT. Part L
lands, who had two ploughs following one another in the fame fur- row, in order to ftir the ground to a greater depth. This practice might in fome meafure anfwer the defign of Mr. Tull's four-coulter 'd plough ; and in fome countries they plow fo deep, that they are obliged to have fix oxen to a plough.
4. Farmers, who have plenty of horfes, fometimes beftow a plowing extraordinary upon their lands, especially when weeds grow much.
5. Thefe plowings are fometimes interrupted by great droughts*, and more frequently by heavy rains. Judicious farmers partly avoid this inconvenience, by chufing fuch part of their land as will fuffer leaft by being plowed in too wet or too dry weather. For example, the plough which would poach ftrong clayey land in rainy weather, will not have that effect on fandy or flony grounds : and when the weather is dry, fome lands will plow up in great clods, while others break into a fine mould.
6. When there is a great depth of good mould, it may be re- newed every ten years by trenching -j-. But as this work is very ex~- penfive, the fame end may be anfwered by drawing two ploughs one after the other in the fame furrow, or by making ufe of Mr. Tull's four-coultered plough.
7. The ancients are very particular in their directions not to plow when the earth is very dry, very moift, or frozen.
If the earth is very dry, its furface is fometimes fo hard, that the plough cannot pierce it ; and if it does, it breaks it up in large clods : ftill there is no danger of exhaufting it by plowing.
If the ground is too wet, it will be poached in plowing, and be- come full of weeds : and if ftrong, it will be kneaded as it were into a pafte, fo that another year's fallow will fcarcely recover it.
If the frozen furface be turned down by plowing,, it will remain longer unthaw'd by reafon of its depth, and thereby chill the earth.
Dungs are generally diftinguifhed into three kinds, viz. 1 . The dung of die larger caxtle, fuch as horfes, affes, oxen, cows, and hogs. 2. Sheeps dung. 3. Poultry and pigeons dung. , Grounds that have been marled, or on which fheep have been
* One of the great advantages of the new tmfbandry is, that ftrong foils never have time to grow fo hard as not to admit the plough, even in the oVieft weather ; efpeciallv if only one row of turneps is fown in a bed, or two of wheat : therefore, contrary to the general opinion, ftrong foils are ftill more benefited by it, than light.
-f This pradice was followed in Italy in the time of Cato, and even as late as Co- lumella. They called it Pa/linatio.
1 folded,
Chap. XIII. COMMON CULTURE OF WHEAT. 69
folded, are never dunged. The proper time of fpreading the ftable dung is before the twi-fal low, or at leaft before the laft plowing. This is likewife the time for fpreading quick-lime.
In lands that lie near the fea, the farmers manure with fhells, fea- weed, and the flimymud which the fea leaves in creeks, before they twi -fallow; to allow time for thefe fubftances to rot and mix more thoroughly with the earth. Some fow by hand poultry and pigeon's dung on their corn, after the hard frofts are paft. They reap great profit from this dung if the year is moift : but in dry years it is rather hurtful. I would therefore rather advife fpreading it like fheeps dung, before the laft plowing.
When the wheat is very full of feeds, it is half threfhed without unbinding the fheaves. By this means we obtain the beft and ripeft grain, with few feeds of weeds ; becaufe the weeds, being fhorter than the corn, are generally at the bottom of the fheaf. Some farmers buy the gleaners corn, which being gathered in fingle ears, is generally the foundeft and beft.
The common practice is to fow wheat by hand, and cuftom brings the fower to fpread it pretty equally. In fmooth ground it is generally harrowed in : but the harrow not being able to bury it where there are large clods or ftones, two rollers are made ufe of, fix'd in a frame, and full of iron fpikes. Thefe fpikes break the clods, ftir the furface of the earth, and cover the feed with it. This roller is not fit for ftrong foils. The feed is there fown under fur- row. This plowing is very fhallow, that the grain may not be buried too deep, for then it would not grow : but if the earth is the leaft moift, it will be poached, grow hard, and be greatly hurt by rolling..
When the farmer has fown his corn, his trouble is at an end till harveft. He then reaps it. I fhall only obferve, that wheat may be cut before it is fulll ripe ; for it will harden afterwards in the fheaf. If it is let ftand till too ripe, it will fhed a good deal in cutting, tying, and carrying home. It is partly to prevent this inr- convenience that it is tied in the evening, and carried off the ground . in the morning.
Some authors relate- that in Piedmont they formerly drew a light harrow over their corn when it had fpindled : and they add, that tho' a great many of the plants were deftroyed thereby, the crop was however much bettered by it.
There are likewife farmers, who, to thin their corn when it grows too thick, let in their hogs to deftroy part of it.. Thefe practices,
which.
7o NEW CULTURE OF WHEAT. Part I.
which cannot readily he approved of, may create the greater confi- dence in the new hufbandry, which we are now going to fpeak of.
CHAP. XIV.
The Culture of Wheat according to the new Hujbandry.
THOUGH the culture that is beftowed on plants whilft they are in the earth, is highly beneficial to all kinds of them, it is flill more neceifary to thofe which remain long in the ground. Therefore wheat, which remains nine months in the earth, requires more culture than barley, oats, or buck- wheat, which remain in it but three, four, or five months.
Wheat is fown in autumn, after the earth has been brought to a fine tilth : it fprings up, and puihes forth fome leaves and roots ; and when the winter is mild, the roots extend themfelves, and the plant moots forth new {talks, or, as fome call it, tillers : but by the win- ter rains, and the melting of the mow, the particles of the earth arc fo clofely united together, that the foil is almoft as hard and fadden'd in the fpring, as if it had not been plowed at all. Yet this is the feafon in which the wheat ought toihoot with the greateft vigour: but inftead of that, we often fee its leaves turn yellow, its ftalks dwindle, and the plant in a languishing frate. Wheat fometimes looks better in the ipring in a middling foil, than in one better adapt- ed to that plant j becaufe the latter grows ftifFer and harder than the former.
Plowings, at proper feafons, will fupply the wants of plants, pre- ferve them green and in good condition, and deftroy the weeds in the alleys. But the plough cannot reach thofe which grow between the rows, or in the beds. For this reafon it is necefTary to deftroy the weeds as much as poflible before the land is fown : and it will be eafier for the weeders to root them out of the beds without hurting the corn, by following the new hufbandry, than by the old.
Mr. Tull mentions feveral experiments which prove, i. That wheat grows better in land plowed according to the new hufbandry, without being dunged, than in land equally good and well dunged, but cultivated in the old way.
2. That a field which had been under wheat the year before, yielded a better crop of the fame grain, by means of his horfe-hoeing hufbandry, than a field of equal goodnefs did after a fallow.
3. That
Chap.XIV. NEW CULTURE OF WHEAT. 71
3. That land cultivated in his manner, requires no reft; but on the contrary is better fitted for wheat every year, provided the fame culture is continued.
To lay a field out for wheat, it muft be plowed into beds, and the fpace from the fartheft fide of one bed, to the neareft fide of the next, fhould be five feet and a half, or at leaft five feet * ; obferv- ing to raife the middle of the beds as much as the depth of the foil will admit of. The more the beds are raifed, the larger and deeper the furrows between them are; which is always of confiderable ad- vantage.
The beds which are intended for wheat, fhould not however be raifed fo high as thofe which are prepared for turneps ; becaufe two or three rows of wheat are fown in the fame bed ; whereas but one row of turneps is fown. Thus the alleys between the beds of wheat, are net fo wide as thofe which remain between the beds of turneps.
It would be almoft needlefs to fay, that the beds fhould be made length-ways of the field ; that they fhould be at equal diftances, and either ftraight or bending according to the fhape of the field.
But -it1 is proper to cbfervej 1. That it is always right to avoid having one part of the length of the beds wet, while another part is drv. For as land ought not to be plowed when it is very moift, the dry part of the bed muft fuffer, whilft the other grows dry enough to be plowed : whereas by difpofing the beds in another direction, thofe which are already dry enough, may be plowed, whilft the others are drying.
2. If a field, which has been wader wheat, be plowed with a de- fign to few it with wheat a fecond year, the beds muft be formed in the middle of the focmer alleys, and raifed pretty high, without touching the rows which bore th6 wheat. For if the ftubble was mixed with the earth';- it--€ould not be fowed by the drill-plough, isor plowed near the rows of wheat, without danger of rooting up many of the plants.
If, however, ■ any good reafon fhould induce the farmer to alter the ■direction of the beds, he may do fo, provided caYe be taken to cut the wheat verv clofe to the earth : for then the ftubble, being Tery /hort, will give little trouble when the ground is afterwards
plowed.
* If from, five, feet and a half, you twice one foot t*»o inches for the bed, or fpace wnereon the wheat grows, there wi™ remain four feet four inches for the breadth of the alley, which feems very fufficient.
f4 NEW CULTURE OF WHEAT. Parti.
plowed: or, which is better, the wheat may be pulled up by the roots.
When wheat is to be Town again in a field which has juft pro- duced wheat, as the new beds are' to be in the middle of the former alleys, the plowman fhould begin with cutting a very deep furrow in the middle of the alley, that fo the wheat may have a greater depth of mould. This deep furrow is not only filled up afterwards, but the higheft part of the bed is formed over it, avoiding the places where the ftubble is, which are not to be levelled till the new alleys receive their firft plowing. The inconveniences which might arife from mixing the ftubble with the earth, are by this means avoided, and an ufelefs labour is faved ; for the wheat does not extend it's roots during the winter feafon, fo as to reach the earth that is in the middle of the alleys.
There will, by this means, remain two fmall furrows in each alley, betwixt the ftubble and the new fown wheat. Thefe furrows are of ufe to drain the water during winter : but they muff be at fuch diftance from the rows of wheat, that the earth of the beds may not fall down into them. If the wheat has been plucked up by the roots, inftead of thefe two fmall furrows, there need only be one large one in the middle of the alleys.
Plowing, efpecially of ftrong lands, fhould be avoided as much as poffible, when the earth is wet. Inftead of loofening the mould, it mould harden it. We know by experience, that where the bank of a ditch is made up with dry earth, it foon moulders down ; whereas it will laft years when it is raifed with earth that is wet, or as it were made into mortar. So, if land is plowed when too wet, it will be fo poached as fometimes to require feveral plowings to re- cover it. I fay fometimes ; for if great heats, which as it were bake the clods, are fucceeded by rain, the clods crumble into duft, fn the fame manner as quick-lime. Froft has the fame effect.
It may therefore be laid down as an almoft general rule, that the feafon cannot be too dry for plowing ; and that the earth is always in jit condition to be plowed, if it be not fo wet as to be poached.
When the earth is brought to a fine tilth, it fhould be harrowed twice ; taking care to keep the horfes in the furrows, that they may not trample and harden the ground on which the wheat is to be fown.
Light lands may be fown foon after harveft; but ftrong lands Should be fown later ; that is, towards the latter end of Odtober :
for
Chap. XIV. NEW CULTURE OF WHEAT. 73
for if 'they were fown fooner, the furface would become fo hard, that the corn would fcarce be able to penetrate it. 'Tis one of the advantages of the new hufbandry not to be clogged with fuch incon- v; nfencies as to the time of fowing. The fowing mud however not be delayed too long : for it is neceffary that the wheat fhould acquire fome degree of ftrength before winter, that it may be the better able to bear the inclemency of that feafon.
As the corn that is cultivated in the new way, generally ripens later than that in the common hufbandry, it is right to fow it early.
It is proper to fow a greater quantity of feed in light lands, than in thofe which are ftronger : but all extremes fhould be avoided. If it is fowed too thick, many of the ears will be fmall : if fowed too thin, there will not be enough to occupy the ground. It is even faid, that it will moot too much into blades, that it will ripen too late, and be in danger of being blighted. But, as it is a matter of fome indifference, whether there be a little more, or a little lefs feed in a field, the precife quantity which is neceffary maybe eafily afcertained, if the drill plough is ufed ; and thereby near three fourths of the feed corn employed in the common way, will be faved.
The depth at which the feed fhould be fown, depends on the nature of the foil. It muft be buried deeper in a light, than in a ftiff foil. The depth of half an inch will be fufficient in the laft ; and it may be fowed three inches deep in the other. As by the new hufbandry ftiff foils are reduced to a fine mould, it is eafy with the drill plough to fow the feed at what depth is thought moft proper.
The different kinds of wheat being already well known to farmer?, we fhall not enter into that detail, but proceed to give directions how the land is to be fowed according to the new method.
Two, three, or four rows of wheat may be fown at the diftance of feven or eight inches from one another. If three rows are fown at the diftance of feven inches from each other, there will remain four feet four inches for the breadth of the alleys between the beds.
When land is fowed which is apt to produce many weeds, there fhould be but two rows, at the diftance of a foot from each other ; becaufe they are then more eafily weeded ; or, if the great number of weeds renders hoeing neceffary, the diftance of a foot will admit of it.
When the land is free from weeds, three rows may be fown in a bed at the diftance of eight or nine inches ; experience having taught that if the diftance of the rows is greater, the middle row is too long
L before
74
NEW CULTURE OF WHEAT. Parti.
before its roots reach the plow'd earth in the alleys j and if they are fown at a lefs diftance, the roots interfere with one another.
Four rows of wheat ought not to be fown in the fame bed, except the foil is very rich, of a good depth, and free from weeds. For it is then more neceffary to raife the beds high, that the roots being able to pierce deeper into the earth, may more eafily extend themfelves into the alleys, where they meet with a rich fine mould : but upon the whole it is bed to fow only two or three rows.
The earth fhould be fomewhat moift when wheat is fow'dj and the furface fhould be fettled before the frofts begin, that the cold may penetrate lefs deep. The rains which fall after the feed time, ufually fettle it fufficiently, without having recourfe to other means.
When the wheat has produced four or five blades, the alleys are firft ftirred with the horfe hoe j for the former plowings were only to prepare the bed where the corn now grows. This hoeing confifts in filling up the great furrows, and making little ones to drain off the water from the beds, But they muft not be cut too near the rows, efpecially in light lands, for fear the earth of the beds fhould moulder down into them, and thereby leave the roots of the wheat uncovered and expofed to the froft.
The fmall ridges formed in the middle of the alleys, will mellow the earth during the winter, and thereby render it fitter for nouriili- ing the plants in the fpring : for the froft which enlarges the dimea- fions of the water that is mixed with the earth, powerfully divides the foil, and renders it extremely fertile.
The fecond hoeing is given when the winter is paft. This confifts in fpreading the ridge in the middle of each alley, by turning the earth towards the beds ; by which means one large furrow is made in the middle of each alley. However, if the fmall furrows are a little diftant from the wheat, the hoe may pafs once or twice near the rows, and the whole may be finifhed by throwing the earth towards the beds as before. By this means, the earth mellowed by the winter, is brought nearer to the roots. If, during this work, fome of the young plants happen to be buried by the earth, a woman may follow to uncover them with her hands.
It is the general opinion that dung fhould remain near the furface of the earth ; becaufe the nutritive juices which it contains, will pe- netrate into the earth with the water which diflblves them. This may be true with refpect to dung : but as the rain water cannot rob
a rich
Chap.XIV. NEW CULTURE OF WHEAT. 7S
a rich foil of its nourishing particles, it cannot be placed better than at the depth to which the roots of the plants defcend. This is done by the fecond horfe-hoeing.
It is not eafy to fix the number of hoeings which Should be given to wheat between fpring and harveSt. That depends on feveral cir- cumstances.
1. More hoeing is required when the land was not in fine tilth before it was fowed, than if it was in proper order.
2. Where great numbers of weeds are apt to rife.
3 . Poor and Strong foils require more frequent hoeing than fat and fruitful foils.
4. The alleys fhould be hoed as often as their mould begins to grow hard ; always avoiding to touch Strong foils when wet.
Another general rule is, that the plough cannot go too deep near the plants while they are young, provided they are not torn up by the roots : for no inconvenience will attend the breaking of the extremities of their roots. When the plants are grown larger, the hoe muff not go very deep near them, for fear of breaking their great roots: but the middle of the alleys cannot be hoed too deep; not only for the benefit of the plants actually growing, but likewife to pro- vide a deeper mould for the enfuing crop.
Tho' the number of fummer hoeings cannot be exactly fixed, two are generally found fufficient: the firft when the corn fpindles, and the fecond when the ear begins to fill. In both thefe hoeings, the earth rauft be turned towards the beds, and the furrow in the middle muff be enlarged.
The winter hoeing ferves to Strengthen the young plants ; and by this means they often branch out into thirty or forty ftalks each, in- stead of two or three which they bear in the common hufbandry.
The fecond, or fpring hoeing, greatly enlivens the plants, at a time when they are ufually yellow and weak, and at which they ought to be ftrong, and able to fupply their young fhoots with proper nourishment.
The fummer hoeings enable each (talk to bear fruitful and long ears ; whereas in the common hufbandry, half the ftalks do not bear any ears, or but very fmall ones. Not only all the ftalks bear ears in the new hufbandry, but thefe ears are long, thick, and loaded with grain.
A Single grain of wheat planted in a garden, has produced 80 and fometimes 100 ears. If, one with another, each ear contains 50
L- 2 grains,
76 OF THE ADVANTAGES OF Part!
grains, it follows that a fingle grain is capable of producing 5000. It is certainly for want of due culture, that every grain of wheat which is fown in the e2rth, does not produce fo extraorciinnry an in- •ereafe. A whole farm 'Cannot indeed be lb perfc&ly cultivated as a fmall fpot in a garden may ber where only a few plants are railed : but by means of the new hufbandry, 30, 4c, or at moft 50 grains, fown in a fquare of nine feet, have yielded 250 ears ; and of thefe ears fome were eight inches long, and contained 109 grains, If all the ears had been equally fruitful, the increafe would have been 6000 for one : but as all ears are not equally furniihed with grain, we may reckon that if one grain in the common hufbandry yields ten, in ths new hufbandry it will. yield an hundred. The produce of the fame extent of ground will be double in the new hufbandry, to what it is in the old ; not from the number of plants, becaufe much lefs wheat is fown, but from the number of ftrong ftalks, and the length of ears full of grain, fo large that fewer of them fill a meafure, at the fame, time that they yield more flour.
There are other confiderable advantages attending the new hufbandry. Little or no dung is employed : the earth is not refted : it is not taken.up with grain of lefs value, nor is the expence increafed ; for the culture which is befiowed upon the corn whilft growing, pre- pares the-ground for the enfuing crop, and only two thirds of the ground is plowed. This horfe-hoeing anfwers the end of the foui* plowings given during the year of fallow : they are even more bene- ficial : for it has been obferved, that the third crop of a field which was fown with wheat five years running, was a twentieth part greaten than either of the preceding crops, and that the fifth was die beft of all.
Tjie farmer muft not therefore. repino at the feeming lofs of ths alleys, feeing that his lands are conftantly employed, and that the wheat branches out into fo many ftalks, that, if fpread equally over the whole field, as in the common hufbandry, they would nearly* cover all the alleys.,
CHAP. XV.
Of the Advantages of the New Hujbandfy*.
I I ^O form a juft idea of the advantages of the culture which?
\ Mr. Tull propofes, we muft. not confider whether each
gram of coin, that is planted in. the new way, produces a greaten
num-
Chap. XV. THE NEW HUSBANDRY. 77
number of grains, than it would do by following the old me- thod.
This comparifon would be too favourable to Mr. Tull. Neither muft we content ourfelves with examining whether an acre of ground cultivated according to the new principles, produces much more than the fame quantity of land cultivated in the common way would do. In this, the new hufbandry might perhaps not have any great advan- tage over the old.
The way to draw a right parallel between them, is,
1. To examine whether all the lands of a farm produce, upon the whole, more corn when cultivated according to the principles of the new hufbandry, than the fame quantity of land would do, if managed in the old way.
2. To confider whether the new hufbandry does not require .fb much more expence than the old, as to counter-balance or exceed the profit that may be expected from it.
3. To be certain which of the two methods is lead liable to thofe accidents by which crops are fo frequently damaged.
To the firft of thefe articles, Mr. Tull fays, that the fame quan- tity of ground, for example, an acre, will produce much more corn when cultivated according to his principles, than if it were managed in the old way. Let the ftalks of the wheat which grows in, the beds, favs he, be diftributed over the alleys, and the whole furface of the ground will be as well covered as it generally is in the old hufbandry ; but the ears will be much longer and fuller of fine plump grain, which will render this crop by much the moft advan- tageous.
It will, doubtlefs, not be readily conceived, that three rows of wheat placed in the middle of a fpace of ground five feet wide, can poffibly, by their fertility, fupply the deficiency of all the reft of that ground on which there is no wheat} and Mr. Tull may there- fore be fufpected of exaggerating the advantages of a culture of hrs own invention. I will not difpute this point, if it be infifted on ; notwithftanding the great probability of- his arguments in fupport of it : but, on the other hand, it muft be allowed that, in the com- mon way, one third of the land is refted during the year of fallow, and produces nothing ; another third is occupied by grains lefs valu- able than wheat} fo that only one third of all the lands of moft: farms, is defigned for wheat.
According to the new method,, all the lands are fowed with 1 . wheat : .
7% DISTEMPERS OF CORN. Part I.
wheat : and though only fourteen inches are employed out of every breadth of four feet and a half, or five feet; yet, as the rcots extend considerably farther, one third of the whole may be faid to be under corn. The queftion then is, whether thefe rows of wheat produce a fuffkient quantity of grain to make amends, not only for the want of the crop of oats, which farmers generally reckon worth one third of a crop of wheat, but alfo to indemnify the farmer for his trou- ble. The experiments which we (hall give hereafter, will prove that they do.
To the fecond article, Mr. Tull fays, that the culture of land in his way, cofts lefs than in the old hufbandry. This is true of an equal quantity of g.ound cultivated each way : but as, in the new huibandrv, all the lands of a farm are to be cultivated, and in the old hufbandry, the third part receives no culture whilft under wheat, and the third that is under oats, is generally plowed but o:\ce. there is but one third of the farm which receives a thorough culture,, and that is the part which is under fallow for wheat. In this light, it is not poffible but that a farm muff, coft more in . ng it according
to the new hufbandry, than the old. The only queftion again is, whether the greater produce in the new hufbandry, will r:compenfe the additional charge.
With regard to the third article, it may be obferved, that while the" corn is in the ground, it is expofed to many accidents, fome of which cannot be prevented : fuch as hail, which breaks it down ; violent winds which make it fhed, perhaps the very night before it is reaped ; continual rains, which make the ripe grain grow ; (cvere frofts in the winter, which damage the roots, and untimely frofts which hurt the ears when fpindling ; hot glooms which mildew the corn, &cc. It does not appear that any culture can prevent thefe ac- cidents : but we fhall fhew in the articles of the diftempers of corn, and of weeds, which fometimes rob us of a third of our crop, that they are lefs to be feared in the new hufbandry, than in the old,
CHAP. XVI.
Of the Dijlempers cf Corn,
MR. Duhamel is much more diftincf. in his account of the di- ftempers of corn, than any Englifh writer has hitherto been. Though they may be reduced to mi/Jen-, blight, and Jimtt, he has
diftinguifhed
Chap. XVI. DISTEMPERS OF CORN. 79
diftinguifhed them by feveral other names, which we fhall endea- vour to explain as they occur ; and, taking them in the above order, we fhall begin with the
MILDEWj
which the French call rou'ille, or rujl.
'"pHIS diftemper attacks the blades and items of corn. It coders ■*■ them with a powder of the colour of ruft of iron, wh:Ift they are in their greateft vigour. This fubftance does not adhere ftronrly to the blades : for I have frequently feen the hair of white fpaniels full of this powder, after they have run through a field attacked with this difeafe. It is likewife known, that if the infected corn is wafhed by a plentiful rain, the rujl difappears almoft entirely, and the grain fufrers little from it. Farmers give it the name of ruft, from the colour of the powder ; and it feems to be the fame di- ftemper which the Roman writers call rubigo.
This rujl is ufually imputed to dry gloomy weather happening whilft the corn grows with the greateft force. I have many times obferved, that when a hot fun fucceeds fuch dry hazy weather, the corn was covered with rujl in a very few days.
This diftemper is of very bad confequence ; for the fineft corn is fuddenly brought almoft to nothing, when it is entirely attacked with it.
If rujl attacks the corn whilft young, before the ftem begins to rife, the hurt is lefs, provided there comes on a feafon kindly to its farther growth. The plants are only weakened, as if they had been fed or mowed. They fhoot out anew, and produce ears. The ftraw is fiiort, and the ears are fmall. But if both blades and ftalks become rufty, the farther growth of the plant is ftopt, and the grain gets no more nourifhmeiatj fo that the crop is exceedingly di- minished.
This diftemper is well worthy the attention of every inquirer into nature, who interefts himfelf in the fuccefs of farming.
The learned Mr. Til let, director of the mint at Troyes, treats of this diftemper, but only occafionally. He thinks it is caufed by a lharpnefs in the air in dry cloudy weather, which breaks the vefjfels interwoven with the fubftance of the blades and ftem, and makes them difcharge a thick oily juice, which, drying by degrees, is turn'd into that rufty powder. He has examined, with a good microfcope,
many
So DISTEMPERS OF CORN. Parti.
many plants of corn whofe ftems and blades were covered with rufl, and faw diftinctly many fmall openings in the membrane covering the plant, where the powder lay. He obferved that the iuice, now dried to a powder, iffued from thefe fmall openings, over which he ftill perceived fome pieces of the membrane, which imperfectly covered the openings.
This diftemper is called mildew in England. Our air is feldom fo dry as to exhale all the moifture of the glutinous exfudations, and thereby convert them into the rufty powder above defcribed. The eaufe here affigncd,feems much more reafonable than the thick clammy dews which fome of our authors mention, as falling in clofe weather, flopping the perfpiration of plants, and hindering the fap from afcending to nourifh the flowers, (fc.
, Mr. Tillet, in fupport of his opinion, quotes a memoir of Mr. Reneaume, publifhed in the Tranfactions of the Academy of Sciences, ontheextravafation of the nutritive juice of Wall-nuttreesinDauphiny, of the manna of Calabria, which is not a dew, but the extravafated juice of the leaves of a kind of afh, and what Mr. Mufchenbroeck re- lates in his Fhyfical Effays, of thick and oily juices, which iffue out at the excretory veffels of leaves, and ftop there in the confiftence of honey.
Mr. Tillet, from feveral facts which he mentions, concludes that the rufi or mealy powder which is obferved on many plants, is not a collection of the eggs of infects ; but that it depends on the quality Gf the juices of particular plants, when the thinner parts are evapo- rated. Thus, it is red on garden-beans, of a nifty colour on all kinds cf corn, greenifh on the plum, yellowifh on the afh, white on larch trees, £V .
We have frequently tried to produce the fame effects which the dry weather occafions, by applying to the leaves of many plants, -acid and corrofive liquors, to others alkaline and fpirituous liquors, and frequently fuch clammy glutinous fubftances as might ftop the per- fpiration, without hurting the texture of the plants. Thefe trials have not produced any thing like fuft. But who can tell how far experiments may lead philofophers ? Some little circumftance may have efcaped us, which, obferved, might have led us near the object of our iearch. The public welfare calls on all attentive obfervers, to exert themfelves on fo ufeful a fubject.
Mr. Worlidge's opinion of mildews^ which he holds to be quite different things from blights, is, that they are " caufed from the con-
denfation
Chap.' XVI. DISTEMPERS OF CORN. Si
*' denfation of a fat and moift exhalation in a hot dry furamer, from " the bloffoms and vegetables of the earth, and alfo from the earth "* itfelf, which, by the coolnefs and ferenity of the air in the night, *' or in the upper ferene region of the air, is condenfed into a fat " glutinous matter, and falls to the earth again ; part whereof reds " on the leaves of the oak, and fome other trees whofe leaves are " fmooth, and do not eafily admit the moifture into them, as the * elm or other rougher leaves do; which mildew becomes the prin- " cipal food of the induftrious bees, being of itfelf fweer, and eafily " convertible into honey.
" Other' part thereof refts on the ears and flalks of wheat, be- " fpotting them with a different colour from what is natural ; and, " being of a glutinous fubftance, by the heat of the fun, doth fo bind tc up the young, tender and clofe ears of the wheat, that it prevents " the growth and completing of the imperfecl grair? therein j which " occsfioneth it to be very light in the harveft, and yield a poor and " lean grain in the heap.
" But if after this mildew falls, a fhower fucceeds, or the wind " blow ftiffly, it wafheth or fhaketh it off, and are the only natural <<c remedies againft this fometimes heavy curfe.
" Some advife in the morning, after the mildew is fallen, and be- " fore the rifing of the fun, that two men go at fome convenient " diftance in the furrows, holding a cord ftretch'd ftreight between " them, carrying it fo that it may make off the dew from the tops " of the corn, before the heat of the fun hath thickened it.
" The fowing of wheat early hath been efteemed, and doubtlef* tc is the beft remedy againft mildews, by which means the wheat " will be well filled in the ear before they fall, and your increafe " will be much more. For curiofity fake, wheat was fown in all " the months of the year: that fown in July produced fuch an in- " creafe as is almoft incredible. In France, they ufually fow before " Michaelmas.
" Bearded-wheat is not fo fubjeel: to mildews as the other, thfc " fibres keeping the dew from the ear."
Mr. Miller takes the true caufe of the mildew appearing moft upon plants which are expofed to the Eaft, to proceed from a dry tempe- rature in the air when the wind blows from that point, which flop's the pores of plants, and prevents their perfpiration, whereby the juices of the plants are concreted upon the furface of their leaves, and being of a fweetifh nature, infects are incited thereto ; where,
M find-
to DISTEMPERS OF CORN. Parti.
finding proper nutriment, they depofit their eggs, and multiply fo faft as to cover the whole furfaces of plants, and, by their corrod- ing the vefTels, prevent the motions of their fap : and it is very pro- bable that the excrements of thefe infects may enter the veffels of plants, and, by mixing with their juices, may fpread the infection all over them ; for it is obfervable, that whenever a tree has been greatly affected by this mildew, it feldom recovers it fa two or three years, nnd many times never is entirely clear from it after.
Mr. Chateau-vieux, whofe accurate and judicious experiments will form the molt confiderable and mod ufeful part of this work, was for feme years fo much taken up in eftabliihing the horfe-hoeing hufbandry, that he had not leifure to attend to the diftempers of wheat, till the great lofs he fuftained in the years 1753 and 1754, by the ruji, engaged him, not fo much to inquire into the caufe, as to difcover a remedy for it.
He is of opinion, that the powder which forms the ruji is the ex- travafated juice of the plants : becaufe, as foon as the ruji comes on> the growth of the plant is ftopt, the blade becomes no larger, the ftalks grow no higher, nor the ears any bigger. " The juices, fays " he, ftill rife in the plant : they muft therefore be turned to fome " other ufe ; and it appears probable to me, that they are converted " into this brown powder, which daily increafes in quantity as long " as the diftemper lafts. I cannot think it a fubftance foreign to the " plant, brought .there by any external means..
" I have never feen corn muck with the ru/l, but in very dry weather, " and (which is of importance to be obferved) never but when there
" has not been the lealt dew for feveral days. May not the want
"■ of that moifture, fo friendly to vegetation, dry the furface of the " blades and items fo as to make them crack, and the veflels, being . " broke, pour forth their contents ?
" This opinion, continues he, is fupported by an experiment which " I made ; and which likewife teaches us how to flop the progrefs " of this diltemper, when it feizes corn before it fpindles.
" On the 6th of July, 1753, I planted 159 grains of the wheat' " which I intended to ufe for feed. They did not begin to fpring " up till the 20th.. On the 1 8th of the fame month, I fowed 104 " grains more. They fprouted foon, and had very large blades of a " deep green. About the end of Auguft, the blades changed their " colour, and the ruji foon appeared. It made an aftoniihing pro- " grefs. The earth, for two feet diftance from the rows, was co- vered
Chap. XVI. DISTEMPERS OF CORN. 83
*c vered with the rufty powder, and towards the rows of the plants it " lay at leaft one-twelfth of an inch thick. The blades were almofl; " entirely deftroyed, and the lofs of the plants feemed to me in- " evitable.
" As I was perfnaded that this powder was the extravafated juices ** of the plants, I was in hopes that if I could turn the courfe of the " juices from the diftempered blades, the plants might produce new " blades and ftalks ; as I obferved that they were perfectly found " wherever they were covered by the earth.
" The experiment was eafy to be tried. It was only plucking off " all the blades clofe to the earth ; which accordingly I did on the " 28th of September, from one half of my plants.
*•' New blades began to grow in a few days after this operation. " The plants throve greatly, and before the beginning of winter, " were again in full vigour. In the fpring, they branched aburi- " dantly, and produced large ears, which ripened kindly.
" The ruft continued its havock on the plants which I had not " flapped of their blades, till they were entirely killed. They did *c not produce a fingle ear.
" This remedy can only take place when the diftemper happens " in the autumn or fpring: but if it happens later, when the ftems " are grown, and the ears are ready to break forth, it feems to me " then incurable.
" I have often obferved, that the corn which is fown very early is " more fubject to this diftemper than what is fown later.
" If we were acquainted with the caufes of this ruft, it might " be more eafily prevented. In order to acquire this knowledge, " the lovers of husbandry fhould collect every obfervation they make " on this diftemper, whence fome ufeful hints may arife.
u I obferved, that when the wheat was rufted in the autumn of the " years 1753 and 1754, the fecond crop of hay was fo too. The " grafs turned, from a beautiful green, to that rufty colour which " the corn had : it was covered with the fame kind of powder, and " diminished fenfibly every day j and, as the whole of a field of ,c wheat is not, ufually, affected at the fame time, fo it extended " only to fome parts of the meadow.
" This diftemper in grafs, is .undoubtedly owing to the fame caufe cc as it is in corn, tho' its effedts are different on each. It entirely " deftroys annual plants, as in my experiment ; but in grafs, which " is a lading plant, it deftroys only the leaves, and the roots after-
M 2 " wards
*4 DISTEMPERS OF CORN. Part I.
" wards produce new blades ; or perhaps the plants are preferved, by " the blades being taken off in cutting them for hay. This is only " conjecture : but as it is a matter of importance, I fliall be more *' careful in my future obfervations.
" It is well known that bread made of rye which has been attacked " by the diftemper called ergot, is unhealthy, and caufes very trou-
" blefome difeafes. Is there not fome reafon to fear the fame
c< bad effects from feeding cattle with fodder which has been rufted I " May not this be the caufe of deadly difordei s which fometimes cut " off whole herds, and for which no remedy has yet been found ? f Thefe difeafes are fometimes reckoned contagious j perhaps on too ** flight an inquiry.
" This fear of the pernicious effects of diftemper'd fodder, may be 4< groundlefs, though it is founded on plaufible appearances. It " were to be wifhed for the public good, that where fodder is any ** way diftemper'd, by ruft, fmut, &c. fome part of it, the moft di- " ftemper'd, were fet apart, to feed fome cattle with, that we might " be allured whether their health is affected, or difeafes are brought *' on by it. If cattle fed with it for two or three months, continue " in good health, it may afterwards be made us with confidence. " If we find them droop, the remedy is at hand : they muff, be fed " with good wholefome hay, which will carry off the difeafe, then •' known to proceed from the bad quality of their food."
OF BLIGHTS.
WHAT we exprefs in England by the general term, blighi, our author divides into different kinds, appropriating a parti- cular name to each. The firft he fpeaks of, he calls
Coulure, i. e. Empty-ears.
/^•ORN is faid to be coule, when the ears, inftead of being full of ^ plump grains, are entirely deftitute of any in their extremities, or contain only a few fmall grains, in which there is fcarce any flour, and which pafs through the fieve, with the dud and feeds of weeds.
This may be owing to feveral caufes.
i. Heavy and cold rains, when the corn is in bloom, may pre- vent the grains being render'd pregnant, as it happens to grapes, in the fame cu'cumftances,. which remain fmall and without juice.
2. Others
Chap. XVI. DISTEMPERS OF CORN. 85
2. Others impute this evil to lightning, which feems probable from the known and great effects of electricity, with whicn the air is fo abundantly ftored in ftormy weather. I have feen trees lofe all their leaves after a ftorm, and others die entirely, which could be imputed only to the lightning : but as the next neighbouring trees are not hurt when any thing of this kind happens to corn, it can fcarce be of any great extent.
3. The ears are fometimes hurt by froft, juft as they come forth. In this cafe, the ears which are entirely frozen, contain no grain \ and if only the extremity is frozen, that part is without grain.
4. If, by accident, the growth of the plants is interrupted whilft the grain is forming, that in the extremity of the ear, which is formed laft, will fuffer mod. The frequent ftirrings given the mould in the new hufbandry, keeping the corn always in vigour, the grain will be formed more perfectly through the whole length of the ear ; and therefore corn raifed in this manner, will be lefs fubject to this di- ftemper, than any other.
I collected fome handfull's of fuch fmall grains of wheat found in the extremities of the ears, and having fowed them, they almoft all fprouted, and moft of them produced very fine corn. This mews that the fmallnefs of the grain is not always owing to its want of being impregnated.
What M. Aimen names barrennefs in com, may be included in this diftemper. He fays that when, by froft or any other caufe, the male or female organs in plants are rendered incapable of performing their functions, the plants yield no fruit, tho' they otberwife look well : and he confirms his opinion by a quotation from Theophraftus to the fame purpofe. A bright fun, after heavy rains, he fays, pro- duce this effect ; and he thinks it is but feldom, though fometimes, caufed by infects.
Bleds echandes et retraits : i. e. Parched and firivelt 'd corn. /^•ORN is faid to be parctid and Jbrivel/ed, when, inftead of being ^^ plump, fmooth, and full of flower, it appears wrinkled in the outward furface. It is true thefe grains yield good flour, which makes pleafant bread : but the flour is in fmall quantity, fo that two facks of this fhrivell'd wheat fhall yield perhaps no more flour than cne fack of found plump wheat. Yet, if the corn is not greatly diftemper'd, it fprouts very well, and may do for feed-corn.
This appearance in corn is occalloned by whatever prevents the
' free
86 DISTEMPERS OF C 6 R N. Part I.
free afcent of the nourishing juices into the grain when it is almofl formed. The following feem to be the chief caufes.
While the corn is yet green, if great heats come on, the flalks dry, and the grains ripen too fuddenly, without being filled. This is frequently the cafe when heats fucceed a rainy feafon, which fills the plants with too much moifture. Sometimes the grain contains no flour at all.
By the new hufbandry, wheat preferves its verdure at leaft a week longer than in the common way, which is a great advantage, becaufe the grain has time to be duly formed, and to be filled with flour. Corn fown according to the new huthandry, being later in bloom than that which is fowed in the common way, is fo far more liable to the danger of great heats. This is therefore a good reafon for fowing earlier, that it may bloom as foon as in the common way.
It is not pofllble to prevent the effects of lightning or of froft, nor to alter the caufes which hinder the grain's being impregnated. But by means of the new hufbandry one confiderable caufe of this fhri- velling of the wheat may be guarded againft.
When corn is lodged whilft the grain is yet milky, the juices can- not flow freely through its flalks which are then either broken or greatly bent. The grain which receives no more nourilhment, ripens without being filled with flour.
It is not the weight of the ears which makes the corn lodge. If the ftalk is large and ftrong, it will fupport the ear, be it ever fo full of grain. But to give it that Strength, it is neceffary that the air and fun fhould have free accefs to it, and that the plant have fufficient nourilhment while it is in the earth.
In the common hufbandry, the plants have lefs nourilhment ; and as the (talks (land thick together, fmo'thered and covered from the fun, they are tender and brittle. But in the new hufbandry, every ftalk receiving abundant nourishment during the whole time of its growth, and being always expofed to the air and fun, it becomes large and ftrong enough to fupport the ear.
It is agreed, that corn which grows in a rich foil, is tall, and more liable to be lodged, than what is ftinted in its growth. But this is owing to the weaknefs of the fhraw, and not to the weight of the ears. We frequently fee that tufts of wheat which grow in vine- yards and other places, expofed on all fides to the fun and air, are lefs fubjedl to be laid than tufts which grow in the middle of large fields. Farmers finding that their corn on the richeft land is moft
liable
Chap.XVI. DISTEMPERS OF CORN. 27
liable to be laid, caufe it to be eat down when it is very rank, or mow it in order to bring it to a level with the weak and fbort, and prevent' its being lodged at harveft. This practice is very wrong ; fer the farmer thereby leffens his crop, or brings it on the level of a f^ond crop, where the ears are always fmall and light. They are amid of the grain's fhrivelling, if the corn is lodged j and, to avoid that inconvenience, they have recourfe to means which will certainly rendu the ears fmall and lefs ftored with grain. Betides, the grain is geierally good when it ripens in due feafon : but by feeding or cutting down the corn, its growth and ripening are retarded by which means it is expofed to all the inconveniences of a late har- veft. . .. ,. It will hereafter appear by many repeated experiments, that if the plowman is careful to turn the earth towards the rows of corn, at the laft hoeing, thereby to give greater liability to the ftalks when they have attained their height, the corn will be lefs liable to be
lodged. . . ,
Mr. Tull obferves, that in cold countries there are infects which prick the items of wheat before the grain is full of that milky fub- ftance which forms the flour. . Thefe infects lay their eggs on the outward covering of the ftalks, and when thofe eggs are hatched, they feed on the pith, and deftroy many of the veffels, whence the grain, being deprived of part of its nourishment, remains light and fhriveU'd.
The attack of thefe infects may be known by the black fpots, thought to be their excrements, which are feen on the ftalks.
When thefe infects do not damage the ftalks till the grain is well filled, they do little hurt. For this reafon, early corn is lefs fubject to be attacked by them, than that which is late ; and as the wheat that is firft fown generally ripens the fooneft, this. is another reafon for fowing early.
As it is obferved that thefe infects chiefly attack the moft thriving corn, perhaps becaufe its ftalks are the moft juicy, one would ima- gine that as the wheat which is cultivated according to the 'new hufbandry is more vigorous than any o.her, it fhould like wife be more fubject to be injured by them. Mr. Tull fays, that in this ^afe. a deep furrow may be cut near the wheat, about the middle of Tune, m order to cut the roots of the plants, and thereby kffen their luxuriancy. . It does not appear that he ever tried this Jemedy, which feems very dangerous. As' the ftraw is expofed to the air and
fun.
$B DISTEMPERS OF CORN. Parti.
fun, in the new hufbandry, it may probably contract a hardnefs which does not fuit thefe infects, fince they are never feen in drv feafons.
Mr. Tull advifes a better fafegu'ard againft thefe infects, viz;' to fow the white bearded wheat, the ftalk of which is not hollow, Jut towards the foot, the reft being filled with pith. It is fufpected ;hat they fometimes attack this corn too, by the black fpots whicl are obferved on the ftraw : but it is known by experience, that the grain never fuffers thereby, being always plump, hard, and heavy.
As I have never feen any of thefe infects, I can fay nothing farther concerning them.
Bled glace, i.e. Glazed Com. TV/I EN fkilled in wheat require that it be heavy, of a fmooth fur- J-yA face, and bright yellow colour. If it is of a dead white, they judge it to be watry, mouille j and if of a deep yellow, and inclining to be traniparent, it is faid to be glace', glazed. This fault happens to corn that has been ripen'd by great heats, which have come be- fore the flour was formed. This wheat fprouts well, yields plenty of flour, and makes good bread. I guefs that this flour does not take fo much water to knead it, as the flour of the beft wheat does. This is the only difadvantage attending it, if it really be one.
Bled arcorte. i. e. Abortive, or Rickety. Corn.
/"\UR author fays he did not know this diftemper in corn, till he ^ had feen M. Tillet's memoir on that fubject -, but that he has fince obferved it. The following is the fubftance of that memoir, being a differtation which gained the prize given by the academy of Bourdeaux.
i. The abortive ears grow on rickety fialks, of a white colour, with curled leaves.
2. The ftalks appear rickety as foon as they are three or four inches high.
3. Whilft the rickety fialks are yet low, they are weak, and of a yellowifh hue : their blades are of the fame colour, and fomewhat crimped or curled, as if they were blighted j and towards the root, the rickety ftalks look ftronger than others.
4. As the rickety ftalks grow, they become of a green colour, and afterwards change to that blueifh hue which is their di-
ftinguifhing
Chap. XVI. DISTEMPERS OF CORN. So
ftinguifhing character : their blades remain curled, become like- wife blueilh, and never have the ftrength and coniiflence of found blades.
5. This is not a diftemper peculiar to corn growing in a poor ground. M. Tillet has obferved it in corn growing in a rich foil, and even in the middle of a tuft of fine wheat. He has fometimes fearched for it in vain in poor foils, where the corn was but in a languishing condition.
6. The roots feemed to partake of the fame diftemper. They were not entirely covered with their foft fpungy coat, and in fome parts they were grown hard like wood.
7. Rickety ftaiks feldom bear ears, either entirely good or entire- ly bad. When the ears are good, they grow on unright ftaiks, with blades a little curled.
8. The abortive grains refemble very young peas, and have fome- times one, two, or three fpots in thofe which are quite formed, ib that they look like two or three grains joined together.
9. Abortive grain, which ufually grows on rickety ftaiks, is fometimes mixed in the fame ear with fmutty grains, which laft generally grow on upright ftaiks, whole blades are not curled. Of
fmut hereafter.
10. Rickety ftaiks carry ears which fometimes contain found grain, and at other times abortive grains.
11. The abortive grains are feldom at the bottom of the ear; for which reafon they fhed eafily when the hulk or chaff is opened.
12. The bloffoms of abortive grain are feldom duely formed.
13. The plants are fometimes render'd quite abortive, before the corn fpindles.
14. After the abortive ears have been fome time expofed to the air, they grow white, and the grains become black and dry.
15. We fometimes meet with ftaiks of wheat, which, tho'ofthe rickety kind, are ftrait and tall, and have only the blades of the third or fourth joint fhrivelled or curled.
All thefe fymptoms do not unite in the fame fialk, but where the diftemper is. at the worft. When the grain is ripe, or rather when it is dried, it turns black, and looks (o like the feed of cockle, that many farmers, who are unacquainted with this di- ftemper, confound the abortive grains with the feeds of that plant.
N M.
9o DISTEMPERS OF CORN. Parti.
M. Tiller, fufpects, that this diftemper is occafioned by infects. He has found infects on the diftemper'd ftalks, where he faw drops of a very clear liquid, which he took to be the extravafated fap.
ACCIDENTS occafioned by INSECTS.
BESIDES infers, which are properly the fubjeft of this article, there are feveral other animals which do confiderable damage to corn. Field-mice eat not only the grain, but oftentimes the plant itfelf. Rooks alfo deftroy great quantities of corn with their ftrong beaks, and hares and rabbits eat it whilft green, and weaken the young plants, fo that they branch but little and produce weak ears. Pigeons have not bills ftrong enough to root up the grain when cover- ed with earth, nor do they feed upon the young corn : they only pick up the grains that are not covered, and which muft infallibly become the prey of other animals, or be dried up by the fun. Par- tridges do no more harm than pigeons, for they do not fcratch. They only eat the green corn, which can be of little confequence, unlefs they are in great numbers indeed, and in a place where but little corn is fown. Sparrows make great havock at harveft time, by the vaft quantity of corn which they eat, efpecially near hedges or villages. Bearded wheat, and rye, are lefs their prey than any other grain. This is worth knowing: for it is better to have a full crop, even of rye, than to have half a crop of wheat eat by them, after being raifed with great care. Small fnails deftroy a great deal of wheat in fome foils.
But the loffes occafioned by fuch creatures, are not what we pro- pofe to treat of here : we mention them only by the bye, and now proceed to the infects.
There is a fmall kind of worm, which gets into the roots, chiefly of oats, and, working upwards, deftroys all the infide of the plant, which perifhes foon after. I fufpect it to have been an infect of this kind that deftroyed fo much wheat in the neighbourhood of Geneva, and which M. de Chateau-vieux defcribes thus. " Our " wheat, in the month of May 1755, fuftain'd a lofs, which even " that cultivated according to the new hufbandry did not efcape. " We found in it many little white worms, which afterwards be- ** came of a chefnut colour. They poft themfelves between " the blades, and eat the ftems. They are ufually found be-
" tweea
Chap.XVI. DISTEMPERS OF CORN. 9r
" tween the firft joint and the roots. Every ftalk which they at- " tacked, grew no more, but became yellow, and withered. Ths " fame misfortune happened to us in the year 1732. Tbefe in- " fects appeared about the middle of May, and made fuch havock " that the crop was almoft deftroyed."
We too often find, in our kitchen-gardens, a fort of vermin called vine-jretters. They fix upon the roots of leguminous plants, which gradually turn yellow, and die. M. Tillet fays he has obferved the fame infect in the roots of wheat. Meffrs. de Reaumur and Tillet have likewife obferved fmall caterpillars which are hatched in the ears of wheat. I have myfelf long ago obferved, and made drawings of fmall infects, fome of a bright red, and others black, which arc found in great numbers in the ears of wheat. I fufpect that theie infects feed on a fweetifh juice, which is in the ear whilfr. green. As M. Tillet was at firft of opinion, that they might do confiderable damage to the grain, he followed with great attention all their me- tamoi phofes, of which he has given a full account in the before mentioned memoir.
Though infects, and other enemies to corn, whilft in the granary, do not properly belong to the prefent fubject, I beg leave to give the following account, which was fent me by a gentleman of An- goumois.
" The great lofs, fays he, which we have fuffered in this pro- <c vince in our corn, and efpecially our wheat, for feventeen or " eighteen years paif, has put us upon making ftrict inquiries into " the caufes of a corruption with which our grain is infected. The " common opinion is, that when the corn is in bloom, that is to <e fay, in the month of June, fmall white butterflies lay their eggs " in the flowers. When the grain is ripe, the eggs are inclofed in tc it. As foon as the corn is laid up to be kept, it is found to fer- " ment. This fermentation raifes a heat, which hatches the eggs, ** whence little worms proceed, which are transformed into chry- " falides, and thefe are afterwards metamorphofed into little grey " butterflies, or moths. In this ftate they quit the grain, which is " then void of flower. This infect not only fpoils the grain in " which it is hatched, but likewife communicates a moil difagre- " able fmell to all the grain near it j a fmell which is fometimes " fo ftrong and naufeous, that fowls, and even hogs, will not eat " the grain.
" Others impute it to the maize, or Turkey wheat, which is
N 2 fown"
9$ DISTEMPERS OF CORN. Chap. XVI,
" Town in great quantities in this province, and which fpreads its roots " fo far, and (o impoverishes the earth, that other ccrn fown after " it, in the fame ground, can find no nourishment. This is not " probable: for it could only alter the quality of the grain, but not " bring on an entire putrefaction." The two following exptri-
" ments were tried to prevent it.
" A farmer had three or four arpents of land which had been under " grafs for more than fixty years. He had plowed and dunged it " well. He had his feed from Poitou ; and, in fbort, took every pre- " caution to guard againft this contagion. The wheat ripen'd and " was very good. ' He cut it down in a dry feafon, -threfhed it in the " open air, and cleanfed and winnowed it very carefully. It was ft laid in a granary which had no communication with any other, " and which had an opening to the North. The farmer ordered it <c not to be laid above three inches thick on the floor, and to be -" turned twice a day. Four days paffed before the leaft heat was " perceived ; but on the fifth day, it began to grow a little warm ; " and from that time the heat increafed, notwithstanding every means " that had been, and frill continued to be ufed. All that could be *' done, was, to prevent its being fo much fpoilt as corn in general. " was that year.
" The other experiment fucceeded better. As foon as the wheat " was threshed, well cleaned and winnowed, it was put into an oven 11 heated to a certain degree. The floor of the oven was covered " with wicker hurdles, on which the corn was fpread four inches " thick: the deer of the oven was then fhut, and remained 24 hours K without being opened. Many have followed this example. Their " drain has not changed : only its colour is net fo bright :. care muft '• he taken that the oven be not too hot: otherwile the bread made ''• of this flour will have a burnt tafte. Jt is likewife neceffary to tfom of the oven, left the wheat fhould communicate. • " I conftfs that this operation is long and troublefome, where " a srreat quantity cf corn is to be preferved 5 for only ten or twelve " bufhels can be put into the oven at a time; and befides, it muft u be done the moment it is threfhed : otherwife it will infallibly ■■■ fpcif."
I have not had an opportunity, fays M. Duhamel, of inquiring
the caufe of the accident hfre complained pf : but as the r)yen
has been found fo effectual a prefervativs againil it, it would certain-
Chap. XVI. DISTEMPERS OF CORN. 93
ly be right to make ufe of the flove of which I have given a defcrip- tion in my treatife on the prefervation of corn. The method there advifed, will not be fo expenfive, nor fo troublefome as the ovens, and the price of making the ftoves will bear no proportion to the ad- vantages which will arife from the ufe of them.
Our author, like all the other French writers, divides the diflem* per which we cz\\f?nut, into two kinds, viz. Smut, properly fo called, and charbon, coal, fo named from the wheat's looking as if it was burnt. He obferves that it is of great confequence to inquire into the caufes of fmut and charbon, becaufe we may perhaps arrive at the knowledge of effectual means to prevent thefe diforders, which fre- quently occafion fuch great loffes to farmers, fie begins with
S M U T. ■ •
'THE grains of fmutty corn are tender and filled with a black •*■ {finking powder, inflead of the white flour which found grains contain. As thefe grains are very eafily broke : they fpread their powder on the found grains, which having on their extremity .a little tuft of hairs, the powder flicks there. Farmers diflinguifh the wheat thus vitiated, by faying that it is blacked in the point, (in French qu'il a le bent,) and bakers avoid it, becaufe it gives their bread a violet or purple hue.
As foon as the fralks begin to rife, if the blades are opened fo as to difcover the young ear, it will be found to be already diflempered ; and in this cafe 1 have thought that I have obferved the pith or infide of the ffaik already black.
As foon as the ear appears out of the covering which the blades form, it looks fhrunk. All the coverings of the grain are fo altered and fhrivelled, that the fmut appears through them. As the powder in fuch grains has little cohefion, it is eafily wafhed away by the rains, or carried off by the wind. If any of it remains, 'tis only on . the points of the found grain.
When corn thus blacked in the point has been kept for feveral years, and frequently fifted through an iron fieve, this colour vanifhes. I have even taken it off immediately, by rubbing it with a cloth : which fhews that the impreffion is only fuperficial.
Smutty corn is fo thoroughly deftroyed, that it cannot grow or ger- minate. There is therefore no room to fear that the diftemper'd grains can produce their like. The corn which is only black'd in the point, grows very well.
Smuf
94 DISTEMPERS OF CORN. Parti.
Smut is not only a diilemper of the ear, bufof the whole plant ; and it very feldom happens but that when one (talk is fmutty, all the other ftalks from the fame root are fo too. I never found but one found ear on a diftemper'd plant.
Authors are not agreed what the caufe of this diforder is. Some impute it to inclemencies of the weather when the corn is in bloom. It is certain that cold rains at that time prevents the grains being im- pregnated : but it is well known that grain which is not impregna- ted, does not always become fmutty : and befides, if it proceeded from any general caufe, the whole would be affected ; whereas there are fometimes only a few fmutty ears among the belt corn. 'Tis true, it is molt frequent in rainy years ; and Mr. Tull is therefore of opi- nion, that it is not the rain, but the moifture of the earth which oc- cafions it. <c I was confirmed in this, fays he, bv feveral plants of •* wheat taken up when they were in grafs in the fpring, and plac'd " in troughs in my chamber window, with fome of the roots in wa- ** ter. Thefe wheat plants fent up feveral ears each, but at harveft, " every grain was lmuttv j and I obferv'd, none of the ears ever fent " out any bloffom. This fmuttinefs could not be from any moifture " that descended upon it, but from the earth, which was always " kept very moift. The wheat plants in the field from whence " thefe were taken, brought very few fmutty grains, and much " larger ears than thefe,"
This experiment would feem decifive, if it had been repeated often enough. If the fmut was occafioned by the wetnefs of the earth, a much greater number of ftalks would be infected in the lower parts of the ridges than in the higher, which I never heard to- be the cafe.
The Rev. Dr. Hales, fufpecting that the fmut might proceed from the feed's being bruifed by the flail, took a number of grains of dif- ferent fizes, and bruifed them with a hammer. They fprouted and grew very well, without any fmutty ears. This molt lkiiful philo- fopher concludes from thence, that this is not the caufe.
After the publication of Mr. Duhamel's firft volumes, the academy at Bourdeaux propofed for the fubject of their annual prize, the bejl account of what renders black the mealy Jubjiance of grain. Of the many that were given in, our author mentions only M. Tillet's, which carried the prize. He likewife gives the fubltance of a me- moir prefented to the royal academy at Paris by M. Aimen, M. D.
Both thefe gentlemen give, if I may be allowed the exprefiion, an
accurate
Chap. XVI. DISTEMPERS OF CORN. 9S
accurate anatomical account of this diftemper, drawn from obfer- vations founded on their knowledge of the ftructure of plants. But as thofe difquifitions are rather curious, than ufeful to farmers, we fhall give only their practical remarks, referring the learned in thefe matters to the Original, or rather to the Original Memoirs in the Tranfactions of both the Academies.
In anfwer to Mr. Tull's allegation that too much moifture is the caufe of fmut, M. Tillet planted a tuft of wheat in a veffel in which, he kept the earth extremely moift, and had not one fmutty ear.
He is of opinion that it does not proceed from any inclemency of thj weather, or want of impregnation ; becaufe it takes place before the ears have appeared.
M. Aimen gives the following, as the figns of its firff appearance.
1. The fheaths of the ears of found corn are larger and more fwelled, efpecially towards the middle, than the fame parts are in the diftempered ears.
2. The diftemper'd ears have a fmell like red herrings.
3. As foon as the diftemper'd ears begin to fhoot forth, and the beards appear, it is eafy to diftinguifh them from the found ; for their beards are whitifh, whereas the found ones are green.
He obferved fome ears which were quite fmut in the lower part, whilft the upper part was very little damaged. The diftemper in this ftate does not affect the ftraw, the external part of the ear, or the ftalk which runs through the middle of the ear. Wheat, oats, barley, fpelt, and feveral kinds of dog's grafs are liable to this diftem- per, and rye is not entirely free from it.
M. Aimen is of opinion that the fmut is produced by an ulcer which feizes the different parts of the bloffom. He has fpared no pains to difcover the caufe of this ulcer. He is well affured that it is not caufed either by infects, or by the wetnefs or drynefs of the foil ; nor does it feem to arife from any fault in the juices, feeing that all the reft of the plant is pretty well formed.
He fowed corn blighted in all degrees, which either did nor fprout at all, or produced ftalks more or lefs vigorous, but all of them free from fmut. He fowed fome mouldy grains, each of which pro- duced fmutty ears.
M. Aimen thinks he has reafon to believe that grain may become mouldy in the earth. He fowed fome chofen grains, and when they had all fprouted, he took them up, to examine them with a micro- fcope. He found fmall white threads or filaments on fome of them.
He
96 DISTEMPERS OF CORN. Parti.
He planted tliem again, and thefc plants produced fmutty ears. This expeviment was repeated, with the fame fuccefs.
It is hard to conceive that mouldinefs, or, if ycu will, a kind of mofs, can produce fmut : fca- as loon as the grain has fprouted, and the plant is formed, the whole fubftance of the feed corn is ex- haufted. Whether it rots, or not, feems to be of little confequence to the plant, which no longer draws its fubliftence from the feed. If the plant becomes mouldy, it may either die, or be ftinted : but how this mouldinefs fhould affect only the organs of fructification, fo as entirely to deftroy them, without doing any fenfible injury to the reft of the plant, is not eafily accounted for. To fhew that the fact may be fo, M. Aimen inftances a wild-pink, which, for three years, produced none but fmutty feed, though the root was perfectly found. If we fuppofe that the growth of plants is only an enlarge- ment of what was in miniature in the feed, we may conceive that the bloffom alone may be affected. But let us keep to facts, which we fhall always find of much more importance than mere conjectures, too often unfupported by any great probability of truth.
M. Aimen agrees in opinion with thofe who think that, the pow- der of fmutty grain will render found corn fmutty, if ftrewed upon it : but he does not think that the only caufe j for it may happen that a year, in which there is a great deal of fmutty corn, may be fuc- ceeded by another in which there is fcarce any : or perhaps a year quite free from fmut, may be followed by a year no lefs remarkable for great abundance of fmut. This infection cannot be the caufe that wheat gathered off the fame ground,' taken out of the fame fheaf, and fowed without being prepared with any fteeps, fhall in fome fields produce found wheat, and in others fmutty.
This obfervation, and a perfuafion that other caufes may contribute to bring this dilbrder, as effectually as the fmutty powder does, in- duced M, Aimen to try many experiments, from which he draws the following conclufions.
i. That the beft ripen'd and foundeft grains fhould be chofen for feed.
2. That the black powder certainly difpofes corn to become fmutty.
3. That the fmut is to be feared as often as the feed time is rainy. This may be avoided by beginning to fow early.
4. Whatever weakens the plant, brings the fmut ; for feed-corn which has been pricked or run through with a needle, or which is
i not
Chap.XVL DISTEMPERS OF CORN. 97
not fully ripe, and that which produces lateral or fecond ears, is fub- jec~t to the fmut. As a proof that whatever weakens plants, caufes the fmut, he obferves, that it is a frequent cuftom with them to cut rye as foon as it fpindles, for food for their cattle; and that this rye generally produces other ears, which feldom contain any but di- {temper'd grain.
Mr. Tull tells us that the cure of this diftemper was firft found out by an accident, which he relates thus.
" Brining of wheat, to cure or prevent fmutiinefs (as I have been " credibly informed) was accidentally difcovered about feventy years « ago, in the following manner, viz. A fhip-load of wheat was " funk near Briftol, in autumn, and afterwards at ebbs all taken up, " after it had been foaked in fea-water : but it being unfit for making <£ bread, a farmer fowed fome of it in a field j and when it was, " found to grow very well, the whole cargo was bought at alow " price by many farmers, and all of it fown m different places. At " the following harveft, all the wheat in England happened to be " fmutty ; except the produce of this brined feed, and that was all " clean from fmuttinefs."
We (hall here copy the directions given by the author of the New Syftem of Agriculture for the choice and preparation of feed corn.
" Let your corn be brought into the corner of a large barn floor, or great boarded hall, fuch as few country houfes are without : order a man, with a broad wooden {hovel, to throw the corn, with all his force, towards the oppofite corner of the barn, or hall : the laft is generally the fitteft for it. In this exercife, all light, fmall, mrivell'd grain, and the feeds of cockle, darnel, and other weeds, not being fo heavy as the folid corn, will fall fhort, and lie neareft to the man who throws them ; while fuch as are large, plump, and weighty, out-flying all the reft, are feparated widely, and may eafily be gathered in what quantity you pleafe. Experience only is capable of making men believe the wonderful advantages of lowing feed thus chofen.
" Take your corn, when it has been thus obtained, and throw it, by a bufhel at a time, into a large veffel full of water : let a man ftir it with a ftaff, as violently as he can, for a confiderable while together, and then, giving it a little time to fettle, ikim off all that fwims upon thefurface; and repeat this labour till no more rifes : after which-,
O take
93 DISTEMPERS OF CORN. Part I.
take out the corn which is funk to the bottom, and lay it by for feed j proceeding in the fame manner, till you have your intended quantity.
" Now make a brine, by throwing bay-fak into rcin-ii-ater, till it becomes of ftrength enough to bear an egg. In this liquor fteep your feed corn for thirty hours : lefs time will have r,o manner of effect. Obferve this, and regard not the contrary opinions of anv men, let them pretend to never fo much fkill.
" When you take your corn out of this brine, fpread it upon a fmooth floor, and, fcattering upon it good ftore of the Jj>ie-g '-a, hd powder of flack d lime, fweep it up and down, and mingle it with the corn, till every grain leaves clinging to another, and becomes, as it were, candied with the lime : and in this condition let it be lowed, never entertaining a moment's doubt of the infallible increafe of your har- veft."
Several farmers vary this fteep, by adding to it a mixture of pigeons or other dung.
In moft of the provinces of France, they make no ufe of fait ; doubtlefs becaufe it is too dear : but they fteep the wheat in lime- water. For this purpofe, they put it into bafkets, and carefully fkim off all that fwims on the top, moft of which would not fprou't, and is only fit to feed fowls.
Other farmers pretend that the fureft way to be free from fmut, is, to change the feed every year ; and that the feed which comes off a itrong foil, is the beft. A farmer in whom Mr. Tull had great confidence, told him, that, for feveral years, he had his feed corn from another farmer, who alfo changed his feed every year, and that he was free from fmut, though the neighbouring farms were always infected with it : but above all, he affures us, that the drill hufbandry is the moft effectual cure.
M. Aimen, after giving an account of the feat and caufes of this diftemper, enumerates the remedies recommended by authors: Ives of lime, falt-petre, allum, verdigreas, vitriol, common fait, and the afhes of plants, are recommended by Mr. Pluche.
A mixture of water and urine, or a decoction of cyprefs leaves, are recommended as fpecifics by Columella and Pliny. The farmers boaft much of the juice of houfe-leek and other cold plants ; and Virgil recommends lees of oil.
As weak plants are moft fubject to fmut, M. Aimen recommends good tillage, as a fure means of giving them ftrength and vigour.
Tis
Chap. XVI. DISTEMPERS OF CORN. 99
'Tis probably for this reafon that corn is very feldom fmutty when managed according to the new husbandry.
He obferves that all the lyes generally made ufe of, preferve the plants from mouldinefs : and of all of them, lime feems to him the mod effectual.
On the whole, he advifes that the bed: wheat be chofen for feed ; that it be reaped in fair weather; that it be threfhed out imme- diately, and that it be fprinkled with lime the next day after it is threfhed. He adds, that every method he has tried to make corn fa prepared grow mouldy, has been ineffectual, and that he has never known it produce fmutty ears.
M. de St. Mefmin de Ligncrolle fays, that the fureft means of avoiding fmut, and which he has practifed with fuccefs ever fince the year 1739, on near 300 arpents of land, is, to change the feed every year, to be very careful that the feed corn be well dried and thoroughly ripe, and that it be not fmutty, nor have any fmutty pow- der flicking to it. He then pours boiling water on quick-lime, in a large tub ; and after the ebullinon is over, as much cold water as there was hot, and ftirs it all ftrongly together, in order to diffolve and thoroughly mix the lime. The quantity of wheat intended to be fowed, is fprinkled with this lye, and then well flirred with a fhovel, and laid in as high a heap as poffible. It is beft to keep tho grain for a week after this preparation, turning it every day j for otherwife it would heat fo as to deftroy the germ. By thefe means, M. de St. Mefmin has had no fmutty wheat, tho' all around him is very liable to that diftemper.
. M. Donat, near Rochelle, writes, that, thinking the ingredi- ents generally employed in fteeps, too dear for the ufe of farmers, he had Itudied for fome years to find out fomething cheaper, which might be eafily had in every province of the kingdom, and would therefore be of general ufe, not only to France, but to all Europe. I have had, fays he, the good fortune to accomplifh what I wifhed ; for I now ufe only pigeon's dung, quick-lime, afhes, or fea-falt, where it can be conveniently had. I have fometimes made with thefe ingredients, fteeped jn water, fo ftrong a liquor, that it has even deftroyed the germ of the grain. But there will be no danger of that, if the following directions are obferved, which are the refute of feven years fuccefsful experience, even at times when farmers who have neglected to follow my example, have had fuch wretched crops as have not paid the charge of reaping.
ioo DISTEMPERS OF CORN. Parti.
The following receipt will be found of great fervice to preferve corn from fmut.
Take quick-lime and pigeons dung, of each twenty-five pounds ; forty pounds of wood-afhes, and twenty-five pounds of fea-falt, or falt-petre. Put all thefe into a tub large enough to hold half a hogfhead of common water added to them. Stir them all well, with a ftick, till the lime is quite difTolved. This lye will keep fome time without fpoiling.
When the corn is to be fteeped in the lye, it muft firft be ftirred. The grain is then put into a bafket, and plunged into the lye, where it remains till it has thoroughly imbibed it; after which, it is taken out, and laid in a heap, till it is drained of all its moifture. Or, which is ftill better, take a mafhing-tub, fill it with grain to within four inches of the brim, and then pour in the lye well ftirred before- hand. When the tub is full, let the lye run out at the bottom, into fome other veffel, in order to ufe it again for more corn. Let the grain be then taken out and laid in a heap to drain ; and continue in this manner to fteep all your feed corn. The wheat thus prepared, may be fowed the next day, and muft not be kept above five or fix days, for fear of its heating. This I fay from experience. The quan- tity of lye above prefcribed, will ferve to prepare twelve or thirteen, hundred weight of wheat.
Le Charbon.
THE French feem to give it this name, from the grain's ap- pearing as if burnt. We fhall therefore tranflate it burnt- grain. Mr. Lille calls it ajiilngo, or burnl-ear.
The ears attacked with this diftemper, are not, at firft, readily di- ftinguifhed from the found : but after they have paft blooming, they become of a brown green, and afterwards turn whitifh, by which they are then eafily known. The burnt grain is fometimes larger, and at other times lefs than found grairt. It fwims on water. This diftemper affects only the grain. The ears remain in a found ftate: only they are white, and drier than found ears.
Though all the ears which proceed from the fame plant are ufually attacked with this diftemper, yet we now and then find found ears 'en the fane pi the infected: nay, we have fometimes feen
;he gfjfrns of one ba'f of an ear found, whilft tbofe of the other half were burnt; and at other times only a few found grains in a diftem-
per'd
Chap. XVI. DISTEMPERS OF CORN. ior
per'd ear. We have likewife ten, though very feldom, one part of a^rain found, when the other part was burnt. M. Aimen has fre- quently cut all the ears off a flourishing plant, and others have grown in their ftead ; but the grain was burnt. This, fays he, ac- counts for our fo frequently meeting with burnt grain in fields, where fome of the ears have been broken down by hail, m
When a burnt grain is crumbled, as it generally may, with eafe, betwixt one's fingers, the infide is of a dark brown colour, and the fubftance contained within it, ftill retains fome degree of firm-
We have faid, that fmutty grains being often carried off by wind, or wafhed away by rain, do no great damage to the found grain. It is not fo with the burnt grains ; for many of them are fometimes fo firm, as not to be cruflied to pieces by-the flail, (hovel, or -fieve j. but one of them ground to powder in the mill, is fufficient to alter the colour of a confiderable quantity of flour.
The burnt grains have a bad fmell, and retain a good deal of moifture : two qualities which render them very unfit for keep- ing.
• As the burnt grains are lighter than the found, many of them are •Separated by throwing the corn to a diftance with a -(hovel, or by winnowing, or fifting it in the wind : but it is very difficult to get quite clear of them.. When they are broken, they infect the found grains, and flick to them, as we obferved of the fmut. The French farmers give the fame name to both the diftempers we have been fpeaking of, faying that the corn is mouchete, /potted, or colour' d at the end. This lad is eafily rubbed off with, a cloth, and is .like- wife lod by long keeping after the corn has been frequently lifted, efpeciaily in cylindric fieves. Some farmers wafh it off in fair water ; which (hould always be done before fuch corn is put into
any (teep.
M. Tillet's memoir relates chiefly to this diftemper. we (hall pafs over his accurate and curious experiments, and, as before, give only the refult of his inquiries.
He found, iff. that no kind of dung had any fenfible effect in producing burnt grain or fmut. The infected feed produced .as much burnt grain in places not dunged, as in others that were. No kind of dung quickened or retarded the progreis of this diftemper.
Sound
ica DISTEMPERS OF CORN. Parti.
Sound feed-corn produced no more burnt grain in places that were dunked, than in thofe. that were not dunged.
2. The ftraw of diftemper'd corn, putrified, did not produce burnt grain : but fiich ftraw, not putrified, feem'd to produce it. The fame may be faid of the powder of burnt grain, when mixed with the earth.
3. In every trial of fowing corn /potted or coloured at the end, whether gather'd on the fpot, or brought from a diftance, the di- ftemper prevailed to that degree, that fometimes three-fifths of the ears were bad.
4. Chofen wheat, taken grain by grain out of pick'd ears, in order to be certain that there were no diftemper'd grains among it, being fowed, fome in dung'd and fome in undung'd land, fome with snd fome without preparation, produced little or no burnt grain. The fame chofen feed, fprinkled with the powder of diftemper'd grain, produced as many diftemper'd ears, as grain originally infected with it. This powder does not lofe its contagious quality in a great degree of heat, nor indeed unlefs it be quite burnt. It keeps it for years as ftrongly as at firft.
5. This chofen feed fteep'd in a lye with quick-lime and fea-falt, gave fewer diftemper'd ears, than when fown without being fteep'd. It produced ftill lefs of them when falt-petre was ufed inftead of fea-falt.
6. The circumftance of fowing late or early, feem'd of little con- fequence.
Many farmers think it a very neceffary precaution to wafli the facks into which they put their feed corn, becaufe they think that even the fmell may infect the found feed. M. Tillct thinks that if the fower has any of the powder on his hand, it will infect part of the corn he fows.
The fame gentleman thinks he has remarked, that diftemper'd plants of wheat are more eafily affected by froft, than found ones. If fo, ftrong frofts are of great fervice, becaufe, at the fame time that they deftroy thole diftemper'd plants, they render the earth better able to afford fuffkient nourishment to the found ones.
By M. Tillet's experiments, the contagious powder of wheat does not affect rye, or four row'd barley or bigg : but the powder of cockle or darnel is pernicious to wheat.
M. Tillet tried many experiments to difcover the moft effectual
cures
Chap.XVI. DISTEMPERS OF CORN. 103
cures for this diftemper ; from which he draws the following con- clufions.
1. The effect of the black powder is only fuperfkial, and does not affect the internal parts of the grain before it is fown in the earth.
2. Whatever therefore removes this powder from off the outer furface, will greatly conduce to preferve corn from this di- ftemper.
3. Grain perfectly free from all infection of this powder, will not produce diftemper'd grain.
4. Grain blackened with this contagious powder, may be render 'd found, by clearing it entirely of the powder.
5. The action of fitting, and the precaution of warning the grain in feveral waters, leffen the effects of the contagion : but they are not fufficient to cure it; for we have found feveral ears with burnt grain, tho' the feed had been warned in feveral waters.
6. Lime, tho' of greater efficacy than plain water, is not alone fufficient. It may be remarked here, that the manner of liming corn, was formerly different from what is practifed now. They then put the grain into bafkets, which they plunged into warm lime- water. They ftirred it ftrongly in the bafkets, and carefully fkimm'd off all that fwam on the top. By this means, they got rid of all the diftemper'd grain. This was much better than fimply pouring lime-water on a heap of grain, as is the practice now-a-days, and then turning it with (hovels j or mixing with the grain lime flack'd in the air, and reduced to powder.
7. Warning the grain touched with the powder, in feveral waters, is a very good precaution : but it muft be afterwards fteep'd in brine till it is thoroughly penetrated therewith, and then have powder of lime ftrewed upon it.
8. A ftrong brine of fea-falt is good, and may be ufed to great advantage where fait is cheap.
9. Salt- peter is better than fea-falt, and fhould be made ufe of where much nitrous earth abounds.
10. Strong alkaline lyes are ftill better. Pot-afh, fait of tartar, a lye made of any vegetable afhes abounding in fait, urine of men or cattle, become alkaline by putrefaction, &c. Of thefe, the eafieft come at in every place, may be chofen to make a lye for feed corn. Near the ka, they make ufe of the afh.es of fea-weeds. Thefe afhe&, rejected by dyers and others who ufe lyes, becaufe they have too
much
jo* DISTEMPERS OF CORN. Part L
much fta-falt in'them, may, for that very reafon, be employed to greater advantage for feed corn.
As men generally love to raife objections, feme may peVKapsfay, that if this diftemper is fo contagious as has been here repreiented, it would make iach . progress from year to year, that at laft we mould reap nothing, but burnt grain : but this is net the cafe ; for frequently 'a year in which this diftemper prevails much, is fuc- ceeded by a year in which fcarce any of i: is feen, Such was the year 1754.
M. Tillet's obfervations are an anfwer to this objection : for hard frofts kill fo many of the diftempered plants, that its progrefs is happily ftopt .
It may be again afked, if the contagious powder is the only caufe, how comes there to be burnt grain in a province where it never was before ? It may be anfwered, that other caufes may produce it; par- ticularly, as Mr. Aimen obferves, whatever prevents the grains being impregnated while in bloffom.
M. Delu boiled two pounds of fait of tartar in a quantity of water fufficient to fteep an hundred pound weight of wheat, which he put into it while the lye was warm, and afterwards fprinkled it with quick-lime.
This grain was fowed the nth of October 1755, in part of a field of three arpents. The reft of the field was fowed with fome of the fame wheat, only fteeped in lime-water. No difference ap- peared in the plants of thefe grains, during their growth ; but fome days before they were reaped, M. Delu, with an experienced far- mer, examined them very carefully, and found a good deal of burnt grain in the part fowed with the wheat which had been fteeped in the lime water ; but much lefs in the other part where the grain fteeped in the lye was fowed. This confirms M. Tillet's ex- periments.
Of the dijlemper in rye, called Ergot.
S I know no word in our language anfwering to what is meant here by the French word ergot, I muft retain it. According to Mr. Aimen, the ergot in rye is the fame diftemper as the charbon in wheat. If there be any difference, it is owing to the different organization of the two grains.
1. The diftempered grains of rye are larger and longer than the j found,
A
Chap. XVI. DISTEMPERS OF CORN. 105
found, and come out of the chaff, appearing fomet'imts ftrait, and at other times more or lefs crooked.
2. Externally, they are dark coloured or black : their furface is rough, and frequently three furrows may be perceived in them, which run from end to end. Their outward end is always larger than that which adheres to the chaff. That larger end is fometimes fplit into two or three parts. It is not unufual to perceive fame cavities on their furfaces, which look as if made by infects.
3. When the diftempered grain is broke, there is in the middle or centre of it a whitifh flour, which is covered with another kind of flour of a redifh or dark colour. This diftempered flour falls to pieces between the fingers. M. Aimen has fometimes found it al- moft as black as the powder of fmutty wheat.
4. Thefe grains being put into water, fwim at firft, and after- wards fall to the bottom. If chewed, they leave a bitter relifh on the tongue.
5. The chaff appears found, though what is outmoft is of a darker colour than when the. grain is lound.
6. All the grains in an ear are never diftempered at once. They ftick lefs to the hufks, than found grains do.
7. M. Aimen imputes this diftemper to the grain's not being impregnated ; and therefore what is faid of the charbon in wheat, may be applied to the ergot in rye.
Both M. Tillet and M. Aimen are of opinion that other plants, befides rye, are fubject to this ergot. M. Tillet aflerts that he has found fome grains of wheat attacked with this diftemper. If fo, they are two different diftempers, not to be confounded together. What feems ftill more to eftablifh this difference is, that, by M. Tillet's experiments, the diftempered fubftance of the rye is not contagious.
M. Tillet feems to think that the ergot is occafioned by the fting or bite of fome infect, which turns the rye into a kind of gall.
Several phyfical writers give many in fiances of people who have been feized with difeafes, by eating, for their conftant food, in iome years, bread in which there was much of this diftempered rye.
As the diftempered grains are larger than the found ones, it is eafy to feparate the greateft part of them by fifting. It is what the coun- try people do, when corn is not dear : but in times of great Icarcity or dearth, they are loth to lofe fo much grain. It is then that they are apt to be attacked with a dry gangrene, which mortifies the ex-
P treme
io6 O F S T E E P S. Parti.
treme parts of the body, fo that they fall off, almoft without caufing any pain, and without any hemorrhagy. The Hotel-Dieu at Or- leans has had many of thefe miferable objects, who had fcarce any thing more remaining than the bare trunk of the body, and yet lived in that condition feveral days.
As it is not every year that the diftempered rye produces thefe dreadful accidents, Langius is of opinion that there may be two kinds of this difeafed rye ; one which is not hurtful, and another which occasions the gangrene. It is however probable, that there is but one kind, and that it does no hurt, firft, when fufficient care is taken in fifting the grain ; and, fecondly, when only a fmall part cf the rye is diftempered. It is alfo faid, that the rye lofes its bad quality by keeping : in which cafe, the reafon why the peafants are attacked with the gangrene in years of dearth, may be, becaufe they confume their crop as loon as the harveft is over.
CHAP. XVII. Of S r E E P S.
STEEPS were brought very early into ufe in hufbandry ; not only as prefervatives againft the feveral diftempersof corn which we have been fpeaking of, in which they are demonstratively of great ufe ; but alfo with a view to render the feed more fruitful. The Romans, as has been already obferved, had their lees of oil, decoction of cyprefs leaves, juice of houfe-leek, Sec. Lord Bacon was the firft who feems to have beftowed any attention on this fub- ject in England. What he did, was rather pointing out the path to others, than determining any thing pontive on this head himlelf. "I do not know any author who has yet given us a fet of experi- ments with this view, which have been long enough- continued to determine what effects any fteeps have towards rendering grain more fruitful.
Van Kclmont, and fince him the authors of the maifons rujiiques, have given many receipts for fteeps, which they boaft greatly of, as increasing the fruitfulnefs of the feed that is fteeped in them, Thefe who recommend thefe receipts, advife fowing the corn thinner than
ufual ; generally one third lefs. All the experiments in this
work will (hew evidently, that this one circufnftance of fowing thin, will add greatly to the crop. That the comparifon may be juft, all
cir-
Chap. XVII. O F S T E E P S. 107
circnmftances fhould be alike, as to the goodnefs of the foil, the quantity and quality of the feed, -See.
To fatisfy myfelf whether or no any benefit does arife from the ufe of fteeps, by way of giving the feed a greater degree of fruitful- nefs, I tried the following experiment. I infufed fome good wheat in a lye of dung, mixed with lixivial falts, nitre, and fal ammoniac. I fowed with this grain two beds in my kitchen garden, dug with a fpade. One of the beds was fowed very thick, and the other very thin. At the fame time I fowed two other beds, exactly like the former, with fome of the fame feed, not fteeped, one thick, and the other thin. At harveft time, the beds fowed with the fteeped feed, were {o exactly like the others, that it was impoffible for the eye to diftinguifh between them.
A gentleman in my neighbourhood followed exactly the directions given in the maifons rujHques, in the ufe of one of their boafted re- ceipts, which is there faid to be of fuch efficacy, that the land need be plowed but once for wheat prepared with it. He did fo ; and his crop was fcarce worth reaping.
Mr. Peyrol, many years fecretary to the intendant of Auvergne, acquaints me, that he had made feveral experiments in imitation of thofe mentioned in the Abbe de Vallemont's book. In the month of May 1755, he planted in his garden, which is a hot indifferent foil, four fmall cabbages, which had only four leaves. In Septem- ber following, the fame cabbages were fix feet and a half in cir- cumference. Some plants of red wheat, tranfplanted into a bed dug very fine in his garden, bore J30 ears a piece, which contained each of them from 40 to 80 grains. Some plants of white wheat, tranf- planted at the fame time, produced 120 ears, each of which had from 30 to 40 grains. Two grains of red wheat, fowed in the fame bed, and not tranfplanted, produced each of them 140 ears, which contained 6000 grains.
Five plants of red wheat, diftant from one another fix inches, did not branch fo well, being too clofe together: but each of them producedfrom 40 to 50 ears, which contained from 40 to 60 grains.
Rye, which branches lefs than wheat, produced from 30 to 3 <; ears, each containing from 60 to 70 grains.
The barley of that country, which branches little, has however produced from 60 to 80 ftalks, tho' the feed was not fteeped in any
liquor before it was fowed. The author of thefe experiments
P 2 judicioufly
"io8 OF STEEPS. Parti.
judicioufly obferves, that they mull be repeated and varied, to make it appear that the great increafe is owing to the fleep.
This liquor of the Abbs de Vallemont is as follows.
Ptn into a tub, expofed to the fouth, one bufhel of hcrfe-dung, the fame quantity of cow-dung, half a bufhel of pigeon's dung, as much fheep's dung, as much afhes, three gallons of fmall prick 'd wine, two pounds of falt-petre, and as much water as will fuffici- tntly dilute the whole, fo as to make it thin enough for ufe.
Every time that any of this liquor is taken out tofprinkle the plants, it is filled up again with water ; and as it may be too ftrong at firft, it may be weakened accordingly,
M. Peyrol added to this infufion, frequent digging; for the ground was dug five times between the plants of wheat: and he obferved that each digging fenfiblv gave frefh vigour to the plants, and that the ffalks, which were fix feet high, were not laid.
M. Donat fays, he has made trials of thefe mixtures, from the ufe of which fo much is promifed : but he acknowledges that he thinks them of no other fervice, than to amufe the curious, who do not regret expence. As they boaft that alL kinds of foils, whe- ther good, bad, or indifferent, whether well. or ill plowed, whether refted or not refted, will produce ten times more than in the conir mon way, M. Donat fowed a large extent of ground, feme good, fome bad, fome well, and fome ill plowed,. &c He made the lye himfelf, was prefent when the feed was fowed, and took care that no circumfhnce was neglected; Bat notwithftanding. all his cars, his crop was far from aniwering their promifes.
The good,, well. cultivated foil, produced fine wheat; but not e:ir- traordinary in point of quantity. The only advantage was in the daving of the feed.
The poar ill cultivated land, and that which had not been refted, ©reduced very little grain: and the very bad foil, nothing at all. Thefe experiments convinced M. Donat, that the fureft means of obtaining good crops, is, to have the grousd in good condition. This is the principle on which the new. hufbandry is founded. It offers nothing marvellous, or contrary to the moil ancient precepts cf good hufbandry.
Thefe experiments of M. Donat's feem fufficient to prove the incfikacy of thefe pretended fecrets. However, experiments of this kind fhould be continued on a.double account ; firft, to take off a
prejudice:
Chap. XV 111. O F W E E D S. 109
prejudice which feems to gain ground, though it be not founded on any rational principle ; and next, to be well affured whether thefe preparations do produce any fenfible effect. Experiments feidom prove ufelefs to careful accurate obfervers. If they do not always anfwer the end propofed, at lead they fometimes lead the way to other important difcoveries.
CHAP. XVIIL Of W E E D S..
PLANTS that grow in any ground, different from thofe which are intended to be cultivated in it, are called weeds. They exhauft the earth, as much as the moft ufeful plants : nay, they fometimes get the afcendant, and multiply to fo great a degree, that a field will almoft feem never to have been fowed with' corn.
The weeds which are feared moft,. are, 1. Cockle or darnel. Its feed is black j but being heavy, and nearly of the fame fize as the •grains of wheat, it is not eafily feparated from them. Sifting, and throwing the corn at a diftance on a large floor, are the beft ways of clearing the wheat of it. If ground with the corn, it makes bread; look black.
2. Fox-tail, the feed of which is fomewhat like wheat. This gives bread a bitter tafte..
3. Wild poppy, or red-iveed, the feed of which is very fmall, and fometimes multiplies fo prodigioufly that it choaks the wheat.
4. Wild fitch, which covers the corn when, it is laid, hinders it from rifing again, and makes it rot..
5. Dog's grafs,. and colt's foot, which multiply by their feeds, and extend themlelves by their creeping roots, and even by the pieces of their roots which are broke off by the plough.
6. Melilot, which gives bread a bad tafte ; and
7. Thifiles, and many, other, weeds which greatly exhauft the earth.
8. Charlock, the young plants of which it- will be of advantage to the farmer to be able to diftinguifh from young turneps, efpe- eially in weeding the latter, left they be reared or plucked up indif- criminately. This can fcarcely be done but by the tafte, the char- lock being hot and bitter, and the turnep mild.
To prevent the increafe of weeds, it is proper to deftray them
before
j io O F W E E D S. Parti.
before their feed is ripe. But that is not pofiible in lands which are plowed in the common way; becauie they grow with the gocd com, and mod of them ripening fooner than the wheat, their leeds low themfelves, and the weeds multiply. Neither mull we expect to deitroy them by retting the land ; for their feeds will remain found feveral years in the earth. If a field that has a great many poppies in it, is fowed with fainfoin, fcarce a poppy will appear the fecond year: but when the fainfoin is plowed up at the end of even nine years, the poppy frequently appears anew ; which can hardly be owing to any other caufe, than that its feeds have remained found in the earth all that time ; for very few of them can have been brought from the neighbouring grounds, or in dung.
An experiment which I made, confirms this. I ordered the earth with which a ditch had been filled fifteen or twenty years before, to be dug out, and fpread on a piece of plowed land. Several plants, of different kinds from any that were in the reft of the field, fprouted up in the place where this earth was laid. Confequently they were produced by feeds which had remained found in the earth, during the fifteen or twenty years that the earth had laid in the ditch.
It is partly for this reafon, that lands which are fallowed, are plowed thoroughly ; and it is certain, that as numbers of feeds (hoot up during the fallow, repeated plowings deffroy many of them. But there are feveral kinds of plants, fuch as wild oats and fox-tail, the feeds of which do not fprout, till they have remained two or three years in the earth j nor will culture make them grow fooner.
Some experiments have been made, which feem to contradict our author here. From them it feems to appear that the feeds of thofe plants which he fays require to remain three years in the ground, were only buried fo deep that they remained found for many years, and that they will not fprout till they happen to be laid at fuch a depth as is convenient or -fit for their fprouting. Though the in- creafe of weeds may be prevented for feveral years, by plowing, cutting, pulling them up, 6cc. Yet fome of their feeds may be thus brought up by each plowing, till all of them have fprouted, and then the field may be kept quite clear, by care.
It is evident that the repeated plowings of fallow lands, far from deflxoying thefe kinds of weeds, ferve perhaps only to help their feeds to grow more certainly, when the time of their fprouting .is come.
Far-
Chap. XVIII. O F W E E D S. in
Farmers have not yet thought of a more effectual method to de- ftroy weeds, than by lowing the ground out of feafon ; that is to fay, by fowing oats the year that wheat mould be fowed. It has been experienced, that, by this means, fome kinds of weeds have been deftroyed, which, appearing only every third year, never fhew them- felves but amongft wheat.
But the farmer lofes a crop, and has ftill a great number of weeds to dertroy ; which obliges him to weed his corn. This is done two different ways.
A number of women place themfelves in a row ; and holding in their hands a hoe properly made, they cut all the weeds they fee, fuch as thirties, blue bottles, poppies,' £?c. If thefe weeds are very young, they frequently efcape the eye of the weeder ; ;and in that eafe the hoeing muft be repeated when they grow bigger.
But the fmaller weeds, which are at leaft as hurtful, fuch as wild- fitch, wiid-oats, cockle or darnel, knot-grafs, fox-tail, and all young poppies, remain in the field.
Befides, in cutting the weeds, it is fcarce poffible not to cut down the corn ; and the roots of the thirties and other biennial plants which are cut, produce two or three new rtalks inrtead of the old one j by which means the evil is increafed.
The other method of clearing corn, is, hand- weeding it. This is feldom pra&ifed by farmers, becaufe it is too expenfive. In vineyards in- deed, women who have cows to feed, are glad to have leave to pluck up the weeds for them. But in pulling up thofe Weeds, they likewife pull up a great deal of corn, and, what with that, and with their trampling, and dragging their bags of weeds over it, they do more hurt than good ; efpecially if the earth is moift.
The fureft way to deftroy weeds, is, to continue plowing whilrt the corn grows : but this can be done only in the new hufbandry.
Weeds may be diftinguifhed into four kinds : i. Into fuch as have creeping perennial roots. 2. Such as grow in cold wet foils. 3. Such as are of a large fucculent body ; and 4. Such as having fmall feeds, or that ripening before the corn, fow themfelves. Each of thefe require different methods, to dertroy them.
The firrt can only be deftroyed by repeated fummer fallows, by which their roots are cut, and turned up to be withered by the fun and winds j after which they are dragged out by harrows, and fhould be burnt. This repeated as often as the farmer can conveniently during a dry feafon, or repeated another feafon, can fcarcely fail to j complete.
1I2 OF WEEDS. Partt
complete the cure. Colt's foot, which is propagated by the root, may likewife be deftroyed by fowing the ground with rye-grafs, on any plant which, coming up early in the fpring, fhadows and /mo- thers it, whereby it dies in a few years.
The fecond are deftroyed by draining the earth of its fuperfluous moifture, and by warming it with lime, afhes, gravel, fhelly fea- -fand, &c.
The third are deftroyed by cutting them down when in full fap and vigour : for the fudden interruption which this gives to the motion of the fap, caufes it to ftagnate in the roots, and putrify there. Some few and weak lateral fhoots may be made; but they too being cut in the fame manner, the roots are entirely putrified by degrees, and, inftead of annoying, become a manure.
The fourth can be deftroyed only by frequent fallows, and con- ftantty cutting, or rather plowing them down before they run to feed. Some, for inftance the wild oats, may be mowed for hay, but it is much more beneficial to the land to have them turned down ; for by that means, inftead of being exhaufted by frequent crops, it is ma- nured by thofe enemies to ufeful grain.
Banks and hedges fhould be preferved free from weeds ; not only to preferve their bottoms thicker, but alfo to prevent the feeds ot weeds from being carried into the adjacent fields, by winds, by which means the corn muft be conftantly peftered with them.
■
A PR AC-
PRACTICAL TREATISE
O F
HUSBANDRY.
PART II.
Experiments and Reflections relative to the NEW HUSBANDRY.
C H A P. I.
Experiments en Wheat.
SECT. I.
Experiments made at Denainvilliers and Acou, in the Tear 175Q.
R. Duhamel begins his account of the advan- tages of the new husbandry, with experiments made on fmall pieces of land. The two firft which he mentions were made with great care, one under his own eyes at his brother's eftate called Denainvilliers, and the other under the eyes of his neighbour, M. de St. Hilaire. The more eafily to compare the produce of the new hufbandry with that of the old, fays he, I fhall here take- the extent of two
Q^ arpents \
u4 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, PartIL
arpents ; each containing an hundred perches, and the perch twenty- two feet.
The two arpents lay in the fame field, and were plowed as ufual for wheat. They were divided into two equal parts, by a furrow, fp that the quality of the foil in each was perfectly alike.
One ot thefe arpents was ■ fowed in the common way with 10 bulhels of dry grain, weighing 210 pounds, which, after being fteeped,, and fprinkled with lime, filled 12 bufhels, and weighed 52 pounds.
The other arpent was fowed with the drill plough, in the following manner : firft, a border of two feet was left unfowed ; then three rows of wheat were fowed in a bed two feet wide : after which. another fpace four feet wide was left unfowed. This fpace we call the alky.. The beds, of three rows of wheat each, and the alleys, were thus continued alternately till the whole was finithed.
As the grains of wheat were fowed in the rows at the diftance of four, five, or fix inches from each other, two buihels, or forty two pounds of wheat fteeped and limed, were more than furhcient to fow this arpent ; by' which a faving was already made of ten bulhels or two hundred and forty pounds of wheat, which would have been ufed in the common hulbandry.
This arpent was fowed lb thin, that during the winter and the be- ginning of the fpring it had more the appearance of ground only plowed, than of a field which had been fowed ; whereas the other was green as a meadow.
In the fpring, we vifited the rows, and pulled up the plants where, they grew too thick, fo as to leave at leaft four inchr.s diftance be- tween each. The alleys were firft ftirred with the horfe-hoe.
The horfe-hocmg had a wonderful effect: the wheat became of a deep green, pulhed forth large blades, and branched greatly; fo that by the middle of May the earth between the rows was quite covered, and the wheat was higher than that of the other arpent, which, in comparifon of this, was of a yellowilh green. When the wheat of the rows began to fpindle, it was a'moft as high again as the other. The alleys then received their fecond hoeing.
We plucked up at this time fume of the moft thriving plants of the wheat lowed in the common way, and found that each grain had produced no more than two, three, and very rarely four ftalks capable of yielding ears. Many grains had even produced but one ftalk, of which, numbers were very weak, and feemed choaked by the reft.
Each grain of wheat in the rows, on the contrary produced eight,
twelve,
Chap. I. AT DENAINVILLIERS AND ACOU. 115
twelve, fifteen or twenty flalks, almoft all of them ftrong and able to produce large ears.
The wheat in the common way was in full ear, before one ap- peared in the rows, in which neverthelefs the wheat was taller, and ltill of a deep green.
As foon as the wheat of the rows was in ear, it was horfe-hoed a third time, and continued growing taller as the ears appeared. It bloffomed, and the grain formed extremely well : but it was flill very green when great heats came on, which ripened it fuddenly, and prevented its farther increafe, which would othcrwife have been con- fiderable.
The crop would certainly have been more plentiful, had it not been for this untimely heat : yet, contrary to our expectation, the grain was not parched ; but proved larger and better filled than that of the other arpent.
The wheat was fowed at Acou, as at Denainvilliers : the hoeings were repeated in the fame manner ; the progrefs of the wheat fowed in both ways was alike ; and laftly, the great heats accelerated too much the ripening of the wheat in the rows, at Acou, as at Denain- villiers.
Refult of the Experiment at Denainvilliers.
The arpent which was plowed and fowed in the common way, had been very well dunged ; and the other, which was cultivated according to the new hulbandry, had received no dung at all. This fhould make fome difference in their products. Let us compare them.
The arpent which was cultivated according to the new hufbandry produced 284 fbeaves : the other 476. It is proper to obferve that the quantity of fodder was not in proportion to the number of (heaves ; becaufe the ftraw which grew in the rows was much longer than that of the other arpent.
The arpent fowed in rows, yielded 70 bufhels of large wheat, weighing 1470 pounds.
The other yielded 98 bufhels of fmaller wheat, which weighed 2058 pounds.
Thus the field which was cultivated in the common way produced 28 bufhels or 588 pounds more than the rows. But it muff be re- membered, that only two bufhels or 42 pounds of wheat, were em- ployed to fow the rows ; whereas 12 bufhels or 252 pounds were
Q_2 ufed
n6 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Partll.
ufed to fow the other arpent. Ten bufhels, or 240 pounds, fhould therefore be deducted from the produce of this laft, which will then exceed that of the rows only by eighteen bufliels, or 372 pounds.
The expence of dunging an arpent, is equal to the value of twenty bufliels of wheat when it bears a middling price. This already brings the produce of the arpent fowed in rows, at leafl: to an equa- lity with that of the other arpent. But a very confiderable advantage of the new huibandry, yet remains to be confidered.
The value of the produce of an arpent in the common way, can, in three years, be only equal to the value of one crcp of wheat and one third of a crop ; becaufe a crop of oats is reckoned equal to but one third of a crop of wheat : therefore the produce of three years will be only 130 bufhels and two-thirds ; whereas the arpent, cul- tivated according to the new huibandry, will yield three crops of wheat, which, fuppofing them equal to that of the firf! year, will amount to 210 bufliels in the fame fpace of time. The increaic is thus one third greater, befides the faving of dung.
RefuJ t of the Experiment at Acou.
In this experiment, both the arpents were dunged; as well that cultivated in the old, as that in the new way.
The arpent cultivated in the new way produced 150 bufliels or 31 ^o pounds.
The arpent cultivated in the old way produced 133 bufliels and one-third, or 2800 pounds. Thus the produce of the former, exceeded that of the latter by 16 bufliels and two-thirds, or 350 pounds ; which make a clear gain of one-eighth : to this mull be .idded eight or ten bufhels faved in the feed : the profit will then amount to 24 bufliels and two thirds j or 518 pounds. On cal- culating the produce of the two arpents for three years, it will be found that the arpent cultivated in the old way will yield but 177 bufhels and feven-ninths ; whereas the arpent cultivated in the new method will produce in three years 450 bufliels. Thus, befides the faving of the feeds for oats, there will be in three years a clear profit of 272 bufhels and two-ninths. Avail advantage in favour of the new huibandry.
As we have already, in treating of the difeafes of corn, mention- ed the caufcs which make it moft liable to be lodged, we fliall here pafs them over, and only obferve, that, in confirmation of the opi- nion already given, Mr. Duhamel faw with pleafure, that tho' the
corn
Chap.I. AT DENAINVILLIERS AND ACOU. uy
corn was lodged in feveral fields near that where the experiment was made, the wheat which grew in rows efcaped being laid, notwith- standing the length of the ftalks, and the largCnefs of the ears which were very full of grain: We may therefore hope, that by following the new method, there will be lefs danger of this accident, which fometimes robs the farmer of the fineff. part of his crop. I wifh I could promife as much for its preventing the blight in wheat: but this feemed to affecl: equally both that which was lowed in the com- mon broad cart-way, and that which was planted in rows. 'Tis true, that fewer of thofe blighted plants remained in the rows, be- caufe the hufbandman, by means of the alleys, eafily picked them out.
A farmer at Acou, feeing us place our greateft hopes of fuccefs on the frequent ftirring of the ground while the wheat was in it, and our allowing each plant fufficient fpace to extend its roots, and collect the more nourishment, tried an experiment which appeared to him very proper to difcover the truth of our reafoning.
He carefully cultivated a grain of barley, which grew by chance in his vineyard. This plant, faid he, grows byitfelf; it can extend its roots every way ; it is in a rich foil, and cannot want for food : by joining frequent culture to thefe advantages, this plant of barley, according to the principles of the new husbandry, ought to yield a lurprifing increafe. His reafoning was juft, and was confirmed by the experiment ; for this fingle grain of barley produced two hundred ears, and about thirty ftalks which had no ears. Some of the ftalks were four feet high, and moft of them three. I counted 24 grains in a middling ear. Thus one grain, planted in a good foil, and well cultivated, produced 4800 grains ; and the ftraw of this fingle plant of barley, makes of itfelf a fheaf, which I keep by me.*
It is proper to obferve, that 1 have computed the weight of a bufhel -f of wheat at 21 pounds, tho' its Weight varies every year.
* The reverend Dr. Hales informs me, that a grain of barley, which Mr. Hallier fowed in his garden in the year 1720, produced an hundred and fifty-four ears, which contained 3300 grains : thefe he fowed the next year, at the diftancc of three inches from one another : they yielded him fomewhat more than a bufhel • which, being fowed again, produced the third year, forty-five bufheis and a quarter.
t" The French bufhel : vid. Tabic of weights and meaiures.
SECT,'
u8 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT,. Part II.
SECT. II. Conti}iuaticn of the Experiments at Denainvilliers and Acou> in the
year 175 r.
I, At Denainvi liters. ,ATHE alleys, of the arpent cultivated in the new way, and of -*• which we fpoke in the foregoing fedtion, were fowed in Oc- tober 1750, with wheat, in rows, as before ; and the beds on which the wheat grew the former year, were now turned into alleys. The other arpent cultivated in the old way, not being in a condition to bear a crop of wheat in 1751, the owner, fatisfied with the produce of the other arpent, fowed this with fpring-corn, in beds, in order to prepare the ground for wheat in October following. He dunged the beds before the fpring-corn was fowed, and the -crop was a very good one for the year.
Both thefe arpents, which were now cultivated in the new way, were bordered on each fide by two pieces of ground of equal extent and like quality of foil. They were both in fine tilth, well dunged, and fowed with wheat in the common way. By this means we were properly enabled to carry on our ccmparifon, the owner hav- ing promifed to keep the crops of each of thefe fpots feparate, and to give us an exact, account of their produce. I muft indeed confefs, that of thefe two pieces of ground, that which I chofe to make my companion by, was fomewhat better than the other, which may of courfe feem to diminish the advantage of the new culture.
The cold rains which fell during all the fpring and fummer of this year, greatly damaged every production of the earth, and efpe- cially wheat. It> is therefore no wonder if the produce of our ex- periment was much lefs this year than the laft. It is enough for our purpofe, that the new culture ftill preferved the fame advantage over the old, that it did the year before.
At the end of fpring, and during the whole fummer, the wheat of the rows was much taller, and of a livelier green than that which was cultivated according to the old hufbandry; and tho' the grains produced but 3, 4, or 5 (talks a-piece, inftead of 8, 12, 15, or 20, which they yielded the year before, yet they branched more than what was railed in the common way.
At harveft, the rows were free from weed?, and tall enough to be reaped ; wbilft the wheat which was fowed in the common way,
was
Chap. I. AT DE'NAINVILLIERS AND ACOU. n9
was fo fhort and full of weeds, that it was obliged to be mowed, and the weeds to be dried, like hay. Each of thefe fields produced 336 fbeaves. This is very different from what it was the year be- fore, when a fingle arpent cultivated in the fame manner,- yielded 476 fheaves.
In our experiment, the arpent which yielded 70 bufhels, or 1470 pounds of wheat in the year 1750, yielded this year but 40 bufhels or 966 pounds of good wheat free from fmut.
The other arpent which was cultivated in the old way and had been well dunged, and which produced 98 bufhels, or 2058 pounds of fine wheat in the year 1750, yielded this year but 38 bufhels and a half, or 808 pounds and a half of final 1 wheat, above a third of which was blighted and fmutty.
We fee by this account, 1. That the arpent cultivated in the . new way yielded this year 504 pounds lefs than in 1750.
2. That the arpent cultivated in the old way, produced 1249. pounds and a half lefs than in 1750.
3.. That the arpent cultivated according to our principles in 175 1, produced 157 pounds and a half of fine clean wheat, or near one fifth more than the arpent cultivated in the common way, which yielded only a fmall grain, mixed with a great deal of fmut.
4. We muft not forget that 12 bufhels of wheat were employed to few the arpent which was cultivated in the common way, and that not quite two bufhels were ufed in fowing that which was cul- tivated according to our principles. The 10 bufhels, or 210 pounds of wheat thus fowed, muft confequently be added to the 1 57 pounds which this arpent produced morfthan that with which it is com- pared. The gain is therefore 367 pounds.
5. This is not all. The wheat of the rows was choice corn, very fit for feed, and fold for a third part more than that which was cultivatedun the common way, which was of a very fmall-grsin, , extremely fmutty, and full of feeds of weeds..
Where I faid that the wheat of the rows was not blighted or fmutty, I would not be thought to impute that wholly to the new culture. The care which the owner took from time to time to pluck up the faulty ears as fa ft as they appeared, contributed greatly there- to ; though it is certain that even if he had not taken that pains, his wheat would have been much cleaner than that of the. neighbour- ing field.
Mr. Du Hamel mentions a flip of land which was too narrow to J be
120 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
be formed into beds, and on which the owner was notwithstanding willing to try the new culture. He made it into one large bed, in which he lowed fix rows of wheat, and horfe-hoed the vacant ground on both fides. He hoped that fix rows would be as much benefited by the hoeing, as three : but he was naiftaken j for at har- vest, the two outfide rows were very fine, the next to them were lefs, and the two middle rows were no better than the wheat in a common field.
II. At Accu.
TH E fpot of ground, which was cultivated at this place ac- cording to our principles in the year 1750, yielded, as we ob- served before, 150 bufhels an arpentj and the other fpot which was cultivated in the common way, yielded at the rate of 133 bufhels and a half. The firft fpot, which was not dunged, pro- duced 83 bufhels and one third in 1751. This year's crop fell con- fequently 66 bufhels and two thirds fhort of the preceding year's. The owner was however well Satisfied with this crop : for the land in the beft tilth and belt dunged in the common field?, having pro- duced but 48 bufhels an arpent, he had a profit of 27 or 28 bufh- els, including the laving in the feed.
SECT. III. Continuation of the experiments at Denaini-illiers and Accu, in the
tear 17:2.
I. At DMaimi/liers. *~T* HE fame arpent which was at firll cultivated in our new way, was again lowed with wheat this year, and without being dunged.
It now produced but fixteen bufhels. This may be partly im- puted to the hail that fell on the loth of July, which greatly da- maged this fpot as well as all the neighbouring fields. But, inde- pendent of this accident, it mull be owned that the corn never pro- mifed well. It was rufted whilft in blade, like that of all the other fields; but the rains which fell towards the end of July, and the hoeing which it received at that time, quickened the vegetation : the plants which had not branched at the proper feafon, made frefh fhoots, and produced fmall ears, which were tco backward to ripen, becaufe there was a necefiity of cutting down the whole when the
grain
Chap. I. AT DENAINVILLIERS AND ACOU. 121
grain in the principal ears had attained its full growth. We think we can aflign feveral reafons for this accident. 1. The feed was fowed late : and we think it is neceffary, according to our method, to fow it early. 2. As the alleys were cultivated by hand, the owner contented himfelf with deftroying the weeds by a flight hoeing, as is done in gardens : hence arofe this double inconveni- eney ; that the wheat then growing was not well cultivated, and the foil was not fufrkiendy prepared for the enfuing crop. This will happen no more; becaufe the ground will be well plowed for the future. 3. The variety of bufinefs neceffary to be done in the common field, frequently prevents many things being performed at the proper feafon ; and the not being able to horfe-hoe this fpot early enough in fpring, hindered the plants from branching fo much as they might otherwife have done. This obfervation fhews the im- portance of hoeing at the propet feafons ; and will more fully appear hereafter, from M. de Chateau-vieux's experiments.
II. Experiments made at Denainvi/Iiers, in order to knew whether it be mofl profitable to few in two rcws} or in three.
TT is not yet determined whether it be moft profitable to fow, as we ■*■ have hitherto done, three rows at feven inches diftance from one another, leaving the alleys four feet wide ; or to fow only two rows in each bed allowing but three feet for the alleys.
To know by experience which of the two ways would be beft, we fowed a field, partly in three rows, and partly in two.
This field was reaped the 8th of Auguft, tho' the corn was not quite ripe, becaufe it would otherwife have been eaten up by birds. We cannot therefore fay whether the two rows or the three would have produced moft in proportion. All that could be done was to make the following observations.
An equal number of fheaves, and equally large, was gathered off from each.
The ftraw of the two rows was much longer than that of the three rows, and the ears of the two rows were much the biggeft and longeft.
All who faw the field, believed there was at leaft as much corn, if not more, on the beds which had but two rows, as on thole which had three.
R HI.
,22 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
III. Continuation of the experiment made at Acou in the years 1751
and iJS2'
THE fame fpot of ground continued to be cultivated according to our principles, without dung, and yielded this year after the rate of 70 bufliels an arpent.
Inftead of fovving, according to the ufual way, twelve bufliels of wheat fteeped and limed, only two bufliels were ufed to an arpent: The crop may therefore be eftimated at leaft 80 bufhels of very fine wheat.
The owner of this fpot had no ground fowed this year in the old way, with which a comparifon could be made : but he was well fatisfied with his crops, which yielded him at leaft forty for one.
SECT. IV.
Experiments mode at Denainvilliers in the year 1753.
THIS ground was badly cultivated in the year 1752, as we ob« ferved before, and the crop fuffered by it. It was then fowed, part with common wheat, and part with Smyrna wheat. Our intention was to try whether this laft grain, which requires a great deal of nourishment, and which for- that reafon does not anfwer well in the common hufbandry, would do better when cultivated after our method. But this corn, which was fowed too thin at firft, fuf- tained a considerable lofs before it could be reaped. The Angularity of the grain drew numbers of curious people to fee'it, each of whom gathered at leaft fome ears, and others a quantity, in- order to low it in their gardens. Notwithstanding all thefe lofies, the common and the Smyrna wheat together produced 76 fheafs and one-fourth, an arpent, which yielded 500 pounds of fine corn. Forty-fix bufliels, weighing 960 pound5, is reckoned a good return from an arpent of the fame kind of foil cultivated in the common way; from which mud: be deducted at leaft four bufliels, or 84 pounds, for the extraordinary quantity of feed employed in that way. The produce of an arpent cultivated in the- common way is hereby reduced to 876 pounds: but none yielded near fo much this year. However, fuppofing the crop of the arpent cultivated according to our principles, to be lefs than that of the other, by 38© pounds ; ftiil it will be found that the produce of the field cultivated in the common way will amount to no more than 1173 pounds in three years; whereas even on the footing of our diminiflied crop, the arpent cultivated in the new way will produce 1488 pounds of wheat in that fpace of time.
SECT.
Chap. I. AT DENAINVILLIERS AMD ACOU. 123
SECT. V.
Experiments made at Denainvilliers in the year 1754.
THE alleys having been very well ftirred laft: year with the hoe- plough, we had reafon to exped a plentiful crop this year, though the feed was fowed fomewhat late. It produced about 50 bufhels and a half, or 1060 pounds of wheat an arpent ; which is a good return for the kind of foil on which the experiment was tried ; efpecially if we add to it at leaft 6© pounds faved in the feed.
What I ought not to omit is, that half the crop confifted of Smyrna wheat, and that it has not degenerated in the three years that it has now been cultivated according to the new hufbandry.
SECT. VI.
Experiment made at Denainvilliers in the year 1755.
OF the two fields which have been cultivated thefe feven years paft according to the principles of the new hufbandry, one, which was badly plowed in 1754, yielded but an indifferent crop. That of the other field was good. In 1755, we had reafon to be fatisfied with the products of both thefe fields, compared to the other crops of wheat in this country, which, in general, yielded but very little grain.
SECT. VII.
Experiments made by M. Diancourt, captain aid-major to the regiment of French Grenadiers, in the years 1753, i754> and iysS'
I
N the beginning of November 1752, M. Diancourt fowed, ac- cording to our method, fix perches of land, at 22 feet to the perch, with Flanders wheat. As only three or four grains of it came up, he fowed the fame fpot again, towards the end of November, with common wheat, which rofe well and throve perfectly.
As M. Diancourt had fowed only two rows of wheat, which took up about fix inches in breadth, and had left alleys fix feet wide be- tween his rows, he juftly regretted that only a thirteenth part of his ground was occupied ; and, in order to employ it to more advantage, he refolved in April to fow a row of barley in the middle of each of thofe wide alleys.
R 2 It
1*4 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
It is proper to obferve, that this ground had not had any winter plowing, becaufe it is not of fuch a nature as to retain wet. Nor was it plowed in the fpring, becaufe the alleys feemed to be clear of weeds: but as M. Diancourt himfelf acknowledges, this laft plowing. is of confequence, becaufe it gives the corn frefh vigour, and begins to prepare the earth for the next fowing. However, the barley grew very well; but there was a neceffity for pulling it up towards June, in order to plow the alleys; becaufe the wheat had branched fo much, and its blades were grown fo long, that, covering the ground from 1 8 to 24 inches round, the horfe was obliged to go almafr in the middle of the alleys, that the fhare, which followed in a parallel direction, and at a fmall diftance from the rows, might turn the earth', up towards them, and lay new mould about the plants.
The tufts of wheat had from 20 to 93 ftallcs ; and moft of them from 40 to 72. What made thefe plants fo very fine, was, that their, roots could extend themfelves freely in the alleys which were very wide, and in the rows where the feed had been fowed very thin : but at the fame time a great deal of ground was loft, as M. Diancourt-, obferves. I return to his experiment.
The- evening before St. John's day, a violent hurricane beat down all the plants of this experiment, without breaking fcarce any of the ears. A fpot often perches, which could not be cultivated with the plough, but had been dug twice with thefpade, and looked very fine on the 15th of April and 10th of May, was hurt mora than any^ other part. But the damage -was repaired in 24 hours, by band-hoe- iag frefh earth round about the plants, which had fo good an effect. that they were not at all injured by .a very, high wind which blew lome time after.
I ought not to omit obferving, that, from- the beginning of ''fpring,, I always turn the earth up towards the rows. It is attended with three advantages. 1. This new mould gives additional nourishment to the wheat-. 2. It fupports the plants, and- prevents their being laid fo eafiiy as otherwife they might. 3. This operation forms a large furrow in the middle of the alleys, whichbeing filled up after har- veft, and the bed then -made over that furrow being raifed high and- arched above the level of the ground, the next fown plants have an- excellent depth of mould to Strike their- roots in.
The wheat of this fpot had begun to bloffom before the hurricane- on the eve of St. John; and within a week after it. was hoed, M.; Diancourt was greatly furpriled to fee it all in full bloom, and fo full
of
Chap. I. B Y M. DIANCOURT. 125
ef fap as to nouriili and bring to maturity feveral little ears from which nothing was expected, and which neverthelefs grew four inches long. Unluckily thole lmall ears did net ripen till after the large ones, many of which were feven inches long, and one of which con- tained 101 grains.
One perch of 22 fquare feet produced 18 pounds 13 ounces of fine wheat. If we multiply this quantity by 10, to have the produce of the .whole, fpot of ground, or by 100, to have that of an arpent, we (hall be furprifed at the plentifulnefs of this crop, reaped from a field in which fa much ground feemed to lay ufelefs. M. Diancourt fays, that, the lands of his farms produce one with another, from five to eight fiptiers an arpent, that is to fay, from 60 to 96 bufheh; (the arpent of 100 -fquare perches, and the perch of 22 feet;) and as the fepticr weighs about 260 pounds, it follows that the common produce of a perch is at moft 20 pounds, which is much lefs than lands cultivated in the common way fometimes produce. M. Dian- court, having* cut down a fquare perch of wheat, lb extremely fine that it was the admiration of every one, it yielded him 32 pounds of grain. As the farmer had fowed this perch with two pounds and . a half of wheat, and M. Diancourt fowed at moft but half a pound, the real produce of the perch was 30. pounds. Now as all that this farmer can expect from his land in three years is, one crop of wheat, . and one crop of fpring corn, which is valued at a third of the crop of wheat; he can have in three years no more than the equivalent, of 40 pounds of wheat: whereas M. Diancourt, who reaped but 18 pounds thirteen ounces, deducting the feed for three years, after the • 1 ate of 8 ounces a year, which is one pound eight ounces in all, will < have remaining neat for his three crops 51 pounds 15 ounces, which ■ is 1 1 pounds 1 5 ounces more than the farmer's crop. To judge- rightly of the advantage of the new btfoandry, it muff be obferved, . 1. That M. Diancourt fays he cbofe the finefi perch in forty arpents of laud, to make his companion by. 2. That he tells us his alleys- were too wide. 3. That the feed of the oats is not reckoned) in this calculation. If, with all thefe advantages on the other fide, the profit was one fifth in his favour, how much. greater would it: have been fuppoling a parity of circumflances ?.
M. Diancourt likewiie lowed three other fpots of wheat, ntiz* one
of 12 perches and a half, another of 10, and the third of four. The
alleys c>f thefe three fpots were plowed in the beginning of May. .
The plants here fuffe red much lefs by the hurricane, tfcmthbfe we
1 {poke.
126 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, PartIL
fpoke of before : their ftalks were only bent ; but fo much indeed as to hinder the plough frcm paffing in the allevs. To remedy this, M. Diancourt ordered them to be earthed-up with a fhovel, and then the plough was able to work. 'Tis true this did not re-inflate them fo well as the hufoandman had done thofe in the lalt mentioned piece of ground : but however, they kept upright till the third and hit. plowing, which was given towards the end of July.
The finelr, tufts on thefe grounds had not above fixty ftalks ; but on the other hand very few had lefs than twenty. M. Diancourt fays nothing farther of thefe three fpots : but he infifts ftrongly oh the following experiment which he made with fpring corn.
In March, M. Diancourt lowed fpring wheat in fingle rows, three feet afunder, and the grains in the rows at the diflance of eight inches from each other. The farmers of that coun- try, lurprifed at what he was doing, allured him that his crop would never yield above a few pints. To convince them by their own expe- rience, M. Diancourt propofed to one of them to fow in his own way, a fquare bordering on, and exactly like that which he had fowed in this new way.
From the time of fowing, till within a month of harveft, the far- mer's field promifed infinitely more than M. Diancourt's, who could hardly perfuade himfelf that he fhould have even tolerable fuccefs, when he compared his 1 8 little fingle rows, three feet diftant from one another, with the farmer's field which was covered like a mea- dow. But a little before harveft, the ears of the rows appeared from four to fix inches long and very thick ; whilft thofe of the farmer, which fullered by drought, were very poor, and not above an inch or two in length. In fhort, the farmer who had fowed 34 pounds of grain, reaped neat 126 pounds and a half; and M. Diancourt, who had fowed but an ounce, reapdi betwixt 92 and 93 pounds. Thus, the farmer's crop in three years would amount at moft to the value of 169 pounds of wheat, whilft M. Diancourt's would be 279 pounds; which is almoft double the other.
In March 1753, M. Diancourt prepared two arpents of ground in his park, in order to fow them with wheat the next September : and that this ground might not be ufelefs during the fix intermediate months, he laid it out in beds, in June, and planted them with beans, fome in fingle and others in double rows ; the beans being a foot afunder in thofe rows. In the beginning of October, an immenfe quantity of beans was gathered oft this fpot. The fingle 1 rows
Chap. I. BY M.D IAN COURT. 127
rows produced as many as the double ones. Some ftalks had up- wards of 180 pods.
This prodigious fertility can be afcribed to nothing but the good culture of the ground : which, to me, is a ftrong proof that the great fuccefs which many have imputed to the effect of certain myfterious fteeps or infufions, has, in fact, been owing folely to the goodnefs of the foil and the proper culture of it.
In order that plants raifed according to our principles may enjoy the benefit of the culture of the alleys, their roots muft be able to extend themfelves to a pretty confiderable diftance. This reflection made M. Diancourt take up carefully fome of his plants of beans and wheat, to examine their roots.
The roots of the beans extended, in general, upwards of three feet from their flock. Almoft all the roots of a grain of wheat which- had produced 93 fine ears, were from 15 to 18 inches long; but in-- ftead of fpreading horizontally, like thofe of the beans, they fhot down perpendicularly. From hence it may be concluded that it is needlefs to make the alleys fix feet wide; but highly proper to give the beds the greatefl depth of loofe mould that the ftaple of the foil will admit of, either by plowing deep, or railing the earth high where the rows are to be planted.
M. Diancourt fowed eight perches of land, with oats, in double rows, and alleys fix feet wide. The mod prejudiced againft the new hufbandry were forced to own, that two of his rows produced more grain than the whole eight perches would have done if fowed in the common way.
There are two kinds cf infects in M. Diancourt's grounds, which <maw the roots of when*. Our gardeners call one of them the red worm : the other is the millepedes or Scolopendra. M. Diancourt has begun experiments'ih order to try 'whether they cannot be guarded againft by earlier or later fowing of the ground that is infected with them. The event of thefe. trials, which M. Diancourt juftly looks upon as very interefting, -is yet uncertain : but M. Diancourt obferv- ina; one day a tuft of wheat which languifhed, judged that its roots were- preyed upon by thefe infedts. To fatisfy himfelf therein, he pull'd up'the tuft, and found a worm in it. He then cut off half the length of the leaves and roots, planted the tuft again, and watered it, beca'ufe the earth was extrerriely dry. The tuft grew very well, 2nd produced 12 well conditioned ears, four inches long.
1VI. Diancourt varied his experiments for the next year, by fowing
in
,i23 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, -Part-H.
fingle, double, and triple rows, fome very early, and others very late. He could not attend the progrefs of thefe trials himfelf, being called away to the army : but the refult, as he informed M. Du- hamel, was, that he was convinced that corn planted in the new way is much lefs liable to be lodged than what is fowed in the old. With regard to the advantage of fowing very early, to be fatisfled in which M. Diancourt fowed fome rows the 9th of Auguft, and others the 1 ft, cth, 10th, and i£th of September, he obferved that the rows which were fowed the 9th of Auguft, fpindled but five days earlier than the wheat in the common way, and that the ears were but •midline : nor did the rows which were fowed the jft, 5th, 10th, and 15th of September fpindle much fooner than ether common wheat 3 and a fpot fowed in fingle rows, produced as much as the fame ex- tent of ground fowed in double and in triple rows.
From thefe experiments, M. Diancourt was tempted to conclude, 1. That the right feafon for fowing is in the month of September^ and the firft day of October. 2. That it is more profitable to fow in fingle rows, than in double or triple ones. However, he would not, laid he, pretend abfolutely to determine thefe points, till he fhould have had at leaft three years experience.
One of the pieces of wheat from which M. Diancourt expected moft, and which in fact promifed greatly at firft, fuffered a fudden and almoft total change, the plants decaying vifibly from day to day. Surprifed at this accident, he ordered the whole fpot to be turned up in his prefence, in order to difcover the caufe ; when he found the whole length of the ground immediately under the rows, hollowed by moles and field-mice, drawn thither, in all probability, by fome remaining roots of turneps with which that ground had been planted the year before.
M. Diancourt continued his experiments in the year 1755, in the fame manner as before, and with ftill greater fuccefs.
SECT. VIII.
Experiments made by M. De la Croix, at Verdun on the Meufe, in
1755 j extracted from a Letter of his to M. Du Hamel.
IN the year 1755, being convinced of the folidity of the principles of the new huibandry, 1 defired M. de Chateau-vieux to buy me a drill-plough. I received it, well conditioned, towards the end of
July>
Chap. I. BY M. DE LA CROIX. 129
July, and fent it in September to Hermeville, a village about nine miles from Verdun. I agreed with the farmer of an eftate which I have there, for three arpents of land, on which I purpofed to make my trials.
This fpot had received the ufual plowings in the common way. I divided it into four almoft equal parts ; one of which I deftin'd to be fowed in the old way ; the fecond, to be fowed in equally diftant rows with the drill-plough ; the third, to be laid out in beds five feet wide ; and the fourth, in beds of fix feet.
I was prefent whilft the firft four or five beds were made ; and after marking out the others, left the finishing of them to my far- mer, not imagining he could miftake : however, he did j fo that I had in all twenty-five beds, viz. but three of fix feet, and twenty- two of five feet.
We fowed the next day, which was the fifteenth of September, the weather being very fine. We began with the beds, twenty-two of which were fowed with three rows, and three with fix. Thefe beds took up an arpent and an half of ground, and 21 pounds, 1 ounce, and 2 pennyweights of feed.
Immediately after, I fowed in the common way the fpot pre- pared for that purpofe, with 63 pounds, 4 ounces, and 2 penny- weights" of feed.
Whilft this part was harrowing, the third fpot was fowed in equally diftant rows with the drill-plough, and took up 25 pounds, 5 ounces of feed.
All thefe operations were performed in three hours and'an half. I was furprifed at the eafe with which we did them, confidering that this was the firft time we had ufed, or even ktn a drill-plough. The only fault I found in it, was, that it bruifed and ground fome of the grains. However, my ground was fufficiently ftock'd with plants, excepting the part that was fowed in equally diftant rows, in which there were here and there fome chafms, occafioned by our not having kept the drill in a parallel direction in fome places.
Some time after, I gave directions for making a fmall plough with one wheel, to turn up my alleys. Unfortunately, this inftru- ment could not be got ready before the rains which began in Octo- ber ; fo that I could not give the latter plowings which I intended. However, only two or three of my beds fuffcred at one end, where the ground had not flope enough for the water to run off.
The month of March being likewife very rainy, and not having
S leifure
i3o EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
leifure to go into the country, my alleys ftill remained without cul- ture, which they received for the firft time the twenty-firft or twenty- fecond of April, with my fmall plough.
A month after, that is to fay, about the twentieth of May, my alleys were plowed again with the cultivator. This was of great fervice to the ground, by breaking the clods which my fmall plough had left in April. From this time, I conceived great hopes : my plants branched out confiderably j their blades grew very large, and of a deep green j whilft the wheat in the neighbouring fields was poor and ftinted, and of a yellow green.
I could not poffibly give my alleys any other plowings after May, by reafon of the rains which were almoft continual.
In the beginning of Auguft I vifited my corn, which did not yet feem thoroughly ripe; efpecially that of the beds: but it was incom- parably finer than the neighbouring wheat ; the ftalks were much ftronger, taller, and more vigorous than any in the common way, and the ears at leaft twice as long and well filled. I judged that they would require a fortnight more to ripen them : but a few very hot days made them turn yellow, and they were reaped at the fa'me time as the other wheat of the country.
I fay nothing of the rains which hurt the harveft, nor of the quantity of weeds which the wetnefs of this year produced in all lands, and particularly in the beft. Like others, I had a great many weeds in my ground ; but the ftrength and tallnefs of the wheat in the beds, and in the part that was fowed with the drill-plough, got fo far the better of thofe enemies, that the crop fuffered little by them.
The part fowed in the common way, and for which 63 pounds, 4 ounces, and 2 pennyweights of feed was ufed, yielded 480 pounds of grain, after deducting the tythe : confequently the neat produce was 417 pounds. The products of other parts of this field (the tythe likewife deducted) were as follows. The fpot fowed in equally di- ftant rows, with the drill-plough, and with 25 pounds 5 ounces of feed, yielded at leaft 500 pounds of grain, and would certainly have produced more, had it not been for the mifmanagement of the drill- plough, which I mentioned before. The neat produce here, was therefore 474 pounds, 1 1 ounces. The beds which were fowed with 21 pounds, 1 ounce, and 2 pennyweights of feed, yielded 660 pounds; and for their neat produce, 638 pounds, 14 ounces.
I fupprefs all the reflections which naturally occur in favour of
thefe
Chap. I. BY M. DE LA CROIX. 131
thefe trials, imperfect as they were : but to prove frill more how ad- vantageous it is to fow the feed at fufficient diftances, I fhall men- tion a little experiment which I made in my garden. I planted in a bed, about thirty grains of wheat, feven or eight inches diftant from one another. Each grain produced its plant, which I cultivated carefully at the proper feafons, and particularly in the fpring : that is to fay, I gave the earth round thefe plants a good ftirring, before they branched, before they fpindled, and before and after they had bloffomed. They grew Co prodigioufly, that one would fcarcely have taken them for common wheat. The ftalks were upwards of four feet high, exclufive of the ear ; the blades were above two fingers broad; and they remained thus beautiful till the beginning of July, when they were feized with the rufl. The very day on which I perceived this accident, was excefiively hot and fultry, and had been immediately preceeded by a very thick fog. This, doubtlefs, occa- sioned an extravafation of the fap. I let thefe plants ftand till the grain was thoroughly ripe, and then I plucked them up. Their roots were much longer, and fpread a great deal wider than thofe of any wheat in the common way. I reckoned the number of ears upon each plant, and found that the pooreft of them had produced from 35 to 40, and that many had from 80 to 90 : three, in par- ticular, had 102, 104, and 105 ears. I counted 42 grains in one car.
SECT. IX.
Experiments made near Guignes, in the Province of Brie, under the Direction of M. Roussel, in 1755.
MRouffel prudently began, as we would a'dvife every one to • do, with fmall experiments. His firft trial of the new hufbandry was upon a little fpot : but being prevented from attend- ing to it in perfon, many faults were committed during his abfencc. On his return, which was towards the end of November 1754, he inquired after his crop, and learnt, with pleafure, that fome grains had produced upwards of 60 ears a-piece, and that many of thefe ears contained 64 grains. This was fufficient to (hew him the ex- cellence of the new culture, which he immediately determined to extend to larger objects.
He had no time to lofe. Two contiguous pieces of ground, con- taining 20 arpents, had been folded, and were jult going to be
S z - plowed
i32 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
plowed for the lafl time, in order to be lowed according to the ufual pratti :c of the country. Thefe were chofen for the farther trial of the new hufbandry, and were accordingly ibvvn with our drill-plough, between the ninth and twenty-fiift of October, with 27 bufhels and 4 pounds of wheat, including 10 pounds and an half, which were ufed to fill up feme fpaces where the feed had milled.
At the fame time, an adjacent piece of ground which had been folded like the former, and of which the foil was equal to the beft part of the field fowed in rows, was fown in the common way. This laft contained three arpents and three quarters, and took, up 23 bufhels of feed j which is feven bufhels and one-third to each ar- pent.
The corn came up finely in both fields : but that which was fowed in rows happened to be near a wood, from which numbers of rabbits came and entirely deftroyed the plants of four arpents : the roots which they left, were eaten up by worms ; and the dung of the fheep-folds produced a great quantity of weeds. This was not all : as the furrows did not run in the direction of the declivity of the ground, the water lodged in them, fo that the fiift plowing, which ought to have been given in March,, could not be performed till April, when it left a great many clods.
Thefe clods were grown hard by the time of the fecond plowing, which was performed with a plough with two mould-boards, which inftead of breaking and lcofening the ground, and laying frefh earth to the roots, only turned thofe hard clods over upon the rows.
The third plowing, which was given with a plough with two ihares, and in more favourable weather, had a better effect.
Notwithstanding the accidents which had reduced this piece of wheat to fo wretched a condition, that the plowmen told their ma- ilers they were fure it never would produce a crop worth reaping, and that all their labour was thrown away : yet, reckoning upon the footing of 20 arpents, though it would be but juft to deduct the four which were abfolutely deftroyed by the rabbits ; and fuppofing too, the crops of 17156 and 1757 to be no greater than that of 1754; M. Rouifel's calculation proves, that even then thefe three crops will ftill be better than what the fame field would produce in the com- mon way.
But, fays M. RoufTel, if we do the new hufbandry part of the
juftice it deferves ; and, inftead of including the four arpents which
the rabbits deftroyed, we reckon only the produce of 16 arpents,
I pre-
Chap. I. BY M. ROUSSEL, 133
prepared in a hurry, and badly plowed ; and even fuppofe them to be no better managed in the following years, and the whole extent of the 20 arpents, to be only of the fame quality ns the 3 arpents and three quarters with which it was intended to be compared ; the produce of both, in three years, will be as follows.
The 16 arpents produced 552 buihels of wheat, which was pre- ferred to any other for feed, not only becaufe it was finer, but like- wife becaufe it was quite free from all feeds of weeds. This is after the rate of 34 bufhels and an half for every arpent.
From this, we are to deduct the feed, which is, for each arpenf, one bufhel and feven pounds and an half.
The neat produce of each arpent, will then be 33 bufhels and three pounds of wheat, free from ail feeds of weeds.
Suppoiing the crops to be no greater in the following years, tho' • what we mall fay hereafter will fhew that they certainly will, each arpent will have produced at the end of three years, 99 bufhels and nine pounds of wheat.
The other piece of ground, which was cultivated in the old way, in order to make the comparifon, produced 60 bufhels an arpent, from which we are to deduct 7 bufhels and 19 pounds, for the feed.
The remaining neat produce is 52 buihels and 2 pounds.
The fecond year's produce of this fame arpent, fowed with fpring-corn, can be reckoned at only half the value of the firft year's crop of wheat j and the third year produces nothing, being the year of fallow.
Thus the total neat produce of the arpent cultivated in the com- mon way, will be, at the end of three years, only 78 bufhels and 3 pounds j whilft that in the new way, will be 99 buihels and 9 pounds.
M. Roussel gives the following Account of his Experiments in 1756.
TN October 1755, I chofe, in the middle of a fallow field which A had been well plowed, and was not expofed to any of the acci- dents I met with laft year,* 10 arpents of ground, at 20 feet to the perch, and 100 perches to the arpent. This was fet apart for the new hufbandry : and that I might be able to make a juft comparifon,
I mea-
* This change of ground was far from being an advantage to the new hufbandry. as M. du Hamel obferves.
i34 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
I meafured out 10 other arpents of the fame field, and the fame kind of foil, to be fowed broad caffc in the old way.
Thefe laft ten arpents were extremely well dunged by folding of fheep upon them. With regard to the ten arpents which were to be cultivated in the new way, and which compofed 93 beds five feet wide, including the alleys ; only eight of thefe beds were dunged by fheep, and that at the fame time, and to the fame degree as the ground by which the comparifon was intended to be made : of the other beds, 76 had no fort of dung or amendment whatever; and nine were dunged more or lefs, in the manner and proportion hereafter mentioned.
Moft of thofe who pra&ife the new husbandry, ufe no dung at all. I fuppofed that their reafon for rejecting this manure was, the difficulty of finding a proper time to apply it ; for whilft the alleys receive their feveral flirtings, no wheel carriage can be admitted with dung without hurting the beds which are fown, and hardening the loofe mould of the alleys : to carry it on the backs of cattle, would be at befl: a very difficult, tedious, and expenfive way, where any conliderable fpace is to be tilled : to fpread it upon the earth only the moment the feed is going to be fowed, is a fure way to clog up the drill-plough and hinder its operation, if the dung be not tho- roughly rotten ; and to breed weeds, which by no means fuit this culture. To remedy thefe inconveniences, I contrived the following method. I opened in each of the alleys one of thofe large furrows which muff, always be every year at the end of the fummer hoeings, in the place where the three rows of feed are afterwards to be fowed ; and by drawing the plough with two mould- boards once through it, I made it 14 or 15 inches wide ; which is the breadth that the three rows of feed require. The fpace between two of thefe deep furrows, is exactly the breadth of a cart, the wheels of which going in them, hurt no part that has been plowed, and do not prefs down or harden the loofe mould ; nor do the horfes do any damage, becaufe they necefTarily tread upon the flubble of the late reaped beds, in the middle between thofe two furrows. This was the me- thod I ufed to dung the 9 beds in queftion. * The dung was well rotted : it was fpread at the bottom of the furrows, and immediately covered over by the fame plowing that made the beds which were fowed feme days after. Perhaps this manure may be of more fer-
vice
* This, fays M. Du Hamel, is a contrivance of great importance, and I confeffr, add? he, that I have always been puzzled how to fpread dung in the n:w hufbandry.
Chap. I. BYM. ROUS3EL. 135
vice to my lands than to many others, becaufe the foil is naturally cold and backward. The grain is by this means fowed upon a kind of gentle hot-bed, the warmth of which promotes the branching and vegetation of the plants. The winter rains and frofts, raife a fermentation. The firft fpring plowing, by giving it a little air, re- vives that fermentation at the very time when the fap is raoft active, and the plant begins to branch. As the dung rots, a kind of mo- tion is cauied in the earth, which la fome meafure anfwers the end of a flight plowing, and brings frefli nourishment to the roots. The fame heat which confumes the firaw, likewife confumes the little feeds that are in the dung, which might otherwife produce num- bers of weeds. When this dung is brought up again to the furface of the earth, by the next year's plowings, it will no longer have thofe hurtful feeds. It will indeed have loft its heat ; but it will ftill have retained all its fatnefs, which will mix with the earth ; and land thus conftantly dunged, will in time become a perfectly fine mould. But if thefe layers of dung fhould be fpread too thick, or the dung itfelf be of too hot a nature, the roots of the corn might perhaps be endangered thereby. It was to determine this, that I tried the following experiments, to know the effects of different dungs, and what quantity it is proper to employ.
Three beds were dunged, in the above manner, with horfe- dung : the firft, which was 184 toifes long, had three loads of dung; the fecond, of 185 toifes, had but two and a half; and the third, of 187 toifes, had but two. Three other beds were dunged with cow-dung: one of 137 toifes, with two loads and a half; the fecond, of the fame length, with two loads ; and the third, of 138 toifes, with only one load and a half. The three remaining beds had fbeep's dung: the firft, of 133 toifes, two loads; the fe- cond, of 132 toifes, one load and a half; and the third, which was of the fame length, one load.
Thefe beds were diftributed in fuch manner, that each of them was in the middle of two other beds which were not dunged: The field, thus laid out, was fowed the thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth, and Sixteenth of October, with your drill-plow, which plants three rows in each bed. I ufed 18 bufhels of feed; and afterwards half a bufhel, to fill up the chafms ; which is after the rate of ona bufhel and 1 8 pounds to an arpent, and confequently a little too much. Accordingly, when the corn came up, I faw it was too thick fown. The reafon was, that the grain was too fmall, and not pro- portioned
136 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
portioned to the outlet of the drill-plough. At the end of ten days, this corn rofe well. On the eighteenth of December, I obferved that moft of thefe plants had branched into four ftalks, whilft thofe in the common way had but three. I perceived no fenfible difference then, between the dunged and the undunged beds. It was not till the twenty fourth of January that I faw plainly that the plants of the dunged beds were of a deeper green, and had made longer and more vigorous moots than thofe of the undunged beds. By the twentieth of February, five fmaller ftalks iffued out of the five great ones, which was not the cafe with the wheat in the common way. The alleys did not receive their firft plowing till the tenth of March: Eleven of the main ftalks grew an inch and a half in five days ; and I obferved that the moles were rather more bufy in the dunged beds, than in the others. As the earth was yet fomewhat too foft, I thought it needlefs to continue a plowing which could do no good, and therefore poftponed it to the twenty-eighth of March, and fol- lowing days. The ninth of April, I found a plant with 18 ftalks in one of the dunged beds : the greateft number of branches that any of the plants in the undunged beds had, was twelve : but on the other hand, I likewife found fome which had eighteen in the field of comparifon fowed in the common way. The ninth cf May, this fame plant had 20 ftalks ; and from that time it branched no more. The fecond plowing was not given till three weeks after, iiz. the twenty eighth of May ; which, I think, was fomewhat too late af- ter the corn had ceafed to branch. The twenty third of June, there were three forts of wheat in all the beds : there were ears in blollom, others juft going out of bloom, and others not yet out of their hoods. The fineft ears were thofe which came up and bloflbmed firft. The moft forward beds were thofe which had been dunged under furrow, with fheep's dung : the next to them, were the eight beds which had been folded, the plants of which were a little greener than thofe of the undunged beds. The laft plowing was given on the tenth of July. The grain had then begun to fill : but that in the common way was the meft forward, though it was fowed three weeks later than the other. I know not for what reaibn, the wheat of the new hufbandry began to be reaped the fourth of Auguff, and that in the old way was let ftand till the thirteenth. The product of both cul- tures was as follows,
Jo
Chap. I. BY M. ROUSSELi 137
In the 10 arpents cultivated in the new way, the threi b:ds durg^d with horfe-dung, yielded,
Sheaves.
The firft, 184 toifes long, dunged with 3 loads, — — 19
The fellow to it, not dunged, 15
The fecond, 185 toifes long, du iged with 2 loads and a half, 18
The fellow to it, not dunged, 1+
The third, 187 toifes long, du iged with 2 loads, 16
The fellow to it, not dunged, l3
The three beds dunged with cow dung, yielded,
The firft, 137 toifes long, and dunged with 2 loads and a half, 16
The fellow to it, not dunged, : - "
The fecond, likewife 137 toifes long, and dunged with 2 loads, 15
The fellow to it, not dunged, i 2
The third, 138 toifes long, and dunged with 1 load and a half, 14^
The fellow to it, not dunged, • 12
The three beds dunged with fheep's dung, yielded,
The firft, 133 toifes long, and dunged with 2 loads, ■ 17
The fellow to it, not dunged, '< — ' — 10
The fecond, 132 toiles long, and dunged with 1 load and a half, 15
The fellow to it, not dunged, * ' 1 1
The third, 132 toifes long, and dunged with 1 load, — 14
The fellow to it, not dunged, ■ ■ - 10
The eight beds which had been folded, two of which were
18-5 toifes long, three 186, and three 187, produced in all, 142
This is near 1 8 fheaves apiece.
The 6 7 other beds, which had not been dunged, produced in all 814
This is fomewhat more than 1 2 fheaves apiece.
Total produce of the 10 arpents cultivated in the new way . . Sheaves 1208
The 10 arpents fowed in the common broad-caft way, after having been well folded all over, produced . Sheaves 1820
Thefe facts fliew the advantage of dunging in this manner. It is plain that the beft dung is that of fheep, and that it is more profit- able when laid under furrow, than when it is fpread upon the furface of the ground by folding.
In proportion to the product of the bed 133 toifes long, which was dunged with two loads of fheep's dung, and produced 1 7 fheaves;
T the
i38 . EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, -Part II.
the bed 184 toifes long, which was dunged with -three loads 0/ horfe dung, and produced only 19 fheave's, would, if dunged with fheep's dung, have produced 23 +ttt,' and the bed dunged with cow dung, which yielded but 16 fheaves, would have yielded 17 +t4j.
The eight folded beds, whofe whole length was 1489 toifes, would have yielded 190 {heaves + tM-, inftead of only 142 fheaves, which was the amount of their product.
It is likewife plain, that an arpent of land, the meafure of which is 10 perches by 10, the perch "being 20 feet; or, which is the fame thing, a furface of 200 feet, which confequently contains 40 beds, five feet wide and 33 toifes two feet long, which makes a total length of 1333 toifes ; it is plain, I fay, that this arpent dunged as the 133 toifes were with fheep's dung, would have yielded, in pro- portion to 17 fheaves on 133 toifes, 170 fheaves; and that my 10. arpents, in the fame proportion, would confequently have produced me 1700 fheaves, which would be but 120 fheaves lefs than the whole produce of the 10 arpents folded all over and fowed in the broad-cafi way. If fo, I fay, that thofe 120 fheaves would not be equivalent to the quantity of grain which I faved by fowing according to the new hufbandry. An hundred fheaves yield, in general, little more than 18 bufhels, Paris meafure. The 120 fheaves which the 10 arpents fowed in the broad-caft way produced more than the 10 ar- pents in beds, would therefore yield but 21 bufhels and three-fifths, ■Deduct this from the forty- one bufhels and a half, which I faved in the feed of thefe Iaft -jo arpents fowed in the new way, and 1 fhall ftillbe a gainer: for you may remember that I fowed only- 18 bufhels and a half, in this ground ; whereas 60 bufhels were ufecl to low the other 10 arpents in the common way. This would have, been the produce of this fir ft -year's crop, fuppofing that the whole of my 10 arpents in beds had been dunged as the 133 toifes were, . For want of that, I reaped but 1208 fheaves. . They have juft been , .threfhed, and have yielded only 240 bufhels of grain.
M.Duhamel makes the following obfervations on this account of, M. Rouffel.
The 1208 fheaves yielded but 20 feptiers, or 240 bufhels of grain, . from which we are to deduct 1 8 bufhels and a half for the feed. The neat produce is therefore 221 bufhels and a half, which would make in three years 664 bufhels and a half. The other field in the com- mon way produced 417 bufhels, from which we are to deduct 60 for the feed : the neat produce is confequently %$j bufhels ; the half
of
Chap. I. BY M. ROUS3EL. i39
of which is 178 bufhels and a half, for the next year's crop. This is all that the 10 arpents in the common way would produce in three years, and amounts to no more than 535 bumels and a half: confe- quently the balance in favour of the new husbandry, in three years, is 129 bumels, or one fourth part of the whole ; and that from 1 field which was fowed in rows for the firft time, and of which three quarters were not dunged at all : whilfr. the other, with which it is compared, had been folded all over, and, for the year, produced a very plentiful crop.
M. Duhamel relates feveral other experiments, which were com- municated to him by different perfons, during the publication of his work : but as they contain nothing effentialiy different from thofe we have already given, and, like them, were made only on fmall pieces of ground, we think it needlefs to mention them here. We mall therefore proceed to the judicious and more extenfive experiments of M. de Chateau-vieux, after extracting a few paffages from the writings of one of our own countrymen, in confirmation of the ad- vantages of the new hufbandry.
" Deep plowing, (fays Mr. Miller, in his Gardener's Dictionary ) where the ftaple of the ground is deep enough to admit of it will be of great fervice to corn : for the fmall fibres of the roots, which are the mouths that fupply the nouriihment, extend themfel'ves very deep into the ground. I have traced many of them upwards of three feet, and believe they fpread much farther where the ground is li<mt : therefore it is of great advantage to the crop to have the ground it.rred and oofened to a proper depth : for by fo doing, the roots will find a fupply of pafture for the nourifhment and augmentation of the ears, at the time they are forming, when it is moil required : for if the ground is plowed mallow, the roots will have extended themfelves to that depth by the fpring; fo that when the nourifhment is wanted to fupply the ftalks, the roots are itinted by the hardnefs of the foil T ut Yle7cannot P^etrate. When this is the cafe, the colour of the blade is frequently feen to change in April, and feldom recovers its verdure again : and when this happens, the ftalks are always weakened in proportion to the decay of the blade : for it is well known from long experience, that the leaves or blades of corn are ne-
Cp llryr°,rraV7n nourifliai£nt fro?} the air and dews, for the increafe of the ftalk and ear.
.1 " I h\V,C °!?ferved' adds he> that, in general, the farmers fow more than double the quantity of corn en their lands than is necefiary ;
T 2 therefore
i4o EXPERIMENTS OX WHEAT. Eart II.
therefore there is a great wafie of grain, which, in fcarce years, amounts to a considerable fum in large fartri« ■ arid to a whole country, it is an object worthy the attention of the public : but I fear whatever may be faid to prevent this, will have but little weight with the practitioners of agriculture, who are lb fond of old cuftoms, as rarely to be prevailed upon to alter them, though they are ex- tremely abfurd. But if theie people could be pn i to make the trial with care, they muft be foon convinced of their error : for if they will but examine a field of corn fownin the common w;.- . I will find but few roots which have more than two or three /talk?, unlefs by chance, where there may be fome few roots which '. room to fpread, upon which there may be fix, eight, or ten (talks, and frequently many more : but in a field cf wheat which had not a greater allowance than one bufhel of corn to an acre, fo that the roots had room to fpread, I have obferved that the roots produced from fix to twelve or fourteen ftalks, which were ftrong, and h.id long well- nourifhed ears, and the produce was much greater than in anv Eh . Ie fields in the neighbourhood, winch were fown with the common allowance. And if the land is good, and the roots fbnd at a proper diftance from each other, there will be few roots which will not pro- duce as many ftalks as I have here mentioned, and the ear; wil better nourished.
" The horfe-hoeing husbandry which v ;.s ptfaftifed by Mr. Tull, has been almoft univerfally rejected by the farmers in every country ; it being fo oppofite to their accuftomed practice, that thev cannot be prevailed upon to make a trial of it : and indeed fome abfurdities in Mr. Tull himfelf have greatly contributed to give them a difguft to it; one of which, and that perhaps not the lealr, is, his pell:, aflerting that the fame land would nourifh the fame fpecies of plants, without changing the crops, for ever, and this without manure * ; which his own experience afterwards proved to be falfe. But not- withstanding thefe and fome other particulars which have been ad- vanced by Mr. Tull, it is much to be wifhed, continues Mr. Miller, that this new hufbandry might be univerfally praflifed ; for fome few perfons who have made fufficient trial of it, have found their crops anfwer much better, than in the common cr old method of hufbandry ; and the French, who have learned it from Mr. Tull's book, are engaging in the practice of it with greater ardour than
ihofc
* VI. du Hamd, throughout his whole work, takes everv opportunity to recorr.- idcftd the ufe of manure* in the new bultandrr.
Chap. I. BY M. ROUSSEL 141
thofe of our own country : and although they had not the proper inftruments of agriculture for the performance, and meet with as ftrong oppofition from the perfons employed to execute the bufinefs, as in England ; yet the gentlemen foon determined to perfift in the practice of it, though as yet few of their experiments have had the fuccefs they hoped for *-j partly from the awkwardnefs of their la- bourers, and partly from their averfenefs to practife this hufbandry ; and alio from their being made in lands not well conditioned : but yet their produce has been equal to that of the old hulbandry ; and they fay, that if the produce of land in the new method of huf- bandry, 'does not exceed that in the old way ; yet, by faving ftven parts in eight of the feed-corn, it is a great affair to a whole country, efpecially in times of fcarcity.
" I fhall only mention two or three late experiments which have been made in the new way, whereby the utility of it will more fully-
" The firft was in a field of wheat, which was fown partly in broad-caft in the common method, and partly according to Mr.Tull's method. The fpots thus fown, were not regular in lands, but in- terlperfed indifferently in many directions. Thofe parts of the field in Tull's method were in rows at two feet diftance, and flood thin in the rows. The roots of the wheat in thofe fpots had from ten to thirty ffalks upon a root, and continued upright till it was reaped ; whereas few of the roots in the common method, had more than two or three ffalks, and thefe were moft of them lodged before har- veft : fo that upon trial of the grain when threflied, there was near a third part more in weight and meafure, than from the fame extent of ground, taken in the beft part of the field fown in the common
way. .
" Another trial was made in fowing of the corn in rows at different diftances, with fome fown in two parts of the ground broad-caft. The event was, that all which was fown broad-caft, in the ufual way, was lodged, as was alfo moft of that where the rows were fix or nine inches afunder: thofe which ftood a foot diftance efcaped better, but the rows two feet afunder were the beft, and the produce much greater than any of the other ; which plainly fhews the ab- furdity of the practice of fowing a great quantity of feeds, to
have
* Mr Miller could not have faid this, if he had ever feen the three laft volumes ♦f M. du Hamel's work, and particularly the experiments of M. dfe Chatcau-vieux,
•-
i42 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
have a better produce, which is the opinion of mod of the old farmers, a
" The produce of an acre of wheat is various, according to the goodnefs of the foil. In fome of the fhallow, chalky, down lands, where there have been near four bufhels of corn fown, I have known the produce not more than double of the feed : but when this jb the cafe, the farmer had much better let his land lie wafte, fince the produce will not defray the expence ; fo that more than the rent of the land is loft. And although thefe forts of crops are frequently feen on fuch land, yet fuch is the paffion for plowing among the hufbandmen at prefent, that if they were not reftrained by the landlords, they would introduce the plough into every field, notwithstanding they are fure to lofe by it.
" But although the produce of thefe poor downs is fo fmall, as be- fore related ; yet upon good land, where the corn has ftood thin upon the ground, 1 have known eight or ten quarters reaped from an acre, over the whole field, and fometinies more : and I have been informed by perfons of great credit, that on good land, which was drilled and managed with the horfe-hoe, they have had twelve quarters from an acre of land, which is a great produce : and this with greater certainty, if the feafons prove bad, than can be expect- ed by the common hufbandry."
Thus far Mr. Miller, whofe remarks, we hope, will have their proper Weight.
CHAP. II. SEC T. I.
-
Experiments made by M. Lullin de Chateau-vieux, Fuji Synaic of the City and Republic of Geneva, in the Tear 1751.
IN October 1750, I began my experiments on a fpot of ground of a rich ftrong foil, twenty-fix toifes and four feet in length, and fix toifes and four feet in breadth, containing 177 fquare toifes and. 28 feet. Not being yet provided with proper inltruments for the horfe-hoeing hufbandry, I caufed it to be dug with the fpade, and formed it into feven beds of equal fize. Great care was taken to break the clods thoroughly, and to dig the earth very deep. The beds, which were in a loofe ftate, were raifed high in the middle.
The fourteenth of October, I fowed three of the beds with wheat, two with barley, and two with oats. I muft obferve, that , 1 in
Chap. II. BY M. LULLItt DE CHATEAU- VIEUX. 143
in this country, it would have been better to have fowed a fort- night fooner.
I made three furrows in each bed, fo mallow, that the feed was not buried above half an inch deep. The wheat was dropt by hand, in fingle grains, at the diftance of fix inches from one another. The barley was dropt at nine inches diftance, becaufe it branches more than wheat. Though oats branch more than either, yet, as it is a tender plant, and ap{ to be killed by the winter's cold, I fowed it at the diftance of three inches one grain from another.
I ufed 2880 grains of wheat, weighing three ounces. fifteen penny- weights, to fow the three beds. In one of the beds of barley, I fowed four rows. I employed 149 1 grains, weighing two ounces, in fowing the two beds j and four ounces of oats were fufficient to fow the two other beds. I negledled to count the grains.
Thefe feeds came up very well, and though they grew but little before winter, yet fome of them fhot out their fecond leaf. They foon fuftained a confiderable lofs. Numbers of fmall fnails eat ma- ny of the plants clofe to the earth. I judged it neceffary to fupply this lofs, by fowing frefh feed.
The winter was very unfavourable to corn. We had almoft con- - tinual rains, with little fnow or froft. The corn in general fuf- fercd greatly, and the crops were very inconfiderable in this country.
Early in the fpring, thefe plants made ftrong moots, and had much the better of the corn in the common way. The blades were very large, and of a deep green, and the number of ftalks increafed great- ly. The alleys were hoed in good time, and the advantage refulting from this operation, was very manifeft. I vifited my plants the latter end of April, and found their numbers greatly diminished. . The miichief which the fnails had done them, was almoft the. only caufe. The inclemency of the winter likewife deftroyed fome : . fo that I found I had loft 1068 plants of wheat, and had but 181 2 remaining.. My plants of barley fell fhort by 412, their number being reduced to 1079. The winter deftroyed fo many plants of : the oats, that very few were left. .
From this time, all the plants grew exceedingly : they branched fo much, that, as far as I could judge, every plant of wheat, taking them one with another, produced 28 ftalks, the barley above 40, and the oats ftill more. Each plant formed a large tuft, fome of 60, 80, and above a third part of the plants of about 150 ftalks: fo that though they were at firft. at a great diftance from one ano- ther,
i44 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
fher, in June and July they entirely covered the furface of the alleys. All thefe fpindled, and produced, each in its kind, very long and large ears, full of grain from one end to the other. They ripened kindly, but had not yet got over all their mifchances. Thefe fine ears were a prey to birds, which could not be kept off. This is an inconvenience to which all fmall experiments are liable. That I might fave fomething, I was obliged to cut my corn down before it was quite ripe. But before I did that, I examined myfelf as care- fully as I poilibly could what the lofs might amount to which I had fuftained by the birds: and betides this, I fent for four farmers, (in quality of appraifers,) to eftimate the damage. They ail agreed that it was above half the crop, and aflured me I mould not miftake if I reckoned it as fuch. I had formed the fame judgment myfelf. We found the lofs fomewhat lefs confiderable in the barley. As to the oats, it could not be fo well afcertained : but we believed it could not be lefs than a third part of the crop.
While the wheat ripened, I difcovered that fome plants were blighted. All thefe, whether blighted totally or only in part, I caufed to be plucked up, before I cut down the reft of the crop. They amounted to 297; fo that I was reduced to 15 15 plants of wheat, the feed of which, after deducting that which produced the 297 blighted plants, is reduced to two ounces and fix pennyweights. The 1515 plants were the whole produce of the crop, which yielded $$ pounds of 18 ounces to the pound. But the fame ground and plants produced likewife what was eaten by the birds ; for which it is but juft to make an allowance. The whole produce will then have been in reality 1 10 pounds, which to me feemed very confiderable.
I made another enquiry, which feemed to me of fome importance : this was, to know whether the number of the fineft and largeft ears, was greater than that of the middling and fmalleft. I examined them with the utmoft attention, and found almoft all the ears of equal beauty: at leaft 19 out of 20, I am confident, were fo.
I was likewife willing to know what number of grains might be contained in each ear. To this end, without regarding the propor- tion I had found between the number of the fineft ears and that of the fmalleft, I took twelve middle fized ears, twelve of the fmalleft, and twelve of the fineft.
The 12 middling ears contained one with another 37 grains.
The 12 fmalleft ears, 30 grains; and
The 12 fineft ears, 50 grains apiece.
The
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHATEAU-VIEUX. 14-
The 1079 plants of barley, produced j$ pounds of 18 ounces to the pound. What was eaten by the birds, fhould likewife be added here.
My oats produced 103 pounds of 18 ounces, excluiive of what was deftroyed by the birds.
This little experiment (hews that the new hufbandry will be equally profitable for all forts of grains.
OBSERVATIONS.
/Tp H E quantity of wheat gathered from the three beds, feems -*■ to me as great as could be expected. Though I had but 55 pounds, yet, adding thereto the 55 eaten by the birds, this little fpot yielded no pounds. In large fields, we are not lb fenfible of what the birds deftroy.
If we likewife take into this account, the 1068 plants deftroyed by the fnails, and the 297 blighted plants, making together 1365; they would have yielded ioo pounds of wheat, and the whole crop would have been 210 pounds: for it cannot be doubted but they would have yielded in the fame proportion as the 1515. What proves it is, that in a fpace about five fathom long, at the end of the beds, which efcaped the fnails, very few plants failed ; and the reft were very thriving and branched greatly : fo that it is evident, the whole ground could eafily have nourifhed all the plants that were intended to grow on it, and which were at the diftance of fix inches from one another. I make this remark, in order to iliew what may be expected from the following experiments, it being an eafy matter to fow the ground fo as to have the defired number of plants.
I fuppofe then, and I think juflly, that this fmall fpot of ground can produce 210 pounds of wheat at one crop ; but the ineftimable advantages of the new hufbandry is, that it keeps the earth in a ftate fit for lowing every year ; fo that in two years it can yield 420 pounds ; whereas in the common hufbandry of this country, the far- mer can have but one crop in that time, being obliged to fow his land only every fecond year, and that one crop will fall greatly fhort of the two which the new hufbandry will produce. A vafl .advan- tage in favour of this laft.
Without being too partial to the new hufbandry, we may expect that the fecond and following crops will be more plentiful, the earth
U being
i46 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
being in finer tilth. Accordingly, the wheat with which I have fowed thefe three beds a fecond time, is already vifibly benefited by the loofer ftate of the earth which has been To frequently ftirred in the fummer. I have provided againft the accidents which deftroyed fo many of my plants, by fowing thicker. Inftead of three ounces fifteen pennyweights of wheat, which I fowed laft year, I have now fowed nine ounces twelve pennyweights : and though the fnails have again eat many of the plants this year, clofe to the ground, a iufficient number ftill remains, by means of the additional feed, to fill the beds, and they are equally diftributed.
I fhall now compare the crop I have been fpeaking of, with that of the experiment which I made on the fame fpot of ground in the year 1729, in order to fee whether I could not obtain a more plenti- ful return, by fowing thinner than is ufually praftifed. The ground was plowed and fowed in the common way. I employed fix pounds of wheat to fow it, being fomewhat lefs than half the ufual quantity. It looked extremely well all the time it grew, and pro- duced above double the quantity that wheat did in the common fields. It yielded me 105 pounds of wheat. Even in this way, I could have but one crop in two years : and it appears that I have not exaggerated the produce of the new hufbandry, in making it 420 pounds in the fame fpace of time, which is a clear gain of 3 1 5 pounds.
I have fince tried fome other experiments; one of which, made in the year 1746, I muft now mention. I tried two things at the fame time : firft, whether wheat would grow after it had been kept feveral years; and fecondly, whether fowing each grain at fix inches diftance would turn to account. As I did not intend to make the experiment on a large field, I chofe for it a fpot of ftrong earth, in bad condition, fit for making bricks. I fowed in it three quar- ters of an ounce of wheat, which I had preferved carefully for eight years. It rofe pretty well *; but about one fourth of the grains did not fprout at all. After the winter, thefe plants grew very ftrong. I delayed feeing them too long, for I found them quite choaked with weeds. I lent a woman to weed them, who unluckily at the fame time pulled up almoft all the plants of wheat : the fineft fuffered moft, lhe not imagining that they could be wheat. There were but
about
* M. Du Hamel obferves, that it is very lingular that wheat, eight years old, fcould fprout fo well ; for that be fowed fome oi feven years old, which did not rife at all.
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHATEAU-VIEU-X. *47
about forty plants left, and thofe at very great and unequal diftances. Thefe produced tufts of upwards of fifty ftalks, with ears five or fix inches long, containing a great deal of grain, which became the prey of birds. This experiment, if it anfwered no other end, is at leaft a proof of the goodnefs of the new hufbandry.
The good fuccefs of thefe little experiments, was a ftrong in- ducement to me to make more confiderable ones : but in order to this, it was necefTary to be provided with a proper hoe and drill- plough : for I muft confefs that Mr. Tull's did not appear to me to be fuch. Its great fault is, that it is too complex.
Being provided with a proper hoe-plough, I foon became fenfible of the advantages of it. Numbers of fuch plows are already ufed in this country ; and, which is faying a great deal, even our farmers make ufe of them.
This is the plough I ufed all this fummer in preparing my grounds. It did admirably well in the alleys of my experiment, after the corn was above four feet high. No plant was hurt by it, and I could, bring the plough as near them as I pleafed. Thus it fully and con- veniently performs this hoeing, in which I have feldom ufed more than one horfe. I have likewife prepared with it the ground fowed with wheat this autumn.
My new horfe and drill-ploughs have made it eafy for me to en- large my experiments this year. However, I thought it mod advis- able to proceed by degrees ; and have therefore limited myfelf to the culture of about eight arpents, according to the new hufbandry, part of which is in a very ftrong foil, part in a very light foil, and part in a middling and ftony foil.
What I have had chiefly in view in my experiments this year is to know excSlly what quantity of feed will produce the moji plentiful crop. To this end, I have fowed wheat in different degrees of thick- nefs, dropping the grains fome at one inch, fome at two, and fo on, to the diftance of fix inches from each other.
All this wheat has at prefent a fine appearance, artd the plants are infinitely ftronger than thofe in the common fields : their blades are much larger, and of a very deep green colour. What is more, they have already branched, and promife a great number of ftalks. I have counted on fome plants 20, and on others 25. Upon the whole, there is great reafon to expedt an abundant crop.
I have made another experiment with the drill-plough, with which I have fowed fome of my common fields. Jnftead oi fowing
U 2 the
i48 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
the feed by hand in the broad caff way, as in the old husbandry,. I have fowed the whole field with this inftrument, without leavir, * any allevs. This has made a great laving of feed, having employed only twelve pounds of eighteen ounces, to few the fame extent of ground, which ufed to be lowed with I ro pounds. Yet I think this i.ntlv thick: the plants are very fine, and of a deep green. They have already begun to branch, and promife many lialks. Hi- therto my wheat gives me reafon to be pleated with the experi- ment I am making. I have fowed about 25 arpents in this manner.
SECT. II.
imenti made by M. Lulli.x de Chateau-vieux, in tie year '752.
MY experiments this year are of three kinds. The firft war made on the fame fpot on which laft year's experiment was made : the fecond, on a piece of ground which was made into beds for the firft time ; and the third, on a field plowed in broad-lands in. the common way, but fowed with the drill plough, in equally di^ ftant rows, without any intermediate alleys.
Firft EXPE.RIM EN T. . No. I.'
T Have already mentioned, that this fpot was fowed with wheat, the •*• beds being now made in the middle of the former alleys. The fummer hceings had brought this ground to fo fine and locle a fiare, after one plowing, I fowed the three beds with the drill-plough,, the twenty-fifth of September; and to prevent the accidents I be- fore met with, I increafed tHe quantity of feed to nine ounces x.. pennyweights.
The wheat rofe extremely well, and the rows were full of plai
ah became very ftrong and thriving before the winter. The :
deftroyed a great number of the- plants, as they had done the year
before: yet, I judged the rows luffkientlv ftorerJ with plants, and
thought that this accident .would do no great damage to the crop.
1 lie winter was pretty favourable to corn in general. My plants
made very frrong moots in the fpring: but I found feveral little
ns in the rows, which I had not perceived in the auturrn. I
imputed it in fonoe meafure to the inclemency of the winter, which
had undoubtedly deuroyed feveral weak plants. Ihefe chafms were
1 but
Chap. II. BY M. DE C H ATE A U- VIEUX. 149 but few, and the wdrft of them had about two: plants in fifteen
inches.
I horfe-hoed the alleys for the firft time on the ninth of March, and a fecond time the twenty-fifth of May. The ground was in to We a ftate, that 1 thought' it needlefs to hoe it afterwards, efpeci- ally as the wheat was in an exceeding good way. It continued of a very deep green till if ripened ; the blades were extremely large j and the plants branched much more than they bad done the year before. It was a common thing to find plants with between 60 and 70 f talks, which, in general, grew to above five feet and fome inches' high, 'and were crowned with large ears quite full of grain. ■ As foon as the wheat bad done bloffoming, I found it neceftary to defend it againft the birds. Thanks to the care that was taken, they did it lefs hurt this year than the laft : but ftill they eat a great, deal of it, though I cannot precifely determine the quantity.
As foon as the wheat appeared to be near ripe-, in order to pre- ferve it from the -farther plunder of thofe robbers,- I reaped it, on the twentieth of July, though I would rather have chofen to let it ftand five or- fix (fays longer. It remained in the field four days, to dry, and was threfhed towards the latter end of Auguft. It yield- ed an hundred and forty two pounds -of wheat, at eighteen ounces to the pound..
• This wheat' was very fine, perfectly clean, and the grain much larger than in common.
This experiment gives juft rife to the following remarks.- _
Firft'; the earth of th'efe three beds having been pulverifed and brought to a -very loofe ftate by the horfe-hoeings in 1751, the plants were" ftronger and more thriving than thofe of the year before ; a circumftance which contributed to the increafe of the crop.
Secondly ; this crop juftifies my eftimate, that this fpot of ground could yield 210 pounds of wheat in one feafon, if cultivated accor- ding to the principles of the new hufbandry : for if we add to the 142 pounds reaped this year, the iofs occafioned by the- birds and jfnails,. it is pretty evident,'that the whole produce would have nelrly amounted to 210 pounds.
Luckily, that I might be more thoroughly fatisfied what lofs I fuffered by the birds, 1 counted in two differen: places how many iv-alks the'plants in the three rows had yielded. On icn feet uiMengtfi, I found i6co in one place, and 2030 in another. As I would al- wavs avoid- over-ftraining my calculations, I fliall onlyfuppofe that
• " every
iSo EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
every ten feet in length produces 1600 ftalks : the beds, being 160 feet long, will confequently contain at leaft 25600 ftalks, and the three beds together 76800 ftalks, or ears.
To know in the next place how many pounds of wheat might be contained in that number of ears, I had as many of them threlhed a month after harveft, as yielded a pound of eighteen ounces. They were taken at random, without culling them, out of a fheaf which feemed to have been but little damaged by the birds.
Three hundred and fixty ears yielded thofe eighteen ounces of wheat : fo that, dividing 76800, the whole number of ears, by 360, the produce of the crop would be 213 pounds 6 ounces, at eighteen ounces to the pound, or 240 pounds of fixteen ounces. Hence it appears, that my firft eftimate was pretty juit, and that the produce may be even more coniiderable hereafter.
Thirdly ; this fpot was clear of weeds ; though it ufed to be over- run with them. It appears by thi?, that the new husbandry deftroys them effectually ; though this advantage will be leis felt the rirft year, than in other fubfequent years.
From the obfervation which I made, that the plants were in a more thriving (late this year, than in 175 1 -, it follows, that the earth, far from having been exhaufted by the nourifhment it had yielded the plants during that year, became more fruitful in this : which can be imputed only to the new culture, the land having re- ceived no other affiftance, either by dung or manure.
The wheat was this year, upon a very exact fearch, free from fmut or blight. I found but one blighted ear, though there were numbers in fields contiguous to mine. I cannot however impute this favourable circumftance to the new culture alone : it may have con- tributed thereto, and may leffen the quantity : but to be fure of that, requires fome years experience.
EXPERIMENT. No. II.
THIS experiment was made on a larger field, in which three rows of wheat were fown in each bed, the diftance from the middle of one bed to the middle of the next, being fix feet *. The whole extent of the field was 1650 fquare toifes or fathoms, each fquare toife containing 36 feet.
The
* M. Du Hamel thirifcs, that by means of the new borfe-hoe, the alleys may he made fomewhat narrower.
Chap.II. 6Y M. DE CHATEAU-VIEUX. ,5,
The fmall quantity of feed which I employed in fowing it, cer- tainly required that every grain mould grow : but the intended num- ber of plants fell greatly fhort, feveral of the grains not rifing at air, and many of thofe which did rift, being deftroyed by infects. The greateft damage was done by fnails. There were great chafms in the rows, without any plants. As far as I could judge, between a third and a "fourth part of the rows produced nothing; and yet the crop was pretty plentiful, as we fliall fee.
The hoeings were performed this year at proper feafons, and ra- ther the more frequently to make up for the neglect of the former year : for the ground was not in fufficiently fine tilth when the wheat was fowed.
On the fourteenth and fifteenth of October 1751, the alleys were plowed for the firft time before winter.
The ninth and tenth of March 1752, they were plowed again for the firft time after winter.
From the eighteenth to the twenty-fourth of April, the ground was weeded.
The twenty-ninth of April, the alleys were horfe-hoed ; which was again repeated, the twenty-fifth of May and the feventh of June.
This wheat made a fine appearance : the length of the (talks, and the largenefs of the ears, fhew'd how much the new culture promoted the growth of thefe plants, which branched nearly as much as thofe of No. I. This field was reaped the twenty-fifth of July.
I (hall join to the account of what this crop produced, an efti- mate of what might have been expected if the fame ground had been cultivated in the common way.
A tomparifm of the produce of the fame field, cultivated according U the old, and according to the new hujbandry.
TH I S field, which is of a very good and ftrong foil, was very badly plowed laft year, by reafon of the frequent and heavy rains, and had not been dunged for feveral years. In the common Way, it ufed to be fowed with 3 1 8 pounds of wheat. This year, it was made into beds of fix feet wide, and fowed the twenty-fifth of September with 10 pounds of wheat.
Prs-
,52 . EXPERIMENTSi^N WHEAT, PajtH.
Produce of this field Under [ the new culture in ij$2.
This field, laid out in beds, produced, of very fine large? ,,, grain'd wheat, . . . . . £ 92 1 .
To be deducted.
Th'o' this wheat was very clean, yet four parts") in an hundred were fifted from it, as fmall corn ; > 37 lb. "> valued at . . . . .J i. 471b.
For the feed fown . . . . . 10 lb. J
.. . Neat produce ... . 870 lb.
In this.hufbandry, the fame field is fowed every year fj fo that fuppofing "the crop of 1753 to be only equal to( ^ ., xhis of 1752, (and there is no doubt but it will be greater) C ' ° ' it will again produce •*
Amowit of the two crops : . 17581b.
Produce of the old culture.
■* If we judge of it by the heft crops of former years, it? ,,
will be three times the quantity of the feed, viz. . -. J °54
"To be deducted.
Lofs by fifting, 15 per cent. It has often been <» 25 and 30 per cent, and even more. Every time I this field was fowed, the corn was lodged, which > 1431b.") prevented the ears from filling, and rendered the I ( , .,
grains fmall and fhrivelled . . . J f 4 J •
For the feed 3181b.-*
Neat produce . . . 4931b.
Confequently the balance, in favour of the new hufban- 1 o^ il 7. « 5- 3861b.
.dry, is
879lb.
As
Chap. II. BY M. DE C H AT E AU-VI E UX. 15;
As this field yields but one crop in two years, in the") common hufbandry, it would produce in that fpace, > 4931b. only . . . . . .J
From whence it follows, that the neat profit of the") new culture in the fame fpace of time, exceeds the other >I265 lb. by . . . . . J
17581b.
Suppofing this field never to produce a greater crop than that of this year, it is evident that it is beft to follow the new method. But we can already promife, that the fucceeding crops will be more plentiful. The field is now fowed in the new way ; it has not yet fuffered any damage by infects ; the rows are well ftored with plants, whofe more thriving ftate promifes a better crop than laft year's.
It may perhaps be thought odd, that I fhould limit the produce of the field fowed in the common way, to three times the feed. I know ihere are lands in this country which yield more, viz. four or five times the feed, and fometimes upwards : but then it muft be granted, that there are but few fuch lands; and that they are fields in extraordinary fine tilth, and enriched with manure. I therefore fpeak of our lands in general, taking good and bad together. In this cafe, I fay, the produce, one year with another, will not exceed three for one.
My fields have always been as well cultivated as any in the coun- try. I have computed the amount of my crops for fixteen years running, viz. from 1730 to 1745, inclufively. Thefe accounts were carefully kept by a fteward who died a few years ago, and I do not find that the produce ever was greater than what I -have been faying, one year with another.
EXPERIMENT, No. III.
T Caufed a fpace of about 1344 fquare toifes of 36 feet, in another ■* field, to be laid out in beds like the former. This land, which is very ftrong, was but in bad tilth, notwithflanding the care I took to break the earth 'thoroughly, and reduce it into fmall particles. The frequent rains were the caufe of this. It was fowed with the drill-plough the twenty-fourth of September. Only feven pounds of wheat were ufed. The plants role pretty well: but, towards the
X end
154 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Partn.
end of autumn, they were deftroyed daily by infects, and thereby reduced to a very fmall number, which greatly diminished the crop.
The fixteenth of October 1751, the alleys were plowed for the firft time before winter.
The tenth and eleventh of March 1752, they received their fir ft plowing after winter.
The firft of May, the ground was weeded.
The twenty-third of May, the fecond plowing after winter was performed with the horfe-hoe 5 which was repeated the twelfth of June.
The plants which came up were very fine, and branched greatly : the ears were like thofe of the experiments I have already mention- ed, and the grain equally large. Tho' the produce was but 392 pounds, yet it is a fine crop for the fmall number of plants that efcaped unhurt.
As I know the caufes to which the fcantinefs of this crop was owing, I make no doubt but it will equal that of any of the other fields next year. It is now fowed, for the fecond time, in the new way. The rows are well ftored with plants, and the corn is in as good condition as I could wifh.
EXPERIMENT. No. IV.
PHIS experiment was made at the diftance of fix miles from my houfe, on a light poor foil, which induced me to dung it.* The beds were about fix feet wide, and were fowed the twenty-firft of September with three pounds and three quarters of wheat, which produced fine plants and large ears, and yielded 196 pounds. Tho' the earth had not been well ftirred, nor at proper feafons; yet the corn fowed in it, produced greatly. The dung undoubtedly helped to make up for the want of due culture.
* M. Du Hamel obferves, that tho' dung may generally be fpared in the new butbandry j yet it certainly is of considerable ufe, efpecially in poor lands.
E X-
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHATEAU-VIEUX. iS$
■
EXPERIMENTS
Made cm fields fown in equally difiant rows, with the drill-plough.
No. V.
J" Have Towed fields cultivated in every refpect in the common way,
A except in the manner of diftributing the feed, which was done
with the drill-plough. The whole field was covered with rows of
wheat, difiant from each other kxen inches and an half.*
The advantages which I propofed to myfelf by fowing in this manner, were, firft, the faving of feed and preventing the earth from being over-flocked with plants : fecondly, burying the feed at a proper depth : thirdly, having the plants at equal diftances : and Iaftly, the little ftirring of the ground and breaking of the clods, which the drill-plough effects at the fame time that it fows. Thefe things feemed to me more likely to be attended with fuccefs, than the com- mon way of fowing.
The plants of this wheat were very fine : their deep green colour (hewed their ftrengih : the Iargenefs of their blades, and the number of their ftalks, fhewed likewife that they found greater plenty of nourifhrnent than wheat in the common way. The plants had, in general, four, fix, eight, ten, or more ftalks ; fo that thefe fields, which, till the month of April, feemed fcarcely to have been fown, changed then fo as hardly to be known again, by the number of ftalks which fhot forth at that time. The wheat was taller than that in the old way, and the ears larger and better filled with grain.
An account of the produce will fhe'w what may be expected from this manner of fowing.
Account of the. produce of the fame field fowed part in the old way, and part with the drill-plough, the fourteenth, fifteenth, and fif- teenth of September 1751.
^p H E whole of this field ufed commonly to be fowed with
A twenty meafures of wheat, each meafure containing 106
pounds of 1 8 ounces. Three meafures, or 3 1 8 pounds of wheat,
X 2 were
* M. de Chateau-vieux calls this method of fowing, femer en plein, to few in full. We fhall exprefs it by, fining in equally djjlant raws, in oppofition to fields laid out in beds and alleys.
i56 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT. Part II.
vrerb fown in the ufual way in the richeft part of the field. The remaining part was fo wed with the drill-plough, with only 265 pounds of wheat, which, in the common way "would have required 1 802 poands.
The foil was middling, neither too flrong nor too light, and pretty ftony. The land was poor, becaufe it had not been dunged j which indeed it feldom was, the owner not having more than was neceffary for his vines.
Produce of the new hujbandry. The 265 pounds of wheat produced ^ » 5450 lb.
To be deducled.
For fmall and bad grain fifted out, 4 per cent. . 218? 0 ,r For the feed 265 \ 4^3 lb'
IS! eat produce . . 49671b,.
If the other part of the field, which was- fowed-. with the three meafures in the old way, had been/ , „ fown with the drill-plough,, it would have yield- f 9 '" «d J
'To be deducled. Lofs by fifting, 4 per cent. . . 381b.) Q ,,. For. the feed . . .. . . 461b. > b4lb-
Neai produce to be added to the above . . 8761b,. Neat produce of the ivhole . . 58431b.
Produce of the old hujbandry.
That part of the field which was fowed with the three meafures
of 1 06 pounds each, produced thrice the quantity of the feed, mixei
with bad grain. The fame meafure of this grain weighed but 103
pounds. . This field yields no more. even, in the beft years. If the
1 whol»
Chap-H BY M. DE CHA TEAU- VI EUX. i57
whole of it bad been fowed in the old way, it would have pro- duced . . . , , 6r8olb,
To be deduced. Lofs by lifting, 15 percent. It has often 1 027iu v been 251b. and yi per cent, ; . 5 y ' '/ -3C4.7lb>
For the feed . . . 2i2olb.) J *'
Neat produce ' ♦ , 31331b.
Ballance in favour of the new method • . 27101b.
EXPERIMENT, No. VI.
T Sowed another field of about 1020 fquare toifes of 36 feet, in ■*■ the fame manner, with thirty pounds of wheat, reckoning 18 ounces to the pound, on the twenty-fourth of September. The foil was ftrong, and in fine tilth. The wheat grew in every refpect like that of the preceding article, with this only perceptible diffe- rence, that the ftraw was* fomewhat longer, and the ears larger. It was not threfhed till the beginning of December, and yielded 809 pounds of very fine wheat (the pound 18 ounces). The pro- duce of this field was greater than that of the former, in propor- tion to the quantity, of feed. But the foil of this was better, and in finer tilth..
EXPERIMENT, No. VII.
tT* HIS experiment was made about three miles from me, on a •* piece of ground of the extent of about 880 fquare toifes. This; land is neither too ftrong, nor too light, and may be called a pretty rich foil. It was plowed three times, like other lands, and had not; been dunged for many years. It ufed to be fowed with 165 or 170 pounds of wheat. It was now fowed on the 5th of October, w'ith. only 24 pounds. Tho' the feafon was fo far advanced, this feed came up pretty well befcre winter. The plants throve greatly in the fpring, and the field became covered with ftrong ftalks, and very, large .ears,. full of fine plump grain.
The crop yielded 800 pounds of clean wheat, without mixture of- any other feeds. Deducting from this the 24 pounds of feed, the.,
neat .
158 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, PartH.
neat produce is 776 pounds. This field, fowed in the common way, produces, in the beft years, about 875 pounds,: from which if we deduct 165 pounds for the feed, the neat produce will be 710 pounds. Thus we fee that the fame ground fowed with the drill plough, pro- duced 66 pounds more than when fown in the common way. But as wheat raifed in this lad way is always mixed with abundance of feeds of weeds, which mud be feparated by fifting, an allowance muft likewife be made for that ; and the profit will then not be limited to the 66 pounds only, which the owner reaped more than in the common way.
I omit feveral experiments of wheat fowed in beds, and with the drill-plough, in equally diftant rows, the fuccefs of which has been nearly equal to that of thole I have already fpoken of. I fhall men- tion only one more, and that, on account of a circumftance which deferves to be known. I made it on a light foil, the word I knew of, full of pretty large ftones, and which had not been dunged in the memory of man. The ftones did not hinder the drill-plough from dropping the feeds very regularly. I chofe this bad foil, on purpofe to fee how the corn would thrive in it. I allowed too little feed, Gon- fidering the badnefs of the foil. The ftones prevented many plants from rifing, and many more were deftroyed by infects j fo that the wheat was very thin, and the crop fmall. I was, however, pleafed with it, becaufe I found the plants grew almoft as ftrong as in a good foil, and the ears were as' large, and as full of grain.
A little before harveft, the wheat of all thefe experiments fuftained many heavy rains, accompanied with very high winds ; and though the ftraw was much longer than that of the wheat which had been fowed in the common way, the corn was not lodged : wbilft a great deal was in the neighbouring fields. Some indeed was bent ; but that is different from being lodged. This laft is very hurtful to the filling of the grain, ; but its being bent is attended with no inconve- niency*. I am even inclined to think that it may be of fervice to the wheat, not to remain in a perpendicular direction ; and intend next year to be particularly attentive to this.
It is not at all to be wondered at, that plants fown in the common way, fhould not thrive as well as thofe which grow in beds. The fjrft not having been affifted by the ftirring of the mould, cannot
* We were therefore right, fays Mr. Da Hamel, in observing, that corn would be lefs liable to be lodged in following our method, tban in proceeding in the common Way.
draw
Part II, BY M. DE CHATEAU-VIEUX. 159
draw fo much nourishment from the earth, as thofe in beds. The fize of thcfe laft. has indeed exceeded my expectation. There is rea- fon to be fatisfied with this manner of fowing, even if it were at- tended with no greater advantage than this year's crops afforded. But if the quantity of feed is increafed, fo that the field be flocked with as many plants as it can nourifh, the profit will be fo much the more confiderable.
It is time to retnrn to our experiments on fields laid out in beds, which are the more immediate object of the new hufbandry.
Thole which I have made this year, have not brought the produce of the new culture to near what it will be hereafter ; as will appear from what I (hall next obferve.
Reflexions o/M. de Chateau-vieux, which prove the truth of the prin- ciples on which the new hujbandry is jounded.
\\/fc fee by the experiment, No. I. that the earth, being in a loofer ** or more divided ftate the fecond year, is better able to afford a- grea^er quantity of nourimment to plants, whofe productions will always be proportioned ro the eafe with which they can reach that nouri fhment.
I was in hopes that the experiments of this year would have enabled me to determine what quantity of feed it is beft to fovv, in order to obtain the greateft crop. The lands on which I fowed the moil feed laft year, fhewed me plainly, that it would be right to increafe the quantity, in order to provide againft the accidents by which the plants had been thinned too much.
But this increafe of feed fhould be regulated with great difcretion, regard being had both to the circumftances of the feafon in which the feed is fowed, and to the condition of the ground in which it is planted. If the foil is in very fine tilth, lefs feed will be fufficient.
The experiments of this year fhew that there are but three prin- cipal means by which we can obtain the utmoft production that •plants are capable of affording. Thefe means are practicable only in' the new hufbandry : for in that alone each bed has the number of plants which it can properly nourifh ; which is the fource of plenty.
The firft means is, to make the plants produce a great number of ftalks.
The fecond is, to make each ftalk bear a large ear.
The third is, to make each ear be quite full of plump grain.
Thefe
160 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Partll.
Thefe effects cannot be obtained in the old hufbandry, becaufe they can only be procured by frequently ftirring the earth.
All my experiments this year, mew the truth of this : but espe- cially the experiments No. I. and II.
It is therefore by horfe-hoeing the alleys whilft the plants are yet young and growing, that we can make them produce a number of jlalks, caufe thofe Jlalks to bear large ears, and Jill each ear with lasge flump grain. But to obtain thefe advantages, it is of great confe- quence that the hoeings be performed at proper feafons, each having its peculiar effects.
The plowing before winter, is intended to drain off the water, which if it mould remain long near the plants, would chill and greatly hurt them, and to lay up the earth to be mouldered by the winter s frofl. It is hereby enabled the better to fupply the plants with their necefTary food in the fpring. This may be done at the farmer's con- veniency, from the time that the plants have three or four blades, till the froft lets in : and even in the winter, if it does not freeze, plowing will always be of fervice.
The firft plowing after winter, is of great importance. 'Tis to this that we owe the number of Jlalks which the plants produce. That it may have this effect, it muft be performed as foon as the fevere colds are part ; and, at lateft, as foon as the plants begin to moot. If it is delayed longer, it will contribute very little towards their branching. It will ferve only to make the ftalks grow longer. If any new ones flioot out, they will not thrive fo well as the firft ; and therefore it is of great confequence that they flioot out all together.
The hoeings that are performed from this time, till the wheat has done bloffoming, firength:n the plants, lengthen the Jlalks, and enlarge the ears. The feafon of thefe hoeings is not fo exactly limited as that of the former, and the frequency of them will depend greatly on the (fate of the ground : for it muft not be touched when it is too moift. If the feafon is kindly, they may be repeated two, three, or four times : but I think one hoeing highly necefTary juft before the ears break forth. They certainly grow longer and larger by it.
The laft hoeing is the moft important of all, and that which can leaft be dilpenfed with. It muft be performed as foon as the bloffom is gone off the wheat. This fills the whole ear, and Jwells the grain.
When farmers become fenlible of the good effects of thefe frequent ftirrings, they will not neglect to repeat them at the proper feafons. It is by a fucceflion of them, that, in my opinion, crops can be
brought
Chap. II. BY M. D E C H A T E A U - V I E U X. 161
brought to their higheft perfe&ion : and if unfavourable feafons pre- vent their being done at their proper times, a diminution of the croc will moil: a fibred ly follow.
No one who confiders the produce of the ears of corn on lands cultivated according to the new, and the old hufbandry, will, I be- lieve, doubt which of thefe is to be preferred. I fhall beftow a few moments, to point out the difference which I have found between the one and the other.
I laid before, that 360 ears yielded me 18 ounces of wheat. Here is a determined fact ; and I am certain that I have not enlarged it j becaufe the birds had eat fome of the grain : otherwife fewer ears would have produced thofe 18 ounces.
When, in the year 1750, I firfi- began to inquire into the prin- ciples of the new hufbandry, I judged it might be of fome importance to come at the knowledge of what the ufual produce of a plant of wheat is, when cultivated in the common way. That year was reckoned a very good one for wheat, which appeared clean and good as it flood upon the ground. I took this method to come at the knowledge I wanted.
I took part of a fheaf which appeared to me very good, and which was the produce of a very rich field. I divided it into three parcels. In the firfi parcel were all the good ears ; the middling and fmall ears were in the fecond, and the ears in which there was no grain, or where the grain was faulty, compofed the third.
The wheat being thus divided, I counted the number of ears in each parcel. I found 400 in the firfi, which confifted of the beft ears j 1600 in the fecond, which contained the middling and fmalleft ears; and in the third, 750 ears, or plants whofe grain was faulty. I made no account of a great number of imperfect fhoots which were not fix inches long.
The fields did not look fo poor to the eye, as this feparation proved them to be. This firfi operation was therefore necefiary to come at the truth.
On clearing the grain from the ears, I found that the 400 ears con- tained five ounces and a half of wheat, and that the 1600 contained feven ounces.
My curiofity did not lead me to inquire into the contents of the third parcel ; knowing that there was no good grain in it.
In the purfuit of this inquiry, I found that taking one ear with another, of the 400, there were but eleven grains of wheat in each ;
Y and
i62 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Partll.
and that in the 1 600, taking one ear with another, there were but three grains and an half to an ear. Eight hundred of thefe grains weighed but an ounce.
If we add thefe parcels together, we fhall find that 2000 ears yielded but 12 ounces and an half of wheat, and that it would require 2890 ears of the fame goodnefs to yield eighteen ounces.
I confefs I was aftonifhed at the refult of ray inquiry; which I could not have believed, had I not feen it. But at the fame time, how greatly was my expectation raifed of the advantages of the new culture !
I have this year formed a greater extent of ground into beds. The too frequent rains have prevented my laying down more than 25 arpents in this manner : but I have fowed all the reft of my farm with the drill plough in equally diftant rows. I have increafed the quantity of feed ; regard being had to each circumftance neceffary to be attended to ; fo that in fome fields I have fowed double the quan- tity of feed that was employed in the year 175 1 ; in others forne- what more, and in others again lefs.
All my fields look extremely well, and make a much better ap- pearance than they did laft year. They are abundantly ftocked with very ftrong plants, of a deep green colour : the blades are long and large, and cover the earth better than the common wheat.
Hitherto, thefe plants have fuftained no lols, except in one fpot of about half an arpent, where the plants were gnawed aiunder, juit under the furface of the earth, by infecf s. I immediately fowed it again, and by this means have quite made up the lols. The infects have not appeared fince.
One of the moft happy effects of my experiments, is, that they have created a defire in many perfons in thefe parts, to begin the practice of the new hufbandry, by trials of confiderable extent. One perfon, convinced of its excellency, has laid out and fowed at leaft twenty-three arpents in beds : another has fowed with the drill- plough, an hundred and twenty-five arpents plowed in broad lands. All the land that has been fowed in beds amounts to about fifty ar- pents ; and about two hundred arpents in broad lands have been fown with the drill-plough. Every one who has feen thefe grounds, even the very plowmen not excepted, agree that they look extremely well, and that they never faw in this country plants of fuch ttrength, and vigour, as the wheat that was firft fown.
1 am extremely happy that my drill-plough has been of fo general
ufe.
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHATE AU-VIEUX. 163
ufe. It has every where done its bufinefs very regularly, people having fowed with it the exact quantity of grain they have defired.
SECT. III. Experiments made by M. Lullin de Chateau -vieux, in the
year 1753.
I Am the better pleafed that I am able to give a fatisfactory account of the fuccefs of my experiments this year, as the feafons have not been favourable, and extraordinary accidents have greatly dimi- nifhed the produce of the crops.
I mall divide this account into feveral articles.
The firft will contain the experiments made on lands laid out in beds, which have born their fecond and third crop. To this will be added fome obfervations relating thereto.
The fubject of the fecond will be a detail of experiments made on lands formed into beds, which have yielded only their firft crop. This too will be followed by fome remarks.
The third will confift of the experiments of two perfons, on lands made into beds, of which the firft crop was reaped this year : to which will be fubjoined fome neceflary reflections.
The fourth article will contain an account of feveral experiments made by divers lovers of Agriculture, on lands fown in equally dis- tant rows, but with the drill-plough.
As we think it will be extremely ufeful to (hew, by the expe- riments which have been made this year, that lands produce more corn by the new hufbandry, than by the old ; we (hall give an ac- count, in the fifth article, of the crops of fields fown in the com- mon way for fixteen years together ; and of thofe of the fame fields cultivated according to the new hufbandry, fuppofing them not to yield better crops in future years, than they have done in this :- a fuppofition the leaft favourable that can be to the new culture, fince we calculate only upon the produce of the firft year's crop, and that too diminifhed by the extraordinary accidents which we (hall mention.
To fhew the truth of this article more fully, it will be proved in the fixth, that the beft field in the country, though it had been well dunged, yielded lefs wheat than thofe on which the experiments were made, and on which no dung was ufed.
The feventh article will confift of reflections and obfervations on
Y 2 our
464 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
our practice of the new hufbandry ; and the eighth will £hew the difpofition of our lands for the crop in 1754.
To avoid repetitions, we {hall obferve here, once for all, that no dung or other manure was uled in any of cur fields ; that the extent of all our fields is computed by fquare toiies, of thirty fix fquare feet to the toiie, and that our pound confifts of fixteen ounces.
ARTICLE I.
Experiments made en lands laid cut in beds, which had Lorn a fecend and third crop, with feme vbfervatiom particularly relating thereto.
■ EXPERIMENT, No. I. N. B. This experiment is marked icith the fame number in the year 1752. (p. 14S.)
T Should have known the full produce of this third fueceffive crop on the beds of this field, if the hail which fell on the third of June had not damaged it greatly. The abundance of rain which fell at the fame time, and immediately after the hail, did ftill greater hurt 1 for the earth of part of the beds was wafhed away by the torrents of water, fome of the plants were forced out of their places, others were entirely covered with earth, and many were torn up by the roots ; fo that it was net pofiible to judge what this year's pro- duce would have been, by the few plants that were left.
I am very lorry that this accident deprived me of a certain proof, that this year's crop would have been more plentiful than that of 1752 : for it would have been evident, that the earth becomes more and more fruitful by the new hulbandry : a truth, which it is of confequence to eftabiifh. I can therefore only affirm by conjecture, that this crop would have been greater. It is true, my conjectures are fo ftrong, that they amount almoft to a demonftxation.
I draw them from hence : that the corn had a very fine appear- ance before winter ; that the plants grew with great force in the fpring ; that they branched more than formerly ; that the ears were certainly larger;, that they bloficmed extremely well; (they were in full bloom the thirtieth of May ;) and laftly, that there is more ftraw than in 1752.
It necefiarilv follows from hence, that had it not been for the
hail
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHATEAU-VIEUX. 16$
hail and torrents of water, the crop would have been greater than
in 1752.
Though the following experiment fuffered the fame accidents, (except that the beds were not broke up by the water,) it will fup- ply the want of that information which we were deprived of in the other, and ftrengthen our conjectures.
EXPERIMENT, No. II.
N. B. This experiment is marked with the fame number in the year
1752. (p. 150.)
A SI hope this experiment will be found very inftructive, I /\ (hall relate it with the fame care that I executed it. I there- fore beg it may be particularly attended to j for it will confirm the , advantages of the new hufbandry. But before I enter into a detail, of which I fhall endeavour not to omit any effential circumftance, it is neceffary to repeat here, that in the journal of 175 1, I faid, 1. That the plowings which had been given the earth in order to its being fown in 1752, had not loofened it fufficiently, and that I tried to remedy this defect by fubfequent culture. 2. That this field was fowed the twenty fifth of September with eleven pounds and four ounces of wheat. 3. That the crop yielded a thoufand and forty two pounds twelve ounces : and laftly, that the appearance of the young plants promifed a much greater crop in 1753.
The culture beftowed upon theie lands in 1752, rendered them more and more loole and well divided, fo that with only one plow- ing after harveft, which was performed with the utmoft eafe, I formed new beds, the ridge of which was now in the place where the furrow in the middle of the alley was before. But the earth was deeper ftirred and made much loofer than in 1752. I had al- ready attained almoft a perfect tilth, and ealily forefaw that I might quite complete it in 1753.
Whilft I laboured affiduoufly in the culture of wheat, from which I would not fuffer any thing to divert my attention too much, till I fhould arrrive at a good and certain practice of the new hufbandry : 1 neverthelefs determined to begin experiments on luferne and fain- foin, to cultivate them nearly in the fame manner as wheat. • What prompted me to this, was the fuccefs of a lmall experiment the year before. Accordingly, taking this object likewife into ferious confi- deration, I refolved to leave a part of this field for luferne, and to fow
f the
i66 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part Ii.
the reft with wheat. It contained in all 1650 fquare toifes, formed into 45 beds. I left for the luferne, nine beds, the extent of which was 303 fquare toifes 3 and deffined the furplus to be fowed with wheat, as before. I am now very attentive to the experiments on luferne and fain-foin, and fhall begin next year to give an account of them, and of my manner of proceding. My practice in this, will be found different, in many refpects, from the method which is com- monly purfued. I will venture to affirm that there will be room to be fatisfied with the fuccefs of this branch of hufbandry, than which none can be more interefting : plenty of fodder being as neceffary as plenty of corn.
I mull therefore beg leave to give the produce of this field, as if the whole of it had been fowed with wheat. This I do, in order to compare the produce of 1753, with that of 1752; as it cannot be doubted but that the nine beds now under luferne, would each of them have yielded as much wheat, as any of the beds did that were fown with it : nay, perhaps fome pounds more : the luferne being fown in what I thought the richeft part of the field. This field was fowed the firft of September. I increafed the quantity of feed, fowing this time thirty four pounds fourteen ounces of wheat j whereas in 1751, I fowed but eleven pounds four ounces. Though I fowed this year more than thrice the weight of feed that I did in 1 75 1, it muft not be inferred that I tripled the number of grains capable of producing plants ; becaufe this year's fowing was | made with wheat of the produce of the new culture, the grains of which are much larger than thofe of the common wheat which I ufed in 1751, and of which a greater number is confequently required to make up an equal weight.
This wheat having been fown pretty early, its plants had time to grow very ftrong before winter, the cold of which they bore very well : and the plowing I gave them the fifteenth of October, by cutting a very deep furrow within about three inches of the rows, fecured them from the damage which corn frequently fuffers from rain or the melting of the fnow.
In the fpring, they made ftrong fhoots, grew apace, and branched very abundantly. I affiited them, as I am going to relate, at proper feafons, both with refpecr. to the condition of the plants and earth, and to the temperature of the weather.
The fifteenth of March 1753, I gave them the fir ft plowing af- ter winter.
The twenty-fixth, the beds were weeded.
The
Chap. II. BYM.DE CHATEAU-VIEUX. 167
The eleventh of April, I horfe-hoed them.
The twenty-fixth, the thirties were plucked up.
The fourteenth of May, the hoeing was repeated.
The fifteenth, the ears began to appear.
The twenty-ninth, the fourth culture was given with the culti- vator.
The thirtieth, the wheat was in full bloom.
The third of June, the wheat fuftained a violent ftorm of hail and rain.
The thirteenth, the fifth culture was given with the new plough with two fhares.
I beg leave to obferve, that there needs no better proof that wheat, cultivated according to the new hufbandry, will be little apt to be lodged, than the eafe with which I performed the fifth cul- ture, after the accidents which happened the third of June, when the wheat had attained its greater!: height. So far was it from being laid thereby, that the whole extent of the plough found free ad- mittance into the alleys, and this laft culture could be given with- out damaging the (talks.
Though the whole of our plowing and hoeing may be performed extremely well with my plough and the inftrument which I call the cultivator, yet I have thought of making this tafk ftill more ea- fy. Two new inftruments, (not indeed abfolutely neceffary,) will anfwer this end. I propofe them only as very ufeful, and proper to be employed only the fecond or third year, when the earth has ac- quired part of that minute divifion, of which it is fufeeptible.
The cultivator with mould-boards, and the plough with two fhares, are two inftruments which I have invented this year. I have found them extremely ufeful to give the two laft ftirrings, better, and in lefs time than our other inftruments. The reader may not be difpleafed to know what firft fet me upon contriving them.
One cannot enter properly into the fpirit of the new hufbandry,. without being thoroughly convinced that the earth cannot be too minutely divided : I will even fay, till it is reduced to a perfect pow- der : and that when one has been fo happy as to attain this point, it muft be kept in that ftate. This will always be done beft, by ufing the moft proper inftruments.
I obferved one day, whilft I was hoeing my wheat, my plough be- ing then at work, and the earth in a very loofe ftate, that every time the alleys were ftirred, they were thrown into a different form i
for
*68 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT PartH.
for it is neceffary fometimes to make a deep furrow in the middle of the alleys, and at other times to raife a ridge in them ; and yet, in whatever form the alleys were, I had only my plough to perform thefe different operations. It did not feem to me reasonable to fup- pofe, that two fo different works could be done equally well with one and the fame inftrument : whence I concluded that it was aeceffary to have an inftrument for each of thefe purpofes.
I foon found what I wanted. The cultivator with mould-boards opens a large furrow in the middle of the alley, by turning over the earth at the fame time to both fides. The plough with two fhares, on the contrary, at the fame time takes up the earth on both fides, and turns it into the furrow, which it fills, and thereby lays the foundation of a new bed.
Thefe inftruments have this farther advantage, that, without re- quiring a greater number of oxen or horfes, they perform as much work at once going over the ground, as the plough can do in two, and fometimes three operations. I return to my experiment.
The twenty-third of June, the wheat fuftained a violent hurri- cane, which lafted an hour. Several great pear-trees were blown down in my orchards, and many large branches were broke off from other trees.
The eighth of July, a fcorching wind blew, which fhed a great deal of the ripe corn.
The ninth, the wheat was reaped.
A month after harveft, it was threfhed.
This field yielded 1575 pounds of wheat ; deducting from which the 34 pounds 14 ounces ufed for feed, the neat produce remaining is 1540 pounds two ounces. Confequently, in 1753, this field pro- duced 533 pounds four ounces more than in 1752, including what was faved in the feed.
The grain of this wheat was very large, and fo clean, that it did not want fifting. It yielded plenty of very fine flour, which made exceeding white and well tafted bread.
E X-
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHATEAU-VIEUX. 169
EXPERIMENT, No. III. N. B. This field is marked with the fame number in the year 1 752.
THIS field contains 1344 toifes, and was but in poor tilth. It was fown the twenty-fourth of September 1751, with feven pounds 14 ounces of wheat, and yielded 441 pounds.
It was brought into better tilth in 1752, but the beds were not raifed high enough : I would have given them another plowing, had not the rainy feafon .prevented me. They were fown the eighth of September, with 24 pounds 12 ounces of very large grained wheat. The plants were very fine before winter, and the rows well filled. In fpring, I found that there were fewer plants than in autumn : the infedts had deftroyed feveral of them. I likewife im- puted the lofs of many to the flatnefs of the beds. The plants ac- quired frefh vigour after the winter, made ftrong fhoots, and branch- ed extremely well. I treated this field in the fame manner as the former. The plants made nearly the fame progrefs. They were reaped the fourteenth of July, and yielded 724 pounds 8 ounces. Thus we fee that this field yielded 283 pounds 8 ounces more in 1753, than in 1752.
Obfervations on thefe experiments.
T Obferved in my former experiments, that as the mould was not •*- fufficiently loofened, the fields, which were laid out in beds could not produce fo plentiful a crop the firft year, as they would the fe- cond or third year, when the earth fhould be more thoroughly di- vided. It is evident, that whoever fhould have given up the new hufbandry, on the bad fuccefs of the firft year, would have deceived himfelf. Thefe experiments plainly fhew, that the charge of the firft year is fully recompenfed by the profit of the fecond, and that this profit will increafe from year to year.
Whoever now tries the new hufbandry, may reafonably expect better crops than mine, even the firft year ; becaufe, 1. They now know the preparations which the earth requires : 2. They may be provided with instruments, already experienced to anfwer their pur- pole with conveniency and eafe. The different circumftances to be attended to, are likewife known. From the knowledge I have ac-
Z quired
j;o EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
quired in thefe matters, I can promife that the prefent appearance of the corn, which I have fowed this year in beds, promifes a very "•reat crop next feafon. I fhall likewife have occafion, in the courfe of thefe obfervations, to fhew, that though the firft crop may feem very fmall, yet it is in fact more profitable than that of lands culti- vated in the common way.
Let us now proceed to the prefent ftate of the lands cultivated for two years according to the new hufbandry, and obferve what the effects have already been.
When the corn was fowed, the beds were in a much loofer ftate than before, and the grain confequently covered with a fine mould. It came up better : the roots more eafily extended themfelves, and increafed in number, in a foil which fcarce refifted them : the plants were ftronger, and better able to bear the feverity of the winter • and by a fmall increafe of the feed, the earth was better filled with plants, and thereby better able to fuftain the accidents which had thinned them before. After the winter frofts were over, the mould was in lb loofe a ftate, that it looked as if it had been newly plow- ed : a very different ftate from that of land in the common hufban- dry, which is at this feafon hard, compact, and very little fitted to afford an eafy paffage to the tender roots of plants. How eafy too. did this render all the fubfequent culture ! The weeds, already great- ly diminished, did little damage to the corn ; and we may readily con- ' ceive that the earth, in this loofe ftate, was eafily penetrated by the rains, dews, and moifture of the atmofphere.
The effects were, that the plants grew ftronger and taller than be- fore ; that they branched into a greater number of ftalks ; that the ears were very large and well filled with grain, if we may judge by thofe which efcaped the hail; that the wheat was very clean ; ajid laftly, that the crop was greater than that of the preceding year, though it had been greatly diminifhed by the hail, the hurricane, and the fcorching wind which made many of the ears fhed their corn* I tried every poflible means of afcertaining the lofs occafioned by thefe accidents ; but in vain. I have therefore given up an uncer- tain calculation ; and all I can fay, is, that I am fure the lofs was very considerable.
A R-
Chap. II.
BY M. DE CHATEAU-VIEUX. i7t
ARTICLE II.
Experiments made on lands which had borne ajirfi crop. Remarks en thefe experiments.
WE did not expect that the fields we are now going to fpeak of, would yield a crop near equal to that of the fields we . treated of in the foregoing article. We knew that the mould is ne- ver fufficiently broken and divided the firfl year that a field is laid out in beds. Befides, almoft. all laft year, the earth was too moid: to be cultivated properly. The wet mould could not be divided into fmall particles, nor could it be plowed fo frequently as to admit of fowing it fo early as it fhould have been.
But every year will not be fo unkindly to this hufbandry ; and when there are alternate changes, fuch as we have had this year, of wet and fair weather, which will afford time for the different plow- ings, we may, with fome certainty, promife ourfelves a more abun- dant crop ; fince, as we have feen, it depends chiefly on the good or bad ftate of the earth.
The whole management of thefe fields having been nearly the fame with that of the fecond experiment, it would be needlefs to give a particular detail of it in our account of the other experiments.
EXPERIMENT, No. IV.
j Hp HIS field is a very flxong good foil. In the old hufbandry, it -*■ required great firength to plow it, and it was neceffary to catch the feafbns when they were neither too wet nor too dry. It contains 1 6487 fquare toifes. I laid near one half of it out in beds, which, with the alleys, were each about fix feet wide. Part of thefe beds were fown the thirtieth of Auguft. Conflant rains prevented the reft from being fown till the twenty-fixth of September. An hundred and eighty one pounds of wheat were employed in fowing the whole. What was firft fowed, came up well, and the plants were very ftrong before winter : but in one place, almoft all of them were de- stroyed by infe&s. I fowed this fpot a fecond time. The fifefh feed was fcarce able to rife before winter, and yielded much lefs than the beds which had not met with the like accident. The wheat of the beds which were fown the twenty-fixth of September, was a long time before it fprung up, owing to the drynefs of the earth,
Z 2 which
ffa -EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Paitll.
which continued almoft the whole month of October. The froft in November ftopt the farther progrels of the plants. Their produce was much {hort of what was fowed firft ; which (hews plainly how efTentially neceflary it is to fow early.
This wheat mull of courfe grow very unequally. Some beds were extremely beautiful, others middling, and the reft very poor : yet, throughout the whole, the ears were very large, and well filled with grain ; and the crop would ftill have been a good one, had it not fuffered by the hail on the third of June, and the other accidents mentioned in the fecond experiment.
The wheat, being perfectly ripe, was reaped the 13th and 17th of July. It was threfhed two months after, and the whole produce of this half of the field was 3370 pounds of very fine and perfectly clean large- grain'd wheat, which yielded a great deal of flour.
The other half of this field was fowed in equally diftant rows with the drill-plough, by which means a great deal was faved in the feed ; for only 479 pounds of wheat were employed to fow this ground, which, in the common way, would have required about 2016 pounds.
It was fowed the 23d, 24th, 26th, 27th, and 29th of Auguft. We could work only a few hours a day on account of the frequent fhowers of rain.
This wheat rofe very well, and grew very ftrong before winter, and of a deep green colour, which it retained till it began to ripen. The number of ftalks increafed in the fpring. They grew very long, and bore large ears. In fhort, they promifed a fine harveft. But the hail of the 3d of June foon changed the face of the field. It cut offa great number of the ears, broke down many ftalks, and dama- ged all thofe ears whofe ftalks were ftrong enough to remain upright. This misfortune was common to all my wheat.
This wheat, being ripe, was reaped the 9th, 1 oth, and 1 1 th of July, in very hot, dry weather. It was threfhed a month after har- veft, and yielded 5386 pounds of excellent grain..
Here is an experiment made upon a large extent of ground, cul- tivated two different ways, and divided into two almoft equal por- tions, both of which fuffered the fame accidents as equally as could be, according to the beft of my judgment. This experiment offers us a very interefting inftruction.
The defign of our experiments is, to know which of the different
jnethods of hufbandry is moft ufeful j which will beft promote the
j public
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHATEAU-VIEUX. 173
public welfare, be moft beneficial to the owners of lands, and bid faireft to fecure their productions.
Let u4 now compare the produce of each half of this field. It will convince us of a truth of great confequence to be known, war. that land will produce much more corn when cultivated in beds according to the new hufoandry, than when it is only fowed in equally diftant rows with the drill-plough ; though this Iaft method is indiiputably better than the old hulbandry.
We have fecn that the part of this field, which was fowed in equally diftant rows with the drill-plough, produced 5386 pounds of wheat. If it is continued to be cultivated in the fame manner, it will be in fallow in 1754, and yield no produce : and thus it will bring a crop only every other year. ,
The other part of this field, which we formed into beds, , produced 3370 pounds of wheat, and is already fown again for a crop to be reaped in 1754. Suppofing this crop to be only equal to that of 1753, the produce of the two years will be 6740 pounds of wheat. Hence it is evident, that, in two years, the produce of the beds will be 1354 pounds greater than that of the rows. This difference is very confiderable : and if we would fee it in a yet ftronger light, let us extend the fame calculation to a longer time ; for example, to ten years, during which the part fowed in rows will yield only five crops, which at 5586 pounds a crop, will amount in all to 26930 lb. The part fowed in beds will yield ten crops, which at 7
3370 pounds a crop, make I 337OOJt>'
The difference in favour of the beds will therefore 7
be in ten years ...... J 67701b.
We here fuppofe the feafons to be, in every refpedt, like the year 1753. But as our obfervations have conftantly fhewn that the crops are always greater after the firft year, which is likewife juftified by the firft, fecond, and third experiments, we may even now venture to pronounce, that the part of our field, which is fowed in beds, in order to be reaped in the year 1754, and which now makes a pro- mifing appearance, will yield double the quantity it did in 1753. The profit will therefore be much more confiderable than we have made it in the above calculation.
EXPERIMENT, No. V.
HPHIS field is of a very ftiff foil. It contains 61 12 fquare toifes,
•*■ and lies Hoping towards the Weft. The beds were well formed,
but
T
M
i74 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT. Part II.
but the earth could not be fufHciently broken, nor could it be fown early enough, on account of the frequent rains. It was fowed the 8th and 25th of September, with 139 pounds of wheat. The corn came up well, and made a fine appearance before winter. It throve well during the fpring, and when ripe, .1 cut it down, viz. on the 14th and 28th of July, and the crop yielded 2205 pounds of very fine wheat.
EXPERIMENT, No. VI. VHIS field was reaped in 1752, and immediately formed into beds, with a defign to fow it that fame year. I could not ex- pect that land in fo bad tilth could produce much. All I aimed at in what was then done, was to form it into beds a year the fooner. It contained 1928 toifes, and was fowed with 45 pounds of wheat, which yielded 724 pounds.
EXPERIMENT, No. VII. ' Y defire to practife the new hufbandry upon all my lands, as foon as pofiible, made me plow another field, which had likewiie been reaped in 1752. I could however lay only a part cf it out in beds: the reft was fowed in equally diftant rows with the drill-plough. This field could have but one plowing : nor could that be completed, tho' feveral ploughs were employed, till the 15th, 17th, and 1 8th of November. The earth was fo moift, that it divided only into large clods. However, I fowed it foon after plowing, not expecting a great crop*. The extent of this field is about 8213 toifes. It was fowed with 412 pounds of wheat, of which only a fmall part rofe before winter. The number of plants increafed greatly in the fpring : they could not branch fo much 3s thofe of the foregoing experi- ments, and the grain beginning to look a little fhrivelled, I cut it down the 21ft, 23d, and 24th of July. Though this wheat had iufr'ered the fame accidents as the other, yet it yielded 2646 pounds-f-.
ARTICLE III.
Experiments made on lands laid out in beds, and of which the jirjl crop •was reaped in 1 7 53. Reflections on tbefe experiments. '
N our journal of 1752, we mentioned a perfon's having fowed at leaft twenty three arpents in beds. Though thefe experiments did
* If, fays Mr. Duhamel, Mr. De Chateau-vieux had continued to plow his lands in order to fow them with fpring wheat, he would have begun the new hufbandry with a crop almoft as good as that of winter wheat.
t We fee, from this experiment, that a diminution of tillage greatly leflens the crop.
ilOt
I
Chap: II. BY M. DE C H A T E AU- V I E U X. 175
not anfwer well, we have thought proper to mention them, in order to fhew the caufes to which their want of fuccefs ought to be im- puted. They will ferve to inflrucl: us in Come practices which are more neceffary than might otherwife be imagined, and fix our atten- tion to circumftances which ought not to be neglected by any one who defires to make the mod of his ground.
EXPERIMENT, No. VIII.
'TPHESE twenty-three arpents were laid out in beds about fix feet -^ wide. The foil is fbrong, and apt to grow very hard. Three rows were fown in each bed.
Only 460 pounds of wheat were ufed to fow this field, which yielded but 3150 pounds of very clean grain.
This is a very fmall crop. Let us fee what it was owing to.
1 . This land was very badly plowed : it could only be divided into great clods, incapable of fupplying the wants of the plants, and of letting them imbibe the nourishment neceffary for their growth. That the bad ftate of the land was the chief caufe of the fmuttinefs of this crop, appears from this ; that the mould in fome fmall parts of the fame field being better divided, the wheat, in thofe places, was finer, branched tolerably well, and produced a greater number of flourifhing plants.
2. This field was fowed too late, viz. not till the lafl week in No- vember. Only part of the feeds fprung up before winter. Thefe plants not rifing in a good feafon, could not make the progrefs that might otherwife have been expected.
3. Too little feed was fowed. It was the more neceffary to fow a larger quantity, as in lands badly prepared, numbers of grains cannot fhoot at all, and many of thofe that do fhoot, are fo buried under the great clods, that they are not able to rife. This field was therefore not fufficiently flocked with plants.
Laflly,'the hail we mentioned before, greatly diminifhed the crop*; which, independent of that accident, would not have been plentiful.
The owner of this field, after remarking the bad confequences we have been fpeaking of, arifing from the defect of culture, has endea- voured to remedy them, by giving, after harveft, feveral plowings, which have broken and divided the earth more thoroughly, and pre- pared the beds for being fowed in good time : the quantity of feed has
* It is thought to have deftroyed above half of it.
like wife
176 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Partll.
likewife been increafed ; the plants haye had time to get ftrength be- fore winter, and their prefent ftate promifes that the next crop will be better. Far from being difcouraged by the bad fuccefs of a firft trial, the perfon we are fpeaking of, convinced of the excellence of the new hufbandry, is but the more refolved to purfue it. He juftly afcribes the fcantinefs of this crop not to any defect in the principles of the new huibandry, but folely to its having been badly executed the firft year. He foon perceived that thefe- faults might eafily be remedied, the fecond year ; and therefore has not only continued to cultivate and fow the fame field, but has likewife fowed at leaft twenty 2rpents more made into beds, which have been much better plowed than thofe of laft year : every circumftance of the new culture has been duly attended to, and the corn, even now, promifes a more plentiful return.
EXPERIMENT, No. IX.
CM ALL experiments have led me on to much greater. As thofe *-* fmall ones are neceffary at firft, not only to create a confidence in the new hufbandry, but likewife to accuftom people to the practices which it requires, I fhall relate one of this kind, made by a perfon who has adopted the new huibandry from principle, and who is every way qualified to inftruct us, and to execute well what he lias once conceived to be right.
A piece of ground, 45 toifes long, and four toifes three feet wide, was made into fix beds, to be fowed with only two rows. This fpot could not be prepared till the firft week in September, nor fowed till the 24th of October. The earth was very dry, and the wheat rofe unequally, and made little progrefs before winter. By a negligence in the firft hoeing, almoft entire rows of the plants were torn up. In proportion to what was reaped, this little fpot yielded 180 pounds of very fine wheat.
A meafure of oats which was fowed in beds in a proper feafon, yielded an hundred and twelve meafures.
Encouraged by this fuccefs, the fame perfon intends to pradtife the new hufbandry in a larger way. He has. already formedabout eight arpents into beds, which are now fown : and he will continue in 1755, and the following years, to lay out ten arpents a" year in beds, till he has difpofed all his lands in that manner. '
Another thing intended by this experiment, was, to know whether two rows would not produce a larger crop, in proportion^ than three.
The
Chap. II. BY M. DE C HATE AU- VIE U X. 177
The fitCcefs of this promifes very fair ; but it will be right to continue trying it, and likewife to fee what multiplying the rows will do. We fhall fpeak of thjs hereafter, in order to determine, by real products, what number of rows will belt fuit this hufbandry.
ARTICLE IV.
Experiments tnade on fields faced in equally diftant rcivs with the drill- plough, by feverai lovers of agriculture.
EXPERIMENT, No. X.
HP H I S, and the following experiment, were made by the fame -*■ perfon who made the feventh, mentioned in our journal of 1752, the refult of which encouraged him to proceed to large ones, and to prove the advantages of this hufbandry, by new examples. To be the more exact in thefe experiments, he refolved to try the old and the new hufbandry in the fame field.
For this purpofe he chofe a field, the foil of which is reckoned equally good in every part. The whole extent is 6727 toifes and 18 feet. Of this, 3502 toifes j8 feet were deftined to be fown in the old way, and 3225 toifes to be fown in equally diftant rows with the drill-plough. The whole field was equally plowed and dunged, and fowed the fame day, viz. the 1 9th of September, with the fame wheat. In fhort, there was no other difference than in the quantity of feed, and the manner of fowing it.
The part of this field which was fowed in the old way took up 698 pounds 10 ounces of wheat, which produced 2979 pounds of very fine grain. This is about four and a quarter for one.
The other part of the field was fowed with the drill-plough, with 243 pounds, which yielded 3 1^7 pounds two ounces of very fine large grain'd wheat. The proportion here is as thirteen to one.
We find in favour of the drill-plough ; firft, that though the fur- face of this ground was 277 toifes 18 feet lefs than that of the other, yet it produced 208 pounds two ounces of wheat, more than the other: and fecondly, that, deducting the feed of each crop, this neat produce is ftill more confiderable, as appears by the following account.
Produce of the part fowed in the common way , r. 2969 lb.
To be dedufted for the feed . . \ 698 lb.
Remains ; - s 22711b.
A a Produce
i7S EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, PartlP.
lb. m
Produce of the part fowed with the drill-plough 2l%7 2
To be deducted for the feed . . . 243
Remains . . . 2944 2
Which is 663 pounds two ounces more than the produce of the old hufbandry.
All the field was fomewhat damaged by the hail of the 3d of June, which lefTened both the crops a little.
EXPERIMENT, No. XI.
ANOTHER field, the foil of which is better than that of the former, having been well plowed, was fowed in equally diftant rows, with the drill-plough, the tenth of Odtober. It contains 2172 toifes and 16 feet, was not dunged, and was fowed with 121 pounds tight ounces of wheat, which yielded 2979 pounds of very fine clean corn ; which is 24 for I.
This return is very confiderable, and greatly furpaffes that of the foregoing experiment. It fhould be remembered, that the furface of this field is lefs. 'Tis true it received no damage from the hail.
EXPERIMENT, No. XII.
WE mentioned in the journal of 1752, a perfon's having fown about 125 arpents in equally diftant rows, with the drill- plough ; and we obferved, that a great part of the ground could not be well plowed, and that the whole of it could not be fowed till November and December. Thefe two circumftances gave no room to hope for much fuccefs. About 40 arpents, which were the laft fowed, were dunged : but thefe yielded the leaft crop of any.
This great extent of ground was fowed with 993.2 pounds of wheat. To have fown it all in the common way, would have required 29524 pounds of wheat. Confequently here is a faving of 19592 pounds of wheat, in the feed.
The foii of thefe fields being of different qualities, their produce was proportioned theFeto, varying from exceeding good to very bad. The 125 arpents yielded in all 86058 pounds of wheat. The
crop
Chap. II. BYM. DECHATEAU-VIEUX. i79
crop would have been more confiderable, if about 30 arpents had not been greatly damaged by the hail. The lofs it occafioned, fhews plainly the great probability of having larger returns in other years, when we become more perfect in the practice of the new hufbandry, to the want of which the bad fuccefs of this firft trial has certainly been owing in a great meafure. All the lands of this farm are now fowed again with the drill-plough. They confift of about 160 ar- pents, and afford a pleafing profpect for the enfuing harveft.
EXPERIMENT. No. XIII.
A Field of three arpents and a half, was fowed in the middle of October with 243 pounds of wheat. It ufed generally to re- quire about 850 pounds. It yielded 2268 pounds. This, adds the perfon who has fent me this account, is as much as I have had from any other field fowed in the old way.
EXPERIMENT. No. XIV.
/TpHE fame perfon who made the foregoing experiment, fowed ■*- another field of about four arpents, of a poorer and colder foil, towards the middle of November, with 333 pounds of wheat. In the old way, it ufed to be fowed with 972 pounds. It yielded 1260 pounds. The corn in this field remained thin. It did not branch fo well as that of the former. The perfon who fends me this ac- count of thefe two experiments, adds : " It muft be obferved, that " the drought, as well of the autumn as of the fpring, was un- " favourable, efpecially to the late fown wheat. Thefe experiments <c have encouraged me to purchafe a drill-plough, and to fow all my " lands with it in equally diftant rows, according to the new me- " thod, this year 1753 : only I have obferved to fow earlier, viz. " between the middle of Auguft and the middle of Septembers and " thicker, that is to fay, 45 pounds, on the fame extent of ground " where I fowed but 34 pounds and an half, and 41 pounds and an " half in 1752. My plants, hitherto, make a fine appearance, and *« are very thick : their blades are large, and the whole is in great " vigour,"
A a 2 EX-
iSo EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
EXPERIMENT. No. XV.
r Have extended my experiments to an eftate where I have not ■*• time to make any long (ray myfelf, fo that what is done there is left to the difcretion of fervants, whofe eye, as is well known, is not like that of their mafter.
The lands of this place are very poor : they produce little corn, but very good. In 1752, they were very badly plowed, and this plowing was fpoilt by the rains, juft as the ground was going to be fowed. I ordered the whole to be fowed with the drill-plough, except an arpent and an half, which was fowed in the old way. Some few fields were a little better plowed than the reft. Theft produced pretty good wheat. The others were very poor. However, I have reafon to be pleafed with my having lowed in this manner. I judge of it by the produce of the arpent and half, which was fowed in the common way, and which yielded me no more than exadtly the quantity of the feed bellowed upon it.
The true caufe of this was the bad condition of the lands. They are in much better tilth this year. All of them have been fown with the drill-plough, in a favourable feafon, and my fervants afTure me that the corn rifes finely.
ARTICLE V.
Account of the crops produced during fixteen fuccefjive years,_ by fields cultivated and fowed in the common way, and of •which part was conftantly dunged ; compared with a crop of the fame fields culti~ voted without dung, according to the new hujbandry, even fuppq/ing them not to yield more than they did in 1753, which was their fir/i crop, and which was greatly diminified by the unjorefeen and ex- traordinary accidents already mentioned.
TH E refult of eur experiments would be of little ufe, if it ex- tended no farther than our own private inftruction. To ren- der it of more general fervice, we mail here give a comparifon of the produce of lands cultivated according to the old hufbandry, and according to the new, that every one may judge which of the two will anlwer heft.
This parallel will fhew bow much the new hufbandry is fuperior,
in
Chap. II. BY M. DE C H A TE A U- V IE UX. 181
in point of advantage, to the old. We are to fuppofe all the cirv cumftances of the feafons to be like thoie of the years of which we have compared the produces. But as the expence of culture is an object well worth confidering, and as that expence may not be equal in both ways, I beg leave to lay down here as a fact, " That the " charge of the new culture is lefs than that of the old." I have tried it, and find it fa; as I mall, hereafter, prove beyond dif- pute.
By the old culture, in the eftate I now cultivate in the new way, I mould have had but two fields fowed in 1752, to be reaped in 1753; viz. thatoftheexperimentNo.lv. and that of the experi- ment No.V. Thefe two fields contain together 22599 toifes. I have calculated the produce of thefe two fields during 16 years, viz. from 1730, to 1745 inclufively. They have yielded eight crops in this time, the total produce of which has been 146863 pounds of wheat: deducting from which 42130 pounds for the feed fowed in the eight years, the neat produce will be reduced to 104733 pounds.*
It is proper to obferve, that this wheat was meafured every year in the barn, as foon as it was threfhed, and before it was lifted : an operation which always occafions a confiderable diminution, tho' we make no allowance for it here.
Let us now fee what crops the preceding experiments give us room reaibnably to expect from the fame two fields in fixteen fuc- ceflive years of the new husbandry ; to judge only by that of this- firft year 1753, unfavourable as it is.
The field, No. IV, was fowed, half in beds, and half in equally diftant rows. I am obliged to fuppofe it to have been fowed entirely in beds; for it cannot be doubted but that the part which was fowed in rows, would have produced as much as the other : confe- quently the whole crop of the two halves, at 3370 pounds each, would have been 6740 pounds.
As the fame fields yield a crop every year, in the new hufbandry, we (hall have fixteen crops inftead of eight : fo that multiplying the firft year's crop, 6740 pounds, by fixteen, the total produce will be 107840 pounds : to which muft be added that of the experiment No.V, which was 2205 pounds § which being alfo multiplied by
fixteen,
* The fields whieh were fowed alternately during the eight other years, {hough their extent was Somewhat larger, yielded ftill lefs grain. Their whole produce W» fut 114331 pounds.
i$2 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
fixteen, will produce a farther quantity of 35280 pounds for the fix- teen crops. This, added to the amount of the experiment No. IV, will make in all 143 120 pounds of wheat for the fixteen years.
If we afterwards deduct from this, the quantity"] of feed uied in thefe two fields during the fixteen ( ,,
years, which amounts to 8016 pounds, the neat pro-C *" * duce will be .:.... -*
In the old way, the fame fields would produce, 7 '■ .,
in fixteen years, only > vlaa
The difference, in favour of the new culture, is ) ,,
therefore j 3 37
Befides the advantage of reaping a much greater quantity of corn, there are others which highly merit our attention. This corn is not mixed with any feeds of weeds, and its quality is greatly improved by the abundance of nourishment which the plants are fupplied with by the frequent ftirrings of the earth in this hufbandry, more than in the old.
But how fine a profpect dees the propofition which we advanced before, afford us yet beyond all this ! viz. " That the crops of the " fecond and following years, would be ftill more plentiful than " the firft." What fome might then think only an object of hope and fpeculation, is already realized, and proved by experiments. All this deferves the mod ferious attention. The new hufbandry will certainly, in time, acquire a fuperiority over the old, greater than we can now imagine.
ARTICLE VI.
Proofs that the beji field in the country, tho' the greateji part of it was dunged, yielded lefs wheat than thofe of the experiments No. II. and XI, in which no dung was ufed.
TH E proofs of the advantages of the new hufbandry, cannot be multiplied too much ; and all thofe which are the refult of experience, deferve to be communicated to the public.
The field we are going to fpeak of, is generally, and juftly,
reckoned
Chap. II. BY M. DE C H ATE A U - VI EUX. 183
reckoned the beft in the country. Its foil is excellent, very deep, and extremely fertile. This field is dunged very often, Its nearnefs to the farm-yards renders the carriage of manure extremely eafy, and is the caufe of its getting perhaps more of it than may be neceflary. Its fituation too is excellent, riling on all fides above the neighbour- ing grounds, and the high- ways which furround it ; by which mean9 it is lefs expofed to be hurt by wet, the water finding an eafy drain from off it.
The extent of this field is 6087 toifes. It was fowed in 1 752, for the harveft of 1753, and the greateft part of it was well dunged.
It is not the cuftom of the country I am fpeaking of, to defcribe the extent of a field by the number of arpents it contains, but by the number of meafures of wheat with which it is fowed. Eight mea- fures ufed generally to be employed to fow this : but the quantity of feed was lefTened this laft time, and only feven meafures were fown. We have hitherto fuppofed the furface of this field to be equal to that of the other fields of the fame country, in which eight meafures of feed are fowed.
But as I was defirous to be more precifely exact, in order to form the companion I purpofed making, I had recourfe to the geometri- cal plans of the lands, and found the contents of this field to be, as I faid before, 6087 toifes : now, the cuftom of this village is always to fow at leaft eleven meafures in a fpace like this. One field, a- mong others, very near to this, and which is but 24 toifes and 32 feet larger, has always been fowed with twelve meafures.
A new caufe of the fruitfulnefs of this field, unknown before my obfervations, is, that the farmer wifely took care to fow it with a lefs quantity of feed. The plants throve better, when the land was not over-ftocked with them. This field will therefore help to prove the truth of one of the firft principles of the new hufbandry, viz. That the quantity of feed generally ufed, ought to be diminijked : a pro- position which defer ves our entire confidence, becaufe the feed here has, time out of mind, been reduced to eight meafures, and they have been fufTicient to produce very plentiful crops. The farther re- duction made in 1752, to feven meafures, muft alfo be approved of, fince the crop it yielded was very fine.
Thefe preliminary obfervations feemed neceflary, before we pro- ceeded in our detail. This field was fowed with about 150 pounds of wheat. It was finer during the whole fummer, than any wheat in the common way. It was reaped at a proper time, and yielded
about
i34 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT Partll.
about 6646 pounds ; from which mud be deducted, firft, the 850 pounds of feed, and fecondly, the value of the dung, which is equal at leaft to 1260 pounds of wheat; together 2110 pounds; which, deducted from 6646 pounds, the total produce, leaves for the neat produce 4536 pounds.
The crop of 1753 was diminished by the hail of the third of June. The value of this lofs is not known : but we may fairly compare it with the experiment, "No. 2. which likewife fuffcred by the fame hail. We confefs that this comparifon is not abfolutely ex- act, writh refpect to this accident : but it muft alfo be granted that this circumftance cannot occafion any very great error. We muft likewife premife, that we fhall not reckon the produce of a fmall fpot which is pretty commonly fowed in March in the year of fal- low, becaufe it hardly equals the expence of dung and plowing.
The neat produce of the experiment No. 1 1, on a field fowed in equally diftant rows, was 2857 pounds 8 ounces. But the extent of that field being but 2172 toifes, we muft calculate what the crop would have been in proportion, if that extent had been 6087 toifes, fuppofing it cf the fame quality. We fhall find that the field on which our experiment was made, would have produced neat 8006 pounds of wheat: deducting from which, 4536 pounds, for the neat produce of the field cultivated in the old way, the difference in favour of the new culture, without dung, will be 3470 pounds of wheat.
We have feen by the experiment No. 2, that this field laid out in beds, and having borne its fecond crop, yielded neat 1540 pounds of wheat. Its extent is but 1650 toifes ; fo that we are to fee what crop it would have yielded if its extent had been 6087 toifes, fup- pofing the quality of the foil to be the fame. The rule of three fhews us again, that its neat produce would have been 5681 pounds of wheat, which we are to double for the amount of the next year's crop ; every year yielding a crop in the new hufbandry : whereas the field it is compared with, would lie fallow this year. Thus two years will yield j 1362 pounds of wheat; from which deducting 4536 pounds for the neat produce of the fame field cultivated in the old way during the fame fpace of time, the difference will be 6826 pounds of wheat, in favour of the new hufbandry.
A R-
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHATEAU.VIEUX. 185
ARTICLE VII.
Reflexions and obfervations on the p?-a5iice of the new hufbandry.
TH E chief object of our reflections Iaft year was, the effect which plowjng and culture has upon plants. They feem to us to be confirmed by the following obfervations.
1. The productions were greateft in thofe places where the earth had been moil: Ioofened and brought to the fineft tilth.
2. We have feen plainly that in order to improve our tillage, it is neceflary to make the great furrow in the middle of the alleys very deep, becaufe that furrow being afterwards filled up, and a new bed made over it, there is a greater depth of light well Ioofened mould immediately under the roots of the plants.
3. We can affirm, that we have this year, without much trou- ble, plowed our beds from fifteen to eighteen inches deep, which is very confiderable : but we muft not flatter ourfelves, that this depth can always be attained the firfl: year : it is by continuing this fame culture that we (hall infenfibly reach it.
4. To have great fuccefs, requires proper care and judgment in performing every part of the new hufbandry. The culture which is well executed, will be of very great ufe ; but that, on the con- trary, which is badly done, will be of no fervice to the plants, and may even prove very detrimental to the next year's crop.
5. To perform this culture with advantage, it is therefore necef- fary to obferve this important maxim of tillage, fo little attended to by many farmers, never to Jet the plough to work, when the earth is too moifl. I have adhered to it ftrictly, and have never fuffered my lands to be touched till they were dry. We have tilled when the weather has been very dry and very hot, and then it was that our culture had the beft effect : the fliffeft lands having been broken by the preceding plowings, was provided with the mcilrure neceflaiy for plants, from its furface to the bottom of the furrows j and the plants were fenfibly benefited by all our frequent fhrrings.
6. I was fo ftruck with it, that I marked feveral (talks, to fee how much they grew each day. From the time that the ears began to appear, till they had done bloflbming, I found that they grew an inch in four and twenty hours. The hotteft days were thofe in which the (talks grew moft ; whilft all vegetation feemed almofl fufpended in the wheat in the common way.
B b 7. This
1 86 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, PartIL
7. This obfervation led me to another. I was greatly furprifed one day to find my ftalks jufl as I had left them the day before. The next day, and the day after, I found them ftill the fame : m fhort, they grew no longer from that time.
So fudden a change raifed my curiofity greatly, and I refolved to find out the caufe of it. The time when they ceafed to grow, was immediately after they had done blofioming. I judged that from that time all the fap was conveyed to the ear to form the grains of the wheat, and that the reft of the plant had only what was necef- fary to prevent its drying too foon. This difpenfation of the nutri- tive juices feemed to me very remarkable : all their forces feem then to unite, to form, fill, and ripen the grain, which is the moft ufeful part. I was afterwards confirmed in this, by obferving that it was from that very time that the ftalks and blades began infenfibly to lofe their deep green colour, and that this green grew lighter and lighter every day : a fure fign of a diminution of fap in thofe parts. 8. It is likewife of very great importance to know which is the moft proper time for fowing lands : for the growth of plants depends greatly on this circumftance. Late fowings have not anfwered : but the early ones have produced plants, whofe vigour has enabled them, the better to refift the winter's cold, and to branch out the more a- bundantly. By attending to this circumftance, the farmer will en- joy the defirable advantage of having his corn ripen early, and of its being lefs expofed to the dangers of the fummer feafon ; for we have feen that the wheat which was fowed firft in the new method, ripe- ned thoroughly as foon as that which was fowed in the old way. It is proper to know this, in order to be fenfible of the neceffity of beginning to plow early, that the feed may be fowed in due time.
9. I muft beg leave to make a few reflections again this year on the quantity of feed moft proper to be fown. It is of the utmoft importance to know how to proportion the quantity of the feed to the ftrength and richnefs of the foil, fo that each may have its due proportion. The experiments already made, help to direct us ; but I think others ftill neceflary before we can truft abfolutely to our knowledge in this point.
At prefent, 1 fhall only advife fowing the fame quantity of feed that I did in 1752. I fancy that proportion will not differ greatly from what a longer practice will fhew to be the beft. However, the lame quantity of feed will not do for every foil. It muft be va- ried with judgment, and regulated according to the circumftances of j the
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHATEAU-VIEUX. 187
the feafon, and the better or worfe condition of the ground. I think too, that in the firft, and even the fecond year of the trials which may be made, it will be proper to fow a little thicker than I did in 1752. The farmer will eafily perceive, that when his lands are well loofened and brought to a good tilth, they will require \kfs feed : but till then, he will do well not to be over-fparing of ir.
10. We cannot yet determine fo exactly as we could wifh, what breadth the beds, including the alleys, fbould be of, to make the ground produce the greateft: quantity of corn ; nor whether it would be beft to fow more or lefs than three rows. We confefs that we fhould be glad to fee a longer feries of accurate experiments, and to have a greater knowledge of this matter, before we pretend to fix it. Our beds have always been about fix feet wide.
Mr. Duhamel, who firft: introduced this new hufbandry in France, intends to make experiments by fowing only two rows. If they fhould yield more grain, the width of the beds may certainly be di- minished : and as it is of confequence to multiply and vary experi- ments, in order to determine this point, we now have feveral beds fowed, fome in two, and fome in three rows. I have likewife tried what multiplying the number of rows in fome fields would do ; and the refult of this experiment promifes an advantage in that way of fowing. The fuccefs of this firfi: trial was as follows.
When the field of the experiment No. 2, was fowed, I obferved among the reft: ten beds which the plowman had made wider than the others. I was forry at firfi:, that any part of the ground lhould be loft: : but on thinking farther of it, I determined to fow thofe beds with two turns of the drill-plough, and confequently to plant them with fix rows of wheat. I did fo : and when the firft: plow- ing after winter was given, little regard was paid to the two out- fide rows, which were torn up by the plough in feveral parts, fo that there remained but four or five rows in thofe places.
The wheat of thefe beds grew as high and branched as much as that of the others, in which there were but three rows, not except- ing even the middle row. I examined them frequently, with great care, and was afiifted therein by feveral perfons very capable of judging and making good obfervations. The only difference we could diftinguifti, and that was fcarcely perceptible, was in the ears, which we thought rather the fhorteft: in the middle rows : but as there was a greater quantity of them, we judged that thefe beds would yield moil grain.
B b 2 We
jSS EXPERIMENTS' ON WHEAT, PartIL
We were not miftaken • for their produce was as follows. The ten beds which had been fowed with fix rows each, yielded 91 pounds of wheat more than ten beds which were fowed with three rows each. But, as this refult does not £et the matter in a fuffici- ently clear light, we mufr. have recourfe to the following calcula- tion. The fix row'd beds took up more ground than thofe which had but three rows : two beds more might have been made out of the iurplus of their breadth : fo that there would in that cafe have been 12 beds inffead of 10. The queftion therefore is, whether this ground, made into 10 beds, produced more than it would have done if it had been made into 12 beds of three rows each. To which
I anfwer, that it did produce 38 pounds more • and that there was. likewife a feventh part more ftraw.. r
As this experiment defcrved to be repeated, I have tried it in a larger way. I have laid feveral arpents out in beds of about feveix feet wide : they are fowed with fix rows: the plants are very fine, and I impatiently wait the event.
Though I have continued not to dung my fields, the plants ftilL grow very tall, and produce fine long ears, well filled with plump grain-.
I am indebted to the new husbandry for the recovery and im- provement of worn-out meadows. They have already yielded me plenty of fodder. The value of this fhould be added to the pro- duce of the fields • becaufe the new hufbandry is the immediate caufe that manure can be fpared to enrich thofe meadows.
ARTICLE VITf.
General difpofuion of the lands for the crop of 1754;
THE more I have ftudied the principles of the new hufban-f dry, the more I have been convinced of the advantages at- tending it. My experiments have not onJy confirmed me in this opi- nion • bat they have likewife fhewed me that my practice has been confluent with thefe principles. This made me determine to lay* the whole of one of my farms out in the new way, as foon as pof- fih'.y I could • its extent being no more than I can direct almoft all the whole culture of mvfelf.
I have completed it this year. All the fields, of which only half
II fed to be fowed every year, in our old way, are now laid out in beds. I have fowed them all, with a defign to continue doing lb
for.
Chap. If. BY M. DE CHATEAU-VIEUX. 189
for the future every year. They look exceeding well hitherto : the plants are extremely fine, and promife a greater crop next year, than that of the experiments of the foregoing years.
Thefe experiments have likewiie made a ftrong impreruon on feveral perfons in this country, each of whom judged of the new hufbandry,. as his inclination, or profped: of advantage, directed. 'Tis true our farmers are more generally inclined to fow their lands in equally diftant rows, with the drill-plough, than to lay them out in beds, the proper manigement of which, fay they, is attended with much more care and trouble. My drill -plough is preferred on ac- count of its fimplicity. It began to be ufed lad: year, and numbers of fields near this city (Geneva) have been fowed with it this year.
Several ©f our peafants have likewife. tried the drill-plough, and their example will be of confequence hereafter. Their unwilling- nefs to come into any new practice, is well known : but this feems to get the better of their prejudices ; and the profpect they now have of greater crops than ufual, makes them regret their not having fowed a greater extent of ground this way.
We have about an hundred and twenty afrpents fowed in beds, and upwards of eight hundred and fifty fowed in equally diftant rows. Such large experiments, and made on different foils, cannot but afford new inftrudtion : the facts will be better afcertained, and people will be more thoroughly convinced that the greater produce of the crops is owing to the new hufbandry, and not to favourable circum- ftances, to which they are too apt to impute it. Thefe experi- ments, fay they, have been made on the very beft foils; it is much easier to prepare 100 or 200 toifes of ground, then an extent of fe- veral arpents ; thefe little fpots have been cultivated with vaft care -x it is almoft impofhble to beftow the fame attention on large tracts of land. Luckily, feveral lovers of agriculture are making large ex- periments, which already prove that the new hufbandry may eafily be.- pradtifed in any extent of ground whatever^
CONCLUSION.
AN Y'one may now judge, by the experiments which' have been; made thefe laft four years, and by the fuccefs which has at- tended them, how far the principles of the new hufbandry are juftly founded, and how far we are in the right road to give ftill farther demonftrations of: the excellence. of: them..
TJic
joo EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
The lands on which it has already been practifed, leave no room to doubt that all its operations may be performed with eai'e : and. at the lame time they prove to every one who fha!l be inclined to' cultivate any part of their farms in the fame way, that they may do it with equal advantage.
Convenient inftruments for executing this culture are already in- vented and made. The ufe that has been, and ftill is made of them, ought to increafe our confidence in them. It is by their means that the two moft effential articles towards fccuring fuccefs, are obtained : the firft is, the means of forming, plowing, and cultivating the beds, with great eafe and little expence : the fecond, that of fowing land more regularly, and of giving it the exact, quantity of feed that may be thought moft proper, by means of the drill-plough, which buries the feed at its proper depth in the furrows, covers it over, and, in fhort, does the whole buiinefs of fowing with great difpatch, and a considerable faving of feed.
The chief obftacles being now removed, we may reafonablv hope that the new hufbandry will gain ground every year. Numbers of in- telligent peribns, truly zealous for the public good, have feen how my lands were cultivated, and have been curious enough to be prefent at all the operations of this culture. They have frequently told me, that the public have not a right notion either of the new huibandry in general, or of the eafe with which it is performed. They themfelves have wondered at it, and prelTed me to publifh a circumftantial ac- count of the manner in which I have introduced this new method in our-country, that they too might inftruct their countrymen therein. I have yielded to their follicitations ; and fhall continue to communi- cate my farther obfervations in this fourth year of my practice of the new hufbandry.
SECTION IV.
Experiments made by M. Lullin de Chateau-vieux, in the year 1754.
MY experiments in the year 1754, will afford a frefh proof of what I faid in my accounts of thofe of the preceding years, •viz. that land, by continuing to be cultivated in the new way, will be- come more fertile, and produce greater crops even the fecond or third year j becaufe the earth wiH then be in a loofer ftate, which is highly iieceffary to procure plentiful productions.
This proof ought to be received with fo much the more confidence,
as
Chap.IL BY M. DE CHAT E AU-V I E U X. 191
as the feafons of the year 1754 were not favourable to the production of corn. It was an extremely dry year ; the earth had not the degree of moifture which is neccffary to promote the growth of plants ; the wheat was in general very thin and low, and numbers of farmers did not reap above half the crop the fame lands had yielded them in
1752«
The wheat fuffered great accidents early ; for it was rujled in Oc- tober and November. Till then, it was very ftrong, and promifed well ; but afterwards, it turned yellow on a fudden; The nift made a great progrefs. I met with places where the ground was entirely covered with the powder of this diftemper. The vegetation of the plants before winter, was from that time nearly at a ftand.
They were likewife hurt, and perhaps ftill more, by the frofts which began again in March, and lafted till the 20th of that month. Thefe frofts rooted up prodigious numbers of plants of the wheat fowed in the common way, which withered in a few days. Some fields fuffered fo much by this accident, that they were obliged to be plowed anew, and fowed again with oats or other fpring corn.
To fhew the refult of my experiments the more diftinctly ; I fhall range them in the following order.
The firft article will contain an account of three experiments made on lands laid out m beds, and which have born a third and a fourth fucceffive crop ; to which I fhall add fome remarks particularly re- lating thereto.
In the fecond. article, I fhall relate four experiments which I made on lands formed into beds, which had born a fecond crop. Thefe too will be accompanied with fome reflections.
The third article will give an account of three experiments made on lands formed into beds, which have born a firft crop ; and of the manner in which I tilled them, in order to prepare them for fowing. This will give rife to feveral remarks.
The fourth article will inform 'the public of fome other experi- ments made on lands laid out in beds, which have yielded a firft and fecond crop. This will be followed by fome interefting obfer- vations.
In the fifth article, I (hall relate feveral experiments made by divers lovers of agriculture, on lands fowed in equally daftant rows with the drill-plough.
The fixth article will contain an account of the produce of feveral fields fowed in equally diftant rows, with the drill-plough.
1$.
,1.92 - '-EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT. Part II,
In the feventb, I fhall make fome general obfervations on the ex- periments contained in the foregoing articles.
I (hall fpeak in the eighth article, of the experiments I have made on beds fowed with fix rows of wheat; and compare their produce with that of others, fowed with only three rows. The refult of this, will enable us to judge how many rows it may be bed to fow.
In the ninth article, I give a circufnftantial detail of an experiment which I made in order to be moj'e fure of the bejl way of [owing the beds; and to be able to determine more exactly what quantity of feed is raoft likely to produce the greateft crop.
Before I enter upon either of thefe fubjects, it will be proper to obferve, that I have ufed no dung, or any fort of manure, for my fields or beds; purpofely to be the more certain of the effects of this new culture, and to fee what land could do by mere dint of ftirring it. My dung has been laid, as ufual, upon my grafs lands, where it .continues to be of wonderful advantage.
I (hail ufe the fame weights and meafures as in my former experi- ments, viz. the toife of thirty-fix feet, and the pound of 1 6 ounces.
ARTICLE I.
Experiments made en lands formed into beds, which have yielded a third and a fourth fucce (jive crop: with fome obfervaiions particularly relating thereto.
EXPERIMENT, No. I.
N B. 'This field is marked with the fame number in the journals cf 175 1, 1752, and 1753 ; and in the fame [pot on which I made my fir ft experiments in 1751. This is the fourth fuccefjive crop.
np H E fmall fpot of ground on which I made the experiment I am ■*■ going to fpeak of, being only a fingle bed, 160 feet long and five feet wide, would not deferve to be taken notice of in this account, were it not for a circumftance extremely remarkable, and the more worthy of attention, as the fuccefs it was attended with, affords an unexpected and indifputable proof of the fruitfu'nefs which may be expected from lands cultivated in the new way. If farmers will but continue it to the third or fourth year, they will then be fure of hav- ing their lands in excellent tilth, well loofened and divided, and its pores properly opened and exceedingly multiplied. That this will % be
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHATEAU-VIEUX. 193
be the cafe, cannot be doubted. Yet fome may perhaps be weary of cultivating their lands for fo long a time, before they attain that per- fection ofculture, which we have all along declared to be neceffary, in order to have great fuccefs.
To prevent the dilguft which might arife from fo diftant an ex- pectation, and to encourage the lovers of the new hufbandry, I (halt obferve, in the fir ft place, that there are, in every country, confider- able tracts of good land, which will not require fo long a time to bring them into proper tilth. I am, however, fenfible how fervice- able it would be towards haftening the progrefs of the new culture, in lands of an inferior quality, to be able to find out fome fhorter way of breaking and loofening the earth : and accordingly I have tried whether it cannot be done.
I have fucceeded therein, fully to my fatisfaction, and can now fay with certainty, that lands may be brought to a fufficiently loofe ftate, even the firft year, by plowing them in the manner I {hall ex- plain in the third article, experiments 8, 9, and 10, the crops of which were very good.
The moft certain, and moft inconteftable principle of the new huf- bandry, is that the earth muft be thoroughly loofened by deep and frequent plowings and repeated culture. In confequence of this, I examined very carefully whether my lands were more loofened and rendered lighter by my manner of performing the operations of the new huf- bandry, than they were when cultivated in the common way. All my obfervations convinced me that they were.
The firft glance of the eye {hewed me, that the furface of my lands was fmoother : on founding the plowings, I found them deeper ; lefs ftrength was required to plow : two horfes, and fome- times only one, or a fingle ox, did with eafe, what would otherwife have required at leaft double that number of cattle. A manifeft proof that my lands were in excellent tilth.
If, after having thus examined the lands themfelves, I confidered their productions, I had a frefli proof of their being brought to that ftate of pulverifation, in which alone plants can thrive well. My wheat was infinitely ftronger than that in the common way ; and, on examining it minutely, I found that each plant had a greater quantity of roots, ftronger, thicker, and much longer, than other wheat, and that the blades were broader and longer, and of a much deeper green. The plants had generally a great number of very thick and
C c long
,i94 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
long ftalks, which were crowned with large ears quite full of grain, and much heavier than thofe of the common wheat.
All thefe obfervations were fufficient to convince me, that my lands were in the fhte I wifhed them to be ; that is to fav, that they were lpofened and divided fo as to be capable of yielding great productions.
It was therefore lefs to fatisfy myfelf, than to give the public a farther proof of the excellence of the new hufbancry, that I made the experiment I am going to relate. It is an interefting one in t refpect ; and I make no doubt but that it will induce many others to make the like trial. I can affure them that they will find it well worth their while.
The harveft of 1755 being over, I immediately fet about plowing my fields, and forming the new beds which were to be fowed. The year was a very dry one. I ul'ed frequently to walk, both over the beds that had juft been reaped, and over the fields cultivated in the common wav, where the corn had likewife been lately cut down.
The firft thing that ftruck me in thefe walks, was, the difference which I found in the ftubble. That of the fields cultivated in the common way was fo poor and weak, that it fc - .fed the motion
of my feet. That of the beds, on the contrary, refilled greatly : I often felt it break under my feer, and frequently met with tufts of 20, 30, 40, and fometimes more ilalk;, me fhert, like
fo many little bufhea,
I am the more particular in my account c. ble, becaufe it
fhews the great ftrength cf the plants ; which they would not I had if the earth had been lei's well prepared. Befides, rn has its real ufe, as I ihall mew elfewhere. I: is a much better manure for land than the common fhtbh
This obfervation led me to examine carefully what other differences I could find between the fields cultivated either way. The meft im- portant is, the ftate of compreffion which thofe in the - . way were in after harveft. They offered nothing pleafing or ry t j the eye ; the earth was extremely hard, clofe and compadt j and its furface almoft as firm as that of a beaten road.
The fields in the new way, prepared by better plowirgs made at proper feafons, were, on the contrary, ftill very light and fbft in the middle of the beds, in the partitions between the rows of fiubbie. The earth gave way like fand, when trod upon ; and t vas
very dry, I thruft a flick of green willow eight or ten inches deep
into
■
Chap. II. BYM.DECHATEA U- V I E U X. 1 9 j
into it, With great eafe, though I could not by any means pufh it at all into the land which had been cultivated in the common way. This plainly fhews the better ftate of the former.
Laftly, I compared thefe. fields with thofe that were in fallow, which had been plowed, and were intended to be fowed in autumn. I found the tops of the late reaped beds, in much better condition than the common fields which were under fallow. This made me immediately conclude, that thefe very beds might be fowed again with fuccefs, in the fame places where the corn grew the year before, •without plowing them.
I thought, however, that if this experiment did fucceed, it would be owing in fome meafure to the culture of the alleys, and that this would fully prove the ufe which they are of. This was another rea- fon for my trying this experiment.
It appears by this, that my chief defign was to try whether the fame ground could be fowed, in the fame place, two years running without plowing ; and to fee how ftrong the plants would, in that cafe, be at harveft.
I was confequently to avoid, in fowing it, every thing that might fuppfy the want of plowing, and to fur only juft fo much earth as was abfolutely neceffary to bury the feed. This confideration pre- vented my making ufe of the drill-plough, the fhare and harrow of which divide and loofen the earth perfectly well, as deep as the feed is planted.
All I did to this bed, was, barely to pull up the ftubble, and afterwards draw a line with a ftick, as if it had been for fowing lettice. The feed was dropt by hand into three of thefe channels which were afterwards covered over with a rake.
The birds had done great damage to the wheat I fowed the year before in this ground. To avoid this accident now, I fowed a kind of corn called /pelt, which is ufed in many places inftead of wheat. The Germans cultivate it greatly. The fpek which I -fowed- is of a fomewhat different kind. The grain of both forts, is inclofed in double hufks, very thick, and of which the outer one does not open eafily, fo that the birds cannot pick out the grains.
I fowed this bed very thick, concluding that the plants wculd not branch much. And I fowed it early, viz. the nineteenth of Jul v, be- caufe this grain remains a whole year in the ground, from the time of lowing, till it is ripe. I ufed in all eleven ounces of feed, which
C c 2 ' foon
,96 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
foon fprung up, and the plants made very ftrong moots ; but I thought them too thick.
As this ground had not been plowed, I thought it was proper to affift the plants other wife as early as I could. I had them weeded the twenty-fecond of Auguft.
Thefe plants grew fo extremely thick, that their blades covered the ground four feet round, before winter, in fuch manner that the earth could not even be feen through them. The rows were from a foot to a foot and an half high, and the whole had already fpindled, which made me forry I had fowed (o early ; fearing left plants i'o forward before winter, as thefe were, fhould be killed by the froft ; and, in order to fecure fome refource in cafe that fhould happen, I ordered part of the bed to.be mowed the fixth of November, but did not touch the reft. I muft here obferve by the way, that the part which ivas m&wed. had fcweft Jfalks at ha?-veft. At the fame time I gave the alleys their firft plowing before winter. Upon opening a furrow near the rows, I faw fo prodigious a quantity of long roots, interwoven as it were with one another, that I continued to hope well of the fuccefs.
Seeing, however, fo many roots uncovered and expofed to the air and froft, I was tempted to fill the furrows up again, in order to pre- ferve them from it : but, confidering that, by leaving the furrows open, the part of the bed in which the plants were, and which had not been plowed, would be much more expofed to the froft, which would then penetrate the earth through its furface, and through both fides of the furrows, whereby it would be greatly divided, and per- haps meliorated more than by plowing, I preferred leaving the fur- rows open, and have had no caufe to repent it.
I confidered too, that fuppofing thefe roots expofed to the air fhould perifh, which was no more than what I might reafonably expect ; the plants had other roots on t'other fide, which, ftill remaining co- vered with earth, would be fufficient to fupply them with the necef- fary nourifhment till fpring.
After winter, the plowings were performed in proper weather, and the bed was weeded. I fhall not repeat the detail of thefe operations, either here or in the following experiments. What I faid of them in the year 1753, may fuffke, as they have not been varied fince.
The plants I have been fpeaking of, grew amazingly in thicknefs, height, and largenefs of ears. They were reaped the twenty-fifth of July, and yielded five hundred and forty ounces ; which is forty- nine
Chap.II. BY M. DE CH ATE A U- V IEUX. 197
nine times the feed, and an ounce over. The birds did no damage at all. This is after the rate of 2041 pounds, or about 93 bufhels to an arpent, which is a very great crop.
This experiment amounts to a complete demonftration of the fu- periority of the new hufbandry. It fhews, beyond all doubt, how much the earth is more, perfectly tilled by it, and that this tilth is lafting, if care be taken to preferve it by good culture, performed at proper times and with judgment.
Can it be thought that a field cultivated in the old way, will, with only pulling up the ftubble, and without plowing it feveral times, even tho' it be harrowed, ever produce a crop of any corn whatever \ Fart of the feed might indeed (hoot, and the plants might grow fome inches high : but they would certainly perifh for want of nourishment, which they would not be able to draw from fuch a foil, by reafon of its extreme hardnefs ; and confequently they never would be able to produce any grain, which is the great object of agriculture.
It was of great importance to fhew, by an unexceptionable experi- ment, that lands are brought to much better tilth by the new huf- bandry, than by the old. This is now completely proved > and no doubt can any longer be made, that the confequence we drew from it is equally certain ; viz. that lands Jo prepared^ will produce more than lands which are cultivated in the common way. This facl, which is founded on the principles of found philofophy, is likewife confirmed by repeated experience.
The partifans of both kinds of hufbandry will do well to con- fider, that the great principle which we are endeavouring to incul- cate, and on which almoft the whole fuccefs of the new hufbandry depends, is admitted in the old hufbandry : viz. thoroughly to divide and loofen the earth. This principle is fo generally received, that: there is" not a hufbandman who does not know that one plowing more than ordinary does his land as much good as dunging it would do. His experience has certainly taught him, that this extraordinary plowing produces him better crops : but he is not fufficiently fenfible, that of all the ways of improving his land, no one is more effectual, cr lefs expenfive than this. Were the full value of it known, it would be practiced more ; and every farmer would give all his lands at leaft one plowing extraordinary.
What we propofe, is therefore not a novelty capable of giving any Lufbandman the leaft difiike to the new hufbandry. We ail proceed
upon
i93 . EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
upon the fame principle, and agree as to its effect. All of us fay, the earth muft be ice// divided and thoroughly loofened : but we differ in the manner of doing it. We propofe a method by which the ground is much better prepared than in the old way. In this con- rifts all the novelty. Whoever rightly confiders it, and compares it with the principles and experiments, will readily receive it : but he that is determined beforehand not to enter into this examination, will never enjoy the benefits of it, but will continue plodding on in the old beaten track ; not from reafon, but becaufe others did fo before him.
The advantages of the new hufbandry are however fo great, that it would be doing the public an injury, not to endeavour to make them more and more known. The fitteft way to anfwer this end, feems to be, to exhort all hufbandmen to convince themfelves, by ftudying the theory of the new hufbandry, weighing the folidity oi. its principles, and confulting the experiments which have been al- ready made.
Every man of common understanding, cannot but fucceed in the practical part ; and his example being imitated by others, the new hufbandry would foon become the general method.
EXPERIMENT. No. II.
N. B. This field is marked with the fame number in the Journals of 1J52 and 1753.
For the crop of ij 52, it was fowed ivith 11 pounds 4 ounces cf wheat, which yielded 1041 pounds 12 ounces.
For the crop of 1753, it was /owed with 34 pounds 14 ounces, which produced 1575 pounds.
For the crop 1754, it was fowed with 61 pounds 14 ounces^ which yielded 18 20 pounds.
THIS field, which was to be fowed for the third time, having been brought to a good tilth by former plowings, I prepared it immediately afcer harveft, by giving it a plowing like that of laft. year. I found I had done right in increafing the quantity of the feed the fecond year : and upon examining the plants which the earth had nourifhed, it feemed to me that it could yet bear a greater number, and that I might ftill expect a greater crop, by adding to
the feed.
Ac-
Chap. II. BY M. DE C H ATE A U - VIE UX. i99
Accordingly, I fowed it the fixteenth of Auguft, with 61 pounds 14 ounces of very large and perfectly clean wheat, of my own growth. It was the fame that I ufed for fowing all my fields.
The plants made a very confiderable progrefs after winter, and fhot up greatly, notwithstanding the extraordinary drought. They began to fpindle the eighteenth of May, they bloflbmed the firft of June ; and, being ripe, I cut them down the tenth of July.
I had them threShed a month after harveft. They yielded 1820 pounds of perfectly clean wheat. Thus we fee that this field pro- duced in 1754, 245 pounds more than in 1753, and 778 pounds 4 ounces more than in 1752.
EXPERIMENT. No. III.
N. B. This field is marked with the fame number in the journal ■
°J 17S3-
HPHIS field being now in much finer tilth than it was laft year, - would certainly have produced a greater quantity of wheat. However, I refolved to fow it with a foreign wheat, by way of triah I did fo, and it yielded me fcarce any crop at all.
I thought it might be of great fervice to try whether wheat of a different quality from- that -which we ufually cultivate, would not yield more than even wheat of the growth of our own country. At all events it was right to make this trial, tho' the wheat I ufed for it was by no means proper for fowing in our lands. It was Sicilian wheat, the grain of which is very large and extremely hard. I fowed it the twenty-firft of Auguft. It rofe well ; the plants grew very fine before winter, and were extremely, thick. But this wheat, being doubtlefs of a much tenderer nature than our common wheat, could not refift the winter's froft, which almoft entirely deftroyed it. Only a few ftrong plants efcaped. They grew exceeding fine, branched greatly, and produced very large ears, which contained more grains than thofe of our own country wheat. As the plants which Sur- vived the froft were very few, I reaped only about three times the feed.
200 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Partll.
REMARKS on tbefe EXPERIMENTS.
IT is by experience that we can beft judge how far the advantages afcribed to the new hufbandry are real. The foregoing experi- ments give rife to two important oblervations.
The firft experiment (hews us, that lands are brought to much better tilth by the new hufbandry, and that they will confequently produce much larger crops, than in the old way. Experience proves that they have done fo.
The fecond experiment offers us the fame proofs, but upon a much larger extent of ground. We have the products of three fuc- ceeding years, and the gradation of their crops. What ought to be particularly attended to here, is, that as the internal pores of the earth became more open, the crops became more plentiful ; which juftifies what we faid before, that the crops cf the fecond, third, and following years, would be greater than that of the firft.
It was of great confequence to eftablifh this fact, in order to found our calculations of the products on certain and approved experiments. The following article will afford frill farther proofs of this truth.
ARTICLE II.
Experiments made on lands laid out in beds, and which had borne a feccnd crop. Refections on tbefe experiments.
EXPERIMENT. No. IV. N. B. This field is marked 'with the fame number in the Journal
For the crop of 1753, it teas fovea tvitb 181 pounds of -wheat, which produced 3370 pounds.
For the crop of 1754, tt was ferwed 'with 26 S pounds 14 ounces, •which produced 4972 pounds 8 ounces.
IMuft remind the reader, that this field was fowed in 1753, half in beds, and half in equally diftant rows with the drill-plough. I fhall fpeak firft of the part that was laid out in beds, which continued to be cultivated in the fame manner for the crop of
1754-
The
Chap. II. BY M. DE CH AT E AU- V I E U X. 201
The plowings made during the year 1753, had the fame effecls on this land, that is to fay, they loofened and divided it. It was plowed with eafe after harveft; and the new beds having been formed and well prepared, I fowed them the feventeenth and eighteenth of Auguft, increafing the quantity of the feed to 268 pounds fourteen ounces of wheat. The plants rofe well, and throve greatly before winter ; and in the fpring they made ftrong moots.
The winter frofts, and perhaps fome infecfs too, had deftroyed fome plants in the rows. I faw plainly by this, that I had done right in increafing the quantity of the feed. Though the year was dry and hot, the wheat grew to a great height, and ripened welh I reaped it between the tenth and fifteenth of July, and threfhed it out in the winter. This crop yielded me 4972 pounds S ounces ; fo that I had this fecond year 1602 pounds 8 ounces more than the firft.
I (hall lhorten what I have to fay of the other half of this field,' which was lowed in equally diftant rows for the crop of 1753. After harveft, I made it into beds. But how furprifing was the dif- ference between the mould of thefe two parts of the fame field, even in this fecond year ! That which had been in beds, was fine and light: but this was fcarcely divided at all: it was full of great hard clods, many of which were obliged to be broken by hand. Though I had not much hope of its yielding any great crop, confi- dering the condition it was in, I fowed it the twenty-ninth and thir- ty-fir ft of Auguft.
Thefe beds were but poorly ftocked with plants, which gathered little ftrength before winter, and indeed always remained veiy weak and ftinted, and when reaped, yielded ftill lefs than the other half of the field had done in 1753. But if I have gained nothing by the crop, at leaft I brought my beds into fuch tilth, as.affures me of a more plentiful harveft in 1755.
EXPERIMENT. No. V. N. B. This jicld is marked with the fame 7iumber in the journal
°f *753-
For the crop of 1753, tt was fowed with 1 19 pounds, which pro- duced 2205 pounds.
For the cropof 1754, // was fowed with i2\pounds of wheat, which produced 2283 pounds.
' I * H E foil of this field was of fuch a nature as made it more A difficult to loofen, than thole of the experiments No. 2. and
D d No.
zot EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
No. 3, notwidiftanding the culture beftowed upon it in the fum- mer of 1753* which mended it greatly. Still it was not yet in the condition I could have wifhed, when I fowed it the eighteenth and twentieth of Auguft, I fowed it thicker than it had ever been be- fore, purely on account of the badnefs of its tilth. 1 bellowed up- on it 224 pounds of wheat, which rofe pretty well, but afforded fewer plants than that of the fecond experiment. They branched pretty well, and their ears were very fine. I reaped this crop the nineteenth and twentieth of July, and it yielded 2283 pounds of wheat, which is 78 pounds more than the firft crop in 175.3.
EXPERIMENT. No. VI.
N. B. This field is marked with the fame number in the journal °J I753-
For the crop of 1753, it was fowed with 45 pounds of wheat, which produced 724 pounds.
For the crop of 1754, it was fowed with 82 pounds of wheat, which produced 798 pounds.
HAT I faid of the foregoing experiment, may likewife ferve for this. All the circumftances were alike, except that this
field was fowed a few days later, viz. the twenty-feventh of Auguft.
It was reaped the nineteenth of July, and yielded 798 pounds, which
is 74 pounds more than in 1753.
EXPERIMENT, No. VII.
N. B. This field is marked with the fame number in the journal °J 1753-
For the crop of 1753, it 'was fowed, as well in that part of it which was made into beds, as in that which wasjbived in equally di- fiant rows, with 412 pounds of wheat, which produced 2646 pounds.
For the crop of 1754, the whole field was made inta beds, and fowed with 360 pounds, which produced 2467 pounds.
T T mud be remembered that one half of this field had borne a ■*■ firft crop, and the other a fecond. From what I have already faid, it will be prefumed that the mould of the new beds was not in fo good condition as that of the other beds : confequently the former could not be expected to yield fo good a crop.
This
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHATEAU-VIEUX. 203
This field was fowed the twenty-firft and twenty-eighth of Au- guft. Its whole extent took up 360 pounds of wheat, which yielded a crop of 2467 pounds. At firft fight, it feems to have yielded lefs now, than in 1753 : but it muft be obferved, that the beds of this field were of two different ages : thofe which now bore their fecond crop, yielded more than in 1753 ; but as the (heaves were not col- lected feparately, I cannot tell exactly the difference of their pro- duce.
Reflections on the experiments contained in this article.
T Have now given an account of four fields, which produced their ■*• fecond crops in 1754, all of which were greater than thofe of 1753, and cfpecially that of the fourth experiment. I am fully Sa- tisfied that their produce was proportioned to the preparation of the foil. This obfervation (hews of what confequence it is to divide and loofen the earth as much as poffible, by deep plowing and thorough hoeing, in order to bring it to a perfect tilth • which may certainly be done, and that in (hort time, by the means which I (hall point out in the following article.
Neither our intereft, nor the knowledge we would acquire of the products which the new husbandry is capable of yielding, fuffer us to reft fatisfied with knowing, for example, what the crop of thefe four fields was the fecond year, and looking upon that as the moft they will ever produce. We ought likewife to examine whe- ther their crop was not diminished by caufes which we can account for, and which we may reafonably hope will not take place in other years.
By this examination we (hall find, that the year was not a good one for great crops of wheat. There was not rain enough : the corn grew thin, and yielded but few (heaves. The ears were in- deed full of grain, but the quantity was not fufficient to make a- mends for the thinnefs of the crop.
The wheat was tufted in autumn \ and though this diftemper (hewed itfelf in that feafon, in which I think it does the plants leaft hurt, yet it prevented their branching, fo much as they would other- wile have done, the next fpring. I obferved exactly, that the thin- neft places were thofe where the rvfl had prevailed moft. Laftly, the frofts which happened in March, did great damage to the wheat. It is therefore not to be wondered at that the crop was not greater. I hope, and, I flatter myfelf, not without foundation, that the fame
D d 2 fields
204 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Partll.
fields will produce better crops in years exempted from fuch ac- cidents.
I do not pretend that the new hufbandry can fecure corn from the effects of all thefe accidents : but I have experienced that it has fuffered lefs from the intemperature of the feafons, than that which has been fowed in the common way: for inftance, it will fufferlefs by a great drought, or even not be at all affected by it, if dews fall, which penetrate the well-loofened earth ; as I have conftantly ob- ferved : and befides this, the roots of the corn in the new way, be- ing much longer, will extend to a confiderably greater depth in ground that has been plowed deeper ; and will find a moifture there, which corn in the common way is deprived of.
ARTICLE III.
Experiments made on lands laid cut in beds ichich had fame a fir ft crop : ivith an account of the manner in •which they ivere tilled, to prepare them for fo-iving. Remarks on thefe experiments.
TH E fii ft crops of all my fields laid out in beds, have hi- therto been but fmall. I eafily difcovered that this was owing to two principal caufes, independent of the intemperature of the feafons. The firft was, that I lowed too little feed at fir ft, and that the quantity was not fufficient to bear the accidents which be- fel my wheat, without being confiderably diminifhed thereby. This I remedied afterwards, by increafing the quantity of the feed ; which I have continued to do by little and little, from year to year, in proportion to the condition and quality of my land.
The fecond caufe was the bad condition of my lands, which could not be fufficiently loofened and divided in fo fhort a time, and therefore did not afford the plants the quantity of nourifhment neceffary to enable them to produce plenty of grain.
I was in hopes, that by continuing my plowings, I fhould have better fuccefs the following years : that is to fay, that I fhould bring my land to a loofer ftate, and that if I gained that point, the crops would certainly be greater afterwards.
Encouraged by this expectation, and provided with my plough and cultivators, I made no doubt of fucceeding. To this end, I re- folved to multiply the plowings : and certainly no one ought ever to hefitate fo to do, even in the common huibandry ; fo great have feeen the effects produced thereby.
I have
Chap. II: BY M. DB C H A T E AU- V I E U X. 205
I have often reflected on this paffage iiuMr. Du Hamel's treatifc of the culture of lands -.-One of the Prefident Montefquieus farmers reaped a great crop of Spcmfi wheat, from his farm near Clairac, at a time -when all his neighbours crops were very bad. The prefdent afked him what he had dune to have fuch extraordinary fuccefs. The farmer anjwered, that he had plowed Ins ground eleven times betwixt fowing and har-oejl ; and that by this means it had reaped the benefit of all the rains, dews, fogs, &c. whilft his neighbours lands were not at all bettered by them, on acoowit of a dry hard kind of crujl, which grew over -their grounds, for want of plowing. This obfervation %rees perfectly with the principles on which the new hufbandry is
founded. .
This (hews us that an a&ive, intelligent, and induftnous farmer, will always reap the fruit of his labour and expence. But without pretending to fay that land ought to be plowed quite fo many times, we learn from this example, that it would be greatly for the public good, to plow it oftener than it generally is.
I multiplied my plowings, in the fpring, and till feed time. I gave my land fix plowings in all : but I afcribe the great benefit I received, chiefly to the manner in which thofe plowings were per- formed, and to which I beg the reader ferioufly to attend.
After the beds were formed, my method was this. 1 changed their pofition by removing the middle of the beds to the place where the great furrow in the middle of the alley was j cr, to make my- ielf better undeiflood, I performed the fame plowing that we do after the fir ft crop is reaped.
This operation is of fuch importance, that it requires my being ftill more explicit. I (hall therefore relate the whole preparation that I cave my land. In the firft place, I plowed it twice, as deep as poffibly I could, in broad lands. The beds were formed at^ the third plowing. I afterwards gave a fourth plowing, to raife them ftill higher, by opening the firft furrow in the middle or higheft part of the beds, and turning the earth on both fides up againft that mid- dle, by which means the beds were arched very high, and a great furrow was left in the middle of the alleys. I went farther yet ; and this I ought to reckon as a feventh operation : I cut the great fur- row in the middle of the alley ftill deeper, with one turn of my cultivator with two mould boards.
The beds thus prepared, were certainly in good order to be fowed :
I ne-
2o6 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT. Part II.
I never had them in fo good condition before: but I was willing to go ftill farther ; and that for the following reafon.
I had obferved that there is always a greater depth of fine mould in the middle of the bed, when it is placed in the fpace before oc- cupied by the great furrow in the middle of the alley. I had not difpofed my beds in that manner till the fecond year.
I therefore thought it advifeable to change the place of the beds. I did fa, at the fifth plowing, by filling up the great furrow, which now became the middle of the new bed. The earth being in a very loofe ftate, a great deal of it was heaped up by each turn of the plough, with eafe to the horfes, and with fpeed. The middle of the beds Was raifed as much as might have been thought neceffaiy : but I railed it ftill higher, by the fixth and laft plowing, by cutting the firft furrow in the middle of the bed, and turning the earth up from right and left towards it.
By thefe plowings, the mould of the beds will be admirably well prepared even the fir ft year, and the feed fowed therein will not fail to vegetate very abundantly. It is by this means that I have brought the middle of my beds to the depth of 15 or 18 inches of fine loofe mould, in which the perpendicular roots of the plants extend themfelves and multiply ealily, and find plenty of nourish- ment, which they afterwards tranfmit to the plants themfelves.
I (hall mention farther, as a proof of the finenefs to which thefe plowings brought the earth, that I was not obliged to harrow my beds, before I fowed them.
Some may perhaps object, that all this requires much labour, great trouble, and confiderable expence : and how, will it be added, can one find time for fo many plowings ?
To this I anfwer : firft, that allowing all this to be true, the crop will make very ample amends for it. What follows will eftablifh this truth beyond all doubt.
Secondly, that this labour ought not to difcourage any one. The four firft plowings are abfolutely necefiary, as all will agree ; and the fifth and fixth are performed with fuch eafe, and in fo much lels time than the common plowings, and efpecially the laft, for which one horfe will generally be fufficient, that it will eafily be perceived I do not propofe a thing either too difficult or too expenfive to ex- ecute.
The fields of the three experiments of this article, were prepared in the manner I have now related.
E X-
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHATEAU-VIEUX. 207
EXPERIMENT, No. VIII.
'TP H E foil of this field is very good and flrong. Its extent is
■** 1300 toifes. I made the beds about fix feet wide; and each bed was fowed with two turns of the drill plough, which were to make fix rows : but the difficulty of guiding the plough fo as to keep the three lafl rows exactly parallel to the three firft, was fo great, that the two middle rows were frequently jumbled together, fo that there were in fact but five rows in fome places. The fpace that re- mained between the outer row of one bed and the outer row of the next bed, left an alley wide enough to be plowed. I muff obferve that our farmers hereabouts liked this way of fowing much better than the firft, in which I likewife made the beds fix feet wide ; and fowed them with only three rows.
I fowed each row a little thinner than in the former experiments : but as there were more of them in each bed, they would of courfe require a greater quantity of feed. This field was fowed the twenty- feventh of Auguft, with 76 pounds 8 ounces of wheat.
All my plants were equally fine till winter, and fhot up with great vigor in the fpring. They grew exceeding high, branched abundantly, and produced very large ears, among which there was but little difference. This crop was reaped the feventh of July, and yielded 1462 pounds of wheat.
This produce made me ample amends for the labour I had be- llowed upon the ground. It is after the rate of about 1500 pounds, or 72 bufhels to an arpent.
EXPERIMENT, No. IX.
HTHIS field is of a very indifferent quality, and had hitherto ■* yielded but fmall crops. Its extent is 5813 toifes 12 feet. It was fowed the feventh and eighth of Auguft, in the fame manner as the former, with 249 pounds 12 ounces of wheat.
The young plants fhot up as thick, and looked as flrong and of as good a colour, as thofe of the foregoing experiment : but the ruft took thtm all in October and November, and their blades, which were of the fineft green before,, turned yellow, and perfectly covered the ground with the powder of this ruft. My plants fuffered greatly by this accident. They branched imperfectly, and confequenily grew
very
2o8 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, PartIL
very thin. Their italics were, however, long, and bore fine ears. They were reaped the 8th of July, and yielded 2925 pounds of wheat.
EXPERIMENT, No. X.
THE foil of this field is rather inferior, than equal to that of the field we fpoke of laft, whofe fate it likewife fuffered in every refpeft. The young plants were extremely fine, and, in October and November, they were rufted almoft as much as the others. This field contains 4919 toifes. As I thought this land inferior to the other, I fowed it thicker; ufing to this end 294 pounds of wheat. It was fowed the 8th, 17th, and 28th of Auguft ; not being able to do it in any three days running. The crop yielded 3055 pounds.
Remarks on thefe Experiments.
T Have now been able to obtain better crops, even the firft year, ■*■ by the new husbandry, than any I ever had before. I think there can be no doubt but that this fuccefs is owing firft, and chiefly, to the better preparation of the ground ; and fecondly, to the proper increafe of the feed. Upon the whole, I am inclined to think, that the fowing each bed with two turns of the drill-plough, increafed the crop. But of that I fay no more at prefent, as I intend to treat exprefly of it in the eighth article.
All my obfervarions fhew how much I am convinced of the im- portance of bringing the earth to a fine looie ftate : nor can I recom- mend it too ftrongly. I have fenfibly experienced the good effects of it in all my lands, and particularly in thofe of the ninth and tenth experiments ; for though thefe fields are but of an indifferent quality, they have produced plants equal to thofe of my very beft lands.
After what I have now faid, no one will be furprifed that almoft all my firft crops were but fmall, fince moft of the grounds were fown after a fingle plowing, which was not fufficient to prepare them properly. I was indeed well apprifed of this defect at my firft fetting out : but all I then aimed at was, to lay all my fields into beds as foon as poffib'.e ; being thoroughly fatisfied that it would not be long after, before I fhould be able to bring them to a proper tilth, with great eafe and little coft.
Thefe three experiments, not only fhew us how to conduct cur works there profitably hereafter 5 but they likewife difcover a new
ad-
Chap. II. BY M. DE C H AT E AU- V I E U X. 209
advantage in this hufbandry, which indeed I fufpected from my very firfl experiments. It is of importance to take notice of it here.
All the experiments that have been made by different perfons, and in different places, have fhewn us that wheat cultivated in the new way is very little apt to lodge ; that the great ftrength of its italic fup- ports it, and that it refifts the force of the wind much better than common wheat, the (talks of which almoft always give way in ftormy weather.
It muft however be owned, that the wheat of the new culture is not abfolutely able to refi ft extremely violent winds accompanied with great rain. But would any one have expected that the accident I am going to fpeak of, far from hurting the wheat, feemed to me to be of great fervice to it, particularly in very rainy years, or when cold dews fall towards the time of its ripening ?
I obferved, in the account of my experiments in 1752, that my wheat was not lodged ; but that fome of it was bent, without fuffer- ing any damage thereby. I added, that I imagined it might be offer- vice to the wheat -not to remain always in an exactly perpendicular Jitu- aticn. I purpofed watching clofely what effect the fituation of this would have. I could not be fatisfied in this in 1753 ; but the year 17^4 furnifhed me with obfervations, and afforded me advantages with refpect to the quality of wheat, which it is always of very great fervice to know.
Wheat grows up and fhoots pretty perpendicularly : it does not al- ter this direction, unlefs it meets with fome obftacle : the moft for- midable is a violent wind, accompanied with great and heavy rains which lodge it. Every one knows that when wheat is lodged foon after it has done bloffoming, it yields fcarce any grain, and that what it does yield is verv fmall and fhrivelled, and contains very little flour: a manifeft, and oftentimes very considerable lofs.
The wheat that is only bent, continues to grow in that fituation : its ears fwell and fill equally with grain to the very point, abounding plentifully with good and very nourifhing flour. Thus no lofs is fuf- tained in this cafe ; and this inclined fituation of the (talk does not at all interrupt the functions of the nutritive juices, as in wheat that is lodged. The growth of the plants in this fituation, proves plainly that their vegetation is not ftopt.
This bending of the ftalks no way hinders a fkilfuland careful huf- bandman from giving another plowing, if it be necefTary. I had it
E e done
2io EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
done in the field of the eighth experiment, without hurting or de- flroying a fingle ear.
The three fields on which the experiments mentioned in this ar- ticle were made, have all their beds in the fame direction, m». from Eaft to Weft, and lie fomewhat Hoping toward the Weft. Soon after the wheat had done bloffoming, a ftrong fouth wind blew for fome hours, accompanied with a heavy rain, which made all the wheat of thefe three fields incline towards the north. It remained in this fitu- ation till harveft, and the ftalks grew fo crooked that the points of the ears turned down towards the ground: they remained thus fuf- pended, by the ftrength of the ftalks, which feemed even to increaie : for I did not find that they bent any more, though the weight of the ear increafed as the grain grew riper.
In this fituation, this wheat continued to profper : the ears filled with grain to the very point : they grew as large and heavy as thofe of the other fields; and had befides the advantage of being of a finer colour. This quality helps corn to fell fooner and more eafily, be- caufe the buyer judges by his fight more than by his other fenies. It is of confequence in all forts of goods, to catch the eye ; but there is no fear of its deceiving one in the choice of wheat : the good colour of the grain is always a Aire fign of its foundnefs, and invites the purchafer to buy it with confidence.
Since then there is no fear that any damage will arife from wheat's being bent, there is no caufe to repine or be uneafy at feeing it in that fituation. But, befides what I have been faying, I muft now offer fome reafons why I think it may perhaps be better for wheat to be bent and curved in that manner, than for it to grow almoft quite upright.
Let us confider what effecl: rain, the moifture of the air, and dews have upon the ears of corn in both thefe fixations. When the ears ftand upright, and almoft perpendicular, they retain a great deal of wet in rainy and dewy weather. This wet infinuates itfelf very eafily between the hufks that cover the grain, and gets even into the infide of them. This water, thus got within them, remains there, and does not evaporate fo eafily as that which is only on the outer furface of the hufks, which the motion of the air, or the fun, diffi- pates in a fhort time.
It may happen too, but I fhall not give it as a fad: which I have yet fufficiemly obferved, that the water which has penetrated between the bujks, touches immediately the grain itfelf. Now this moifture
all
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHATE A U-V IE UX. 2ir
all around it, in whatever manner it gets there, muft furely be very- prejudicial to the grain ; and the longer it flays there, the more hurt it muff. do. We have feen fuch continual rains in fome years, that, for feveral days together, even the outfide of the ears could not be wiped dry, but have remained wet fo long that the corn has fprouted while, it Hood upon the ground, But, without fuppofing the mif- chief to be always fo great, wet, by remaining too long upon the grain, may, in feme meafure, ruft it a little, as it tufts ftraw while Handing. I have feen this happen ; though indeed but feldom.
The imperfection that is often found in the quality of the grains, and their fometimes lefs pleafing tafte, may, with great probability, be imputed to this cafe : and perhaps it may be found upon ftritter inquiries than thofe I have hitherto been able to make, that the moifture too long retained round the grain, towards the latter end of its growth, and particularly that of cold dews, is the real cauie of the fatal and fudden changes which often befall wheat in grain, a little before barveft, and rob us of the beft part of a crop which was juft before thought to be quire*but of danger.
When the wheat is inclined, its flalks bent downwards arch-wife, and the point of the ears turned down towards the ground, it is plain that no wet, either of rain or dews, can fo eafily get at the grain, and that only the outer furface of the hufks will be immediately touched by it : the water, not being able in this fituation to glide in between the interfaces of the hufk«', will drip down from one huik to another till it comes to the point, and then will fall to the ground. Thefe hufks are foon dried again ; and the ears which grow in this manner are much lefs expofed to the confequences of the wet, than thofe which remain in a perpendicular fituation ; and confequently their grain ought to be better conditioned.
This advantage can be enjoyed only in the new hufbandry : for in the old way, the wheat is either lodged quite flat, or ftands quite up- right : fcarce any of its flalks are fhong enough to fupport the fmall weight of the ear, wh;n bent and inclined towards the earth.
e 2 A R-
212 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
ARTICLE IV.
Experiments maJe on lands laid out in beds, which have borne ajirfl and fccond crop; together with fane inter ejiing ob/ervations.
EXPERIMENT. No. XI.
TN the Journal of 1753, I gave an account of the experiments ■*■ which a perfon had made on about 23 arpents, laid out in beds of about fix feet wide, and which did not meet with the dtfired fuccefs. I added, that the fame perfon, perfuaded neverthelefs of the advantages of this culture, had prepared twenty arpents more in the fame manner, and that all of them were fowed for the crop of 1754.
All this ground was plowed with care, and part of it was fowed earlier than the year before. Some little addition was likewife made to the quantity of the feed. The plants in general rofe extremely well, and were ftrong and healthy before winter, in proportion to the time of their being fown, and to the quality and condition of the land.
Such a beginning gave room to hope that thefe fields would yield a pretty good crop : but the winter ruined all ; and fcarce any thing was reaped from lb large an extent of ground.
I
OB S ERVATION S or: this EXPERIMENT.
T would have been unfair in me not to mention this experiment, tho' it anfwered fo badly. The reader may be furprifed at firft, to fee fo great a contraft between this and my own experiments, in which, notwithstanding the intemperature of the feafons, and other accidents, he finds the crops increafe, as the land becomes better tilled according to the principles of the new hufbandry. This in- creafe was what we foretold would happen : but the field Ave are now fpeaking of, produced lefs the fecond year than it did the firft, tho' even that was very little.
There mufl then neceflarily have been fome differences between thefe fields, to which this great difparity of their crops was owing. Thefe differences doubtlefs were, either in the quality of the foils, the preparation of them, their expofition, the quantity of the feed,
the
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHATEAU-VIEUX. 213
the accidents that befel them, which might be greater or lefs, in fome than in others ; or, in fhort, many other caufes capable of helping or hurting the crop : for otherwife, fuppofing all thefe things to be equal, or nearly fo, the difference in the crops could not have been great.
Not to impute the bad fuccefs of this lafl experiment, too lightly to the new hufbandry, we ought, in juflice, to examine whether it might not be owing to fome other caufe, and whether there may not be room to hope for better fuccefs another time.
Thefe fields, without being all exactly of the fame quality, are generally reputed in the country cold and Jiiff lands and very apt to grow hard. Such lauds will certainly require more time, more pa- tience, and more perfeverance, to bring them to any degree of tilth : more plowings will be neceffary, and thofe plowings muft be given in the mod proper feafons. By continuing to ftir them well, their hardnefs and refiflance will be overcome, their pores will be opened and multiplied, and plants will then thrive in them as well as in the befl of foils.
All lands ought to be treated according to their refpective quali- ties. There is great reafon to believe that this field, when prepared as thofe of the experiments No. VIII. IX. and X. were, will here- after produce great plenty of corn. What I now fay, is not mere fuppofition or furmife. Repeated experiments, the effects of which have constantly been the fame, have taught me, and I can fafely affirm, that extremely bad lands, which could not fo much as yield a crop that would pay the expence of tilling them, have been ren- dered good and fertile merely by plowing, and without the af- fiance of any manure.
This is a finking truth. It was what firfl determined me to practife the new hufbandry ; and therefore it was of confequence to me to be certain of it. To this end, I refolved to make a trial on a fmall fpot of ground, which I knew to be incapable of producing any thing.
Some years before, I had dug away the earth three feet deep, from a fpace of 60 fquare toifes : nothing remained in it but a clofe white clay, fit for potters ufe. This fpot, thus circumflanced, feem- ed. to me a proper one for my experiment. As the fpace Was too fmall for the plough to work in, I made ufe of the fpade and hoe. It was made into beds, which were afterwards fowed with wheat, and the fpaces between them frequently ftirred. The firfl year, my
plants
2i4 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
plants were very poor, and branched into only two, three, or four italics a-piece. The fecond year, they did much better ; and the third year, they were as large and fine as any my garden could have produced. This fpot ftill continues to produce equally well.
We have here a remarkable inftance, of what may be done by fufficiently pulverifing the earth : that which I am fpeaking of, is now like mould; and, which is very remarkable, it has loft its for- mer white colour, and is now black. Let us but do the fame with any of our bad lands, and perfevere in plowing and flirting, them a lufficient time : the fuccefs will not be doubtful.
But to return to the fubjec~l of this article. Some of the fields we were fpeaking of, are furrounded by, or border upon woods. This fituation is far from being good, and it feldom happens but that fuch a neighbourhood does great injury to the crops.
I could likewife have wifhed, that a larger quantity of feed had been employed to fow thefe fields. The lofs occafioned by the froft might have been leflened thereby j as it may be prefumed that a greater number of plants would have efcaped, if they had been thicker in the places where all of them .were not intirely de- ftroyed.
We obferved before, that the young plants were in a fine condi- tion before winter, and that they promifed well ; but the feverity of the frofts, doubtlefs too great for the condition and fituation of thefe lands, did an irreparable injury to almoft all thefe fields.
I examined the greateft part of them in the beginning of fpring. Of all thofe which I faw, I found but one fpot of three or four arpents, of which the earth was in the condition it ought to be, that is to fay, well ftirred and broken, fupple, light, and penetrable. Too few plants were left in this good fpot : large fpaces were quite empty in mod of the rows : but thole that did refill, grew very fine in the fummer, branched extremely well, and bore fine ears.
By this one might guefs what thefe lands were capable of. My opinion is, that, in other years free from fuch accidents, the rows will remain well ftocked with plants, which, finding an equal plenty of nourifhment, will be nearly of equal flrength and beauty in every part, and, all together, will produce a confiderable quantity of corn.
The
Chap. II. BY M. DE C H AT E AU - VI E UX. 215
The ofher fields were infinitely worfe treated * Every thing was deftroyed for feveral arpents together. The plants were rooted up by the ftrength of the froft, and lay fcattered upon the ground all along the rows, withered and unable to recover the leaft vigour. Thefe are the only fields laid out in beds, in which I have ken this extraordinary accident : not a plant was rooted up any where elfe. It is very difficult not to fufpecl: that there muft have been lbme fault in the fowing, and that the fower did not perhaps bury the feed deep enough. The roots which were too near the furface of the earth, were nipped by the froft. They muft have been fo, fuppofing them to be but about two inches deep. We likewife know, with certain- ty, that if the feed had been -fewed in good time, the plants would have had roots above fix inches long ; and that fuch roots would have fecured them from being killed by the froft. There is room there- fore to believe that the feed was not buried deep enough.
But even fuppofing the plants not to have been deftroyed, I doubt whether they would have yielded a good crop, becaufe the ground, efpecially that of the partitions between the rows, was extremely hard and clofe, and therefore quite unfit to fupply the plants with the nourifhment they would have wanted.
This experiment required thefe remarks : many more might be added ; but thefe are fufficient to fhew that fome lands require a double portion of care and labour.
EXPERIMENT, No. XII.
THE account of the ninth experiment in 1753, promifed better fuccefs the next year. The whole culture was performed by the fame perfon, with great care and extraordinary judgment, on two fields, containing about eight arpents. One of thefe fields is much better than the other : the beds were about fix feet M'ide : one half of the field, the foil of which was inferior to that of the other, was dunged j but not above a third part as much as it would have been in the common way. The foil of this field is very ftiff. It
had
* All thefe obfervations, fays M. du Hamel, fhew that this land is of the nature of tho'fe which fwell greatly in hard frofts, and, fubfiding again upon a thaw, leave the roots of plants quite bare upon their furface. In whatever manner they are cul- tivated, they feldom produce any thing if the winter is fevere. The beft way is to low them with fpring corn.
2x6 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part IT.
had not been plowed for 1 5 or 20 years, and was not yet fufficiently loofened and divided.
It was fowed early : the plants rofe very well, but were greatly hurt by the froft, excepting thofe which the dung preferved. The fame thing happened to the beds which were fowed with fix rows.
The foil of the other field is fatter and of a better quality. The winter did it little hurt. The plants throve by the culture that was given them, but lefs than was expe&ed ; owing, as is fuppofed, to the great drought of the feafon. Thefe two fields produced, how- ever, about 7000 pounds weight of wheat j which is extremely well, efpecially for a firft crop.
Thefe two fields have given us room to make two reflections. Firft, that the earth muft be veil prepared, without which the plants are not able to extend their roots to the plowed part oj the alleys. Se- condly, that in dry fprings, the plants of wheat prcjerve one another mutually from the drought, for which reafon it is proper to fow fome- what more than would otherwife be necejfary.
The fame culture is now pra&ifed for the year 1755, and is ex- tended to about twelve arpents more.
EXPERIMENT. No. XIII.
I Mention this experiment on account of the faults the hufband- man committed, that others may take care to avoid them. About two arpents and an half of pretty well plowed land made into beds, produced only about 780 pounds of wheat the fecond
year.
The reafons why this crop was fo fcanty, are evident. In the firft place, too little feed was fowed ; there ought to have been three times the quantity. Secondly, the beds were of an excefiive breadth, all of them being eight or nine feet wide, and fowed with only three rows. By this means, great part of the ground was loll 5 which ought to be carefully avoided.
The plowings too were made in a very flovenly manner : the hufbandman gave them, not when they were necefiary, but when it fuited his convenience. The reafon was, that he was prejudiced againft the new hufbandry, and did not defire to fee it fucceed.
ARTICLE
Chap. II. BY M. E>E CH AT E A U- V I E V X. 217
ARTICLE V.
Experiments made by few*! Lovers of Agriculture, on lands frxm in equally diftant rows •with the, drill-plough.
SOME of the principles of the new hufbandry, have been adopted in this way of fowing; and even the common plowing, is now performed with more care than it was before the great advantage of thoroughly dividing and breaking the earth was fo well known. This method of fowing the land all over in equally diftant rows, being, in appearance, eafier and more fimple than forming it into beds, has now a great number of partifans : and, indeed, the lands which have been fown in that manner, have yielded much better crops than the fields cultivated in the old way.
EXPERIMENT. No. XIV.
IT is pretty generally the cuftom about Geneva, if the land is good, to fow it in April, over the wheat, with clover feed, which yields a crop the next year. Agreable to this cuftom, a field of about two arpents and an half, was fowed with clover in April 1752. In 1753 it yielded two crops of clover, after which the owner of the ground gave it three good plowings in the common way. The clods which the plough had left, were afterwards broken by hand, before the field was fowed ; for it was refolvcd to fpare no pains to give it a good preparation.
About 630 pounds of wheat ufed generally to be employed to fow this field : but it was now fowed, the fourteenth of September, with only 315 pounds. The earth was extremely dry, and the weather very hot, which it continued to be for ten days longer ; circum- ftances which ought to be attended to, and which it will be proper the reader fbould remember when he comes to the continuation of this experiment in the feventh article.
This field was plentifully flocked with plants. They yielded 2926 pounds of wheat. In proportion to the produce of the other fields of the fame farm, this would have yielded, at moft, only between 18 and 1900 pounds; confequently here is a gain of about 1026 pounds, befides 315 pounds faved in the feed, which makes in all a profit of 1 341 pounds.
F f • EX,
£t$ EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Partll,
EXPERIMENT. No. XV.
THE fame perfon who made the experiments, No. VII. in 1752, and No. X. and XI. in 1753, continued them in companion with the old hufbandry. They anfwered as before, and the fame advantages were again confirmed. A detail of the particulars would be needlefs. I mall only add, that barley, with which the experi- ment was likewife tried, anfwered much beyond any thing that was expected, and yielded a prodigious crop.
The farmer, convinced by fuch fuccefs, of the fuperiority of the new huibandry over the old, immediately begged his landlord to make no more experiments by way of comparifon, but to let him fow all his lands with the drill-plough.
EXPERIMENT. No. XVL
THIS experiment was made in the fame farm where the XHIth and XlVth were made in 1753. All the lands were very well prepared, and fowed with the drill-plough.
One of thefe fields, containing about three arpents and an half, which ufed to require 880 pounds of feed, was now fowed with 315^ pounds. The plants were extremely fine, both before and after winter, and, when reaped, yielded 4940 pounds of wheat. If it had been fowed in the common way, it could not have been expect- ed to yield above 2 900 or 3000 pounds : confequently it now pro- duced 1940 pounds more; to which if we add 565 faved in the feed, we {hall have 2505 pounds of wheat more by the new, than would have been obtained by the old husbandry.
Another field, of an inferior quality, the extent of which is near feven arpents, ufed in the old way to be fowed with 1764 pounds. uf wheat, and was now fowed with only 819 pounds, which pro- duced about 5720 pounds. Though the difference in the goodnefs of the lands is confiderable, yet the drill-plough ftill maintains its fuperiority : for, if this field had been fowed in the common way, it would have been thought to have produced an exceeding good crop, if it had yielded between 5200 and 5300 pounds, though that would have been 420 pounds lefs than this, which added to the 935 pounds faved in the feed, make this crop 1355 pounds greater than it would have been in the old way. b Afmall
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHA TEAU- VI EUX. zi9
A fmall fpot, of about half an arpent, which ufed commonly to be fowed with i$j pounds of wheat, was fowed with 63 pounds, and produced about 430 pounds. This is nearly the fame propor- tion as the foregoing experiment.
Thefe fields, being fome better than others, may ferve to fhew what may be expe&ed from lands of different qualities.
A piece of ground of five and twenty arpents was likewife plowed with care. This, to have fowed it in the old way, would have re- quired about 6550 pounds of feed, which would have yielded at moil: 20000 weight. I even think I over-rate it in this.
Thefe 25 arpents were fowed with 2772 pounds of wheat. Here is, in the firft place, a faving of -3778. pounds in the feed, which is a very confiderable objec~l. The whole crop yielded about 19000 pounds, which added to the 3778 pounds faved in the feed, make 22778 pounds. The profit therefore is 2278 pounds more in the ■ new way, than in the old.
To fet this experiment in a yet clearer light, I fhall add, that the (heaves were ftrong, the fhaw fine, the grain very clean and plump, and that half thefe fields had fuffered considerably by the frofts in March.
The produce of a few detached pieces of land, might not have been fufficient to perfuade the generality of mankind, fo much as to adopt even this change, which confifts folely in the manner of fowing the land. They might ftill think it imprudent to give up a certain profit for an uncertain one. It is fit therefore that they fhould fee by the management of a whole farm, that this husbandry may be praclifed to very great advantage. This we fhall fhew in the following article.
EXPERIMENT, No. XVII.
Hp HIS experiment, which is a very confiderable one, was exe- * cuted on the fame perfon's lands, who made the experiment No. 12 in 1753. All the lands were fowed with the drill-plough. They were plowed four times, and a fmall part of the whole was dunged. I cannot enter int;o all fjie details of this operation ; but the general refults, which we fhall give, will be fufficient.
The lands we are fpeaking of compofe three farms, fituated in three different villages, about a mile and a half diftant from each o- ther. Thefe lands are of different qualities ; fome ftiff, others pretty light, others of a middling quality, and but little ftony.
F f 2 About
220 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, . Partll.
About 8$ arpents were cultivated in the firft farm, 32 in the fecond, and 32 likewife in the third. In all 149 arpents.
Pounds, r For the firft farm, fowed in Au- j „,,„_"] guft and September rn. .-. I For the fecond farm, fowed be
The quantity ■ . A '
of feed ufed ! tween the lit and 1
in the com- •
mon way, was,
tober . . For the third farm, fowed be tween the 20th and 30th of October
In all
, fowed be-") 1 5th of Oc- >
I
8190
y of wheat.
8190
37800
The quantity \ For the firft farm ..ithlS F^ the fecond farm plough, was, I For the third farm
In all Saved in the feed
Total
Pounds.
8190
3276 ^ of wheat.
3276
14742 23058 37800
{Firft farm Second farm Third farm
'
Pounds.
70200*1
22750 f of wheat.
15210J
Total crop . . 108 160
To which muft be added the faving in the 7 2-0-g feed ....... S 5
The whole profit is . lb. 13 121 8 of wheat.
It
-
s 1
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHATEAU-VIEUX, 221
It will be right to fee now what the fame extent of land might poffibly have produced, if it had been cultivated in, the old way. This can indeed only be gueffed at, and I chufe therein to favour the old husbandry. According to the general run of this year's crops, thefe three farms, would have produced at mod about 95000 or 1 00000 pounds of wheat; which would confequently have been 31218 pounds fhort of what they yielded in the new hufbandry.
This way of ftating the account of the produce of both methods, is a fair one. The faying in the feed is always- to be reckoned. But I have perceived, by the queftions which feveral perfons have afked me with regard to accounts thus ftated, that they were not clearly underftood. I mail therefore throw them into another form, which has been thought clearer, but of which the refults will ftill be the • fame.
We will reckon only the real and actual produce, and then fub- ftracT: the feed : the remainder will confequently be the neat produce.
NEW METHOD.
Total produce . . . . . . 108 16b lb.
To be deduced for the feed ..... 14742 lb.
. —
Neat produce . . . 93418 lb.
I OLD METHOD.
Total produce .... 1 00000 lb.
To be deducted for the feed .... 37800 lb.
Neat produce . . . 62200 lb.
Therefore the new method produced more than the 7 ««
old would have done , . . . . C *>
Proof .... 93418 lb. •Which refult is the fame as that of the other comparifon.
-Are not fuch advantages well worthy the attention of every one concerned in hufbandry ?
E X-
822 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT. Part IT
EXPERIMENT, No. XVIII.
TX7E faw by the 15th experiment in 1753, that the fields which » » I had fowed, with the drill plough, in equally diftant rows, yielded very little corn. I mentioned the caufes, which I knew. I have not yet had time to form them into beds, by which means I mall certainly remedy the cohelion of the foil, and without which thofe lands will never yield any other than poor crops, as they have almoft always done whilft cultivated in the old way, which is infi- nitely lefs fit for lands that require a great deal cf ftirring, than for fuch as are naturally fruitful.
I hope I fliall be able to begin next year to praclife the new hus- bandry in this farm. I fhould have done it before now, if I could .have made any flay the$e : but as I could not, I have only continued to fow it with the drill-plough in equally diftant rows..
I mall mention another fmall farm, on which no dung or any other kind of manure was ufed, though its lands, at Ieaft the great- eft part of them, are but" very indifferent.
I fowed thefe lands towards the end of Auguft and the beginning of September, in .pretty hot and dry weather. The whole extent of this little farm is between 18 and 19 arpents, which ufed to take up 4662 pounds of feed : but only 1950 pounds were employ- ed now.
Some places looked well enough : but in general the wheat came up thin. I was however very well fatisfied with my crop, which yielded about 13000 weight of extreme fine wheat, fo clean that it wanted no lifting. If I had hot fowed with the drill-plough, I fhould fcarcely have reaped more than barely the feed : for that was the cafe with all my neighbours, who had only about their feed and half as mueh over ; and many of their crops yielded ftill lefs. It is not to be fuppofed that I fhould have ftred better than them, if I had fol- jowed the old way, as they -did. • t
AR-
Chap.II. SY M. DE C H AT E AU-VI E U X. 223
ARTICLE VI.
Summary accounts of the produces of fever al pieces of land fowed in
equally dijlant rows with the drill-plough,
EXPERIMENT, No. XIX.
A S nothing but a great number of experiments, repeated under X"V -^^erent circumstances and in different places, can convince many of the advantages of the new hufbandry ; I am the more readily, induced to mention all that have come to my knowledge j though there are among them feveral of which I have not been able to get fo particular a detail as I could have wirtied : all that has been told me in relation to many of them being, that thpfe who made them were well fatisfied with the crops they had obtained by means of the drill-plough, and that they intended to continue ufing it: but the following experiments will merit the reader's attention.
The lands I am going to fpeak of, are fituated in a fpace of 9 or 10 fquare leagues; and there are great differences in their qualities and Situations: they were not all plowed with equal care : fome of them were dunged, and others were not ; and laStly, the drought was greater at fome villages than at others. Notwithstanding all thefe diverfities, it will appear from what we are going to fay, that the ufe of the drill-plough was attended with uncommon fuccefs every where.
To Shorten, and at the fame time give the reader a full view of the purport of this article, I have drawn up a table of the extent of the feveral pieces of land, the quantity of feed ufed for fowing them in the old way, the quantity they were fowed with in the new huf- bandry, and their produce in this lafl culture. Though thefe expe- riments are not related fo exa&ly as my own, I am fure there is no miftake of any confequence in them..
I Should have been very glad to have known likewife the exact products of the crops in the old way. I have done all I could to come at the knowledge of them, but have obtained only very few fatisfaftory accounts. All that I have been able to learn, amounts only to a confirmation of what 1 found in my accounts of the cul- ture and produce of my own eState ; for an exact account thereof has been kept for about forty years paft. Beyond that time, my j papers
424- EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, iPartlt: papers furnifh me with only the product of now and then a year, but not of any number of years" together. J Thefe detached hints have however afforded me fome curious and ufeful knowledge. For ex- ample, I have learnt by them, that the product of lands was the fame in the laft age as it is .in this. In the year 1668, which is the fartheft back that any of my papers take notice of, I find the crops were like thofe that the fame lands have yielded for thefe laft 30 or 40 years.
All my inquiries have fhewn me that, in this country, in what are reckoned good years, the lands yield but three times the feed ; feldom more, and often lefs. Some few fields indeed muft be excepted, which, being of a very extraordinary goodnefs, do produce more: and likewife, on the other hand, fome very bad lands which do not yield fo much : fo that, upon the whole, this may be reckoned the medium crop during any number of years.
The neat produce does not by any means amount to the whole of the crop, in the common huibandry : for the good grain is frequently fo mixed with bad, and with the feeds of weeds, that itfuffers a con- siderable diminution thereby. The quantity of perfect grain is there- fore what ought to be considered ; and in this many are apt to deceive themfelves. Whenever people become fenfible of the Small advan- tage of the common hufbandry, they will be more ready to attend to what is faid in favour of the new, and will be inclined to verify it by their own experience. When fo convinced, they will endeavour to overcome the diflike which moft farmers have to this new method. They are, in general, a fet of men, fit only to execute what1 they are bid to do; and therefore ought to be directed by p;rfons of .better understanding. Patience and perfeverance may by degrees bring them to practife the new huibandry, which time will bring to its greateft perfection.
The following tables will help to ftrengthen thefe refkaions.
TABLE
Chap. IL BY M. DE C H A TE A U- V IEUX. 225
TABLE
Of the Extent , Sowing, and Crops of different Pieces of Land'
in 1754.
|
Extent. |
Quantity of Seed in the old way. |
Quantity of feed in the new way. |
Crops. |
|
Arpents. |
Pounds |
Pounds. |
Pounds. |
|
li li. 3l I 3i 3 8 4 3 4- 2 3* 24 |
336 356 882 252 882 672 2016 1008 190 504 819 3J5 694 |
168 180 392 130 346 283 670 4«5 95 230 39° 140 300 |
1560 1230 2360 650 2275 2080 6lIO 4680 IO40 2520 3120 975 2340 |
|
|Total 36 |
8926 |
3809 |
30940 |
ARTICLE VII.
General Reflections and Objervations on the Experiments contained in the foregoing Articles.
AFTER all thefe experiments, I afk myfelf whether they are fufficient to give us a fatisfactory demonstration that the new hufbandry is more profitable than the old ? I anfwer, without hefi- tation, that it certainly is more profitable, both to the public, and to each individual, whether the lands be cultivated in beds, or whether they are only fowed in equally diftant rows, with the drill-plough.
Such will ltkewife be the anfwer to this queftion, if the refult of thefe different experiments be confidered. In the firft place, we have thofe of each field in particular ; in the next, we have thofs
Gg of
.226 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
of fome whole farms ; and laftly, we have thofe contained in the table of the fixth article, to which laft I fhall now limit my reflections.
We may look upon the produce of 36 arpents fpread up and down an extent of nine or ten fquare leagues, amounting all together to 30940 pounds of wheat, as the medium produce of the generality of lands. I fhall therefore not dwell upon the produce of each of thefe fields taken feparately, but only confider now, mot 36 arpents yielded 30940 pounds of wheat.
If thefe 36 arpents had been cultivated in the old way, they cer- tainly would not have produced fo much, fioce we have feen that the medium produce is but threje times the feed ; and I am fatisfied it would have been lefs this year 1754. However, I will fuppofe the crop to have yielded three times the quantity of the feed. Thefe 36 arpents fowed with 8926 pounds of wheat, would then have produced 26778 pounds; deducting from which 8926 pounds for the feed, the neat produce will be reduced to 17852 pounds.
The 36 arpents fowed with the drill-plough yielded 30940 pound?, from which we are to deduct 3839 pounds, which was all the feed that was fowed. The neat produce wi II then be reduced to 2713 1 pounds, which is 9279 pounds more than would have been produced in the old way.
The owners or farmers of thefe 36 arpents had therefore 9279 pounds of corn more. They reaped the fir ft benefit of this gain, and the public the next, as fo much more corn was carried to market, than would otherwife have been. Such an advantage is very confi- derable, and deferves the utmoft attention of the public, whom we invite to confider it in a more extenfive light. The object will thereby become the more interefting.
Let us but confider how much greater a quantity of corn this fpace of nine or ten fquare leagues would have produced, if all the arable lands in it had been fowed with the drill-plough : how much more grain would it not have afforded for the nourishment of the people ! what increafe of income to every individual concerned therein ! and how fure a way to guard againft future dearths !
But this is not yet all. Much greater advantages will ftiil refult from the cultivating of lands entirely in the new way : I mean, by laying them out in beds, and obferving all the practices of the new hufbandry. This I proved plainly in my journal of 1753, by the calculations of the articles II. V. and VI. This demonftration is fully confirmed by the experiments of 1754, the products of which
were
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHATE AU-V IE UX. 227
were greater, and their refults ftill more favourable to the new- method.
What has been already faid on this important fubject, (hews, what the neceffary operations are, how eafily they may be performed, and what are the points which merit moft attention. The theory of the new hufbandry is now fully proved by experiments ; and that great principle, the neceffity of preparing the earth well by proper ftirrings, fo clearly demonftrated, that it would be needlefs to infift any longer on it.
But the fowing of the land, which is of the utmoft importance to the fuccefs of the crops, depends greatly on the time and feafon when it is performed, and the care with which it is done. We (hall there- fore give fome obfervations on that head.
The three moft effential things which conftitute a good fowin°-, feem to me to be, next to the proper preparation of the earth, firft, the time of fowing; fecondly, the choice of the feed; and thirdly, the due temperature of the feafon, with refpecl to heat or cold, drought, or wet; all which greatly influence the ftate of the earth.
With regard to the time of fowing, I fay, it is better to fow early, than too late, provided the feafon will admit of it. The plants are better able to refift the feverity of the winter, after they have acquired a certain degree of ftrength. There have been years in which fields fowed very late, for inftance in December, have done extremely well : but that ought not to be made a general rule ; experience (hewing that fuch late (owings very feldom anfwer.
By too early fowing, the corn is equally expofed to other dangers. The ftalks which fhoot up before winter, cannot well bear hard frofts, which would do no hurt to the wheat when but in blades. I obferved, in the two laft years 1753 and 1754, that the firft fown wheat, which was attacked by the rujl in autumn, was much more hurt by it than any other. Therefore, I think the beft time for fow- ing, in fuch a climate as Geneva, is, from the 20th of Auguft, to the end of September. If, however, it fhould not be practicable to fow all the lands within that time, the firft fortnight in October may likewife be taken in : but this I would not advife, except in a cafe of neceffity. If all the land fhould not be fown within that time, I think one might expect a better crop by deferring to fow till fpring. What I have been faying is more particularly applicable to lands laid out in beds.
The fame rules by which I judge of the proper time of fowing
Gg 2 here,
2-8 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part IV
here, may eafily be adapted to other climates, in fome of which the land will require being lowed earlier, and in others later.
The choice of the feed is the fecond thing, which to me feems to require more particular care than many may perhaps imagine. Every one certainly endeavours to chufe the belt wheat he can for feed : and it ought likewife to be very clean. Such corn is not difficult to be had, when reaped off the beds cultivated in our wcv.
Tho' wheat fo green that it had fcarce loft irs milkv quality, fprouted pretty well when I tried the experiment with it ; I think it is more proper to fow none but what is thoroughly ripe. The feed has then attained its full perfect ion ; and it is from that ripehefs that we may moft certainly expect the moft vigorous plants.
The wheat that has been reaped in a warm dry year, fecms to me fitter for lowing, than that which has been gathered in a cold use year : for in fuch a year, all the productions of the earth are lef, good ; their talte is lels favouryj and as that wheat in particular i:i which there is moft moiiture, is moft difficult to keep, I infer from thence that the formation of its grain muft be lefs perfect. J ihould therefore prefer wheat a year oM, provided the year it wa? gathered in was warm and dry, to that which may have juft been gathered in too rainy a feafon. Accordingly, I always chute for fowing, wheat of the growth of my high lands, rather than that which has been produced in fiats.
The benefit accruing from all this care, may, perhaps, not be ex- tremely great ; but at the fame time it cofts nothing. Let us do m agriculture what is done in all manufactures : the very fm all eft pro- fits, the very leaft favings, are never neglected. Thofe fmall ar- ticles, often repeated, make large fums in the long run, and are a real profit.
There is another thing of greater confequence, which I ftrongly recommend the practice of. It will not be attended with any ex- pence. It is by repeated experiments, always attended with the fame fuccefs, that I have found it to be extremely ferviceable to the firft: fprouting of the feed. Chance firft made it known to me.
I have often fowed, purely to try what wheat was htteft for fow- ing. I commonly lowed wheat taken from the heap in the granary. I likewife frequently fowed wheat picked out of the ears the moment before I lowed it. I counted the grains of both forts exactly. Would any one think there could be any difference in the productions of thefe grains r yet I found a confiderable one : what was picked out
of
Chap. II. BY M. DE C H AT E A U- V I E U X. 229
of the ears, always rofe extremely well ; fcarce a grain of it ever miffed ; whereas numbers of thofe which were taken from the heap, never fprouted at all. I did not perceive this difference at firft j but at laft it (truck me. I relate the fact as it is, without pretending to account for the caufe of this difference, which would lead me into too long a digreffion. The experiment itielf may be of real ufe. It fhews us that inftead of threfhing the wheat intended for feed at any time, without diftinction, it ought not to be threfhed till a very few days, at moil two or three, before it is fowed. A few hands will be able to fupply the fowers with as much as they will want. This will be attended with no fort of ex pence, and may be the means of faving fomewhat in the feed.
Perhaps too, this practice may be attended with a very valuable advantage. I have not indeed yet made the trials neceffary to fatisfy me of the reality of what I imagine : but my defire to be of fervice to the public, induces me to mention it, that the lovers of agriculture may reflect upon it, and try fuch experiments as will clear up my conjectures.
Threfhing the feed only juft before it is fowed, may poffibly, in fome meafure, or perhaps entirely prevent the firft caufe of the di- ftemper which we call charbon. By this I mean, that the feed which has not been mixed with fmutty wheat, or any infected by its black powder, will be exempt from that diftemper. Not that I take that black powder to be abfulutely the original caufe of that diftemper : but I believe it very capable of communicating it to grains that are found.
I wifh the multiplicity of my occupations may permit me to en- deavour to clear up this matter, and purfue the obfervations I have begun to make. If I can be fo happy as to make any ufcful dif- coveries, I mall communicate them to the public.
That nothing may be neglected which can be of any fervice to the feed, great care ought, in my opinion, to be taken in threfhing it ; eipecially in the manner that is commonly pra&ifed, with flails, upon the barn floor, or by trampling it with hones. In either of thefe ways, a great number of grains are fo bruifed and hurt, that it is im- poffible they mould ever grow. If the wheat intended for feed, is not thoroughly dry and hard, the mifchief is ftill greater 3 much more of it being then abL'lutely crufhed by the flail.
As the new hufbaudry requires much lefs feed, it will be the eafier
to
23o EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
to execute an operation which might be too long and troublefome to practife for fo great a quantity as is ufed in the old way.
The method I advile, and which I myfelf have practifed, is this : let one or two beams, two feet and a half, or three feet thick, be laid acrofs the barn floor : let the threihers ftand at each fide of the beam, with a loofe fheaf of wheat behind every man, from which he will take a handful at a time, and give it two or three ftxokes againft the beam : this will bring out a great deal of grain, which is to be referved for feed. Thefe ears may be bundled up again, and afterwards threfhed out with the flail, for other ufes.
This method is not lb tedious as fome may imagine: we are fure that not a grain is bruifed ; the corns drop very readily out of the ears, efpecially of wheat that has grown in beds: the great fize of the grain helps to open thehufks, and thofe are the mod: perfect grains which drop out thus. I think I may compare this operation with what is done in the making of wine. The firft running is always the higheft flavour'd and beft.
Though the proper feafon for fowing be come, the corn ought not to be put into the earth, if the temperature of the feafon is not favour- able. It ought on the contrary, to be deferred in hopes of a change. If the weather is very hot, and the earth extremely dry, there will be an abfolute neceflity of waiting till fome rain has fallen. Without this precaution, the feed will rife but very imperfectly. I am fure of it, by feveral experiments which I have made, and which contra- dict a common faying of our farmers, that the earth is the bell gra- nary to keep corn. Full of this notion, whenever the ftated time comes round, they fow, without diftindtion, in wet or dry land : even heat does not hinder them : they think their feed will certain'v fprout well after the firft rain : but I have always experienced that the plants have come up thin-
I tried an experiment purpofely to fatisfy myfelf whether one can fow with fuccefs, when the weather is very hot, and the earth very dry. Upon reading Mr. Duhamel du Monceau's excellent treatife of the prefervation of corn, I obferved that he had found by his expe- riments, that wheat which had been dried in a ftove heated to 60 degrees of M. de Reaumur's thermometer, had loft its faculty of growing.
From thence I conjectured that wheat which fhould undergo a heat, for example, of 30 degrees, during a longer time, would be
equally
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHATEAU-VIEUX. 231
equally parched up, and rendered incapable of growing. I confidered the earth, when hot and dry, as a kind of ftove, in which if the feed remained too long, without receiving any moifture, it may become fo dry, that the greateft part of it will never be able to fprout. thought this reafoning juft ; and therefore determined, in order fully to Jatisfy myfeif, to have recourfe to that trufty guide, experience.
The 1 8th of July, 1754, at four o'clock in the afternoon, I placed M. de Reaumur's thermometer two inches deep in the earth, and fcreened it from the immediate impreffion of the rays of the fun. The liquor role to the 3 ift degree, which fhewed me the heat of the earth.
The thermometer being afterwards expofed to the fun, the liquor rofe to 56 degrees.
The fame day, I fowed 80 grains of wheat in the fame ground. The heat continued nearly the fame the reft of that month, and almoft all Auguft. On the 31ft of July, only 10 grains had mot up, and the 1 6th of Auguft there were in all 16 ; after which, not one more rofe : confequently 64 grains out of the 80 never fprouted at all K
The 28th of July I lowed 50 grains. Only four of them rofe by the j 6th of Auguft, and not one after. Here were again 46 grains which did not grow at all.
The fame day, I fowed 60 grains in another place. The 16th of Auguft; only fix grains had fprouted, and not one plant more ever ap- peared after: confequently here too were 54 grains which never grew. All tbefe grains were fowed in my garden, in exceeding good mould.
I was fure that the wheat I fowed was perfectly found, and in every refpecl: capable of growing. It was therefore quite clear, that fo great a number of grains out of the whole, which did not fprout at all, had loft the faculty of growing, by their being parched up by the heat and drynefs oi the earth. To be flill more certain of this, three weeks after I had fowed thefe grains, I watered half of them feveral times ; but to no purpofe: not one of them rofe, and 1 found feveral of them quite whole in the esrth where I had fowed them.
After this experiment, on the nth of Auguft: I fufpended the lovvings I had begun the 8th, and did not refume them till the 26th, after fome rain which fell the 22d and 23d. Thefe la-ft fowings rofe much better than the fir ft.
•»
* Wheat has however been known to rife very well after having remained fix weeks or two months in the earth' : perhaps the circumftanccs were different
Thus
232 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
Thus it is that experience and obfervation teach us to leave off bad cuftoms, or fuch as are not founded on principles with which a man of fenfe can reft fatisfied.
Whenever the produce of the fields on which my experiments were tried, is confidered, it ought always to be remembered, that I ufed no dung on any of thofe lands, and that they received no other improvement than what was owing to a better preparation of the earth, only by ftirring it. Thofe who chufe to have recourfe to dung, will probably reap greater crops : with an hundred loads, they may dung three times more land than is done in the common way; for the dung fhould be fpread very thin, if one would have it be of any fervice. By fpreading if too thick, I believe the plants would grow too rank, and be apt to be lodged.
The new hufbandry fupplies the want of dung, not only by ftir- ring the earth, and not over-burdening it with too many plants, but like wife by the firong thick Jlubble it produces, which affords a mo/l excellent manure, attended with no cxpence. It lies ready upon thefpot; the plowing of the earth buries it ; and as it is a long time in rotting, it helps to keep the foil loofe and light, and is repeated every year. I have found ftubble almoft whole at a year's end ; and fome I have feen not quite confumed at the end of two years.
But can we be fure that this manure is of any confequence, or real advantage ? After what I have already feen of its effects, I will ven- ture to fay, that it contributes greatly to increafe the productions of the earth. I have very often plucked up plants remarkable for their beauty, and have frequently found their roots interwoven with tufts of ftubble, which (hewed me the caufe of their extraordinary growth. I fhall foon have more pofitive proofs of this, by the experiments I am now making to clear up this point.
ARTICLE VIII.
Experiments made on beds fawed with fix rows of wheat : comparifon of their produce, with that of beds fowed with only three rows; and fome inquiry concerning the number of rows which it is bejl to few.
IN the journal of 1753, article VII. I gave an account of my fuccefs in fowing beds with two turns of the drill-plough, in order to have fix rows of wheat. It anfwered fo well, that I thought I fhould run no hazard in fowing a larger extent of ground in the
fame manner,
This
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHA TE AU- VI EUX. 233
This experiment fucceeded equally well this year. I fhall not enter into a detail of it, becaufe that would be only a repetition of what I faid on this fubjedt in 1753. As to the refult, the reader will recollecl:, that the fame ground made into beds wide enough to be fowed with two turns of the drill-plough, which make fix rows, produced more corn than if it had been fown in beds with only one draught of the drill-plough, which would have made but three rows.
With regard to the quantity of the produces of the crops of 1753 and 1754, compared together, I have found that the fix rowed beds produced this year very nearly the fame that they did in 1753 ; ex- cepting the field of the experiment, No. VIII. which yielded about half as much again as the year before.
Notwithftanding the profit which I found in thefe experiments repeated two years running, I do not think it advifeable to enlarge the ' number of rows to fo many as fix. Five will, in my opinion, be very fufficient : and they may be made with one cut of the drill- plough, by giving it five fhares, which is very eafily done. This number of rows will be a proper medium between fix and three.
Sowing in five rows will not, however, do in all forts of lands. I believe it fhould be pra&ifed on none but good ones, and that middling lands fhould continue to be fowed with three rows at niofr.
I fhall add farther, with refpect to good lands, that they ought not to be fowed with five rows, till after they have been thoroughly well ftirred; and, above all, not till after the great furrow in the middle of the bed has been cut extremely deep, in order that the roots of the middle row, which is the moft diftant from the plowed alley?, may find a fufficient depth of mould immediately under them,, to fupply them with their necefiary nourifhment.
But at the fame time that a provifion is made for the nourifhment of the plants, care muft be taken not to loofetoo much land, by mak- ing the alleys wider than they need be. My experiments have de- termined me to make my beds for the future about fix feet wide. Bv leaving feven inches diftance between each row, the five rows will take up about two feet four inches, and there will remain three feet eight inches fcr the breadth of the alleys. This fpace is fufficient for the plough or cultivator to operate in with eafe.
Hh A R-
234 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Partll.
ARTICLE IX.
Experiment made in order to know which is the mofl profitable way of f owing the beds, and to a/certain more precifely the quantity of feed proper to be ufedy in order to have the greatejl crop.
THE title of this article divides it naturally into two parts, which I fhall treat feparately.
It is of great confequence to know which is the moft profitable way of fowing the beds ; that is to fay, that by which they will be flocked with a proper number of plants ; for when too much feed is fowed, the plants hurt one another ; and when too little, the earth is not enabled to produce fo much as it is capable of doing.
The bufinefs therefore is, to determine what number of plants would be moft advantageous. Luckily, the difference is wide enough between the too great, and the too fmall number; and the produce of the crops cannot be diminished but by an excefs one way or the other.
But whatever certainty we may acquire with refpect to this interefting point, we cannot flatter ourfelves that we fhall always be able to keep to it in our practice. The various accidents to which corn is liable, from the hour of its being fowed till it is reaped, will al- ways fruftrate the methodical arrangement which we may have in- tended to give the plants.
The difficulty of fucceeding in this inquiry, ought not however to difcourage us : for it would be attended with fuch advantages as would make very ample amends for all the labours beftowed upon it. Let us then have recourfe to experiments. Thofe that are made with this view, will never be quite ufelefs. If they do not lead us to the very thing we are in fearch of, they may at leaft difcover to us others which may be of fervice.
According to our principles, the diftance between each plant ought to be equal throughout the whole length of the rows, that all of them may have an equal quantity of earth to draw their nourifh- ment from.
Several experiments have fhewn that fix inches is not too great a diftance for the plants to be at from one another. In this cafe, it would be fufficient to fow one grain of wheat from fix to fix inches. According to this difpofition, a field well prepared ought to produce the greateft crop. The plants will very commonly branch out fo as
to
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHAT E AU-V I E U X. 235
to have 20, 30, ©r 40 ftalks : I have had fome with upwards of 80. Tis pity that this exact diftribution of the feed cannot fubfift long. The accidents I met with, foon convinced me, that it was neceflary to increafe the quantity of the feed, and that very confiderably.
However, this does not yet hinder me from thinking, that if" any eafy method could be found, to have a plant of wheat exactly at every fix inches diftance in the rows, it would be the beft way of fowing lands. I have often confidered how this could be reduced to practice, as well to fatisfy my curiofity, as that I might be the better able to proceed in my operations. When a theory is known to be good, one is ftrongly encouraged to draw all poffible advantages from it for the practical part ; one proceeds with confidence and pleafure.
Experience having convinced me that it never would be poffible to have a plant at every fix inches in each row, by fowing only a An- gle grain of wheat at thofe distances ; it naturally followed, that the way to have the ground better covered with plants was, to fow more grains. The next queftion was, how many grains fhould be fowed in each place : fhould it be two, three, or more ? Experi- ence only could clear this doubt. I therefore tried the following experiment. I fowed a different number of grains in clufters, fix inches dijlant from each other, putting one grain in the fir ft, two in the fecond, and fo on to the fixth, which had fix grains : then I began again, and went on as before, till the whole length of the row was fowed in this manner. The produce of each clufter was to (hew me whether it would be beft to double, triple, or quadru- ple the feed, which it was plain had been fowed too thin, when only a fingle grain was dropt at every fix inches.
The winter of 1753 was already far advanced when thefe thoughts firft occurred to me. It was then too late to try this experiment with wheat : but, that I might not lofe a year, I did it in the fpring with barley ; not doubting but that corn, which is ufually fowed in March, might furnifh me with fbme ufeful hints for the culture of that which remains longer in the ground.
Accordingly, the ninth of April 1754, I ordered another bed to be fowed with barley, in my prefence, and in the manner I have juft related. I counted all the grains of each clufter myfelf. They were fowed in three rows. I varied the experiment in the row next the fouth, by fowing no clufters there of lefs than 3, 4, 5, or 6 grains ; which I continued the whole length of the row. At har-
Hh 2 veft,
236 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, PartH.
veft, all the clufters in which federal grains had been fowed, were fo thick, that they touched one another.
What is of moft confequence to our culture, is, to know the pro- duce of each clufter. The annexed table fhews it particularly. I fhall only add, that the clufters, as they are here ranged under their refpe&ive numbers, occupied forty feet in length.
EXPLANATION
Of the table tf the bed pwed in clujlers <with barley, and its produft.
FIGURE I.
The fouth row has 24 numbers.
FIGURE II. The middle row has 16 numbers.
FIGURE III. The north row has 16 numbers.
Thefe numbers are fubdivided into fmall fquares, in the upper ones of which are the number of grains fowed in each clufter.
The lower ones contain the number of ftalks bearing ears, which each clufter produced.
Each number contains an equal number of fmall fquare?, and un- der each number of each of thefe fquares, is fet down the number of grains that were fowed : thofe of 4 clufters have 18 grains; thofe of fix, 21.
The cyphers in fome of the lower fquares of fig. II. and III. zx. the places where no plant grew.
RESULT?.
Toe SOUr H ROW, fowed with 6, 5, 4, and 3 grains, produced 661, 624, 447, and 493 ftalks. In all 2225 ftalks.
TBe MID D L E ROW, . fowed with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 grain?, produced 48, 72, 147, 204, 219, and 4-87-fhiks, In- all 1177 ftalks.
INSERT FOLDOUT HERE
Chap. II. BY M. DE C H AT E AU-VLE U X. 237
The NORTH RO Wy
fowed with 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 grains, produced 502, 372, 345, 276, 200, and 92 ftalks. In all 1787 ftalks.
Confequently the whole number of ftalks in the three rows was 5189. They yielded 17 pounds of grain, befides a great quantity that was (bed in reaping.
On the footing of this crop, an arpent of 37 fquare toifes would contain at leaft 44 beds five feet wide, which was the breadth of the bed on which this experiment was made. The beds would be 222 feet long : the produce of one of them would be 93 pounds 8 ounces, and that of the 44, 4138 pounds 8 ounces, that is to fay, near 200 bufhels to the whole arpent : a very considerable crop, and which might be carried ftill much farther by other experiments of this kind, as we fhall foon fee.
REMARKS.
TH E following obfervations deferve the reader's utmoft atten- tion. Firft, By this experiment, I have very near effected what I aimed at, viz. to have two or more plants grow fo clofe to- gether as to feem but one ; and that at fix inches diftance fcom each other. If the three rows had been joined together lengthways, they would have been 120. feet long, and ought to have contained but 240 plants : but the diftances, which were marked by guefs, not being exactly fix inches each, 96 clufters were fowed in each row, which made 16 clufters over and above. By this means, feveral of them were nearer than fix inches to one another.
Two hundred and eighty-eight clufters were fown, all of which produced plants, except 25 which did not fprout, or of which the plants perifhed. This deficiency is not very confiderablc- : but we muft obferve, 1. That almoft all the places where thfs happened had been fown with only one or two grains of wheat : 2. That it was in the middle row that the-greateft number of plants was wanting: 3. That the fouth* row,- in which the fmalleft quantity fown for any one tuft was three grains,' furniftied and retained its full number of 'plants : and laftly, that almoft all thofe which were.
* * • next
-
238 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Partll.
-next to tne vacant fpaces, were ftronger than the reft, and thereby made amends for the lofs of the others.
Secondly, The whole number of the ftalks amounted to 5189, which is after the rate of 43 ftalks and a quarter to a foot : but it is much more confiderable in the fouth row, which having pro- duced in all 2225 italics, the proportion is 55 and a half to a foot. The caufe of this difference is eafily feen. The expofition of that row, to the fouth, being more favourable than that of the others, may have contributed thereto j but it is very plain that it was chiefly owing to none of the .clufters in that row being fown with fo few as one or two grains.
Thirdly, We fee that the increafe of the ftalks was, in general, in proportion to that of the feed ; only the clufters that were fown with three grains in the fouth row, produced 46 ftalks more than thofe which were fown with 4 grains ; but ftill the general refult of the three rows remains exactly in the fame progreflion, as appears by the following recapitulation.
RECAPITULATION:
Stalks produced by
I grain. 2gr.
Agr>
Sgr- bgr.
140 272 916 996 1215 1650
Total 5189
Fourthly, The ears were nearly equal, at leaft in two-thirds of the length of the rows : the other third furpaffed the reft, as will appear by the following extract of the twelve firft numbers of the South row.
No. r ; produced 2
3
4 • • •
5
6 ; . ;
87 Jlalh>
12Z
9*
99 82 66
No.
Chap. IT. BY M. DE CHATEAU-VIEUX. 239
No. 7 . produced . 78 ftalh.
8 100
9 . ; . . 87
10 ... 116
11 . . . .148
12 .... 68
Fifthly, The difference between the produce of the clutters fowed with one and with fix grains, is extremely great. The former pro- duced but 140 ftalks ; the others multiplied to 1650. 'Tis true the number of the clufters of fix grains is greateft y which is fome fmall diminution of the difference.
Sixthly, I obferved feveral ftalks from which others had fhot outr all as ftrong, and as long, as thofe from which they derived their origin. They proceeded from the firft joint above the furface of the earth, generally at the heighth of three, four, or five inches, and were two, three, and lbmetimes four in number. I never perceived this kind of multiplication before ; but had, till then, always ob- ferved it to be at the neck, or point of feparation between the roots which defcend, and the ftalks which afcend, that the plants branch- ed out.
Seventhly, I fafpedled, in the fummer, what was the caufe of the great vigour of the plants of this experiment ; but I faw it much plainer after harveft : for, upon pulling up fome of the tufts of ftubble, I found their roots innumerable. This fact is ftri&ly true. I could not count them upon any one plant that had more than 15 or 20 ftalks. Thefe roots were in fuch bundles, and fo confufedly interwoven one with another, that after counting feveral hundreds of them, I was forced to give up the talk. Their length and thicknefs was anfwerable to their number.
I muft now remind the reader of what I faid before, that the feveral accidents which I met with in my firft experiments, fhewed me it was neceffary to increafe the quantity of the feed. I did fo, by fmall degrees, from year to year. It is equally important for the fuccefs of the new culture, not to run into another extreme by load- ing the earth with more plants than it can nourifh : the crop would: be confiderably diminifhed thereby.
It appears by this experiment,, that the cluflers which were fowed with fix grains, did not hurt one another : on the contrary, their be- ifig fown in that manner proved an advantage, fince they produced
much
240 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT. Part II.
much more than the others : whence it follows, that one may, without danger, extend the quantity of the feed beyond the limits of the principles of the new hufbandry. Its principles are not the lefs true : but they leave the farmer at liberty to ufe his own pru- dence in the application of them, according to the nature of the foil.
Thofe principles, which fuppofe that every plant is to fubfifr. till harreft, reduce the feed to a very fmall quantity : but numbers of accidents deftroy many of them. Our reafon ought confequently to tell us, that, without deviating too much from the principles we adapt, we may, and fhould judicioufly ftock our land with a fuf- ficient number of plants, in order to guard againft unavoidable ac- cidents.
Still I may be afked, what is that fufficient quantity ? I anfwer, that our experiment fhews that fowing fix grains together in a cluf- ter, from fix to fix inches, all the length of the rows, will not be found too thick. By following this rule, one may be almoit certain that the whole ground will be ftocked with a proper number of plants. This ought, however, to be looked upon only as a general propofition, which it will often be very proper to deviate from iu the circumftances we are going to mention :
When the fencing feafon is favourable. JVhen the land is well prepared. In countries where the winter is feldom fevere. When the land is but little liable to infeSls.
Wfjen the land is not in danger of being hurt by too much drought , or too much wet. And lafrJy,
When the land is good and very fertile:
In all fhefe, and other fuch like cafes, lefs feed fhould be fowed j and, in the contrary cafes, more. Prudence, and a careful ftudy of the nature of the foil, ought to be our guides. Two or three years experience will be fufficient to fhew us the practice that will be beft to follow.
It will be right to repeat our laft mentioned experiment, and even to vary it. In all probability it will afford us ftill greater lights. It will be right, for example, to fow the clufters with a greater num- ber of grains, beginning with fix, the produce of which is known,
and
Chap. II. BYM.DE CHATEAtT-VIEUX z4f
and going on to feven, eight, and even more, always in clufters, till one comes to a number at which the crop ceafes to yield an equal profit. By this means, the two extremes may be known, either of too much, or too little feed ; and the juft proportion will then be eafily determined.
Some farther alterations may likewife be made in this experiment. For example, I placed the grains in the earth fo that they touched one another. I will try to put them at fome little difiance from each other, and to arrange them in a kind of circle, of about three inches diameter. It is reafonable to think, that the plants may make a greater progrefs then, as they will not all have one com- mon center : fome of them will be nearer to the plowed alley j their roots will reach it more eafily than before, and will multiply there, which may render the plants more vigorous.
ARTICLE X.
General difpoftion for the farther progrefs of the new Hujbandry, and particularly for the crop of 1755.
IT is with uncommon fatisfa&ion that we fee the trials of the new hufbandry multiply daily. A great number of intelligent perfons have fown part of their lands in equally diftant rows, with the drill- plough, for the next harveft. We have already feveral farms, fomt of which are confiderable ones, in the neighbourhood of Geneva which are no longer fown any other way.
Tis a great deal to fee this new road thus readily entered into. Thofe who follow will foon begin to take a pleafure in calculating, and will be curious to compare the new crops with the old. Thefe calculations will infenfibly lead to others, on the produce of land, when laid out in beds. They will fee, that there can be no hazard in making a few trials. Thus it is that feveral have been determin- ed to cultivate fome of their lands this year in beds.
That thefe arguments mould have their full weight with men capable of reafoning, is not to be wondered at : but I confefs I have been agree- ably furprifed, to find this conviction extend to people who can feldom be prevailed on to leave their beaten track. Some peafants in thefe parts fent a mefienger this winter to tell me, that they began to have a good opinion of the method I pradifed ; that they were aftonifh- ed at the beauty of my young plants, the like to which they had never ken before ; and that if they continued to do well, and met
I i with
242 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Tart II.
with no accident, I ought to have a prodigious crop. After this preamble, he continued, faying, that he was directed to beg of me to give him the particulars of my experiments ; that they mould meet, feveral of them together, to read them over in the winter, and make their little reflections upon them. He concluded with adding : " I believe we (hall all agree to fow in equally diftant rows,, " with the drill-plough ; and perhaps too we may, by and bye, lay " our lands out in beds."
I own I found a great deal of good fcnfc and prudence in this conduct of the peafants. I gave them the experiments of 1753, and fent them word that both my advice and my drill-plough were at their fervice, and that it fhould coir, them nothing if they chofe to make a trial of it. They have been well latisfied with what they have read, and feem difpofed to accept of my offers.
I have experienced this year, more than ever, the facility with which lands are cultivated in the new way. No part of the farm where I fometimes make a little flay, is any longer cultivated after the old method. The moft troublefome part is now over •. my lands were fowed in a favourable feafon ; the plants role extremely well,, and flourifhed perfectly till the beginning of winter : but the fevcrity of the frofts has proved fatal to many parts of my fields, and will certainly be a detriment to my crops.
SECT. V.
Continuation of M, De Chateau-vieux'j Experiments in- 1755 and 1756.
TVyTY lands were cultivated in J 75 5, in the fame manner as they J- "■*■ were the years before. I fhall therefore not enter into anv de- tail upon that fubject. When I fowed my fields, they were very- well prepared to receive the feed; the fpring was pretty kindly ; and towards the end of autumn my corn was very fine, excepting forne fpots that were attacked with the rufi fo early as the tenth of No- vember : other places in which the plants were ftrong and healthy, promifed a moil plentiful crop ; and though it was greatly dirninith- ed by the winter's frofts, it proved, upon the whole, iufneient to confirm the advantages of the new hufbandry, which have been al- ready proved in my former accounts.
The winter of the year 1754, was a molt fevere one. The frcft, which was exceffively intenfe, lafted a long time, and killed a pro- digious
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHATEAU-VIE UX. 243
digious number of plants : thofe that refifted it, loft fome of the branches they had fhot out in the autumn before, and the plants fo weakened branched but little in the fpring. The evil would have been infinitely greater, if the ground had chanced to be full of water, when thofe extreme hard frofts came on : but luckily it was not very wet.
This winter was followed by a very dry fpring, Uncommonly hot, and confequently unfit to recover the corn. The fummer, in which there was fcarce any rain or dew, but very frequently fultry fcorch- ing heats, exhaufted the plants in feveral fields. I was not furprifed at it. The feafons were extremely unfavourable to the productions of the earth ; and, to add to the misfortune, a vaft quantity of worms did likewife confiderable damage to the corn.
However, my wheat role ; the ftraw was pretty near as long as in the preceding years, and the ears were well filled with grain. The plowings had been well performed, which kept the earth in a ftate of moifture; lefs indeed than in 1754, becaufe but very little dew fell in 1755. •
The wheat cultivated in the old way, yielded but few fheaves : the ftraw was fhort ; the ears were very full of grain ; and, in general, the quality of the corn was excellent.
There was room to expect good fuccefs from the lands that were fown in 1755, for the crop of 1756. The young plants rofe ex- tremely well, the ground had been properly prepared, and had the degree of moifture necefiary to promote their growth.
Though fome flight frofts were felt towards the latter end of Oc- tober, they did not prevent the growth of the corn, the cold abating from the twelfth of November, to the end of that month. M. de Reaumur's thermometer was, during that time, at from fix to eight degrees above the freezing point. At the fame time we had pretty frequent, and often plentiful fhowers of rain.
The corn was in very good condition at the beginning of the winter, during which there was fcarce any froft, excepting the ten firft days of December, when the thermometer fell to about fix de- grees below the freezing point. During the months of January and' February, it was pretty conftantly above the freezing point : we had little fnow ; but pretty frequent rains.
The fpring and fummer of 1756, having been extremely rainy, and the earth too much foaked thereby, the plants were poor, and the fummer plowings could not be given them. For this reafon, I
I i 2 could
244 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, PartIL
could give feveral of my fields but one culture ; and others had two. I would not plow whilft the. earth was fo very wet : it would only have hardened, and as it were kneaded, it ; and I judged that fuch bad plowings would have been equally prejudicial to the corn then growing, and to the preparation of the fallow for the next fowing„ I found afterwards that I had done right.
One could not/jut expect that fo- unfavourable a feafon would prove fatal to the corn. I had obferved during all the month of April, in which there was no froft, and the thermometer was from five to feven degrees above the freezing point, and towards the end of that month from nine to twelve degrees, that the corn made but little progrefs> and grew yellow. The diftemper continuing to in- creafe, I perceived in May, that the corn was attacked with what is called the rickets : the. had flate of the roots of thefe plants, the colour of their blades turned to a blueifh green, and yellow at the point, left no room to doubt what ailed them j and from that time it was eafy to forefee, that befides the fmallnefs of the number of ftalks which the plants had produced, and by which the crop would cer- tainly be fcanty,, it. would be diminished ftill more, by the ears hav- ing but little grain.
In June, the healthy plants throve greatly : the flraw grew long : but yet the fheaves did not yield fo much grain as in the foregoing years, by about a fifth part, as nearly as I could judge. The corn was very fine and very clean ; and had it not been for this accident, I am confident I fhould have had a very plentiful crop..
I did not fee any one field exempt from this diftemper. Exceed- ing fine corn, cultivated in the old way, was totally infected with itj and the fheaves in general yielded but about half the quantity of corn that they ufually do in good years.. The grains were very fmall, and mixed with a great many feeds of weeds.
Thefe general notions are neceffary, in order to form a right judgment of the refult of my experiments, which I fhall relate in the following order..
The firfl article will comprehend the experiment which I made upon all the fields which I laid out in beds, the laft of which now bore their third crop. I have diftinguifhed them by the fame num- bers as in the former years, and fhall add to each the particular ob- fgrvations that relate immediately to it.
The fecond article will fhew the produce of the lands fowed in: squally diilant rows^ with the drill-plough. I fhall make fome re- flections,
Chap. : II. BY" M. DE CHATEAU-VIEUX. 645
fk&ions on the ufefulnefs of this practice, which is certainly always preferable to the common way of fowing.
I fliall prove in the third article, that it is ftill more profitable to lay the ground out in beds. This proof will refult from the calcu- lations and comparifons of the produce in each different way.
ARTICLE I.
Experiments made on fidds laid out in beds, the laji made of which have borne three fucceeding crops. Thefe fields are dijiinguijhed by the fame numbers as in the foregoing years. Obfervations relating particularly to each experiment.
EXPERIMENT, No. I.
Year 1755.
N. B. This was made on the fame piece of ground on which I made my fiirjl experiments in 1751 ; and this years crop was thefixth, with- out any interruption*
I" Gave a very full account, in the ninth article of the year 1754, ± of the experiment which I made in order to be the better able to judge which is the moft profitable way of fowing the beds ; and to determine what quantity of feed it is moft proper to fow, in order to have the greateft crop ; and this I called, fowing in cluflers, at the dijlance of fix inches from the center of the one to the other v I (haft only remind the reader here, that the fpot of ground which was fowed in clutters, with barley, in the fpring, was part of a bed, forty feet long, and that the produce of the grain was feventeen pounds weighty befides a confiderable quantity that was fhed in reaping.
This experiment, which deferved to be repeated, was tried again the fame year, and upon the fame ground which I had fowed with barley. This lair grain being reaped, I fowed the fame bed with wheat, the twenty-third of September following : but it is to be obferved that I did not plow this fpot after the barley was off, but only "plucked up the ftubble, and made three channels, into which the feed was dropt by hand inclufters fix inches diftant from one an- other.
AsJn the experiment of 1754, the clufters fowed with fix grams,
were.
246 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
were thofe which produced the moft ftalks and grains, I fowed all the clufters with at lead fix grains, fome with feven, and others with eight ; keeping all the grains at fome little diftance from each other. The bed forty feet long contained eighty-three clufters in each row, which were fowed with two ounces fix pennyweights of wheat.
The plants came up very well : I fpared no pains to cultivate them ;. they throve wonderfully till harveft : their blades, ftalks, ears, and grains, were very fine ; and I preferved them from the birds with a net : but as I would not reap them till they were tho- roughly ripe, a great deal was flied in cutting them down, and they yielded me but twenty-eight pounds.
OBSERVATIONS.
THIS experiment is a farther confirmation of the refult of the firft which was made in 1754, viz. that fix grains are not too great a number to be fowed in a clufter, fix inches diftant from the next clufter. I had not leifure to count the ftalks which each clufter produced ; but the twenty-eight pounds weight of corn which they yielded, feems a fufficient proof.
The circumftance of not plowing the bed before it was fowed, confirms the advantages of preparing land according to the new huf- bandry.
I faid that the ftubble was plucked up, in order to prepare the bed for being fowed. This lhewed me how much ftubble helps to enrich land.
When this bed was fowed, and the corn fprung up, I ordered the furrows which were made before winter, next the outward rows, to be opened for about half the length of that bed, and the ftubble to be put into them, and covered over with earth : confequently it was laid in the ground which was cultivated, and in that part of it where the plants were to extend their roots. As the quantity of roots col- lected there was pretty great, I concluded that the effect ought to be much more fenfible than it can be in other fields where the plow- man buries them as chance directs. In effect, that part of the bed became much finer than the reft -, the plants produced a greater num- ber of ftalks j and there is no room to doubt that the ftubble was an excellent manure.
Year
Chap.-II. fiY.-M.DE G H AT E AU- VI E 0X, 247
Year 1756.
T Purpofed to continue fowing this bed in clutters, and -to increafe ■*• the quantity of the feed, in order to fee rt»hat the effect would be: but, in hopes of better fuccefs, J gave up -the thoughts I once had of reaping a third crop from this bed without plowing it.
After one plowing, I fowed it, the fixteenth of September 1755, in three rows of 93 clufters in each row, and 10 or 15 grains in each clutter : and in order to place them with fome kind of regularity, I made ufe of an iron hoop about three inches diameter, which was laid upon the ground at each place that was to be fowed, and the grains were dropt at nearly equal diftances, fome round the infide, and fome in the middle of this circle. Each clufter was fowed in this manner. The fpace from one center to another, was about five inches. The feed was covered over lightly, with a rake, and the quantity employed in this operation, was five ounces twelve pennyweights.
This wheat was always very fine, from its firft rifing, till harvefh. It was reaped the thirty-firft of July, and yielded twenty-three pounds of grain.
OBSERVATIONS.
npHOUGH the produce of this bed was lefs this year than in -"• 1755, I did not think it ought to be imputed to the increafe of the quantity of feed that was fowed, becaufe the plants were as ftrong as could be wifhed, their ftraw as long as in the former years, and their ears as big : but I obferved that this bed had not been quite free from ficknefs, and that it contained a pretty confiderable num- ber of rickety plants, which yielded but little grain.
It refults from this experiment, that a certain quantity of feed is neceffary, to counterbalance the many accidents to which corn is perpetually liable.
Though this bed might have yielded a greater quantity of grain in a more kindly year; yet its product, even in this, was very confider- able : for if we reckon in proportion the produce of an arpent, which I fuppofe to confift of 100 fquare perches (the perch of 22. feet) containing 484 fquare feet, the breadth of which make four beds of five feet and an half wide each, it would yield 3795 pounds ~ of
z48 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
of grain, produced by 56 pounds, 10 ounces of feed : which is after the rate of 67 for 1.
To this it will be objected, that tho' a fmall fpot of ground, like that we have been fpeaking of, was made to produce fo confiderable a quantity of grain, it would probably not be poffible to obtain fuch a crop in proportion from an extent of fome acres of land. — It may be fo : but fuppofing the crop to be even greatly inferior, it would ltill be much more confiderable than the common crops.
Let us examine this queflion more minutely. It is of great con- fequence not to embrace an opinion, and efpecially a di (advantageous one, before it has been carefully confidered. Let us fee then to what the diminution of the crop may be owing. I fay nothing of the particular accidents which may in general leffen crops : but, fuppofing all things equal, in fuch an extent of ground, my opinion is that the firft and efTential caufe of the milcarriage, can be imputed only to the cultivator himfelf, who fees what is belt to be done, but neglects it; and who ought at leafr. to endeavour, as much as pof- fibly he can, to do that in great, which he lees lucceed fo well in Imall.
I grant that many reflections, and reafonings, which feem at firfl fight extremely juft and appofite, are in reality oftentimes only fpe- cious and deceitful, and that it is always right to recur to experimen- tal proofs. Luckily we have fuch ready to produce.
The celebrated Wolfius obferved long ago, that the productions of plants which grow in large pieces of ground, are always fine when the feed has been properly buried, and fowed thin : whence he con- cluded, that the moil extenfive fields ought to produce as much in proportion as fmall ones, and that it is evident that whenever an ex- periment has been made with the necefTary precautions, and has fuc- ceeded upon the tenth part of any piece of ground, it ought to luc- ceed equally upon two, three, or four tenths, and confequently upcn the whole of that ground.
The experience of five years, of which I fhall give an account in the following article, will, I believe, prove this very fufficiently.
E X-
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHATEAU -VIEUX.
EXPERIMENT. No. II.
249
N. B. This field is marked with the fame number in the jormer experiments.
For the crop of 1752, it was four J ivifh 11 pounds jounces cf •wkeat} which produced 1041 pounds 12 ounces.
For the crop of i'j 53, it was fowed with 34 pounds 14. ounces, which produced 1575 pounds.
For the crop of 1754, // was fowed with 61 pounds 14 ounces, which produced 1820 pounds.
For the crop of 1755, it was f wed with 78 pounds, which produced 1950 pounds.
For the crop of 1756, it was fowed with 51 pounds, which produced 1885 pounds.
Year 1755.
T Had now cultivated Smvrna wheat for fome years, fowing the ■*■ whole of each year's produce, in order to increafe my quantity lb as to be able to fow a pretty large field with it ; which I could not compleat till 1754, for the crop of 1755.
The field in quefHon was fowed with 78 pounds of this corn. It rofe very well : but towards the end of winter, I was furprifed to find that a great quantity of plants had been deftroyed by the froft j and I foon perceived, that almoft all the ftrongeft and healthieft plants were thofe of common wheat, and that there were very few of Smyrna wheat. I had obferved at the time of fowing, that there was fome mixture in the feed : and as I had fome of the fame fort frill remaining, I was able to fatisfy myfelf that there was a third part of common wheat in the Smyrna wheat which I had fowed ; and that it was the former which grew fo fine, and of which almoft the whole crop confided.
This fhews that Smyrna wheat does not refift hard frofts : but at the fame time, fuch winters as that of 1754, very feldom happen in this country. This field was reaped the nineteenth of July . the common wheat was thorough ripe, and the Smyrna wheat quite green, though its grain was grown very hard.
1 leparated the ears of Smyrna wheat from the others, in order
K k to
25o EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Partll.
to bind them up in diftinct (heaves, that I might have their grain pure and unmixed. This field produced 213 pounds of Smyrna wheat, and 1737 pounds of common wheat; in all 1950 pounds: which is a greater crop than that of the preceding years.
OBSERVATIONS on Smyrna wheat.
MY former crops of this wheat, though the quantity was but fmall, had already fhewed me plainly that it produces more grain than any other kind. In 1755, the fheaves of this wheat, of the fame fize as thofe of our common wheat, yielded more grain by half than the others did. It is therefore probable, that the planting of this grain will be attended with advantage, efpecially in climates not fubjecl: to too hard frofts.
But what is of very great importance, is, to know well at what degree of maturity this corn mould be reaped. The two firft years that I fowed any of it, the ears were prodigioufly big, and full of very plump well-fed grains : but I was uneafy not to fee them ripen. They continued green, whilft I expected daily that they would turn yellow, and the grain grow hard ; but in vain. By this delay, the grains wafted fo much, that I never faw any fmaller, nor fo much fhrunk as thefe. However, they fprouted well when fowed, and produced very fine plants.
The third year, I determined to reap them fooner than I had done the firft. Accordingly, I cut them down as foon as I found that the grains had acquired a fufficient degree of hardnefs, notwith- standing that the corn was ftill quite green. The confequence of this was, that the grains remained exceeding plump and fine.
Year 1756.
T Continued to fow the fame field with Smyrna wheat, of which I •^ procured fome quite pure and unmixed. I fowed 51 pounds of this wheat, the firft of October. The plants were fine, and fuffi- ciently forward before winter, and throve prodigioufly from fpring till harveft. But I ought not to omit obferving, that Smyrna wheat is as apt to be rickety as common wheat, and that numbers of thefe plants were affected with that diftemper.
This crop was reaped the twenty-ninth of July, being ftill green,
ac4
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHAT E AU- V I E UX. 251
and the grain only hardened. It yielded 1885 pounds of exceeding fine, clean* good fized wheat.
OBSERVATIONS.
I
T would anfwer no end to make experiments, if one were not to
attend to the inftructions they may afford : but as thofe inftruc- tions will fometimes efcape the notice even of the moft careful ob- ferver, it is proper always to repeat the experiments, and to continue them conftantly for fome time. 'Tis by fo doing, that the advan- tages of the new hufbandry will appear in their true light, and b* eftablifhed beyond difpute.
The field I am now fpeaking of, and from which I reaped five crops, in five years immediately following one another, prefents us real and very confiderable advantages, which I fhall let forth in what appears to me the jufteft and moft ftriking manner.
To this end, I fhall ftate exactly the products of the field in que- ftion, cultivated in the old and in the new way. I fhall begin with its produce during fixteen years that it was cultivated according to the rules of the old hufbandry ; namely, from the crop of 1730, to that of 1744 inclufively. In this fpace of time, it produced eight crops ; the cuftom of the country being to fow but once in two years, and to reft the ground each alternate year. My account may be depended upon, as perfectly exact. I have extracted it out of a journal kept by a fteward of mine, who died in 1745, and who was fcrupuloufly exact even in the fmalleft concerns.
After giving the produce of this field, the foil of which is very good and ftrong, during fixteen years that it was cultivated in the old way ; I fhall fhew what the fame field produced in five years cultivation according to the new method, in order to compare the different products of only five years to fixteen ; and afterwards draw a comparifon between both the cultures for fixteen years, fuppo- fing, which is a great difadvantage, that the eleven remaining years of the new hufbandry produce no more than thefe firft five
years.
K k 2 Number
2$*
EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT.
Part II.
Number I.
Produce of the field Number II, during fixteen years that it ivas cultivated in the. old way -, viz. from the crop of the year 1730, tct that of the year 1 744, inchtjhely.
SOWED.
Iji 1729.
: { Wheat 73 ' 2 Barbary wheat 1733. Wheat Wheat
Englifh wheat :
Wheat Wheat Wheat mixed with tares
J735
J737
'739 1741
V43
Total feed of eight years
Pounds 425
Pounds, 267
63
\ 483
441
5°4 44i 441
47 3
5°4
3558*
in 173-0.
1732.
REAPED.
Pounds. "34
A year extremely bad,, on account of- the great quantity of flugs which de- ftroyed the wheat, and the many ^1606 feeds of weeds that it was mixed
|
1734... |
* . r . |
*95?-> |
|
>736- |
. |
IOOi) |
|
1738. . . • |
. |
977 |
|
1740.. |
. . |
1291 |
|
1742. |
. |
1638 |
|
1744- |
: |
1512 |
Total amount of the crops of eight years, 7 in the fpace of iixteen years . - >
1 1 119
Brought
Chap, II. BY M. DE CHA TEAU-VI EUX. 253
Brought over; Total amount of the crops of eight •>
years, in the fpace of fixteen years ■> "
To be deduced.
Pounds. Sittings of 1732 . . » 756
* Sittings of the other years . . 1009
Seed, as above .. . . 3558' ^ ■
■ 0JJ 5323
Remains, for the neat produce of fixteen years, . 5796
* This field alf/ayr f reduced clean corn, greater pains being taken to keep it free from weeds, than cautd be bejiov)ed upon other pieces of ground, tiiore dijtant or more extenfive. The' Jf tings would ctberwife have been more confderable in fo great a num- ber of years.
Number II.
Produce of the field Number II, during five years of culture in the
new itay.
S O W E D.
In 1751. Wheat 175-2. Wheat
1 753. Wheat-
1754. Smyrna wheat
1755. Smyrna wheat
Pounds. Ounces, . . II 4
• • 34 14-
. 61 14
Totalled of five years . . .
REAPED."
1*11752. : . '. •■'.-•■ 17 S3- '• • • • • 1754- •
WS- •
1756. ......
Total -amount of the crops of five years To be deducted for the feed, as-above
There was no fitting. . Remains for the neat produce ef the five 1 years . . ... . J
2-37
Pounds. Ounce,;. 1041 12
1820 1950
188 c
8271 ■ 23-7
r
12
.
8034 12
Number
254 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
Number III.
Comparifon of the above produce of the new culture, with that of
the old.
Pounds. Ounces. The new hufbandry produced in five years, with- i «
out any intermediate year of reft . 5 ^4
The old hufbandry produced, in fixteen years, . 5796
Confequently the new hufbandry produced in' - five years, more than the old did in fixteen, > 2238 12 by
:en,S
Number IV.
Farther comparifon of the produce of the new hufbandry with that of the old, as above.
NEW HUSBANDRY.
Pounds. Ounces.
The new hufbandry produced in five years . 8034 12 Suppofing the crops to be the fame for eleven) j-g-g vears more, thev would amount to . * ' ' '
years more, they would amount to And for fixteen years, to ' . \ z5711 3
OLD HUSBANDRY.
The neat produce of the old hufbandry, in fix-? 6
teen years, was . . . $ ->'V
The balance in favour of the new hufbandry,)
would confequently be, in fixteen years . I 99 5
REFLECTIONS and OBSERVATIONS.
T Dare to fay that very few of thofe who might juft have glanced *■ over the products of the five years during which the field No. 2.
was
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHATEAU-VIEUX. 255
was cultivated in the new way, would have imagined the advantage to be near To great as it really is, had not the above comparifons been likewife laid before them. If nothing but the hope of great profit can recommend the new husbandry to the general practice of our farmers, the above calculations ought at once to determine them ; fince they here fee that the fame field produced much more grain in five years, and even in four, when managed in the new way; than it produced before in fixteen years, whilft cultivated according to the old method. I confefs that when I firft began to practife the new hufbandry, I did not expect fo great advantages. They might have been greater ftill, if I had not committed in the firft years, faults which considerably diminished the crops of 1752 and 1753. Befides thofe firft faults, I committed another which greatly leflened my crops. I was not aware that every field that is plowed deeper than it has ufually been, often lofes of its fertility for fome years, unlefs it be affifled by a fujficient quantity of manure. The new earth which is brought up to the furface by thefe plowings, remains fo hard and compact that it cannot be fit for the nourifhment of plants, till after it has been well broken by repeated plowings, and as it were ripened by the influence of the air, Gfc.
This obfervation will be particularly ufefnl to all beginners in the new husbandry. They miift not be furprifed if their firft crops do not anfwer their wifh.es : but the deeper they plow at firft, the greater fuccefs they may juftly expect afterwards. In the mean time they muft fuffer patiently the inconvenience 1 have been fpeaking of, or remedy it by ufing a great deal of manure.
Would it be reafonable to deiire greater advantages than thofe we have proved above ? any man of fenfe may furely be fatisfied with them. But by what fatality does it happen, that infinite numbers will not, or cannot fee them ? I know, for inftance, that except a certain number of perfons who have ftudied the new hufbandry tho- roughly, or practiced it with care, it is generally thought in this country, that the field No. 2. which I have been fpeaking of, has produced me lefs corn than it would have done if it had continued to be cultivated in the old way. Whence does this notion arife : Surely from this, that men are apt to judge too precipitately, ivitbout examining fufficiently, or calculating right. Whoever really wifhes to be in- formed, and defires to promote the public welfare, and bis own private good, may eafily attain thofe ends : but it muft be by a
dif-
256 EXPERIMENT'S ON WHEAT, Part II.
different road from that which is commonly purfued : it rauft be by reckoning and calculating, as I have done vvkh regard to the field in queflion.
Some fields will not yield fo much as this has done : but yet their produce will be fuch as muft determine all unprejudiced perfons in. favour of the new hufbandry, as I {hall demonftrate by the calcula- tions in the third and fourth articles.
EXPERIMENT, No. III.
N. B. The field on which this experiment was made, contains an arpcrt. Have joined it to that cj the experiment No. 7, under which its pro-
|
duce is included. |
||||||
|
E |
X P E |
RIMENT, |
No. |
IV. |
||
|
Sowed |
lb. oz. |
lb. oz |
||||
|
^ 1753 1754 '755 *756 |
ill half 2d half |
l8l 268 14 . 488 . 488 S16 |
• |
reaped |
3370 4972 8 2080 3640 |
|
|
Year 1755. |
fYNE half of this field was laid out in beds in 1753, and the other *-' half, not till 1754. I mail begin with the oldeft, from which I ought to expect the beft crop, the ground being beft prepared. It was fowed the 27th and 28th of Auguft, with 488 pounds of wheat. This was a confiderable increafe of feed. I judged it necefiary, and fo it proved j for it preferved this field from being greatly hurt by the frofts in winter, which deftroyed a great number of plants. If they had not been fo thick fown, I make no doubt but that the crop would have been confideiably diminifhed. This half was reaped the 1 8:h of July, and yielded 5850 pounds of very fine grain. Here is a -crop confiderably greater than the former. It exceeds the fir ft by 2480 pounds.
The other half of this field now bore its {econd crop. The fame quantity of feed (4181b,) was fowed, but did not produce fo much
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHATEAU-VIEUX. 257
as in the other half. As this pact lies in a bottom, the froft hurt it more than it did the other, nor had it been fo long laid out in beds ; befides which, the rains hindered me from Towing it at the fame time as the other half- It could not be fowed till the 21ft, 2 2d, 23d, and .24th of October, which is fomewhat late; It was reaped the 19th of July, and yielded 2080 pounds of wheats
Year 1756.
HPHIS field was fowed the 9th, 10th, and 12m of September, with ■*• 816 pounds of wheat, and reaped the 28th and 29th of July. The produce was 3640 pounds:
O B S E R V AT I 0 N S.
/^NE might juftly be furprized at the fcantinefs of this crop, if, ^-^ befides, what I faid before, of the general caufes which were fo prejudicial to this year's crop, I did not add thofe which may have more particularly affected this field. My intention was to fow it thicker than it chanced to be, by the fower's pot following my di- rections. The hurt might perhaps not have been great, if the year had proved kindly : but it was of great confequence this year, and particularly in this field, in which all the corn was extremely rickety.
EXPERIMENT. No. V.
Sowed Jb. Reaped lb.
In 1753 . . 139. . . . 2205
1754 . . 224' ' . . 2283
1755 *j* ■ • • 388 * • * 26o° . 1756 . . 544 . . . 2700
Year 1755.
'-p HIS field (till continued to be difficult to bring to good tilth ; ** and therefore required the more feed. It was fowed the 29th of Auguft, reaped the 29th of July, and produced 2600 pounds of grain.
Year 1756.
r Thought it neceffary to continue to increafe the feed of this
■*• field. It was fowed the 20th and 2 2d of September, with 544
pounds of wheat. The young plants looked very fine before winter,
L I and
258 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Partll.
andpromifed better than thofe of the preceding years. The general accidents of the year affected them. They were reaped the 26th of July, and yielded 2700 pounds of corn.
EXPERIMENT, No. VI.
Sowed. lb. Reaped lb.
For 1753 45 • • 724
1754 . . 82 . . . 798
< wheat . 126 . . . ; 900
J755 i barley . 12 . . . nothing
1756 beans and tares 153 . value in wheat 780
Year 175.5-
npHIS field is one of thofe in which the ftiffnefs of the foil refifted ■*• longeft that degree of pulverifation in which the chief merit of the new hufbandry confifts. The firft crops were not confiderable. In 1754, I could not fow this ground before the 15th of October, and yet the plants which it produced were very fine. It was reaped the 2 1 ft of July, and produced 900 pounds of wheat.
The moft remarkable thing in this field, was what happened to fome beds which I had fowed with 12 pounds of barley. The young plants were exceeding fine in autumn, but the hard frofts of the winter killed every one of them.
As foon as I perceived this lofs, I endeavoured to repair it, by fowing the fame beds again with fpring barley : and as the two-wheat beds next to them had likewife fuffered fo much as to have but few plants left, I fowed them alfo with barley.
Thefe beds were fowed without being plowed again. The whole charge of this fecond fowing confided in paffing the drill once over them, and in 28 pounds weight of barley which was ufed for the feed. This was done the 8th of April.
This barley grew very fine. It was reaped the firft of Auguft, and yielded 270 pounds of grain. I doubt whether that which was fowed before the winter, eould have produced more : fothat I think this crop made me ample amends for the lofs of my firft feed.
How great a proof is this of the excellence of the new hufbandry ! and how eafy a means does this hufbandry afford, of guarding againft dearth, when our young crops chance to be deftroyed, by the facility with which the fame lands may be fowed again, without lofs of
time*
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHATE AU-VIEUX. 259
time, and with fcarce any more expence than the bare cofl of other feed, which, in fuch times of general diftrefs, will produce crops of other ufeful grains, even more profitable than thofe of wheat. An ineftimable advantage, which fecures the fubfiftence of the people, and which cannot be obtained by the old hufbandry. This mull; be evident to every one who considers that all that is requifite, in fuch a cafe, in the new hufbandry, is only to fow again; whereas in the old way, the hufbandman is obliged to plow before he fows, to fow a great deal of feed, and to harrow, that feed in after it is fown. The vaft faving made in the feed, in the new way, is likewife another very important article in a time of fcarcity.
I reafon here upon a fuppofition of the total lofs of all the crops of wheat j which really was the cafe in 1709.
Year. 1756. T Referved this field to fow it in the fpring, with the grain of that ■*■ feafon, which I had not yet made any experiment with, except in fmall fpots of ground. I plowed it before winter : the new beds were well made, and the earth was in fuch fine tilth in the fpring, that I thought I might fafely fow it without any farther plowing. Accordingly I did fo, the 26th of April; the too great wetnefs of the earth not permitting it to be done fooner. One half of this field was fowed with beans, and the other half with tares; in all, 153 pounds of both ; which produced a crop equal in value to 780 pounds of wheat.
OBSERVATIONS.
HP HIS year was extremely bad for all grains fown in the fpring: moft of which yielded but the value of the feed : fo that the produce of this field, compared to that of others cultivated in the old way, ought to appear very confiderable.
The fuccefs of this experiment fhews, that when too much rain, or too great drought hinders plowing the land in due time, and fome fields cannot be prepared for wheat in the autumn, they may be fowed the fpring following with the different grains, ufually planted in March.
&I« EX-
26o EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT*, Part It
EXPERIMENT. No. VIL
Sowed lb. Reaped lb.
For 1753 . . 412 i 2.646
1754 • • 36° " • 2467 j 755 includingtheex- 7 fi
perirnent,No..3$039 • •■ . . 4290 1756 . . 1010 . • . 6760
Year 1755.
npHE foil of this field is of fuch a nature as to require a greater ■*• quantity of feed than many others. I fhall doubtlefs be thought to have increafed it greatly, in having enlarged that quantity to 639, pounds, and yet this year's experiment makes me judge, that it will, ftill be neceffary to fow more another time.
I fowed this field the 9th, 10th, and 26th of Auguft, and reaped it the 1 6th and 17th of July. It yielded 4290 pounds of grain.
Year 1756.
I Have a meadow adjoining to this field. I plowed up part of it, which had produced but very little grafs for a long time, and turned it into arable land. This addition ferved to replace another part of the field, which I fowed with luferne. This laft.part being lefs than that which was added from the meadow, the field may have been enlarged about "an arpent and a half, or two arpents, . and the. foii is- much the better for it.
This field was fowed with 1 010 pounds of wheat, the '10th, 13U1& ana 15th of September, and was reaped the 23d and 24th of July,, when it produced 6760 pound weight of corn.
EXPERIMENT. No. VIII.
lb. oz. fti
For 1754 was fowed 768 which yielded 1462
1755 . 157 ... 1300
1756 • ■ 230 , t » 2080
Yeah
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHATEAU-VIEUX. z6r
Year 1755.
THIS great increafe of the quantity of the feed might be won- dered at, if I did not obferve that this field was fowed with a double turn of the drill-plough-; by which means each bsd (for they were all wide enough to admit of it) had fix rows of plants in- stead of three, and confequently took up double the quantity of feed. The event will fhew that I was right in fo doing.
The field was fowed the 31ft of Auguft, with 157 pounds of wheat. Nothing could make a finer appearance than this field did at the beginning of winter. The plants, which had already branched very abundantly, made the ground look furprifingly thick covered. The ftrength of the items, and the deep green of the blades made me expect extraordinary fuccefs. They continued thus promifing during all the winter ; and the fame in February and March, and to the middle of April.
The foil of this field is excellent: but it could, not be preferved from the fatal effect of the fevere frofts in winter. I was extremely furprifed when, going thither the 27th of April, I found this wheat, which I had feen twelve days before without the leaft fymptom o- decay, reduced to a mod deplorable condition : not a fingle ftaik remained that was not dead, nor a blade that was not withered. Both the ftalks and the blades adhered fo little to the plants, that one might rake them up in heaps, like grafs that has been mowed : in ihort, nothing could be more melancholy than the appearance of this field.
The earth was extremely dry, and the weather very hot for the feafon : ffom the 16th to the 24th of April, M. de Reaumur's ther- mometer was almoft always at feven o'clock in the morning, from 1 5 to 18 degrees above the freezing point. I am apt to think that 'this uncommon temperature of the air compleated what the hard frofts had begun, and which I did not perceive before.
My firft thought was, to fow the field again with barley, as I had done in the cafe of the experiment, No. Vl. but Teeing that the difafter was general, I examined mod of the plants with great at- tention. Tordered the earth to be dug, and found forne plants quite dead, and others, in pretty great number, which had ftill fome vigour, and were'provided with very good roots, and of which only the ftems and blades had periflied. This gave me fome hope,
which
2«2 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
which was not a little ftrengthened by my perceiving that feveral of thefe plants were ready to produce new moots, fome of which could juft be diftinguifhed by their white point, fcarcely perceptible, others were about the 1 2th part of an inch long, and others a quarter or half an inch : thefe laft began to look green.
Several reafons induced me to think that thefe plants might (till be ftrong enough to produce new ftalks, efpecially if a little rain fhould chance to fall. I therefore refolved not to fow this field again. Fortunately, a good mower of rain fell the 29th, which did them a wonderful fervice. I went to fee them foon after, and found the new (hoots confiderably grown : upon which I determined to cultivate the beds with care. By the middle of May, they were grown very fine, were loaded with blades and ftalks, and only feemed much thinner than in the autumn : the ftraw was as long, the ears as big, and as full of grain as the year before. I was obliged to reap this corn early ; becaufe, as the heat of the weather had pre- cipitated the ripening of the grain, it might have fhrunk and fhrivelled if I had let it ftand fome days longer. It was cut down the 1 7th of July, and yielded 1300 pound weight of grain.
I am perfuaded that this accident diminished the crop by above half; and this is certainly the reafon why it produced lefs than that of 1754.
The fhape of this field was irregular on the north fide. The length of the beds in that part decreafed progreflively, fo that thofc next the end were not above three or four perches long. This made the tilling of them very troublefome, becaufe of the frequent neceffity of turning the plough, I ordered this triangular part, which was about a third of the field, to be plowed for fowing in equally diftant rows with the drill-plough. The reft was preferved in beds, as in the preceding years.
I fowed it the 17th of September, with 230 pounds of wheat, which was reaped the 24th of July, and yielded 2080 pounds of grain.
EXPERIMENT, No. IX.
|
lb. oz. |
lb. |
|
|
For 17^4 was fowed j |
249 12 |
which yielded 2925 |
|
*7SS |
312 ; |
. r J362 |
|
*7S<> \ |
295 • |
. » 2219 |
Year
Chap.II. BY M. DE CHATEAU, VIEUX. 263
Year 1755.
*-pHIS field, which had been well prepared, was fowed the 27th •*• of Auguft, with 312 pounds of wheat, which grew very fine and thick till November : but from the 1 oth to the 1 8th of that month, a general ruft feized it. I imputed to this diftemper the fmallnefs of the crop, which amounted only to 1362 pounds.
Year 1756.
*TPHE ground was extremely well prepared, and better than the
x preceding years. It was fowed the 24th of September with
295 pounds of wheat, which produced 2219 pounds. It was reaped
the 21ft of July.
EXPERIMENT, No. X.
lb. lb.
For 1754 was fowed 294 which yielded 3055
*7SS ' 397 • • • 2210
1756 rye 348 . „ : 2700
Year 1755.
HP HIS field was fowed the 30th of Auguft, with 397 pounds of ■** wheat, which produced 2210 pounds. I make the fame re- marks on this experiment, as on the preceding No. IX. year 1755.
Year 1756.
'"THOUGH it is not ufual for me to fow rye, becaufe all my -1 lands are fit to bear wheat, I was willing to make a trial^with that grain ; and accordingly I fowed this field with it, the 16th of September. The quantity employed was 348 pounds. The firaw was very long, and much thicker than that of rye in the common way : the grains too were confiderably larger. It was reaped the 19th and 20th of July, and yielded 2219 pounds of grain.
£X-
2*>4 . EXPERIMENTS ON WTO4T, PartU
E X P E R. 1- M E NT, No. XT.
Executed ^y th fame perfon who. made thojeoj. 1754., mflrkei Viith the jame number , and ihofe of 1753 marked No. IX.
^THOUGH the following extract does not agree exaftly with the •*• : tide of this article, I was unwilling to make a ieparate one of it. It contains very interesting details : the rapft effential circum- ftances are related with great precifion ; and the confequences of the refults are eftablifhed by very inftrudting calculations. They fhew the writer of them to be a ftudious hulbandman, a very fkilful natu- ralift, a zealous lover of the public good, who inftructs by his ex- ample, and (till more by his knowledge.
Thefe experiments were made about fifteen miles from Geneva, in a country where it is the cuftom to fow their land two years run- ning. The firft year, it is fowed with wheat; the fecond, with fpring corn, and the third, it is refted.
. ExtraB of a letter dated December jth, 1755.
" I received the journal of your laft year's experiments, and have " read it with very great pleafure. If it were poffible for me to " make any obfervation of the lead importance, upon your experi- cc ments, which had efcaped you, I mould take the liberty to lay rt " before you, perfuaded that you would receive it kindly.
" In general, I afcribe, as you have done, the different fuccefs of " the new hufbandry, 1. To the intrinfic quality of the foils, fome of " which feem unfit for the production of wheat j 2. To the condition " of the lands, when they firft began to be cultivated in the new ct way : 3. To the manner in which they were prepared according to " the principles of this hufbandry : and laftly, to the quantity of " feed that was ufed.
" I was particularly pleafed with your experiment on the barley. " It is certainly very inftrudting, and confirms what I before fuf- " pedted, that, in our climate, wheat and other plants love fociety ; and " that they thrive better when numbers of them are planted together, " than they wouTd do feparately, provided that number be not too " great. You will certainly not fail to repeat that experiment in " years lefs hot and lefs dry, and upon other plants. Still I am " afraid that no fixed rule can ever be given in relation to the quantity n of the feed : too many circumftances influence the condition of the
" foil;
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHATEAU -VIEUX. 26J
■
" foil : but it will always be of great fervice to fix certain bounds, " within which every one may chufe what fuits him beft.
" You will fee by the account of my little experiments, that I " have fowed in the ground of my rows, nearly what would have " been fowed by hand in the fame fpace. But the imperfection of ** my drill-plough, and the condition of my land, obliged me fo to " do ; and I have not hitherto found any inconvenience from it.
" I have not yet been able to try the goodnefs of your experiments " upon luferne. My land was not fufficiently prepared for me to " expect fuccefs. I am obliged to defer it till next autumn, when " all my fields will be under the new hufbandry.
" Only one thing puzzles me with regard to your rows of luferne, " and that is, the manner of making the fodder. How can it be cut " and dried conveniently ?
I fhorten my reflections, and proceed to my experiments.
Produce of the jirjl and fecond crop of a Jield cultivated in the
?ieiv ivay.
" This field contains, according to our meafure, fix pofes. Each " pofe contains 400 fquare perches, and each perch nine feet : fo that " the whole extent of this field is 5400 perches, of fix feet to the M perch.
" The foil is tolerably good ; rather light than flrong ; fitter for " rye than for wheat. I am the firfr. that ever ventured to fow it " with wheat. Dung ufed to have a great effect upon it for the " firfr, crop ; but the fecond feldom fucceeded : in fhort, it was the " general opinion that nothing could be made of this field without " the help of a deal of good manure.
" It was well dunged in 1749, and fowed with Maflin corn. " The year 1750 was very favourable to corn in general, and parti- " cularly to that of this field. It yielded as much as two middling " crops ; that is to fay, ten for one : but being fowed again the " fame year, it yielded in 1751, but two and an half for one. The " year 1752 was the year of reft, or rather it was plowed that year, " according to the old method, and fown in the broad-caft way, but " without dung. The autumn was not kindly: the plants rofe " poorly; and the crop of 1753 yielded fcarce three for one, after " deducting the tythe. It was after this crop that this field was laid " out in beds of fix feet wide, and fowed the fajne vear with wheat.
Mra ' As
a66 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Partll.
M As the mould of thefe beds ceuld not be prepared properly, and " the year 1754 was but a poor one for wheat, I was not furprifed at " the fcantinefs of the crop. I fowed 12 of our meafures, and reaped ■"•* 72. Our meafure of wheat weighs, when it is good, 2'8.pounds j. " and that of Mallin, 26 pounds. I did not weigh mine every year; '* but I am fure it was always full weight.
" Encouraged, rather than difheartened, by this trial, I plowed " theie beds up for a new crop, and fowed them, part with Maflin " corn, and part with wheat.
" The fummer of 1754 was fo dry, that I deferred plowing the " back of the beds which had born their crops, till the end of " autumn. This was attended with thefe two inconveniencies : firft, " that the intermediate earth, which had been well pulverifed, being " no longer fupported as before, flipt away from under the drill, " and fpread to the right and left j by which means the plants had " lefs depth of good mould left, and I loft part of the advantage I " hoped for from this culture. The other inconvenience was, that- '* the beds being no longer fo high railed as they fhould have been, " the firft plowing in autumn covered their outmoft rows in feveral " places : a lois, by fo much the more confiderable, as the rows fo " buried would, by their fituation, have otherwife been the fineft of
all. I certainly under-rate it in valuing it at only a tenth of the
«
crop.
As Maflin is a much quicker grower than wheat, and being '*• uncertain whether it could do without dung > out of 18 beds, I " dunged 12, but very flightly $ jufl: as I would have dunged the " third part of this ground, if I had intended to fow it in the broad- " caft-way.
" I fowed it the 4th and 5th of October, 1754, with two turn? M of the drill-plough, and very thick, by reafon of the imperfection '* of my drill, and becaufe the feafon was already fcmewhatad\janced. *■ A third more feed was fowed this year than the laft, viz. 1 8 of our " meafures.
" The plants rofe well, the rows looked very thick and well " filled, except thofe which were hurt by the firft autumn plowing, " and by C2ttle which broke in upon the ground, and did a deal of Sf damage.
" The plants in the part which had been dunged, were very fine '* all the winter. In the beginning of April they grew with furpri- " fing vigour, and were as fine as could pofiibly be in May and
* June.
.Chap. II. BYM.DE C HATE AU. V I E U X. 267
" June. They were Co tall, that they hid my ploifrgh and horfes, * and feemed to promife three times more than the other plants where " the ground had not been dunged. Thefe laft: grewmoie /lowly, " but juft before harveft, they pufhed ftrongly ; an3 if rheir ftr/aw " was not (o long or Co thick as that of the former, there was fcarce " any difference in the length of the ears, and the difference of the " produce was but one fourth in favour of the dunged plants.
" Both the one and the other fuffered the 23d of May, by a violent " north-eaft wind, which broke a great number of the ftalks of the « rye, and tore others up by the roots. The ftalks that were " not quite broke, recovered perfectly, and the lofs was not great " with refpecl to them. The cafe was different in regard to the " plants that were broke afunder or torn up. I reckoned the damage " fuftained by thefe laft, equal to a tenth part of the crop.
" Of the 47 furrows of this field, *i8 fowed with maflin yielded " me (exclufive of the tythe which is an eleventh part) 60 of our <f meafures. This grain is the fineft of its kind in the whole country, " and is equal to the common wheat. It weighed in the drieft and u coldeft feafon, 27 pounds; which is a ninth part more than the " common maflin.
" The 29 furrows fowed with wheat, feemed to have efcaped the •* violent frofts of the winter : but I was greatly furprized in April, " to fee large fpaces in which the plants periftied daily; and " others wherein the wheat feemed to have difappeared, to make *( room for a prodigious quantity of fenvf which looked extremely «' well*.
" I was not at all pleafed with this change of crop, and though t " no longer expected any thing from thefe damaged places, which " amounted to the value of nine furrows, I would not give up the " good plants which I thought might ftill be in them; and therefore " ordered them to H>e weeded carefully and feveral times over, by " women who defired only the weeds for their labour. Thts ope- ** ration was not ufelefs : the furviving plants gathered new ftrength : " they branched confiderably in June ; and yielded me, at harveft, " about a third part of what I reaped from the places which had not
* Great part of this field feems to have fuffered exa&fr the feme accident which happened to the whole field of the experiment, No. 8. It was not perceived in either of them, till April ; and the effect was the fame upon the plants in both cafes, tho' they were more affected in one than in die other. In both cafes tw, the plants re- covered and yielded a good crop.
Mm 2 *c been
268 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
«' been damaged. Thefe laft feemed but indifferent during all the " fpring. Every one judged this corn inferior to that of the '! fields which had been fown in equally diftant rows and dunged : " but from the beginning of June, when the other wheat began to " decline, my rows throve fo well, that fome parts of them were " very greatly fuperior, both in the length of the ftraw, and the big- " nefs of the ears, which laft were every where longer and better " filled.
" Notwithftanding all this, my wheat had ftill more to fuffer. It » was cut juft before the heavy rains in July, and fome of it fprouted, " as was the cafe elfewhere. Befides the lofs in the quality of the " grain, my threihers reckoned that the quantity of it was diminiihed " eight meafures. The whole produce was but 68 mcamres, after " deducting the tythe.
f I have entered into this detail} in order to make the following 15 remarks.
" i. This field, twelve furrows excepted, not having been dunged <c fo early as intheyear 1749, thefuperiority of the crop of 175 5 over " that of 1754, muft be imputed chiefly to the new hufbandry. The " places on which my finefr. wheat grew, were not at all etf- <c traordinary in 1754, and yet they were not dunged for 1755 : con- *! fequently the culture, far from exhaufting, meliorated the ground.
" 2. Some foils are fitter to produce fome grains than others ; " and it is vain to attempt to force nature. Notwithftand- *' ing the good culture, the bad part of my field was yet worfe " than in 1754; but the fenvy in it was finer. I fowed this part " with gfafs, and it is ftill covered with the fame plants, very green " and vigorous. I judge that rhadiihes or turneps could do very " well there.
" 3. The greateft ufe of dung is to fhelter the young plants from " the winter's cold and the extraordinary droughts of the fpring": " perhaps too it may ferve to correct the defect of the foil.
V 4. One muft not always judge of a crop, by the appearance of ** the green corn in April and May ; becaufe the dung then exerts " its greateft ftrength for the production of the blades, and that ap- •* pearance is oftentimes deceitful.
" 5. The laft plowings ought, if poflible, never to be neglected: " 'tis to them that I afcribe the favourable change which happened to ". my wheat.
* To follow your method, I have now only to compare the pro-
M cluce
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHA TEAU- VI EUX. 269
" duce of this field, with what it yielded when cultivated in the old " way. I have not been able to find its exact product before the year 0 1750. All I know, is, that the crops varied extremely, accord- " ing as the ground had, or had not been dunged, or the year was " more or lefs kindly.
** I fhall therefore eftimate the product of thi$, by that of the " neighbouring fields, which are thought to bear a good crop, when " a pofe of land yields 32 of our meafures, after deducing the tythe " and feed-corn. The next crop, whether it be of winter or of " fpring corn, is feldom worth half the firft : however, fuppofing it " to be 16 meafures, as the land is refted the third year, the neat *« produce of the crop for three years will be 48 meafures j which is " 16 meafures a year, and 96 meafures for the fix pofes.
" I had, in the new way, 128 meafures of wheat and maflin; " deducting from which 18 meafures for the feed, there remain " neat 1 10 meafures, and a profit of 14 ; for which I am indebted "*' to the new hufbandry.
" If we add to this, the eight meafures loft by the fprouting ** of the grain, and the damage done by the plowing in autumn, it *' will appear that, without thofe two extraordinary accidents, I tk mould have had 3 5 meafures more than could have been expected " in the old way, and that of a corn, which, fuppofing all other " things equal, is worth izper ce?it. more than any of the common " growth.
" I make no doubt but that if I were to lay upon my furrows the " dung that is fpread yearly upon my lands, and were to take all the " precautions neceffary to fow and cultivate them properly, the neat " produce would be 30 meafuresx one year with another;, which *' would be a continual plenty.
" However that may be, thus much is certain in favour of the " new hufbandry, that, nctwithftanding all the accidents^ my fiefd ** produced the fecond year about- double the quantitv that it did the
« firft.
.
Firji year's produce of a field /owed and cultivated according to the new bujbar.dry.
" This field contains about 1900 of our perc!;e?, or 4200 perches tc of fix feet to the perch. It was divided into beds five feet wick\ " which werefown alternately with one and with two turns of Jhq " diUl-plough, that is to fay, with three rows and with fix. The
1 " plowing*
27o EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Partll.
" plowlngs had been but badly performed, and the beds were not " raifed or arched fo high as they fhould have been. Thofe that " were fown double, that is with fix rows, were always fuperior to " the reft. As the foil of this field is generally ftrong and fit for " wheat, it did not afford the fame variatiens as the former j though " fome of this wheat fprouted too.
" Ifowed i j meafures, and reaped 92, befides the tythe. By the u fame calculation as before^ the neat produce was one meafure lefs " than in the old way.
" But it is to be obferved, 1. That by the fprouting of the grain, " I loft more in this field than in the other. 2. That this was not a " good year for wheat. 3. That this field, being bordered by two " highways, and not being inclofed, was greatly damaged by cattle " that got into it. 4. That what grain I did reap was clean, and " fuffered fcarce any diminution by lifting. 5. That if I had fowed " all my beds with fix rows, I fhould probably have reaped a fourth " part more : fo that no blame ought to be imputed here to the new " hufbandry. 6. That it is the firft year of my trying this " hufbandry; that my ground had been but very imperfectly prepa- " red i and that it is now in a much better condition for the next " crop, though my fervants have again committed feveral faults. " All thefe confederations feem to me farther proofs of the excellence <( of the new hufbandry.
" I could prove that, in point of profit, this laft field has yielded " me three times as much as it ufed to do in the old way, and the ' ' other field, twice as much.
" This may more than fuffice for fuch fmall experiments as mine. " I could wifh they had been greater, and the fuccefs more complete. " With what pleafure fhould I offer them to you, whom I look upon •• as the chief and patron of all who follow the true principles " of agriculture !
" Though I have turned the bad parts of the firft field I fpoke of " into grafs, I have added three pofes more to the arable, againft next " year, in order to cultivate them in the new way ; which I purpofe " extending to all my lands the next fowing feafon.
" I have, very injudicioufly, I doubt, iowed between twelve and " thirteen pofes with grain which had fprouted. I don't believe " the third part of it has come up : but as I fowed thick, and my " lands are much better prepared than they were laft year, I hope to i l have at leaft as good a crop."
1 OB.
Chap.II. BY M. DE CHAT E AU-VI E U X; iyi
OBSERVATIONS.
TT7HEN experiments have been repeated in different places, the * » circumftances attending them ought to be greatly cohfidered : for if thefe have been alike, and the event is the fame1, they ferve to eftablifh one another, and merit our confidence in them. The com- parifon of the laft experiments, with mine, gives me room to make two important obfervations. The firft is, that both of us have per- ceived, and for the fame reafons, the neceffity of fowing a greater quantity of feed, than we did in our firft experiments. This aug- mentation produced better crops. We may therefore now lay down, as a rule founded on experience, that the quantity of the feed muft fee what we faid in our laft memoirs, regard being had to the parti- cular confiderations mentioned therein.
The fecond obfervation is, that both of us have fowed beds with two turns of the drill -plough, that is, with fix rows of corn, and the event in both ica-fe's has been, that the fame extent of ground has always produced a greater quantity of grain. It is therefore probable that this method will be found to be the beft.
But as it is poffible that the efFett may not be the fame in different countries, a trial may be made by fowing fome beds with three rows, and others with fix, and which ever anfwers beft, may afterwards be pradlifed.
Thefe two obfervations will be confirmed by fome experiments which we fhall give in the fifth article.
Other bufinefs prevented this lover of agriculture from following his experiments in 1756, with the fame attention as before. Tht ejraflr, tho' fhort account which we fhall give of them, may ferva for a fequel to what we have been able to collect in relation to rhofe which he made in 1755.
Year 1756.
TN the firft place, the field of fix fofes, or 5400 perches, which A bore a crop in 1754, and another in 1755, and which had not been dunged at all fince the year 1749, being furrounded by a greater piece of land, which is fowed, fometimes with wheat, and fometimes with artificial graffes, was plowed in Anguft, immediately after har- Veft, and fowed with fain-foin. The crop of 1756 was very fine,
each
272 EXPERJM&NTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
each poje yielding from 25 to 30 hundred weight of hay, at the firft mowing, and half as much at the feeond. Therefore the new hu (ban dry preferred the ground in good condition, without the help of dung ; and its productions do not f 'em to haife cxhaujled the foil.
The field of about five po/cs, or 4200 perches, fowed with wheat, and which produced 92 meafures of that grain in 1755, produced but 61 in 1756. The inferiority of this crop muft be afcribed,
1. To the error of fowing wheat that had fprouted, which, in the opinion of all judges, occafioned a diminution of at lead one fourth ;
2. To the damage done by cattAej (this field lying quite open to them) which was greater this year than it had ever been before; part of the green corn being eaten down twice : this lofs is valued at a tenth part of the crop, independent of the tythe. 3. That the ears were not fo full of grain this year, in this country, as they had ufed to be : there was as much ftraw, within feven trufies and a half, as in 1755 j but the corn ran lefs into grain, tho' it ftill had more than the com- mon wheat.
Upon the whole, all lofies and accidents deducted, the crop was worth double what the land would have let for.
This field is now under wheat, which looks extremely fine, except one pofe, which muff be fowed again with fomething elfe, on account of the damage the cattle have done to it. The owner of this field intends to continue fowing it without dung, as long as any heart re- mains in it ; in order, fays he, to confirm my [elf in what I now think) or to find out my error,, if I am mifiaken.
Another field of betwixt nine and ten pofes, or about 9500 perches, produced 160 meafures of wheat; but fome loads of dung had been laid upon it. However, even the places which had not been dunged, produced much ftronger ftraw than they did the years before, in which they were fown by hand. 'Tis true that the dung made the ftraw ftronger, but the years did not yield either more, or finer grain. This was likewife fowed with fprouted corn : but the feed was better this year, and accordingly there is a profpedt of a greater crop.
AR-
Chap. II. BV M. DE C H AT E AU-V I E U X. 273
ARTICLE II.
Experiments made on lands fown in equally dijlant rows with the drill- plough; withfome refleflions on the advantages of this pra£fice.
EXPERIMENT. No. XVII.
A Large extent of land, near Geneva, continued to be fown with the drill-plough, in equally diftant rows. I could inftance the products of a multitude of experiments, to prove that the fields fowed in this mariner, have always produced much greater crops than thofe which have been fown in the common way.
I fhall mention only a few experiments this year : but they are fuch as have been made on large tracts of ground, and confequently are more decifive than fmall ones, of which we have already given a fufficient number in the foregoing journals.
I mail call this No. XVII, becaufe it was made by the fame per- fon and in the fame places, as that which is marked No. XVII in the year 1754. I need not repeat what I then faid of the fituation and quality of the lands.
This experiment contains the products of three different farms: About 63 arpents were cultivated in the firft, 30 in the fecond, and 23 in the third : in all, 116 arpents, which were fown with wheat in September and October.
Year VSS-
Quantity of feed generally f™ *?* • e • 16002 lb.
ufed in the old way. '] £~nd farm " ' ' 75° t
J £ Third farm . . . 5922 lb.
Total 29484 lb.
Quantity of feed ufed withj£irft ^ < * * 7^2 lb.
the : drill-plough. )5f,C0"d/arm ' ' 3«76 b.
r ° tTmrd farm . . , 31501b.
Total 14238 lb.
Saved in the feed » t- t 15246 lb.
N n Crops
274 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part If.
{Firft farm . . . 80210 lb.
Second farm . . 27690 lb.
Third farm , 27040 lb.
Total of the crops, . . . 1349401b. To which if we add the faving in the fcc&> viz. 15246 lb.
The whole produce will be : , 150186 lb.
I fliall now examine what thefe three farms would have pro- duced, if they had been cultivated in the old way, fuppofing their crops to have been equal to thoie of 1754, which is much in fa- vour of the old hufbandry.
I find that thefe three farms, which contain about 116 arpents, and which would have required 29484 pounds of ked> would have produced at moil from 75000 to 8qooo pounds of wheat ; which is 54940- pounds lefs than what was reaped in the new way. The following calculation of the real and effective products in botb ways, deducting from each the neceuary quantity of feed, wilL fhew the advantage of the new hufbandry in a yet flronger light..
NEW HIT S B.A N D R T.
Total produce . . . 1-34940 lb*
To be deducted for the feed- ^ . .. 142381b;.
Neat produce. ..... 12C-02 \b..
OLD HUSBANDRY.
Total produce . . . 8ccoo lb.
To be- deducted for the feed . , , 294841b.
:
Neat produce .. . , 505:61b,.
Confequently the balance in favour) Mlt
TTk x. n. ' > 70 1 86 lb.
ot tne new hulbandry is v '
This
Chap. II. BY M. DE CHATEAU-VIEtTX. -27,-
This may perhaps feem furpriiing to many : but my calculation may be the more -fafely depended on, as I have favoured the old hufbandry greatly in my efttmate of -the crops in that way, and have, made no deduction for the lofs by fifting, winnowing, &c. which, even in" the very bell: years, is always confiderably greater in the old hufbandry, than in the new.
Year 1756.
'THE fame farms continued to be fown with the drill-plough. I (hall therefore repeat the fame calculations, to (hew the con- flant. advantage cf the new hufbandry, which is fb much the more remarkable this year, as the corn in the common way yielded but . very bad crops. The fields in general produced but few (heaves, and the fheaves very little grain, and even that was very poor in many places.
About 80 arpents were cultivated in the firfl farm, for the crop of this year j in the-fecond 30, and in the third 46 : in all 15.0 ar- pents, which were fown with wheat in September and October. About twenty arpents had been dunged.
~ ... rr j 11 f Firfl: farm . . , 20160 lb.
Quantity of feed generally I g d £
ufedintheoldway. \rhkd k(m ! \ ^080 lb.
In all 378oolb.
— -1
quantityoffeedufedwithf™^ • ' * " 9^8 lb.
the drill-plough, fend farm * * 354k'
r I l^Tnird farm . . . 50401b.
In all 135221b. Saved in the feed ' » | . 102781b.
378001b.
N n 2 Crop*
276 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
{Firfl farm . . , 795^0 lb. Second farm* . . 191101b. Third farm . . 315901b.
Total of the crops . . 1302601b.
To which if we add the faving in the feed, viz. 19278 lb.
The Whole produce will be . • 1495381b.
* This farm did not produce fa much corn as it Jhould have done,, hecaufe near a third part of the fields ivas almoji totally ruined by inundations,
Suppofing this accident not to have happened, what might thefe fields have produced ? If they had been fown in the common way, thefe fame fields would have yielded lefs grain than in the two pre- ceding years. I have eftimated it at fomewhat lefs than that, and the advantage is ftill in favour of the new hufbandry. Thefe three farms would have produced-at moft from 88000 to 93000 pounds of wheat ; and according to this eftimation, which I think a great allowance, the whole crop would be 37260 pounds lefs than it was.
To fee the exatt refult, let us continue our calculations, deduct- ing the grain that was ufed for feed.
N £W HUSBANDRY
1 • 1
Total produce . . . 130260 lb.
To be deducted for the feed . I 1 8522 lb..
t; Neat produce ♦ » *■ 1117381b.
OLD HTJSBANDRT.
Total produce . . • 93000 lb..
To be deducted for the feed -. . 37800 lb.
Neat produce . • * 552001b.
Confequently the balance in favour > 75060 lb.
of the new hufbandry is $ /:>
.
All
Chap. II. BY M. DE CH ATE A U- VIEUX. 277
All thefe calculations prove, year after year, the advantage of ufing the drill-plough. To fhew how great that advantage is, I fj^all briefly recapitulate whaj is moil cfTential in this article.
RECAPITULATION.
TT7E have feen a very confiderable experiment repeated three * * years running, and always attended with great fuccefs. I fball now fum up the effential and decifive facts, which are fo many un- exceptionable witnefTes, who depofe, That it is much more profitable to Jew lands with the drill-plough ', than to fow them in the common, ■way.
To this end, I refume the neat products of the crops.
NEW HUSBANDRY.
Neat PRODUCE of the' three FARMS.
Pounds. In 1754. «,..♦.... 93418
1755 120702
1756. ...:.... 1 1 1738
Total neat produce of three years • 325858 OLD HUSBANDRY.
Pounds.
In 1754. .»..;. 62200
*7SS . 50516
I756* i • • ' • • • 5520°
Total neat produce of three years . 16791*6
The difference in favour of the new hufbandry, in 1
three years, amounts to . . . J 5/94
This is an object of great importance, not only to the public, whofe welfare it highly concerns, but to every owner of land. How ftrongly does it fhew the vaft advantage of the drill hufbandry ! We here fee 150 arpents of land produce 157942 pounds of wheat
more.
278 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part H.
more than they would have done without this favourable x;ui- ture.
Any one may eafily reckon the value of 6ich a quantity of wheat, fuppofing it to be of the very belt fort, as in fa5t it was.*
EXPERIMENT, No. XVIIL
T Shall now give a fhott account of the fuccefs of another farm, -*- which I have hitherto fowed in equally diftant rowSj with the drill-plcugh. I generally fow about 18 or 20 arpents of it every year. For the crop of 1755, I ufed .1840 pounds of feed corn, which produced 10400 pound weight of grain. For the crop of 1756, I fowed 2772 pounds of wheat, the produce of which was 14.560 pounds, which is a great deal, confidering the quality of the land.
I (hall conclude this article with a fhort detail of two little ex- periments made by the pertbn I laft, fpoke of, on two fields of dif- ferent foils. The firft, which contained an arpent and an half, was a light foil, and fomewhat ftony. The quantity of feed generally ufed for that ground, was about 380 pound weight. It was fowed very thick, with the drill-plough, and took up 252 pounds of feed. I attended carefully to the progrefs of this corn. It ripen'd well, the flraw was very long, and crowned with fine ears which yielded 2835 pounds of grain.
The fecond experiment was made on a ftrff foil. Half the field was fown in the common way ; and the other half in equally di- ftant rows with the drill-plough, and only two-thirds of the ufual quantity of feed was ufed. This laft half yielded double what the other did, though it was fown with a third lefs feed.
ARICLE III.
'THE defign of this article is, to mew that lands which are laid ■*" out in beds according to the new hufbandry, produce more corn than thole which are only fown in equally diftant rows, with the drill-plough. The proof of this propofition will refult from proper calculations, and a comparifon of the produces of thefe two different methods. T
* Reckoning the Englifh bafliel at 62 pounds, thefe 157942 pounds will exceed 320 quarters of wheat.
Chap.II. BY M. DE CHATEAU-VIEUX. 279
It is of no fmall importance to the public, to know exactly which is the beft and moft profitable way to cultivate land. This article deferves ftill more attention than the laft, as it tends to point out the means that are in reality moft advantageous, tho' oppofed by an bbftinate attachment to the old hufbandry, and the extreme reluct- ance with which farmers can ever be induced to try a new practice^ which they are almoft always ready to condemn without taking the pains to know what it is, and indeed, generally, becaufe they are not able to judge of it. It cannot therefore be expected, that the theory alone mould fatisfy them that this hufbandry is confident with the beft principles of agriculture. If any thing can convince them, it will, be a feries of facts, and experiments repeated during a courfe of years, always fuccefsfully in fo many different places*
It is highly effential to dwell upon the proofs that the old hus- bandry is lefs profitable than the new, in which the field intended £0 be fown is firft laid out in beds : for,, after mewing that lands fo laid out and fown, produce confiderably more than thole which are fown only in equally diftant rows, with the drill- plough, as has been demonftrated in the foregoing article j and likewife, that thefe laft produce confiderably more than they ufed to do in the old hufbandry ; the iupericrity of the crops which the beds afford, will certainly appear ftill more ftriking, and no doubt will remain of the excellence of the new culture.
To this end, we fhall compare the neat produce of the three farms mentioned in the foregoing article, this year J-756, with that- of the fields which I have laid out in beds.
In confequence of the general opinion tha,t dung, or any other kind of manure contributes greatly to fertilize land, and makes it produce more than it would otherwife, it is to beobferved in the firft place, thaf part of the land of the three farms was dunged, and that 'my fields," cultivated in beds, had not had any dung or other manure for many years..
Secondly, that the lands of the threfc farms are always fallowed every fecond year ; whereas my fields 'have been fown every year fince they firft began to be cultivated in the new way, and have already borne feyeral' crops running.
Thirdry, it "fhould be ccnfidered, that the year 1756 was ex- tremely rainy : a circurnftance by no means favourable to ftrong ftiff foils, like mine }. and at the fame time rather beiieficial than 1 * hurtful
280 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part It.
hurtful to the three farms, a great part of which is light land, which requires frequent rain.
Laftly, the reader will remember, that about a third part of the fecond farm was overflowed, whereby the crop was fiiminifhed : but on the other hand, I think this damage is pretty nearly com- penfated by the accidents which happened to my field, (experiment No. IV.) which certainly leffened the crop confiderably.
Thefe reflections feemed to me neceflary, in order to give a juft idea of the comparifon I am going to make, which, I believe, wili b; fufficient to prove what I purpofed to fhew.
Comparifon of the produce of land fawn in equally dijlant rows with the drill- plough, with that of other land laid out in beds.
The neat produce of the three farms, containing about 150 ar- pents, which were fown in equally diftant rows with the drill- plough, was, after deducting the feed.
Pounds.
SFirft Farm * 69732
Second Farm 1545^ Third Farm 26550
Total neat produce
1 1 1738
Neat produce, after deducting the feed, of the fields laid out in beds, and fown with the drill-plough ; with the number of each experiment, and the meafure of each field.
Founds.
1834
2824
2156
627
5750 1850 I.924
23J2
|
Experiment, No. 2. 4- 5- 6. |
• • • |
1 12 5 2 |
arpent « g • ■ < • « » |
|
7- 8. |
• |
12 1 |
• • |
|
9- io. |
• • In all |
5 5 43 |
"arpents. |
Total neat produce in 1756
i93 *7
After
Chap.IL BY M. DE C H AT E A U- VI E U X. 2S1
Pounds. Brought over; Total neat produce in 1756 . . 193 17 After the beds are once formed, the fame fields are") fown every year : confequently thefe will produce an- other crop in 1757, which, fuppofing it to be only > 193 17 equal to the lafi, tho' there is great reafon to think it I will be much- better, will again be . . J
Forty-three arpents will then produce neat, in two) Q<; years, \ 3°634
The 150 arpents of the three farms fown in equally diftant rows with the drill-plough, will produce nothing in 1757, that being their year of fallow ; confequently their neat produce in two years, will have been only n 1738 pounds of wheat, whilft the 43 arpents made into beds, will have produced 38634 pounds. But iuppofing the 150 arpents to have been cultivated in beds, and their produce to have been in the fame proportion as that of the 43 arpents, it would amount to 134769 pounds, which is 23031 pounds more than they produced when fown in equally diftant rows with the drill. This difference ought never to be forgot.
The new method of laying the land out in beds, has ftill greater advantages than this! Our comparifon has been only of the neat pro- duce of 150 arpents which were fown the fame year in the three farms : but it is to be obferved, that thefe farms confifted of 150 arpents more, which were under fallow for the next year's crop. The neat produce of the crops of thofe 300 arpents in the two years of lowing them in equally diftant rows with the drill-plough, fup- pofing both crops to be equal, would be
Pounds. For the fir/1 year, 150 arpents, . . ; 111738
For the fecond year, for the 150 other arpents, . 1 r 1738
For the two years .... 223476
If thefe 300 arpents were laid out in beds, they would be fown
O o each
282 EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, Part II.
each year, and their neat produce, fuppofing both years alike,
would be,
Pounds. For the firft, year, 300 arpents , . . J34769
For the fecond year, 300 arpents . . . 134769
For the two years .... 269538
So that this calculation proves plainly, that the 300 arpents will produce 46062 pounds of wheat more when cultivated in beds, than when fown in equally diftant rows with the drill-plough : a difference which, in ten years, will amount to 230310 pounds of grain.
As great as this advantage is in favour of the beds, it will appear vcryfmall when compared to that which the culture in 'beds has over the old hufbandryj as the following calculation will mew.
Let us firft fettle what would have been the neat* produce (by which we always mean that which remains after deducting the feed) of the 150 arpents of the three farms, for one year ; and after- wards that of the other 150 arpents the next year, fuppofing both crops to be equal.
We have already feen that the produce of 150 arpents would, at moft, not have exceeded 55200 pounds of wheat, in 17 c6. But as that was a bad year, I will make the following comparifon en the footing of a good crop, in order to give the old hufbandry every advantage that can poffibly be defired. I will therefore fuppofe the neat' produce of 150 arpents to have been the firft year ......... 76000 lb.
and that of the other 150 arpents, the next year, . 76ocolb.
For the two years . . 1520c? lb.
t , _____
We have feen that the fame 300 arpents cultivated in beds, reckoning their neat produce for two years only on the footing of the bad crop of 1756, would have yielded 269538 pounds of wheat : confequently this culture would have produced in two years 1 17530 pounds of corn more than the old nufbai td this, dif-
ference, in ten vears, would amount to 5^7690 pounds.
The
Chap. III. OF M A I Z. 283
The great advantage of the new hufbandry, in general, and that of laying the ground into beds, in particular, is, I think, now fully proved. The difference is great indeed : but I believe it will be flill much greater hereafter, when the yearly obfervations of the followers of this new way, whofe number increafes daily, mall have brought this culture to a greater degree of perfection, which I hope will in fome meafure be the cafe next harveil.
CHAP. III.
Of the Culture of Maiz or Indian Corn, by M. Aim en, M.D. at Bourdeaux.
TH E land which is intended to be planted with maiz, ought to receive two good plowings in March. It is proper to ob- serve that this plant thrives better in a light and fandy foil, than in a ftiff and clayey one ; and that it cannot do without dung.
Towards the end of April, the furrows are made by giving the ground a third plowing ; after which the clods are broken by hand, becaufe the furrows prevent uling a harrow.
A fair day is chofen in May, to fow the maiz, which is done by making fmall holes with a flick or other inftrument, at the bottom of the furrows, into which two grains of maiz are dropt.
Care is taken to make the furrows, or trenches, a foot and an half afunder, and the holes in thofe furrows at the fame diftance from each other, in fuch manner that they form a kind of quincunx.
When the maiz is come up, the weakefl of the two plants is plucked up wherever both grains have fprung, and two new grains are planted where neither of them have grown.
Towards the 15th of June, the earth is hand-hoed round each plant ; and as they ftand in the bottom of a furrow, the mould which crumbles down from time to time, lays frem earth to their roots, and helps to fupport them.
Towards the end of July, a flight hoeing is given them, which is the laft ; and in fo doing the earth is laid towards the roots of the plants.
The 15th of Augufr, the panicles of the male flowers are cut off. It is well known that thefe contain no grain, and that they grow at the top of each plant. Care muft be taken that the grain be impreg- nated before they are cut off} which may be known by the outward
O o 2 covering
284 OF THE CULTURE Part II.
covering of the ears appearing turgid. The panicles muft not be cut off from all the- plants at the fame time, becaufe fome of the ears are a fortnight later than others, before they are impregnated. Thefe panicles are excellent fodder for cattle.
Nearly about the fame time, all the leaves are ftripp'd off the fialks, together with all the blighted and fmutty ears : for it is pretended that if they fhould be left upon the ftalks, the good ears would not grow fo big, nor the grains be fo well nourifhed.
All thefe leaves and ears are given as fodder to oxen ; and what is remarkable is, that thole creatures are fonder of the fmutty ears, than of all the reft.
The time for reaping maiz is towards the end of September : the ears are then gathered by hand, and put into bafkets, in which they are carried and laid in heaps from fpace to fpace in the field j after which they are loaded in carts, carried home, and fpread upon an even floor prepared for that purpofe. They are then taken out of their fheath or hood, and dried in the fun before they are laid up in the granaryj or elie the grain is taken out at that time.
There are two ways of taking out the grain. The firff. is, by threihing it with a flail : this method is the moft expeditious ; but it breaks and bruifes much of the corn. The fecond, which is moil ufed, is, by rubbing the ears hard againft the edge of a flat piece of iron : this eafily feparates the grains from the ftalk, without hurting them. Thefe fialks are good food for oxen.
As foon as the ears are gathered, the ftalks remaining in the ground are plucked up, and laid by for winter fodder for oxen. The field is afterwards plowed up as foon as poffible : it being the general ooinion of farmers that the roots of the maiz would otherwife continue to fuck up the rich particles of the earth. Whether this be true or not, their notion is, that if this plowing fhould be deferred, the next year's crop would certainly fuffer by it.
When the maiz has been well dried in the fun, it will keep feve- ral years ; and not be the lefs fit for fowing. It keeps better in grain, than in the ear.
It has been obferved, that the weevil is much more apt to attack the grains of maiz while they are left in the ear, than when they are feparated from it. Perhaps the fweet juice of the ftalk may attract them, more than the grain itfelf.
Laftly, the grain is laid up in a dry granary, and cave is taken to
turn
Chap. III. O F M A I Z. 22$
turn it every three months ; which prevents its growing mufty, or being attacked by infects.
In many places, the country people mix a certain quantity of this corn with the wheat or rye of which they make their bread. Far from hurting, it gives it a favoury tafte. The general proportion is, an eighth part, and fometimes more, of this corn, to feven parts of wheat.
Bread made of the flour of maiz alone, is yellow : and it is heavy and hard to be digefted, becaufe the dough ferments very little, if at all. However, many of the peafants in Guyenne fed upon it for whole years without finding any inconvenience from it j particularly in 1738, when all the corn of that province was deftroyed by hail ; and in 1748, during the great fcarcity of corn. They likewife made a kind of hairy- pudding with the flour of maiz, which is well tafred enough, but hard to digeft.
Maiz is alfo of great ufe to fatten poultry and hogs. It is given whole to the larger kind of fowls, and broken a little to others.
When maiz is planted for fodder, particularly of cows and oxen, it is in a good foil, which is plowed twice, and well dunged ; after which the grain is fowed and harrowed in, or covered with a rake.
Maiz is a great impoverifher of land : for though the ground be dunged every time it is planted with this grain,- it has been obferved that wheat never does fo well in the furrows where maiz has grown, as in the neighbouring fields where it never was.
M. Ajmen has obferved, 1. That it is important to fow Maiz, rather in the beginning, than at the end of May; becaufe, if it is fowed early, the plants will have acquired fuffkient ftrength before the great heats, to fhoot out then with vigour : and their ears will not be parched, or liable to that barrennefs to which maiz fowed too late is fubjecT: : and not only their flalks will be ftronger, but their cars will be bigger and fuller of grain : 2. That the ears of the maiz are greatly hurt by cutting the panicles too late ; and that they ought to be cut before the hoods open. By leaving a plant with its male ears at every twenty feet diftance, all the female plants will be im- pregnated.
For two years together, M. Aimen fingled out two rows of maiz, the plants of which feemed to him equally ftrong. He cut off the panicles of the male flowers of all the plants in the firft row, before their hoods opened : the panicles of the other row were not cut off
• till
286 OFTHrE CULTURE Part II.
till the ufual time of performing that operation : the confequence was, that the female ears of the firft row were much the largeft and heft filled with grain.
M. Aimen fowed a row of maiz at a distance from any other field planted with that corn. He cut off the panicles of that row, before the hoods were opened, leaving only one plant with its male flowers at every twenty feet diftance. At harveft, he obferved, i. That- all the female ears of all the plants were impregnated :
2. That the female ears'/of the plants which had loft their male pa- nicles early, were thicker, longer, and fuller of corn, than an}7 others:
3. That the female ears of the plants whole panicles had been cut late, were fmaller and fhorter, and thr.-t 1:1 feme parts of them the grains were abortive.
It would be right to try the culture of maiz with the cultivator, of which we fhall give a defcription hereafter. To that end, it would be proper to plant the rows two feet afunder, and the grains in thole rows twelve or fourteen inches diftant from one another. All the necellary hoeings might then be given with the cultivator drawn by one horfe. I believe the maiz would thrive the better for it, and that the land would afterwards be fitter for other grain, h is worth the while of thole who live in countries where maiz is cultivated, to try what this will do.
Great quantities of maiz and millet are railed in Guyenne. What M. Aimen fays of the culture of this laft plant, we lb all defer men- tioning, till we come to treat expreflly of it in the next part of this work, and continue here his oblervations upon maiz.
Cuftom, fays he, has taught our farmers to keep their plants of maiz about a foot and a half diftant from each other if they would have a good crop. In order to know whether it was abfolutely ne- cefiary "to leave lb great a diftance, he made the following ex- periments.
In April 1753, he prepared fix beds like thofe of the former ex- periments. Three of them, which we fhall fpeak of hereafter, were lbwn with millet, the 1 ft of May. The other three were iQwn with maiz, the third of that month. The firft was fowed after the ufual manner cf the country, with one ounce and -one pennyweight of feed: the feccusd was lowed with two ounces' and two penny- weights, the grains being only a foot afunder : and a third, in which they were but fix inches apart, was fowed with four ounces and a half. The
Chap. III. O F M A I Z. 287
The firft of thefe beds produced 1 8 pounds and four ounces : the fecond, impounds 7 ounces; and the third n pounds two ounces.
Maiz is fometimes fowed very thick, when it is intended only for fodder. In that cafe, all the female flowers are barren, and produce no grain.
This experiment, fays M. Duhamel, proves that fome kinds of grain will not do well, unlefs they are fown very thin. I am per- iuaded, added he, that for want of this precaution, a great deal of grain is often loft, and the crops are confiderably diminifhed.
We are favoured with the following account of the culture of maiz in North America, by a very worthy and ingenious gentleman of that country.
" The English in North-America, plough the ground thoroughly before the grain is planted. They feldom, if ever, dung the whole face of the field, but fometimes put a little dung in each hill of corn, if they think the ground requires it. Where fifh are plenty, in the planting feafon, they put two or three fmall fifh into each hill, with the grain.
c< In order to plant the corn, they make trenches or furrows, with the plough, acrofs the field, at certain diftances from each other, and crofs thefe with others of the fame diftance, which divide the field into fquares ; and where the trenches interfect, the grain is put in, and covered. Three or four grains are commonly planted for each hill. The intermediate ground is afterwards plowed at leifure, as the plants grow, and want more loofe earth for the roots to fpread in. The hills are made at the time of weeding, fome loofe earth being then hoed up over the roots> 2nd round the ftems or ftalks of the corn.
" The corn is planted at different diflances in different places. In the northern colonies, the Indian corn grows low, feldom ex- ceeding four or five feet in height ; and the leaves being propor- tionably fmall, the plants do not require fo much ground as in the fouthern colonies, where they frequently rife to fourteen or fifteen feet. The fpace generally allowed for the loweft plants, is three feet, and for the higheft, five or fix. This diftance may be more neceffary in our manner of cultivating this corn ; more ground be- ing required to nouriin three or four plants, than one; for I do not know that we ever pluck up any of the plants. An advantage attending this method is, that the labour is kfs in hiiiine 5 three
OF T- HE -CULTURE Part II.
'•' or four plants being earthed up in the fame time as one : and there " is more room for palling between the rows when the corn is to be " weeded.
" At the fame time that the corn is weeded, the ground isloofened ct round the plants, with a hoe, and the Hills are raifed and enlarged " from time to time, by adding more earth. The morning, before " the dew is off, and the evening, are reckoned better for this work, c: than the middle of the day.
" The hilling of the corn, as it grows, has been the univerfal " practice: the defign being to give the plant more nourifbment, " and to fupport it better againft the winds : but of late, fome " planters have thought it better to plant in holes : the reafon is, that " this plant requires a good deal of moifture : and indeed, nature, " by the form and pofition of the leaf, appears to have intended " the receiving of the rain that falls around, and conducting it to the " {talk, and by that, down to the roots : but a hill round the ftalk, 11 tends to throw the water off to a greater diftance: and as to fup- " porting the plants, they fay the hills do not effect it ; becaufe, by " covering the ftalks, in that part, from the air and fun, which would ct harden and ftrengthen them, the mould around them keeps them " foft and tender, and therebyrather weakens them*.
" The panicles, or toffils, contain the farina facundans of the " plant, and therefore fhould not be cut off, till the grain in the ear " is filled. If the toffils of a whole field fhould be cut off before that <{ time, there would be no grain at all in the ears. This has been " proved by experiment.
" In the more fouthern colonies, where hay is fcarce, and the " leaves of this corn are very large, they cut them off for fodder : " but in the northern colonies, where there is plenty of hay, and " the leaves of the corn are fmall, they generally neglect cutting off " the toffils, and {tripping off the leaves. They are left on the ftalks, " and the cattle, being turned into the fields, after tne corn is
• It rauft be of great advantage to ftrong quick growing plants, like Indian corn, to have a loofe deep mould to grow in. We therefore think that the new husbandry muft be angularly ufeful in the culture of it : for ftirring the ground with the cultiva- tors or horfe-hoes, will keep it in a loofe ftate ; and M. de Chateau vieux's cultivator with mould boards, is very well adapted to raife the earth into hills about the plants, as it goes acrofs the field, in the manner they hoe the ground in their ufual way: and as this cultivator leaves a large furrow in the middle between each hill, the farmer will thereby have an opportunity of loofening the earth to a great depth,
lt gathered
Chap. III. O F M A I Z. 289
c< gathered in, eat what they like of them : but they are not efteemed 0 fo good as what has been cut in feafon.
" An eafy way of taking the grain out of the ears, is, to rub one M againft another, holding one in each hand.
" When the ears are ftript of their hufks, they are reckoned in rfie ** bed ftate for prefervation ; much better than when the grain is ? rubBed off from the ear : for then, they fay, infects can get at the " foft part of the grain ; and eat into it ; which they cannot do, " while the foft part is connected with the cob in the ear, and the " hard flinty part of every grain turned outward, and the grains ** clofe to each other.
" To preferve their corn, they make, in North- America, a fort " of bins, or cages, which they call corn-cribs, fifteen or fixteen " feet long, and five or fix feet wide, widening upwards to the top <c a foot or more. They are made of fapling poles, three or four " inches diameter, framed roughly together, by notching the ends " where they crofs the corners, at i'uch a diftance from each other " as but juft to keep the ears from falling through, that there mav " be a free paflage for the air. Thefe bins ftand abroad, and " have a flight moveable covering, or thatch, to keep out the rain. " The Indians bury their corn in holes in the ground, lined with " mats and dry leaves.
" The manner of ufing this corn in America, is various. It has u this advantage over wheat, that fubfiftence may be drawn from your " corn fields long before the general harvefl: : for the green ears " roafted, are delicate food ; and as the corn ripens and grows harder, " the ears boil'd are good eating, with butter and fait. When it is " ripe, the corn parch'd and ground into meal, is the huntino- and ** war provifion of the Indians ; being light to carry, and afford in c " good nourishment. They mix a little of it with water, and it " needs no other cooking, having already pafs'd the fire in the parch- " ing. The grain foaked in water, will part with its flcin when beat " in a large mortar with a wooden peflle : then it is boiled and eaten " with milk. Being pounded coarfely, dry, it is alfo boil'd and " eaten as rice. Bag puddings, and bak'd puddings made of it pro- " perly, are very good. The meal is alio boil'd with water to <l make what they call a bafty pudding, which they eat with butter " and fugar, or with milk. This hafty pudding, or boil'd meal, " being mix'd with twice as much dry wheat flour, and worked into Jc loaves, makes much better and pleafanter bread than flour alone.
P P « All
29o EXPERIMENTS ON Partll.
'f All creatures fed with Indian corn, have firm fat and flefh : the <c pork of corn-fed hogs is reckoned the nneft in the world for taffe " and goodnefs; their fat, milk-white, and as hard as butter. The " horfes of Virginia and Maryland, whofe chief fodder is the leaves ,c and ftalks of this corn, are reckoned the hardieft of the fpecies, " bearing moft labour, and requiring leaf! care. The people, in the " countries where moft of it is eaten, are healthy, ftrong, and hardy, « and generally well grown and well looking; except only where, " from the neighbourhood of marines or ftagnant waters, the air " they breathe is unwholfome.
" If planting of Indian corn is try'd in England, the feed fhould " be obtained from the moft northern of our colonies. The fouthern <e corn would icarcely ripen here."
CHAP. IV.
Experiments on Smyrna ivheat.
CMyrna wheat has a very large ear, with feveral lefs, or collateral ^ ears, growing out of, or round this large one. It requires a great deal more nourifhment than the common hufbandry will afford ; for there its ears grow very little bigger, and produce little, if any, more grain than thofe of common wheat-f-. In all probability, it will do much better when cultivated according to the new method : but the experiments which have hitherto come to our knowledge are very few. The following is the chief," and indeed the only one worth mentioning".
M. Le Vayer, mafler of requefts, fovved fome of this wheat in 175 1, in a fmall part of his eftate at Duviere, in the province of Maine, and had a very good crop. He fowed it again in 1752, in the common way ; and though it did not anfwer near fo well this time, it yielded him a third more than common wheat would have done.
In order to try how this wheat can be cultivated to the beft advan- tage, M. Le Vayer fowed feven pounds and an half of it, in Novem- ber 1752, in two pieces of ground which had formerly been a kitchen garden, and of which the foil was good and deep. It came up well,
f Count de la GalilToniere, fays M. Duhame!, fowed fonie of it for feveral years : it produced a little more grain than common wheat ; but the bread which was made of it, was not lb good.
and
Chap. IV. SMYRNA WHEAT. 291
and the plants were very fine till July, when heavy rains fell, which laid them quite flat. The great heats which came on immediately alter, raifed them but very imperfectly. However, notwithstanding ail this, the grain filled and ripened perfectly: but, tho' the year was very forward and extremely hot, this corn could not be reaped till near three weeks after the common wheat. It produced thirty one lheaves, which yielded feven bufhels of 60 pounds, that is to fay, 420 pounds in all ; which is 56 for one. If this ground had been fovvn according to the common method of the country, it would have taken up fifty pound weight of feed ; and, good as the foil was, its produce would not have been more, even in the beft of years, ac- cording to the general run of the crops of this country.
" The refult of this experiment," fays M. le Vayer, " feems to " contradict the theory of the new hufbandry, which promifes that the " {talks of wheat cultivated in the new way, being lei's crowded, and cc more expofed to the air, will be (tionger and lefs apt to be lodged, " than that which is fowed in the common way. It is likewile to " be obferved that the common wheat, lowed according to the old " method, was not lodged at all this year, but kept quite upright, " tho' it fuftained the fame rain as the other. The bignefs of the *« ears of the Smyrna wheat, which makes them the more apt to re- " tain wet, may have occafioned this difference. However, M. du " Verger, who, the fame autumn, and laft fpring, fowed common " wh-at, fpring corn, and barley, in rows, found that neither of " thefe grains ripened till long after thole of the fame fpecies fown ,c in the common way, and that all of them were lodged. That ex- " cepted, his crop was good. But if the fame accident ihould happen " evcr; year, it might be feared that the grain would not be able to ''■ ripen thoroughly, and efpecially in cold wet years. This is, per- ': haps, an inconvenience in the new hufbandry, to which cold " countries may be more subject, than thofe that are warmer."
This, as M. Duhamel obferves, cannot be known, but by a feries of experiments : for, adds he, we fee that the corn fown in the new way, has been reaped, in many places, almoft as early as any other, when care has been taken to low it fooner. It has been prevented from lodging, by turning the earth of the alleys over towards the rows.
M. du Verger, who lives at Mans, having communicated his ex- periments to me, I mult obferve, that they were made on very final! fpots of ground, from which, as I have laid before, no conclufion
Pp 2 can
292
EXPERIMENTS ON Part II
can be drawn, becaufe the borders of a field are almoft as favourably fituated as the beds of the new hufbandry, the roots of the plants there being able to extend themfelves to feek their food : this is the reafon why the plants near the foot paths in corn fields are always the fineft : now it is very plain that the outfide borders of a very fmall fpot of ground are a confiderable part, in comparifon of the whole ; and therefore its produce cannot juftly be compared with that of an- other fmall fpot fowed in rows.
CHAP. V.
Experiments made on wheat of different countries.
TT would be wrong to fufpect us of having no other view, than •*• merely to extol the new hufbandry. The only reafon that induces us to dwell fo much upon it, is, that we think it may be extremely profitable in fome cafes, and very ufeful in others. Whatever is ca- pable of promoting the progrefs of agriculture, is equally interefting to us. With this view, we applied to the factors of our Eaft-India company for famples of the different kinds of wheat of the countries where they refide. They were fent to M. de Reaumur, who was fo kind as to deliver them to me. I fhall fay, in a moment, what ufe I made of them. The late marquis de la Galifioniere had before given me a pretty large quantity of a wheat which he had brought from Spain, and which he knew made the bed: bread of any in Eu- rope. At the fame time, the marquis de Gouvernet gave me a fample of a large grain'd fpring wheat, which was faid to multiply exceedingly.
I was the more pleafed with having thefe famples, as I am per- fuaded that many of the different kinds of wheat which are generally cultivated in moft countries, may, by reafon of the foil or other phy- fical caufes, not be fo fit as fome other kinds might be, to produce the moft plentiful crops, or to make the fineft bread. Few counties or indeed few countries, cultivate more than two or three kinds of wheat; and the generality of farmers have fo little curiofity, that they do not fo much as think of trying whether any of the forts that are cultivated in other countries, would not be preferable to thofe they ufe.
An attentive traveller may obferve that the wheat which grows in the different countries he goes through, is not all alike : but he con- tents himfelf with making this ebfervation in general, without eon-
fidering
Chap.V. DIFFERENT KINDS OF WHEAT. 293
fidering that he would do his own country, or his own county, an effential fervice, by bringing into it a better kind of wheat. 'Tis true, this might perhaps be attended with fome little trouble : to avoid which, moft people are very ready to perfuade themfelves that thole more perfect kinds of wheat would not anfwer in another foil than their own, or that they would foon degenerate in it. For my part, I am thoroughly fatisfied, that improvements of this kind, ought by no means to be looked upon as objects of fmall importance, and that it is right to try the culture of different kinds of grain, in hopes of meeting with fome which may deferve the preference to that which it is the cuftom to fow. Doubtlefs, many might not fuc- ceed. Accordingly, I was not at all furprifed at the poor condition to which the wheat I received from Suratte and Bengal, and which I fowed in autumn and in the fpring, was reduced. Thofe climates are fo different from ours, that I could not well expect any better fuccefs.
The Spanifh wheat, which M. de la Galiffoniere gave me, and which I fowed in autumn, rofe well ; and the winter, being very mild, it made a fine appearance till near whitfuntide : but then, it dwindled away on a fudden, and afforded fcarce any crop at harveft. The cafe was different with fome of the fame wheat which I fowed in March. Notwithftanding the too frequent rains, which hurt every other kind of wheat, this was equal to the very fineft corn, and yielded an excellent grain, as hard, and tranfparent, as if it load grown in Spain. The whole produce of this crop is fet apart, to be fowed next fpring. This fame corn was tried, with exactly the fame fuc- cefs, at Digny, and at Denainvilliers.
The fpring wheat which I had from M. de Gouvernet, fuffered more from the intemperature of the feafons, than the Spanifh wheat. Its grain was fhri veiled. However, I keep it for next year.
I fent fome of each of thefe kinds of wheat to M. le Vayer, who fowed them, and after harveft wrote to me as follows.
" A pound and an 'half of Spaniib wheat (the marquis de la Ga- " liffoniere's) fowed in autumn, produced five pounds and an half " of clean grain. This wheat was as fine as that we are going to " fpeak of. The fcantinefs of the crop was owing to the birds that " preyed upon it.
" The fame quantity of the fame wheat, fowed in the fpring, pro- ,c duced fixteen pounds of very clean grain.
" Half an ounce of large grain'd fpring wheat (the marquis de
Gouver-
294 EXPERIMENTS, Sec. Part II.
V Gouvernefs) fowed the 1 1 th of October, produced only two " ounces and an half of bad grain.
" Another half ounce fowed in the fpring, rofe well ; but not be- " ing able to bear the almoft continual rains, it produced nothing.
" Two ounces of Suratte wheat fowed in October, produced but " three pennyweights of a very light and meagre grain.
" Two ounces of the fame wheat fowed in March, rofe well, but " bore no ears.
" Two ounces of Bengal wheat fowed in October, produced " twenty ounces of pretty fine grain.
" Two ounces of the fame wheat fowed in March, produced but ct three ounces."
It is to be obferved, that the foil in which thefe different grains were fown, though good, is clayey. M. le Vayer chofe it on purpofe; not only becaufe it was new ground, but likewife becaufe its expofi- tion was due South, and it was fheltered on the north fide by a high wall. All this feemed very proper for a grain which came from fo very hot a country : and perhaps it might be owing to this precau- tion that the Bengal wheat fucceeded better with M. le Vayer, than at Denainvilliers.
The Suratte wheat, which is reaped in the ifle of Bourbon four months after it is fowed, did not ripen with M. le Vayer till eight or ten days before the common wheat, tho' it was fowed in autumn. It is not to be doubted, but that if the fummer had been warm and dry, thefe grains would have fucceeded better, and efpecially that which was fowed in the fpring; and probably that which was fowed in autumn, would have perifhed in the winter, if that feafon had not been extremely mild.
A PR AC-
A
PRACTICAL TREATISE
O F
HUSBANDRY.
PART III.
Of the Culture of Spring Corn, Millet and Rice, Legumi- nous Plants and Pot-herbs, Flax and Hemp, Artificial ^Natural Grass, and the Vine.
CHAP. I.
Experiments on Barley, Oats, and Rye.
SECT. I.
Experiments made near Bourdeaux, by M. Navarre, Bean of the
Court of Aids.
jjsJgggyQjg H E thirteenth of December, 1751, M.Navarre |p^| J fj^ fowed four beds, two with wheat, one with rye, and the fourth with barley. The beds were 24 feet long, and, with the alleys, 6 feet wide. The grains were fown at the diitance of eight inches from one another ; and each bed had three rows, which were likewise eight inches afunder.
The wheat appeared long before the rye and barley, and fuffer- f d greatly by infects, which not only eat numbers of moots two or
three
296 EXPERIMENTS ON Partlll.
three inches long, clofe to the ground, every day, but alfo attacked the roots and the grain in the earth. Difgufted by this incident, he gave up this fpot, concluding it would come to nothing. The rye and barley came up much later.
However, he was furprifed afterwards to find feveral plants of wheat, fome of which had upwards of 60 (talks, with long ears. The rye and barley were lefs damaged. The rye had, in general, from 50 to 55 tall well ear'd ftalks; and one cf the plants of barlev had 10 1 ftalks.
What he particularly remarked was, that in all thefe beds, the middle row branched leaft and was much the weakeil" : whence he concluded, that it would be be ft to make the beds only four feet wide, and to fow but two rows in them, and thofe a foot afunder ; an alhy of three feet being fufficient to admit the fummer plowing* with one bullock.
M. Diancourt fowed eight perches of ground with oats, in doubie rows, with alleys fix feet wide. Farmers, the moft prejudiced a- gainft the new husbandry, acknowledged that there was more grain in one of thofe double rows, than on eight perches fowed in the common way.
SECT. II.
Experiments made at Avignac in Brit any, i|jM. de Brue.
TV/T De Brue fowed, with winter oats, part of a field which had ■!*-»•• been refted, but brought to a fine tilth, and was of a light foil. The feverity of the cold having deftroyed the oats, he plowed it up again in March, for fpring oats, which were very fine. Moft of the ftalks were five feet high.
He left untouched a fmall corner, where he perceived feveral plants of the winter oats, which the froft had not deftroyed. Though this fpot had been expofed to the trampling of cattle, and promifed but little from the beginning, M. de Brue was furprifed at the beauty of thefe oats, and at the quantity they yielded. The ftraw was fix feet high, and loaded with very fine grain. " It is true, fays he, I " believe I was partly indebted for this fuccefs to the drynefs of the " feafon: for the ground I am fpeaking of, is frequently overflowed " in wet years, notwithftanding all the pains I have taken to drain « it.
" In the month of Auguft," continues this gentleman, " I plow-
« ed
Chap. I. BARLEY, OATS, AND RYE. 297
" ed up another field which had juft borne hemp, and made it into " beds, 10 or 12 feet wide. In the beginning of September, I *c fowed it with about 120 pounds of rye, which came up very " thick. I mowed it three times, before it fpindled, and got fifteen " thoufand weight of green fodder, which was of great fervice to " my cattle, the feverity of the winter having left very little grafs " on any pafture grounds.
" This fodder purges and nourifhes cattle. The cows that were " fed with it gave plenty of milk, which made excellent butter. " Many farmers, who faw what I did, intend to follow my example. " I let the fourth fhoots of this rye grow up to feed. The ears " were very fmall, and yielded me nearly the quantity I had " fown.
Mr. Miller mentions the practice of fowing rye for fodder, in fome parts of England. " Rye, fays he, is fown in autumn, to " afford green feed forcws and lambs in the fpring, before there is " plenty of grafs. When this is intended, the rye fhould be fown cl early in autumn, that it may have ftrength to furnifh early feed. " The great ufe of this is to fupply the want of turneps in thofe H places where they have failed, as alfo, after the turneps are over, " and before the grafs is grown enough to fupply green feed for the " ewes ; lo that in thofe feafons, when the turneps in general fail, " it is Very good husbandry to fow the land with rye, efpecially " where there are flocks of fheep, which cannot be well fupported, " where green feed is wanting early in the fpring."
SECT. III.
Ext raft of a letter from a gentleman in Pcitcu.
u TJEING perfuaded of the advantages of the new method of
n ±J cultivating land, I refolved to make a trial of it, by compar-
" ing the produce of a field cultivated in the common way, with
" that of another field cultivated according to the new hufbandrv :
*■ and as M. Duhamel has defired all lovers of agriculture to try,
" by experiments made with care, whether ic be mcft profitable to
M fow beds, with two, or with three rows of corn ; or, which is
45 the fame thing, to find at what diftance the rows ou<*ht to be
" fown; I divided a fpot of ground into ten equal parts, which I
" made into as many beds, each fix feet wide.
0,3 h In
2q3 EXPERIMENTS ON Part III.
ff In the middle of five of thefe beds, I fowed three rows, {even " Inches afunder, fo that they took up fourteen inches of ground, " and there remained four feet ten inches for the breadth of " the alleys, which is very fufficient for the horfe- hoeing huf- " bandry.
" I fowed three other beds with only two rows, a foot di- " ftance from each other : confequently the alleys were five feet " wide.
" The two remaining beds were fown with two rows each, three <c feet afunder. The alleys were therefore but three feet wide : or " rather, the whole of this laft fpot may be looked upon as fown in " fingle rows, with alleys three feet wide, which is too narrow a " fpace to admit of horfe-hoeing them conveniently.
" Before I ipeak of the produces of thefe beds, it will be proper " to obferve :
" I . That this trial was made with rye. My fear that birds *c might eat up the wheat, made me prefer rye ; which I advife " every one to do, when only fmall experiments are made. This " efcaped without the leaft damage : whereas I have obferved, that " when experiments have been made with wheat, the birds, pre- ,c ferring that to any other grain, have always deftroyed a confider- " able part of the crop.
" 2. The beds fown with three rows were near a hedge, which " greatly damaged two of them ; either by its roots exhaufting the <c ground, or by its fhadow keeping that part harder frozen than " the reft.
" 3. The intervals were not hoed at all, between either the " double or the triple rows : only the alleys were horie-hoed; and " confequently none but the fingle rows were hoed on both " fides.
" 4. The twenty-fifth of February, the alleys were plowed. I " vifited them the fecond of March ; and found, upon examining " the plants, that, in thefe five days, they had (hot out roots four " inches long into the new-ftirr'd mould. I repeated the hoeings " at proper times, and the rye continued in good condition 'till it " was reaped. The laft hoeing was given after the bloom was " paft.
ct 5. I then examined ■ the roots, and found they had ex- ** tended eighteen inches into the, loofe mould. This may feem
" firange,
Chap. I. BARLEY, OATS, AND RYE. 299
ftrange, but I am certain it is true, for I took every precaution *' not to be deceived.
*' 6. The alleys between the /ingle rows were hoed but twice, being too narrow to admit the plough after the plants had begun to branch. However, I had no reafon to complain of the pro- " duce of thefe fingle rows.
" Having now given an account of my operations, it is time to " fay what the products were.
" The ears of my rows were from four to feven inches long, and the ftalks from four to fix feet high, which was one third higher than in the neighbouring fields, cultivated in the old . way.
" This fpot of ground, in the beft years, never produced more " than 5 bufhels, including the bufhel of feed corn ; for that was " the quantity generally ufed : in common years, it has not yielded " above four bu diets, and frequently much lefs. We therefore " cannot reckon its produce, one year with another, at more than " 4 bufhels, including all faulty grains and feeds of weeds, which fall " through the f\eve, and remain mixed with the good grain. This " year it has yielded me feven bufhels of fine clean rye, considerably *' larger than the common fort. I mike no account of the feed, the " quantity was fo fmall. To prevent this grain's being mixed with " any other, and at the fame time to judge more exactly of the pro- " duce of my ground, I had the (heaves threfhed out clofe by the " field : but it was in the middle of a road, where all the grains " fcattered by the flail could not be gathered up: by which I reckon " I loft more than the amount of the feed that was fown in the " rows. The produce of my little field was therefore this year, " compared to other years, as (even is to four, to which muft be * added, that it is capable of bearing as great a crop every year., •* which is not the cafe in the common hufbandry.
" Let us now examine the produce of the rows, and compare ,c them one with another, in order to judge whether it be moft pro- " fitable to fow in fingle, double, or triple rows.
" Two beds, the moil diftant from the hedge, fown wkh- triple *' rows, yielded three quarters of a bufhel each.
; Two beds with double rows, yielded each two thirds of a " bufhel : confequently the three beds with double rows yielded rw6 " bufhels, and the fix rows fown two and two, in three beds, " yielded -one quarter more than the fix rows fown three and three
Q_cl 2 " in.
3oo EXPERIMENTS ON PartUI.
" in two beds: but two beds of three rows a piece yielded one- <e ninth more than two beds of only two rows a-piece: whence we " may conclude, that the diftance of the rows increafe& the produce ec of an equal number of plants ; or, which comes to the fame, that " an equal quantity of feed will produce more grain when the rows " are more diftant, than when they are fown clofer together. But te this is not a real profit, becaufe the fix double rows take up one- " third more ground than the fix triple rows:
" Each of the fingle rows yielded feven-eights of a bufhel, which " is one-feventh more than the triple rows, tho' they took up no " more ground ; and their produce would probably have been " greater, if they had been hoed two or three times more:
V It appears by this account, that the profit would probably have " been on the fide of the double rows, if the alleys had been made " only four feet wide, inftead of five : for by this means I fhould " have gained one-fifth more ground, and four feet are a fufficient " width for the operations of the horfe-hoe. Where the fingle rows " are fo near as in this experiment, the fame ground would fcarcely " bear another crop the next year, for want of having been furh- ct ciently ftirred. To clear up this point by a new experiment, I have " fown fingle rows in the middle of four beds, two of which are " four feet wide, and the two others only three. The winter hoeings " have been given them with eafe, and I hope the others will not be " more difficult j at leaft till all the corn is fpindled. What I fear " raoft is, the earth's being carried off the narrow fpace on which " the rows ftand, when the thaw comes on, or by the heavy rains *' which are frequent with us*.
" The reft of my field is fowed in two rows, in beds four feet " two inches wide. I have done this, becaufe, as it is the general " cuftom here to make our ridges about that breadth, I am in hopes " that if I obtain a plentiful crop, I fhall be able the more eafily to " prevail on the farmers of this country to adopt a method, the ad- " vantage of which I was fenfible of, even before I tried the above " experiments."
* Thefe accidents, fays M. Duhamel, may be prevented, by making the furrow in the middle of the alleys, at a greater diftance from the rows : the water will then be drained off, without hurting the plants ; and in March, the horfe-hoe may be brought almoft clofe to the rows, to loofen the mould about the roots, without any fear or danger.
SECT.
Chap. I. BARLEY, OATS', AND RYE. 301
SECT. IV.
Experiment on barley, by bis Excellency M. Bielinsk.1, grand marJJjal of Pclaud.
M.
Bielinfki gives the following account of this experiment, in a •• letter to M. Duhamel.
" The nth of May, I plowed and made into beds, with our " common plough, about fix hundred fquare perches of a large " field near the gate of my caftle. This fituaticn gave me an od- " portunity of overfeeing the work myfelf.
" The foil is very good, neither too ftrong nor too light j and M as it was near my ftables, it had been frequently dunged. It " bore wheat the preceding year, and had been plowed twice after " harveft. I fowed it with barley the 12th of May, with the drill— '* plough. It took 159 Paris pints, and would have required about l< 720, if it had been fown in the common way : confequently here " was a faving made of near three fourths of the feed.
" The firft of June, the barley feeming ftrong enough, I horfe- «' hoed the alleys for the firft time, with the light plough. The " beds were but four feet wide; deducting from which eight inches, " for the fpace on which the barley grew, there remained three feet " four inches for the alleys, which I at firft thought very fufficient " for all the necefiary hoeings : but notwithftanding all the care that " could be taken, fome parts of the rows were carried off by the " plough, and others were covered with earth. At leaft one fixth " of the crop was loft by this accident. During all June, and part " of July, my barley promifed well, and branched confiderably. cc Every plant that I examined had from 1 2 to 20 ears, which were " eafily diftinguifhed from the barley fown in the common way, by " their largenefs, and the deep green colour of their blades.
" The fecond and third hoeings were performed on the 12th of " June and the 15th of July, with the cultivator, which did not " damage the rows fo much as the light plough had done.
" July was an exceeding hot month. By the 15th, the plants " feemed to fuffer by it, and the extreme fultry heat of the laft days " of that month put an entire flop to their vegetation. They lan- " guifhed afterwards, and the lower ftalks withered before the grain " was well formed. The birds too preyed upon it : fo that I was " forced to cut it down in the beginning of Auguft. To complete
« the
3o2 EXPERIMENTS ON Part III.
" the misfortune, it rained inceffantly for five days after this corn " was cut, which made many of the ears fprout in the rick. Not- ** withstanding all thefe accidents, my crop yielded 5139 pints of " good clean barley : which is as much as I could have expected in a <c middling year, if the field had been fown in the common way.
" The crop would certainly have been greater, 1. If I had fown " the barley fooner ; the heat having hurt only the late fown grain: '( and, 2. If the beds had been larger : for then the fummer culture " might have been given the alleys more conveniently, and without " tearing up 01 burying any part of the rows."
1M. Duhamel, among many other experiments communicated to him by different correfpondents, mentions the following made on oats, in a climate refembling that of Provence, as an inftance of the advantage of fowing thin.
A field, bordering on a meadow was fown with oats*. The owner, before he fowed it, dug a fmall ditch of 8 or 10 inches between this field and the meadow, to carry off the water intended for watering the meadow. The earth thrown out of this ditch was laid on the fide of the field, where it made a little bank 18 or 20 inches wide, on which oats were fown, as on the reft of the field, which had been well olovved. Some grains of oats fell all along the doping fide of this bank, next to the ditch, and, in general, at the diftance of fix, liven, or eight inches from one another. They produced 18, 20, and 25 ftalks a piece, taller and ifronger than thofe which grew upon the bank, though thefe were much fuperior to any in the reft of the field.
To be the more exact in my companion,. I picked out oneofthe fineft. fhlkslcould find in each of thefe three places. That which htook from the middle of the field was two feet five inches and one-third long,, and had 9 1 grains of oats on it : that from the top of the bank was, three feet nine inches and one-fix th in length, and bore 165 grains;, and. that from the fide of the bank next the ditch was four feet nine inches long, and yielded 214 grains. The ftraw of this Jaft waa much fcrongcr, and the grain larger and better filled, than any that grew in the field. The aifference was fo great, that I am perfuaded a third fewer of thefe grains would have filled a bufhel, than of the odiers,
Mr. Miller is fo fenfible of the advantage of fowing thin, that he (Irongly recommends to farmers, infiead of four bulhels, which is the common allowance of barley, to an acre, to fow even lefs than
** half
Chap. I; BARLEY, OATS, AND RYE. 303
" half that quantity: "There will, fays he, be a much greater produce, *' and the corn will be lefs liable to lodge, as I have many years ex- <l perienced : for when corn or any other vegetable ftands very clofe, " the ftalks are drawn up weak, and fo are incapable to refill the " force of winds, or bear up under heavy rains : but when they are " at a proper diftance, their ftalks will be more than twice the fize of
" the other, and therefore are feldom laid. 1 have feen expe-
*' riments made by fowing barley in rows a-crols divers parts of the " fame field, and the grains fovved thin in the rows, fo that the " roots were three or four inches afunder in the rows, and the rows " a foot diftance : the intermediate fpaces of the fame field were at " the fame time fown broad-caft in the ufual way. The fuccefs " was this: the roots which flood thin in the rows, tillered out from i: ten or twelve, to upwards of thirty ftalks on each root: the ftalks *' were ftronger, the ears longer, and the grains larger than any of thofe *' fown in the common wayj and when thofe parts of the field where " the corn fown in the ufual way has been lodged, thefe parts fowed " thin have fupported their upright pofition, againft wind and rain, '.' though the rows have been made not only lengthways, but crofs " the lands, in feveral pofitions, fo that there could be no alteration " in regard to the goodnefs of the land, or the fituation of the corn : " therefore where fuch experiments have been frequently made, and " always attended with equal fuccefs, there can be no room to doubt " which of the two methods is more eligible, fince if the crops were <s only fuppofed to be equal in both, the faving more than half the " corn fown, is a very great advantage, and deferves a national con- " fideration, as fuch a faving, in fcarce times, might be a very great; tl benefit to the public.
" I know the farmers in general are very apt to complain " if their corn does not come up fo thick as to cover the " ground green in a fhort time, like grafs fields : but I have often " obferved, that when from the badnefs of the feafon it has come " up thin, or by accident has been in part killed, their corn " has been ftronger, the ears longer, and the grain plumper j fo that *{ the produce has been much greater than in thofe years when it has " come up thick : for the natural growth of corn is to fend out many " italics from a root, and not to rife fo much in height : therefore " it is entirely owing to the roots ftanding too near each other, when " the ftalks are drawn up tail and weak. I have had eighty-fix '* ftalks upon one root of barley, which were ftrong, produced
0 longer
3o4 EXPERIMENTS ON Part III.
" longer ears, and the grain was better filled than any I ever £aw " grow in the common method of hulbandry; and the land upon " which this grew was not very rich : but I have frequently obferved " on the fides of hot-beds in the kitchen gardens, where barley ftraw " has been ufed for covering the beds, that fome of the grains left " in the ears, have dropt cut and grown, the roots have produced " from thirty to fixty ftalks each, and thofe have been three or four " times larger than the ftalks ever arrive at in the common way. " But to this I know it will be objected, that although upon rich " land in a garden, theft roots of corn may probably have lb many " ftalks ; yet in poor land they will not have fuch produce j there- " fore unlefs there is a greater quantity of feeds fown, their crop will " not be worth (landing; which is one of the greateft fallacies that " can be imagined : for to fuppofe that poor land can nourifh more " than twice the number of roots in the fame fpace as rich land, is ic fuch an abfurdity, as one could hardly fuppofe any perfon of com- *' mon underftanding guilty of : and yet {o it is j for the general " practice is to allow a greater quantity of feed to poor land, than " for richer ground ; not confidering that where the roots ftand fo " clofe, they will deprive each other of nourishment, and fo ftarve " themfelves ; which is always the cafe where the roots ftand clofe, " as any perfon may at firft fight obferve in any part of the fields " where the corn happens to fcatter when they are fowing it ; or in u places, where, by harrowing, the feed is drawn in heaps, thofe " patches will ftarve, and never grow to a third part of the fize as " the other parts of the fame field : and yet, common as this is, it is " little noticed by farmers ; otherwife they furely would not continue " their old cuftom of fowing. I have made many experiments for " feveral years in the pooreft land, and have always found that all " crops which are fown or planted at a greater diftance than ufual, " have fucceeded beft ; and I am convinced that if the farmers could " be prevailed on to quic their prejudices, and make trial of this " method of fowing their corn thin, they would foon fee the advan- " tage of this iiufbandry.
" The noblemen and gentlemen in France are very bufy in " fetting examples of this hulbandry in moil of their provinces, be- " ing convinced of its great utility, by many trials : and it were to be «' wifhed the fame was done' in England.'"
CHAP.
Chap. II. THE CULTURE OF MILLET. 305
CHAP. II.
Of the Culture of Millet.
"II AILLET requires the fame kind of foil as mai'z, dz. light and -^ fandy, and it is prepared after the fame manner. When the furrows are'made, the grain is fowed very thin, and covered with the plough, or rake. The time of fowing it is, either between the 15th of May, and the ift of June, or about the 24th of June: this laft is called midfummer millet.
A month after it has appeared above ground, the earth round the plants is ftirred with a hand hoe, and at the fame time they are thin- ned with the fame inftrument wherever they grow too dole together. The fpace of fix inches is generally left between each plant.
After this operation, the plants are left to themfelves : all that the hufbandman has to do from this time, is, to protect the grain from birds, when it begins to ripen 5 for otherwife they will foon devour it.
The millet fown in May, is cut down between the 15th and 30th of September . that which has not been fown till the end of June, is not reaped till towards the end of October.
It has always been obferved, that the midfummer millet has mod abortive grains ; and that its panicles being fmaller than thofe of the fame grain fown earlier, the crop is likewife lefs plentiful : accordingly, farmers feldom, or never, fow it in this laft feafon, unlefs fome other plant has taken up their ground till then.
Millet is reaped as follows. The panicles are cut off with a knife near the uppermoft joint of the ftalk. Thefe panicles are put into baikets or lacks, in which they are carried home, and emptied out in heaps which are covered over with cloths. After the millet has remained in this fituation five or fix days, it is fpread upon the barn floor, and threfhed out with a flail. It is then cleans'd, like other
grain.
After the millet is cleans'd, care muff be taken to dry it well in the fun, before it is laid up in the granary: for it would foon fpoil if the leaf! moifture were left in it; this being, cf all grains the mod difficult to keep, unlefs it be thoroughly dry: and on the other hand, none keeps better after it has been well dried.: it is not liable to the weevil : it fhould be turned from time to time in the granary ; but if that happes now and the n to be negleded, it flill keeps pe-rfedly
well.
R r There
3o6 THE CULTURE OF MiLLET. Part III.
There are two kinds of millet; viz. red and white. The red millet is ufed only for poultry: the white millet, belides being put to that ufe, is mixed with wheat, and made into bread. It likewife makes very good puddings.
In fome of their poor light lands about Bourdeaux, they fow another kind of millet, generally known by the name of forgo, and in that country called milloco. It is cultivated in the fame manner as the former, with this only difference, that the plants of this kind of millet muft be farther afunder than thofe of the other, becaufe their branches grow much higher, and fpread a great deal wider. This millet is reaped at the fame time, and in the fame manner as the white millet. The peafants near Bourdeaux make bread of this forgo. It is reddifh, heavy, ill-tafted, and hard to digeft. Pigeons and poultry are fond of this grain.
Millet is a great impoverifher of the earth. For this reafon, as foon as it is reaped, great care is taken to pull up the roots and plow the land immediately. It may be worth while to try to cultivate it, and efpecially the larger kind, with our cultivator. As this plant re- quires a great deal of nourishment, probably the frequent flirring of the earth in the new husbandry, may be of fervice to it.
CHAP. III.
Shelving the refembhnce between the culture of rice in China, and the new method which we have propofedfor the culture of wheat.
MY Printer, fays M. Duhamel, having received from China two books of drawings, in which the culture of rice is re- prefented, and the fubjecl: brieflv explained in Chinefe verfes ; father Foureau, a'jefuit, who lived ten years in that country, has been fo kind as to tranflate them ; which enables me to form a clear idea of all the operations relative to that culture.
i. To haften the fprouting of the rice, it is put into bafkets, and foaked for fome days in a ftanding water.
2. When their rice grounds are fo foaked with water as to be quite like mud, they plow them with a buffalo yoked to a plough very fimple in its make, having but one fhare, one handle, and no wheels.
3. After a gentle rain, they break the clods with a kind of large hurdle, drawn by a buffalo \ the driver fitting upon it, to increafe the weight.
The
Chap. III. OF THE CULTURE OF RICE. 307
4. The ground is cleared of all ftones, and whatever roots are in it are pulled up by a ftrong harrow, with great iron teeth. This in- ftrument is drawn by a buffalo, and a man guides it with the help of two handles, like thofe of a plough, on which he leans hard. The earth is like mud, and partly covered with water, during all this operation.
5. The earth is afterwards fmoothed with a harrow, which has feveral rows of teeth. A man guides this harrow by its two handles, whilft a buffalo draws it ; and as faft as its teeth form little channels in the ground, the water runs in, and fills them up.
6. When the rice that was laid to foak has fprouted,. the feed is known to be good; and it is then fown by hand, very thick, and as equally as poffible. Only part of the ground is fown in this manner, to furnifh plants for the reft.
The day after it has been fown, the points of the plants appear above the furface of the water : for the ground is overflowed all this time with juft enough water to cover it.
7. When the plants have acquired a little ftrengtb, they are fprinkled with lime water, to deftroy the infects and fome of the weeds that would hurt them. For this purpofe a fmall bafket is faftened to the end of a long handle, and dipt in the lime water, which runs through it, as it is conveyed over the plants.
The Chinefe have a great veneration for the fir ft inventor of this method, which anfwers to our cuftom of fteeping wheat in lime- water, or manuring land with quick-lime.
8. Towards April, when the plants are grown ftrong enough to cover the whole field, and look very green and even, the greateft part of them is pulled up by handful's, all the mud is carefully wafh- ed off their roots, and, being held all this time as even as poffible with one another, they are planted in tufts, pretty far afunder, and in a quincunx form, in fields prepared on purpofe for them. A fe- rene day is chofen for this operation, which muft be performed as quick as poffible.
This pradice of the Chinefe is with refpect to the common cul- ture of rice, what our new hufbandry is with refpect to the com- mon culture of wheat.
9. The rice muft be watered : which is always done in China, by overflowing it. To this end, the rice grounds are always near a
R r 2 pond
308 OF THE CULTURE OF RICE. P'artlll.
pond or great pool of water, from which they are feparated only by a bank or caufey.
If the water was higher than the rice ground, a trench cut through the caufey would overflow it at once : but as it is generally lower, or on a level with the rice ground, the neceffary quantity is conveyed in pails or buckets, which are worked chiefly by the help of ropes.
10. Though a man cannot ftep in thefe rice grounds without be- ing up to his knees, the Chinefe weed them three times in a fum- mer j and that with fuch care, that they pull up even the roots of every weed.
1 1. When the rice is ripe, which is known by its turning yellow, like wheat, it is cut down with a fickle, made into iheaves, and carried to a barn, where it is threfhed with flails pretty much like ours : the ftraw is removed with pitch-forks and (hovels, and the outer hulk of the grain is taken off by beating it with great wooden peftles, or a kind of mallet, after which it is fifted and winnowed : and laftly, to get off the under hufk, the grain is put between two mill-Hones, which are worked by a lever faftened to the upper one.
The two moft remarkable circumftances of this culture are,
1. The care which the Chinefe take not to let their plants be too clofe together, left they fhould rob one another of their food.
2. Their weeding their rice grounds three times in a fummer, which anfwers the end of the hoeings we recommend for the alleys be- tween the beds of other grain.
The following is the defci iption of a Chinefe plough, of which the Jefuits lent a model from China.
Plate I. Fig. I. A A are the two (hafts* BB two (hares, CC the handles by which the driver guides the plough, and D a box in which the feed is put.
As the plough advances, the (hares open two furrows, and the feed in the box D, drops tHrough an outlet E in its hinder part, and falls into a trough F, at the bottom of which are two holes, one anfwering to a pipe G, which communicates with a hollow bored in the piece of wood H, and terminates in an outlet at the back part of the (hare I: the other hole in the trough conveys the feed to the outlet M at the back part of the other (hare, through the pipe NO, as on the- other fide before defcribed.
Now
Chap. Ill OF THE CULTURE OF -RICE. 309
Now it is eafy to conceive, that the feed which drops out of the box D into the trough F, and from thence into the pipes G H or NO, comes out at the openings 1 or A/> and falls, into the furrows^ as the (hares open them: and the roller L which follows, fills up the furrow. But we fee no- moderator here, by the help of which more or lefs feed maybe fown at pleafure. If the pipes and outlets are too large, the feed will drop in.toO great quantities ; and if they are too final), they will be apt to be choaked up, and the feed will not drop at all. Perhaps any one that has feen. this plough work, might be able to anfw.qr thefe. difficulties : but as it appears to me, I doubt it would not do for fowing wheat according to our prin- ciples.
This is thought to be the plough which the Chinefe make ufe of to fow rice . iffo, their culture of that plant is (till more like the practice which we recommend for corn in general,
CHAP. TV.
Experiments on Leguminous, TUnts.
MEyma, of Bergerac near Bourdeaux, fowed peas, beans, and • kidney-beans, each feed a foot diftaut from another in the rows, and the rows two feet afunder. They yielded a much more abundant crop, than any in the common kutbandry.
In April 1753, M. deVilliers fowed 80 iquare perches, of 22 feet each, with peas> in double rows. Not being provided with any proper infhument to hoe the alleys, he made ufe of a narrow angular kind of fhare, which ftirred. only three- or. four inches on the outiide of the rows. Almoft all the peas in that country were deft royed this year by a kind of vermine called vine-frttters. His were hurt the leaft of any ; which- was probably owing to the greater vigour of the plants, or to' the infers being killed bythe ftirring of the ground. By a comparifon which he made of the produce of this frot, he found that it yielded fix times as much as the fame extent of the beft (and in thofe parts. In a good year, the difference would not have \beti\ fo great : but ftill this experiment, (hews, that plants cultivated in the new way, are better able to refill the inclemencies of the feafons, and other accidents, than, thofe which are cultivated' according to the old method.
The next year, being provided .with MiDuhamei's drill rand horfe-hoe, he fowed peas, and. barley. The. alleys were buj two fecr,
and
310 .EXPERIMENTS ON Part III.
and two feet and an halt wide, which rendered the horfe-hoeing very difficult in many places, and quite impracticable in odiers. This obliged him to contrive other methods of ftirring the ground. The peas flourifhed extremely, and produced more than the very befr. fields thereabouts. The barley, tho' fown too thin, yielded likewite more than that of any other field.
In December 1755, M. Eyma planted the common fort of garden-beans, in a middling foil, not dunged, but extremely well plowed a foot deep. The rows were two fc« t afunder, and the plants a foot diftant from each other. Thefe beans, which every one thought much too thin fown, being afiifted by frequent hoeings, yielded a greater crop than any in the common way. M. Eyma, finding his beans begin to ripen, gave the alleys a good plowing, and, on the twenty-third of June, fowed in each of them a row of red kidney-beans, which came up very well. A fortnight after, he plucked up the garden-beans, and gave the earth they grew on a flight hoeing. The kidney-beans proved the fineft he ever faw. He purpofes, as foon as they are off the ground, to replant it with garden-beans, and, he hopes, with better fuccefs than be- fore.
In 1755, M. deYilliers fowed peas in a. ftrong heavy foil, in which no one had ever ventured to fow any in the common hufban- dry. They grew as high as if the ground had been ever fo fit for them, and yielded half as much again as any fown in the common way, befides the faving in the feed, which, in peas, is about one half. They were fown in double rows, and the alleys, which were two feet, and two feet and an half wide,, were hoed with the fingle cultivator.
With regard to the diftance at which garden-beans fhould be planted, Mr. Miller lays down as a general rule, that the larger beans fhould be planted at a greater diftance than the fmall ones, and that thofe which are firft planted fhould be put cloieit together, to allow for fome mifcarrying. He therefore adviies, where a fingle row is planted, and that early, to put the beans two inches afunder, and to allow thofe of the third and fourth planting three inches ; and when they are planted in rows a-crGfs a bank, Cl the rows, fays u he, fhould be two feet and an half afunder: but the windfor-beans " fhould have a foot more fpace between the rows, and the beans " in the rows fhould be planted five or fix inches afunder. This " diftance, continues he, may, by fome perfons, be thought too
" great ;
Chap. IV. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 31 *
" great : but from many years experience, I can affirm, that the " lame fpace of ground will produce a greater quantity of beans, " when planted at this diftance, than if double the quantity of feeds '* are put on it. In the management of thefe later crops of beans, " the principal care fhould be to keep them clear from weeds, and " any other plants, which, would draw away their nourifhment; to " keep earthing them up, and, when they are in blohom, to pinch " off their tops, which, if fuffered to grow, will draw the nourifh= " ment from the lower bloffoms, which will prevent the pods " from fetting, and fo only the upper parts of the ftems will be " fruitful : and another thing -fhould be obferved in planting of the " fucceeding crops, which is, to make choice of moift ftrong land " for the later crops, for if they are planted on dry ground, they
" rarely come to much. In warm dry light land, all the late
" crops of beans are generally attacked by the black infects, which " cover all the upper part of their ftems, and foon caufe them to " decay.
" The horfe bean delights in a ftrong moiil foil, and an open ex- " pofure, for they never thrive well on dry warm land, or in fmall " inclofures, where they are very fubjedt to blight, and are fre- **■ quently attacked by a black inieft, which the farmers call the ** black dolphin. Thefe infedts are often in fuch quantities, as to " cover the ftems of the beans entirely, efpecially all the upper part " of them, and whenever this happens, the beans feldom come to " good : but in the open fields, where the foil is ftrong, this rarely. " happens.
" Thefe beans are ufually fown on land which is frefli broken up, •• becaufe they are of ufe to break and pulverize the ground, as alfo " to deftroy weeds ; fo that the land is rendered much better, for " corn, after a crop of beans, than it would jiave been before, " efpecially if they are fown and managed according to the new huf- ** bandry, with a drill-plough, and the horfe-hoe, and to ftir the " ground between the rows of beans, which will prevent the growth " of weeds, and pulverize the ground, whereby a much greater " crop of beans may, with more certainty, be expected, and the •* land will be better prepared for whatever crop it is defigned for " after.
" The feafon for fowing of beans is from the middle of February *' to the end of ^March, according to the nature of the foil : the £ ftrongeft and wet land fhould always be laft fown. The ufual
" quantity
3i2 E X'P'E R I M'E NTS ON Part III.
" quantity of he^i?, fown on an acre of land, is about three bufhels: " but this is 'double the quantity which need be fown, efpecially sc- " cording to the new husbandry."
As neither M. Duhamel, nor his correfpondents, are very particu- lar in relation to the culture of this ufeful plant, we beg leave to add Mr. Miller's directions for the management of beans according to the new hufbandrv.
" The ground, fays he, fbould be four times plowed before the " beans are1 fct, winch will break the clods, and render it much " better for planting- Then, with a drill-plough, to which a hopper " is fixed for fetting of the beans, the drills fhould be made at three " feet afuuder, and the fpring of the hopper fet fo as to fcatter the (i beans at three inches diftanoe in the drills. By this method, lei's " than one bufhel of feed will plant an acre of land. When the " beans are up, if the ground is ftirred between the rows with a ' " horfe plough, it will deftroy all the young weeds; and when the *« beans are Advanced about three or four inches high, theground <c fhould be again- plowed between the rows, and the earth laid up " to the beans : and if a third plowing, at about five or fix weeks' <c after, is given, the ground will be kept clean from weeds, and the " beans will ftalk- out, and produce a much greater crop than in " the common way.
" When the beans are ripe, they are reaped with a book, as is " ufually praclifed for peas ■ and' after having lain a few days on the tc ground, they are turned, and this muft be repeated feveral times,' " until they are dry enough to ftack : but the beft method is to tie " them in fmall bundles, and fet them upright; for then they wiil " not be in fo much danger to fuffer by wet, as when they lie on the " oround ; and ihevwill be more handy to carry and ftack, than if " they are low". The common produce is from twenty to twenty - " five bufhels on an acre of land.
« The beans fhould lie- in the mow to fweat, before they are " threfhed out : for as the haulm is very large and fucculent, fo it is " very apt to give and grow moift : but there is no danger of lh£ " beans receiving damage, if they are {lacked tolerably dry, becaufe* " the pods will preferve the beans from injury; and they wih* « be much eafier to threfh after they have fweat in the mow, tharf « before ; and after they have once iweated, and are dry again, they " never after give.
" By the new hufbandry, the produce has exceeded the old. by
more
Chap. IV. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 313
" more ilian ten buftiels on an acre : and if the beans which are cul- " tivated in the common method are cbfen-ed, it will be found " that more than half their ftems have no beans en them ; for by " {landing cbfe, they are drawn up vesy tall, fo the tops of the " ftalks only produce, and all the lower part is naked ; whereas in " the new method, they bear almoft to the ground; and as the <f joints of the ftems are ihorter, fo the beans grow clofer together c: on the ftalks."
C K A P V.
Experiments on Pot-herbs, &c.
Mde Chateau-vieux, being of opinion that if pot-herbs could # be cultivated in the fame manner as wheat is in the new hufbandry, a great expence in dung and labour might be faved, made the following experiments.
I begun, fays he, by retrenching the dung : tho' the fpot I chofe for my firft trial had not received any for feveral years. It had in- deed been well prepared by the plowing of the preceding year, when one half of it bore barley, and the other oats. I now made it into a bed, the middle of which was directly over the laft year's furrow.
I plowed this bed, the 25th of September, 1751, in the fame man- ner as if it had been intended for wheat. I planted on it a iingle row of white cabbages, which I watered, to make them take root the better. The length of this bed was 160 feet, and its breadth fix feet feven inches.
That I might be able to make a juft comparifon between the cab- bages of this bed, and thofe of the kitchen garden, I planted a fpot of ground in this laft place, the fame day, with the fame fort of plants. This fpot had been extremely well dug, and greatly dunged, by the gardener, who took all pofTible care of thefe plants all the fummer, and weeded and watered them as often as was neceuary. Inftead of cabbaging, moft of them run up in height: upon which I plucked them up, and planted others in their ftead.
I beftowed the fame care and culture on my rows of cabbages in the bed, as if they had been wheat.
The 9th of March, 1752. the alleys were ftirred with the plough. The 25th of April, I gave them a fecond ftirring with the cultivator. The third of June, they had a third ftirring, with the plough : and the 20th of July, I made my gardener hand- hoe them, for fear the
S s plough
3i4 EXPERIMENTS ON Part III.
plough fhould damage feveral {talks of wheat which grew on the next bed, and which were bent, but not lodged.
Thefe cabbages were never watered, except once, which was at the time of planting them : and yet they were always crifp and firm, even in the hotteft days. By this eafy and expeditious culture, they attained all the perfection that could be wifhed; and furpaffed thole of the kitchen garden, as much in gocdnefs, as they did in bulk. Moft of them weighed between ? 5 and 1 8 pounds, and the fmalleit between eight and ten. The weight of all the plants which grew on this bed, was upwards of 840 pounds.
Toward the end of autumn, I prepared five other beds, to be fown in the fpring, in the fame field as that of the cabbages, to which they lay in right angles. The form of this fpot did not admit of making the beds more than 40 feet long. This fpace being too fmall to ufe the plough in, it was dug with the fpade, and made into beds the latter end of November. The middle of the beds was raifed pretty high, and a deep furrow parted them. The breadth from furrow to furrow was fix feet. No dung was ufed.
The winter's froft made the mould quite loofe and fine. I found it in fo good condition, that I thought it needlefs to give it another digging before I fowed it; which is very remarkable: for as thefe beds were not fown till the 4th of May, the ground had confequently not been ftirred for upwarcs of five months.
I only made a (hallow furrow in the middle of each bed, in one of which I fowed beet, in two others carrots, and in the other two fcorzoneras. The mould was in a due degree of moifture : the plants came up very well : they were thinned wherever they grew too thick,, fo as to leave adiftance of 14 cr 15-inches between the beet roots, feven or eight inches between the carrots, and four or five inches between the fcorzoneras. None of thefe plants were wa- tered at all.
This fpot being, as I before faid, too fmall to admit the plough, the alleys between thefe beds were ftirred by hand, with a fpade, the 35th of June, 27th of July, and 6th of September. The leaves of the plants were three or four times larger than thole of the fame kind of plants in the kitchen garden ; and though the rows were fix feet afunder, the leaves of the carrots met in many places, in the middle of the furrows between the beds.
The beet roots were dug up the 25th of October. They were all nearly of the fame fize, viz. five or fix. inches in diameter, towards
the
Chap. V. POT-HERBS. 315
the top, or thickeft part j which was much larger than any in the kitchen garden.
The carrots were taken up the 3th of November. My gardener, who, when he fowed them, would have betted all he had in the world, that the crop would not be worth the digging, was aitonifhed at their fize. They were from 18 to 20 and 25 inches long, and from two and a half to three and a half and four inches in diameter, and weighed from 25 to 30 and 33 ounces each.
The icorzoneras throve well, and their leaves were very large : till, on the 17th of Auguft, when I had not feen them for a week, I found them totally changed, their leaves withered, and hanging on the ground. Upon opening a furrow on one fide of them, to lay their roots bare, I found them entirely covered with fmall white flugs. I filled up part of this furrow with foot, in hopes that its bitternefs would drive them away. For fome days, there were much fewer of them, and the plants feemed to recover a little firength : but their enemies returned in fo great numbers, that they foon deftroyed them all, a very few roots excepted, which, notwithflanding the injury they had received, were larger at the end of lix months, than thofe in the kitchen garden were at the end of nineteen.
Befides the great advantage already mentioned, which all thefe plants had over thofe of the fame kind in the kitchen garden ; they had two others, well worthy our attention. In the firfr place, they were much more tender and delicate, and their flavour higher and more pleafing to the palate : and fecondly, they required much lefs time to boil them, than thofe raifed in the kitchen garden. I do not impute this folely to my not ufing dung : the new hulbandry had jikewife its fliare in this improvement; the juices of plants being certainly moil: perfect in ground that is often itirred : the fun. and air have then an eafier accefs to the plants, and keep them found ; and the dews penetrate to their roots, as deep as the mould is fuffi- ciently loofe. I am perfuadcd that the perfection of thefe plants, was entirely owing to thefe caufes. To have raifed them in beds, and given them the fame culture as wheat receives, would have been but an imperfect experiment, had I not likewife baniihed the ufe of dung, This lafi point was abfolutely neceflary, in order to know with certainty what earth alone is capable of doing, when managed according to the principles of the new hufbandry.
1° l753> I repeated my experiments on the fame plants, viz.
Ss 2 cabbages.
3i6 EXPERIMENTS ON PartlH.
cabbages, beet-roots, carrots, and fcorzoneras j and all of them were as fine, and well flavour 'd, as before.
I likewife planted a bed of colliflowers this year, which were tranfplanted the 9th of June. On the 20th of Auguft, I cut the two firft heads, which were very fine, and of an excellent tafte. Car-- doons, cultivated in the fame manner, grew very fine, though they were greatly retarded by a fhower of hail.
I am now trying to rail'e more lafting plants, by cultivating them according to the new hufbandry. To this end, I have laid down a bed 32 toifes long and fix feet wide, and planted it, the 24th of March, with a row of afparagus, which have made good fhoots this firft year. I ihall continue to cultivate them with all due care, and wait with p2tience till the year 1755 fhail fhew what the event will be.
I have fcveral beds fix feet wide, which I have planted with fingle rows of ftrawberries. The vigor of the plants, the largenefs of the leaves, and the very great number of roots, give me room to expect that the fruit will be very large and plentiful.
The fuccefs I have already had, the eafe with which this culture is performed, the advantage of not uiing dung, and that of being eafed of the trouble of watering, fo neceflary in kitchen gardens, that, in hot weather, it takes up almoft the whole of one man's time, are confederations of fuch weight, as determined me to continue thele ex- periments.
Accordingly, in 17 54, I raifed the fame plants again in beds, and with the fame fuccefs: for they were equally beautiful and good. Tho' the year was very hot and dry, I watered none of them, except at the time of tranfplanting, to make them take the better. Thole that were left where they wrere fown, were not watered at all. This fhews how much the new hufbandry preferves a moifture in the earth.
The ftrawberries, this year, were admirable, extremely large,, finely fcented, and of a very high flavour.
The afparagus, which was in its fecond year, was as fine as any in the bsft cultivated gardens.
Artichokes planted at the end of May, produced their firft fruit in September, which was, in general, from 12 to 15 inches in circum- ference. Their leaves entirely covered the beds fix reet wide.
I have raifed even melons in the fame mannerv without any dung,
car
Chap.V. POT-HERBS. 3*7
or hot bed, and without bell-glaffes, or any glafs frame to cover them. I fowed them as I would have done wheat The plants came up perfectly well, and the fruit was fo large and finely flavour d, that it might claim a preference in all refpetts to any that grew in
™\ rafed'the fame plants again in 1755 and 1756, ^ the fame manner, and with the fame fuccefs as before They have always been larger, better tafted, and in every refped finer, than thofe of my kitchen garden. Nothing could be more ftriking, than, in 1755, a hot dry year, to fee thefe plants always green, and in great vigor, thrive without any alteration, whilft thofe in gardens, which were watered every day, droop'd during part of the day, and grew but
r<We maf place the greater confidence in thefe experiments on pot- herbs, as they have been cultivated in the fame manner for feveral years, and always with the fame fuccefs. The beauty, largenels, and vi-or of the plants, cannot be imputed to dung or other manure for no°ne was ufed: nor did they want watering to which I never had recourfe, but when any of them were tranfplanted It is therefore to the culture that their flourifhing growth muft be afenbed : and this is the more remarkable, as it is well known, that, in the common management of kitchen gardens, if the ground was not to be dunged for feveral years, it would produce only poor and ftinted plants
M de Chateau-vieux extended the new hufbandry to the culture of the ft** or fuller's thiftle, which grew to a furpnzmg he.ght, and produced an extraordinary number of the fineft and belt heads that the fullers of that country had ever ken.
This plant is of fuch importance to the woo hen manufiftory in which it is ufed for railing the knap upon cloth, that we muft beg leave to add here Mr. Miller's directions for the culture^ it.
« It is propagated," fays he," by fowing the feeds ro March « upon a foil that has b:en well dried. About one peck of this feed « will fow an acre; for the plants lhould have room to grow; other- « wife the heads will not be fo large, nor in 10 great quarmty. " When the plants are come up, you muft hoe them in me lame « manner as is praftifed for turneps, cutting down ail the weeds, « and fin-liner out the plants to about fix or eignt mcaes diftancc ; - " and as the plants advance, and the weeds begin to grow agjun, you « muft hoe them a fecond time, boating out the plants to a wider « diiWi for they lhould be, at laft, left at leall a foot afunder^
3i3 EXPERIMENTS ON PartHI.
" and you Should be particularly careful to clear them from weeds, " efpecially the firft fummer ; for when the plants have fpread fo as *t to cover the furface of the ground, the weeds will not (o readily " grow between them. The fecond year after fowing, the plants " will fhoot up heads, which will be fit to cut about the beginning " of Auguft ; at which time they Should be cut and tied up in " bunches, fetting them in the fun, if the weather be fair ; but if " not, they muit be fet in rooms to dry them. The common pro- " duce is about an hundred and fixty bundles or Staves upon an " acre, which they fell for about one milling a ftave."
M. Duhamel relates, that a friend of his had exceeding large car- rots, by planting young carrots in a kitchen-garden, a foot afunder. Thole which were fovvn thicker, remained fmall and dinted. Thefe large carrots were tender and of a good tafte.
From this, and fome other experiments of the fame kind, he draws the following conclusions, i. That plants extend their roots farther than is generally imagined. 2. That it is proper to give each plant Sufficient room to extend its roots in fearch of its neceffary food : and 3. That plants which grow too thick, hurt one another, and yield but fmall productions.
In 1755, M. Duhamel himfelf fowed a piece of ground with carrot, beet, and fcorzonera feed, and planted the remainder of it with young cabbages. All thefe plants were hoed, according to the practice of the new hufbandry, and not watered at all. The cabbages were very fine, and the carrots, beet-roots, and fcorzoneras, the fineft that had ever been feen.
In 1756 he fowed the fame ground again, as before, and with the like fuccefs ; excepting that the beets and carrots were too thin, becaufe fome of the feed did not grow. The cabbages were exceeding fine : and kidney beans, which he added this year, came to great perfection.
M. Barbuat, M. D. towards the latter end of Auguft, 1755, planted winter cabbages two feet afunder, and let three leeks between each cabbage. He ftirred the ground about them three times, at the diftanee of fix weeks between each Stirring. They became larger and better rafted, than thofe that were cultivated in the common way.
In February, he fowed onions, which having been neglected till towards the middle of May, were moSt of them choaked with weeds. He ordered thefe weeds to be pulled up, and, contrary to the advice ©f all the gardeners near him, gave his onions, which were thin fown,
two
Chap.V. POT-HERBS. 319
two hoeings/ Mod; of them grew to four and four inches and an half in diameter-
M. Duhamel concludes his account of this culture of pot- herbs, with the following extract of a letter from a gentleman near Lyons.
" My pot-herbs in beds are the admiration of all who fee them. V My colliflowers were very fine, and on the fifth of July (1755) " run up to feed, and in all probability will produce a great deal } " which was never known before in this country.* I have cabbages " which, I dare fay, wiil weigh upwards of 45 pounds. I had " fome lad year which weighed 35 pounds, but the ground was «« not fo well cultivated then, as it is now, nor were they fo early, '** They have fuffered nothing from the drought ; but, on the con- " trary, the warmer the weather has been* the finer they have " o-rown. They have not been watered at all : nor have my " carrots, which are now a foot in circumference : and I have cab- " bage lettices which weigh five pounds. One great advantage " which i find in the new" husbandry, is that plants are preferved «e from the danger of too much rain, or too great drought. The **. earth, when well cultivated, is always in a moifr, ftate. The " more I reflect on this new method of culture, the more I admire " it. None but thofs who are thorough judges of agriculture, " can forefee the immenfe advantages that will hereafter attend
it.
The great ufe that may be made of fome of the plants treated of in this chapter, for the food of cattle, feems to have efcaped M. Du- hamel's attention. As their fize, and confequently their quantity, is capable of being prodigioufly increafed by means of the new hui- bandry, this confiderat'fOn is the more important. We (ball there- fore endeavour to fupply our author's deficiency in this re-
fpect,
* The colliflower, as Mr. Miller obferves, has been much more improved in England, than in any, other part of Europe. In France, they rarely have colliflowers tiillvlichaeliTias ; and Holland is generally fupplied with them froffi England. In many parts of Germany, there was none of them cultivated till within a few year-: paft ; and moft parts of Europe are fupplied with feeds from hence. This plant was frft brought to England from the ifland of Cyprus, where it is faid to be- in great perfection at prefent ; tho' it is fuppofed to have been originally brought thither from fome other country. It was not brought to any degree of perfection in England, till • about 16S0, at leaft not to be fold in the markets ; and fince the year 1700. they have been fo much improved in England, that fuch ot them as before were greatly admired, would at prefent be little regarded.
320 EXPERIMENTS ON Part III.
fpect, by borrowing from Mr. Miller what is pertinent to our fub- je<&
" Where carrots," fays he, " are defigned to have large roots," (which certainly will always be the cafe when they are intended for fodder,) " they muft never ftand too clofe, nor fticuld they have
" any other crop mixed with them. This root has long been
" cultivated in gardens for the table, but has not till of late years " been cultivated in the fields for cattle, nor has it been practifed as " yet, but in few parts in England. It is therefore greatly to be " wifhed, that the culture of it was extended to every part of Eng- " land, where the foil is proper for the purpofe : for there is fcarce " any root yet known, which more deferves it, being a very hearty " good food for mod forts of animals. One acre of carrots, if well " planted, will fatten a greater number of flieep, or bullocks, than <e three acres of turneps, and the flefli of thefe animals will be firmer " and better tailed. Horfes are extremely fond of this food, and " for hogs there is not any better. I have alfo known thefe roots " cultivated for feeding of deer in parks, which has proved of ex- " cellent ufe in hard winters, when there has been a fcarcity of *' other food, at which times great numbers of deer have periflied '* for want ; and thofe that have efcaped, have been fo much re- ** duced, as not to recover their flefli the following fummer ; where- " as thofe fed with carrots have been kept in good condition all the " winter, and upon the growth of the grals in the fpring, have been " fat early in the feafon ; which is an advantage-, where the grafs is u generally backward in its growth.
<( There is alfo an advantage in the cultivation of this root, be- " vond that of the turnep, becaufe the crop is not fo liable to fail : ct for as the carrots are fown in the fpring, the plants generally come " up well; and unlets the months of June and July prove very bad, <l there is no danger of the crop fucceeding : whereas turneps are " frequently deflroyed by the flies at their fir ft coming up; and in " dry autumns they are attacked by caterpillars, which in a fliort *' time devour whole fields : but carrots are not attacked by thefe " vermin. Therefore every farmer who has a ftock of cattle or <c flieep, fliould always have a fupply of thefe roots, if he has land " proper for the purpofe, which muft be light, and of a proper " depth to admit of the roots running down.
" In preparing of the land for carrots, if it has not been in tillage ''• before, it fhould be plowed early in autumn, and then plowed
" a-crofs
Chap. V. POT-HERBS. 321
" a-crofs again before winter, laying it up in high ridges to mellow " by the froft : and if the ground is poor, there fhould be fome " rotten dung fpread over it in winter, which fhould be plowed in <* about the beginning of February : then in March, the ground " fhould be plowed again to receive the feeds ; in the doing of " which, fome farmers have two ploughs, one following the other " in the fame furrow, fo that the ground is loofened a foot and a " half deep : others have men with fpades following the plough in " th.e furrows, turning up a fpit of earth from the bottom, which " they lay upon the top, leveling it fmooth, and breaking the clods : " the latter method is attended with a little more expence, but is " much to be preferred to the firft ; becaufe in this way the clods " are more broken, and the furface of the ground is laid much " evener.
" If the land has been in tillage before, it will require but three " plowings ; the firlt juft before winter, when it mould be laid in " high ridges ; the fecond crofs plowing fhould be in February ; " after which, if it is well harrowed to break the clods, it will be " of great fervice : the laft time muft be in March, to receive the " feeds : this fhould be performed in the manner before mentioned. " After this third plowing, if there remain great clods of earth un- " broken, it will be proper to harrow it well before the feeds are " fown. One pound and a half of feeds will be fufficient for an " acre of land : but as they are apt to adhere together, fo it render* " them more difficult to fow even than mod other forts : therefore " fome mix a quantity of dry fand with their feeds, rubbing them " well together, fo as to feparate the carrot feeds from each other, " which is a good method. After the feeds are fown, they muft be " gently harrowed in to bury them ; and when the plants come up, " they fhould be hoed.
" But in order to preferve your carrots for ufe all the winter and " fpring, you fhould, about the beginning of November, when the ,v green leaves are decayed, dig them up, and lay them in fand in " a dry place, where the froft cannot come to them, taking them " out from time to time as you have occafion for them, referving " fome of the longefl and ftraiteft roots for feed, if you intend to " fave any ; which roots fhould be planted in the middle of Febru- " ary, in a light foil, about a foot afunder each way, obferving to " keep the ground clear from weeds : and about the middle of Au- " guft, when you find the feed is ripe, you muft cut it off, and carry
T t "it
322 EXPERIMENTS ON Part III.
*• it to a dry place, where it fhould be expofed to the fun and air *c for feveral days, to dry : then you may beat out the feed, and put *' it up in bags, keeping it in a dry place until you ufe it. This " feed is feldom efteemed very good after the firft or fecond year :.t " moft, but new feed is always preferred ; nor will it grow after it " is more than two years old."
Parfneps are another excellent, wholefome, and very nourifhing food for cattle. Their culture is the fame as that of carrots, with which they may be fown on the fame ground ; obferving, if you would have the roots of either grow to their full fize, to thin them fo as to leave a fpace of ten inches or a foot between each plant, and to keep them clear from weeds by frequent hoeing. When the leaves begin to decay, the roots may be dug up for ufe, and kept in fand, in a dry place. Parfnep feeds feldom grow after they are above a year old.
We could wifh that M. Dnhamel, or his correfpondents, had tried the culture of parfley according to the new huftandry, in which there is no doubt of its fucceeding well, and proving of great benefit to fheep. " The common parfley, fays Mr. Millar, is, by fome " fkilful perfons, cultivated in fields for the ufe of fheep; it being " a fovereign remedy to preferve them from the rot, provided they " are fed twice a week for two or three hours each time with this *' herb : but hares and rabbets are fo fond of it, that they will come M from a great diftance to feed upon it j and in countries where thefe " animals abound, they will defrroy it, if it is not very fecurely " fenced againft them : fo that whoever has a mind to have plenty " of hnres in their fields, by cultivating parfley, will draw all the
" hares of the country to them. The beft time for fowing it in
" the fields is. about the middle or latter end of February : the tf ground fhould be made fine, and the feeds fown pretty thick, in " drills drawn about a foot afunder, that the ground maybe kept *' hoed between the drills, to deftroy the weeds, which, if permitted " to grow, will foon over-run the parfley. Two bufhels of feed
" will fow one acre of land. The roots of the great garden-
" parfley will grow, if fufficient room is given them, to the fize of " a middling parfnep, and are greatly efteemed by the Dutch for " their water finches. They may alfo be boiled and eaten as young ,l carrots, and are very palatable and wholefome, efpecially for thole ** who are troubled with the gravel.
" The napus jyhejlris, or wild navew, generally known by the
" name
Chap. V. POT-HERBS. 3-
V name of rape or ccle feed, is much cultivated in the iile of Ely,
{< and fome other parts of England, for its feed, from which the
c< rape oil is drawn : and it hath alfo been cultivated of late years,
ct -in other place?, for feeding of cattle, to great advantage. The
" cole feed, when cultivated for feeding of cattle, fhould be fown
" about the middle of June. The ground for this mould be pre-
" pared in the fame manner as for turneps. The quantity of feeds
11 for an acre of land, is from fix to eight pounds, and as the price
" of the feeds is not great, fo it is better to allow eight pounds ; for
<( if the plants are too clofe in any part, they may be eafily thinned
" when the ground is hoed. When the plants have put out fix
" leaves, they will be fit to hoe; which mufl, be performed in
" the fame manner as is praclifed for turneps."
C H A P. VI. S E C T. L
Of the common culture of Turneps.
THIS root is now cultivated more for feeding and fattening of cattle, and particularly fheep, than for the food of men.
It is fown in different feafons of the year, but chiefly at the end of June, during all July, and in the beginning of Augufl ; taking advantage of every rain that falls during this time ; for that is ne- ceffary to make the feed fprout.
It is fown in land that has been well dunged and thoroughly plowed. The feed is fown by hand, as equally as poffible, and co- vered with the harrow, about an inch deep ; for if it were covered deeper, there would be danger of its not rifing.
When the turneps appear above ground, the farmer examines where they have failed, in order to fow frefh feed, which he covers with the rake. When the turneps are about the bignefs of a finger's end, they are carefully hoed, to clear them from weeds which would hurt them greatly, and to thin the plants where they are too thick : for a few large turneps are more profitable than a greater number of fmall ones.
Theie plants fcarce require any other culture : only they mufl: be melter'd from all kind of cattle, and efpecially hogs, who would foan turn up the whole field in fearch of thefe roots, which they are
. T t 2 SECT.
very fond of.
3H THE CULTURE fart m.
SECT. II.
Of the culture of Tumeps according to the new hufbandry, by M. Duhamel.
A Light fandy foil, fomewhat moifr, is the fitteft land for all forts of turneps : but with the help of good culture they may be raifed in almoft any foil, except chalk and clay, where they feldom do well.
It is proper to obferve that all roots, fuch as turneps, parfneps, carrots, &c. thrive beft where there is great depth of mould. We trenched our whole garden three feet deep. All the pot-herbs grew very fine, and the roots in particular were of a furprifing length and bignefs.
• This fhews that the ground intended for turneps ought to be weH ftirred, and as deep as poffible : and as turneps delight in a light foil, we muft endeavour to bring the ftrong foils into that ftate, by the two means we have already mentioned as capable of producing that effect, viz. dung and plowing. If dung is wanting, the plowiags muft be repeated in proportion to the ftrength of the foil.
Turneps may be fown from the middle of May to the beginning of Auguft, but the ufual feafon is about midfummer. Their fuccefs de- pends greatly on the nature of the foil and the ftate of the weather.
An ounce of feed will fow as much land when drilled, as a pound will in the common way ; becaufe when care has been taken to fow only the neceffary quantity of feed, there will be no occafion to thin the plants afterwards, when they are hoed.
The beft way is to fow them in fingle rows fix feet afunder. Mr. Tull fowed them in double rowsj but they did not do well. He likewife fowed them in fingle rows, but at the difrance of only three feet. Thefe yielded more turneps than a neighbouring field which was fown and managed in the common way. But it is ftill better to leave a fpace of fix feet between the rows ; and if the alleys are well plowed to the depth of five or fix inches, the turneps will thrive wonderfully, even tho' no other moifture falls but the dew, which will fink into the earth to their roots.
Notwithstanding Mr. Tull's experiment, I would fow them in double rows ; or, if in finrrle rows, thofe rows mould be but four feet afunder. That is the fpace which is left in Languedoc between, the rows, of vines, and which is plowed with oxen.
If
Chap. VI. OF TURNEPS. 325
If one was fure of having rain immediately after the turneps are fown, it would be right to fovv them very mallow : but if no rain happens, they are beft deeper in the earth, becaufe they meet there with moifture furTicient to make them grow.
Mr. Tull, by drilling the feeds alternately at different depths in the earth, was fure to fucceed in one part or other, whether the feafon was wet or dry. If wet, the feed flightly covered fprouted firft, ; and in dry feafons that which lay deepeft was the firft that rofe.
This is an eafy way of having two growths of turneps in the fame field. There is another way, which is, to fow the feed of the laft gathering, and feed that is two years old ; for this laft is longer before it rifes than the new. An advantage attending the turneps rifing at different times, is, that they may thereby efcape the fly or grub, which often entirely deftroy them. It is obferved, that thefe flies often come fuddenly in great fwarms, and deftroy the turneps as they rife j and that they fometimes difappear as fuddenly ; fo that the tur- neps which rife a few days after in the neighbouring field, are not at all injured by them: consequently, when the turneps of the fame field rife at different times, one or other may efcape the ravage of thefe infedts ; for they deftroy them only when in their feedling leaf.
One of the moft effeftual ways to preferve turneps from thefe in- fects, is, to run a heavy roller over the whole field, acrofs the rows. This rolling hardens the furface of the earth fo that they can neither get in or out, by which means they are deftroyed. But this preffure et the earth would be very hurtful to the turneps, if the ground had aot been deeply plowed, if it was moift, or if it was ftiff and apt to bind. Thefe inconvenieneies are however partly remedied, by hoeing the alleys as foon as the turneps have put forth their large leaves ; for then they have nothing to fear from the infects, which the hoeing likewife helps to deftroy. The horfe-hoe is the only inftrument with which this work can well be done, the earth being often fo hard, that ihe hand-hoe would only fcratch it.
When the feafon has been kindly, and all the feeds have grown, and the plants have not fuffered by the fly or other infects, they muft be thinned early, that the earth may not be exhaufted- by plants which are not intended to remain j. for thofe that are left fhould be about a foot afunder.
When the turneps" thrive well, only each alternate alley need be hoed at one timev and the others a few days after : tecaule it is better to feed the plants by degrees, by dividing the hceings in this ma-one*,
than
3£6 T H E C U L TURg Part III
than to give them a great deal of food, by hoeing all the alleys at once, and afterwards leave them double the time without any culture
at all*.
This method of hoeing the alternate alley?, i? attended with this advantage, that in cafe of hot dry weather, the plants are not killed ; and Wavy rains will do them the left damage: but it will not fo ef- fectually deftroy weeds, which is always one of the great objects bf
1 1 /T_ J
the new huibandry.
Tho' thehorfe-hoe has approached the turneps as near as poffible, it will be neceffary to hand-hoe the fpaces between them. This may be done at a fmall expence, as the other hoe has already ftirred almcft all the ground. An expert hufbandman will bring the horfe- hoe within two or three inches of the plants.
When the turneps are grown large, there is no occafion to come fo near them, left their roots be hurt : nor is it neceffary to hoe them, till they are about the bignefs of one's finger's end.
x\U plants fown in fingle rows, are greatly benefited by this hoeing of the alternate alleys. Far, I. Four of thefe hoeings, which coft no more than two entire ones, are almoft as beneficial to the plants as four complete hoeings. 2. A plant which finds a great deal of nourishment on one fide, is better able to thrive without receiving fo much on the other, 3. If, in hoeing very near the plant, fome of the roots 'are broke, thofe on the fide not hoed, fupply the wants of the plant, till the broken roots have made frefh fhoots. 4. We may therefore ap-
* « When the turneps are fown in drills," fays Mr. Miller, Art. Rapa, " it will " be the belt way to hoe between every other row at firft, and fome time after to hoe " the alternate intervals, by which method the plants will receive more benefit from " the often furring the ground, than they would do, if all the intervals were hoed at " one time; and the plants will he in lefs danger of fuffering from the earth being " thrown up too high on fome rows, while others may be left too bare of earth: but " when the earth has been thrown up on one fide of the drill, it may be turned down " again before the next interval is hoed, and this alternate moving of the earth will " ptepare the ground very well for the fucceeding crop, as well as greatly improve " the turneps : but as this plough cannot well be drawn nearer to the drills than two «' or three inches, the remaining ground (hould be forked, to loofen the parts, and " make way for the fibres of the roots to ft rike out into the interval:, ; otherwife, if " the land is ftrong, it will become fo hard in thofe places which are not ltirred, as " to flint the growth of the turneps ; and this may be done at a fmall expence': a «' good hand will perform a great deal of this work'in a day, and whoever will make « tfte trial, will find their account in practicing it, efpecially on all ftrong land, " where the turneps are much more liable to fuffer from the binding of the ground, " than they will be on a loofe foil : but yet, in all forts .of ground, it will be of great ': ilrvice to pra6tife this."
proach
Chap. VI. O F. T U R N: E P S. 327
proach nearer to the turneps without fear of hurting thefn, or of forc- ing them out of the earth. 5, When a farrqf* ,has a great quantity of turneps to hoe, they are fooner fupplied by this culture, than they poffibly could if all the alleys were to be hoed.
While the turneps are young, a furrow mull not be left open near them; becaufe the earth about them would become too dry: but there is no danger of this in the autumn when they are grown ftrong, and the earth is moift. I do not think it advifeable neither to leave a furrow open near them during the winter, becaufe they would be in greater danger of being hurt by the froft.
One alternate hoeing, or, which is the fame thing, two half hoe- xngs will be fufficient when the turneps are fown late. But when they are fown early, and many weeds grow, one hoeing will not be enough.
By means of this culture, I havefeen turneps which weighed from fixteen to nineteen pounds ; and we may depend on their weighing one with another twelve pounds apiece in a good foil, which is after the rate of 576 pound weight of turneps on a fquare perch of 24 feet, and near fixty thoufand weight upon an arpent. If, in a fquare of 24 feetj which is the great perch, turneps are planted in rows fix feet afunder, there will be four rows, containing each 24 turneps, in all 96, weighing 11 52 pounds j conlequently the arpent will yield 1 15200 weight of turneps.
The chief ufe of turneps is, to feed cattle in the winter and fpfing, till there is a fuffkiency of grafs for their pafture ; and as they are pulled up only as they are wanted, they take up the ground which lhculd be town with wheat, and fometirr.es even when it mould be fowed with fpring corn. In the new hufbandry, they are no hind- rance to fowing ; for as the alleys are in good tilth, three rows of corn may be iown feven inches afunder between the rows of turneps; and when the turneps are puLled, the ground they grew on is hoed, and becomes the alleys between the beds of corn.
It is well known that oxen and cows are very fond of tins food, which fattens them, and increafes the milk of cows. Sheep too eat it readily, and thrive upon it*, when they have been ufed to it early ; but they do not relifh it when it has not been offered them till they are grown old : but if they are kept fafting two or three days, moil:
* P^rfiey corrects the inconveniencies which may arife from the too grea". moifturc »ud cokkiefe of the tuirepb, and therefore muft be of fingular ufe in wet lowpaffures. See p. 322.
of
328 THE CULTURE Partlll.
of them eat It ; and when they have once tailed it, they become very fond of, and feed kindly upon it. In fome places, they feed their lambs with turneps till the middle of April, tho' they then begin to run up to feed j and farmers chufe rather to do this, than to let them hurt their fain-foin, lulerne, clover, &c.
When fheep are fed upon turneps, they muft not be fuffered to go at large in the field : they would fpoil more turneps in a fortnight than would feed them a whole winter : but they are given them three different ways.
The firft is, by inclofing a piece with hurdles, proportioned to what they can eat in one day, and the hurdles are removed every morning.
Sheep eat only the leaves and the heart of the turneps, {o that great part of them remains in the earth. 'Tis true thefe fragments ol the roots are afterwards pulled out with a fork with iron prongs : but befides that all of them are not pulled up, the Iheep do not relifli thofe rinds of turneps which begin to rot, and are tainted with their urine, dung, &c.
The fecond method differs from the firft only in pulling the turneps as far as they are hurdled off, before the Iheep are fent in. They then eat them better, becaufe the food is frefh and in good condition. Befides, they are more ealily pulled when entire, than when pieces of them remain.
The third way confifts in pulling the turneps, and carrying them into another field, or laying them on a fpot of grafs, where the Iheep eat them all up. The expencc of carrying the turneps, is compen- fated by faving the price of the hurdles, and the trouble of moving them every day.
This method is neceffary when the field on which the turneps grow, is wet: for i. The Iheep would bury and trample upon part of the turneps, which would be loft. 2. In treading that wet earth, they would poach it, and render it unfit for corn. 3. By this means, a field may be dunged, which wants it more than that the turneps grew on. 4. This muft necellarily be done, if wheat has been fown in the alleys between the rows of turneps.
Turneps are always carried off the field, when they are intended to fatten the larger forts of cattle.
SECT.
Chap. VI. T U R N E P S\ 329
SECT. III. tr
Experiments on Turneps cultivated according to the new Hujhandry.
IN 1754, M. de Chateau- vieux fowed turncps on beds, in two rows. They fuffered greatly for want of rain, and none of them grew to the fize they would have done in a more favourable feafon. Some of them weighed eight pounds : but their general weight was three or four.
In 1755, M. de Chateau-vieux fowed fome beds with one row, fome with two, and other^ with three rows. They were afterwards thinned fo that the plants were a foot afunder in the rows. Thofe fown in one row were the largeft, and, in general, the moft equal. Some of them weighed 14 pounds, and moft of them, from feven to eight. In the other rows, they did not weigh fo much ; but they were in greater number. He had not yet repeated his experi- ments often enough to determine what number of rows on each bed will yield the greateft crop.
In 1755, M. Duhamel fowed turnepson beds which had juft been reaped, and which, he fays, he intended to plant with luferne in the fpring. They were fown in three rows. They came up too thick, and, for want of thinning, remained fmall. However, the arpent yielded him four loads of leaves and roots.
He makes the following calculation of the produce of an arpent, fown in fingle rows, and cultivated according to the new hufbandry, fuppofing the turneps to weigh only fix pounds each ; which is very moderate.
Let a furface of 36 fquare toifes, which is nearly the extent of an arpent, be formed into beds of four feet wide, which is fufficient for one row of turneps. Thefe beds will be 216 feet long, and conse- quently will contain that number of turneps planted a foot afunder. Thofe 216, multiplied by 54, the number of beds, will give 11664 turneps for the product of the arpent, which, multiplied by fix, the weight of each turnep, will give 69984 pounds for the weight of all the turnepson the arpent. This may be looked upon as a very con- fiderable crop : and I have reafon to believe, adds our author, that in a good year, it will be double what I have here calculated.
In 1755, M. Duhamel fowed turneps in a field, on beds. They were extremely fine, and many of them were 29 inches in cir- cumference.
U u We
33°
EXPERIMENTS ON Partlll.
We fhall clofe this chapter with fome directions of Mr. Miller for the general culture of this plant.
" Turneps, fays he, delight in a light, fandy, loamy foil, which " muft not be rich ; for in a rich foil they grow rank and are fticky : " but if it be moift, they will thrive the better in fummer, efpecially " in frefh land, where they are always fweeter than upon an old worn- " out, or a rich foil.
" The common feafon for fowing of turneps, is any time from the " beginning of June to the middle of Auguft, or a little later f " though it is not advifeable to low them much after, becaufe, if the " autumn mould not prove very mild, they will not have time to ap- " pie before winter, nor will the roots of thofe which are fown after " the middle of July grow very large, unlefs the froft keeps off long
" in autumn. Two pounds of feed are full fufficient for an acre
" of land (fown in broad-caft) but one pound is the common al- " lowance*.
" Thefe feeds mould always be fown upon an open fpot of ground: " for if they are near hedges, walls, buildings, or trees, they will " draw up, and be very long topt, but their roots will not grow to M any fize. They are fown in great plenty in the fields near London, " not only for the ufe of the kitchen, but for food for cattle in win- *' ter, when there is a fcarcity of other food : and this way is become u a great improvement to barren fandy lands, particularly in Nor- " folk, where, by the culture of turneps, many perfons have doubled 4t the yearly value of their ground.
" When the plants have got four or five leaves, they fhould be " hoed to deftroy the weeds, and to cut up the plants which are too " thick, leaving the remaining ones about fix or eight inches afundtr, w which will be room enough for the plants to ftand for the fiift hoe- " ing ; and the fooner this is performed when the plants have four *■* leaves, the better they will thrive: but in thefecond hoeing, which " muft be performed about three weeks or a month after the flrfl:, lt they mould be cut up, fo as that the remaining plants may ftand " fourteen or fixteen inches diftance, or more, efpecially if they are ,c deiigned for feeding of cattle : for where the plants are allowed a u good diftance, the roots will be proportionably large : fo that what " is loft in number, will be overgained by their bulk, which is what " I have often obferved. But in places where they are fown for the
* Three or fear ounces, favs Mr~TuH, is the ufual quantity to di ill.
11 ufe
Chap. VI. TURNEPS, 33 r
" ufe of the kitchen, they need not be left at a greater diftance than " ten inches or a foot, becaufe large roots are not fo generally efteemed " for the table.
" It is not many years fince the praclice of fowing turneps for " feeding cattle, has been in general ufe. How it happened that " this improvement fhould have been fo long negleded in every " part of Europe, is not eafy to determine; fince it is very plain that " this piece of hufbandry was known to the antients : for Columella, " in treating of the feveral kinds of vegetables, which are proper for *' the field, recommends the cultivating rapa in plenty ; becaufe, *' fays he, thofe roots which are not wanted for the table, will be " eaten by the cattle. And yet this plant was not much cultivated " in the fields till of late years, nor is the true method of cultivating " turneps yet known, or at leafl it is not practifed, in fome of the 0 diftant counties of England : for in many places the feed is fown " with barley in the fpring, and thofe plants which come up, and " live till the barley is cut, produce a little green for the fheep to pick " up, but never have any roots. In other places, where the turnep " feed is fown by itfelf, the method of hoeing them is not underftood; " fo that weeds and turneps are permitted to grow together, and " where the tnrneps come up thick in patches, they are never thinned; " fo that they draw up to have long leaves, but never can have good ct roots, which is the principal part of the plant, and therefore
* fhould be chiefly attended to."*
Some very curious farmers, continues Mr. Miller, have of late cultivated turneps, by fowing the feed in rows, with the drill-plough. " In fome places, the rows are thrown three feet afunder, in others " four, in fome five, and fome fix. The latter has been recom- " mended by fome, as the moft proper diftance ; and although " the intervals are fo large, yet the crop produced on an acre has ■" been much greater, than upon the fame quantity of land where " the rows have been but half this diftance; and upon all the fields " which have been tilled, the crops have greatly exceeded thofe which " have been hand hoed. The late lord vifcount Townfhend was at *' the expence of making thc^rial of thefe two diffeient methods of " hufbandry, with the greateft care, by equally dividing the fame " fields into different lands, which were alternately fown in drills,
• and the intermediate lands in broad cafl. The latter were hoed by " hand, in the common method, and the other cultivated by the " hoeing plough ; and when the roots were fully grown, his lord-
Uu 2 " fhip
332 EXPERIMENTS ON Partlll.
" (hip had an equal quantity of land, which had been fown in diffe- <f rent methods, meafured, and the roots drawn up and weighed, " and thofe roots which had been cultivated by the plough, were fo " much larger than the other, that the crop of one acre weighed a " ton and a half more than that of an acre in the other hufbandry. .
" When the turneps are fown in drills, they will require to be " hoed by hand, to fepatate and cut out the plants, where they are " too near together in the rows ; as alfo to cut up the weeds between " the plants, where the plough cannot reach them. If this is care- " fully performed, the plowing of the intervals will encourage the " growth of the roots, by thus ftirring of the ground, and make it " much better prepared for the crop of barley, or whatever elfe is " fown the following fpring. This method of culture may be fup- " pofed to be more expenfive than that commonly praclifed, by thofe " unacquainted with it : but thofe who have made trials of both, " find the horfe-hoeing to be much the cheapeft, and by far the " beft : for the country people who are employed in hand-hoeing " of turneps, are very apt to hurry over their work, fo that half the " weeds are left growing, and the plants are feldom fingled out fo " well as they fhould be ; nor are they curious enough to diflinguifh *' the charlock (which is one of the moft common weeds in arable " land) from the turneps*; fo that about the middle of September, " it is very common to fee the fields of turneps full of the yellow " flowers of the charlock. Now, in the horfe-hoeing, all. the weeds " in the intervals will be entirely deftroyed ; fo that if a few plants in " the rows of turneps fhould be overlooked, they may be eafily " drawn when they appear viiible •. and by this method the land " will be fooner and better cleared from weeds.
" The greateft evil which attends a crop of turneps, is that of " their being deftroyed by the fly,, which ufually happens foon after " the plants- come above ground, or while they are in the feed leaf>; •' for after they have put out their rough leaves pretty ftrong, they *- will be paft this danger. This is always in dry weather : fo that " if there happens rain when the turneps come up, they will grew " fo faft as to be in a few days outj<}£ danger from the fly; and it " hath been found, that thofe which have been fown in drills, have '« efcaped the fly much better than thofe fown in broad-caft : but if* " foot is fown along the furface of each drill, it will be of great fer-
* See charlock in the article Weeds, p, ioo,
" vice
Chap. VI. TURNEP-S.-. 333
*« vice to kesp'off the fly, and a fmall quantity of it will be fufficient " for a large field, where the drills only are to be covered.
" Another danger of the crop's being deftroyed, is from the cater- ** pillars, which very often attack them when they are grown fo " large as to have fix or eight leaves on a plant. The fureft method " of deftroying thefe infects is to turn a large parcel of hungry poultry " early in the morning into the field: they will ibcn devour the in- <c feels, and clear the turneps. To this evil, the turneps which are " fown in drills, are not fo much expofed : for as the ground " between the rows will be kept ftirred, the plants will be kept **■ growing, fo will be lefs in danger of fuffering from thefe infects.
" When the ground is ftirred in every part" (as in the new hufbandry,) " one plowing will be fufficient after the turneps are " eaten, for the fowing of barley, or any other crop : fo that there " - will be an advantage in this, when the turneps are kept late on the " ground, as will often be the cafe, efpecia'ly when they are culti- " vated for feeding of ewes ; becaufe it is often the middle of April . " before the ground will be. cleared.; for the late feed in the fpring, , " before the natural grafs comes up, is the moft wanted, where u number of fheep or ewes are maintained ; and one acre of turneps " will afford more feed than fifty acres of the beft pafture at that '* feafon.
" In Norfolk, and fome other countries, they cultivate great quan- "■ tities of turneps for feeding cf black catt!e; which turn to great ad- " vantage to their farms ; for thereby they procure a good dreffing " for their land ; lo that they have extraordinary good crops of ** barley upon thofe lands, which would not have been worth the "plowing, if it had not been thus hufbanded.
" There have been' many receipts for preventing the fly taking "■ turneps, but few of them deferve notice : therefore I fhall only " mention two or three which I have fe^n tried with fuccefs. The " firft was fteeping the feeds in water with flower of brimftone- ** mixed, fo as to make it flrong of the brimitone : another was " fteeping it in water with a quantity of 'the juice of horfe-aloes "' mixed : both of which have been found of ufe. The fowing of " foot, or tobacco-dufl: over the young, plants, as foon as they appear - " above ground, has alfo been found very ferviceable : in fhort, '•-whatever will add vigour to the young plants, will prevent their "■ being deftroyed by the fly; for thefe never attack them, till they . M are ilinted in their growth."
A
334 THE CULTURE OF PartlH.
A gentleman, remarkable, among many other good qualities, for feveiral excellent improvements which he has made in agriculture, tried with fuccefs the following experiment, topreferve turneps from the fly, and the better to fecure their growth. He lowed the feed in anurfery, where there was leaft danger of Hugs or the fly, and where they might eafilv be watered in cafe of great drought, to make them grow the quicker. They remained in this nuriery, till they were large enough to be traniplanted. By this mean?, he gained fome weeks longer, to perfect his fallow, or give a thorough plowing to ground which had borne a crop that feafon. He transplanted his turneps into the field, and by planting them regularly a foot afunder everv way, greatly leffened the expence of hoeing ; their regularity making it very eafv to deftroy the weeds from time to time, as they appeared. If the feafon is dry, they may be carried from the nuriery to the field, in veffels full of very moift earth, as hereafter advifed by M. de Chateau-vieux, in his directions for tranfplanting luferne.
CHAP. VII. Of FLAX and HE M P.
FLAX and Hemp require a rich foil, well manured, and brought to a fine tilth, and kept as clear from weeds as poffibly can be. Thefe plants are of infinite ufe, and may be cultivated to very great advantage.
When they are raifed in the fields after the ufual method, they feldom grow very high, nor do their (talks branch out much : but when they are allowed more room, they will rife much higher, and branch out more, efpecially towards the top. The time for fowing both thefe plants is the fpring. Both of them are fo great impove- rifhers of the ground, that it requires dunging after each year's crop ; nor fhould either of them be fown two years together upon the fame land, in the old hufbandry. The fenny parts of Lincolnfhire, and of the ifle of Ely, are the mofl remarkable places in England for the culture of thefe plants. Betwixt two and three bufhels of feed is the ufual allowance for an acre of land fown in broad- caft : but Mr. Miller fays he has found it, from many repeated experiments, much better to fow the feeds in drills, and when the plants are come up, to hoe them, in the fame manner as is practifed for turneps, leaving the plants of flax at about ten inches diftance from each
other.
Chap. VII. FLAX AND HEMP. 335
other, and thofe of hemp a foot or fixteen inches a-part. Great care mould be taken to deftroy all the weeds, which twice hoeing in. dry weather will effect, and be fufficient culture till the plants are ripe.
Flax begins to ripen towards the latter end of Auguft, when care muft be taken not to let it grow over ripe. It mould therefore be pulled up as foon as the heads begin to grow brown and hang down- wards ; otherwiie the feeds will foon fcatter and be loft. If the flax is pulled when it firft begins to flower, it will be whiter than when it ftands till the feed is ripe ; but then the feed will be loft, and the thread made of it, tho' of a fairer colour, will not be fo ftrong as when the plants are fuffered to ftand longer.
There are two feafons for pulling hemp. The firft is ufually about the middle of Auguft, when they begin to pull what is called the fimble hemp, which is the male plants : but Mr. Miller thinks it would be much better to defer this a fortnight or three weeks longer, until the male plants have fully fhed their duft, without which, the feeds will prove abortive, produce nothing if fown the next year, nor yield any oil.
The fecond pulling is a little after Michaelmas, when the feeds are ripe. This is commonly called Karle Hemp, and is the fe- male plants, which were left at the time when the male were pulled.
An acre of hemp, on a rich foil, will produce, in the common hufbandry, near three quarters of feed, which, together with the unwrought hemp, is worth from fix to eight pounds. The quantity of flax feed annually imported into Scotland and Ireland, from the Eaft country, and particularly from Riga, amounts to many thou- fand pounds fterling, which might be faved the public, by properly encouraging the culture of thefe plants in the northern colonies o£ America.
The quantity of food which flax, and hemp require, feems to fecure their fuccefs in the new hufbandry. M. Duhamel gives us the following experiments made on them in that method, as a fpe- cirnen of what may be hereafter expected.
- M. de Chateau-vieux divided a field into 12 beds, 53 toifes and
two feet long, and feven feet wide. The middle of each bed was
raifed high, that there might be a greater depth of mould under the
plants. The foil was ftrong ; but had been lb thoroughly pulverifed.
' by plowing, that it was as fine as fand..
On
2^6 THE CULTURE OF Part III.
On the twentieth of March 1753, he fovved fix of thefe beds with the drill- plougb, planting fix rows of Jlax in each bed, and uiing for that pucpofe nine pounds of feed.
The plants came up well, and grew thick : but a froft which happened in April damaged many of them.
The twenty-fixth of April, he fowed tbe-fix other beds in the fame manner, with 13 pounds of hemp-feed, which likewife came up thick.
The alleys, had been horfe-hoed but once, and the plants came on greatly, when they were beat down by hail, which did them .considerable damage,, tho' they afterwards recovered tbemfelves in fome degree. The flax was pulled up the firft of Auguft, and the hemp the eighteenth.
This accident prevented knowing what the produce of the crop might otherwife have been. The- plants were taller than ufual, and had many more roots ; by which one may judge that they would have yielded a greater quantity of flax and hemp, than in the com- mon way.
Another misfortune which attended them" was, that they were very badly fteeped : but yet one might eafily perceive that their threads will be a great deal ftronger by this culture, than when they are raifed according to the old method.
'Tis of very great importance, at the fame time that the quantity of the flax is increafed, to be able to add to its flrength. The lin- nen made of it, will be better and laft longer, and confequently prove a confiderable faving.
The fuperior quality of the hemp employed in the cordage of fhips, is an objecl: of the utmoft importance -, for it muft be of very great advantage to have rope of a lefs diameter be as ftrong as thole of a larger fize. With fuch, the fame work may be performed more eafily and more readily, and perhaps with fewer hands : probably too, the ropes will be more durable. But all thefe motives of ceco- nomy are ftill vaftly inferior to the ineftimable advantage of faving -the fhips, their cargoes, and their crews, which often depends on the flrength of their fails and cables. I have only barely mentioned thefe great objects, to invite all who have the public good at heart, to make experiments which may tend to the utmoft improvement of the culture of thefe plants. How pleafing is the reflection, that whilft we are providing greater plenty of food for the fuftenance of men, we may likewife contribute to the prefervation of lives fo ufeful to the community !
M. de
Chap. VIII. FLAX AND HEMP. 33r;
M. de Chateau-vieux obferves that flax does not fucceed fo well in other years, as when there are frequent fbowers ; and that the year 1754, being very dry, proved extremely unfavourable to it. The flax was very fhort ; but that defect was in fome meafure compenfated by the abundance of the feed, and the finenefs of the bark of the plant, which was alfo ftronger than ufual. o
Hemp fucceeded better : it grew this year five or fix feet high : its ftalks were large, and the bark very thick and ftrong. The ground fown with it now, was that on which it was ulually fown, and never had produced fo great a quantity.
In an experiment made in Lower Normandy in 1754, the hemp was fhort, but extremely fruitful in feed, efpeciahy the two outer rows, which had profited moft by the hoeings. The middle row was fhorter than the other two, and yielded lefsfeed. The frequent rains in the fpring, prevented the ground's being fo well prepared as it fhould have been, becaufe it was too wet : but, upon the whole, it feemed pretty evident, that hemp cannot be raifed to its proper height without the affiftance of fome dung.
M. Aimen, from 40 plants of female hemp (commonly called male) raifed in the common way, and which might be deemed fine ones, had but half a pound of feed, and the ftalks were not more than a quarter of an inch in diameter near the root.
A fingle plant of the fame kind, which grew by itfelf, the earth being kept in a loofe ftate round it, yielded feven pounds and an half of feed. It had many branches, and the ftalk was three inches in diameter near the root. 'Tis true the hemp was coarfe and woody, and the fibres were interrupted where the branches grew. Thofe who raife this plant only for the oil of its feed, frequently fow it at proper diftances between their kidney beans and other leguminous plants, and it never fails to yield better feed than that which is raifed in the common way.
CHAP. VIII. SECT. I.
Of the culture of Sainfoin.
TH E French call this plant fainfoin, fain in their language fignifying wholefome, andfoin hay, becaufe they obferve that it agrees exceedingly well with all kinds of cattle. We improperly call it faint fbyn, and frequently French grafs, becaufe we owe our firft knowledge of it to the French. .
Xx tf
339 OFTHECULTURE Partlll.
If this plant is cultivated according to the new hufbandry, ks ftalks will grow to the length of five feet ; and, according to Mr. Tull, one acre of fainfoin will yield as much grafs as 30 or 40 acres of common grafs.
This great fruitfulnefs of fainfoin, is owing to the vaft quantity of its roots, -its tap-root pierces fometimes fifteen or twenty feet deep into the earth, and fends forth many lateral branches, which extend a great way, efpecially towards the furface of a good foil.
It is wrong to think, as many do, that fainfoin will not fucceed if there is not at a certain depth a bed of gravel, ftone, or chalk, to flop the progrefs of its roots. On the contrary, the deeper the earth is, the more its roots extend, and the fironger and more flourifhing is the plant.
As fome of its feed will frequently not grow, a fmall quantity fhould always be fown fir ft, to try it, as has been directed in regard to wheat.
This plant ought not to be fown above half an inch deep, efpe- cially in ftiff lands : for the heads of thefe feeds are fo large, and their necks fo weak, that if they lie much more than half an inch deep, they are not able to rife through the incumbent mould.
As fainfoin yields but an inconfiderable produce the firft years, the farmer, in order to make the more of his land, often fows barley, oats, clover, &c. with it. The barley and oats remaining but a ihort time on the earth, damage the fainfoin but little: but clover, and other perennial plants, do it great hurt.
In dry years, it frequently happens that when the barley or oats are mowed, no fainfoin yet appears. But on examining nearly, we generally perceive white threads, which (hew that the fainfoin has fprouted ; but its leaves, which were very fmall, have been cut off by the mowers.
ff the other feeds fown with the fainfoin, come up thick, and grow a-pace, and efpecially if they are lodged, the fainfoin is gene- rally choaked. This feldom happens if it is fown with the drill- plough : for as it is then drilled by itfclf, in feparate rows, it is lefs in danger of being choaked by any other plants. It muft however be owned that it always does beft when fown quite alone.
When Mr. Tull began to cultivate fainfoin according to his me- thod, he fowed two gallons of feed to an acre. But almoft all the feed of an acre or two of ground chancing to perifh by its being fown too late, he was agreeably furprifed at the end cf three years, to fee
fome
Chap. VIII. O F S A I N F O I N. 339
fome plants of fainfoin of an extraordinary fize difperfed here and there, fo that there \w:e about four plants in a yard fquare. This part of his field yielded him double the quantity of grafs that the reft of it did, where the feed had not periihed, and where the fainfoin was much better than in lands which had been fown in the common
way.
Mr. Tull concludes from thence, that it is moft profitable to fow fainfoin thin, 'that the roots of one plant may not hurt thofe of an- other : and he thinks that they deceive themfelves who fow their fainfoin very thick in hopes of reaping a more plentiful crop : becaufe that by fo doing they reduce their fainfoin to the fame condition it is in on the hills of Cakbria, near Croto, where it grows naturally without any culture, but fo low and dinted, that one would almoft wonder what could induce any one to think of cultivating fo un- promifing a plant as it there feems to be.
Mr. Tull fupports his opinion by an obfervation which it may not be improper to mention. He fays that a field of fainfoin joining to a piece or land which they were plowing up for corn, was greatly damaged by the plough, which, breaking in upon the fainfoin, tore up leveral plants : but that this part of the field yielded afterwards more grafs than any other.
Mr. Tull thinks a gallon of good feed enough for an acre of land. But this feed mould be fo dinxibuted, that all the plants may be att equal diftances. This cannot be done but with the drill- plough. There is no fear of diminifbing the crop, by leffening the number of the plants ; for one plant well cultivated will yield above half a pound of hay; and confequently if only 1 1 2 plants grow upon a fquare perch, and yield one with another only a quarter of a pound each, they will produce after the rate of two tun to an acre. One would not expedt fo considerable a return while the plants are yet fmall and young : they do not cover the ground, and the field looks as if the greateft part of it lay wafte : but when they have attained their full growth, they cover the whole furface. Another advantage arifing from the new hufbandry is, that if the fainfoin has been fown early, it yields a crop the fecond year, equal to the third year's crop of that which is fown in the common way.
Mr. Tull draws thefe conclufions from his experiments. 1. When fainfoin is fown with a defign to cultivate it with the horfe-hoe, the beft way is to fow it in two parallel rows, eight inches diftant from each other, and to make the alleys forty inches wide ; fo that from
X x 2 the
-,40 OF THE CULTURE Part III.
the middle of one furrow, to the middle of another, fhall be four feet.
2. If fainfoin is fown with an intention onljrto hand-hoe it, there fhould be a fpace of fixteen inches between each row, and the plants in the rows fhould be at leaft eight inches afunder.
3. When fainfoin is fown without any intention of hoeing it, the beft way is to drill the rows eight inches afunder, with no greater quantity of feed, than when they are at fixteen inches diftance: for each plant ought to have a fufficient fpace round it, to extend its roots in, and draw its neceffary nourishment from, without hurting its neighbouring plants.
Sainfoin thrives beft in rich, dry, light foils, and efpecially if there is a confiderable depth of mould. In marfhy grounds, or in lands which retain the water, the roots are chilled, and the plant foon perifhes.
Tho' fainfoin is a ftrong plant, the ground where it is fown ought to be in very fine tilth : for as it immediately fhoots out a great num- ber of roots as foon as it fprouts, the mould ought to be loofe, and the ftaple as deep as poffible.
Sainfoin may be fowed at any time : but when it is fown in au- tumn, the young plants are in danger of being hurt by frofts : if it is fown in fummer, it frequently happens that the feed remains long m the earth without fprouting ; or if it rifes, the drought, ufual at that feafon, ftints the young plants. The fpring is therefore the moft proper feafon for fowing it, when there is no longer any danger of hard frofts.
By means of the drill-plough, the feed of the fainfoin is dropt into channels which this inftrument makes, 2nd is at the fame time covered with the proper depth of earth.
It will riot be neceffary to horfe-hoe the alleys between the beds of fainfoin, fo often as between thofe of corn. It will be fufficient to horfe-hoe the alternate alleys once a year. By this means, one half ©f the alleys will be refted each year, on which the hay may be made. Thus the expence will be but trifling, and the fainfoin may Iaft thirty years on the fame groand, which, by this frequent ftirringr will be the better prepared to receive other grains after the fainfoin.
Sainfoin deferves the utmoft attention of the farmer, as being certainly one of the moft profitable plants he can cultivate. It will do- on almoft any land ; and though it fucceeds beft in good foils, yet
it
Chap. VIII. O F S A I N F O I N. 34r
it will, grow even on dry barren fpots, where fcarce any other grafs can live.
Sainfoin has this farther advantage, that it may be mowed at diffe- rent degrees of ripenefs, with nearly the fame profit.
i. It may be mowed before it is in bloom. It is .then an ad- mirable food. for horned cattle; and when cut thus early, it yields a fecond crop which makes ample amends for what was loft by not letting the fir ft come to its full growth.
2. If the weather be rainy, the fainfoin may be left ftanding till it is in bloom. It is ftill excellent fodder for cows. But care muft be taken in making it into hay, that the flowers do not drop off, which they are very apt to do : for cattle are fo fond of the flowers,. thaC tbefe often induce them to eat the reft of the plant.
3. If the rain continues, the fainfoin may continue ftanding till fome of its feeds are formed. The crop will then be more plentiful : not only becaufe it will have attained its full growth, but likewife becaufe its leaves, being more fubftantial, diminifh lefs in drying, 'Tis true, it is not then fo pleafant for fodder : but horfes eat it rea- dily, becaufe they love to feel between their teeth the feeds which now begin to be formed.
Mr. Tull fays this fodder is fo excellent, that horfes need no oats when they are fed with it. He affirms. that he kept a team of horfes with it a whole year in good plight, without giving them any oats, tho' they were worked hard all the time. He adds, that he fattened fheep with it, in lefs time than others which were fed with corn. But the hay of this plant can never be fo good as when it is Cultivated with the horfe-hoe : for in the comon huibandry, it bloflbms almoft as foon as it is out of the ground.
4. If the feafon continues rainy, it would be more advifeable ftill to let the fainfoin ftand, than to run the rifque of having it rot upon the ground : for then the feed will ripen, and nearly make up die lofs of the fodder : not only becaufe that feed may be carried to mar- ket ; but likewife becaufe two bulhels of it will go as far in feeding horfes, as three bufhels of oats; and cattle in general, as well as poul- try, are extremely fond of it.
Even the fainfoin that has yielded its feed, may be cut down and dried, and, in times of fcarcity of fodder, will be better food for horfes and large cattle, than the coarfe hay of water-meadows, or any kind of ftraw.
The manner of making fainfoin hay, is as follows,
Xa
342 OF THE CULTURE Part III.
In a day or two after the fainfoin has been mowed, it will be dry- on the upper fide, if the weather is good. The ferartlasj or mowed rows, fhould then be turned, not fingly, but two and two together : for by thus turning them in pairs, there is a double fpace of ground betwixt pair «nd pair, which needs but once raking : whereas, if the fwarths were turned fingly, that is, all the fame way, the ground would require as much raking again.
As foon as both fides of the fwarths are dry from rain and dew, they fhould be made up into little cocks, the fame dav they are turned, if pofiible : for when it is in cock, a lefs part of it will be expofed to the injuries of the night, than when it lies fcattered upon the field. The fun and dew would exhauft almoft all its juices, in this laft cafe, in lefs than a week's time.
Thefe little cocks of fainfoin may be fafely made into larger ones, without waiting for its being fo thoroughly dry as CMU is re-
quired to be : becaufe common hay, by finking down clofer, excludes the air neceffary for keeping it fweet, fo that if the weather prevents its being frequently mov'd and open'd, it will ferment, turn yellow, and be fpoil'dj whereas fainfoin, by the lefs flexibility of its fralks, admitting the air more freely, will remain much longer without anv danger of fermenting.
Sainfoin hay is never better than when it has been dried by the wind alone, without the affiftance of the fun. A little rain, or a milt, which will turn common hay, clover, and even luferne black, will do no hurt to fainfoin, which is not really fpoil'd, till it rots upon the field.
If the weather threatens rain, and the fainfoin is not yet dry, it may be laid up in cocks, without fear of its heating, provided a large bafket, or bufhy faggot be let up in the middle of each cock, where it will ferve for a vent hole, through which the fuperfluous moifture of the hay will tranfpire.
As foon as all danger of its heating is over, thefe cocks fhould be made into ricks, and thatched ; as indeed all ricks of fainfoin ought to be, though the hay be ever io drv in the cocks.
That which is laid up quite dry, will come out of the rick of a green colour : that which has heated much in the rick, will have a brown colour.
It requires fome experience to know the mod proper degree of ripenefs at which the feeded f&infoin ought to be cut ; for the feed is never all ripe together ; fome earsbloflbm before others: every ear begins
blofioming
Chap. VIII. O F S A I N F O I N. 343
bloffoming at the lower part of it, and fo continues gradually to do upward for many days ; and before the flower is gone off the top, the bottom of the ear has almoft filled the feeds that grow there ; fo that if we mould defer cutting till the top feeds are quite ripe, the lower, which are the beft, would fhed, and be loft. The beft time to cut it, is when the greateft part of the feed is well filled, the firft blown ripe, and the laft blown beginning to be full. The unripe feeds will ripen after cutting, and be, in all refpects, as good as thofe that were ripe before. Some, for want of obferving this, have fuf- fered this feed to ftand till it was all ripe, and then it has fhed, and been loft in cutting.
Sainfoin fhould never be cut in the heat of the day, while the fun fhinesoutj for then much, even of the unripe feed, will fhed in mowing. The right time for this work, is in the morning or the evening, when the dew has rendered the plants fupple.
If the weather is fine and clear, the fainfoin will loon dry fufficiently in the fwarths, without turning them : but if any rain has fallen, and there is a neceffity for turning them, it fhould be done very gently, whilft they are moift, and not two together, as in the other hay of fainfoin before it has feeded. If the fwarths are turned with the handle of the rake, 'tis beft to raife up the ear-fides firft, and let the ftub-fide reft on the ground in turning: but if it is done with the teeth of the rake, let the ftub-fide be lifted up, and the ears refted on the earth.
If fainfoin be cocked at all*, the fooner it is done, the better; be- caufe, if the fwarths are dry, much of the feed will be loft in fepa- rating them, the ears bring entangled together. When moift, the feed flicks faft to the ear ; but, when dry, it drops out with the leaft touch or Ijaking.
There are two ways of tbrefhing it: the one in field, the other in the barn. The firft cannot be done but in very fine weather, and while the fun fhines in the middle of the day. The beft manner of doing this, is to have a large fheet pegg'd down to the ground, for two men with their flails to threfh on, whilft two other men bring them frefh (upplies in a fmall fheet, and two others clear away the hay that is threlhed. The feed is emptied out of the great fheet, and
* Sometimes it is threfhed in the field, without being cocked. In that c.fe, the fwarths are only jufl: feparated, in the dew of the morning, into parcels or about two feet e.-.ch, by which means it is fooner dried, than when it lies thicker, as it rniift do, if made into cocks.
riddled
344 OF THE CULTURE PartllT.
riddled through a large fieve, to feparate it from the chaff and broken ftalks, after which it is put into facks and carried into the barn to be winnowed. Care fhouldbe taken not to let the hay be wet, becaufe it would be fpoikd.
A very important, and at the fame time very difficult article, is the keeping of the feed which is threfhed in the field, without having ever been wetted. If it be immediately winnowed, and only a little of it laid amidft a great heap, or put into a fack, it will, in a few days, ferment to fuch a degree, that the greateft part of it will lofe its vege- tative quality. During that fermentation, it will be very hot, and fmell four. Spreading it upon a barn-floor, only feven or eight inches thick, will anfwer no end, unlefs it be frequently and -regu- larly turned both day and night, until the heating is over : but even this will not make its colour keep fo bright as that which is well houfed, well dried, and tbrcfhed in the winter. This Iaft, laid up unthrefhed, will keep without any danger of fpoiling, becaufe it does not lie clofe enough to heat. The beft way to preferve the feed threfhed in the field, is to lay a layer of ftraw upon a barn floor, and upon that a thin layer of feed, then another layer of ftraw, and an- other layer of feed, and fo on, alternately. By this means, the feed, mixing with the ftraw, will be kept cool, and come out in the fpring with as green a colour as when it was put in.
The greateft part of the fainfoin that is fown, is fpoiled by being indifcreetly fed by cattle. Mr. Tull is againft feeding it at all the firft and fecond year, or any other year in the fpring. He fays he has recovered worn-out pieces of fainfoin, by plowing them in alleys three feet wide, and leaving beds of fainfoin of the fame breadth al- ternately between them. The plants, by extending their roots in thefe new plowed alleys, have recovered their vigor, and yielded* good crops of hay. He adds, that fainfoin is obferved to enrich whatever ground it is planted on, even tho' a crop be taken off it yearly.
This is confirmed by the author of the New Sy/lem of agriculture^ who fays ; " There is a foreign grafs much properer for iight " lands, than clover: 'tis generally known by the name of St. Foyne ; " but that which I have feen in feveral parts of Berkshire,. Wiltfhire, " Somerfetfhire, and many other counties, is a baftard fort, and much " inferior to the true St. Foyne, which may be had, very reafonably, " from Dunkirk, or Calais, and is yearly imported in great quan-
<{ tities, and fold in the feed-fhops at London and clfewhere. As
ts to the time of letting it giow, that may, if you pleafe, be five
years..
Chap. VIII. OF SAINFOIN. 345
" years,* for fo long it will continue in its prime perfection j and, " .running into a large knotty root, does fo enrich the ground it " grows on, that, after it has bo; -ne faint fey me five years, it will <c afford three excellent crops of what corn you pleafe ; and fo im- " prove itfelf, by alternate burthens of grafs and grain, till it arrives
" at the utmoft perfection which land is capable of reaching.
" Nothing is fo fweet, nothing fo innocent, nothing fo nourifhing, " as this faint foyne ; but, above all, it is obferv'd to increafe milk, " in quantity, and quality, beyond any grafs, yet known, in the " whole world."
We fhall now give the fubflance of a few experiments on the culture of this plant, as related by M,. Duhamel. ■*
SECT. II.
Experiments on Sainfoin.
TN 1754, M. Eyma planted luferne, fainfoin, and clover, the -*■ plants 16 inches afunder one way, and 8 feet the other. They yielded him an immenfe increafe. The alleys were horfe-hoed after every cutting.
In 175 5, a field of 888 fquare toifes planted with fainfoin accord- ing to the new hufbandry, produced him ten thoufand weight of dry hay. M. de Chateau-vieux had 15340 pounds of luferne off one arpent, which he cut five times : but M. Eyma thinks that 14445 pounds, Geneva weight, of fainfoin, which he had at one cutting, is a greater crop than M. de Chateau-vieux's luferne ; be- fides the after crop, which indeed was but inconfiderable on account of the drought of the feafon. He fays he cuts his fainfoin three times in good years, and that the two laft cuttings produce nearly as much as the firft : but he allows that fuch years are not to be ex- pected often.
M. Eyma doubts whether the preference be due to fainfoin or to luferne : but he is confident that either of them, properly cultivated, will produce furprifing crops.
He thinks that one row of fainfoin, or luferne, planted in the middle of a bed three feet wide, will profit more by the different
Y y hoeings,
* Tho' this author limits the prime perfection of fainfoin to five years, in the common hufbandry ; it will continue equally flourishing a much longer time, whea cultivated according to the new method.
346 O F T H E C U L T U R E Part III.
hoeings, and confequently produce more grafs, than double or triple rows, tho' thefe laft are planted on larger beds ; becaufe the fingle rows have the earth loofened on each fide.
M. Diancourt fowed fainfoin, each plant of which, in 1753, had a head of two feet diameter. They throve fo well that, in 1755, one plant, and that not the largefl in the field, produced zj, ounces of hay.
CHAP. IX. SECT. I. Of the culture of Luferne.
LU S E R N E, or medick, is fo generally known, that a par- ticular defcription of it would be needlefs. It bears a blue, or rather purplifh bloflbm, which leaves a pod like a fcrew, in which are the feeds, about the bignefs of broad clover, but longer, and more of the kidney-fbape.
When the (talks of luferne are cut, inftead of withering, as fain- foin does, they fpring out again from the ftubs, immediately below where the fcythe parted them, and are thereby fooner replenifhed with new fhoots, than fainfoin, which moots only from the root.
Luferne grows very quick, and ftrong. A fingle plant of it, if let grow without cutting, will form a kind of fhrub.
It will not, like fainfoin, thrive in any foil : That which it de- lights moft in, is a rich, deep, mellow earth, not over dry. It can- not endure cold rains ; and therefore does not fucceed well in Swit- zerland, tho' the inhabitants do all they can to cultivate it, frcm a perfuafion of its being a fovereign remedy for the dileafes of horfes : it grows but poorly neither in the weitern parts of France : but in the fouth of that kingdom, the fame field is fometimes mowed five or fix times a year, and yields a prodigious quantity of excellent fod- der.
" This plant, " fays Mr. Miller," hath not yet found fo good " reception in our country as could be wifhed, nor is it cultivated " in any conliderable quantity, tho' it is evident it will fucceed well •* in England, being extremely hardy, and refilling the fevereft cold K of our ciimate. As a proof of this, continues he, I muft beg " leave to mention, that the feeds which have happened to be fcat- *' tered upon the ground in autumn, have come up, and the plants
nuvc
Chap. IX. O F L U S E R N E. «47
" have endured the cold of a fevere winter, and made very flfrotig ** plants.
" About the year 1650, the feeds' of this plant were brought over " from France, and fown in England : but whether for want of " fkill in its culture, whereby it did not fucceed, or that the people " were fo fond of going on in their old beaten road, as not to try the " experiment whether it would fucceed here or not, was the occa- " fion of its being entirely neglefted in England, I cannot fay : but ** it is very certain that it was. neglected many years, fo as to be al- " moil forgotten. However, I hope, before I quit this article, to " give fuch directions for its culture, as will encourage the people of " England to make farther trial of this valuable plant, which grows "in the greafeft heat, and alfo in very coid countries, with this " difference only, that in very hot countries, fuch as the Spanifh " Weft-Indies, &c. where it is the chief fodder for their cattle at '4t this time, they cat it every week; whereas in cold countries it is " feldom cut oftener than three or four times a year. And it is very " likely, that this plant will be of great fervice to the inhabitants of " Barbadoes, Jamaica, and the other hot iflands in the Weft Indies, " where one of the greateft things they want is fodder for their " cattle ; fince by the account given of this plant by F. Feuille, it " thrives exceedingly in the Spanifh Well Indies, particularly about " Lima, where they cut it every week, and bring it into the market tc to fell, and is there the only fodder cultivated.
" It is alfo very common in Languedoc, Provence, and Dauphine, " and all over the banks of the Rhone, where it produces abundant- " ly, and may be mowed five or fix times in a year. Horfes, mules, " oxen, and other domeftick cattle, love it exceedingly ; but above " all when it is green, if they are permitted to feed on it, and efpe- " daily the black cattle, which will feed very kindly upon the d;ied " plant, the excefs of which is, by many people, thought to be very " dangerous : but it is faid to be exceeding good for milch cattle, to " promote their quantity of milk 5 and is alfo faid to agree with " horfes the heft of all, tho' fheep, goats, and moft other cattle) will " feed upon it, efpecially when young.
" The directions given by all thofe who have written of the " culture of this plant are very imperfect * ; for moft of them order
Y y 2 the
* We flatter ourfelves that M. de Ch»t«au-vieux's dire&ions, and his experiments! will appear in a different light.
348 OF THE CULTURE. Part III.
" the mixing of this feed with oats or barley (as is pradtifed for clo- " ver ;) but in this way it feldom comes up well; and, if it does, " it will diaw up fo weak by growing amongft the corn, as not " to be recovered under a whole year, if ever it can be brought to " its ufual ftrength again.
" Others have directed it to be fown upon a low rich moid foil ; " which is found to be the worft, next to a clay, of any for this " plant ; in both which the roots will rot in winter, and in a year or " two the whole crop will be deftroyed.
" But the foil in which this plant is found to fucceed beft in this " country is, a light, dry, loofe, fandy land, which fhould be well " plowed and dreffed, and the roots of all noxious weeds, fuch as " couch grafs, &c . deftroyed j otherwife thefe will over-grow the " plants while young, and prevent their progrefs.
" The beft time to fow the feed is about the middle of April, " when the weather is fettled and fair: for if you fow it when the " ground is very wet, or in a rainy feafon, the feeds will burft and " come to nothing (as is often the cafe with feveral of the legumi- " nous plants) ; therefore you fhould always obferve to fow it in a " drv feafon, and if there happens fome rain in about a week or " ten days after it is fown, the plants will foon appear above " ground.
" But the method I would direct for fowing thefe feeds, is as " follows. After having well plowed and harrowed the land very " fine, you fhould make a drill quite a-crofs the ground almoft half " an inch deep, into which the feeds fhould be fcattered very thin ; " then cover them over a quarter of an inch thick, or fomewhat " more, with the earth . then? proceed to make another drill, about " a foot -and a half from the former, fowing the feeds therein in the *' fame manner as before, and fo proceed through the whole fpot of " ground, allowing the fame diftance between row and row, and " fcatter the feeds very than in the drills. In this manner, an acre " of land will require about fix pounds of feed : for when it is fown " thicker, if the feed grows well, the plants will be fo clofe as to " fpoil each other in a year or two, the heads of them growing to a *c considerable fize, as will alfo the roots, provided they have room. " I have meafured the crown of one root, which was in my poffef- " fion, eighteen inches diameter ; from which I cut near four hun- '« dred fhoots at one time, which is an extraordinary increafe, and " this upoh a poor dry gravelly foil, which had not been dunged for
" many
Chap, IX. OF LUSERNE, 349
" many years, but the root was at leaft ten years old ■, fo that if " this crop be well cultivated, it will continue many years *, and H. be equally good as when it was firft fown : for the roots gene- " rally run down very deep in the ground, provided the foil bo « dry ; and although they fhould meet a hard gravel a foot below " the furface, yet their roots would penetrate it, and make their « way downward, as I have experienced, having taken up fome of V. them, which were above a yard in length, and had run two feet " into a' rock of gravel, fo hard as not to be loofened without mat- " tocks and crows of iron, and that with much difficulty.
" The reafon for directing this feed to be fown in rows is, that « the plants may have room to grow ; and for the better ftirring «' the ground between them, to deftroy the weeds, and encourage " the growth of the plants, which may be very eafily effected with " a Dutch hoe, juft after the cutting the crop each time, which " will caufe the plants to fhoot again in a very little time, and be " much ftronger than in fuch places. where the ground cannot be " ftirred : but when the plants firft come up, the ground between " fhould be hoed with a common hoe j and if in doing of this you " cut up the plants where they are too thick, it will caufe the re- " maining to be much ftronger. This hoeing fhould be repeated " two or three times while the plants are young, according as the " weeds are produced, obferving always to do it in dry weather, " that the weeds may the better be deftroyed ; for if it be done in m moift weather, they will soot and grow again.
" With this management, the plants will grow to the height of " two feet, or more, by the beginning of Auguft, when the flow- « ers will begin to appear, at which time the luferne fhould be «< cut, obferving to do it in a dry feafon, if it is to be made hay, " and keep it often turned, that it may foon dry, and be carried « off the ground ; for if it lie long upon the roots, it will prevent " their (hooting again. After the crop is taken off, you fhould ftir " the ground between the rows with a hoe, to kill the weeds, and « loofen the furface, which will caufe the plants to fhoot out again " in a fhort time, fo that by the beginning of September there will « be fhoots four or five inches high, when you may turn in fheep
*' upon
* M. Duhamel llkewife fays, that it will continue a long time on the fame oround, if care be taken that the natural grafs or weeds do not choak it :; for as foon as any other plants come up amongft luferne, it decays gradually and dies, io that very little of it will remain at the end of a few years.
3So OF THE CULTURE Part III.
'- upon it to feed it down : nor fhould the (hoots be differed to " remain upon the plants, which would decay when the frofty wea- " ther comes on, and fall down upon the crown of the roots, and " prevent their fhGoting early the fucceeding fpring.
" The beft way therefore is to feed it until November, when " it will have done fhooting for that feafon : but it fhould not be ,c fed by large cattle the firft year, becaufe the roots, being young, *' would be in danger of being deftroyed, either by their trampling c< upon them, or their pulling them out of the ground : but fheep " will be of fervice to the roots by dunging the ground, pro- " vided they do not eat it too clofe, fo as to endanger the crown " of the roots.
" The beginning of February, the ground between the rows " mould be again ftirred with the hoe, to encourage them to moot " again : but in doing of this you fhould be careful not to injure " the crown of the roots, upon which the buds are at that time " very turgid, and ready to pufh. With this management, if the " foil be warm, by the middle of March the flioots will be five or *' (ix inches high, when, if you are in want of fodder, you may " feed it down till a week in April ; after which it fhould be fuf- <c fered to grow for a crop, which will be fit to cut the beginning " of June, when you fhould obferve to get it off the ground as *c foon as poffible, and ftir the ground again with the Dutch hoe, ** which will forward the plants fhooting again, fo that by the mid- " die, or latter end of July, there will be another crop fit to cut, " which muft be managed as before ; after which it fhould be fed " down again in autumn : and as the roots by this time will have " taken deep hold in the ground, there will be little danger of hurt- " ing them, if you fliould turn in larger cattle ; but you muft al- ft ways obferve not to fuffer them to remain after the roots have " done fhooting, left they fhould eat down the crown of the roots " below the buds, which would confiderably damage, if not de- " ftroy them.
" In this manner you may continue constantly to have two crops c< to cut, and two feedings upon this plant, and in good feafons *' there may be three crops cut, and two feedings, which will be a " great improvement, efpecialiy as this plant will grow upon dry " barren foils, where grafs will come to little, and be of great ufe " in dry fummers, when grafs is often burnt up : and as it is an " early plant in the fpring, fo it wilhbe of great fervice when fod-
" der
Chap. IX. OF LUSERNE. 35I
" der faJIs ffiort at that feafon, when it will be fit to feed at leaft a ■■' month before grafs or clover; for I have had this dant eight " inches high by the tenth of March, old ftyle, at which time * the grafs in the fame place has fcarcely been one inch high.
" That cold will not injure this plant, I am fully fatis'fied * • ' for in the very cold winter, Anno 172S— 9, I had fome roots of ■ this plant which were dug up in October, and laid upon the " ground in the open air till the beginning of March, when I " planted them again, and they fhot out very vigoroufly' foon af- " ter : nay, even while they lay upon the ground, they ftruck out " fibres from the under fide of the roots, and had begun to fhoot " green from the crown of the roots. But that wet will deftroy « the roots, I am fully convinced, for I fowed a little of the feed :c upon a moift fpot of ground for a trial, which came up very ' well, and flourished exceedingly during the fummer feafon, but ;c in winter, when the great rains fell, the roots began to rot at bot- tom, and before the fpring moft of them were deftroyed. « The beft places to procure the feed from, are Switzerland and 2 the northern parts of France, which fucceeds better with us than that which comes from a more fouthern climate : but this feed " may be faved in England in great plenty; in order to which a c Small quantity of the plants fhould be fuffered to grow uncut 'till " the keds are ripe, when it muft be cut, and laid to dry in an " open barn where the air may freely pafs through : but the feed '* muft be defended from the wet ; for if it be expofed thereto, it " will lhoot while it remains in the pod, whereby it will be fpoi'led. " Wrien H 1S quke dryj k muft be thrdhed out> and c]eanfed from
1 the hufk, and preferved in a dry place till the feafon for fowin<* " it : and this feed faved in England is much preferable to any
' brought from abroad, as I have feveral times experienced, the •' plants produced from it having been much ftroneer than thofe ■' prouued from French, Helvetian, and Turkey feeds, which
c were lown at the fame time, and on the fame foil and fituation.
" I am inclinable to think that the reafon of this plant not fuc-
•| ceeding, when it has been fown in England, has either been oc-
" caiioned by the fowing it with corn, with which it will by no
" means
^iLTT-f, 'I ?ni^ hJ M' Duhame!> who fays that the hard winter in 1709, To "he h!krL Snd Wilnut'u^ in France> did no great darnag;e
352 OF THE CULTURE Partlll.
" means thrive * (for though the plant be very hardy when grown " pretty large, yet at its firft coming up, if it be incommoded by " any other plants or weeds, it feldom does well j therefore it " fhould always be fown by itfelf, and carefully cleared from " Weeds until it has ftrength, after which it is not eafily deftroy- <c ed ;) or, perhaps, people have fown it at a wrong feafon, or in " wet weather, whereby the feeds have rotted, and never come " up, which hath difcouraged their attempting it again : but how- " ever the fuccefs has been, I dare aver, that if the method of fow- <£ ing or managing of this plant, which is here laid down, be " duely followed, it will be found to thrive as well as any other ** fort of fodder now cultivated in England, and will continue much " longer : for if the ground be duly ftirred after the cutting each " crop, and the firft crop fed, as hath been directed, the plants " will continue in vigour twenty years, or more, without renew- " ing, provided they are not permitted to feed, which would weaken " the roots more than four times cutting would do.
" The hay of this plant fhould be kept in clofe barns, it being " too tender to be kept in reeks open to the air as other hay : but " it will remain good, if well dried before it be carried in, three " years. The people abroad reckon an acre of this fodder fuffici- " ent to keep three horfes all the year round : and I have been af- *' fured by perfons of undoubted credit, who have cultivated this " plant in England, that three acres of it have fed ten cart horfes " from the end of April to the beginning of October, without any cc other food, though they have been conftantly worked. Indeed " the beft ufe that can be made of this grafs is, to cut it, and give " it green to the cattle. Where this hath been daily practifed, I " have obferved that by the time the field has been cut over, that " part which was the firft cut, hath been ready to cut again ; ft> " that there has been a conftant fupply in the fame field, from the " middle of April to the end of October, when the feafon has con- " tinued long mild; and when the nmimers have proved fhowery, " I have known fix crops cut in one feafon : but in the dry fea- *i fons there will be always three. When the plant begins to flow- cf er, it fhould then be cut ; for if it ftands longer, the ftalks will <c grow hard, and the under leaves will decay, and then the cattle << will not fo readily eat it. Where there is a quantity of this culti-
" vated,
f- M. Dubamel alfo is absolutely againft fowing it with corn, or any other plant.
Chap. IX. OFLUSERNE. 353
' vated, fome of it mould be cut before the flower? appear, other- s' wife there will be too much to cut within a proper time.
" When this is made into hay, it will require a great deal cf " making : for as the ftalks are very fucculent, it mull be often " turned, and expofed a fortnight before it will be fit to houfe ; for " this requires a longer time to make than fainfoin : therefore, " when it is cut, it mould be carried to make upon fome grafs " ground ; becaufe the earth in the intervals of the rows will wafh " up, and mix with the hay in every (hower of rain ; and by'car- " rying it oft as foon as it is cut, the plants will fhoot up again •' foon : but it is not fo profitable for hay, as to cut green for all " forts of cattle, but especially horfes, which are extremely fond of " it; and to them it will anf'wer the purpofc of both hay and corn, " arid they may be worked at the fame time juft as much as when " thev are fed with corn, or dry food."
» To die inftrudtions which Mr. Miller has here given for the ma- nagement of luferne, we fhall only add a few remarks of M. Du- hamel, and then proceed to the experiments which fome of his correfpondents, and particularly M. de Chateau-vieux, have made up- on the culture of this plant according to the principles of the new husbandry.
Luferne, like fainfoin, may be cut, either before, or while it is in bloom, or when the feed is ripe. The only things to be ob- ferved are,
1. That it makes the beft fodder, when cut before its lateral moots. come out, and confequently a good while before it bloffoms.
2. That the earlier it is cut, the fooner it produces a new crop.
3. That luferne requires more time ta dry it into hay, than fain- foin : but yet it muft not be left-long upon the field, left it mould heat, and damage the young fhoots riling for another crop.
4. That rain hurts luferne, when cut, more than it do:s fainfoin. It mould therefore be houfed as foon as it is dry : for this hay can- not be preffed fo clofe together, in cocks, but that the water will penetrate into it, and rot it.
5. If luferne grows yellow before it is in bloom, it is an almcft certain fign that its root is attacked by fome infect in the earth. The beft way in this cafe is, to cut it down, that the grafs may not be loft, and that the infects may be deftroyed before they entirely con&me the root.
Z z 6. When
3^4 EXPERIMENTS ON Part III:
6. When the feed is to be faved, it mud ftand till it is quite ripe, and that crop of grafs is loft.
When the feed is quite ripe, the tops of the plants, where the pods grow, fhould be cut off with a fharp fickle, (making them as little as pofiible,) and laid in a cloth held ready to receive them, on which they are dried in the (hade, and then beat out and clean- ed. The reft of the grafs is afterwards cut down 'j rather to clear the field, than for any ufe it can be of; being now too coarfe and hard.
CHAP. IX. SECT. II.
Experiments on luferne cultivated according to the new hujba?idry\ by M. de Chateau -vieux.
IT is truely with regret, fays M. de Chateau-vieux, that I am forced to treat a fubject of this importance, in fo fummary a way as the limits of this letter * require. However, I hope that even this general account of my experiments may be a guide to thole who would cultivate this plant. Many perfons who live at a con- siderable diftance from this place -f-, have already followed my ex- ample, and are extremely well fatisfied with their fuccefs.
Though I agree with M. Duhamel and the other partifans of the new hufbandry, that luferne and fainfoin thrive beft when cultivated in beds ; yet my practice differs, in many refpects, from theirs. This difference confiits in,
I . The principle which I apply particularly to the culture of luferne.
T U C E R N E naturally grows with one large perpendicular ■*-' root, which penetrates very deep into the earth, and has few, if any, lateral roots. From fimilar experiments on other tap- rooted plants, I was induced to think, that this too, by tranfplant- ing it, and at the fame time cutting off part of its tap-root, might be made to fhoot out feveral horizontal roots, which, reaching into the loofe mould of the alleys, and extending themfelvcs there, would collect a greater quantity of nouriihment for the plant, and confe- quently enable it to produce more abundant crops.
The evtnt has proved, that when we reafon on found principles,. we feldom err. My tranfplanted luferne pufhed out numbers of
large.
' His letter to M, Duhamel f Geneva.
Chap. IX. LUSERNE. 35S
large lateral roots, and thefe branched out again into others, which may be multiplied without end by frequent culture of the alleys : for the horfe-hoe has the fame effect on thefe horizontal roots, that cutting has upon the tap-root.
2. The method of tranfplanting the lufcrne.
T Made feveral beds, fome about three feet wide, (including the •*• alleys,) into which I tranfplanted a fingle row of luferne; o-. thers about three feet nine inches, into which I tranfplanted two rows ; and others about four feet three inches wide, in which I put three rows. The defign of this variation was, to fee by which of thefe three methods the fame extent of ground will produce the greateft quantity of luferne. I believe it will require five or fix years to determine exactly which of them will be beft ; becaufe, as the plants increafe every year in bulk, their produce alters, and may perhaps not keep in proportion to the firft years, though pro- bably the difference will not be great. But without waiting fo long, I can already fee, that the crop will be greateji by planting only out row on each bed.
The plants in the fingle rows were fix inches afunder, nor fhould they ever be nearer ; and thofe in the double and triple rows, were eight or nine inches diftant from each other. I muft obferve, that I likewife fowed luferne with the drill, in beds, in which it has re- mained without tranfplanting. It is very fine} but not near fo ftrong and flourifhing as that which I tranfplanted. When luferne is fown where it is to remain, it neceffarily requires being thinned, and that operation takes up more time than tranfplanting it would do.
Rules to be objerved in tranfplanting luferne into beds.
i. npH E middle of the beds muft be raifed and arched as high A as poffiblej and as the luferne is to remain feveral years on the fame ground, no pains fhould be fpared to prepare the earth as well as can be.
2. Luferne fhould be fown in the fpring, and in a rich mould, that the plants may be ftrong enough to tranfplant in September.
3. Plants two or three years old, may be tranfplanted equally well.
Z z 2 4. They
3j6 EXPERIMENTS ON Part III.
4. They fhould be tranfplanted in September, that they may have time to take frefh root before the winter comes on.
5. If they cannot conveniently be tranfplanted in September, it may be done in October, provided it does not freeze.
6. The mould into which they are tranfplanted, fhould be moid ; and it the weather be fomewhat rainy, it is lo much the better. In this cife, I have never found it neceffary to water the plants.
7. If luferne is tranfplanted in November or December,* there is danger of the froils forcing many of the plants out of the ground.
8. If too warm and dry a feafon prevents t'ranfplapting in Sep- tember or October, it is beft to fhy till the winter is paft. The plants will then be fure of taking root, and very few of them will tail.
9. If they can be tranfplanted in autumn, they willtyield pretty good crops the next year : but if they are not tranfplanted till fpring, the next year's crops will be but indifferent.
10. The plants muft be taken up out of the nurfery, with great care and patience,, that their roots may got be damaged.
1 1. The roots fhould be left about fix or feven inches long, and the green tops fhould be cut off within about two inches of the crown of the root.
12. The plants will take root the fooner, if they, are put in wa- ter as focn as they are taken up, and kept in it till they are planted.
13. They are planted in holes made with a planting flick, in the. Line manner as cabbages or lettice? are planted in a garden.
14. The beft way of planting luf.rne is, to cut a flrai: channel. two or three inches deep, and fet the plants in the bottom of it^ covering them up to the neck.
15. Great care fhould be taken not to fuffer any weeds to grow among the luferne, at leaft for the two -or three firft years. To ihis end, the rows fhould be weeded by hand, as well as the edge of- the alleys near the pl?nts, where the horfc-hoe cannot go.
16. The alleys may be ftirred, either- with the fingle cultivator,, or the cultivator with two mould boards 3 which, at the fame time, that it deftroys the weeds, keeps the mould loofe.
17. The firft ftirring may be given with the fingle cultivator, with which a furrow may be cut on each fide of the main furrow* in the middle of the alleys, by which means the earth will be turned over on both fides of it.
18. The fecond flirring may be given with the cultivator with two-
mould.
Chap. IX. L U S E R N E. 357
mould boards, by drawing it along the middle of the alleys. This will turn the earth towards the rows. By thefe alternate Stirrings, the alleys will be constantly kept in a lcofe ftate.
19. This culture is fo eafily performed, and in fo Short a time, that it may be repeated frequently. In this I differ from M. Du- hamel, who orders it but feldom. My opinion is, that the alleys mould be Stirred once a Aonth, during the whole time that the luferne is in a growing State.
20. If the alleys keep free from weeds, lefs Stirring them may dor but the mould Should never be fufrered to grow too hard.
21. Asfoon as Some of the plants begin to bloSTom, the luferne Should be cut. It will then make excellent fodder, fuperior to every other kind.
22. The luferne hay Should be dried as quick as poffible, and fre- quently turned. The lefs it is expofed to the heat of the fun, the better fodder it makes.
23. Luferne muff not be houfed till it is dry : but at the fame time care muft be taken that it be not too dry : for then, many of the leaves will fall off, as they dry fooner than the ftalks.
24. Cattle muft not have too much given them at a time, till they are accuStomed to it.
25. No cattle Should ever be- fuffered to feed on the beds of luferne.. If the earth is very dry, towards the latter end of the autumn, Sheep will do it the leaft hurt.. If the plants are then tall enough to be mowed, the celt way is to cut them, and give them green to the- cattle.
, Thefe rules contain all that is effentially neceffary for making and: keeping in good order this kind of artificial paSture. I can fafely fay, that whoever tries them, will be abundantly rewarded for his trouble and expence. Sainfoin may be cultivated in the fame manner.
Jccount cf the produce of Luferne planted in beds, and cult hated ac- cording to the principles- of the new hufoandry: with Jb me important' ref eel ions 0:1 the advantages which may be obtained from it.
JJO judgment mould be formed of what luferne may produce, by the crops of the firft or fecond year : it is then too young to be: able to yield much. If we were to calculate even by its third year's produce, we Should ft ill confider, that as the plants increafe every year in bulk and vigour, (and where they will flop I am not yet able.
to>
35S EXPERIMENTS ON PartHI.
to determine,) the produce will be proportioned to that increafe, and confequently the crop of each fucceeding year will be greater than that of the laft .
The crops I am going to fpeak of, are thofe of the fecond and third year : but my calculations will be made on that of the third year. It is proper to remember that the years 1753 and 1754, were uncom- monly dry, infomuch that fometimes, no»a drop of rain, nor fcarce any dew, fell between the cutting of one crop and that of another. The feafons were fo unfavourable to the production of grafs, that hay rofe to an exceffive price.
I (hall firft fay what was the ftate of the plants in their third year, and afterwards how much hay they yielded.
State of the plants in their third year.
A S the part of the plant which I now confider, is that which is "**" buried in the earth, I uncovered numbers of them, that I might be able to j»dge of their general ftate. I was greatly flruck with the effect which tranfplanting had had upon them. Inftead of one per- pendicular root, which they ufually have, all thefe plants had three, four, five, and fometimes more, almoft equally big roots. They were, in general, three quarters of an inch in diameter, and proceeded from theoriginal root, which was now at leaft an inch in diameter, and in many of the plants an inch and a half. After the mod careful fearch which I could poflibly make, I could not find one plant of luferne fown in the common way, tho' it had flood twelve, twenty or more years, whofe tap-root had grown to the bignefs of an inch diameter : few of them were above half, or at mod three quarters of an inch thick. This difference is very great.
I likewife found that the roots of the tranfplanted luferne had pro- duced another kind of roots, of which I faw none about the roots of the old luferne. Thefe were a great number of fibrous roots, fome of which were already one-twelfth of an inch in diameter, and looked as if they would alio become principal roots.
The (talks feem to rife out of the earth; and from the firft time of cutting them, a kind of head forms juft above ground, which ex- tends itfelf every year. The firft year this head was two or three inches wide : the fecond year, it was generally about fix inches over ; and this third year, almoft half the plants have a crown ten or twelve inches in diameter: and as many of them have grown fo as to touch one another, their crowns are become of an oval form, having ex- tended themfelvcs on the fides where they met with no refinance.
CROPS.
Chap. IX. L U S E R N E. 359
CROPS.
T Have an arpent of luferne in beds, divided into two parts. This **■ is the third crop of luferne off one of them. The beds are forty toifes in length. In 1753, I cut this luferne fix times, viz. in May, June, July, Auguft, September, and the beginning of- November. This lalt cutting was not near fo plentiful as the others, and I dried it within doors.
Thefe fix cuttings off one bed, on which there was but one row of luferne, yielded 140 pounds of well dried hay.
In 1754, the luferne was late before it began to fhoot, and the earth was drier than the year before. I had but five crops : the firft was cut the 27th of May j the fecond, the 1 ft of July ; the third, the 27th of July; the fourth, the 26th of Auguft; and the fifth, the 23d of October. Thefe five cuttings yielded in all 225 pounds of well dried hay off each bed.
A field 40 toifes long, which was the length of my beds, and 34 toifes wide, contains an arpent. This arpent divided into 68 beds, each three feet wide, producing after the rate of 2-25 pounds of hay off each bed, would yield in all 15300 pounds*; which is infinitely more than is ever obtained in the common way.
The beds with three rows yielded much left. The third year, their crops amounted to no more than 169 pounds each bed, which is a fourth left than the others : and as thefe beds are wider, inftead. ©f having 68, as in the former difpofition of the arpent, there will be only 47, each four feet three inches wide, the total produce of which, will be but 7943 pounds : coniequently this arpent will yield little more than half as much as an arpent laid out in beds three feet wide, planted with only fingle rows..
REMARKS.
T
SHE plants of luferne had the fate of all kinds of plantations : that is to fav, fome of them were more vigorous than others. The greatett number of thefe plants produced each of them a pound of dry hay, and fome of them yielded two pounds. I look upon thefe lalt as fuch extraordinary productions, that I do not expect many of
* Upwards of feven and a half Engiifh leads of hay, at 18 hundred weight to the load.
them
36o EXPERIMENTS ON Part Hi.
them to yield the like quantity again. I think onerfnay he very well fatisfied, if the plants, one with another, yield a pound of hay a-piece every year. This is nearly the refult of my experiment on beds which had but one row ; and the produce of thefe would have been ftili greater, if many of my plants had not failed : in the room of which I let young ones, which could not acquire fufficient fbrength to yield full crops.
In thefe experiments, I have employed no dung : neither have I for any of my corn fields. I have refcrved it for improving my pa flu res and meadows ; and intend next to apply it to my luferne, which, I doubt not, will be much the finer for it. The only thing now re- maining is, to know by experience which will be the btft way of ufing it. I have feme thoughts on that head, which may render it much more profitable.
Luferne cieferve? to be cultivated with care : not only on account of tne great quantity of fodder which it yields, but likewife becaufe the quality of its hay is fuperior to any other. The new hufbandry will render it lull more perfect. Plants cultivated this way, enjoy the benefit of a free circulation of the air, and that circulation keeps them fweet and found, and free from all muftinefs towards their roots : for, being open to the rays of the fun, that great fource of kindly vegetation, they attain great perfection in all their parts, both as to their fubfiance, and their flavour. Cattle eat this food greedily, and are better nourifhed with it, than with any other : but as every excefs is bad, too great a quantity fhould not be given them at once, efpecially at firfl, left it fhould fwell them. The heft way is, to bring them to it by degrees.
I have experienced thefe qualities in this hay, by comparing it with every other fort. The excellence of this, juftifks the principles on which the new hufbandry is founded. I have offered to my horfes bundles of every kind of hay, and at the fame time a bundle of this hay of luferne. They have not heiitated a moment to prefer the lat- ter. Nothing but its fuperior qualities could determine them in tin's choice, winch has never varied, 2nd has always been in favour of the luferne cultivated in this manner.
It would be lavifhing this excellent fodder, to feed horfes entirely
with it. It need only be given them by turns with common hay;
ich will be a great faving : for this luferne will fupply the place
of oats. I am certain that n/y boijh Jed partly with this hay, and
without oats, will be in better plight, Jlronger, and more vigor cm,
than
Chap. IX. L U S E R N E. 361
than thofe which ire fed with meadow hay and corn in the iifual way. It is now fome time fince I have fed my coach horfes with it, and have retrenched their oats. Inflead of this laft food, and at the hours they ufed to have it, I give them luferne chopt, as the Spaniards do ftraw to their horfes. Mine are as fond of it, and fhew the fame im- patience to find it in their manger, as if it was oats ; and fince their being put under this diet, they are in better condition than before, and fo mettlefome that the coachman has enough to do to keep them in.
When I faid that retrenching the oats would be a considerable faving, I did not fo much mean the faving of the expence of that corn, as the better improving of many vafl tracts of land which are fown with oats, and might, with proper management, produce much more ufeful, and more profitable forts of grain, notwithstanding the too general prejudice, that fome lands are not capable of bearing any better. For my part, I am thoroughly fatisfied , that whatever ground can bear a crop of oats, can likewife, under the new hufbandry, bear any other grain.
Continuation of M. de Chateau-vieuxV account of his experiments on Luferne, in the years 1755 and 1756.
HE great drought of the year 1755, was accompanied with great heat ; and the year 1756 was very rainy, and moderately warm, there being but few very hot days in it.
The luferne was expofed to a moft fevere winter in 1755, when the froft was excefiive hard, and lafted very long. M. de Reaumur's thermometer was fome days, at different time?, 8, q, 10, 12, and 13 degrees below the freezing point ; and on the 3d of February, a ther- mometer in the open air, flood at 16 degrees * below freezing. Thefe fevere frofb made me uneafy for my luferne, which however bore them, without receiving any damage.
The rains in 1756 did no hurt to the plants, but they prevented my
* The greateft cold in the winter of the year 1739-40, fu»k Farenheit's thermo- meter to about 12 degrees, equal to 1 1 degrees below th2 freezing point of M. de Reaumur's thermometer. The 16th degree below the freezing point of M. de Reau- mur's thermometer, anfwers to nearly the 3d degree of Farenheit's : confequently the cold was, by Farenheit's thermometer, 9 degrees greater in Switzerland in 1755, than it was here in the fevered froft of the very hard winter in 1 7 39-40 : and therefore, as M. de Chateau- vie ux's luferne was not hurt by that intenfe cold, there can be no /ear of this plant's being killed by any inclemency of the weather in this country.
A a a cutting
T
362 EXPB.R I. M- E N- T S ON ?art IIL
cutting them at proper times. I had but four ctpps of- iuferne this year, being obliged to wait for an appearance of fine weather to dry it in before I could venture to cut it down. Thefe rains likewife hin- dered my giving the proper hoeings to the alleys, which were full of weeds during the fummer and autumn. I chofe rather to leave them in that condition, than attempt to hoe them while the ground was over wet : not doubting but the fpring hoeings would ealily deftroy
them.
In j 755, Icut my Iuferne five times: the firfl was, the 3d of May,, before any flowers appeared : the fecond,. the 12th of June : the third, the 15th of July: the fourth, the 2 1 ft of Auguft ; and the fifth, the 7th of October. I was obliged to finifh the drying of this laft cutting, in barns and under cover.
In 17 5 6, which was the fifth year of thefe plants, I cut them but four times: the firft, the 3d of June j the fecond, the ift of July* the third, the 4th of Auguft -} and the fourth, the 27th of September.
A bed 40 toifes long, with only one row of Iuferne,
iln 1754 • • • 2257 1755 . . . 1Q7| pounds of dry hay. ,756 . • • 281 j
In three years, 703 pounds..
A bed of the fame length, with three rows of iuferne,
Cln 1754 • • ' l69] Yielded < 1755 . • • 1 80 > pounds of dry hay,
I i7S<> • • • 226j
In.thiee years, 575 pounds.
OBSERVATIONS.
TS/E fee, bv the above account of three years, that a piece of W ground laid out in narrow beds, planted with only one rovy of Iuferne, yielded a greater produce than the fame extent made into wider beds, and planted with three rows.
1 mall not, however, nretend to determine from this one experi-
oaentj
Chap. IX. L U S E R N E. 363
rnent, that it is beft to lay down large fields in this manner. I think it will be right to try firft, whether the fuccefs will be the fame on different foils, and likewife on lands whofe expofition may be more or lefs advantageous. If, after repeated trials, the beds which have but one row of plants, yield the greateft quantity of hay, that me- thod is certainly to be preferred. To clear up this point, ftill more to my fatisfaclion, I continue to plant luferne in beds, fome with one, and others with three rows.
The difference between the crop of 1756, and thofe of the two preceding years, would induce one to think that rainy feafons are beft: for the production of hay : but ftill, the greater quantity which the year 1756 produced, muft not be imputed to the rain only : wc fhould likewife confider, that the plants had throve greatly fince 1754; that their ftems were grown much larger, and their roots much ftronger and more numerous, and that they were confequently able to yield much greater crops than before. They have abundantly anfwered my expectation, both as to quantity and quality.
With refpecl to the quantity, it is much greater than that of any common fodder : I mean, of any that the fame extent of ground would have produced, if cultivated in the common way ; though it would then have been covered with an immenfe quantity of plants. This is a fact, which numbers of experiments prove, and which we fhall ceafe to wonder at when we confider the great effects of the fre- quent ftirring of the alleys. To this it is that I owe the repetition of my crops, and their being all of nearly equal goodnefs. I do not exaggerate, when I fay, that every fummer month, which is the time I generally allow between each cutting, will produce fhoots two feet long, and fometimes more : and fuppofing that I cut them but five times a year, each plant, will have produced after the rate of nine or ten feet length of fhoots, and that in the fame time that moft mea- dows will not produce grafs above two feet long.
As to the quality of this hay, I continue to prefer it to all other fodder. My experience has confirmed what I faid of it in 1754 ; and I fhall only add, that 1 have fince found that it is as good at the end of four years, as when it is firft cut. If there was any difference, horfes would foon be fenfible of it : but they eat of either without diftindtion.
I feed my horfes with it, chiefly in the fummer, at which time they do moft work, and am more and more fenfible of the ad- vantage* of it. Five or fix pounds of luferne a day, are fufficient for
A a a 2 a middle
364 EXPERIMENTS ON Part III.
a middle fiz'd horfe ; but the quantity may be increafed or di- minifhed, according as the horfe is nourifhed by it ; for in that there is great difference.
We fhall conclude this article with fome experiments on the culture of this plant, communicated to Mefi". de Chateau-vieux and Duhamel, by different perfons, and with an experiment made by M. Duhamel himfelf.
In April 1753, M. Diancourt fowed luferne in rows, of which many plants produced 2n ounce of hay apiece in September followir.g. In June 1754, the fame plants yielded 12 ounces and a half each. He reckoned that, one with another, each plant had afforded him a pound of hay, which is a very great crop. On an arpent fown in double rows, he had 26400 plants* ; and on another lawn in tingle rows, 15400-}-: but whether the plants in the fingle^rows were lo much larger and more vigorous, as to ccmpenfate for the greater num- ber in the double rows, was what he could not determine at the time of his communicating this.
M. de Pontbriant of Rennes in Britany, rightly judging that brie of the moft effential fervices he could do his country, would be the improving of the pafture of that province, which is famous for the production of cattle ; planted luferne, to fhew the people how fmall a fpace of ground, and that too cultivated by the very cattle which are fed upon it, will produce a greater quantity of much better fodder, than all the grafs which their vaft commons and extenfive paftures yield them.
In September 1755, he tranfplanted luferne from a field which was to be fallowed. The roots of the plants were three or four feet long. He planted them in furrows fix feet diftant, and the plants eight or ten inches afunder, in a field which he thought free from weeds. In this he was miftaken : for, though the luferne made very good fhoots, yet, by neglecting to hoe the alleys, weeds came up, and over-run the ground.
He mowed the whole, then horfe-hoed it, and planted a new row of luferne between each of the former rows ; and expects that next year will yield him feveral good crops ; which M. Duhamel thinks he may depend on, if he can but get the better of the weeds.
* A pound of dry hay from each of thefe plants, would amount to upwards of 13 loads of hay.
f At the fame rate, thefe would produce about 7 loads and a half, at 18 hundred weight to the load.
A
Chap. IX. LUSERNE, 365
A gentleman at Montelimart in Dauphiny, writes as follows to M. de Chateau-vieux.
" In the autumn, I tranfplanted from a fpot of luferne three years " old, as many plants as we»e requifite for a fpace of 48 fquare " toifes made into beds, The middle of the beds was raifed very " high, and I planted only a fingle row in each. The firft cutting " yielded me one trufs of hay; the fecond, four; the third, fix. " The moots of the laft cutting were pretty tall, and feemed to be " wanting only in number : that, without doubt, will come by and " bye, when the roots mall have multiplied and grown ftronger. I " hope that the heat of this climate will not ftop their growth : for " I take care to ftir the alleys as often as the luferne is cut.
" A little later in the feafon, I planted 220 toifes more with " luferne, which I watered, becaufe the weather was cold and dry. " The plants fucceeded very well, excepting a few which died. " The fn-ft cutting was very weak, the fecond, middling ; and the " third is now growing, it being but 17 days fince the laft was cut. " Several of the fhoots are already 18 inches long. I have not yet " dunged any of thefe beds : but I intend to dung them all next " winter, in order to quicken the growth of the plants, and give " them greater ftrength."
The fame gentleman writes again to M. de Chateau-vieux, the 12th of September, J 755, to the following effecl. ' ■
" I have already cut my luferne in the new way, five times, and " hope to have a fixth cutting towards the end of this month.' As " the drought does not cripple my plants, but only retards their " growth for about a week, I cut them at the end of 25 days, when " they were in full bloom : whereas, in this feafon, they require at " leaft a month. The ftalks are full as ftrong, and the leaves as " large, as thefe of luferne which is well dunged, and plentifully ■< watered every fortnight. The only inconvenience I find, and that " not a great one, is, that this luferne is difficult to mow* becaufe " the ftalks do not ftand to the fcythe, and many of them trail upon " the ground. This year, I have ufed a fickle ; but it does not dif- " patch the work fo quickly as a fcythe. Perhaps ftirring of the
* This inconvenience, fays M. de Chateau-vieux, is but a finall hindrance I mow my luferne, and it ftands the fcythe yery we]], efpecially the feeond year A few ftalks wh.ch may efcape the fcythe, are of little confluence ; and expert work- men will leave but few, even of them. I have a plantation of luferne which is al- ways cut with a fickle, though it would very well besr the fcythe. This I do, that, by loling none, I may be able to judge the more exadtly of its produce.
alleys
366 EXPERIMENTS ON" Part III.
•' alleys with the cultivator and plough, (neither of which I have " ufed this year,) to clear the ground of weeds and loofen the " mould, may help to ftrengthen the ftalks : and as they grow " thicker every year, they will be better able to bear the fcythe. I fC have prepared a great deal more ground,. to enlarge my plantations <c of luferne. The drought flops me for the prefent ; but as foon as " the rains mall have moiftened the earth, I intend immediately to " plant a furface of (even or eight hundred toifes." .
The following letter to M. de Chateau-vieux, is dated from Chateau-Gaillard in the Upper Bugey, near Lyons, June 6, 1755.
" Luferne which I fowed lad March, obferving your directions in " the culture of it, is now two feet high j which plainly fhews me, " that I (hall be able to cut it fix times next year. Some of my c< neighbours have fown luferne, mixed with oats, in a better foil " .than mine, but without horfe-hoeing it, or ftirring the ground " between the plants. It is now but two inches high, and is in " danger of being deftroyed by the drought, which mine is not."
A letter from the fame, dated July the 5th, 175$, fays,
" On the 20th of June, I cut my luferne which was fown in " March. It was three feet high when I cut it, and has already made " frefh fhoots thirteen or fourteen inches long. I have let fome of <c it ftand, which will produce good feed. This will afford me an " opportunity of convincing the moft incredulous, of the fuperior " excellence of the new hufbandry.
This luferne, after having been cut a fecond time, was two feet high on the 17th of Auguft ; whilft that fown in the old way, and mixed with oats, had not been cut at all, and was but four inches high.
M. Duhamel himfelf, in the autumn of 1755, took up the roots of an old field of luferne, which were about the thicknefs of a man's thumb, and fix or feven inches long, and replanted them in trenches. All his hufbandmen told him that they were worn out, and too old to fhoot again: but yet not one of them failed. They yielded three cuttings the firft year, tho' the foil was by no means proper for them. As there ftill remained fome rows which could not be tranfplanted in the autumn, he removed them the next fpring. Many of thefe plants perifhed ; and the fhoots of thofe which took, were much fhorter than thofe of what had been tranfplanted in the autumn. To replenifh the empty fpaces, he laid down fome flips of the neighbouring plants, by which means he hoped thofe chafms would be filled up the next year.
This
Chap. X. O F C L O V E R. 367
This is a very fjmple and eafy way to renew old paftures of lu- ferne, and to have conflant crops of this excellent fodder. Great care is requifite, both in taking up the roots, and in planting them again.
CHAP. X. Of CLOVER.
MDuhamel fays but little of this plant, whofe great ufe will,, m we hope, apologize for our borrowing from other authors, and particularly Mr. Miller, fuch directions as may be fufficient to guide our hufbandmen in the culture of it.
There are many forts of. clover : but the two principal ones are,, the red and the white.
Clay lands, in particular,, have been fo much improved by fowing them with red clover,, that they have produced fix times the quantity' of fodder that they ufed to do before the culture of this plant- was- > fo common in England as it now is.
The red clover is a biennial plant, whofe roots decay after they have produced feeds: but if the plants are eat down, or mowed when they begin to flower, they will fprout out anew, and by that means continue longer than they other wife would. The ufual al- lowance of feed for an acre of ground, in the common hulbandry, is- ten pounds. In the choice of the feed, that which is of a bright, yellow colour, inclining to brown, mould be preferred 3 : and the- pale coloured thin feed mould be rejected.
The general cuflom in this country is, to fow the clover feed with, barley, in the fpring : and when the bailey is taken off the ground,, the clover fpreads and covers it, and remains two years : after which, the land is plowed again for corn, and is thought to be greatly en- riched by the clover. The clover feed mould not be fown, till after- the barley has been harrowed in ; for otherwife it would be. buried- too deep : and after it is fown, the ground mould be rolled, to prefs. the feeds into it : but this fhould be done in dry weather, becaufe. moiflure will often make the feeds burff, and when the ground is. wet, they will flick to the roller, and the furfacc of the foil will be. fb hardened by the rolling, that numbers of plants will fail,, for want of being able to pierce it. " This is the general method, when clover is fown with corn : but it would be much better always to fow it alone ; for then the plants come on. much fader, and are not choak-
368 O F C L O V E R. Part III.
ed for one whole feafon, as they frequently are in the other way, when the crop of corn is great. ►
Mr. Miller, after many years trial, advifes therefore to fow the feeds of clover in Auguft, when there is a profpect of rain foon after : becaufe the ground being then warm, the firft mower of rain will bring up the plants, and they will have time enough to get ftrength before the winter ; and a good rolling in October, when the ground is dry, will prefs it clofe to the roots, and make the plants fend out more fhoots : and this he advifes repeating again in March. The reafon of his preferring this feafon for fowing clover, rather than the fpring, is, becaufe the ground is cold and wet in fpring, and if much rain falls after the feeds are fown, they will rot in the ground ; and many times when the feed is fown late in the fpring, if the feafon mould prove dry, the feeds will not grow.
About the middle of May, this grafs will be fit to cut ; when particular care fhould be taken in making it into hay : for it will re- quire a great deal more labour and time to dry, than common grafs, and will fhrink into lefs compafs : but if it be not too rank, it will make excellent food for cattle. The time for cutting it is when it begins to flower ; for if it ftands much longer, the lower part of the ftems, and the under leaves, will begin to dry, and the quantity of hay will then be lefs, and not fo well flavour'd. Care fhould like- wife be taken not to ftack it till it be thoroughly dry, for fear of its heating.
One acre of this plant will feed as many cattle as four or five acres of common grafs : but they muft not be fuffered to eat too plentiful- ly of it at firft, left it burft them. It fhould be given them by de- grees, till they are fully feafoned to it : nor mould they ever be turn- ed into this food in wet weather. Some fow rye grafs amongft their clover, and let them grow together, in order to prevent the ill con- fequences of the cattle feeding wholly on clover: but in this they are to blame, becaufe the rye grafs does great injury to the clover. This plant is reckoned much better fodder for moft other cattle, than for milch cows ; wherefore thefe fhould feldom have any of it : tho' when it is dry, it is not near fo hurtful to any fort of cattle, as when green.
When the feeds of clover are defigned to be faved, the firft crop in the fpring fhould be let ftand till the feeds are ripe, which is known by the ftalks and heads changing to a brown colour : and then it fhould be cut in fair weather, and be well dried before it is
kid
Chap. X. OF CLOVER. 369
laid up; for otherwife the feeds will not eafilyquit their hufks, when it is threfhed. To this is owing a common complaint of farmers, that they oftentimescannot threfh out their clover-feed without great labour and difficulty. It will generally be found in this cafe ; that thefe are fecond crops, which ripen late in autumn, when there is not heat enough to dry the hulks fufficiently to make them part eafily from the feed.
The white clover, generally known amongft farmers by the name of white honeyfuckle, is a laif ing plant, whofe branches trail upon the ground, and fend out roots from every joint, fo that it thickens and makes the clofeft fwardofany of the artificial graffes. It is an exceeding fweet food for all forts of cattle: for which reafon, when land is defign'd to be laid down for pafture, and to continue fo, a quantity of the feeds of this plant fhould always be fown with the grafs feeds. The ufual allowance of this feed, is eight pounds to an acre: but this mould never be fown with corn; becaufe the corn will weaken it fo that it will fcarce be worth ftanding. And yet, as Mr. Miller obferves, fuch is the covetoufnefs of moft farmers, that they will not be prevailed on to alter their old cuftom of laying down their grounds with a crop of corn, though they lofe twice the value of their corn, by the poornefs of the grafs, which never will come to a good fward ; and one whole feafon is alfo loft : for if this feed is fown in the fpring without corn, there will be a crop of hay to mow by the middle, or latter end of July, and a much better after- feed for cattle the following autumn and winter, than the grafs which is fown with corn will produce the fecond year.
The author of the new fyftem of agriculture agrees with Mr. Mil- ler, that clover fhould be fown in autumn, and always by itfelf, on land brought to the fineft tilth poffible, and clear'd of all fibvous roots and other trafh, by going over it with fine tooth'd harrows : but he differs from him in regard to the quantity of feed, the former ftrongly recommending never to fow lefs than twenty pounds upon an acre.
He obferves that " many will objecl againft this, as a double " charge, becaufe, fay they, I never knew any man who fowed above
" half that quantity. 1 anfwer," continues he, " they never
" knew any man who reap'd half the profit which he might have " done by it, if they had followed my directions. It is obfervable, " that there are more ignorant men, who profefs hufbandry, than <c of any other art ; and yet fewer of this profeffion, than anv of the
B b b ' " reft
37o O F M E A D O W, G R- Part III.
" reft, who think they can be taught. A man, not poffefled of " this temper, would ealily imagine that the thicker this little feed " is fown, the thicker it will fprirtg, and the better keep down all " weeds, and common grafs, and, confequently, become of double " advantage.
" Sowing clover in September, inftead of the fpring, and fowing " it alone, has many conveniencies : it will rife thick, and fwarth " the ground, before the hard weather comes in ; and thereby not " only gather ftrength, to defend itfelf againft the winter frofts ; but « will be fo early in the fpring, that you might mow it, the firft u time, in the very beginning of May, or, perhaps, fooner.
" When the firft hard frofts have bound the earth fo faft that " you may bring horfes upon it, without damage to the roots of the ** clover, this is the very point of time in which you fhould beftow I" about eight or ten load of fea-ouze, fea-fand, fheep's dung, or " that of our ftercorary, upon every acre, taking care to fpread it as " equally as may be, that, when the froft diflblves, the rains may " drive the ftrength of the manure into the earth, which, in the " tender infancy of the new turf, will eafily admit it, to the nourifti- " ment of the roots, and furprifing increafe of your clover, both as- " to quantity and fweetnefs."
M. Duhamel mentions the following experiment, made by M: de Pontbriant of.Rennes in Britany. He fowed 296 fquare toifes, with flax and hemp, mixed with clover, feed. As foon as- the former were plucked up, the clover appeared, and grew fo well that it was cut in November of the fame year. It was weeded in February, and mowed again in the beginning of May. As it was too thick, he made alleys in it a foot wide. Thefe alleys furnifhed him with plant- enough to garniih 888 fquare toifes of land. He looks upon the firft fpot as a nurfery, from which be takes whatever plants he. wants, and fets them in other ground a foot and a half afunder, which is a fuftkient diftance for hoeing. His field promifes greatly,
G H A P. XL
Of Meadow, or PaJIure Ground.
I A ST U RE ground is of two forts : viz. low meadow land, which is often overflowed 3 and up-land, which lies high and dry, We fhall begin with this laft.
The
Chap. XI. PASTURE GROUND. 371
The firft thing requifite in this pafture, is, to fence it in, and di- vide it into fields of from four or five to ten acres each ; planting timber trees in the hedge rows, to fereen the grafs from the fharp drying winds of March, which are fo prejudicial to its growth in large open fields, that if April proves likewife a cold dry month, the land produces very little hay : whereas in fhelter'd fields, the grafs will begin to grow early in March, and will cover the ground fo as to prevent the fun from parching the roots of the plants, which will be kept growing, and afford an early crop, if the fpring is dry.
A general caution to be obferved in fencing of land, efpecia'ly where the hedge rows are planted with trees, is, not to make the inclofures too fmall : becaufe when the trees are grown high, they will fhade the ground tco much ; and where they are too clofe, the grafs will be rank and four.
The turf fhould be made good, by fowing new feed, wherever the grafs has been defiroyed, whether by the badnefs of the foil, or for want of proper care, or by weeds, rufhes, bumes, mole-hills, &c. If the land is cold and clayey, it may be improved by paring off the furface, and burning it, as before diredled : but if it is a hot fandy foil, chalk, lime, marie, or clay, are proper manures to lay upon it, and that in pretty large quantities, for otherwife they will do little good. If the ground is over-run with bufhes, rufhes, &r. they fhould be grubbed up towards the end of the fumrner, and burnt, and their allies fpread over the ground juft before the atftumnal rains j at which time the furface of the land fhould be levelled, and fown with grafs-feed, which will come up in a fhort time, and make good grafs the following fpring. All mole-hills fhould likewife be pared off, and burnt for their allies, or be fpread thin upon the ground, after digging out their middle or core ; and the holes fhould be left open all the winter, to deftroy the ants.
It is of great fervice to roll the turf, in February and March, with a heavy wooden roller ; always obferving to do it in moift weather, that the roller may the better level the furface. This ren- ders the mowing of the grafs much eafier than when the ground lies uneven, and alio makes the turf thicker, and the grafs grow the fweeter. Mr. Miller thinks it likewife a great help to deflroy weeds.
Feeding of up-land paftures, every other year, is another im- provement of them: for where this is not pracfifed, the land muft be manured at leafl every third year. The time to fpread the ma-
B b b 2 mire,
372 OF MEADOW, OR Part III.
nure, is the autumn, before the rains have foaked the ground, and rendered it too 10ft to cart on. If the manure is laid on at this fea- fon, and carefully fpread, and all the clods well broken, the win- ter rains will -wafh the falts down to the roots of the grafs, which will receive the advantage of it the following fpring.
Particular care mould be taken to dtftroy all weeds in the pafture, every fpring and autumn : for otherwife, they will ripen their feeds, which will fpread over the ground, and kill the grafs : nor can they afterwards be rooted out, without great difficulty.
The grafs of upland paftures feldom degenerates, if the land is tolerably good . but that of low meadows, which are overflowed in winter, grows harm and rufhy in a few years.
" There is no part of huibandry," fays Mr. Miller, " of which lc the farmers are, in general, more ignorant than that of the pa- " fture. Moft of them fuppofe, that when an old pafture is plowed " up, it can never be brought to have a good fward again : fo their " common method of managing their land after plowing, and get- " ting two or three crops of corn, is to fow with their crop of " barley, fome grafs feeds (as they call them) ; that is, either the " red clover, which they intend to (land two years after the corn is '* taken off the ground, cr rye-grafs mixed with trefoil ; but as all " thefe are at molf but biennial plants, whofe roots decay foon after " their feeds are perfected, fo the ground, having no crop upon it, *c is again plowed for corn : and this is the conitant round which " the lands are employed in, by the better fort of farmers ; for I " have never met with one of them, who had the lead: notion of " laying down their land to grafs for any longer continuance: there- " fore the feeds which they ufually fow, are the beft adapted for " this purpofe.
" But whatever may have been the practife of thefe people, I " hope to prove, that it is poffible to lay down land, which has " been in tillage, with grafs, in fuch manner as that the fward fball 'c be as good, if not better, than any natural grafs, and of as long " duration. But this is never to be expected in the common me- " thod of fowing a crop of corn with the grafs-feed j for wherever " this has been pra&ifed, if the corn has fucceeded well, the grafs " has been very poor and weak; fo that if the land has not been « very good, the grafs has fcarcely been worth flanding : for the " following year it has produced but little hay ; and the year after, lJ the crop is worth little, either to mow or feed : nor can it be
ex-
Chap. XI. P A S T U R E G R O U N D. 373
" expected it fliould be otherwifc j for the ground cannot nourifh " two crops."
In confequence of this, Mr. Miller proceeds to give the following directions for the management of pafture ground.
When ground is laid down for grafs, no crop of any kind mould be fown with the feeds, and the land fliould be well plowed, and cleaned from weeds. The beft feafon to fow the grafs-feeds, upon dry land, is about the middle of September, or fooner, if there is an appearance of rain ; becaufe, the ground being then warm, if fome good fhowers of rain fall after the feed is fown, the grafs will foon make its appearance, and get fufficient rooting in the ground before winter, not to be in danger of being turned out by the froft:; efpe- cially if the ground is well rolled before the froft comes on. If the grafs comes up well, this rolling fliould be performed towards the end of October or the beginning of November, and repeated again the beginning of March. The fward will, in this cafe, be clofely joined at the bottom, and a good crop of hay may be expected the fame fummer. In cold lands, which lie very open and expofed, it will be right to fow the feeds a month earlier, that the grafs may have time to get good rooting, before the cold feafon comes on to flop its growth. If the ground cannot be prepared for Cowing in autumn, it may be fowed in the middle or latter end of March, ac- cording as the feafon is early or late. The danger of fowing late, is, dry weather, efpecially if the foil is light and dry. It will then be proper to roll the ground well, foon after the feeds are fown ; to fettle the furface, and prevent its being blown away, together with the feeds, as has frequently happened, by the high winds in March.
The beft feed for this purpofe, is the beft fort of upland hay-feed, taken from the cleaneft paftures, where there are no weeds. Three, or at molt four bufhels of this feed, well fifted and cleanfed, are fufficient to fow an acre of land. The next beft is, white clover- feed, of which eight pounds are fufficient for an acre. The grafs- feed fhould be fown firft, and the white, or, as it is commonly called, Dutch clover-feed afterwards : but they fliould not be fown mixed together, becaufe the clover-feeds, being heavieft, will fall to the bottom, and the ground will conlequently be unequally fown.
After the feeds are fown, the ground fliould be harrowed lightly to bury them : but this fliould be done with a fhort tocth'd harrow ;
few
374 OF MEADOW, OR Part III.
for othenvife the feeds will be buried too deep. If the furface of the ground is dry, it fhould be rolled, two or three days after fowing, with a barley roller, to break the clods, and fettle the ground; which will prevent the feeds from being removed by the wind.
When the feeds are come up, the ground fhould be weeded : otherwife the weeds will increafe, fo as to keep down the grafs, and ftafve it : and if they are fuffered to remain till they have fhed their feeds, they will over-run the land, and entirely deftroy the grafs. One of the principal, parts of hufbandry, is never to fuffer weeds to grow.
If the ground is rolled two or three times, at proper intervals, af- ter the grafs is up, it will make it form a thicker bottom: for as the white clover puts out roots from every joint of the ftalks which are near the ground; the roots will mat fo clofely together, as to cover the whole furface of the ground with a fward capable of relifting any common drought.
Where paftures are laid down to remain, the white clover is cer- tainly the beft fort to fow, becaufe it is a lafting plant, and does equally well on wet or dry land. The hay feeds, though taken from the very beft paftures, will be compofed of various forts of grafs, fome annual, and others biennial ; fo that when they go off, many large patches of ground will remain bare and naked, if there is not a fufficient quantity of that clover, to cover the land. Every fummer affords us proofs of this, in all our common paftures, in which we frequently fee no other verdure left, but this clover, which grows naturally upon gravel and clay, in moft parts of England : a plain in- dication how eafily this plant may be cultivated to great advantage, in moft forts of land throughout this kingdom.
It is therefore plainly owing to our farmers not diftinguifhing grafTes which are annual, from thofe which are perennial, that land which has been in tillage is not brought to a good turf again, in the common method of hufbandry : for annual and biennial graffes will foon decay, and nothing can be expected to fucceed them, but what will grow naturally, except, perhaps, on fome fpots, where their feeds may chance to have ripened and fown themfelves. This, added to the covetous method of laying down the ground with a crop of corn, has been the true caufe of the decreafe of pafture in many parts of England, where it is now much more valuable than arable land.
After the ground has been brought to a good fward, the way to pre- fer ve
Chap. XI. PASTURE GROUND, 375
ferve it fo, is to roll it conftantly every fpring and autumn, with a heavy roller, and to keep it clear from all forts of weeds. Dreffing of thefe paftures every third year, is alfo neceffary ; for otherwife, it cannot be expected that this ground, which has not the benefit of tillage, fhould continue to produce good crops : and another thing proper to be obferved, is to change the feafons of mowing, and not to mow the fame ground every year j but to mow one feafon, and feed the next : for ground that is mowed every year, will foon be exhaufted, if it lias not a conftant fupply of manure.
A great advantage of dry upland paftures, is that they may be fed all the winter, which low wet meadows cannot be.
Meadow lard will indeed produce a much greater quantity of hay than upland pafture, and will not require manuring fo often : but then the upland hay is infinitely better, and far fweeter food for cattle.
There are two kinds of meadows in England, the one called water-meadows, and the other only meadows.
Mr. Worlidge diftinguifh.es three forts of water meadows 5 viz. 1. Such as lie fiat on the banks of great rivers, and are fubject to be overflowed by them in times of land floods only. 2. Such as lie near fmaller rivers or ftreams, and are capable of being drowned or watered, by diverting fuch river, or fome part thereof, out of its natural cur- rent, over them. 3. Such as lie above the level of the water, and are flowed by railing, the water by art.
On the borders of our great rivers and currents, are the richeft meadows, confifting generally of a very good fat foil, compofed, as it were, of the fediment of the water overflowing them after great and hafty rains. Thefe are capable of but little farther improvement. But when their foil is naturally dry and hungry, and they are not frequently overflowed by land-floods, artificial works may be made uCe of to raife the water over them, to very considerable advantage.
The art of diverting fmaller rivers and ftreams, over the meadows near them, is univerfally known and practifed, and to great advan-? rage.
Where the water is fituated above the levelof the ground intended to be flowed, it may eafily be let in, at proper feafons, by drains, hke thofe hereafter directed for. draining of land. Care fhould be taken to have good fluices at the heads of the drains, that the water may not come in, but when it is wanted ; for otherwife the meadow^ inftead of being improved, would be greatly damaged by it.
Where the. land lies above the level of any water near it, the over--
flowing
376 OF -MEADOW, OR Part III.
flowing of it will be more expenfive j becaufe the water mull, in that cafe, be raifed by machines. The moft common engine ufed for this purpofe, is the Perfian wheel, of which Mr. Worlidge gives the following defcription.
" This wheel is made much after the manner of that of an under- " mot mill, viz. with a double ring, into which are let two pins, " on which the floats are fattened. Thefe floats are made hollow: " the half that is moft remote from the wheel, holds the water which " is taken in at the open place, above the middle of the back of the " float, and as the wheel goes round, and the float laden with water " rifes, fo the water by degrees, tends towards that part of the float " which is next the wheel, and as the float furmounts the ciftern or *' receiver, the water empties itfelf into it, every float fuceeeding " th'one the other, emptying itfelf into the receiver : fo that if one <c float contain a gallon of water, and there be 30 floats on the wheel, " at one motion round it delivers 30 gallons of water into the ciftern. " Such a wheel will be about 1 5 foot diameter, the floats at 1 8 " inches diftance, and will deliver the water at 11 or 12 foot above <c the level of your ftream, and will go four times round in one " minute, and carry up about 120 hogfheads of water in an hour, " with 12 or 18 inches penning or flopping of but an ordinary cur- " rent of water, which will water very well 30 or 40 acres of land : <c for if your land be cold and clayey, too much water does it hurt; ". and if it be light, warm, or fandy, a little water does it much good. " It is aifo to be obferved that this motion is conftant, and will laft <c many years without repair, fo that it ftand not ftill, the one fide " drying and waxing lighter than the other: alfo obferve, that the " flower it moves, the better it delivers the wrater.
" The view of this wheel we have in PI. I. Fig. 2. aaaa fignify " the wheel j /', the ciftern that receives the water ; cc, the troughs " ftanding on treflels, that conveys the water from the ciftern to the " place you defire j d, the hatch, or pen-ftock that bays up the water " to a reafonable height, under which the water drives the wheel ; <{ e, one of the floats prefented to your eye, apart from the wheel ; " ft the open place that is to receive the water ; g, the open place " out of which the water illues ; bb, the two pins or ledges riveted " on to the forelide of the float, and wherewith you are to fix the " float to the two rings of the wheel. Thefe, or fuch like wheels, " are much ufed in Spain, Italy, and France, and are efteemed the ** moft eafy and advantageous way of railing water in great quantity,
" to
Chap. XL PASTURE GROUND. 377
" to any height within the diameter of the wheel, where there is any " current of water, to continue it in motion, which a fmall ftream " will do.
" How many acres of land lie on the declining fides of hills, by " the fides of rivers, in many places where the water cannot be '* brought unto it by any ordinary way ? yet by this wheel placed in " the river, may the land be continually watered fo far as is under " the level of the water when raifed."
Mr. Worlidge proceeds to obferve, that there are many large and flat pieces of land, bordering upon rivers, in which the Pe'rfian wheel cannot be placed without trefpafling upon the oppofite neighbour, &c. but where wind-mills may be eredted on the higheft part of the land you intend to overflow. Though this place may be at fome diftance from the river, the water may be eafily conducted thereto by an open or fubterraneous pafiage from the river.
Such mills are experienced to be of great fervice in draining of fens and marfhes, and may likewife be ufed to great advantage in raifing fait water to overflow meadows lying near it : but above°the level of high water. Thefe falt-marfhes, as they are called, have been found an excellent remedy for many difeafes of horfes and other cattle.
When the water is brought to the defired height, the main channel fhould be cut, giving it a convenient defcent fo as juft to keep the water in motion. The mouth of the channel fhould be of breadth, rather than depth, fufficient to receive the whole fiream } and as the water is carried off in lefler channels, the main channel fhould be made narrower by degrees, fo that the water may prefs into the lefler channels which iflue all along from the main one. The lefler channels fhould be as ihallow, and as many in number as can be : for though cutting fo much turf may feem to wafte a great deal of land, yet it proves not fo in the end ; for the quicker the water runs over the grafs, the greater the improvement is. Care fhould be taken to cut the drains in fuch manner, that no water may remain to ftagnate upon the land.
The farmer muft be cautious not to bring any water of mineral fprings upon his paflure ; fuch being either deftrudtive of grafs, or producing a very harfh coarfe kind of it.
Cold, clayey, flxong lands, which lie flat, are not improved by watering ; for the water cannot penetrate fuch. Light, warm, dry, Tandy foils, are thole which are moil benefited by watering.
A very wrong cuftom prevails amongii our farmers in general,
C c. c with
378 OF MEADOW, OR Part III.
with refpect to thcfe low grounds; which is, that of flowing them all the winter. The roots of all the fweeteft kinds of grafs are thereby deftroyed, and only fuch left as are natives of marfhes, which are coarfe and four, and which no cattle will eat.
The method which Mr. Miller propofes for the management of thefe meadows, is, never to flow them till the middle or latter end of March, excepting once or twice in winter, when there may happen floods, which may bring down a great deal of foil from the upper lands, at which time it will be of great fervice to let water upon the meadows, that the foil may fettle there : but the fooner the wet is drained off after this is lodged, the greater advantage the meadows will receive by it. By letting on the water frequently, from the end of March to the middle of May, the growth of the grafs will be greatly affifted, and there will be no danger then of deftroying its roots. It will alfo be of great fervice to thefe meadows to flow them again, if the feafon fhould prove dry, after the hay is carried off the ground : but when this is done, no cattle fhould be turned into the meadows, till the furface is become firm enough to fupport their weight without poaching the land ; for otherwife the grafs will fuffer more by the treading of the cattle, than it will receive benefit by the flowing.
Weeding of thefe meadows twice a year, viz. in April and Octo- ber, by cutting up the roots of docks and all other weeds, will be another great improvement of them : and fo will, rolling them with a heavy roller, in fpring and autumn. This laft operation will level the furface of the ground, whereby it may be mown much clofer, and will slfo fweeten the grafs.
The fame care fhould be taken to weed and roll meadows which cannot be flowed, and likewife not to fuffer heavy cattle to graze upon them in winter when they are wet. They fhould therefore be fed down as clofe as poffible in the autumn, before the heavy rains come on : and thofe paftures which are drier, may be kept to iupply the want of thefe in winter. If there fhould not be cattle enough to eat down the grafs in time, it will be much better to cut off what is left, than to fuffer it to rot upon the ground ;. for that will hinder the grafs from mooting early in the fpring. The clofcr it is eaten down in the autumn, the better it will come up the following. fpring.
Thofe who are beft fkiiled in this part of hufbandry, drefs their meadows every other, or at ieaft every third year, without which no
good
Chap. XI. PASTURE GROUND. 370
good crop of hay can be expected : but the generality of farmers, fol- lowing the old method, are fo much diftreiied for drefiing to fupply their corn land, that they have not any to fpare for their meadows. A moft ill-judged management, which, we hope, what has been iaid in the foregoing part of this work, particularly by M. de Chateau- vieux, will (hew them the abfurdity of. What dung they do ufe, is generally laid on in the beginning of winter, and fpread as foon after as can conveniently be done: in which fituation it remains all the winter. When the frofts are over, the dung is raked anew, and the clods in it are broken. The grofs and ufelefs parts, which would only obftruct the growth of the grafs, are then carried off* } and if the dung is not fufficiently rotted, they amount, fometimes, to almoft as many load as were firft laid on.
The advantage which plants receive from dung fpread upon the furface of the ground, arifes from the rich particles of the dung be- ing as it were filtrated through that furface, and carried down into the earth, by rain or the melting of the fnow : but many of thofe particles are undoubtedly loft, and never reach the roots of the plants.
M. de Chateau-vieux, fenfible of this inconvenience, particularly with refpect to grafs lands ; rightly concluded, that the dung would have a much greater effedt, if only juft the furface of the meadow could be cut, and fome of the internal parts of the earth laid open, fo that the enriching particles of the dung may more immediately reach the roots of the grafs.
He has fucceeded admirably in this important improvement, by means of his three-coulter'd plough. In November, or December, the whole furface muft be cut with that plough into flips of three inches breadth, which is the diftance between each of the coulters. This will have two effects : firft, the coulters will tear up great part of the mofs with which all old paftures are infected, and gradually de- ftroy it. Secondly, the coulters piercing into the earth five or fix inches deep, cut the extremities of many of the roots of the grafs, and thofe cut or broken roots afterwards produce new ones, which give frefh ftrength and vigor to the plants, and, as it were, renew and make them young again.
* This operation is indifpenfably neceffary, when dung is ufed which is not tho- roughly rotten : becaufe the ftraw of fuch dung, mixing with the grafs, gives cattle, and particularly horfes, a great diflike to it. For this reafon, careful farmers always let the dung be well rotted, and reduced to a perfect mould before they lay it on their meadows, or, for want of fuch dung, they ufe afb.es, pigeons dung, foot, lime, chalk, marie, &c.
Ccc 2 This
380 OF MEADOW, OR Part III,
This divifion of the furface of the ground, will be very beneficial to the meadows. If the following year proves wet, it will greatly favour the production of new roots.
To render this improvement ftill more perfect, as foon as the whole furface of the meadow is cut, dung muft be carried on it, and fpread as foon after as poffible. The fmaller the dung is broken, the more ufeful it will be : becaufe the fmall particles will be carried by the rain into the traces which the plough has cut, and give furprifing ftrength to the plants.
This method of repairing and improving poor or worn out meadows and pafture grounds, does not require any great quantity of dung : one load of it will go as far, in this practice, as three would in the common way ; and be much more beneficial to the grafs. M. deChateau-vieux has tried it for fome years, with all the fuccefs he could defire. His grafs, thus improved, has always been very thick and long, and has yielded him plentiful crops of hay, when fodder has been extremely fcarce every where elfe. In his opinion, one arpent thus cultivated, will produce as much grafs as ten in the common way.
Another ufe which he makes of the three coulter'd plough is, to break up grafs lands intended to be. converted into arable. The coul- ters enter five or fix inches deep into the ground, and cut the turf into parallel flips of about three inches breadth. Two horfes will draw this plough with eafe, even though it fhould have five coulters inftead of three, as it may, for the fake of greater expedition.
When the whole furface is thus cut in flips, all in the fame direc- tion, M. de Chateau-vieux plows the field crofs-ways with a common plough, taking only about the breadth of fix inches at each turn of the plough ; by which means thofe flips of grafs are broken into pieces, the largeft of which are not above fix inches long and three inches wide.
Thefe plowings fhould be performed before winter and in the fpring. The lumps of turf, expofed on all fides to the penetrating frofts of winter, are either quite moulder'd down, or rendered fo friable thereby, that the field may be plowed afterwards with as much cafe as if it had been tilled for feveral years.
M. de Chateau-vieux's defcription of this plough, is as fol- lows.
The three coulter'd plough, Plate I. Fig. 3. confifts of a beam Ay B, two handles C, D, Supported by the piece E. The two
pieces
Chap. XI. PASTURE 'GR'OUND, 381
pieces of wood F, F, are fattened firmly to the beam by two ttrong iron pins G, G, on the other end of which a nut is fcrewed as tight as poflible. Thefe two fide pieces, as well as the beam, are pierced with as many mortifes H, H, H} as it is intended to ufe coulters. The coulters flioujd fit the mortifes as exactly as can be : and they fhould be placed at fuch diftance from each other, that their points may form parallel lines three inches afunder, in order to cut the turf into flips of that breadth, as at 7, 7, I. ,
1, 2, 3, are three coulters exactly alike, of which the blade Mt T3 mould be made of tough well hammer'd fteel. Only three coulters are reprefentcd in this figure, in order to render it lefs confufed : but if it is thought proper to ufe five coulters, by which means the work will be greatly expedited, two additional ones may eaiily be added, by making the pieces F, F, larger in proportion.
The beam is pierced with the two mortifes K, K, in order to fatten it to the fore carriage of a common plough, by running the crofs Hayes of that carriage, through thofe mortifes.*
The coulters are pierced with feveral holes, viz. at L and M, in order to raife them higher, or let them lower down : and they fliould be of equal lengths below the beam, that all of them may enter equally deep into the ground. Befides the pin which fattens them at top, a wooden pin ibould be ttuck into the hole immediately be-? low the beam, to prevent their being raifed up by their prefliire upon the earth.
The draining of land is another great improvement to it : for tho' meadows and paftures which are capable of being overflowed, pro- duce a greater quantity of herbage than dryland ; yet where the wet lies too long upon the ground, the grafs will be four and extremely
coarfe j
* Having never feen one of thefe ploughs, it is with great deference that we would prefume to find the leaft fault in what is propofed by fo accurate a gentleman as M. de Chateau-vieux. As this plough appears at prefent, too much feems to de- pend on the fkill and dexterity of tht; plowman, to keep the coulters at a proper depth ; there being no fupport at the heel of the plough, to render it more fteady, or take off the weight, and thereby leffen the labour of the plowman. We would therefore propofe, that an axle-tree fhould pafs through the beam, near th$ infertion of the handles, on which two wheels, proportioned to the length of the coulters, may turn at the diftance of nine inches. This diftance will be fufficient to render the plough more fteady, and thefe wheels will greatly leffen the plowman's labour ; and, running an inch and an half beyond the traces of the two outward coulters, it there are but three, and an inch and an half within the -two outmoft, in cafe there aje five, they will not interfere with the intention of this operation.
-3 82 OF MEADOW, &c. Part III.
coarfe ; and if great care is not taken to drain this land, it will pro- duce little grafs, but will foon be over-run with rufhes and flags, To as to be of little value. The land which is moft liable to this, is cold ftifF clay, where the water cannot penetrate, but is contained as in a diih ; io that the wet which it receives in winter, continues till the heat of the fun exhales it.
The belt method for draining of thefe lands, is, as Mr. Miller ad- vjfes, to cut feveral drains a-crofs the ground, as before directed by Mr. Worli Jge, in thofe places where the water is fubjecf. to lodge, and other fmaller drains to carry it off from them, to either ponds or rivers in the lower parts of the land. Thefe drains need not be made very large, unlefs the ground be very low, and fo fituated as not to be near any river to which the water can be conveyed ; in which cafe there mould be large ditches dug at proper diftances, in the lowed part of the ground, to contain the water ; and the earth which comes out of the ditches, mould be equally fpread on the land, to raife the furface. But where the water can be conveniently carried off, the beft method is, to make under ground drains at pro- per diftances, which may empty themfelves into large ditches, which are defigned to carry off the water. Thefe fort of drains are the mod convenient, and no ground is loft where they are made.
The ufual method of making them, is to dig trenches to a proper depth for carrying off the water, which, for the principal drains, mould be three feet wide at top, and floped down to a fufficient depth. In thefe trenches, drains may be built in the manner of common fewers, and covered over with the earth dug out of the trenches. Thefe drains fhould be at lead a foot deep, and nearly as wide, that there mav be room for the water to pafs through. The larger drains mould be at convenient diftances, and fmaller drains, of about fix or feven inches wide, fhould be cut a-crofs the ground, to difcharge the water into thofe larger drains. The number and fituation of them fliould be proportioned to the wetnefs of the land, and the depth of earth above the drains mould exceed a foot.
The beft time of the year for making thefe drains is about Mi- chaelmas, before the heavy rains of the winter begin to fall ; becauie at this feafon of the year the land is ufually dry, fo that the drains may be dug to a proper depth.
CHAP.
Chap. XI. OF THE CULTURE, ^. 383
CHAP. XII.
Of the Culture of the Vine.
SECT. I.
WE mall here borrow Mr. Miller's judicious directions for the firft planting of the vine, and then give the obfervations and experiments of Mefs"? de Chateau-vieux and Rouflel, on the farther culture and management of it.
All forts of vines are propagated either from layers or cuttings, the former of which is greatly practifed in England, but the latter, fays Mr. Miller, is what I would recommend, as being much pre- ferable to the other : for the roots of vines do not grow ftrong and woody, as in moft forts of trees, but are long, flender, and pliable : therefore when they are taken out of the ground, they feldom ftrike out any fibres from the weak roots, which generally fhrivel and dry ; fo that they rather retard than help the plants in their growth, by preventing the new fibres from puming out : for which reafon I had rather plant a good cutting than a rooted plant, provided it be well chofen ; and there is little danger of its not growing..
But as there are few perfons who make choice of proper cuttings, or at leaft that form their cuttings rightly in England ; fo it will be proper to give directions for this in the firft place, before I pro- ceed.
You fhould always make choice of fuch moots as are ftrong and well ripened, of the laft year's growth. Thefe moots mould be cut from the old vine, juft below the place where they were produced, taking a knot, or piece of the two years wood to each, which mould fee pruned fmooth : thole ends mould then be laid into the ground, about two inches deep, and the reft of the cuttings be left at full length, only obferving to cover them with dry litter or peafe-haulm in frofty dry weather ; though in moift weather, the covei kig mould not remain on, becaufe it would make the cuttings grow, which would greatly injure them. In the fpring, when they are to be planted, they mould be taken out of the ground, and their upper part cut off, fo as to reduce them to about fourteen inches in length, according to the diftance of the buds or eyes : for thofe cuttings where buds grow pretty clofe together, need not be left more than one foot long j but on others, fourteen or fifteen inches will be full.
fhort..
384. OF THE CULTURE Part HI.
fhort. The leaving the upper part of the {hoots on all the winter, is of great fervice to the cuttings : becaufe when they are cut off in autumn, the air penetrates the wounded part, and greatly injures the other eyes. In making the cuttings after this manner, there can be but one taken from each (hoot ; whereas mod perfons cut them into lengths of about a foot, and plant them all, which is very wrong : for the upper part of the moots are never fo well ripened as the low- er, which was produced early in the fpring, and has had the whole fummer to harden j fo that if they take root, they never make fo good plants ; for the wood of thofe cuttings being fpongy and foft, admits the moifture too freely, whereby the plants will be luxuriant in growth, but never fo fruitful as thofe whofe wood is clofer and more compact.
The cuttings may remain in the ground till the beginning of April, (which is the beft time for planting them,) when you fhould take them out, and wafh them from the filth they have contracted, and if you find them very dry, you fhould let them ftand with their lower parts in water, fix or eight hours, which will diftend their veffels, and difpofe them for taking root. Then the ground being before prepared where the plants are defigned to remain, whether againft walls, or for ftandards, (for they fhould not be removed again,) the cuttings fhould be planted : but in preparing the ground, you fhould confider the nature of the foil, which, if ftrong, and inclinable to wet, is by no means proper for grapes : therefore where it fo happens, you mould open a trench where the cuttings are to be planted, which fhould be filled with lime rubbiQi, the better to drain off the moifture : then raife the border with freth li^ht earth about two feet thick, fo that it may be at leait a foot above the level of the ground: then you fhould open the holes at about hx feet diftance from each other, putting one good ftrong cutting into each hole, in which it fhould be laid a little iloping, and fo deep, as that the uppermoft eye may be level with the furface of the ground : for when any part of the cutting is left above ground, as is the common method ufed by the Englifh gardeners, moft of the buds attempt to fhoot ; fo that the ftrength of the cutting is divided to nourifh fo many {hoots, which muft confequently be weaker than if only one of them grew : whereas, on the contrary, by burying the whole cutting in the ground, the lap is all employed in one tingle fhoot, which confequently will be much ftronger : betides, the fun and air
are
Chap. XII OFTHEVINE. 385
are apt to dry that part of the cutting which remains above ground, which often prevents their buds from mooting.
. Having plac'd the cutting in the ground, you mould fill up the hoi.3, g&ufy preffing down the earth with your foot clofe about it, and ra.x a little hill juft upon the top of the cutting, to cover the upper eye quite over, which will prevent it from drying. This being done, there is nothing mjre neceffary, but to keep the ground clear from weeds, until the cuttings begin to ftiootj at which time ycu mould look them over carefully, to rub off any fmall moots, if fuch are produced, leaving only the firft main moot to the wall ; wdiich fhould be conftantiy trained up, as if extends in length, to prevent its breaking, or hanging down. You muft continue to look over thefe once in about three weeks during the fummer feafon, conftantiy rub- bing off all lateral moots which are produced, leaving only the firft main ("hoot : and be fure to keep the ground conftantiy clear from weeds, which, if fuffered to grow, will exhauft the goodnefs of the foil, and ftarve the cuttings.
The Michaelmas following, if your cuttings have produced ftrong moots, you mould prune them down to two eyes, which, though by fome people may be thought too fliort, yet I am fatisfied, from fe- veral experiments, to be the beft method. The reafon for advifing the pruning of vines at this feafon, rather than deferring it till fpring, is, becaufe the tender parts of thole young fhoots, if left on, are fubjecl to decay in winter; for they are apt to grow late in the year; lo the tops of their fhoots are tender, and the early frofts will pinch them, and then they frequently are killed down a confiderable length, which weakens their roots : but if they are cut off early in autumn, the wounds will heal over before the bad weather, and thereby the roots will be greatly ftrengthened.
In the fpring, after the cold weather is paft, you muft gently dig up the borders, to loofen the earth : but you muft be very careful in doing this, not to injure the roots of your vines. You fhould alio raile the earth up to the ftems of the plants, fo as to cover the old wood, but not fo deep as to cover either of the eyes of the laft year's wood. After this, they will require no farther care until they begin to fhoot, when you fhould look over them carefully, to rub off all weak dangling fhoots, leaving no more than the two fhoots, which are produced from the two eyes of the laft^ear's wood, which fhould be faftened to the wall ; and lo from this, until the vinei have dene fhooting, you fhould look them over once in three weeks
D d d or
3?6 OF THE CULTURE Part III.
or a month, to rub off all lateral fhcots as they are produced ; and to faften the main fhoots to the wall, as they are extended in length, which muft not be fhcrtened before the middle, or latter end of July, when it will be proper to nip cif their tops, which will ifrengthen the lower eyes : and during the fummer feafon, you muft conftantly keep the ground clear from weeds : nor fhould you per- mit any fort of plants to grow near the vines ; which would not only rob them of nourifhment, but made the lower parts of the /hoots, and thereby prevent their ripening; which will not only caufe their wood to be fpongy and luxuriant, but render it lels fruitful.
As foon as the leaves begin to drop in autumn, you fhould prune thefe young vines again, leaving three buds to each of the flioots, provided they are ftrong : otherwife it is better to fhorten them down to two eyes, if they are good ; for it is a very wrong practice to leave much wood upon young vines, or to leave their fhoots too long, which greatly weakens the roots : then you fhould faften them to the wall, fpreading them out horizontally each way, that there may be room to train the new fhoots the following fummer; and in the fpring, dig the borders as before.
The third feafon, you muft go over the vines again, as foon as they begin to fhoot, to rub off all danglers as before; and train the young ihoots in their proper places, which this year maybe fuppofed to be two from each fhoot of the laft year's wood : but if they attempt to produce two fhoots from one eve, the weakeft of them muft be rubbed off; for there fhould never be more than one allowed to come out of each eve. If any of them produce fruit, as many times they will the third year, you fhould not flop them fo foon as is ge- nerally practifed upon the bearing fhoots of old vines, but permit them to fhoot forward till a month after Midfummer, at which time vou may pinch off the tops of the fhoots : for if this were done too foon, it would fpoil the buds for the next year's wood, which in young vines muft be more carefully prelerved than on older plants, becaufe there are no other fhoots to be laid in for a fupply of wood,, as is commonly pracYifed on old vine?.
During the fummer, you muft conftantly go over your vines, and difplace all weak lateral flioots as they are produced, and carefully keep the ground clear from weeds, as was before directed, that the fhoots may ripen well ; which is a material thing to be obferved in mod forts of fruit tree?,, but efpecially in. vines, which feldom pro- j duce.
Chap. XII. O F T H E V I N E. 3S7
duce any fruit from immature branches. Thefe things, being duly obferved, are all that is neceffary in the management of young vine.. I mall therefore proceed to lay down rules for the government of grown vines, which I fhall do as briefly as poffible.
Vines feldom produce any bearing moots from wood that is more than one year old : therefore great care mould be taken to have fuch wood in every part of the trees : for the fruit is always produced up- on moots of the fame year, which come out from buds of the laft year's wood. The method commonly pradtifed by the gardeners in England is, to fhorten the branches of the former year's growth, down to three or four eyes, at the time of pruning j though there are fome perfons who leave thefe moots much longer, and affirm that by this practice they obtain a greater quantity of fruit : but howe- ver this may be, it is a very wrong practice, fince it is impoffible that one moot can nourifh forty or fifty bunches of grapes, fo well as it can ten or twelve ; fo that what is gotten in numbers, is loft in their magnitude. Befides, the greater quantity of fruit there is left on vines, the later it is ripened, and the juice is not fo rich. This is fo well known in the wine countries, that there are laws enacted to direct the number and length of moots that are to be left upon each vine j left by over-bearing them, they not only exhauft and weaken the roots, but thereby render the juice weak, and fo deftroy the reputation of their wine.
The beft method therefore is, to fhorten the bearing moots, to about four eyes in length, becaufe the lowermoft feldom is good, and three buds are fufficient : for each of thefe will produce a moot, which generally has two or three bunches of grapes : fo that from each of thole moots there may be expected fix or eight bunches, which are a fufficient quantity. Thefe moots muft be laid about eighteen inches afunder : for if they are clofer, when the fide moots are produced, there will not be room enough to train them againft the wall, which mould always be provided for : and as their leaves are very large, the branches .mould be left at a proportionable dis- tance from each other, that they may not croud or fhade the fruit.
At the winter pruning of your vines, you mould always obferve to make the cut juft above the eye, flopeing it backward from it, that if it fhould bleed, the fap may not flow upon the bud : and where there is an opportunity of cutting down fome young moots to two eyes, in order to produce vigorous fhoots for the next year's
Ddd 2 bear-
388 OF THE CULTURE Part IIL
bearing it fhould always be done : becaufe in flopping of thofe fhoots which have fruit upon them as loon as the grapes are formed, which is frequently praftifed, it often lpoils the 'eyes for producing bearing branches the following year ; and this referving of new wood, is what the vine drefTers abroad always pradtife in their vine- yards. The bed feafon for pruning of vines, is about the middle or end of October.
The latter end of April, or the beginning of May, when the vines begin to (hoot, you muft carefully look them over, rubbing off all fmall buds which may come from the old wood, which only produce weak dangling branches : as alio when two (hoots are pro- duced from the fame bud, the weakeft of them fhould be difplaced, which will caufe the others to be ftronger ; and the fooner this is done, the better it is for the vines.
In the middle of May, you muft go over them again, rubbing off all the dangling (hoots, as before ; and at the fame time you muft faften up all the ftrong branches, (b that they may not hang from the wall : for if their (hoots hang down, their leaves will be turned with their upper furfaces the wrong way, and when the (hoots are after- wards trained upright, they will have their under furface upward, and until leaves are turned again, and have taken their right pofition, the fruit will not thrive ; fo that the not obferving this management will caufe the grapes to be a fortnight or three weeks later before they ripen : befides, by fuffering the fruit to hang from the wall, and be (haded with the clofenefs of the branches, it is greatly retarded in its growth : therefore, during the growing feafon, you fhould con- ftantly look over the vines, dilplacing all dangling branches and wild wood, and faften up the other (hoots regularly to the wall, as they are extended in length ; and towards the middle of June, you fhould ftop the bearing branches, which will ftrengthen the fruit, provided you always leave three eyes above the bunches : for if you ftop them too foon, it will injure the fruit, by taking away that part of the branch which is neceffary to attract the nourifhment to the fruit, as alfo to perfpire off the crudities of the fap, which is not proper foe the fruit to receive.
But although I recommend the flopping thofe (hoots which have fruit, at this feafon, yet this is not to be practifed upon thofe which are intended for bearing the next year j for thefe muft not be flop- ped before the middle of July, left, by flopping them too foon, yoa
caufe
Chap. XII. OF THE VINE: 389
caufe the eyes to {hoot out ftrong lateral branches, whereby they will be greatly injured.
During the lummer feafon, you fhould be very careful to rub off all dangling branches, and train up the fhoots regularly to the wall, as before, which will greatly accelerate the growth of the fruit, and alfo admit the fun and air, which is abfolutely neceffary to ripen and give it a rich flavour : but you muft never divert the branches of their leaves, as is the practice of fome perfons ; for although the ad- mitting of the fun is neceffary to ripen the grapes, yet if they are too much expofed thereto, their fkins will be tough, and they will rarely ripen : befides, the leaves being abfolutely neceffary tonourifh the fruit, by taking them off, the fruit is ftarved, and feldom comes to any fize: therefore a great regard fhould be had to the fummer management of the vines, where perfons are defirous to have their fruit excellent, and duly ripened.
When all the fruit is gathered, you fhould prune the vines, whereby the litter of their leaves will be entirely removed at once, and their fruit will be the forwarder the fucceeding year.
For the farther culture cf the vine, in gardens, and in the dif- ferent countries of Europe, we refer the curious to the article Vitit in Mr. Miller's Gardener's Dictionary, and (hall proceed to give that gentleman's directions for the management,
SECTION II.
Of Vineyards in England.
" r~pHERE have of late years been but very few vineyards fa " -*• England, though they were formerly very common, as may " be gathered from the feveral places in divers parts of England " which yet retain that name, as alfo from antient records, which '• teftify the quantities of ground which were allotted for vineyards,, " to abbeys and monafteries, for wine for the ufe of the inhabitants ;. " but as to the quality of the wines which were then produced in " England, we are at prefent ignorant; and how thefe vineyards " were rooted up, and became io generally neglected, we have no " very good accounts left. Whatever might be the caufe of this total " neglect in cultivating vines in England, I will not pretend to de- " termine, but fuch was the prejudice moll people conceived to any " attempts of producing wine in England, that, for fome ages paif, " every trial of that kind has been ridiculed by the generality of
" people^
39© O F THE CULTURE PartHI
** peopTe, and at this day very few perfons will believe it poflible to " be effected.
" Indeed if we judge only by the fuccefs of fome modern eflays " made near London, where fmall vineyards have been planted a " few years paft, there would be no great encouragement to begin a " work of this kind, becaufe the produce of very few of thefe vine- " yards has been fo kindly as were to be wifhed, but however, this " fhould not deter others from making farther trials, efpecially when " they confider the many difadvantages, which moft or all of thole " plantations which have been made, were attended with, for firft ." there is fcarce one of them placed upon a proper foil and fituation " for this purpofe ; and fccondly, there is not one which is rightly u planted and managed, as I (hall prefently fhew : and how can we <c expect fuccefs from vineyards under thefe difadvantages, when even " in France or Italy they would fucceed little better, if their ma- " nagement were not directed with more judgment ? I fhall therefore ** humbly offer my opinion, which is founded upon fome trials " I have feen made, and from the inftructions that I have received " from feveral curious perfons abroad, who cultivate vineyards for " their own ufe, and that of their friends, and who have been very *' exact in obierving the feveral methods of practice amongft the Vig- " nerons of thofe countries, from whence it is hoped that the preju- " dice, which mod people have againfl a project of this kind, will " either be removed, or at leaf! fufpended, until trials have beenju- " dicioufly made of this affair.
" The firft and great things to be confidered in planting vineyards " is the choice of foils and fituations, which, if not rightly chofen, *' there will be little hopes of fuccefs, for upon this the whole affair " greatly depends. The beft foil for a vineyard in England is fuch, " whofe furface is a light fandy loam, and not above a foot and a " half or two feet deep above the gravel or chalk, either of which " bottoms are equally good for vines, but if the foil is deep, and the " bottom either clay, or a ftrong loam, it is by no means proper for " this purpofe, for although the vines may fhoot vigoroufly, and pro- " duce a great quantity of grapes, yet thele will be later ripe, fuller of " moiilure, and fo confequently their juice not mature, nor well di- " gefted, but will abound with crudity, which in fermenting will " render the wine four and ill tailed, which is the common com- " plaint ot thofe who have made wine in England.
" Nor is a very rich, light, deep foil, fuch as is commonly found
" near
Chap. XII. O F T H E V I N E. 391
<c near London, proper for this purpofe ; becaufe the roots of thefe <c vines will be enticed down too deep to receive the influences of the " fun and air, and hereby will take in much crude nourifhment, where- " by the fruit will be rendered lefs valuable, and be later ripe, which is " of ill confequence to thefe fruits, which are known to imbibe a " great fhare of their nourishment from the air, which, if replete with " moifture (as is commonly the cafe in autumn), muft necefiarily. " contribute greatly to render the juices lefs perfect : therefore great " attention fhould be had to the nature of the foil upon which they " are planted.
'" The next thing neceffary to beconfidered,is the fituation of the <c place, which, if poflible, fhould be on the north fide of a river, upon " an elevation inclining to the fouth, with a fmall gradual defcenf,. " that the moifture may the better drain off, but if the ground flopes " too much, it is by no means proper for this purpofe : but if, at a " diftance from this place, there are larger hills, which defend it " from the north and north-weft wind, it will be of great fervicej. " becaufe hereby the fun's rays will be reflected with a greater force, " and the cold winds, being kept off, will render the fituation very " warm. Add to this, a chalky furface ; which if thofe hills do " abound with (as there are many fuch fituations in England), it " will ftill add to the heat of the place, by reflecting a greater quan- cc tity of the fun's rays.
" The country about this fhould be open and hilly : for if it be " much planted, or low and boggy, the air will be conftantly filled ** with moift particles, occafioned by the plentiful perfpiration of the " trees, or the exhalations from the adjoining marfhes, whereby the " fruit will be greatly prejudiced (as was before obferved). Thefe " vineyards fliould always be open to the eaft, that the morning fun " may come on them to dry off the moifture of the night early, " which, by lying too long upon the vines, greatly retards the ripen- " ing of the fruit, and renders it crude and ill tafted. And fince the " fruit of vines is rarely ever injured by eafterly winds, there will " be no reafon to apprehend any danger from fuch a fituation, the " fouth weft, north weft, and north winds being the moft injurious " to vineyards in England (as indeed they are to moll other fruit),, '* fo that, if poflible, they fliould be fheltered therefrom.
" Having made choice of a foil and fituation proper for this pur- '' pofe, the next thing to be done is, to prepare it for planting : in. " doing of which the following method fhould be obferved : in the
" fpring..
;92 OFTHECULTURE Part III.
fpring, it fhould be plowed as deep as the furface will admit, turn- ing the fward into the .bottom of each furrow : then it mould be well harrowed, to break the clods, and cleanfe it from the roots of noxious weeds; and after this, it muft be kept conftantly ploughed and harrowed for at leaft one year, to render the furface light ; and hereby it will be rendered fertile, by imbibing the nitrous par- ticles of the air (efpecially if it be long expoled thereto before it is planted) : then in March the ground fhould be well plowed again, and after having made the furface pretty even, the rows mould be marked out from fouth-eaft to north-weft, at the diftance of ten feet from each other ; and thefe rows mould be crofted again at five or fix feet diftance, which will mark out the exact places where each plant mould be placed, fo that the vines will be ten feet row from row, and five or fix feet afunder in the rows, nearer than which they ought never to be planted. And herein mod people, who have planted vineyards, have greatly erred, fome having allowed no more than five feet from row to row, and the plants but three feet afunder in the rows ; and others, who think they have been full liberal in this article, have only planted their vines at fix feet diftance every way : but neither of thefe have al- lowed a proper diftance to them, as I fhall (hew : for, in the firft place, where the rows are placed too clofe, there will not be room for the fun and air to pafs in between them to dry up the moifture, which, being detained amongft the vines, mull produce very ill effects : and, fecondly, where the vines are placed in exadt fquares, fo near together as fix feet, there can be no room for the current of air to pafs between them, when their branches are extended on each fide, and fo confequently the damps in autumn will be en- tangled and detained amongft the vines, to the great prejudice of their fruit : for fince the autumns in England are often attended with rains, cold dews, or fogs, all proper care fliould be taken to remove every thing that may obftruct the drying up the dam^s which arife from the ground.
" The lkilful Vignerons abroad are alio fenfible how much it con- tributes to the goodnefs of their vines to allow a large fpace between the rows ; and therefore where the quality of the wine is more regarded than the quantity, there they never plant their vines at lefs than ten feet row from row, and fome allow twelve. It was an obfervation of Bellonius, almoft two hundred years fince, that in thofe iflands of the Archipelago, where the rows of vines were
" placed
Chap. XII. O F T H E V I N E. S95
" placed at a greater diftance, the wine was much preferable f " thofe which were clofe planted ; and this he positively affirms td " be the cafe in mod countries where he had travelled. Indeed we " need not have recouiTe to antiquity for the certainty of fuch facts, ** when we are daily convinced of this truth in all clofe plantations " of any kind of fruit, where it is conflantly obferved, that the " fruits in fuch places are never (o well coloured, fo early ripe, nor " near fo well flavoured, as thofe produced on trees, where the air " can freely circulate about them, and the rays of the fun have fr^e " accefs to the branches, whereby the juices are better prepared be- " fore they enter the fruit.
" Having thus confidered the diftance which is-neceffary to be al- " lowed to thefe plants, we come, next to the planting : but in order " to this, the proper forts of grapes fhould be judicioully chofen ; " and in this particular, we have egregioully erred in England; All ff the vineyards at prefent planted here, are of the fweeteft and beft " fort of grapes for eating, which is contrary to the general practice " of the Vigr.erons abroad, who always obferve, that fuch grapes tc never make good wine; and therefore-, from experience, make H choice of thofe forts of grapes, whofe juice, after fermenting, " affords a noble rich liquor ; which grapes are always obferved to " be auftere, and not by any means palatable. This is alio agreable " to the conftant practice of our cyder-makers in England, who " always obferve that the be ft eating apples make but poor cyder ; **. whereas the more rough and auftere forts, after being prefl'ed and " fermented, afford a ftrong vinous liquor. And I believe it will be " found true in all fruits, that where the natural heat of the fun " ripens and prepares their juices, fo as to render them palatable, " whatever degree of heat thefe juices have more, either by fermen- " tation, or from any other caufe, will render them weaker, and lefs " fpirkuous. Of this we have many inftances in fruits : for if we " traniplant any of our fummer or autumn fruits, which ripen per- " fectly in England without the affiftance of art, into a climate a " few degrees warmer, thefe fruits will be mealy and infipid ; fo " likewife if we bake or ftew any of thefe fruits, they will be good " for little, lofing all their fpirit and flavour by the additional heat of V the fire; and fuch fruits as are by no means eatable raw, are here- " by rendered exquifite, which, if tranfplanted into a warmer cli- " mate, have, by the additional heat of the fun, been alfo altered fo *' as to exceed the moft delicious of our fruit in this country.
E e e " From
394 OF THE CULTURE Part III.
" From whence it is plain, that thofe grapes which are agreable cc to the palate for eating, are not proper for wine ; in making of " which, their juices muft undergo a ftrong fermentation: there - " fore, fince we have in England been only propagating the moft " palatable grapes for eating, and neglected the other forts, before •*' we plant vineyards, we fhould take care to be provided with •' the proper forts from abroad, which mould be chofen according " to the fort of wines intended to be imitated ; though I believe the " mod probable fort to fucceed in England, is the Auvernat, or " true Burgundy grape, (which is at prefent very rare to be found " in the Englifh vineyards ; though it is a common grape in the " gardens, againft walls). This fort of grape is mod: preferred in " Burgundy, Champaign, Orleans, and moft of the other wine coun- " tries in France ; and I am informed, that it fucceeds very well in " feveral places to the north of Paris, where proper care is taken of " their management : fo that I fhould advife fuch perfons as would cc try the fuccefs of vineyards in England, to procure cuttings of this " grape from thofe countries : but herein fome perfon of integrity " and judgment fhould be employed to get them from fuch vine- " yards where no other forts of grapes are cultivated j which is very *' rare to find, unlefs in fome particular vineyards of the citizens, " who are very exact to keep up the reputation of their wines ; no- " thing being more common than for the Vignerons to plant three or " four fcrts of grapes in the fame vineyard, and at the time of vin- " tage to mix them all together; which renders their wines " lefs delicate than in fuch places where they have only this one true " fort of grape. And here I would caution every one againft mix- <c ing the juice of feveral grapes together, which will caufe the wine " to ferment at different times, and in different manners.
" The cuttings being thus provided, (for I would always prefer " thefe to layers, or rooted plants,) about the beginning of April is the " beft feafon for planting; when it will be proper to put the lower ends " of the cuttings in water about three inches, fetting them upright, " for fix or eight hours before they are ufed ; then at the center of " every crofs mark already made by a line, to the diftance the vines t( are defigned, fhould be a hole made with a fpade, or other inftru- 11 ment, about a foot deep, into each of which fhould be put one 11 ftrong cutting, placing it a little (loping : then the hole fhould be " filled up with earth, prcflbg it gently with the foot to the cut-
" ting,
Chap. XII. OF THE VINE: 395
ting, and railing a little hill to each about three inches, fo as juft to cover the uppermoft eye or bud, which will prevent the wind and fun from drying any part of the cuttings, and this upper eye only will moot; the under ones moft of them will pufh cut rout?, fo that this fhoot will be very ftrong and vigorous. " After they are thus planted, they will require no other care un- . til they moot, except to keep the ground clear from weeds, which fhould be constantly obferved : but as the diftance between the rows of vines is very great, fo the ground between them may be fown or planted with any kind of efculent plants, which do not grow tall, provided there is proper diftance left from the vines, and care taken that the vines are not injured by the crops, or in the fathering, and carrying them off the ground ; and this husbandry may be continued three or four years, till the vines come to bear- ing j after which time there mould be no fort of crop put between them in fummer ; becaufe the cleaner the ground is kept between the vines, from weeds or plants, the more heat will be reflected to the grapes ; but after the grapes are gathered, there may be a crop of coleworts for fpring ufe, planted between the rows of vines, and the cultivating thefe will be of ufe to the vines, by ftirring of the ground : but as to watering, or any other trouble, there will be no occafion for it, notwithstanding what fome people have di- rected ; for in England there is no danger of their mifcarrying by drought. When the cuttings begin to fhoot, there fhould be a fmall ftick of about three feet long ftuck down by each, to which the fhoots fhould be fattened, to prevent their breaking or lying on the ground, fo that as the moots advance, the faftening mould be renewed, and all fmall lateral fhoots (if there are any fuch pro- duced) fhould be conftantly difplaced, and the ground between the vines always kept clean. This is the whole management which is required the firft fummer.
" But at Michaelmas, when the vines have done (hooting, they fhould be pruned ; for if they are left unpruned till fpring, their fhoots being tender (efpecially toward their upper parts) will be in danger of fuffering if the winter mould prove fevere. " This pruning is only to cut down the fhoots to two eyes ; and if, after this is done, the earth be drawn up in a hill about each plant, it will ftill be a greater defence againft froft. " At the beginning of March, the ground between the vines fhould be well dug, to looferi it, and render it clean : but you fhould be
E e e 2 " careful
396 OF THE CULTURE Part III.
" careful not to dig deep clofe to the vines, left thereby their roots " fhould be cut or bruifed ; and at the fame time the earth mould " be again laid up in a hill about each plant : but there muft be care " taken not to bury the two young eyes of the former year's moot, " which were left to produce new wood.
" At the beginning of May, when the vines are mooting, there " mould be two ftakes fixed down to the fide of each plant, which " muft be fomewhat taller and ftronger than thofe of the former " year; to thefe the two fhoots (if fo many are produced) fhould " be faftened, and all the fmall trailing or lateral moots mould be " conftantly difplaced, that the other fhoots may be ftronger j and " the ground fhould alfo be kept very clear from weeds as be- " fore.
" The autumn following thefe vines fhould be pruned again in " the following manner: thofe of them which have produced two " ftrong moots of equal vigour, muft be cut down to three eyes " each ; but in fuch as have one ftrong fhoot and a weak one, the " ftrong one muft be mortened to three eyes, and the weak one to " two ; and fuch vines as have produced but one ftrong fhoot, " fhould be fhortened down to two eyes alfo, in order to obtain " more wood againft the fucceeding year.
" In the fprrng, about the beginning of March, the ground be- " tween the vines fhould be again dug, as before, and two ftakes " mould be placed down by the fide of all fuch vines as have two " fhoots, at fuch diftance on each fide of the plant as the fhcots " will admit to be faftened thereto, and the fhoots fhould be drawn "- out on each fide to the ftakes, fo as to make an angle of about " forty-five degrees with the ftem ; but by no means fhould they •' be bent down horizontally, as is by fome praiftifed : for the " branches lying too near the earth, are generally injured by the -'* damps which arife from thence, but efpecialiy when they have 1 fruit, which is never fo well tafted, nor io early ripe upon thofe " branches, as when they are a little more elevated.
" In Ma):, when the vines begin to fhoot, they muft be carefully " looked over, and all the weak dangling fhoots fhould be rubbed " off as they are produced, and thofe fhoots which are produced 5C from ftrong eyes, fhould be faftened to the ftakes to prevent their " being broken off by the wind.
" This management fhould be repeated at leaft every three weeks,, M from the beginning of May to the end of July ; by which means
Chap. XII. O F T H E V I N E. 397
" the fhoots which are trained up for the fucceeding year, will not " only be ftronger, but alfo better ripened and prepared for bearing ; " becaufe they will have the advantage of fun and air, which is ab- " folute'y neceffary to prepare their juices: whereas if they are " crouded by a number of fmall dangling weak branches, they will " fhade and exclude the rays of the lun from the other fhoots ; and " fo by detaining the moift ure a longer time amongft the branches, " occafion the veffels of the young wood to be of a larger dimen- " fion; and hereby the crude juice finds an eafy paffage through " them ; fo that the fhoots in autumn feem to be moftly pith, and " are of a greenifh immature nature, and wherever this is obferved, " it is a fure fign of a bad quality in the vines.
" The foil alfo mould be conftantly kept clean, becaufe, if there " are any vegetables (either weeds or plants of other kinds) growing " between the vines, it will detain the dews longer, and by their " perfpiration, occafion a greater moifture, than would be, if the " ground were entirely clear ; (o that thofe who plant other things " between their rows of vines, are guilty of a great error.
" In autumn, the vines fhould be pruned, which feafon I " approve of rather than the fpring : and this being the third " year from planting, the vines will now be firong enough to pro- " duce fruit, therefore they muft be pruned accordingly. Now " fuppofe the two fhoots of the former year, which were fhortened " to three eyes, have each of them produced two ftrong branches " the fummer pad, then the uppermoft of thefe fhoots upon each *' branch fhould be fhortened down to three good eyes (never [ft- " eluding the lower eye, which is fituate juft above the former " year's wood, which feldom produces any thing, except a weak "■ dangling fhoot) ; and the lower fhoots fhould be fhortened down " to two good eyes each ; thefe being defigned to produce vigorous " fhoots for the fucceeding year ; and the former are defigned to bear "• fruit j but where the vines are weak, and have not produced more " than two or three fhoots the lafl feafon, there fhould be but one " of them left with three eyes for bearing ; the other muft be " ihcrtened down to two, or if weak to one good eye, in order to " obtain firong fhoots the following fummer, for there is nothing " more injurious to vines, than the leaving too much wood upon ,£ them, efpecially while they are young ; or the overbearing them, *| winch will weaken them fo much, as not to be recovered again to
" a good,
398 OF THE CULTURE Part HI.
■S a good ftate in feveral years ; though they fliould be managed with " all poffible fkill.
" In March, the ground between the vines fliould be well dug as " before, obferving not to injure their roots by digging too deep near " them : but where there are imall horizontal roots produced on or " near the furface of the ground, they fliould be pruned off dole to " the places where they were produced ; thefe being what the vignc- " rom call day roots, and are by no means neceflary to be left on : and " after having dug the ground, the ftake fliould be placed down in " the following manner : on each fide of the vine fliould be a ftake " put in at about fixteen inches from the root, to which the two tc branches, which were pruned to three eyes, each for bearing, " fliould be fattened, (obfsrving, as was before directed, not to draw " them down too horizontally) ; then another taller flake fliould be " placed down near the foot of the vine, to which the two flioots " which were pruned down to two eyes, fliould be faftened, pro- " vided they are long enough for that purpoie : but if not, when " their eyes begin to iboot, thefe muft be trained upright to the " flakes, to prevent their trailing on the ground, hanging over the " fruit branches, or being broken by the wind.
" In May, the vines fliould be carefully looked over again, at " which time all weak lateral branches fliould be rubbed off as they " are produced; and thofe flioots which fhew fruit, muft be fattened " with bafs to the ftskes to prevent their being broken, until they are " extended to three joints beyond the fruit, when they fliould be '* flopped : but the flioots which are defigned for bearing the follow- ". ing feafon, fliould be trained upright to the middle ftake, by " which method the fruit branches wiil not ihade thefe middle " flioots, nor will the middle flioots fliade the fruit, fo that each " will enjoy the benefit cf fun and air.
" This method fhould be repeated every fortnight or three weeks, " from the beginning of May, to the middle of July, which will al- " ways keep the flioots in their right pofition, whereby the leaves " will not be inverted, which greatly retards the growth of the fruit ; " and by keeping the vines conftantly clear from horizontal flioots, tc the fruit will not be crouded with leaves or (haded, but will have " conftantly the advantage of the fun and air equally, which is of " great confequence: for where the fruit is covered with thefe dang- ". ling flioots in the fpring, and are afterwards expofed to the air, ,( cither by diverting them of their leaves, or elfe difplacing their
" branches
Chap. XII. OFTHEVINE. 399
" branches entirely, as is often practifed, the fruit will become hard, " and remain at a perfect fland for three weeks, and fometimes will <c never advance afterward, as I have feveral times obferved : there- " fore there cannot be too much care taken to keep them conftantly " in a kindly ftate of growth, as the lignerom abroad well know, " though in England it is little regarded by the generality of garden- " ers, who, when their grapes fuffer by this neglect, immediately <c complain of the climate, or the untowardnels of the feafon, which " is too often a cover for neglects of this nature. And here I can- " not help taking notice of the abfurd practice of thofe who pull off " the leaves from their vines, which are placed near the fruit : in 4< order to let in the rays of the fun to ripen them ; not considering " how much they expoi'e their fruit to the cold dews, which fall " plentifully in autumn, which, being imbibed by the fruit, greatly " retard it : befides, no fruit will ripen lb well when entirely " expofed to the fun, as when it is gently fcreened with leaves : " and by the pulling off thefe leaves, which are abfolutely neceffary " to prepare the juices before they enter the fruit, the grofs parts of " which are perfpired away by the leaves, the fruit muft either be " deprived of nourifhment, or elfe fome of the grofs particles will. " enter with the more refined parts of the juice, and thereby render " the fruit worfe than it would otherwife be, were the leaves " permitted to remain upon the branches : for if the weak dang- " ling fhoots are conftantly difplaced as they are produced, the fruit " will not be too much fhaded by the leaves that are upon the bear- " ing branches.
" When the fruit is ripe, if the ftalks of the bunches are cut " half through a fortnight before they are gathered, it will caufc " the juice to be much better, becaufe there will not be near fo *! great a quantity of nourifhment enter the fruit, whereby the " watery particles will have time to evaporate, and the juice will be " better digefted. This is practifed by fome of the moft curious " Vignerom in the South of France, where they make excellent wine.. ** But if, after the branches are cut, they are hung up in a dry room ,c upon firings, fo as not to touch each other, for a month before " they are prefled 5 it will alio add greatly to the llrength of the 11 wine ; becaufe in that time a great quantity of the watery parts of " the juices will evaporate. This is a conftant practice with fome " perions who inhabit the Tirolefe, on the borders of Italy, where " is made a moft delicious rich wine, as hath been attefted by
•< Dr,
400 OF THE CULTURE Part HI.
" Dr. Burnet in his travels ; and I have heard the fame from feve- " ral gentlemen, who have travelled that road fince. • " But with all the care that can poffibly be taken, either in the " culture of the vines, or in making the wine, it will not be near " fo good while the vineyard is young, as it will be after it has been " planted ten or twelve years ; and it will be constantly mending, " until it is fifty years old, as is attefted by feveral curious perfons " abroad, as alio by the mod fkilful wine-coopers at home, who can " tell the produce of a young vineyard, from that of an old one, " after it is brought to England, by the colour of the wine. This a difference is very eafily accounted for, from the different Structure " of the veffels of the plants : thofe of the young vines being larger, " and of a loofer texture, eafily admit a larger quantity of grois " nourishment to pafs through them; whereas thofe of old vines, «' which are mere woody, are more clofely conftricted, and thereby " the juice is better ftrained in paffing through them, which muft " confequently render it much belter, though the grapes from a " young vineyard will be larger, and afford a greater quantity of " juice: fo that people fbould not be difcouraged if their wines at " firft are not fo good as they would with ; fince afterward, when «' the vineyard is a few years older, the wine may anfwer their ex- " pectation.
" The vineyard being now arrived to a bearing fiate, fhould be " treated after the following manner : firft, in the pruning there ct fhould never be too many branches left upon a root, nor thofe too " long : for although by doing of this, there may be a greater quan- " tity of fruit produced, yet the juice of thefe will never be fo " o-ood as when there is a moderate quantity which will be better " nourifhed, and the roots of the plants not fo much weakened ; " which is found to be of fo bad confequence to vineyards, that " when gentlemen abroad let out vineyards to -vignerens, there is " always a claufe inferted in their leafes to direct how many fboots " fhall be left upon each vine, and the number of eyes to which " the branches muft be fhortened ; becaufe were not the vignerons lt thus tied down, they would overbear the vines ; fo that in a few " years they would exhauft their roots, and render them fo weak as " not to be recovered again in feveral years j and their wine would « be fo bad, as to bring a difreputation on the vineyard, to the great " lofs of the proprietor.
" The
Chap. XII. OF THE VINE. *or
" The number of branches which the Italians generally agree to u leave upon a ftrong vine, are Four ; two of the ftrongeft have four " eyes, and the two weaker are fhortened down to two eyes each ; " which is very different from the common practice in England, " where it is ufual to fee fix or eight branches left upon each root^ " and thofe perhaps with fix or eight eyes to each ; fo that if " thefe are fruitful, one root muft produce near four times the num- " ber of bunches which the Italians do ever permit; and confe- " quently the fruit will not be fo well nourifhed, and the roots will " alfo be greatly weakened ; as is the cafe of all forts of fruit " trees, when a greater quantity of fruit is left on, than the trees " can nourifh.
" The next thing is, conftantly to keep the ground perfectly clean " between the vines, never permitting any fort of plants or weeds " to grow there. The ground fhould alfo be carefully dug every a fpring, and every third year have fome* manure, which mould be " of different forts, according to the nature of the ground, or what " can be moft conveniently procured.
,{ If the land is (tiff, and inclinable to bind on the furface, then " fea fand, or fea coal allies, are either of them very good manure " for it : but if the ground be loofe and dry, then a little lime mixed 1 with dung, is the beft manure. This mull: be fpread thin " upon the furface of the ground before it is dug, and in digging u fhould be buried equally in every part of the vineyard. Thefe " are much preferable to that of all dung for vines ; fo that it will " be worth the expence to procure either of them : and as they re- " quire manuring but every third year, where the vineyard is large, " it may be divided into three equal parts, each of which may be " manured in its turn, whereby the expence will be but little ** every year ; whereas when the whole is manured together, it will «* add to the expence ; and in many places there cannot be a fuffici- " ent quantity procured to manure a large vineyard in one year.
" This digging and manuring fhould always be performed about " the beginning of March, at which time all the fuperficial or day " roots, as they are called, muft be cut off, but the larger roots muft " not be injured by the fpade, &c. therefore the ground clofe to the " ftem of the vines muft not be dug very deep. After this is done, " the ftakes fhould be placed down, one on each fide the vines, at " about fixteen inches from their ftems, to which the longeft bearing ? branches fhould be faftened, and one ftake clofe to the ftem, to
Fff " which
402 OF THE CULTURE Part III.
" which the two fhorter branches fhould be trained upright, to fur- " nifh wood for the fucceding year.
" In the fummer, they mull be carefully looked over, as before, " rubbing off all weak dangling fkoots, and training the good ones " to the flakes regularly, as they are produced, and thofe of them " which have fruit fhould be flopped in June, about three joints be- " yond the bunches ; but the upright fhcots, which are defigned for *' bearing the following year, mufl not be flopped till the middle of " July, when they may be left about five feet long : for if they are *' flopped fooner in the year, it will caufe them to fhoot out many " dangling branches from the fides of the eyes, which will not only " occafion more trouble to difplace them, but will alfo be injurious ** to the eyes or buds.
" All this fummer dreffing fhould be performed with the " thumb and finger, and not with knives, becaufe the wounds " made by inftruments in fammer do not heal fo foon as when flop- " ped by gently nipping the leading bud, which, if done before the 11 fhoot is become woody, may be effected with great eafe, being " very tender while young.
" When a vineyard is thus carefully drelTed, it will afford as " much pleafure in viewing it as any plantation of trees and fhrubs " whatever, the rows being regular : and if the flakes are exactly " placed, and the upright fhoots flopped to an equal height, there " is nothing in nature which will make a more beautiful appearance; " and during the feafon that the vines are in flower, they emit a moft " grateful fcent, efpecially in the morning and evening ; and when " the grapes begin to ripen, there will be a frefh pleafure arifing in " viewing of them.
" Bat as the beauty of vineyards arifes from the regular difpofi- *' tion of the brandies of the vines, great care fhould be taken, in " their management, to train them regularly, and to provide every " year for new wood to bear the fucceding year : becaufe the wood V which has produced fruit is commonly cut quite away after the *" fruit is gathered, or at leafl is fhortened down to two eyes> to " force out fhoots for the next year, where there is not a fufficient *' number of branches upon the vine of thofe trained upright ; fo that " in fummer, when the vines are in perfection, there fhould be fia " upright moots trained for the next year's wood, and three or four * bearing branches with fruit on them :. more than thefe ought ne- f uer to be left upon one vine,..
Th*
Chap. XII. O F T H E V I N E. 40 3
" The Auvernat, or true Burgundy grape, is valued in Franco
" before any other fort, becaufe the fruit never grows very clofe
" upon the bunches, and therefore is more equally ripened ; for
" which reafon it fhould alfo be preferred in England : though in
" general, thofe forts are moft efteemed with us that have always
u clofe bunches, which is certainly wrong : for it may be obferved,
V that the grapes on fuch bunches are commonly ripe on one fide,
" and green on the other j which is a bad quality for fuch as are
" preffcd to make wine."
SECT. III.
JLxtraff of a Letter from M. Rouse l in Brie, to M. Du Ham el,
written in the year 1755.
" T Have begun to try the new hufbandry upon the vine. It is " -"- hard to pay at leaft 120 livres a year for dreffing an arpent of c< vineyard, to have only our poor wine of Brie ; efpecially when " the vines are entirely frozen, as they were laft year, or laid bare ° to the very wood, by hail, as was the cafe in Auguft laft. I am <c therefore trying to find out a way to manage vines, without be- * ihg at the expence of dreffing, or propping them, and by which " they may be lefs expofed to the injuries of the weather, and lefs " liable to be plundered by thieves. To this end, I pitched upon a " fpot of ground, about half an arpent in extent, which had for- " merly been a vineyard, but was grubbed up many years ago. I plant- te ed on it 400 poplars, fix feet afunder, in a quincunx form. As the " Toots of this tree are few and fmall, I thought that diftance might *• be.fufficient. At the foot of each of thefe trees, I planted two c< vine cuttings, one on each fide. The alleys are plowed, in order " to their being fown alternately, with corn or pulfe, fuch as len- " tils, beans, barley, oats, &c. the produce of which pays the " expence of plowing : whilft the three feet on one fide of the tree " are fown, the three feet on the other fide are plowed at proper " times and feafons ; by which means, both fides of the tree, and " confequently both the vines, receive in turns the benefit of the " ftirring of the ground. All my plants have taken well. I intend " to let the vines run up the trees, without doing any thing to " them ; and fhall wait with patience the event of their produce, " which, be it more or lefs, will be fp much clear gain, as it will " have ccft me nothing. This method was immediately approved
F f f 2 "of
404 OF THE CULTURE Part III.
" of by the country people hereabouts, feveral of whom are now ** following my example. What helped to give them this good opi- *' nion of it, fo fuddenly, was, the example of a vine, which " chances to grow a league from hence, in the middle of a field, at " the foot of a pear tree, and which never is either pruned or cul- " tivated. Laft year, when all the vines of this country were fo " damaged by the froft, as not to produce any fruit at all j this vine " efcaped unhurt, and bore as many grapes as yielded a barrel of " wine. If the future produce of my vineyard, which contains H 800 vines, were to be eftimated on this footing, it would amount " to 800 barrels of wine every year. But as no one can be fo ab- " furd as to make any fuch calculation, fo, on the other hand, I *' believe none will deny but that my vines, producing only the two *f hundreth part of that proportion, will yield me four barrels of " wine, which will not have coft me any thing. And even fup- " pofing them not to yield me any thing, ftill I fhall lofe nothing, " becaufe they will have coft me nothing. The 400 poplars, which do " not ftand me in above a penny apiece, (being planted only by flips, " without making or digging either holes or trenches for them,) can- " not fail, in a foil that is quite fit for them, to be worth, twenty- " five years hence, 10 livres apiece, or 4000 livres the whole; " which will be an excellent payment for the ground they will have " taken up. I do not, however, mean to extend this method to " all my vineyards. In moft of them, the foil, though fit for the " vine, is too dry and ftoney for the poplar. In Italy, vines are fre- " quently planted at the foot of mulberry and other trees. The " only thing neceffary in that cafe, is, to make the alleys of a width " proportioned to the fhade of the trees.
" I have begun to cultivate vines with the horfe-hoe, and fhallnot 14 fail to inform the public of my fuccefs in that method."
SECT. IV.
Experiment on the Vine, cultivated according to the principles of the New Hujbandry, with remarks thereupon, by M. de Chateau-vieux.
\\7 H E N I began to reflecl: attentively on the principles of the * * new hufbandry, I foon perceived that it might prove a means of perfecting the culture of our vineyards, as well as that of our <>ther lands,
I wcs
Chap XIT. O F T- H-E V I N f. 3 O 4&5
I was the more readily induced to turn my thoughts towards that important branch of agriculture, as it feemed to me to have been too much neglected for a long time. I plainly faw, that our methods of cultivating the vine were, in general, not only defective, but badly executed, and that, in the common way of planting vineyards, the produce could not be proportioned to the great ex- pence.
I fhall not at prefent enter into a detail of the principles and mo- tives cf my new fcheme for the culture of the vine : that tafk would be too long for this work : and I mould likewife be glad firft to fee the advantages of my method confirmed by a feries of experiments repeated for feveral years together. My different operations, and firft fuccefs, are all that I fhall mention now.
Every country has, in the culture of the vine, fome practice or other peculiar to itfelf, and which is thought effential there, though it be rejected in other places. Ail agree in pruning the vine, and in ftirring the earth round it : but neither of thefe operations is per- formed in the fame manner every where.
For the better underftanding of my new culture, it is neceffary that I fhould give an idea of the manner in which our vineyards are law! out and planted. Their expofnion is generally to the Eaft or South,, on a good deep foil, which has a gentle declivity, or on the fide of a hill. The whole furface of the ground is planted without order cr fymetry ; fo that the vines are, almoft always, either too clofe together, or too far afunder : very few are at proper diftances. As the old vines decay and perifh, the chafms are filled up by layers irom the next neighbouring vines. This is the general difpolition of our vineyards, from which great inconveniences muft necefiarily arife : but I fhall not enter into a detail of them.
With regard to the culture of the vhie, it is fuffjeient, for my prefent purpofe, to obferve, that the whole of that labour is now performed by hand, which renders it very expenfive.. I fay nothing of the manner in which it is executed ; that part having appeared to me fo very defective, that I have been obliged to alter and correct it in every point.
By this fhort preamble, it may eafily be feen, that in order to improve the culture of the vine, and bring it to greater perfection, it was neceffary that I fhould attend chiefly to the three following things. 1. To difpofe the vines in a better manner, by planting them in ftxait lines, and at equal diftances from each other. 2. To
contrive
406 OF THE CULTURE Part Iff.
contrive that difpofition, fo as to leffen the prefent expence of cul- ture, by ufing a plough to frir the ground in one part of the vine- yard, whilft the other fhould continue to be ftirred with the fpade. 3. To execute the feveral cultures of the vine, in fuch manner as to make them promote its vegetation more than they do jn any of the common methods.
I fhall treat each of thefe three articles feparately.
I. Of the difpofition of the Vines in the vineyard.
'T,HE difpofition which feemed to me the moft agreable to the ■•* principles of the new hufbandry, by which I was guided, was to lay the vineyard out in beds, as we do fields for corn, obferving to leave an alley between every two beds, and making each bed five feet wide, in order to plant it with three rows of vines, whicb, by that means, would be 30 inches afunder, and the vines at the fame diftance from each other in the rows.
As to the alleys, I thought it would be right to make them alfo five feet wide : and what I (hall fay hereafter will fhew, that about that width is necefiary.
However, as that difpofition might not be the beft, I tried others on fmall fpots of ground, by planting the vines at other diftances. Some were planted in fingle rows three feet and a half afunder ; others in double rows, and in beds, with alleys of three feet and a half between them. Thefe plantations were made in the fpring of 1753.
But as I could not expect to fee the event of thefe trials, till a con- fiderable time after making them, eight or ten years, at leaft, being requifite to fhew what the fuccefs would be, when the vines fhould be come to their full ftrength and bearing ; I confidered at the fame time, by what means I might abridge: an experiment which was to be of fo long a duration.
To that end, I formed a bed of vines, in a vineyard planted 24 years before. The vineyard was good, and yielded plentiful crops. I made my bed five feet wide, and planted it by laying down flocks of the old vines, to make the two outward rows, leaving two feet and a half diftance from one layer to another. The old vines, which happened to be pretty well fituated, formed the middle row. The remainder of the bed, which is 40 toifes long, was planted with layers.
An
Chap. XII. OP THE VINE. 407
An alley, five feet wide, was made on one fide of this bed, by plucking up the old vines within that diftance. Some of thefe which were left,' ferved to form a row of vines, ready againft the making of a fecond bed parallel to the firft. It is plain, that the making of a bed in this manner, requires a width of ten feet, viz. five feet for the vines, and five feet for the alley. I mud obferve, that though both thefe widths are equal, it does not follow that half the vines upon the whole furface of the ground is to be retrenched : for one row may ftill be raifed in the middle of the alley : confequently, the num- ber of vines in reality retrenched, is only one fourth. This bed was made, in this manner, in November 1752.
After I had feen the crop which it produced in 1754, I no longer hefitated to extend this experiment : and accordingly, in November, I made three other beds, like the former, and clofe to it.
I not only made no doubt but that the vines, being fo difpofed, and having an equal quantity of earth to draw their nourishment from, would thrive better than they do in our common method of culti^ vating them ; but I likewife hoped that their being expofed on all fides to the influences of the fun. and air, by means of the alleys would facilitate their vegetation, and haften the ripening of the grapes.
II. Of 'the importance of tejfem^g the expence of culture, by the new
c.ifof.tion of the vines.
PHIS article will be of no great confequence to thofe who are al- ready ufed to cultivate dieir vineyards wkh the horfe-hoe : I write it for thofe only who are not acquainted with that practice.
The manner in which I propcfe diftributing the vines, fhews at once the pcffibility and facility of giving the alleys every necefiary culture, wijth the fame p/oughs and the fame cultivator that we ufe ior the alleys of our corn fields. I have not found the leaft difficulty, in the execution of this practice.
The ground thus cultivated in the alleys, will be about a third part «f the whole : the remaining two thirds will continue to be cultivated by hand, as ufual ; and the expence will be confiderably diminifhed, by the difpatch with which the ploughs,, or cultivators, will perform their part,
The plough may be brought as near the vines as one pkafes, pro-i vided care be taken not to damage them. An expert hufbandman. will eafily know how to manage in that refpecl,
^ Another
4o8 OF THE CULTURE TaftTil.
Another diminution of the expence attending the common culture of vineyards is, that as, by the method which Ipropofe, the number of vines will be fewer, they will of courfe require lefs labour, and therefore lefs coft ; and the vine-drefiers, meeting with no hinderances or obftructions between the vines planted regularly in rows, will do more work in a day, and that much better, than in the old way. There will alfo be lefs occafion for many things necefTary to the vine, fuch as propping; tying up, dunging, &c. Confequently this new culture will prove a confiderable laving.
It is well known how much vines are hurt when too great a quan- tity of water is retained in the ground. It chills them too much, their juices become lefs exalted, numbers of weeds fpring up, &c. Thefe inconveniencies will be remedied in a great meafure, by means of the alleys, by cutting with the plough, as I have done, towards the beginning of winter, a furrow along the fides of the bed. The wa- ter will drain off into that furrow, and the bed will retain only the degree of moifture necefTary for the vines.
III. Of the means of rendering the culture of the vine more benefcial to the plant and its fruit.
I Shall fpeak only of the two principal parts of the culture of the vine, viz. the pruning of it, and the ft irring of the ground ; and at what time each of thefe ought to be performed.
Before I began to execute the alterations I had thoughts of making in this culture, I had endeavoured to make myfelf fo far mafter of It, as to be in lefs danger of mifcarrying in my experiment.
The cuftom of this country is, to prune the vine during and after winter ; frequently beginning that work about the end of January. I always thought that a wrong feafon; and judged that it would be much better to prune the vine before winter, immediately after the vintage is ended. Experience has fince fhewed me that I was right.
In November 1750, I pruned above fifty vines with my own hands: none of them fuffered in the leaft by the winter's frofts? they made ftrong and vigorous fhoots, and produced a greater quan- tity of grapes than any of the neighbouring vines.
The next year, and in the fame month, I pruned the fame vines again. This pruning had the fame fuccefs as the year before. En- couraged by this repeated experience, I determined to make the bed I mentioned before, in my old vineyard. The vines have continued
to
Chap. XII. OF THE VINE. '409
to be pruned before winter, always with fuccefs, and without any fort of inconvenience.
Satisfied with thefe flrit, trials, I thought I might fafely venture to extend the fame practice to larger tracts of ground. I had about two arpents of vines, which had produced very little wood for two years part. The branches were fo poor and ilender, that they would fcarce bear laying down : in fhort, the vineyard perifhed daily. I conceived hopes of recovering it by means of this pruning. Accord- ingly, I pruned it in November 1754 ; and in 1755, tne v*nes Pro" duced ftronger and longer fhoots. As the branches would then bear laying down, I began to replenish part of the vacant places. By this means, my vineyard was replanted with young vines, and quite re- newed, only by altering the time of pruning.
This lad: pruning underwent a fevere trial, from the exceffive hard frofts of the winter of 1755 : yet, intenfe as the cold was, my plants bore it, without being hurt at all. I then looked upon it as certain, that the vine might be pruned before winter, without any danger from the inclemency of that feafon.
It was abfolutely neceffary that the vine mould bear pruning at that time, in order to enable me to perform the other cultures in their proper and moft favourable feafons.
That the vine may be benefited as much as poffible by every ftir- ring of the earth about its roots, thofe ftirrings ought certainly to be performed at the times when they may be mod likely to excite the greateft vegetation. Let us fee whether the common practice anfwers that end. The uiual time of beginning to drefs the vineyard, is in the fpring, immediately after pruning the vines. Three dreffings are judged fufficient, and it is generally thought that the laft mould be finimed by midfummer. The plants are then left to fhift for themfelves, till the time of vintage, which is upwards of three months after. During that time, quantities of weeds generally flicot up, which made the vines, and hinder the grapes from ripening as they ought. Careful hufbandmen pull them up: but the greater part are unwilling to take that trouble.
In the common way of cultivating the vine, the earth is nrft flir- red when the buds are jufl; ready to come out, and even after they are come out : a time always extremely critical, becaufe the uncer- tainty of the feafon expofes the buds to feveral dangers, which are increafed by that ftirring of the earth, from whence many exha- htfons, oftentimes very pernicious, proceed at this feafon.. Would
Ggg' 4*
4,o O F T H E C U L T U R E Part III.
it not be much better to let the vineyard reft while the vine is budding ?
The laft ftirring, which is given about midfummer, is too long before the vintage, and therefore is almoft always followed by great quantities of weeds. Might not this laft culture be performed later ?
I have experienced that thefe inconveniencies may be avoided, without falling into others. To this end, after the vine has been pruned, before winter, let the earth be firft ftirred in that feafon : the fecond ftirring, which would otherwile be immediately after winter, may then be deferred till towards the end of May : and the third ftirring may be given in the beginning of Auguft, or about the end of July.
This has been my method of cultivating my vines, ever fince their being planted in beds. The beds are dug by hand, and the alleys are ftirred with the plough or the cultivator.
The firft ftirring before winter, produces the fame effedl on the vineyards, as it does on our beds of corn. The water is drained off, and the winter's frofts penetrate the earth, divide it, and keep it loofe and light.
It remains in this ftate till towards the end of May, when it re- ceives the firft ftirring after winter : and, to have a more certain rule to go by, the fecond ftirring fhould not be given till after the props have been ftuck, the vines have budded, and the fhoots have been tied up to the props. This ftirring may be given, either a little fooner, or a little later, than is mentioned above, according to the feafcn. Sometimes one may be obliged to haften it, if the ground is greatly burdened with weeds : but at whatever time it be per- formed near the end of May, it is certain that the vine will then have made great fhoots, and that without having been difturbed by any ftirring of the earth during the time of its tender vegetation. As I have tried this culture in hot and very dry years, I have feen that the earth has not grown hard, but has retained the necef- fary degree of moifture, fo as to be ftirred with the greateft eafe.
The third ftirring, which is the fecond after winter, being defer- red till towards the end of Auguft, or at leaft till the end of July, weeds have not time to grow in any quantity between that and the feafon of the vintage : and what will render it ftill more beneficial,
is,
Chap. XII. O F T H E V I N E; 411
is, that this is the time when the grapes fffi moft, and are drawing towards a ftate of maturity.
I may perhaps be thought not to enlarge enough on fo important a fubjedl as this. It will, I confefs, require being .treated more fully hereafter : but in the mean time I beg the reader to confider, that I am now relating only the fuccefs of my firft trials.
SECT. V.
Good effects of this culture proved by the produce of a bed of vines forty toifes long, planted in 1752.
IObferved, in the beginning of this article, that every culture of the vine is performed with much greater eafe and expedition in vineyards laid out in beds, than in thofe which are planted all over, but at random. The very fituation of the vines planted regularly in beds, is fufficient to fhew with what eafe every thing that they re- quire may be done, and that they muft, of courfe, be well cultivated in every refpect. ■
In the next place, the pruning of the vine, and the firft ftirring of the earth before winter, are done at a time when the bufinefs of the field is over, and hufbandmen are, in fome meafure, un-occupied. That time, which would otherwife be in a manner loft, may now be employed to very great advantage ; and in confequence of their being advanced in their works, before the coming on of winter, in- ftead of being over-loaded in the fpring, by a multitude of things to be done at that time, they will have ample leifure to attend properly, and without being hurried, to every branch of culture that a farm requires.
The effect: of our culture has been extremely vifible. The new
vines have grown fo prodigioufly, that they now greatly furpafs thofe
of the old vineyard, which they were part of : the fhoots too are
..thicker and longer, and the branches of grapes bigger and in greater
number.
When I firft began to apply the principles of the new husbandry to the culture of the vine, I hoped indeed that the great fruitfulnefs of a fmaller number of plants, might compenfate for the lofs of thofe I was obliged to retrench : but I was agreably furprifed to find all the vines of my bed loaded with an equal quantity ot
G g g 2 Tho
4i2 OF THE CULTURE Part III.
'Tho' my conjecture vws founded on principles which I knew to be true, I was {fill farther confirmed in my ppinion by an obferva- tion I had made, that, even in our beft vineyards, there are always great numbers of vines which abfolutely bear no fruit at all, and many others which produce but very little ; fo that it is not on the great number of plants that the great produce of the vineyard de- pends, but on the goodnefs of thofe plants.
Accordingly, I concluded that I ought not to look upon my hav- ing taken up fome vines in order to form the alley, as a lofs, pro- vided thofe in the bed were enabled bv good culture to yield their utmoft productions. The event {hewed that I was right.
I likewife judged that the grapes would ripen more perfectly in this new way, than in the old : and in that too I was not roi- ftakenj for they were fcuch higher flavoured, and made far better wine.
Befides thefe advantages, this culture preferved my vines from a very bad accident, which happens frequently, efpecially when the autumn is rainy : I mean, the rotting of the grapes. In our com- mon vineyards, the grapes ripen, fmothered beneath that quantity of leaves with which the vines are loaded, and furrounded by num- bers of weeds, which often grow higher than the vines themfelves. Add to this, that the air around -them is filled with various exhala- tions from the earth, which, for want of a free circulation, remain fufpended about the plants. Thefe caufes cannot but make the grapes rot, and the wine that is made of them, mud be greatly in- ferior to what it would otherwife be.
Our vines in beds, being much lefs, if at all, liable to any of thefe accidents, will have the advantage of preferving their grapes found and without rottennefs, till they are perfectly ripe. This I have already experienced, at a time when above half the grapes of my old vineyard were abfolutely rotten.
Not with ftanding all the advantages of this new method, which, I may fay, I have only glanced at ; they would probably not be regarded, if they were not attended with greater fruitfulnefs than is obtained in the common way. I mail therefore fhew, that the pro- duce of my young vines was very confideraWe, and greatly fuperior to that of my old vineyard.
My bed, as I obferved before, was formed in November 17523 -and the two outward rows confiited, in a great meafure, of young
layers,
Chap. XII. OF THE VINE. 413
layers, which not being old enough in 1753, to bear much fruit, I could not expect any great matter from them that year. However, they bore as much as could reafonably be defired. A violent ftorm of hail which fell in June, left fcarce any thing to be gathered in all our other vineyards.
The year 1754, produced, in general, but little wine. The young plants of my bed, being only in their fecond year, were too weak to diftinguiih themfelves by any extraordinary quantity of fruit j tho' their vigour gave great hopes for future years. However, even in this, they were loaded with fo many and fo large bunches of grapes, that they yielded rather more wine than the old vines which were next them.
The year 1755, was one of the beft years for wine, that has been known for a long time. The quantity was plentiful, and the qua- lity exceeding good. The youngeft plants of my bed, which were only in their third year, feemed no way inferior to the old vines cul- tivated in the common way.
This bed, 40 toifes long, and 10 feet wide, including the alleys, contained 66 fquare toifes and 24 fquare feet. It yielded three hundred and thirty-fix pints of wine, Paris meafure, which was after the rate of two-fifths more than I had from my old vineyard ; or to explain myfelf ftill better, if my whole vineyard had been laid out in beds, it would have yielded five barrels of wine, for every three that it did yield.
Twenty beds of the fize of that we are fpeaking of, would make about an arpent ; that is to fay, they would contain 1333 fquare toifes, and 12 fquare feet: and thofe twenty beds, fuppofing them all to produce alike, would, after the rate of this, yield 6720 Paris pints, or 23 hogfheads and 96 pints ; which, in this country, is a prodigious quantity, fuch as no vineyard here has ever yet pro- duced.
The vintage of 1756, was neither plentiful nor good. I therefore did not make any comparifon j but remained fatisfied with obferving in general, that my bed produced at leaft as much as the old vine- jard.
^£CT,
4r4 GENERAL DIRECTIONS Part in.
SECT. VI.
General Directions for making Wine.
A FTER the above accounts of the culture of the vine, It may ** ** not be improper to give fome general directions for making wine. As it would be foreign to our purpofe to enter into a detail of the particular cultures of the vine, as practifed in different coun- tries, and of their feveral methods of making their wine, we refer the curious to what Mr. Miller has faid on thefe fubjects, in the ar- ticles Vitis and Wine.
The grapes muff, be of a proper degree of ripenefs : becaufe tire juice of un-ripe grapes, or other fruit, is a rough acid liquor, which ii with great difficulty made to undergo a vinous fermentation. In fome inftances, as in verjuice, it will remain in the fame ftate for years together : but after the grapes are come to a due maturity, the juice is no fooner prcffed into aveffel, than it ferments, and becomes wine.
Some kinds of grapes are naturally of this auftere acid quality, which prevents their fermenting kindly. It has been found by ex- perience, that this may be corrected by the mixture of fuch fub- frances as correct the acid j for inftance, the fixed alkaline fait of plants, in a due proportion, chalk, crabs-eyes, or other abforbent bodies.
Some gentlemen in England and America, when the juice of their grapes has not fermented kindly, have obtained a very good wine, by expofing the containing veffels, in a warm fituation, to the fun, with an intention of turning it to vinegar. Chemifts know that all vegetable acids are volatile in certain degrees of heat. Perhaps the effect of this futnmer expofure may be the evaporation of the acid, and thereby the converfion of the whole to a mild vinous fluid. There are not inftances wanting of the rougheft verjuice being turned to a ffrong pleafant cyder, or vinous fluid, by means of a warm fitua- tion accidentally given it.
When the juice is too watery, the addition of fugar, railin?, or whatever can give it a due confidence, will correct this quality ; as is frequently experienced in the juice of currants, goofeberries, &c. It is hkewife a frequent practice, in making cyder, to fet the juice of the apples, when it is found too watery, in broad fhdlow veffels,
over
Chap. XII. FOR MAKING W I N ± 415
over a fire, where it is kept in a considerable degree of heat, (but not buffered to boil,) till the fuperfluous moiflure is evaporated. Might not the fame method be praclifed to advantage in the making of wine ?
The acidity and waterinefs of the juice of the grapes may be like- wife remedied by a proper culture of the vine. If the heat of the climate is not great enough to ripen the grapes, efpecially in cold rainy feafons, the warmeft and drieft fituations and foils mould be chofen for the vines. A free and open expofure, whereby the fun may have accefs to the vines, might perhaps bring the wild vines in America to ripen their fruit, and exalt its juice to a much higher fla- vour. Mr. Miller, therefore, judicioufly adviies the people of Ame- rica to plant their vines on rifing grounds, where the bottom is rocky or hard near the Surface.
The grapes in America are liable to burn ; which Mr. Miller im- putes, either to the too great moiflure of the air in that country, or to their receiving too much nourishment from their over rich foil* Gentlemen of America think their air, except in marfhy countries, is dryer than ours, and are therefore of opinion that the burfting of their grapes is not owing to the too great moiflure of the air. If it proceeds from too much nourishment, the remedy would feem to be eafy : viz. training up a greater number of branches to conlume that nourifhment. Others, perhaps with more reafon, impute their burft- ing to their ripening too early, while the heavy rains, frequent in autumn, fall. In this cafe, they may be trained up againft lofty trees. The reflection of the heat, from the earth, would then be lefs, and the leaves of the trees would Shelter the grapes from the fun. By this means, being later before they fill, they would not be fo apt to burft ;. and as the latter end of the autumn is generally fair, they may then have an opportunity of coming to their full maturity, without the danger of burfting. Or if it is thought more advileable to quicken their ripening, the warmeft foil and fltuation ihould be choien for the vines, and they Should not be permitted to rife to a great height.
We have fometimes been inclined to think that the fummer pruning of the vine, which is intended to haften the ripening and increaie the goodnefs of the grapes, has the contrary eftedf .
In the fpring, and while plants are in a growing ftate, their juices are of a watery acid nature, abounding in what thechemifts call their
native*
4i6 GENERAL DIRECTIONS Part III.
native fait. As the fummer advances, or as, refpe&ively in each, their feed or fruit begins to ripen, their juices lofe that faline watery ftate, and become gradually milder : and when their feed or fruit is come to full maturity, the juices of perennial plants become of an oily mucilaginous quality. This change in the nature of the juice of plants is gradual, and perfect in proportion to the flourishing ftate of the plant. If the vines are pruned while they are yet in a growing ftate, nature is checked in bringing about this change : for not being able to extend the branches farther in length, the buds for the next year fwell, and fhoot out ; whereby a new vegetation is brought on, and the juices are kept longer in their faline ftate. Surely, as in ani- mal digeftion, the more perfecl and ftrong the powers of the ani- mal (or plant) remain, the higher and more perfecl muft its juices become.
When the grapes are too ripe, or the weather continues too warm at the time that the grapes muft necefTarily be gathered, their juice is apt to ferment too much and too quickly, whereby the vinous fpirit is evaporated, and the liquor becomes vapid. To remedy this, in countries liable to much heat, there fhould be cool places built for carrying on this fermentation. A gentleman, who had no fuch conveniency, contrived the following method to fupply the want of it. Near his houfe was a fpring, the water of which he conveyed by pipes into a cellar of an out-houfe, and when he had a mind to check the fermentation, he raifed the water in the cellar to what height he found proper, fo as to cover the whole or part of his vef- fels. If the vefTel was entirely immerfed in the water before the liquor had begun to ferment, he found that it continued in the fame ftate for months. Thus, having preffed fome apples, and having immediately immerfed the containing veflel in his cellar, he let it remain there till the fpring, when, on his carrying it into a warmer place, it fermented, and became excellent cyder. Mr. Boyle relates a parallel inftance, in his Hijiory of Cold.
In fome countries, they make it a general rule to gather their grapes when dry ; and in others they as carefully gather them only when they are wet with dew. In both, the circumftances of the feafons fhould, perhaps, vary this cuftom. Thus, when a warm kindly feafon has brought the grapes to a due maturity, fuch juice wants no addition : if a dry feafon has perhaps thickened their juice too much, the dew may remedy that defedt : and if a cold or rainy feafon has prevented their ripening thoroughly, and they ftill con- tinue
Chap.XIL FOR MAKINC WINE. 417
tlnue m an acid wateiy ftate, fiirely the warmeft and dryeft, hours fhouid be chofen for gathering them. •
We cannot here help lamenting the want of experiments perform- ed with accuracy and judgment on this lu'bjed:.
When the grapes are to be gathered, a fufficient number of la-- bourers fhouid go into the vineyard, each provided with a bafket and knife, and cut, as dole as pofTible to the fruit, thofe bunches only which appear riper! and moft open; leaving for a future cutting fuch as are green, or clofe : for clofe bunches. never ripen thorough- ly. All rotten or burften grapes, whether occafioned by over ripe- ftefe or any other accident, fhouid alfo be avoided. The bunches thus gathered fhouid be laid gently in the bafkets, without bruifing or prefiing them. The more expedrtioufly they are gathered, the finer will be the colour of the wine, and the fooner they are prefled, tUe better will its quality be. -
For white, wine, the grapes ihould be put immediately in the -prefe, which, being let down upon them, will, by its weight alone* iorce out the liquor plentifully. This full: running is efteemed the moft delicate. When the liquor ceaies to run, the prefs is raifed, and the cakes of grapes round its fides are pared off with an iron {hovel made purpofely for that ufe, and thrown up again, together with the loofe fcattered grapes. The prefs is then let down again on them, and fcrewed with great force, which occafions a fecond running, more plentiful than the firft, and little inferior to it in fla- vour or colour, but preferable in this, that it has a ftronger body, and will keep a conuderable time longer. This operation is repeat- ed, whilft any juice remains in the grapes.
To make red wine, after the red grapes are gathered, in doing of which the fame caution fhouid be obferved as before, in regard to their ripenefs, &c. the bunches are thrown into large tubs, and there mafhed or bruifed to pieces, with flick?, or by putting children into the tubs to tread out their juice. This is repeated, till the vefTel is full : after which the grapes are let lie in their liquor 48 hours, during which time the whole mud be frequently ftirred together. This itirring raifes a fermentation, and increafes the colour of the wine, which becomes of a full bright red. The liquor thus ob- tained, is then poured off, and is higher flavour'd than that which is afterwards got by prefiing what remains at the bottom of the tubs : tho' this laft will have the ftrongeft body, efpecially if the prefs is lcrewed ib tight as to break the feeds of the grapes,
Hhh The
4i8 GENERAL DIRECTIONS Part III.
The grapes that were- left upon the vines at the time of the firft cutting, fhould be gathered as they ripen ; and fo on, to a third and other cuttings, according as it may be found neceffary.
After the grapes have been preffed as dry as poflible, their cakes or hulks ftill afford a fpirit, or brandy, by diftillation.
The new wines will generally ferment of themfelves, within a few days after they have been put into the calks. Thofe that do not, fhould be helped, by putting into them a little of the froth, or yeaft, that works from the others. The fineft wines will fer- ment the fooneft : and this fermentation will continue for about ten or twelve days, according to the fort of the wine, and the feafon of the year. <
While the wine ferments, the bung-hole of the cafk mud be left open, or only covered with a thin cloth, to prevent any dirt from falling in : and this cloth fhould be laid hollow, fo that the froth arifing from the fermentation may have room to work off.
When the fermentation is pretty well over, which is known by the froth's ceafing to rife fo faft as before, the bung may be clofed down, after filling up the cafk with liquor within two inches of the top. A vent-hole fhould then be opened and left, to carry- off whatever may be thrown up by any fubfequent fermentation. This filling up of the cafk to within two inches of the vent-hole, fhould be regularly obferved every two days, for about ten or twelve davs Tunning : for the fermentation will continue a confiderable time, though in a lefs degree ; and if your cafks are not kept fo full as that the foulnefs thrown up by the fermentation may be carried off at the vent-hole, it will fall back again into the wine, and render it foul and muddy. After filling up each cafk in this manner, to within two inches of the bung, for about ten or twelve days, it muft be filled to within an inch every five or fix days, for the fpace of a month ; after which, once a fortnight will be fufficient during die next three months.
Tho' the fermentation will be over long before this laft mentioned time, yet. the calks muft be filed up once a month, fo long as they continue in the cellar : for as the wine will wafte infenfibly in the cafks, it will grow flat and heavy, if they are not kept continually ■riikd up. 'Twere needlefs to fay that the vent-holes muft be ftopt, when the fermentation is over.
In fcveral parts of Germany, where their grapes, feldom coming to full maturity, are gathered fomewhat green, they have iron ftoves
in
Chap. XII. FOR MAKING WINE. 4i9
in their cellars, where they keep a constant fire, which, by rarefy- ing and heating the air, ripens and meliorates the -vines, and renders them much more palatable and agreable than they would otherwise be.
As the wines drawn from the laft gathering of the grapes cannot be fo perfect as the others, for want of due maturity in the fruit, the people of Champaign and Burgundy have recourfe to the follow- ing method, to accelerate their ripening. When the wines have been about three weeks in the cafks, they roll them up and down therein for fome time, five or fix times a day, for four or five days running ; then two or three times a day, for three or four days ; afterwards, once a day, for about four days; then once a day, for about a week ; and after that, once in four or five days. If the grapes were gathered very green, the rolling in this manner is con- tinued, in all, for about five or fix weeks : but if they were tolerably ripe when gathered, rolling once in four or five days, for about a month or fix weeks, will be fufficient. This rolling of the liquor in the cafks Will heighten the fermentation, by the agitation of its parts ; and the violent motion thereof heats the wine, which caufes it to purify and purge itfelf, and accelerates its ripening, much better . than any other method can do. It likewife fweetens and ftrengthens it, by mixing and making it together with its lees, and renders it much more palatable. The fame method is alfo practifed when the wine is of too weak a body.
About the middle of December, the wines may be drawn off from the lees into frefh cafks, for the firft time, taking care to fill the cafks up, and to place them fo that they may not be fhaken or difturbed, until the middle of February, when it will be right to draw them off again into other cafks, which fhould likewife be filled up, and kept where they may not be difturbed, till the latter end-of March, or the beginning of April, at which time it will be proper to fhift them again into other cafks.
When the wine is fit for bottling, a frofty day, if the feafon of the year will permit,' or, for want of that, a cool and dry one fhould be chofen : experience having fhewn that wine drawn oft* either on a hot, or on a cold and moift, or a rainy day, will never be fo fine as that which is bottled in clear fettled weather. The fame rule fhould be obferved in lhifting the wine from one cafk to another.
We fhall clofe this article with a few directions, which Mr. Mil- H h h 2 ler
42o GENERAL DIRECTIONS Part III.
ler tells us have occurred to him from fome obfcryations and ex- periments more particularly relating to the making of wine in Eng- land.
The grapes, fays he, being ripe, fhould be cut when they are perfectly dry, and carried into a large dry room, where they fhould be fpread upon wheat ftraw, in fuch manner as not to lie upon each other. In this place they may remain a fortnight, three weeks, or a month, according as there is conveniency ; obferving to let them have air every day, that the moiflure perfpired from the grapes may be carried off. Then, the preffes and other things being in order, all the grapes mould be pulled off the bunches, and put into tubs ; taking care to throw away fuch as are mouldy, rotten, or not ripe, •which, .if mixed with the others, would fpoil the wine: the ftalks of the bunches mould alfo be thrown away: becaufe, if they are preffed with the grapes, an auftere juice will come from them, which will render the wine fharp and acid. Mr. Miller is of opinion that the want of this precaution has fpoiled great quantities of wine made in England, which might otherwife have proved very good : for, as he rightly obferves, in Fiance, and other wine countries, thofe-who pay more regard to the quality than the quantity of their wines, al- ways pick the grapes from off the ftalks before they are preffed : much more ought we in England, where the climate is lefs favour- able, npt to omit any art which may be neceffary to help the want of fun.
The grapes, being thus carefully picked, fhould be well preffed. If red wine is intended to be made, the hufks and ftones mould be put into the liquor, and if the feeds or ftones of the grapes are broken in the prefs, the wine will be the ftronger. The liquor and hufks muft be put into a large vat, where the whole fhould ferment together five or fix days : after which the wine fhould be drawn off, and put into large cafks, leaving the bung-hole open to give vent to the air which is generated by the fermentation. If the wine, after it is preffed out, and put into the vat with the hufks, does not fer- ment in a day or two at moft, it will be proper to add a little warmth to the room, by fires, which will foon put it into motion. For want of this, it often happens, where people prefs their wine, and leave it to ferment in open cold places, that the nights, being cool, check the fermentation, and caufe the wine to be foul, and almoft ever after upon the fret.
Jf white wine is defired, the hvdks of the grapes fhould not re- main
Chap. XII. FOR MAKING WINE. 421
main in the liquor above twelve hours, which will be long enough to fet it a fermenting : and when it is drawn off, and put into other veffels, it fhould not remain there above two days before it is drawn off again -, and this muft be repeated three or four times, which will prevent its taking any tincture from the hufks in fer- menting.
When the greateft fermentation is over, the wine fhould be drawn off into frefh cafks, which fhould be conftantly filled up, as before directed, and the bung-hole be left open three weeks or a month, to give vent to the generated air, and room for the fcum to run over. In filling up the cafks, great care fhould be taken not to break that fcum, becaufe it would mix with the wine, make it foul, and give it an ill tafte. The beft way therefore is, to have for this purpofe a funnel, with a plate at the fmall end, bored full of little holes, that the wine may pafs through in fmall drops, lb gently as not to break the fcum.
After the wine has remained in this ftate a month or fix weeks, it will be neceffary to ftop up the bung-hole, left, by expofing it too much to the air, the liquor fhould grow flat, and lofe much of its fpirit and ftrength : but it muft not be ftopt quite clofe, but fhould rather have a pewter or glafs tube, of about half an inch bore, and two feet long, placed in the middle of the bung-hole. The ufe of this tube is to let the air, which is generated by the fermentation of the wine, pafs off; becaufe, .being of a rancid nature, it would fpoil the wine, if it were pent up in the caik : and in this tube there may always remain fome wine, to keep the calk ful|, as the wine therein evaporates and fubfides.
The reverend Dr. Hales has greatly improved this tube, by mak- ing it double, viz-, by having within the outer tube, which he direds to be made two feet' long and of about two inches bore, and to be fixed in the bung-hole by a pewter ibcket clofely cemented, another fmaller tube, of about half an inch bore. The lower tube fhould always be kept about half full of wine, which will fupply the veffcl as the wine therein fliall fubfide ; and there will be no room left in the upper part of the veffel, to contain any generated air, which . will pafs off through the upper fmall tube, which muft always be left open for this purpofe. As the wine in the lower tube fubfides, it maybe re-filled by introducing a (lender funnel through the fmall tube, down to the fcum upon the furface of the wine in the larger tube, fo as to prevent its being broken by the wine falling too
violently
422 GENERAL DIRECTIONS,^. Part III.
violently upon it. Dr. Hales adds, that if this experiment is tried with glafs tubes, it will give an opportunity to obferve what impref- fion the different ftates of the air have upon the wine, by its riling cr falling in the tubes : and if that fucceeds, it may afterwards be done with wooden or metal tubes, which will not be in danger of breaking.
After the wine, and particularly that of countries where the fun is not very powerful, has palled its fermentation in the vat, and is drawn off into the cafks, it will require fomething to feed upon. To this end, it will be right always to preferve a few bunches of the beft grapes, which may be hung up in a room till there be occafion for them • when they fhould be picked off the ftalks, and two or three good handfuls put into each cafk, according to its fize.
The larger the calks are, the greater ftrength the wine contained in them will acquire, and confequently it will be the lefs in danger of fuffering from the injuries of the weather.
A P R A C-
PRACTICAL TREATISE
O F
HUSBANDRY.
PART IV.
Of the Inftruments peculiar to, or nfeful in, NEW HUSBANDRY.
the
CHAP. I.
Of PLOUGHS.
IN our account of the experiments in 1750, we advifed, fays M. Duhamel, making the firfl trials of the new hufbandry, on fmall pieces of ground, in order to acquire by degrees a know- ledge of many circumftances, which, though they may feem of little confequence, are, in re- ality, of great importance. If thofe experiments had been made at once on large tracts of land,
any bad fuccefs at firft letting out, might have difcouraged people
from making farther trials.
6 We
4*4 OF PLOUGHS. PartlV.
We find with pteafure, continues our author, that a fufRcient number of experiments has now been made, to create a confidence in this new method of cultivating land, and that proper instruments for that purpofe have been invented. It therefore remains that we give a defcription of thefe initruments, beginning with the ploughs.
Two things are eflentially necefiary to all ploughs : the one is, that the (hare and coulter mould enter fufficiently deep into the unplowed earth, to turn it over into the furrow : the plough is fitted for this purpofe, by having its fhare and coulter placed in a direc- tion fomewhat oblique to the beam, inclining towards the ground that is to be turned over : and the other, which is fiill more im- portant, is, that the plough be made to pierce to a depth fuited to the quality of the foil. This is eafily effected with ploughs that have a fore- carriage : and as to thofe which have none, the plow- man may, by the help of their handles, if fufficiently long, as with 3. lever, make the mare pierce to whatever depth may be thought moft proper.
M. de Chateau-vieux observes, that, in order to plow well, the furrow which is turned over ought not to be cut too wide. The breadth of it fliould be determined by the quality of the foil, accord- ing as it is ftift or light, dry or moifh His furrows are generally between eight and nine inches wide : and as to their depth, he is guided in that refpecT: by the nature of the foil. Sometimes he has plowed a foot deep.; but then the furrows were cut narrow, in order to proportion the refiftance of the earth, to the ftrength of the horles : for it is as eafy to them to plow twelve inches deep, with a narrow furrow, as it would be to plow only to the depth of fix inches, with a wider one.
M. Duhamel took the firft hint of his plough, from one that he faw near Rochefort, the whole fore-carri3ge of which conlifted of only one very fmall wheel, whereby the beam was fupported at a proper height. While this plough was making, he received M. de Chateau-vieux's defcription oi his : but too late to follow entirely the ideas of that gentleman. However, he was ftill in time to make fome alteration in his fore-carriage, by means of which, he thinks his plough has all the advantages of M. de Chateau-vieux's, and that it is even more convenient in fome refpedfs. We, with M. Dn- hamel, frail leave the public to judge which of the two is heft, after giving a drawing and defcription of each of them.
SECT.
Chap. I. -OF PLOUGHS. 425
SECT. I.
Defcription of M. de Chateau-vieuxV plough. Of the Plough head.
/T*HE head of this plough is compofed of a wheel 32 inches in A diameter, which may be extended to 34 inches, or reduced to 30 : but to fall fhort of, or to exceed thofe meafures, would be at- tended with inconveniencies. This wheel may be made very light, efpecially if it be encircled with a thin hoop of iron. It is reprefented in Plate II. fg. 1, 2, 3. of which, fig. 2, is the plan, and fig. 1, the profile.
The frame in which the wheel is placed, is formed by two fhafts A B, CD, fig. 2, diftant from each other 18 inches, from infide to infide j which fixes the length of the nave of the wheel. Thefe fhafts are four feet eight inches long, and may be reduced to four feet four inches, by fhortening them at the ends, C and A. They are about two inches and a quarter fquare : but the edges mould be rounded off. Thefe two pieces are fattened together by the two crofs ftaves E F, G H, which are two inches and a half wide, and about an inch thick. They are riveted to one of the fhafts, at E and G, where they are not to be loofened at all j and at their other ends FandH, the fhaft mull: be. moveable, fo as to be taken off, to let the two crofs ftaves through two mortifes in the beam 1 K of the plough ; after which the fhaft CD is put in its place, and fixed with two iron pins, a, b. Between the two fhafts is placed the wheel L M, the nave of winch is pierced through its center, with a hole proportioned to the thicknefs of the iron pin or fpindle NO, which ferves for an axle tree, and is -reprefented by the two pricked lines. This fpindle, or axle tree, the diameter of which is about three quarters of an inch, ought not to projeft beyond the out-fide of the fhafts, left it mould lay hold of or hurt the ftalks of the corn, when the plough is ufed. To fix it at N, that end is flattened, and bent ever the fhaft to' the .middle of'its upper fide, where it is faftened at d, by a fmall pin driven through it and tlie fhaft.
On the upper furface of each of the fhafts, at the ends A and C, are the hooks AC, to which the harnefs is faftened : and at the other ends B and D, are two rings, the ufe of which will be explained
hereafter.
I i i The
426 OF PLOUGHS. Part IV
The fhafts A B, CD, fhould be pierced with four or five" holes,
to fet the wheel more or lefs forward or backward, in order to make
the plough ftrike more or lefs deep into the earth, as may be feen in
fig. i. a,b, c, d. The fame holes are indicated by the pricked lines
on the two fhafts ofy%\ 2. from A to N, and from Cto O.
Of the Plough "Tail.
THIS part confifts of the beam IK, fig. 1 & 2 ; the ground-reft CD fig. 1, which is covered by the fhare L D ; the handles KP, K^fig. 2, and K P fig. 1. the fheat E F fig. 1, of which part is pricked in fig. I, and the end appears at X in fig. 2; the mould board R S fig. 2, part of which is feen at N in Jig. 1 ; the coulter G H fig. 1, and TV fig. 2, and the fhare L D fig. 1, part of which is feen at Tin fig. 2.
The beam is four feet eight inches long, exclufive of the tenon which traverfes the handles. Three inches and a quarter fquare are very fufficient in its thickeft part, which is from X to V, fig. 2. The mortifes in the beam, which are under g, h, and through which the two crofs ftaves E F, G H, are Dipt, fhould be fo fitted, that the crofs ftaves may not fhake or be loofe in them, at the fame time that the beam fhould, by their help, flip with eafe over the crofs ftaves, either to the right towards E G, or to the left towards F H, accord- ing as the intended plowing may require. The beam fhould he fattened, either by two nuts, fcrewed on at tn n, which will fix it tight to the crofs ftaves E F, G H; or by two iron pins, ftuck through the holes p and q in the two crofs ftaves, one to the right in the crofs flaff E F, and the other to the left in the crofs ftaff G H. Thefe pins will keep the beam fteady in its place.
The lower part of the ground-reft fhould be fomewhat concave, as is reprefented at CD, fig. 4, Pi. II. in order to leffen its friction againft the earth.
The beam IK, fig. 1, and the ground-reft CD, are fattened to- gether by the fheat FE, and the handles P K, h, both of which are riveted to the ground-reft by two ftrong iron pins, the heads of which are feen at g and h ; and to the beam, as alfo the tenon of the beam which traverfes the handles at m,n; and by the two wedges, p, 0 and q, another ufe of which will be explained hereafter.
Wood naturally crooked is beft to make the handles of, that they may be all of one piece, which mould be fo difpofed, that one third
of
Chap. ft OF PLOUGHS. 4*7
of the fpace between the two handles, (hould be on the left fide and the two other thirds on the right fide, in order to facilitate the plow- man's walking in the furrow. This diipofition is (hewed in fig. 2. in which a line e, j, drawn from the middle of the beam, between the two handles/gives to the left fide a third PJ of the diftance P 9 between the two handles, and the two other thirds / ^to the
0t For want of wood naturally bent to a proper (hape, thefe handles may be made of two pieces firmly riveted and fattened together ; and if it mould be more convenient to the plowman, the whole lpace be- tween the handles may be on the right fide, as in fig. 6;
The (heat E F fig. 1, mould be very ftrongly and clofely fattened bv its tenon to the ground-reft, at g. An intelligent workman will eafily make it of a proper fize, which is about two inches and a halt wide and a full inch thick. The inclining of this piece with the ground wrift, gives it greater ftrength to refift, than if it was fattened to it at right angles. .
The mould-board, reprefented by RS,fig. 2, and AB,fig. 7, is from 10 to 3 1 inches long, and ten inches high or deep. It ought to be placed as in fig. 8, where its end A forms an acute angle ter- minating at the junction of the fin of the (hare : its other end B ex- tends beyond the length of the ground-reft, againft which it ought to incline, in fuch manner that, fuppofing the ground-reft to be lengthened out as far as C, the line CB would be twelve or thirteen inches long, reckoning; from the fartheft lateral furface of the ground- reft to the fartheft lateral furface of the mould-board, which, being thus placed, will form the width of the furrow.
The lower part of this mould-board is Hoped a little inwards, as is exprefied by the (hade in fig. 7 : and the part b fig. 7 mould jet out at leaft two inches beyond the part*. To tins end, the mould- board (hould be made of a plank about three inches thick, which will bear fcooping on both fides, in order to give it the concavity without, and the convexity within, reprefented in fig. 3 and 7.
The mould-board (hould be well fattened, to-prevent its being dif- olaced by the refiftance of the earth. The upright piece C D fig. 7, ' which ioins to the handles at its end D, and to the mould-board at its other end 0, fupports it ftrongly. It is highly neceffary to cover the cart of the mould-board which bears upon the earth, with a thin hoop of iron, in order to prelerve it ; for othetwife it would foon be worn
0Ut* I i i 2 The
428 OF PLOUGHS. Part IV.
The coulter GH, Jig. i. fhould be made of good iron well fteeled. A notch is cut in the beam to receive it, fig. 9 and 10 j and as the corners of that notch, C and B, againft which the coulter bears hardeft when the plough works, would loon be worn away if the wood was left bare, it is proper to fecure them with two fmall pieces of iron A B, CD, about the fixth part of an inch in thicknefs, fcrewed on with flat- headed fcrews. Thefe pieces of iron will keep the coulter lteady in its place.
The coulter fhould be pierced with feveral holes, from £ to F, fig, 10, to take it higher up, or let it lower down, as occafion may require. It is fattened to the beam which is pierced at E, fig, 9, by a itrong iron pin with a fquare flat head, which is let into the beam and lies even with it, as in fig. 10. The other end of this plrj; E, jig. 10, is a fcrew, fitted with its nut, by which the coulter is fattened tight to the beam. Upon this fcrew hangs the handle A, Jig. t, which ferves to turn it, and at the end of which is the key which fattens on the nuts of the iron pins which fecure the fhare. By this means, the key to turn the fcrews is always carried wi.iithe plough.
M. de Chateau-vieux's coulters weigh but five or fix pounds a-piece at molt, and frequently not more than three pounds.
He places his coulter lb that its point G, Jig. 1. jets out about an inch beyond the outfide of the lhare L C.
F.'g. 12 reprefents the plan of the fhnre, with its dimensions, as do aifo fig. 1 } and 14. The point lhould be made of goc.-d lied, and the reit oH good iron, neither too loft, nor too highly terrper'd, that it may not be fubject to break or bend. The tail of the fnare, A B, fig. 12, lhould be thicket from A to C, becaufe that is the part which bears the greatelt ftrefs. Its thicknefs dim.inithes gradually to B, where the lhare is fattened to the ground-reft. This tail is pierced with two round holes at A and B, fig. 13, through which are put the iron pins D E, F G, fg. 12. which have fquare flat heads, lying even with the tail of the lhare. Thefe pins pafs through the ground-reft, where they are fattened on the other fide by the nuts EG. A third round hole may be added at x Jig. 13, in order to fallen the fhare ftill more firmly to the ground-reft, with a fhert flat headed fcrew.
M. de Chateau-vieux has likewife made fome ploughs with the round holes a b Jig. 1 3, near A and B, that the iron pins D E, FG, fe. 12, might not traverfe the tenons of the fheat and handles; and
inltead
INSERT FOLDOUT HERE
Chap.!. OF'PLO!U'GHS, 429
inftead of thofe iron pins, he has riveted them with wooden pins, and found them keep the whole tighter together than the iron ones. 1 To the left fide of the plough mould be faftened the thin board N3 Jig. 1 & 7, the Life of which is to prevent the earth from tumbling over between the (hare- and the mould-board. Plowing wears the point of the (hare ; but much lefs than it does that of our common ploughs. However,- it muft be new pointed from time to time, al- ways obferving to make the point incline1 a little towards the earth, as is reprefented by the-pricked line D L>, flg. I ; that the (hare may fearceiy touch the ground at any other part than D and L, in order to leflen the friclion.
The hind part of the plough, thus formed, is joined to the fore carriage, by running the crols ftaves E F, G Hy Jig. 2. through the incrtiks of the beam, g and b\ and fixed there, either by the (crews m n} or the pins p, q. The traces of the fir ft and fecond horfe are faftened to the hooks AC. ; and if a third horfe is ufed, the traces of that third horfe are faftened to thofe ot the fecond. Horfes will do better for this plough, than oxen, unlefs thefe laft have been ufed to be harnefled one before the other.
The plough thus equipped, may eafily be carried to the field, if its hind part is laid upon the little carriage IE IV, Jig. 2. confifting of an iron axle tree IE T.V, two fmall wheels k i, I r, and the two pieces />',/, D v, at the end of which are the hooks B and D. Thefe wheels are about 21 inches or two kct diameter, and three feet fix inches, or even four feet afnnder. They are very light, having but a fmall weight to bear. The hooks of thefe two pieces B t, D 1), are hcohed to the rings B and D at the end of the (hafts ,* and by this means the plough will be carried upon three wheels, of which j%. r and 2 lhew fufficiently the arrangement and ufe. Fig. 5, (hews the (lope that (liould be given to the upper furface of the middle of the axie tree of this fmall carriage on which the reft of the plough is to be loaded in order to remove it from one place to another, that the ground -reft and other pieces may lie flat and fteady upon it.
M. de Chateau- vieux'i directions for.tt/ing this pkvgb.
'TO open the firft furrow, the wheel muft be placed at the laft
-*-' hole, towards the extremity of the (hafts. This m-akes the
(hare incline the more, and confequently cut the deeper. But as it
would be fomewhat troublefome to chanee the pofition of the wheel,
43o O F P L 0 U G H S. Part IV.
at every firft cut of the plough, a very little attention will remedy that inconvenience. It is only inclining the handles of the plough to the right or the left, inftead of holding them even. The whole plough will incline with the handles, and the fhare will then enter into the ground with eafe, and open the firft furrow. The other furrows are plowed without any fort of difficulty} and for them, the plough is to be held even, or inclined but very little, either to the right hand or the left, as the fituation of the land may require.
I generally reft the beam on the left hand fide of the fore-carriage: It is eafy to place it fo as to leave whatever diftance is thought proper between the outmoft row of corn and the furrow that is actually plowing.
The forwarder the wheel is fet, the deeper the plough cuts : and fo on the contrary. But if one would have it cut ftill deeper, or Shallower, than it can be made to do by altering the pofition of the wheel, that too may eafily be effected. By loofening a little the wedge above the beam, p, o, fig. i. and driving farther in the wedge q, the plough will cut lefs deep : as, on the other hand, the fhare will be more inclined, and therefore cut deeper, if the wedge q under the beam is loofened, and the wedge p, o, over it is driven in tighter.
SECT. II.
Defcription of M. DuhamelV plough, afed in the experiments at Denainvilliers.
THE chief differences between M. de Chateau- vieux's plough, and that of M. Duhamel, are as follow.
1. The beam of this laft, ACB, Plate III. is bent from C to B; whereas that of M. de Chateau-vienx's is nearly ftrait all along.
2. In confequence of this curve, the hindmoft extremity of M. Duhamel's beam, is joined at B to the hindermoft part of the ground- reft E, after paffing through a mortife F, in the lower part of the handles: fo that this beam is joined to the ground-reft by its extre- mity Bt the bottom of the handles F, and the fheat G ; whilft that of M. de Chateau-vieux's plough, is joined to the ground-reft by this fheat, another which this plough has not, and the lower part of the handles : for the beam does not anfwer to the ground-reft.
3. The mould board HI of this plough, is lighter than that of M. de Chateau-vieux's, and differently fhaped. In that refpect, the general cuftom of the country one lives in, may, and even fhould be complied with.
4. The
chap. i. of Houghs, 431
4. The two handles K K, are at equal diftances from the beam, and are joined together by a crofs ftaff M.
5. The fhare N, is pretty much like that of M. de Chateau- vieux's plough, but fhorter and narrower ; fo that it cuts lefs wide furrows, which M. Duhamel thinks the beft way of plowing.
6. The coulter O of this plough paries through a mortife in the beam, which is ftrengthened in this place by hoops of iron, to pre- vent the beam's being fplit by the driving in of the wedges P P which fix the coulter.
M. Duhamel thinks this hind part of his plough preferable to that of M. de Chateau-vieux's, for light lands : but it would not do fo well in ftiff foils, becaufe the earth would be apt to clog about the fheat at !%j whereas it is thrown off by M. de Chateau-vieux's plough. M. Duhamel likewife approves of making the beam (trait, as M. de Chateau-vieux's is, inftead of giving it the bending from C to B, es- pecially for ftiff lands.
7. The beam C A, is fixed to the crofs ftaves R R of the fore- carriage of this plough, by the fcrews and nuts S S.
8. The fhafts TT, are fattened before by a crofs ftaff V, which gives great folidity to the fore-carriage, and may be added to M. de Chateau-vieux's plough ; not only becaufe the wheel is too large, but likewife becaufe it muft be fet forwarder or backvvarder, in order to make the fhare cut more or lefs deep.
The wheel of this plough is not (o large as that of M. de Chateau- vieux's, becaufe the pole, inftead of being inferted in the fhafts TT, is let into the fide pieces X, which are faftened to the fhafts by the fcrews 2nd nuts Y T.
The advantages of having the wheel fmaller, are, i. That the plough is lefs apt to lean too much on its fide, and is more eafily held upright ; 2. That the crofs ftaff Fmay be added to the fore- carriage, by which it is rendered mere folid ; and 3. That the fore- carriage may be made fhorter than it otherwife could be.
The bare infpeftion of the draught of this plough, fhews that it is made to cut more or lefs deep, by fere wing the nuts Y more or lefs tight, and putting a thicker or thinner wedge between the fide piece X and the fhaft ; which is an eafier and quicker way, than chang- ing the fituation of the wheel. But a readier method ftill, is, to have under the fhafts TT, a falfe fhaft Z Z, fixed with hinges at &: for then, by only flicking the peg a, into one pf the holes b, the
beam
432 OF D R I L L - P L O U G H S. Part IV.
beam is raifed or lower'd, in a moment, to whatever degree i« thought proper, without altering the poiition of the wheel.
It is likewife evident, that in order to give the mare a greater or lefs degree of entrance into the earth, nothing more is requifite than to place the beam nearer to, or farther from, the right hand fhaft : for the horfes, which are harneffed one before another, go, as does alfo the wheel, in the laft made furrow, and the plowman goes in; the furrow actually making.
dd. Hooks to faften on the harnefs of the horfes. c c. Cramps to faften the fore-carriage. ff. Pins to fix the beam to the fheat. g g. Pegs to faften the crofs ftaves.
h. A ftrong pin which goes through the hole it to keep the mould board fteady.
CHAP. II.
Of Drill-Ploughs.
SECT. I. Of Mr. Worlidge'.? Drill-Plough.
THE two firft inventions of this kind were Mr. Wolidge's drill- plough, and Don Jofeph de Lucatello's Sembrador, both of which may claim the merit of being originals. As neither M. Tull, nor M. Duhamel, have taken any notice of this inftrument of Mr. Worlidge, which we are perfuaded will fully anfv.er all the ends he propofes, we think it a juftice due to one of the belt writers on agri- culture, to give his own account of it.
" Befides the ufual manner of lowing corn, there are," fays he, " feveral other ways of difperfing it, as by letting, and hoeing of it *■* in, £?f. This art of letting corn feem's to be very ancient, as ap-
" pears by Virgil, Unguibus infodiuat £jf ipfis jruges and hath been
" a long time attempted to be brought into practice again, as appears " by Mr. Piatt's Adams Tool Revived." Mr. Worlidge then points, out the defects in Mr. Piatt's inftruments, and proceeds thus.
" But to remedy and remove all manner of errois and inconve- " niencies that can be found in letting of corn, 1 fhall here give you " a plain and perfect; defcription of an eafy and fcalible inftrument
" that
•
INSERT FOLDOUT HERE
Chap. II. OF DRILL-PLOUGHS. 433
" that fhall difperfe your corn, grain, or pulfe, of what kind foever, " and what diftance, and in what proportion you pleafe to defign, <l and that with very great expedition, and very little extraordinary " charge, expence, or hazard.
" Firft, make a frame of timber, of about two or three inches u fquare, the breadth of the frame about two foot, the height about " eighteen inches, the length about four foot, more or lefs as you " pleafe, as at uuu it, fig. 1 . Plate IV. Place this frame on two " pair of ordinary wheels, like plough- wheels. The axle-tree of the " two foremoft wheels is to lock on either fide, as doth the fore " .axle-tree of a waggon, for reafons hereafter (hewn. The hinder- " moft axle-tree, being of iron, and fquare in the middle, muft be " fixed to the center of the wheels, that the axis and wheels may " move together : then, about the middle of the frame, in the bot- " torn, let there be fixed an iron inftrument, or of wood pointed " with iron, like unto a coulter, made a little fpreading at the bot- " torn, in the nature of a fliare, made to pafs through two mortifes " on the top, for its greater ftrength j and made alio to be wedged " higher or lower, according as you will have your furrow in depth, " as at 0 o; the ufe whereof is only to make the furrow : fo that you " muft make the point thereof of breadth only to move the earth, " and caft it, or force it, on either fide, that the corn may fall to " the bottom of the furrow. Then, over this fliare, or coulter, a '* little behind it, may a wooden pipe be made, to come from the " top of the frame to the lower end of the fliare, tapering down- " ward, as at p, and as near as you can to the fliare : to deliver the " corn immediately, as the ground is opened, and before any earth " falls in j that what earth does afterwards fall in, may fall on the " corn. This pipe is to proceed out of a large hopper fixed on the " top of the frame, that may contain about a bufliel, as at q: but " fo that the corn may gradually defcend, according to the quantity " you intend to beftow on an acre. At the very neck of the hopper, " underneath, in the fquare hollow thereof, mud: be fitted in the <{ edge of a wheel of wood, about half an inch thick, and propor- " tioned to the cavity of the neck, as behind the letter r. The wheel <( need not be above two or three inches diameter, and fixed on an " axis extending from one fide of the frame, to the.other : on which " axis is alfo to be another wheel, with an edge on the circumference " thereof, like the wheel of a fpit or jack, as at r, which muft an- " fwer to another wheel of the like nature and form, fixed on the
Kkk " axis
434 OF DRILL-PLOUGHS. Part IV.
" axis of the hindermoft of the wheels, as at s: then fit a line, (of filk is bed,) becaule it will not be fo apt to (brink and reach as hemp) " about thefe two wheels, that when the inftrument moves on the '•' hindermoft wheels, by the means of the line, the fmall wheel, at " the neck of the hopper, may alfo move ; which leffer wheel in the " neck of the hopper, may have fhort pieces of thick leather fixed in " the circumference thereof, like unto the te.th of a jack-wheel, that *' upon its motion it may deduce the corn out of the hopper, in what " proportion you pleafe: for in cafe it comes too fa ft, then you may " by a wedge at the tenon of the piece whereon the hopper refb, as " at f, or at the end of the axis of the leffer wheel, force the wheel " and hopper together; as in cafe it feeds too flow, then may you " remove them by the fame wedges to a farther diftance : alfo in cafe " your line be too flack or too hard, you may prevent either extream " by a wedge in the place where the axis of the wheel moves, or <c by a third wheel, about the middle of the line made to move far- " ther or nearer, as you fee caufe.
" Alfo by means of the iron rod v v, fixed to the foremoft axis *c that is made to lock, may yon guide your engine at pleafure ; " which rod is made crooked at the end of the hopper, left that " mould injure its motion.
'* And at the turning, you may lift up your engine by the handles " at x : for whilft you lift it up, the corn feeds not until you fet the " fame down again.
" One horfe and one man may work with this inftrument, and fow " land as faft or falter than fix horfes can plough ; fo that you " may with eafe compute the expence, in cafe your inftrument be " fingle : but you may in the fame frame have two fhares at twelve " inches diftance, more or lefs, as you will have the rows of corn •' diftant the one from the other ; and two pipes out of the fame " hopper, and two fmall wheels- on the fame axis, with other wheels ** anfwerable, every whit as eafy to be performed as one j and then " you may double your proportion of land in a day.
<c This inftrument will always keep the fame proportion youfirft " fet it to, which you muft thus contrive. Firft, know the length ** of the furrow you fow : then caft up how many of thefe furrows " at luch diftance your inftrument is made for (whether a foot, " more or lefs,) will amount to an acre : then conclude how much " to fow on an acre j as fuppofe a bufhel : then divide that bufhel " into fo many parts as you have furrows or diftances in that acre i
" then
Chap. II. OF DRILL-PLOUGHS. 435
a then take one or two of thofe parts, and put into your hopp; r^ " and obferve whether it will hold out, or fuperabound at the end of " one or two furrows, and accordingly proceed and rectify the <c feeder : or you may judge by your own reafon, whether it feed " too faft or too flow.
" In cafe it feeds too faft, notwithftanding they be clofe placed to- " gether, you may make that wheel at the lower axis, wherein the " line moves, to be lefs than the upper; then will the motion be " flower : and thus may you make it move as flow as you will, by H augmenting the upper, and diminishing the lower wheels wherein a the line is j and make it move fafter by the contrary rule.
" In cafe you drive apace, it feeds apace : in cafe you drive but " flew, it feeds but flowly : here is no error.
" When you come to any turning at the lands end, by lifting up " the hindermoft part of the inftrument, that thofe whels touch not w the ground, the. feeding of the corn immediately ceafeth until you cc fet it down again.
" Alfo all the corn you fow lies at a certain depths none too deep, " nor any too fhallow.
" You may place a kind of harrow to follow ; but the beft way is " to have on each fide each furrow, a piece of wood, a little broad at " the end, fet aflope to force the earth rounding on the corn. This " maybe well placed and fitted to the bottom of this inftrument, " juft behind the fhare and feeding pipe.
" By this method of fowing any fort of grain or pulfe, may be cc faved the one half, and in fome places more, which by the other " way is either buried fo deep under clots, that it cannot come up. " or elfe is fo fhallow, that the cold in the winter, or drought in " the fummer killeth it, or elfe lies on the furface as a prey to the " fowls of the air : much alfo thereof falls in clufters, twenty or u thirty grains where one or two might fuffice, which are common " inconveniencies, and ufually happening to the vulgar way of fow- " ing corn : the greater half by far is loft, which in all probability " mav be faved by the ufe of this very inftrument, which will " doubly requite the extraordinary charge and trouble thereof: " for here is no corn fowed under clots, but in rows, as the " earth is ftirred and moved : it is all at one certain depth " and at one certain diftance, and equally covered, below the " injury of froft, and heat, and rapine of birds. Alfo by tins " wav corn may be fown in the very middle or convenient depth of
Kkk 2 " the
436 OF DRILL-PLOUGHS. PartlV.
" the mould, that it may have the ftrength of the land both below *( and above the root : whilft in the other more ufual way, the corn " falls to the bottom of the furrow on the gravel, clay, or fuch like " hard ground, where it feldom thrives fo well as what happens to ic be in the midft. This way alfo exceeds the way oi Jetting com> " where the pins thruft into the ground, harden and faften the " mould, fo that unlefs the land be very light, it confines the roots " to too narrow a place, which in this way is prevented j as I have " obferved in garden beans, that thofe hoed in, proved better " than thofe fet with a flick.
" By the ufe of this inftrument alfo may you cover your grain or " pulfe with any rich compoft you fhall prepare for that purpofe, " either with pigeon-dung dry or granulated, or any other faline or V lixivial fubftance, made difperfeable, which may drop after the *' corn, and prove an excellent improvement : for we find experi- " mentally, that pigeon's dung fown by the hand on wheat or bar- " ley, mightily advantageth it by the common way of hufbandry : " much more then might we expect this way, where the dung, or fuch '* like fubftance is all in the fame furrow with the corn j whereas in " the other vulgar way, a great part thereof comes not near it.
M It may either be done by having another hopper on the fame 41 frame behind that for the corn, wherein the compoft may be put, " and made to drop fucceffively after the corn : or it may be fown u by another inftrument to follow the former, which is the better " way, and may both difperfe the foil, and cover both foil and " feed.
" The corn alio thus fown in ranges, you may with much more iC conveniency go between, and either weed it or hoe it, and earth it tc up as you think good, and at harveft it will eafily repay the u charges,
" Alfo the fore-wheels being made to lock to and fro on either " fide, you may have an upright iron pin fixed to the middle of the " axis, extended to the top of the frame: and from thence a fmall " rod of iron to come to your hand, with a crooked neck juft againft ** the neck of the hopper j by means of which iron rod, you may " lock or turn the wheels either way, and guide your inftrument, Jf and rectify it, if it deviate out of its right courfe.
" The hopper muft be broad and mallow, that the feed prefs not " much harder when it is full, than when it is near empty, left it " fow not proportionably..
" Thi*
Chap, m OF DRILL.PLOUGHS. 437
" This infirument, although it may at the firfl: feem myfterious " and intricate to the ignorant, yet I am confident it will anfwer to " every particular of what I have written of it ; and any ingenious " wheel -wright, joyner, or carpenter, may eafily make the fame with " very little inftru&ion, and any ordinary ploughman may ufe it."
SECT. II.
Of the Semb?-ador.
TN the account given of this infirument, in the Philofophical Tran- -■" factions, N° 60. it is juftly obferved, that the perfection of agri- culture confifts in fetting the plants at proportionable diftances, and giving fufficient depth to the roots, that they may fpread to receive that nourishment from the ground, which is neceflary to produce and ripen the fruit : but this has been fo far from being obferved, that all forts of feeds are fown by handfuls at random ; whence it happens, that corn in fome places is fowed too thick, in others too thin, and the greater part of it either not covered, or not deep enough : where- by, it is not only expofed to be eaten by birds, but alfo in cold coun- tries to be fpoiled by froft, and in hot climates, by the fun. On thefe confiderations, Don Jofeph de Lucatello invented an inflrument, which, being fattened to the plough, at once plows, fows, and har- rows; whereby the fower's labour is faved, and the grain, falling in order, and in the bottom of the furrow, remains at the fame diftance under ground, fo that in five parts of feed, four are faved, and the increafe becomes very considerable.
The following is the defcription of this infirument.
"Fig. 2. Plate IV. is a box of wood: abed, the cover of that part into which the corn is put, which is open \njig. 3, at W: efhg kly the two fides that cover that part of the box where the cylinder, which is fluck round with three rows of little fpoons, is moved about to throw out the grains; which fides are taken offing. 3, that the cylinder R St and the fpoons x x x may appear. The internal fhape of thefe fides is exprefled in^. 4, where may be feen the four triangular pieces pppp, and the triangular interfiices qqq, which ferve to convey the corn, carried up in the fpoons, and discharged at the top of the cylinder, to run out of the holes underneath the box.
" T, is one of the wheels: F, the other end of the cylinder, on. which the other wheel is to be fixed.
"This
438 OF DRILL-PLOUGHS. Part IV.
" This fembrador, or box, is, according to Don Lucatello's method, to be tied faft to the hind part of the plough, fo that the corn may fall in the furrow, and at the turning of the plough, its ears may cover the corn of -the laft furrow with earth. Care muft be taken that the wheels on the fides of this inftrument do always turn round, and never drag along without turning : to which end, it muft be faftened to the plough-beam, at fuch a height that the nails in the wheels may ftand on the ground, to make them turn round. The ears of the plough ufed on this occafion "muft alfo be made larger than ordinary, that they may cover the furrows better, when fovvn, and make wider furrows to receive the feed."
Both thefe inftruments have their imperfections. The man- ner in which the wheels, and confequentiy the cylinder of the fem- brador are turned, muft occafion an unequal difti ibution of the feed, wherever the ground is rough or ftoney: and in Mr. Worlidge's drill, the feed is liable to be bruifed as it drops from the hopper, by the wheel in the neck of that hopper.
We apprehend that a more ufeful inftrument may be formed out of thefe two, than either of them is as they now ftand : liz. by fixing the box of the fembrador, in the frame of Mr. Worlidge's drill. A fqnare frame, like that, will keep the box more fteady, and therefore render the difcharge of the feed more regular, than it can be either in Don Lucatello's manner, or in a fingle frame, as propofed by M. Diancourt, in an inftrument formed on thefe principles, and of which M. Duhamel gives the following de- fer iption.
On the outfide of the fhafts a a, bb, (Plate IV. Jig. 5.) are two wheels. Their axle-tree ddd turns round with them.
On this axle-tree are two pullies ee, which receive into their grove two lines jf, which turn the cylinder G g, fig. b and 7. This cylinder has three rows of fpoons fixed in it, and goes through the hollows zzzz ( fig. 8.) of the half barrel H b, Jig. 7 and S. This half barrel is placed floping in the box 7, f, Jig. 7 and 5, as is reprefented at the bottom of that box, at h, fig. 7.
The box I is reprefented with its cover on in Jig. 5. In Jig. 7, one of the ends is taken off, to fhew at h the end of the half barrel g ; one of the ends of the cylinder K, and fome of the fpoons /, Jig. 6 ; with an inclined plane L, which forms a hopper, into which the feed is put, and from whence it drops to the bottom of the barrel h, Sir 7, through the pipes MMM, fig. 9 j and m mm, jig. 7.
Thefe
^ o
INSERT FOLDOUT HERE
Chap. II. OF DRILL-PLOUGHS. 439
Thefe pipes are bent to the fhape of the infide of the half barrel, fig. 8, to which they are fixed fo as not to interrupt the motion of the fpoons, fig. 7 ; and they extend to the bottom of the barrel, in fuch manner that, reaching the grain, they give out the feed only in proportion to what is taken up by the fpoons. The direction of thefe pipes is not exactly reprefented in fig. 7, becaufe they do not there terminate in the barrel h. That part of the drawing is intended only to give an idea of their pofition.
The fpoons throw the feed over at n, fig. 7, where it falls into the divifions 000, fig. 10, which are faftened to the fhafts a a, bb> fig, 5, underneath the box 7, and drops through the pipes p p p, fig. 10, which terminate behind the fbares q, fig. 11, paffing through the opening r. The fhairs, fig. II, terminate in a triangle at their bottom s, forming an angle forward, and a hollow behind. They are faftened by the fcrew t.
Befides this, M. Diancourt has placed at v, fig. 5, a fmall roller, which is likewife reprefented by V, fig. 12. This roller, which is about fix inches diameter, is faftened to the ftaves x x, fig. 5, by the two upright irons yy, fig. 12, by which the roller is placed higher or lower, according as the feed is intended to be fown more or lefs deep : and laftly, he has fitted to the crofs ftaff z, fig. 5, a kind of fcraper, fig. 13, which clears the roller when it is clogged with earth.
Two pullies, one on each fide, are perhaps preferable to the fingle wheel which Mr. Worlidge has fixed on his hind axle-tree. The quantity of feed to be fown, may be regulated by the fize of the pullies,' or wheels on the axle-tree : for the larger the pullies are, the more frequently the cylinder on which the fpoons are fixed, will be turned round, and the fpoons will confequently deliver the greater quantity of feed. The fize of the fpoons may likewife be adapted to the fize of the feed intended to be fown.
SECT. III. Bejcription of M. Vandusfel'^ Rake.
TV/T Duhamel, and feveral other gentlemen who have practifed the ■*■*-*■• new huibandry abroad, met with fo many difficulties and in- conveniences in the ufe of Mr. Tull's drill-plough, that they were obliged to contrive other methods of drilling their corn. One of the fimpleft inventions to anfwer this end, was M. Vandusfel's rake,, of
which
44o OF DRILL-PLOUGHS. Part IV.
which M. Duhamel gives the following defcription, which we fhall copy here for the benefit of fuch as have not a proper drill-ploi-gh ; eipecially as this inftrument may do very well, where the foil is light, and the extent of land intended to be fown is not large.
It is, as in Plate IV. fig. 1 4, a ftrong kind of rake c c, with four great teeth a a, bb. The diftance from a to a, and from b to b, is nine inches. M. Vandusfel makes it a foot, becaufe, after his corn is fown, he buries it by drawing a cultivator with two mould boards between the rows.
The diftance between the two inner teeth a and b, is three feet and a half ; which is the width of the alleys.
To the head of this rake c c, are fixed the handles e, and the pole d, which anfwers to the beam of a plough.
As this inftrument is drawn over ground in fine tilth, and a man prelles more or iefs on the handles **, it forms four fmall furrows f, g> K i i fo that the furrows i and h are nine inches afunder, and the furrows g and J the fame, and a fpace of three feet and a half is left between h and g} for the width of the alley //. In order to preferve the alleys always of the fame width, M. Vandusfel draws the teeth a a in the furrows before made by the teeth b b : Co that tho' four furrows are made the firft time this rake is drawn, only two are made each time after.
Great care muft be taken to make the firft furrows very ftrait, becaufe the direction of all the others depends thereon.
Women or children drop the feed by hand into thefe furrows, where it is afterwards covered with a harrow, or, as M. Vandusfel has done, with a cultivator with two mould boards, drawn between the two rows, as faft as they are fown. If any part chances not to be covered perfectly by this cultivator, it is eafily done afterwards with a common rake.
M,
SECT. IV.
Defcription of M. Duhamel'^ Drill-Plough.
Duhamel obferves, that though M. de Chateau-vieux's drill delivers the grain with the greateft exa&nefs, and therefore deferves much commendation, yet the price of it is too great for moft farmers. M. Duhamel's, which we are going to defcribe, has, for that reafon, been the moft generally ufed. We could wifti that the limits prefcribed to this work would permit us to give alio a
full
Chap. II. OF DRILL-PLOUGHS, 441
full description of M. de Chateau-vieux's drill-plough ; though we fear it would be too complex to be underftood or made by common workmen, and, we doubt, too nice in many of its parts for the rough hands of common plowmen. We hope, however, that the in- genious and curious among our countrymen will not, on account of this our omiffion, be any ways induced not to confult the original in M. DubamePs work, or not to endeavour to execute what has been fo well contrived by one of the greateff geniufes. in agriculture that this age can boaft of.
M. Duhamel's drill is fixed to the fore-carriage of a common plough. The make of that fore carriage is fo well known, that it requires no particular defcription.
The hind part of this drill confift-s of a plank S, S, fig. 1. P/afeV. at leaft three inches thick, which is called the table. Underneath this table, and to the bottom part of it, areftrongly fixed, as at TTT, three fhares. The beam, or pole, 7, I, is faftened to the fore part of the tcbJe: and the handles L,L, are let into mortifes in the back part of the table, in which they are fixed, a, <i, a, are three cavities cut in the tsble, to receive the feed from the cylinder, and convev it through an opening in the center of each of them, into the hollow c, at the back of the (hare fig. 2. The form of thefe cavities is more clearly expreffed by a, c, b, fig. 3. At b, b, b, b, are fixed four ftrong Standards, to hold the drill-box Steady.
The Shares, fig. 2, are made of wood, and terminate at the bottom of their fore part a, in a circular form, covered with iron. In their hind part b is a groove through which the feed drops to the bottom of the furrow. The feed is conveyed from the cavities a, c, b,fg. 3, to this groove b, fig. 4, by means of a thin plate of iron, rounded and fixed to the fhare, as at d. Thefe Shares are about an inch and a half thick, and their height from a to b at leaft a foot.
As thefe Shares terminate in a curve at bottom, if they meet with any roots, dung not thoroughly rotted, or any other fubftance which they cannot eafily divide, they force it down to the bottom of the furrow, and by that means are never liable to be choaked : and to prevent this ftill more effectually, the middle fhare is placed Some- what more backward than the two others. It is likewife made Shorter, in proportion to the greater height of the middle of the beds. 'I he Shares are generally leven inches afunder.
M. Duhamel took the lirft hint of the feed box he now ufes, from an invention of Mr. Grenville, then one of the pages of die king of
L 1 1 France's
442 OF DRILL-PLOUGHS. Part IV.
France's /tables. This was a hollow ball, fixed upon the axle-tree of two wheels, and pierced round the middle with a row of holes, through which the feed dropt as the wheels turned round *.
In the middle of the table S, S, are cut three cavities a, c, b, flop- ing on each fide down to the center, where a hole of about an inch diameter lets the feed drop into the hollow plate c, Jig. 2. The four ftandards /, /, /, i, Jig. 3 and 4, are placed in fuch manner that the blocks », «, Jig. 5, in which a groove is cut, anfwer to the middle of this table. On an iron axle-tree which anfwers to the wheels, and which paffes through the center of the blocks, is fixed the cy- linder, or barrel 0, 0, which is clofed at its ends, p, s, and is likewife divided by two partitions q, r. This barrel is made of thin fplit deal, as are alfo the ends and partitions. /, t. is a thin board, or plate of tin or thin iron, faftened with hinges, that it may be opened to put the feed into the three partitions p q , q r, rs. In the middle of each of thefe partitions, the barrel is pierced with holes three or four inches afunder, and about a quarter of an inch diameter. The barrel of the wheels are fixed on an iron axle-tree, fo that all turn together.
To know whether the holes u, u, u, in the three partitions of the barrel are of a proper fize and number to diftribute the feed in the manner that is defired, let fome, fuppofe half a bufhel, be put into each partition. The blocks ;/, n, being placed on each fide between the two-ftandards, whofe inner fides are rounded fo as to fit the groove in the blocks and the table S S, being raifed fo that the wheels do not touch the ground, any one may eafily fee, by giving the wheels a turn or two round with the hand, whether the proper quantity of feed drops behind the fhare; and alter it accordingly.
The barrel being properly fitted, the beam is faftened to the fore- carriage of this drill. As it moves, the barrel turns with the hind wheels, and the feed drops out of the holes uuu, Jig. 5. into the cavities a, c, b% Jig. 3, and from thence into the hollow c, Jig. 2. in the hind part of the fhare.
When the plowman comes to the end of the field, he lifts up the hind carriage, which is light, and carries it to the next bed that is to be fown.
* We apprehend that farmers who fow under furrow, might eafily contrive to fix fuch a ball to the handles or hind part of their plough ; and that it may be made to turn round, and fo drop the feed, by means of fmall wheels, or by little eminences on its furface. The feed would be covered by the next turn of the plough, as ufual. This method will (ave a great deal of feed, and yet the field may be fown fo that the corn (hall grow as thick as the ground can bear.
M.Du-
Chap. II. OF DRILL-PLOUGHS, 443
M. Duhamel does not fix the diameter of the hind wheels, but leaves that to be determined by the length of the (hares. His were fo proportioned, that when the mares touched the ground, the wheels did not touch it by two inches. He obferves that this drill anfwered extremely well, where the ground was plowed into an even or level furface : but that the wheels were too fmall when the middle of the beds was raifed ; becaufe the fhares were then on the higher part of the bed, while the wheels were in the furrows.
In fig. 3 and 4 , are two thin boards x, x, fomewhart bending, which rife up to about half the height of the barrel. The ufe of thefe is to catch the feeds that may chance to drop from the oblique holes, and guide them into the cavities a, c, if.
It is well known, that when the fore part of the fhare terminates in a point, it pierces the deeper in the earth, the farther back the beam is placed on the fore carriage : but as the bottom of our fhares is round, they pierce neither more nor lefs when the beam is placed more forward. It is therefore advifeable to place the fore and hind carriage as near as poflible to one another, becaufe the plough then goes eafier, and the draught is lighter to the cattle.
This inftrument is eafily tranfported from place to place by means of two poles y, z, z, Jig. 3. The ends y are placed on the fore- carriage, together with the beam, and from thence pafs under the table, fo as to raife the whole from the ground, on which their other ends z, z, reft. The crofs bar 8, k, fecures thofe ends, and keeps them at a proper diftance.
In the conftruftion of the above inftrument, as given by M. Du- hamel, the fhares muft always pierce to the fame depth, becaufe the whole weight of the hind part of the drill refts continually upon them: confequently, it would be necefTary to have fhares of as many diffe- rent lengths, as there are depths at which each kind of feed mould be fown.
We apprehend, that when the fhares have pierced to the depth in- tended, the weight of the drill may be made to reft on the wheels, by preventing the axle tree from riling between the ftandards, beyond fuch a height as fliall exaclly regulate the depth to which the fhares are to pierce. This may be effeded, by bringing the ftandards /, i, Jig. 4-, nearer to each other; and placing between them, inftead of the blocks «, n, Jig. 5, two thick pieces of wood, made to Aide up and down, with grooves, as in the blocks. Thefe pieces of wood may be fixed between the ftandards, by means of two ftrong iron
L 1 1 2 ' pins
444 O F DRILL -PLOUGHS. Part IV.
pins run through the ftandards into them : and to take oft" the friction of the axle tree againft thefe pieces of wood, it may be made to turn on two friction wheels, placed in the lower part of them ; or rather on four or fix fmall iron rollers turning on their axes * in a box in- ferted in each of thefe pieces, which may be raifed, or lower'd, by means of a row of holes in the ftandards, through which the iron pins are put, fo as to give the axle tree room to rife to the height that iball be thought neceffary to make the fhares pierce to the intended depth, before the weight of the drill fhall reft upon the axle tree.
That the axle tree, moving on fuch rollers, will have lefs friction, ©r require lefs ftrength to make the wheels turn round,, even when the weight of the whole inftrument lies upon it, than it has in the blocks, with only the weight of the grain, is evident from the follow- ing fact. The gentleman who firft thought of this invention, applied it to a roller of four tuns weight, which is now drawn with eafe by two ordinary horfes, even acrofs his plowed grounds.
It appears from this eafy motion of the roller, that there can be no danger of the axle tree's turning, though loaded with the weight of the whole inftrument. Other confiderable advantages will alfo arife from the drill's refting thus on the wheels : for the labour of the plowman will be greatly leffened, the inftrument will move fteadier and more uniformly, and the draught will be much eafier for the horfes.
M. Duhamel does not feem to have provided fufficiently foe cover- ing the feed. We think that may eafily be done, by fixing to the lower fide of the table, a little behind each {hare,, two thin plates of iron, or two pieces of board, ia an angular form, but not quite joined to^ gether, thus \/. They fhould reach, as nearly as pofiible, fo low down as to be level with the furface of the ground when the fhares have pierced to the depth intended. Their fore part fhould. extend, beyond the width of earth that is turned up by the fhares, which they will. collect into the furrow ;. and being open behind, if they happen at any time to collect more earth than was turned off by the fhares, it will efcape through that opening, without clogging the drill.
* Thefe rollers arc made in. great perfection, bv Mr. Stevens, iron-monger, in the Hay-market, liondon.
CHAP.
X7rt£Ut£t ofj&&{H2/rui<riJ.
Fl. K
X s
i i i i i
H
Chap. HI. O F H 0 R S E'-H O E S. 445
CHAP. III. Of HORSE-HOES.
SECT. I. Defcription of M. Duhamel's Light Plough.
THE defign of ftirring the alleys has been fo often, and fo fully- explained in the former parts of this work, that it would be needlefs to enlarge upon it further here. We Shall therefore proceed to give a defcription of the instruments ufed for this purpofe, begin- ning with M. Duhamel's light plough.
The hind part of this plough is exactly like that of a common plough, except that all the pieces of which this is compofed, are lighter.
A B PL VI. fig. 1. is the beam of the plough : A is what is called the heel. The part of the beam from the coulter to B is round : the reft of it, to A, is eight fquare.
C, the coulter, which is fixed in the beam by wedges. The beam is Strengthened on each Side of the coulter, by two iron hoops.
.D, the handles, which are joined to the beam towards their bot- tom, and of which the lower extremity is fixed into a piece of wood AE, called the ground-reft. This laft terminates in a point a little beyond E, in order to receive the iron Share F, which that extre- mity of the ground-reft is covered with. G, is the Shear, which is cut forked out of a piece of elm, and of which the two ends are faltened with a wooden or iron pin over the ground-reft, as at E on the left fide.
H, is a piece of wood, the fore part of which is thinned to an edge : the upper part of it is fixed to the beam, and the lower part to the ground-reft.
G I H is a board cut fomewhat rounding, and placed on the right hand fide of the plough. It is called the mould-board ; and its ufe is to turn over to that Side, the earth which has been cut by the coulter, and opened by the Share.'
Underneath H, is a piece of wood which ferves to- Support the mould-board in the middle, to prevent the preiTure of the earth from bearing it down upon the plough.
The bottom of the ground-reft, from E to A, is trimmed with
iron,,
446 OF HORSE-HOES. PartlV.
iron, to prevent its being worn by the continual friction of the earth.
This general defcription feems fuffkient : for we believe one may ufe indifferently any common plough that has a mould-board, provided the fore-carriage and wheels be taken off, and two fhafts fubftituted in their ftead, like the following.
K L, are two light (hafts, which are fattened together by the crofs ftaff MN, at fuch diftance as to leave convenient room for a horfe,
OP, is another crofs ftaff, the ends of which reft upon the fhafts, to which they are fattened by two iron pins. The end of the beam retts upon this crofs ftaff.
It is eafy to conceive, that the nearer this crofs ftaff 0 P is fet tD the other crofs ftaff MN, the deeper the fhare will penetrate into the earth : and the farther thofe ftaves are afunder, the lefs deep the plough will pierce. Either of thefe is eafily done, by fhifting the pins of the crofs ftaff OP to the fuitable holes in the fhafts.
^R is the neck of this plough, which receives the beam through a round opening, wherein it turns with eafe to the right hand or the left, but out of which it cannot flip, becaufe it is ftopt by a ftrong iron pin driven through it.
This neck is formed of two femi-cylindrical pieces of wood, which are prefled one againft the other by two fcrew trunnions ; and two other trunnions £^,R, fix this cylinder to the ends of the fhafts.
As the cylinder turns upon the trunnions at its ends, the pofition of the beam may of courfe be altered at will, fo as to make the fhare cut more or lefs deep into the earth : and as the beam can turn in its neck, the plough may be inclined more or lefs to the right or left; which is neceflary in order to plow well.
SECT. II.
"Defcription of M. de Chateau-vieuxY Single Cultivator!
AFTER having feen, fays M. de Chateau-vieux, the effects of my plough for ftirring the alleys between the rows of corn, I imagined that the inttrument I am going todefcribe, which is much lighter and more fimple in its make, would anfwer the fame end ; or at leaft that it might be ufed alternately with the plough, employing
thi«
Chap. III. OF HORSE-HOES. 447
this laft only when a greater quantity of earth is wanted to be turned up towards the rows of corn : for it is to be obferved, that the cul- tivator hardly changes the fituation of the earth, but divides and breaks it in the place it is in, fo as to render it loofe and light, and fit for the roots of plants to penetrate with eafe. This inftrument, like a miner, works chiefly under ground, where it cuts the earth, divides its particles, and raifes it up and lightens it; It has this far- ther advantage, that one horfe is fufficient to draw it. The culti- vator, Plate VI. is compofed of a beam A B, fig. 2. the handles CD, and the fhare E.F, which is more particularly reprefented in fig- 3> 4> 5» 6> and 7-
The beam AB is three feet and a half, or four feet long. It's diameter ought not to exceed three inches, at moft : and if it be fquare, the edges fhould be rounded off. It mould be pierced with the mortifes under the letters G, H, in order to let through the crofs ftaves /, L, in the fame manner as in the fore-carriage of the plough ; and is fixed by the keys K, M, or the pins a, b. The middle of the handles fhould be over-againft the beam, that is to fay, the fpaces between them mould be equal on both fides. Thefe handles fhould be made {lighter than the plough itfelf, and they fhould be fixed to the beam by a tenon in a mortife, rivetted at JV, and fupported behind by the prop P.
The extremity A of the fliare, fig. 4, and the two fins B, C, are made flat. The crooked handle ABC, fig. 5, fhould be quite tri- angular, and fomewhat fharp before, to anfwer the end of a coulter,, as mfig. 3 and 6.
This fhare is to be let into a notch cut in the under part of the beam, as reprefented in fig. 8 and 9 ; and fattened there by a fingle ferrir, as in fig. 10. If it fhould cut too deep, that may be remedied by altering thepofition of the wheel, as in the plough, or by inferting a very fmall wedge g, fig. 11, between the handle of the fhare and the beam. If it does not cut deep enough, that wedge muft be inkrted at Z>, fig, 12, at the other end of the handle, by the hook.
When this inftrument is ufed, the beam before defcribed is to be fubfiituted in the place of that of the plough, which is to be taken off. The two crofs ftaves J, L, fig. 2. of the fore- carriage of the plough, are then run through the mortifes G, H, of the beam, by which means it is fixed thereto. This cultivator is very eafy to guide; the plowman may hold it upright, or incline it to the right or left,
juft
4<S O F H G R S E - H O E S. Part IV.
juft as the -intended plowing may require. The {hare and its handle enter fo deep into the earth, as to be quite buried in it, if a deep plowing is intended to be given : and in that cafe the tail A of the beam touches the ground. Tho' the {bare is but fmall, it ftirs the earth at leaft a foot round it : its point ihould be of fteel, and fome- what inclined towards the earth.
The mare of this inftrument, like that of the plough, may be brought as near as one pleafes to the rows of corn, by placing the beam accordingly in the frame.
SECT. III.
Defcription of M. de Chateau -vieux'i Double Culti-cator.
^T^HIS inftrument, fig* 13 and 14, has two (hares. It lias a -* beam A B, and the lhares CD, E F, which being exactly like that of the fingle cultivator, I have only to point out wherein thefe inftruments differ. The beam of this, mould be" 10 or 12 inches longer than that of the other. It has likewife two mortifes more, under the letters G and H, to let through the crofs ftaves E A", I L, which bear the handles M N, O P of the fhares. The crofs ftaves EK, I L, are rivetted permanently to the beam : the handles M N, OP, are moveable upon the crofs ftaves, to which they are faftened by the keys R, S, ^, T ; fo that the fhares may be fet at a greater or lefs diftance from each other, according as the quality or iituation of the ground may require or allow.
This inftrument ftirs the earth extremely well, and does a great deal of work in a little time. Each (hare being about fifteen inches wide at A C, B D, Jig. 1 5, and the diftance between them from A to B, fig. 15, being about four inches, or, upon occafion, fix; and the earth being ftirred about two inches on each tide beyond the extent of the outmoft fins of the (hares ; each cut of this cultivator ftirs about two feet breadth of ground. This double cultivator re- quires two horfes, unlefs the foil be very light j in which cafe, I fancy one may do, tho' I have not yet tried it.
If one had a mind to fix a coulter in the middle of the beam, juft before the mares, I fee no ihconveniency that could attend it, provided it be a very light one.
The way to ufe this cultivator, is, to faftcn it to the fore-carriage
of
Chap. HI. OFHORSE-HOES. 449
of the plough, by running the two ciofs flaves V, X, fig. 14, through the beam A, B.
I would particularly recommend, not to make the woodwork of this cultivator too thick or heavy, and therefore by no means to ex- ceed the dimenlions I have given : for the lighter thefe iintruments are, the more eafily they are managed both by men and cattle.
SECT. IV.
Defcriptiofi of M. de Chateau-vieux'^ Cultivator with two mould- boards.
TF, fays M. de Chateau-vieux, I could have imagined, that my -■■ propofing for the ufe of the new hufbandry, fome other inftru- ments befides the plough, properly called, could have been looked upon .as either fo expepfiv.e or (p troublefome as to difcourage people from praclifing that hufbandry, I fhould by no means have thought of communicating them to the public.
But why fhould not agriculture enjoy the fame advantages as al- mofr all great manufactories, in which every ufeful difcovery and improvement, either to perfect the manufacture, or to fabricate it in lefs time and with lefs ex-pence, is readily adopted ?
It is likewife with a view to facilitate the various labours of culti- vation, to execute them better, more fpeedily, and with much lefs expence, that I have introduced the ufe of my new infbruments in the culture of my lands. If others think proper to do fo too, they will enjoy the fame advantages. I offer them, not as things abfo- lutely neceffary, for the plough alone may fuffice, but as things of which I have experienced the good effecls during the years 1753 and 1754, and which, for that reafon, I think it incumbent on me to recommend to the partifans of the new hufbandry.
The cultivator with two mould-boards, differs from the fingle cultivator before defcribed (Sect. II.) only in thofe two moufd- boards which I have added to it, one on each fide, and which are reprefented in Plate VI. fig. 16. A, C, E, H, is the mould- board on the left hand fide of the plough, and B, D, G, H, the mould- board on the right-hand fide. The whole of this Jig. j 6, repre- fents an entire and a perfpective view, of the fhare and mouid- boards.
The mould-boards are made of iron plates, either call or ham-
M m m • mered,
450 OF HORSE-HOES. Part IV.
mered, about the twelfth part of an inch thick, which is fufficient to refill the preflure of the earth. Thicker plates than thefe would render the fhare too heavy, and it would be much more difficult to give them their proper bent.
The two mould-beards join to the handles at HL, and lap about an inch one over the other ; or elfe they are fattened together by rivets. They form, in that part, an angle E, H, F, of fomevvhat lefs than 90 degrees, which is fufficiently acute to ferve inflead of a coulter : tho' a coulter may alfo be ufed upon occafion, by placing it a little more forward.
From the lower part L of the handles, the mould-board fhould pafs underneath the fin L, G, of the fingle fhare,. and follow the direction of that fin, as at G ; being let in beneath, about an inch and an half, according to the pointed line L} G, and firmly riveted by three ftrong rivets.
The hind part of the mould-boards is fixed and fupported by the ftay F, to which they are flrongly riveted. This flay mull have ex- actly the fame bend as the mould-board.
Behind the lower part of the handles is another flay, M, N> quite clofe to them, and about two inches below the top of the mould-boards, to which it is riveted at both ends. This ftay helps to keep them firm : but its chief ufe is to prevent their being raifed up by the preflure of the earth againft their extremities A and B, which would throw their common angle H too forward, and mif- place the fhare.
The proper flope of the mould-boards cannot be fo well defcribed bv words, as it may be conceived by the figure, which reprefcnts at F the convex infide of the one, and at ^ the concave outilde of the other. The diflance to which the earth is turned over, when the cultivator opens it in order to make a large furrow, depends on the degree of this bending, and the fpace between the two upper extre- mities of the mould-boards, E, F.
The extreme back part of the mould-boards is cut floping at C and D, almoft in a fegment of a circle : this fhape helps to operate srgreater divifion of the earth.
The plate of iron, before it is bent, fhould be cut nearly in the fliape of Jig. 17.
The fize of the mould-boards, as well as the proper bending of them, depends a little on the quality of the land intended to be cul- tivated. I have found that, for light foils, they need not be bent
quite
Chap. III. OF HORSE-HOIS, 45,
quite fo much ; fo that the diflance from C to D, fig. 1 6, may be twelve or thirteen, and even fifteen or fifteen inches. Thio fame cultivator may likewife be ufed in ftiff lands.
Nothing hinders making thefe mould-boards two or three inches longer, from B to G, and from E to H; nor varying fome of their proportions, as the plowman may like beft.
This fhare, with the mould-boards, is fixed to a beam, as in the fingle cultivator Jig. 2, where it is fattened to the fore carriage by the crofs ftaves 7, L.
If this defcription does but convey a fufficiently clear idea of the Yhape and proportions of this cultivator, I will anfwer for its fuccefs when ufed. I defcribe it after one of the fame kind, which I have made ufeof for two years pan*:, with very great fuccefs.
DireBions Jor ujing the Cultivator with two mcu!d-bcards> by M. de Chateau-vieux.
]N my account of the experiments of 1753, I faid that this cultl- -*- vator opened the great furrow in the middle of the alley, by turning the earth over on both fides at the fame time ; and that as much work was done by that means, by one turn of this inftrument, as could be done by two, and frequently three turns of the common plough, and that without ufing a greater number of cattle. I muft now prove this proportion ; tho' I am pcrfuaded that it will eafily be allowed by whoever only cafts an eye on Jig. 16, Plate VI, which reprefents the fhare of this cultivator.
The vacant fpace between the outmoft row of corn on one bed, and the neareft row to it on the next parallel bed, which is what we have called the alley, and which is not fown at all, is the part that is to be cultivated at different times, from the firft fprouting of the corn, till it is ripe.
The practice of the new hufbandry has already fhewn fufficiently, that too narrow alleys would fcarcely anfwer any of the ends they are intended for ; and that making them too wide, is a lofs of ground. About four feet, exclufive of the fpaces or partitions between the news of corn in the beds, is a good middling width.
It is lefs neceffary to make the alleys quite (o wide in good foils: nor indeed do I think four feet fo abfolutely neceffary at any time, but that a few inches lefs may do. An intelligent hufbandman will eafily judge what is moft proper to be done in this refpect. But
M m m 2 what
452 OF HORSE-HOES. PartlV.
what greatly merits the attention of every one, and ought never to be loft fight of, is, that wide alleys are more eafily and much better ftirred than narrower ones : for when an alley is wide, the great furrow in the middle of it may be cut deep, there being then fuf- ficient fpace to turn the earth over towards the rows ; wbilft on the contrary, in too narrow alleys, the earth cannot be ftirred deep enough, nor cnn room be found for what is turned over out of the furrows, without danger of burying great part of the rows.
I therefore fuppofe the general width of the alleys to be about four feet, But the whole of that width is not to be plowed or ftirred, either with the plough or cultivator, as foon as the field is fown. Neither of thefe inftruments ought to go too near the rows of corn, for fear of rooting up the plants : but a flip of earth, about fix inches wide, fhould be left untouched on the outfide of each bed ; by which means the part of- the alley that is to be ftirred, will be re- duced to the breadth of three feet ; and even that is lefTened in the firft plowing before winter, by a deep furrow which is then cut clofe to and all along thofe fix inch (lips, and the earth taken out of that furrow, or thofe furrows, is thrown into the great furrow in the middle of the alley, and ferve to fill and arch it up. Thefe two fide furrows make together a width of about eighteen inches, and con- fequently leave in the middle of the alley a breadth of about eighteen inches more, on which is heaped up the earth thrown out of the two furrows : and thus the alleys remain all the winter.
. The firft hoeing in the fpring, fhould turn back towards the rows of corn, the earth heaped up in the middle of the alleys. The two furrows that were opened before winter, are then filled up, and a new one is cut in the middle of the alley.
To perform this firft hoeing with the common plough, which may very eafily be done, two turns of that inftrument will necefia- rily be requifite, viz. one on each fide of the alley, as near as poflible to the beds. But as even with thofe two turns, the furrow will fre- quently not be well formed, but a great deal of earth will ftill remain between it and the bed, a third turn of the plough is often neceflary, .and fometimes a fourth, to form the middle furrow as it ought lo be.
To perform this work with the cultivator with two mould-boards, that inftrument muft be placed in the middle of the alley, and the horfes in one of the two furrows. The fhare will eafily enter, and
to
Chap. III. OF HORSE-HOES. 453
to a great depth, into the earth that was laid there by the laft hoeing before winter : and as the horfes advance, that great ridge of earth will be divided into two parts, which will be turned over into, and will fill up the furrows that were made before winter on each G^e of the alley, clofe to the beds. Thus, the great furrow in the middle of the alley will be opened, and the whole operation performed by one turn of the cultivator. The earth fo turned over will be thoroughly fUrred, and fo much time and labour will be laved by this method, that the farmer may eaiily afford one or two ftirrings more in the fummer, which will always be of great fervice.
I have found fo much benefit from making the furrow in the middle of the alley very deep, that I have fometimes given it a fe- cond plowing with the cultivator with two mould-boards, eight or ten days after the firft; by which means I have cut it fo deep, that I have been fure of having a depth of fifteen or eighteen inches of well loofened mould under the middle of my next year's beds.
My lands have been brought to fo fine a tilth by the plowings of former years, that I have not had any occafion for a coulter to my cultivators : however, it may be proper to ufe one, where the ground has not been fufficiently loofened by the preceding culture.
To fliew to what degree of pulverifation my lands have been brought, and how extremely light they now are, I fhall only mention the following fact. I ufed only one and the fame cultivator with two mould- boards during the whole courie of the years 1753 and ?754, and never had occafion even once to have the fhare new pointed. The friction and refiftance of the earth were fo little in my grounds, that the point -of my fhare was not worn at all, whilft, in the fame years, my neighbours were obliged to have the fhares of their common ploughs new pointed almoft every day.
SECT. V.
Defcription of M. de VilliersV Cultivator.
HP HI S inftrument is compofed of a fhare, Plate VI. fig. 18, the ■*• two fins of which are eight inches and a half wide at their ex- tremities a, b. The focket c, which is bMwedi the two fins, projects fome inches, and the hollow in it is three inches long, and one inch wide. It does not defcend fo low down as the fins, to prevent its touching the earth. The length of this fhare, from the point d,
to
454 OF HORSE-HOES. Part IV.
to the extremity of the fins a or b, is from 12 to 13 inches. Five inches from the point d, is a hole e, into which is inlerted the crooked point /, of the iron fafeguard, Jig. 1 9, which is ufed in this country in order to faften the ear to the fhare of the plough. Upon the fhare is placed a fmall triangular ear h, Jig, 21, 22, and 23; fomewhat concave at bottom, that the two fmall ears may join ex- actly to the fliare at about an inch diftance from the edge of the fins. This ear is about two inches and a half high at a, Jig. 22, and is faflened firmly to the fhare by a double and angular fafeguard, which covers its edge as far as b. It is fixed at one end by its point, which enters into the hole e, Jig. 18, in the ihare, and by four fmall pins faftened to the ear. Fig. 19 and 20 reprefent this fafe- guard. The double ear is faftened at its other extremity, by the fheat, or upright piece e, g. jig. 22, which pafles through the ground- reft of the hinder part of the ear and beam, and by a piece of iron c d bent in a right angle. This piece of iron covers the fore part of the fheat, and refts upon the tail of the ear, againft which the beam prefies it very tight, by means of a wedge e, driven into the fheat. The piece c d may likewife ferve to fix two mould-boards from g to c. It is nine inches high, f is another fheat or upright piece, which joins the beam to the ground-reft, to add to the ftrength and folidity of the inftrument, which is increafed alfo by the lower part of the handles being fixed in the ground-reft at /, and traverfed by the beam at k.
M. de Villiers, in a letter to M. Duhamel gives the following ac- count of his manner of ufing this cultivator.
" Finding it, fays he, impoflible to plow my alleys well when <c they were but three feet or three feet and a half wide, without " greatly damaging the rows of corn bordering on them, I refolved " to make them four feet wide, and took particular care to have the " rows drilled very ftrait. Even then, I found but one way of " plowing them well, which is, to open the firft furrow fo near the " bed, that the next furrow within that may come within two or 0 three inches of the neareft row of plants in the bed, turning over the " earth of thefe furrows towards the alley. After two or three fuch tc turns of the plough, the plowman will be fure not to make any <c miftake. It is of great importance to cut this firft furrow, by " which all the others are directed, quite parallel to the rows. The " reft of the work will then go on regularly, and without any of " that confufion which would be capable of giving many people a
diflikc
INSERT FOLDOUT HERE
Chap. III. OF HORSE.HO.E8. 455
" diflike to the new hufbandry. My horfes were led by hand, till " they were fufficiently accuftomed to this work: but that was ne- ,c ceffary only for the firft furrow, which they afterwards follow of " their own accord, by which means the reft of the alley is plowed " with great eafe.
" The earth of the fecond furrow, which is cut very near the " rows, is turned over in the fame direction as that of the firft; that " is to fay, from the bed.
" The third furrow is plowed the contrary way, and the earth is " now turned over towards the rows, fo that the laft furrow is filled " up by this, and a confiderable quantity of well divided earth is {t turned over to the rows, for the plants to extend their roots in " the fpring.
" I then continue plowing in the fame direction, cutting the fur- t{ row that is turned over towards the rows as thick as poffible, till «* the whole alley is plowed almoft clofe to the oppofite bed, when, ** by turning over one large furrow on that fide, the fmall one cur " there at firft is filled tip. By this means, the firft fpring hoeing is ,c completely executed.
" I begin the fecond plowing on the fide where I ended the firft, « turning the earth over that way, which is the contrary of what " was done before : and when I come to the other fide of the alley, I " leave there, as was left before on the fide I now begin at, the width " of a fmall furrow, which I do not plow, but over which I turn " the earth of my laft furrow.
" I think this fecond hoeing may be deferred, when the ground «« does not produce many weeds: and in this cafe I perform it with " the cultivator, which I bring almoft clofe to the rows.
" After thus ufing, fometimes the plough, and fometimes the cul- " tivator, according as the condition of the ground feerns to require, •« I finifh all my hoeings by faftening two horfes to the cultivator, «' and drawing it once or twice through the middle of the alleys ; M becaufe it cuts four or five inches deeper than the plough."
M. de VilHers adds, that he could not always turn the earth over towards the rows, as M. Duhamel directs, becaufe the wheel of his plough, getting too deep in the middle furrow, altered the direction of the fhare. To this M. Duhamel obferves, that he himfelf met with the fame difficulty, and found no other way of remedying it, but by opening a fmall furrow near the rows, by the help of which he turned the earth over towards the alleys, and then fitted up that
furrow
456 OF HORSE-HOES. Part IV.
furrow immediately, taking care at the fame time to turn the mould over to the roots of the plants, fo as to earth them up as much as poffible. " I am glad, adds he, that I have had this opportunity " of giving M. de Villiers's method, becaufe I think it a good one, " and believe it will be of great flrvice to fuch as may be inclined to " practife our new hufbandry."
Cbfervatiom on Horfe-hoeing, by M. de Viliiers,
" T Have tried, fays this gentleman, to hoe my alleys after M. ** -"■ de Chateau-vieux's method, which I look upon as the beif and " mod expeditious, notwithstanding that feveral difficulties which I " have met with in the practice of it, have obliged me to give it up. " For example, the great furrow in the middle of the alley is, ac- " cording to his directions, to be filled up by two turns of the plough, " one on the right hand, and the other on the left, after which it is to " be opened again by one turn of the cultivator with two mould- " boards, or two or three turns of the common plough.
When I fet about this work, the fii-ft turn of the plough, if the <c fhare went to any depth worth fpeaking of, always filled up the
* furrow in fuch manner, that to prevent its being poached by the *' horfes, I tried to make them walk on one fide, on the upper " ground, and confequently very near the rows of corn : but then,
* in the firft place, I could not avoid the deftrucYion of a great num- <e ber of plants, without giving fuch attention as was not only ex- ** ceflively troublefome, but almoft impracticable : and fecondly, I ** could plow only the furface, becaufe as the furrow was filled, the " plough could turn up but very little earth, without being choaked, " and becoming extremely heavy.
" If, to fave the plants, I made the horfes tread partly on the " mould turned over into the furrow, the plough choaked equally, " and for the fame reafon, whenever the furrow was cut deep. " All I could do in this cafe, was to give only a fuperficial plowing : " and with that it was impofiible to ufe the cultivator with two " mould boards, to form the furrow, becaufe that inflrument cannot " operate in any but a loofe well- tilled ground.
" All thefe inconveniencies may not happen in a foil different from " mine. I am the more inclined to think this, as M. de Chateau- " vieux certainly does not experience them: but at the fame time I <f muft alfo obferve that that juftly celebrated gentleman has inftru-
ments
Chap. III. OF HORSE-HOES. 457
" ments fo perfect, and directs his fervants with fuch fuperior judg- " ment, that few can expect eaiily to equal him in the practice of the ** new hufbandry.
" Not being able, for the above reafons, to do with one turn of " the cultivator with two mould boards, what, as M. de Chateau- " vieux hiinfelf obferves, can frequently not be done with lefs than " three or four turns of the common plough, which, added to the " two turns that are given to fill up the furrow, make iu all five or " fix turns ; I purfued, and with great advantage, nearly the method " before defcribed. I fay nearly that method, becaufe I have made " fome few alterations, by which I think it is rendered both ealier " and better.
" 1 . I make the mould-board twelve or thirteen inches deep, in- " ftead of nine or ten that it was before. The furrows are by this " means made wider, and the plough is more eafily drawn, becaufe " it finds more room to difcharge its load of earth in, and fuffers lefs " pre fiu re.
" 2. To give the fecond hoeing with the plough, inftead of con* " tinuing to turn the earth over towards that fide of the alley where " I turned up but one furrow when I finifhed the firft plowing, I, " on the contrary, begin this fecond at that furrow, approaching, if " poflible, to within two or three inches of the row of corn j and " then I make a furrow in the contrary direction, which turns the " earth up againft that row.
" My reafon for plowing fo near the rows, when I give this fecond " hoeing, is, that I have obferved that the rains which fall pretty " frequently in the fpring, between the firfi plowing and the fecond, " harden the earth greatly, and that drought afterwards hardens it " flill more, fo that the roots of plants can no longer pierce or " fpread in it with eafe : and yet nothing is more necefiary, in order " to their being benefited by every culture of the earth, than that " they fliould find an eafy pafTage into the mould that lies next the <c rows. It is therefore highly proper to ftir that mould, when the " fecond hoeing with the plough is given, which, with me, is when " the corn has begun to fpindle : that being the time when the plants " pufh with the greatefi; flrength, and when their roots ought con- " fequently to begin to extend to fome diftance.
" I have not perceived that the plants have been at all hurt by the " plough's coming fo near them.- They ought to be fo much the <c lefs hurt thereby, as the rows are placed over a furrow which has
N n n been
458 OF HORSE.HOE3, Part IV.
" been cut deep •> that fituation being alone capable of making the *' corn tiller, and pufh ftrongly : though the affiftance of culture is " likewife neceflaiy, to fupply the fralks and ears with plentiful nou- " riuhment.
" I am the better pleafed with this method of bringing the hoe- " plough almoft clofe to the rows, as it facilitates a very important " operation, flrongly recommended by M. Duhamel, and which I " never before thought practicable : 1 mean, the raifing up of the " earth about the bottom of the plants, as well to give them greater " nourifhment, as to prevent their being lodged. The following is t! my method on this occafion.
" When I fill up the furrow which I have cut as clofe as poffible " to the row, I hold the plough Hoping, in fuch manner that the " earth is forced away from it, and is raifed up about the plants. " If this flope is not fufficient, which may fometimes depend on " the condition of the ground, or the dexterity of the plowman, I " in that cafe make the mould- board two or three inches wider, " when I ufe it to fill the furrow, than it was when I made that " furrow : and to that end I fcrew on to the extremity of the mould " board, a thin plate of iron about four or five inches wide. Thcfe " who practife the new hufbandry in fo extenfive a manner as to em- " ploy feveral ploughs, will find no inconvenience in having one, "■ larger than the reft, purpofely for this important operation. As f' I do not give this fecond hoeing with the plough, till after the " corn has begun to fpindle, it is eafy for me to avoid burying the " plants, efpecially if there are no great clods in the ground : but at " all events I always earth the plants up as much as poffible, when " there is no other danger than that of burying here and there a few " of them, becaufe that accident is eafily remedied afterwards, if it " be worth while.
" When I am to give the third hoeing with the plough, I con- " fider the condition of the ground. If it is in good tilth, well " loofenedj and free from weeds, I ufe only the cultivator: other- *' wife I ufe the plough, three or four turns of which are fufficient " to perform this operation, in the following manner.
" The firfr. cut, turns the earth over into the middle furrow : the 5* fecond and third are in a contrary direction, and the fourth takes '• up what was loofened by the third, whereby the furrow is repla- " ced in the middle of the alley. Some time after this, and efpe- " cially if a fhower of rain has fallen, I cut that furrow flill deeper,
« by
Chap. IV. ..OF GRANAJIIES. 4j9
" by one turn of the fingle or double cultivator, as M. de Chateau - f vieux directs.
" But as, even after all thefe plowings, the great furrow may " chance to be neither deep enough, nor furhxiently cleared of mould, " owing either to the imperfection of the inftruments made ufe of, " or to the inaptitude of the plowman, that defect may eafily be f* remedied after harveft, by giving one plowing more, which is to " be begun by throwing up the earth to the right hand and the left, " towards the fummit of the beds, that is to fay, over the ftubble. " This practice is alfo confirmed by M. de Chateau- vieux's in- '? ftructions.
*i The one plowing extraordinary which this operation requires, " ought not to be thought much of, becaufe the moft important " thing in the new hufbandry certainly is, the providing of a good " depth of well ftirred mould, for the plants to extend their roots " in."
C H A P. IV. Of GRANARIES.
THO' we are not, in this kingdom, under the fame necefllty as fome foreign countries, of building large edifices for gra- naries, becaufe our harvefts are much lefs apt to fail us ; yet, as it muft be of great advantage to every farmer to be able to preferve his corn of all kinds from infects and putrefaction, we think it will be right to give fome directions for this purpofe, which it may be in the power of any one to put in practice : referring thofe who can afford to be at a more considerable cxpence, to the larger means pointed out by the writers on this fubject. Among thefe, the. firft place is moft defervedly given to that beneficent friend to mankind, the Rev. Dr. Hales. M. Dubamel has more particularly applied the ufe of ventilators to the prefervation of corn, and has likewile added the ufe of ftove-granaries. As the erecting of thefe laft is attended with an expence which the generality of farmers can feldom be at, the kiln may be fubftituted in their place : and in regard to public granaries, we recommend to the perufal of the curious, as well worthy their at- tention, an ingenious performance * lately written on that fubject, by a lady of our own country. ,
* A plan for ere&ing public granaries.
N n n 2 The
46o OF GRANARIES. Part IV.
The editors of Mr. Line's hufbandry having given a concife abridg- ment of the experiments in M. Duhamel's treatife on the prefervation of corn, we mail copy from them what is mod: efiential therein, and then add the farther experiments mentioned by that gentleman in his treatife on agriculture.
M. Duhamel caufed a cafe or little granary to be made, of oak plank two inches thick, forming a cube of five feet every way. At fix inches from the bottom, he made a flooring, or fecond bottom, of lattice work, placed upon joifts of five inches thick, covering it with a ftrong canvas : and this little granary was filled quite full of good wheat. It contained ninety-four cubic feet, weighing five thoufand and forty pounds.
This granary being filled quite full of corn, is to be covered with good oak planks, fo clofely joined, that neither rats, mice, or even the fmalleft infect can get in ; leaving only fome vent-holes, with trap- doors, or covers fitted very exactly to them, which will be fpoken of hereafter.
By this means, the corn is depofited in a fmall compafs, and per- fectly fecured from rats, mice, birds, and even infects, provided there were none before in the granary, or among the corn : but if there fhould, the means hereafter pointed out will deftroy them.
It is well known that, in this climate, corn laid up in great heaps will foon ferment and fpoil : to prevent which, it is necefiary to force out the tainted air, and fupply its place, from time to time, with frefh : in fhort, to eftablifh a current of air, which mall pais through the corn, and carry off the dampnefs. To this end, M. Duhamel made a falfe bottom of lattice work, covered with coarfe canvas, (but if it were for a large granary, wire, in the manner of a neve, migHf do better,) through which the air could pafs, and be forced out at the vent holes at top.
This purpofe is anfwered by bellows, and the moft proper for this end are thofe contrived by doctor Hales, they being conftructed without leather, or any other matter liable to be destroyed by vermin.
A large pair of thefe bellows being fo fixed as to receive the air from without, and convey it between the bottom and falfe bottom of the granary ; when you would ventilate the corn, open the vent- holes at top, and work the bellows, which will drive the air through ihe. whole body of the corn withfuch force as to make the duft fly
out
Chap. IV. OF GRANARIES. 461
out at the vent-holes, and when confined to one fmall opening will blow up fome grains of corn a foot high. ': _^ '
The corn I chofe for this experiment, continues M. Duhamel, was of good quality. I ventilated it not more than fix days m a year, without the help of fire j which was fufficient to keep it fo well' that the beft judges allowed it to be as good as could be.
When the bellows had not been worked for fome months, the corn was allowed, by good judges, to look and ftnell perfectly well : but they obieded that it did not handle well, that is, that it had fome little dampnefs in it, The bellows were worked for half a day, and that objection was entirely removed.
In hot countries, corn may be preferved a long time by being de- pofited in a vault or ciftern, fo clofely flopped, that the air can have no accefs : but experience (hews, that this method will not fucceed in our climate, the fun not having power to exhale the moifture from the corn, fufficiently to prevent its fermenting when laid in a latere heap : and this is farther proved by feveral experiments of corn dried in a kiln, which, tho' its weight was confiderably diminifhed, did not lofe the vegetative quality, but grew very well.
From thefe obfervations it follows, that it is neceffary to take away- the fuperfluous moifture, and bring our corn to the fame degree of drynefs as that of the hotteft countries, in order to preferve it in great bodies.
Experiments on ninety-four cubic feet of wheat (not dried) ivbich was- preferved above fix years by ventilation only.
TN May, 1743, ninety-four cubic feet of wheat was put in one of -*• the little granaries before-mentioned. It was of the harveft of r742, and of an excellent quality, perfectly clean, and fo dry, that it loft only one-fixteenth of its weight upon drying a fmall quantity of it, for a trial, on a kiln with the heat at fifty degrees or M. de- Reaumur's thermometer. This wheat was well cleaned from daft, and depofited in the granary without being dried by fire.
The firft three months, it was ventilated for eight hours once a fortnight : the reft of the year 1743, and all 1744, it was venti ated once a month : all the year 1745, and part of 1746, it was vent.lated half a day once a month > and after that, but once in two or three
months. : , ,,
In June 1750, the granary was emptied, and the wheat lookd and fmelt very well, but felt a little rough in the hands, becauie, not 1 having-
462 OF GRANARIES. Part IV.
having been moved for fix years, the little hairs that are at the extre- mity of the grains, and the particles of the bran, were roughed up : but after parting twice through the wind icreen, that objection was entirely removed, and it was found by the bakers, paflry- cooks, &c. to be perfectly good.
This was corn of eight years old, feven of which it was preferved in the granary, without any fenfible diminution, and without any damage from rats or other animals : it cannot be faved without any expence, becaufe a man was employed from time to time to ventilate it : but it is very eafy to reduce that expence almoft to nothing, as will be (hewn hereafter.
The Rev. Dr. Hales propofes the following method of preferving corn, as a thing that may be very beneficial to the poor, who fre- quently keep fmall quantities of corn in facks.
" Provide a reed-cane, or other hollow flick, made fo by glewing " together two flicks grooved hollow : let it be about three feet nine " inches long ; and, that it may be the eafier thrull down to the " bottom of the corn in the fack, its end is to be made taper to a " point, by a wooden plug that is fixed in, and flops the orifice. " About an hundred and fifty fmall holes, of one eighth of an inch cc diameter, are to be bored on all fides of the flick, from its bottom, " to two feet ten inches of its length; but no nearer to the furface of " the corn, left too great a proportion of the air thould efcape there. " By wreathing a packthread in a fpiral fcrew-like form round the " flick, the boreing of the holes may be the better regulated, fo as " to have them about half an inch diftant towards the bottom, but " gradually at wider diftances fo as to be an inch afunder at the " upper part: by which means the lower part of the corn will " have its due proportion of frefih air. To the top of the flick let " there be fixed a leathern pipe ten inches long ; which pipe is to be " diftended by two yards of fpiral wire coiled up within it. At the c< upper part of the pipe is fixed a taper wooden favvcet, into which " the nofe of a common houfehold bellows is to be put, in order to " ventilate the corn.
" If corn, when firft put into facks, be thus aired every other, or " third day, for ten or fifteen minutes, its damp fweat, which would " hurt it, will, in a few weeks, be carried off to fuch a degree, that " afterwards it will keep fweet with very little airing, as has been " found by experience.
V By the fame means many other kinds of feeds, as well as corn, " may be kept fweet, either in facks or fmall bins : but then in bins
the
Chap. IV. OF GRANARIES, 463
,c the air-holes muft be made only near the bottom of the canes,
* becaufe the air muft in that cafe all afcend upward, fince it *"' cannot go through the fides of the bin, as it will through
* facks."
"Experiment on j$ cubic feet of new wheat, extremely moift, and which had already contracted a bad fmell.
np H E harveft of 1745 was very rainy, and all the corn had -*- grown in the ear. In the common granaries, it was always in a ftate of fermentation, tho' laid but a foot deep, and turned every four or five days.
Seventy-five cubic feet of this grown corn, which fmelled very ill, and was fo moift as to wet the floor of the granary where it lay a few days, were put, in this condition, and without being dried, into one of our little granaries, with fmall hopes of fuccefs.
As the corn was very hot when put into the granary, it was ven- tilated three or four times the firft week, and once a week during December and January : and as it had loft great part of its bad fmell, from that time till June it was ventilated but once a fort- night.
Then, perceiving, by the running of one's hand into the top of the heap, that it heated, we concluded it was going to be entirely corrupted 5 which determined us to empty the granary : but when we had taken out about a foot of the top, we were greatly forprifed to find the reft cool, with very little bad fmell, and drier than that which was preferved in the common granaries.
The reafon why the top was the worft, was, the. moift vapours being always forced upwards in ventilation : and we apprehend that if, inftead of emptying the granary, it had been ventilated oftener, the moifture that was at the top might have been dried away.
This experiment teaches us one important thing, which is, that in this fort of granary the top of the heap is moft fubjecl to heat ■ fo that if the grain taken out of the vent-holes is in good condition, you may conclude the reft to be ftill better.
Where the corn is too moift for the granary, M. Duhamel prn- pofes drying it in a kiln, previous to its being put into the granary of prefervation. This agrees with a ftory which Mr. Tull relates oi a neighbour of his in Oxfordshire, who acquired a large fortune by this practice. His method was, to dry his wheat on a hair- cloth,
464 OF GRANARIES. Part IV.
in a malt-kiln, with no other fuel than clean wheat-ftraw ; never fuffering it to have any flronger heat than that of the fun. The longeft time he let it remain in this heat, was twelve hours ; and the fhorteft time, about four hours : the damper the wheat was, and the longer intended to be kept, the more drying it required : but how to dilringuith the degree of dampnefs, and the number of hours pro- per for its continuance on the kiln, he faid, was an art impoffible to be learnt by any other means than by practice. His fpeculation, which put him upon this project, was, that it was only the fuper- fiuous moilture of the grain that caufed its corruption, and made it liable to be eaten by the weevil. When dried, the bakers allowed it to work better than new wheat, and every grain would grow after it had been kept icvcn years. Mr. Tull adds, that the moil fecure way he knows of preferving wheat, is by drying it.
Experiment en 90 cubic feet cf fine wheat, which was preferred without ventilation, after having been dried en a kiln.
npHIS wheat, tho' very full of fmut and duft, was fo well cleaned ■"- as to have no fault remaining but dampnefs. It was dried in a kiln, by which it loft a little difagreeable fmell it had before ; and when it was thought to be fufficiently dried, it was laid up in one of our granaries of prefervation, which had bellows adapted to it : but there was no occafion to ufe them.
It appears by this experiment, that wheat well cleaned and dried need not be ventilated.
Experiment on 75 cubic feet of fmall it-beat, mixed with Jmut, which had been dried on a kiln.
/^vUR different fcreens clean'd the large wheat perfectly ; but with ^^ all our care we could not free this fmall wheat from fmut, duft, GV. of which much remained, and the kiln did not clear it from the bad fmell it had contracted.
Frequent ventilation would undoubtedly have taken away that bad fmell : but this experiment being to try the effect of the kiln only, we determined not to ventilate, unlefs there was great danger of the wheat's corrupting, which did not happen : but yet the bad fmell in- creafed lb much, that we were obliged to kiln-dry it again after it
was
Chap. IV. OF GRANARIES, 465
was taken out of the granary, and to fcreen it feveral times, by which means it made tolerable good bread.
This experiment mews, firu\ how necefTary it is to clean the corn well before it is put into the granary of prefervation, and that, in fome cafes, both ventilation and kiln-drying are necefiary : fecondly, that corn which has contracted a bad fmell, may be cleared of it by the kiln and wind-fcreen.
Having found by the foregoing experiments, that good corn, well cleaned, and properly kiln-dried, may be preferved without ventila- tion, and that good corn tolerably dry may be preferved by ventilate n only, we conclude that it muft be moft advantageous to join both methods, efpecially for large magazines.
Experiment on 825 cubic feet of fine wheat lightly kiln- dried, and
'ventilated.
THIS wheat was of the year 1750, and confequently but of a middling quality. After being well cleaned, and lightly kiln- dried, it was put in the granary of prefervation, about feven feet deep, which granary had bellows worked by a wind-mill.
This corn had a bad fmell, which was not entirely diffipated by the kiln, but it was quite cleared of it by ventilation. It was not only well preferved thereby, but was fo meliorated, and became of fo gvjocU quality, that the bakers preferred it to all other, and gave two pence a fack more for it, than for the fame wheat preferved in the common way.
It is certainly moft advantageous to unite both methods, not only becaufe they are moft effectual in preferving corn, when joined to- gether, but alfo becaufe they are then leaft troublefome and ex- penfive : for to kiln-dry it fufficiently to keep without ventilation, requires a large fire and long attendance ; and to preferve it without kiln-drying, will require very frequent ventilation ; whereas, by join- ing the two methods, both are rendered very eafy and lefs expenfive, and the fuccefs is more certain.
In all thefe experiments, we have never fuffered any thing by moth, or weevil, tho' the common granaries were greatly infefted with them at the fame time. This is a good prognoftic : but we muft not conclude from hence, that this method will abfolutely pre- , vent the mifchief. It may be fuppofed, that the care we had taken, in thefe experiments, to clean the corn, had entirely freed it from
O o o them :
466 OF GRANARIES. Part IV.
them : and it may be objected that this great care cannot be taken in large ftores, and that, if any fhould get into the heap, they would be by fo much the more dangerous, as they would remain longer undifturbed. Thefe reflections determined us to make the follow- ing experiment.
Of the Moth or Worm.
/"T^ H E moth lays its eggs on the corn, and thofe eggs produce -*- worms or caterpillars, which feed on the corn, and lpin a filky web, which extends fometimes to three or four inches deep, and entirely fpoils all the grain within that depth, befides communicating a bad fmell to the whole mafs.
In the winter of 1746, we collected from our ordinary granaries,, all the wormy cruris thus formed, which were very thick, the moths having been very numerous the preceeding fummer : thefe crufts were broken and fcreened, and what grain could be got from themr which undoubtedly was impregnated with the eggs of the moths, was put into one of our granaries of prefervation, which contained feventy-five cubic feet, and was ventilated from time to time all the winter.
About the end of May, if the vent-holes at top were opened, a vaft number of moths flew out ', which mewed they did not like their iituation.
In June 1747, the granary was emptied : the moths and worms were all perifhed, and there remained only a thin cruft, about one eighth of an inch thick, on the top of the corn, which had fo far loft the bad fmell it had when put into the granary, that it fold for. the current market-price.
Dr. Hales obfervts, that kiln-drying often makes corn grind un- kindly ; and therefore propofes the following method of drying fmutty corn, after it has been warned ; cold air not hurting it, as. kiln-drying is found to do. " That I might be well affured, fays •* he, of the good effect of thus drying fmutty corn, having pro- " cured a quantity of very fmutty wheat, which weighed feven " pounds and fifteen ounces, on the twenty-fixth of May, at five in- " the morning, it was wafhed clean in four feveral waters, which " was done in a few minutes, and was then laid to drain in an oat- " fieve, till half an hour after five, when it had increafed in weight, " by wetting, ten ounces, befides the moifture that was equal to the
" weight
Chap. IV. OF GRANARIES. 467
" weight of the fmut-balls and fmut that was wafhed from the " wheat. It wafted but two ounces and an half, by the firft two " hours ventilation ; two ounces and five drachms in the fecond two " hours, vise, from eight to ten ; in the next fix hours, viz. from " ten to four in the afternoon, it wafted at the rate of four ounces " every two hours ; from four to fix, two ounces and an half; and " from fix to eight, one ounce and an half: in all, about twenty " ounces; fome allowance being made for what corn was wafted by " handling and biting fome of it from time to time. It was venti- " lated in thefe fourteen hours with about forty thoufand gallons of " air, which pafled upwards through it, and made it fufficiently " hard and dry, fo as to be fit for grinding : it w2s well coloured, " and handled well ; and, from {linking, as fmutty wheat does, it " became much fweeter. The vifible dewy moifture was blown off " in three hours ; but it continued damp and cold to the feeling till " two o'clock, when fome little duft began to fly off it.
M And whereas it wafted off much lefs moifture during the firft: " four hours ventilation, when it ought to have wafted the moft, on " account of its being then wetteft, this was owing to the foggy ha- " zinefs of the morning : which as it went off, and broke out into " fine warm fun-fhine, towards ten o'clock, fo the air being there- " by become dry, it imbibed moifture more ftrongly from the corn : «' and that this was the true caufe of the difference, is farther con- <{ firmed by a like experiment which I had before made on a gallon " of wheat, April the firft, there being then a very dry north-eaft: <c wind.
" It will be advifable to begin to ventilate corn as foon as poflible " after waihing it, that the moifture may have the lefs time to foak " in : for the lefs the moifture foaks in, fo much the fooner the corn " will dry.
SF If the moifture is fo eafily carried off from wet wheat, by ven- " tilation, this method will doubtlefs much improve what is called " cold wheat, viz. fuch as is grown, and has been houfed in a cold " wet feafon ; and will therefore foon carry off the moift vapours *c which arife from corn, and caufe it to heat and grow mufty."
Of the Weevil;
'THE weevil is of the beetle kind. It devours a great quantity of ■*- corn, as well old as new, but does not communicate any bad
O o 0 2 fmelL
468 OF GRANARIES. Part IV-
fmell to it, as the moth does. It will endure the heat neceffary for kiln-drying, and is numbed, but not deftroyed, by intenfe cold. The weevils are generally found collected in heaps, which feel very warm. This warmth is probably neceffary for hatching their eggs ; and if fo, they will not be in a condition to propagate their fpecies in our granaries. No fmoke will deftroy them, but that of fulphur ; and that gives a bad fmell to the corn.
In May 1751, we put fome weevils into one of our granaries : and when it was opened in Auguft 1752, we found none.
M. Duhamel, in the fifth volume of his Treatife on Agriculture, gives the following farther experiments on the prefervation of corn.
Experiments made at Denainvilliers, on the prefervation of corn,
/T~SHE wheat of 1754, being of an excellent quality, and that "■■ harveft having been very fine and dry, my corn, after being kept «li the winter in a common granary, was divided into two parts, one of which was depofited in one of our granaries of prefervation, without being {love-dried ; concluding that, as it was fo well con- ditioned, the renewing of the air with the bellows, would be fuffi- cient to preferve it. In effect, this corn remained always cool and in good order.
The other part was ftove-dried and laid up in another granary of prefervation ; where, as it did nop heat at all, I am apt to think it would have kept without the affiftance of the bellows : but this is only a conjecture ; for it was ventilated nearly as much as the other.
In my treatife on the prefervation of corn, I mentioned my having kept wheat (even years, without its being attacked by any infect-; but indeed it had no weevils in it, when it was put into the gra- nary, which was always kept fo clofely fhut, that there was not the Icaft room for that infect to get in any where. I likewife faid in the fame work, that after having laid up in a granary of prefervation, wheat which had been ftove-dried, and put fome weevils in among it, not one of them was to be found when that granary was emptied eighteen months or two years after.
The cafe was not the fame this year. I had put fome weevils into the granary in which I laid up wheat, not ftove-dried, of the harveft of 1754.
In May 1756, wanting to lay this wheat, which had not b
fiove~
Chap. IV. OF GRANARIEI, 469
ftove-dried, upon fome other which had been dried, in order to empty one of my granaries for wheat of the harveft of 1755, I ordered it to be lifted through a wire fcreen, and found, while that was doing, nearly the fame quantity of weevils that I had put into it. I have reafon to think they had not multiplied; becaufe it is well known that this infect heats prodigioufly the corn it gets among, either in the granary or the barn ; and the corn I am fpeaking of was fo cool, that a country fellow whom I employed for this work, could hardly remain bare-footed amongft it. When the time fhall come round for emptying this granary, in which there now is wheat of the harveft of 1754, part ftove-dried, and part not dried, I fhall take care to examine whether the weevils have increafed. Hitherto, this corn has always been very cool.
In May 1756, I ftove-dried corn of the harveft of 1755, in order to put it in the fame granary of prefervation in which I had kept that of 1754 not ftove-dried.
This corn of the harveft of 1755, having been reaped in rainy weather, continued extremely damp : and tho' care had been taken to turn it every week, from the time of its being removed out of the barn, it had contracted a very bad fmell, pretty much like that of pigeon's dung. I therefore determined to ftove-dry this corn for 48 hours. A putrid fmell iflued from it. After this corn had been thus ftove-dried, I had it fifted immediately, to cool it, and clean fe it from that fmall duft which falls off dry corn. After this, I put it into a granary of prefervation, and ordered it to be ventilated more carefully than the old corn.
This wheat has never heated, but has always remained perfectly cool, and has quite loft its bad fmell.
We fee by this experiment, an inftance of the good effect of the
ftove, fince it rendered capable of being preferved, wheat which
could not have been kept in the common way. The ftove likewile
deftroyed the bad fmell which would have leffened the price of this
corn very considerably. At the fame time, a parcel, of wheat of the
fame crop, which had begun to grow, and had contracted a very
bad tafte, was ftove-dried with ftill more care. It dried perfectly,
was in excellent condition for keeping, and had no bad fmell : but if
it was chewed, it had a difagreeable tafte, and the pafte made of this
grown corn, which feemed to have been fo well recovered, did not
rife in the kneading-trough, and the bread made of it was very heavy
and of a difaereable tafte.
As-
476 t)F GRANARIES, Part IV.
As I had not yet tried any experiment on the preservation of barley and oats, I filled two fmall granaries with thefe grains, without ftove-< drying them.
The oats remained cool, and kept extremely well : but the bailey emitted fo great a quantity of moifture, that the boards at the bottom of the granary were quite warped bv it : and this grain heated to fueh a degree, that the bellows worked by hand could not cool it, tho' conftantly plied for eighteen months together. When this gra- nary was emptied, we found the boards covered with a ftinking glu- tinous moifture, which had communicated itfelf to the whole mais of this corn. I then judged that all of it was fpoiled, efpecially as the heat had fpread to every part of the granary, and the outfide of the corn was rotted all over for near two inches deep, and ftuck to the fides and bottom of the granary. I likewife perceived that a pro- digious number of weevils had bred in this granary. Notwithftand- ing all this, I refolved to try whether I could make any thing of this corn. To this end, I ordered it to be put into my ftove j after which •I fifted and winnowed it, to clear it of the grains that had no flour in them, which were pretty numerous. This operation lefiened the mafs by about one twelfth : but the good corn was very dry, and had no bad fmell. I have put it back into the fame granary, to foe whether it will be poffible to keep it after this ftove-drying.
Experiments on the Prefervation of Corn, by Dom Edward Provenchere, Procurator of the Carthujiam of Li get, near Loches.
TN 1755, Dom Edward intending to make fome experiments on •*• the prefervation of corn, chofe for that purpofe a large cafk, at one end of which he put a double-barred grate, and over that a canvas. This cafk was filled with wheat of the harveft of 1754, not ftove-dried, and contained 1080 pound weight. He then fixed to it a pair of middle-fiz'd bellows, fo fituated that they might eafily be worked. Nearly in the center of this corn, he put as many weevils as weighed fix drachms : which is pretty considerable for that quantity of corn.
The bellows were blown an hour every week. In the beginning of September, when that operation had been neglected for fome time, the corn began to heat: but it was foon cooled again by ufing the bellows. The 15th of October, on taking the corn out of this cafk, in which it had kept perfectly well, not above twenty weevils were
found
Chap. IV. OF GRANARIES 47i
found in it. Dom Edward fays he faw that infetfl come out of the eafk every time the bellows were blown. He perceived in many places feveral grains of corn faftened together by threads, which had been certainly formed by moths that were in this corn which had not been ftove-dried, and, not dying immediately, had had time to fpin their web. The experiments, adds M. Duhamel, which I have re- lated in my treatife on the prefervation of corn, have, I believe, proved fufficiently,- that this infect cannot breed in granaries made after the manner there directed. I wifh I had as ftrong proofs of their deftroy- ing the weevil.
Dom Edward filled another calk with 900 weight of barley, not ftove-dried, and put into it fix drachms of weevils. Tho' care was taken to ventilate this calk, as much as the former which was filled with- wheat, that is to fay, during an hour every week, yet this corn heated prodigioufly : the bellows could not cool it, and the weevils multi- plied in it exceedingly. This is the very thing that happened to me in my larger experiment on the fame kind of grain, and which I mentioned in the preceding article. Barley probably contains a great deal of moifture : and die queilion is wrhether ftove-drying can be able to preferve it. This increale of the weevils feems to prove what I faid before, that this infect cannot multiply in corn that retains a proper degree of ccolnefs.
Experiment on the prefervation of corn, made at the royal abbey of St, Stephen of Caen, by Dom de Sainte Affrique, pricr of that abbey,
TP\OM de Sainte Afrrique kept 1200 bufhels * of wheat in a -*-^ granary like thole defcribed in our treatife on the prefer- vation of corn.
This granary was 12 feet wide, 13 feet long, and 6 feet deep ; which forms a parallelipepede of 936 cubic feet.
The wheat that was laid up in this granary of prefervation, had not been ftove dried ; but had been kept all the winter in a common granary. It was cooled from time to time by two bellows, which two men worked by means of a lever.
Tho' the place in which this granary of prefervation flood, was neither fo dry nor lb airy as might have been wifhed, the corn kept perfectly well in it.
Fully fatisfied with this trial, Dom de Sainte Affrique intends to have large granaries built, with a ftove to dry the corn, and a mill to
* The Caen buftiel weighs 4.5 pounds.
work:
'472 -OF GRANARIES. Part IV.
work the bellows. If he puts this in execution, he wHl render an important fervice, not only to his abbey, but alfo to the public : be- caufe he will thereby be enabled to apply to a larger object than has hitherto fallen in our way, principles of which we think we have de- monftrated the certainty and the utility, and which we could wifh to fee adopted by greater numbers of people.
Experiments on the prefervation of corn, by M. Vandusfel.
TNthe beginning of September 1754, M. Vandusfel filled one of ■*• M. Duhamel's granaries of prefervation, feven feet fquare and fix feet deep, with good wheat, not dried. It heated a little at the end of eight days ; but two men, with a fmall double ventilator, cooled it in two hours time. It began to heat again about a week after, when he repeated the fame operation, which cooled it prefentlv; and on the 20th of October it was quite cool, tho' it had not been ventilated for fifteen days.
M. Vandusfel, in a letter to M. Duhamel, dated the 14th of Oc- tober, 1756, tells him that this corn ftill continued in the fame good condition. He adds, that in Augufl: J 756, he filled a fmall granary with dried corn, which had kept perfectly well to the time of his writing, without being ventilated at all. Corn of the years 1754 and 1755, not dried, but only ventilated, had likewife kept as well as could be wifhed : and a parcel of corn which he -dried and put into cafks, remained fix months in them, without being ventilated, and was perfectly found at the end of that time. However, he obferves, that both dried and undried corn, if fuffered to remain a month without being ventilated, contracts a difagreeable fmell, which is perceived when the bellows firfl begin to work, but is entirely diffi- pated in a few minutes. This fmell is not a fymptom of corruption or decay, but only a ftrong fmell of corn, fuch as is always perceived on entering into a granary that has been fhut for any length of time.
CHAP.
Cfcap. V. OBSERVATIONS,^. 473
CHAP. V.
Observations en the Weather, made during the years ij $5 and 1756, at Denainviliiers, near Petiviers, in the Province of Gatinois, by M. Duhamel.
SECT. I.
Obfervations made during the year 1755.
M Duhamel has given in each of his volumes, an abftract of the ' ftate of the weather, and of the effecT: it had upon the health of animals and the growth of vegetables. The whole feries of his obfervations on this fubjec"t is the lefs neceflary, as the ftate of the weather is generally mentioned in the account of the experiments. We fhall therefore give only his obfervations during the two laft years, as a model for others to follow.
January.
The weather was very cold all this month : M. de Reaumur's thermometer was almoft continually below the freezing point : on the 6th at noon, it fell to 10 degrees below freezing; and on the 8th, in the evening, to 1 1 degrees *
The greateft variations of the barometer were from 27 to 2b inches, and one twelfth, -f-
But little rain fell this month. The continual froits prevented cul- tivating the earth.
February.
The cold continued all this month. On the 4th, in the morning, the thermometer fell to 3 degrees and an half below the freezing point : confequently no ground could be plowed or hoed.
The barometer was always very low : on the 7th, it fell to 26 inches and an half: fome rain fell that day, and the wind was very
violent. .,
p p p March
* Thofe who would compare M. de Reaumur's fcale with thatof Farenhdt, which is more generally ufed in this country, may confvdt Dr. Martin s Eflay on tbe Conduction and Gradation of Thermometers.
t TheEnglifh inch is to the French inch, as 1000 are to 1068.
474
OBSERVATIONS PartJE.
March.
Though the thermometer was but i degree below the freezing* point, on the 3d, in the morning, the air continued fharp. The barometer fell again to 26 inches and (even twelfths j and on the 6th and 7th, to 26 inches and ten twelfths.
Tho' fome rain fell from time to time, yet the wind and fun foon dried the furface of the earth. However, our farmers went hard to work, to get their grounds ready for the fpring corn. This la- bour had been greatly retarded : but before the end of the month, thev began to low oats, which came up very foon.
April.
The temperature of the air changed fuddenly, and became as hot as in fu-mmer. The thermometer was feveral times 15 degrees above the freezing point, in the morning: and on the 15th and 20th, at noon, it was 26 degrees above it.
This warmth put in motion the fap, which had remained till then in a kind of inaction. By the 1 5th, the trees were as full of leaves as they generally are in the middle of May : and towards the end of the month, the vine had leaves as broad as one's hand.
The corn was very green : but the oats that were fowa after March, being in too dry a ground, did not rife.
The fame warmth which quickened the vegetation of plants, gave birth to a prodigious quantity of caterpillars of all kinds. The fields were like wife full of gnats and bugs ; and, in general, all forts of infects appeared in great quantities. Some eat up the leaves of the trees, and others attacked the bloffoms of pears and cherries j fo that, in a ihort time, both woods and orchards were ftripped of their leaves and fruit.
Towards the end of the month, fome fmall fhowers fell, which were of great fervice to make the bats rife. The 29th and 30th, there was a hoar-froft : but as the fun did not appear in the morn- ing, it did no damage.
Some mowers of hail fell in our neighbourhood, and damaged the young buds. The apricot and peach trees knit their fruit perfectly well, and were the only trees that feemed to promife plenty.
Notwithftanding the rains which I faid were of fervice to the oats,
the
Chap. V. ON THE WEATHER. 475
the earth remained dry and cracked in its furface, as it generally is in July and Auguft : but luckily it was moid beneath that upper cruff . The barometer was always high enough, and rofe on the 15th to 28 inches.
Mav.
The 3d, the fky was clouded all the day : diftant thunder was heard ; but no rain fell, though greatly wanted for the fpnng corn.
The 5th, it froze pretty hard : the vineyards which lay low were greatly damaged : thofe upon high grounds fuffered little. The 8th, it hailed: the 18th, we had neither thunder nor rain; but at Etampes, which is 21 miles from Petiviers, there was a great ftorm, which chill'd the air fo much, that people were obliged to make fires.
The froits which happened from time to time during all this month, were hard enough to deftroy all the vines: but, as I ob- ferved before, thofe upon the high grounds were but little hurt ; which may be' imputed to the great forwardnefs they were in : for, in general, the buds of the vine do not begin to open till about the 1 oth of May ; whereas their leaves were this year, at that time, as broad as one's hand. The fhelter which thefe leaves afforded, added to the. more than common hardnefs of the buds, was probably what prevented the froft from .doing much hurtj efpecially as numbers of buds were frozen at the point.
^ Notwithstanding the frofts we have been fpeaking of, the cater- pillars and other infers continued to do great mifchief ; inibmuch that the pear-trees, and almoft all others, were left as bare as in the middle of winter : and afterwards thofe infe&s, unable to fubfift any longer there, fell upon the peach, cherry, and other trees, which they very rarely attack.
Tho' the earth was very dry all this month, the fky having been frequently clouded, the oats which had been benefited by the rains in the preceding month, continued to rife, and the others increafed in ftrength.
Great numbers of children were attacked with violent hooping- coughs, of which feveral died. Some grown perfons too were at- tacked with the fame diforder.
p p 2 June.
476 OBSERVATIONS Part IV-
June.
Towards the end of laft month, the horizon was covered from eaft to fouth with thick clouds, the fore-runners of a ftorm of hail, thunder, and rain, which did a great deal of mifchief in the Limofin and Berry. From that time, the fame part of the fky remained continually covered with heavy clouds, which made us hope we fhould have rain. In effect, it did rain pretty often in the Limofin 5 but we had not the fame advantage. It is commonly obferved, that in dry years, it rains oftener than elfewhere, in thofe places where great flhowers have fallen fome time before. Perhaps the reafon may be, that the exhalations which rife from the earth in thofe places, meeting thofe which form the clouds, make them fall down in fhowers of rain.
The 4th, we had a fmall fhower of pretty large hail, and fome claps of thunder were heard. One of our elms, the trunk of which might be 14 or 15 inches diameter, was broken in two by the thunder, and two of its greateft branches were carried away to a confiderable di- ftance.
The 1 2th, the fainfoin, which had remained very low, was houfed. The corn, tho' not tall, made a good appearance; and the vines were in full blofibm. The fmall kinds of grain were in great want of water. The hafty rains which fell from time to time did a great deal of good in feveral places : but, in general, they were not plentiful enough to moiften the earth thoroughly, and were only juft fufficient to keep the oats from perifhing. Accordingly, the ponds in mod of the villages near us were dry.
The thermometer rofe feveral times this month to 27, 28, and 29 degrees above freezing : and the air may be faid to have been hot and dry during all this month.
Towards the middle of the month, part of the caterpillars being metamorpholed, a prodigious quantity of all forts of butterflies ap- peared.
The 1 8th, the orange trees were in full bloom. By the 25th, we had early apricots upon the table. Arael,. or ftarch-corn was cut the 28th, and the rve drew towards a ftate of maturity.
July,
Chap. V. ON THE WEATHER. 477
July. The 1 2th, at noon, the thermometer marked 25 degrees. The 1 8th, walnut-kernels, and common apricots were brought to
table. .
The drought continued till towards the end of this month. The corn began to be reaped the 20th : but it was very low, and a great deal of it was parch'd and fhrivel'd. Rain was greatly wanted ; es- pecially for the oats. It began to fall plentifulTy about the 18th; and as the corn was then ripe enough to begin to cut it, our farmers foon complained that they had then too much wet. In effect, the rains which fell after that time did great hurt.
By the end of the month, the grapes for making verjuice were very fine in the vineyards j and the early grapes againft walls or ef- paliers had already began to turn. By the 31ft, partridges were very fine and fit for killing.
August. The rains continuing in the beginning of this month, and at the time when the harveft was above half over, the corn that was cut, fprouted in the field, and was abfolutely loft. That which dill re- mained ftanding began alfo to fprout, when, at laft, the rains ceafed; This laft may ftill turn to fome account, tho' it is very white- and full of moifture. Happily, but little rain fell during the reft of this month, tho' the fky was continually clouded, and the air very cold. All the corn was got in by the 1 5th.
The moifture which was fo prejudicial to the wheat, was of lin- gular fervice to the oats, which were cut as they ripened. Tho' the coolnefs of the air checked the progrefs of the vine, the grapes began neverthelefs to turn. The wet rotted great quantities of apricots. As to peaches, there was plenty of them, but they were pale, and had no flavour.
Notwithftanding the rains in the beginning of this month, we were over-run with caterpillars, which, after Gripping the trees, fell upon the vines" that were near them.
September.
This month was, in general, cold and dry. The vintage was
begun about the i cth, in very fine weather, and ended about the
D- 21 ft,
478 OBSERVATIONS Part IV.
21 ft, after Tome days of cold rain. The grapes that were gathered firft, fermented very foon : thofe that were gathered later, were fome days before they began to grow warm. The wines were made fo expeditioufly, that they were all tunned by the beginning of Oc- tober.
Towards the 25th, faffron began to be gathered. If the crop of this flower had been greater, much of it would have been loft, becaufe the feafon for gathering it happened juft at the time of the vintage.
October.
The fky was over-caft almoft all this month, tho' we had but little rain : confequently the earth was well difpofed for plowing and fowing. The farmers took advantage of it j and moft of their lands were fown by the 10th. The reft of this month was employed in giving the winter fallow.
The late peaches did not ripen thoroughly.
November. .
It rained almoft every day this month, and the wind was often very high. So much rain fell, that ponds were formed in feveral ftiff grounds, where the farmers were not able to continue their til- lage. The river Effonne was fwelled confiderably.
The corn came up very finely ; and, notwithftanding. the rains, preferved its verdure tolerably well in grounds not ftiff enough to re- tain the water.
The firft of this month, a day remarkable for the earthquakes that were felt in Portugal, Spain, France, and England, a very cold north wind blew. The thermometer was 2 degrees and an half above the freezing point j and on the 2d, 1 degree. The barometer was at 27 inches and eleven tvyelfths; the 2d, at 27 inches and twenty-one twenty-fourths ; the 3d, at 27 inches and three fourths,; the 4th, at 27 inches and five twelfths; and the 5th, at 27 inches. That fame day, it thundered, and we had a fhower of hail with a ftrohg wind. The quickfilver was very low all this month.
I am the more particular in my account of the rife of the quick- filver, becaufe of the relation it may poffibly have with the earth- quakes, which were very little felt in our province, where, however,
fome
Chap.V. ON THE WEATHER. 479
fome perfons, who could not be informed of the earthquake at Lif- bon, allerted that they perceived fome flight fhocks.
December.
The fky was cloudy almoft all this month, and it rained almoft every day. The air was mild enough ; there being only a hoar-froft the 22d and 23d.
The continual rains rendered the roads impaffable. The corn- lands were full of ftanding waters. However, the corn kept up where the foil was not too ft iff; but it fuffered in black and clayey grounds. As. it was impofiible to plow, the farmer's works were greatly retarded.
General idea of the temperature of the air, and of the productions of the earth, during the year 1755.
' I *HE winter was very long and fevere ; for the frofts ftill conti- nued in January and February, and the thermometer fell to 1 1 degrees in the month of January. But little rain fell during thefe two months, nor in March or April. As the air continued very fharp, the fap of plants remained without motion : .but the month of April being fo warm that the thermometer role to 26 degrees, above freezing, vegetation made a great progrefs : trees bloffomed and were covered with leaves ; and by the end of that month the vines had leaves as broad as one's hand. In the beginning of May, the air grewfo cold on a fudden, that there was reafon to fear for all fruit-trees, and parti- cularly the vine: and if no great harm did enfue, it muft be afcribed to the drought, which, as well as the chillinefs of the air, ftill con- tinued during all June, and till the middle of July. From that time, we had almoft continual rains, which were as prejudicial to the wheat, as they were favourable to the fpring corn. Thefe rains hardly ceafed at all during the whole month of Auguft. September and October were very dry, and the air ftill cold : and laftly, a great deal of rain fell during the months of November and December, which paffed almoft without any froft.
Wheat.
The winter, the fpring, and part of the fummer having been very dry, the ftraw of the wheat did not grow tall, but the ears were fine
enough,
480 OBSERVATIONS Part IV.
enough, and the grain was of a good quality, tho' fomewhat fmall. However, a great deal was parched and Shrivelled on light foils.
The harveft was begun in very fine weather : but before it was finifhed, fuch continual rains fell, that ail the corn that was cut, fprouted, and was entirely loft. What was ftanding, fared better : but the refult was, that the corn of this harveft was of three very dif- ferent qualities. That which was houfed before the rains came on, is very good : that which was down when the rains fell, has no flour in it, and is hardly fit even for poultry : and that which was ftanding at the time of the rains, is full of moifture, yields but little flour, and will be very difficult to keep.
Old wheat has been fold for 14 or 15 livres the fack, weighing 240 pounds; and the new has fetched from 10 to 13, according to its degree of drynefs.
Oats.
We have feen by the foregoing account of the months of this year, that the tillage for fpring corn was greatly retarded, and that the oats which were fown firft were benefited by fome fhowers of rain which made them rife : thofe which were fown late, were a long time be- fore they appeared ; and as they rofe at laft only by the help of fudden mowers, fome were much forwarder than others.
The drought, which was almoft continual till the middle of Au- gurt, gave room to fear left the harveft of this grain fhould fail en- tirely : and indeed, notwithftanding thofe flying fhowers, the crop of oats was but indifferent both in quantity and quality. Thofe of our province are white and light, and fell for only five livres a fack, whilft old oats fell for fix.
Barley.
Almoft all the barley in our parts was burnt : but this accident can hardly have been general, fince the price of this grain is nearly the fame as that of oats.
Rye.
We raife but little rye in our province : each farmer fows juft as much as will yield him ftraw to make what bands he wants for tying up his fheaves, and other fuch like ufes. This grain fared nearly as the wheat did.
Legd-
Chap. V; O N T H E W E A T H E R. 4S1
Leguminous Plants.
There was great plenty of garden beans this year : bu{ the crop of peas, lentils, and kidney-beans, was but middling.
Pot-Herb s.
Turneps of all kinds abounded. Some, of which I had the feed from Scotland, were 29 inches in circumference. Cabbages were very plenty, but their hearts were fmall. The beet-roots, carrots, and fcorzoneras which we cultivated with the horfe-hoe, grew to a furprizing bignefs ; far beyond any in the beft kitchen gardens. Artichoaks yielded plenty of fine heads in the fpring, and again in autumn, fo that we had them till December.
Hay.
As the fainfoin bloflbmed in the dry feafons, it remained : but its quality was very good.
The meadows in general yielded but little hay ; and even that, being wet in moft places after it was cut down, was fcarcely good for any thing. Our meadows, which are extremely well cultivated, were as well covered as in the beft of years j and as we got our hay in dry, its quality was very good.
Hemp.
Hemp did not grow high this year : but, that excepted, it was very good. What was fown in grounds bordering upon water, fucceeded much better than any other.
Wine.
The vines that were nipped by the frofls in the. fpring, yielded but little wine, and that fharp and flat. Other vines yielded the value of a good half year. The grapes fermented as loon as they were put into the tub, and as the froth fubfided very quickly after, the wines were made in a few days. Moft of thefe wines have colour enough $ but, in general, the old wines deferve the preference.
Fruit.
The caterpillars having devoured all the verdure of the apple, pear, and plum trees, we had none of thole fruits this year. Our oak
Q^q q trees
+82 OBSERVATIONS Part IV.
trees fhared the fame fate. We had few cherries, but quan- tities of apricots and peaches. The beech trees, and the chefnut and walnut trees in our neighbourhood, yielded likewife but little fruit : but in fome other places there was abundance of nuts.
Nurseries and Plantations.
The drought of the fpring and fummer was by no means favour- able to nurferies and newly planted trees. The caterpillars which de- voured the tender moots, did them a great deal of harm.
Saffron.
Tho' the crop of faffron was very fcanty, it did not fell for above twenty livres a pound. I have been affured that the commimoners of Petiviers brought the faffron of the Gatinois into difrepute, by wetting it, in order to increafe its weight -, which made it ferment.
Insects.
There was a prodigious quantity of all forts of infects, and efpe- cially caterpillars, which devoured the verdure, and eat up the tender (hoots of plants, not yet ftrong enough to refift them. They attacked mod kinds of fruit, and even fell upon trees which they generally fpare, fuch as the vine and the peach tree. I obferved that they eat the violet peach rather than any other, and that even the leaves of that tree did not efcape them. I mud however except the cabbage caterpillar, which did no mifchief this year. There were but few gnats, and very few cantharides.
Distempers.
There were no epidemical or contagious diftempers in the courfe of this year.
Ca ttle.
Neither fheep, cows, nor horfes, were attacked with any con- tagious diftemper. The fcarcity of fodder laft year, made butcher's meat, and particularly veal, very dear : butter too kept up at a higher price than ufual.
Game.
We had plenty of patridges and hares; but few quails and larks, Laft year's fnow had deftroyed prodigious quantities of them.
Bees.
Chap. V. ON THE WEATHER. 483
Bees.
The bees could lay in but a (mail flock of provilions laft year, on account of the fcarcity of flowers, occafioned by the drought of the feafon. Three fourths of our hives perifhed with hunger during the winter, and we had very few fwarms.
Height of the Water:
All our high fprings became dry, and remained fo, notwithftand- ing the rains in November and December: but our fprings in low grounds continued to run plentifully. ■
SECT. II. O/fervations on the Tear 1756.
January.
HP HIS month was mild and wet : it rained almoft every day: we "■" had only fome hoar-frofts, and the thermometer was. never more than three degrees and a half below the freezing point. The earth was fo wet, that no ground could be tilled, nor could any car- riage go in the fields. The legs of the horfes of our ftage waggons, by being always in the water, fwelled. The fkin peel'd off after- wards with the hair, and no bad confequence enfued.
The quickfilver of the barometer was in continual motion : its va- riation extended from 27, to 28 inches and a half.
On the 13th, at night, we had a furious blaft of wind, which happily lafted but a quarter of an hour.
February.
This month may be faid to have been a mild one, tho' there was a hoar-froft almoft every morning. It may likewife be faid to have wet, becaufe, though we had no heavy fhowers, yet the llcy was almoft conftantly clouded, and fmall milling rains fell very frequently.
The barometer varied greatly and fuddenly during all this month. It rofe to above 28 inches and one-fixth, and fell below 26 inches and a half.
The 18th in the morning, on which day fome fhocks of an earth- quake were felt at Paris, and in other places, the thermometer
Q^q q 2 being
4g4 OBSERVATIONS Part IV.
being at three degrees, towards fix o'clock in the evening of the fame dav, the wind, which had begun to rife at noon, was excefhvely violent, and the quickfilver in the barometer was fallen below twenty - fix inches and a half. On the 2Cth, it rofe to 28 inches and one- iixth. Thefe violent (hocks in the atmofphere had probably fome connection with the earthquake : for it was obferved that the rife of the quickfilver had no fort of relation to the rain, the wind, or fair weather. During this month, the ground was plowed for fpring corn ; and towards the end of it, oats began to be town.
March.
Slight frofts were very frequent during this month ; and the wind, which was almoft always pretty violent and cold, rendered the air very difagreeable.
The barometer was again fubject to great variations. It rofe to 28 inches and one-twelfth ; and fell to 20 inches and ten-twelfths.
Tho' the fky was very often clouded, we had fa little rain, that this month may be faid to have been a dry one. However, the oatb that were fown in ground which had been well moiftened, rofe well.
April.
The wind continued cold and difagreeable, and the fky frequently clouded : yet we had but little rain j and the earth was very dry. Some oats were fown again this month.
The farmers were bufied with their fallow grounds, and thofe who had vines gave them the firft fpring drefling.
Caterpillars appeared in great abundance : but the cold rains and the fliarpnefs of the air not agreeing with them, they did the lefs damage to our trees and plants.
M A Y.
We had fome frofts, efpecially on the 2d and 3d of this month, fo hard as to hurt our vineyards. Some fufTered more than others, according to their fituation and circumftances. In places where flying ihowers of hail and rain had fallen, the vines fufTered greatly : where there had been plentiful rains, they were lefs hurt -y and where they had had no rain at all, they were but very little damaged. The vine-dreffers took advantage of the rainy weather to fet up their vine props.
The
Chap. V. ON THE WEATHER. 485
The caterpillars remained on the trees where they were hatched. There were fuch prodigious quantities of them, that the oak trees in the foreft of Orleans and other woods where they had not been de- ftroyed, were as bare as in the middle of winter. However, they fuffered greatly from the (harpnefs of the weather, and efpecially the common forts, which are thofe that do the greateft hurt, becaufe they eat the buds which mould form the next year's moots. Thefe common caterpillars were fo weak and flabby, that they bent and hung down quite mctionlefs when they were taken up betwixt one's fingers : fo that they did but little hurt, efpecially where care had been taken to deftroy them, and mod of them died within this month.
The fpring corn that was fcwn in April, did not rife in dry grounds: but the rain on the 25th, gave hopes of its coming up; and it was thought that this rain would be equally ferviceable to the wheat, which began to grow red : but that grain wanted warmth as well as moifture.
At the end of the month, the fainfoin was in bloffom, but greatly flinted in its growth.
June.
Tho' the earth was always moift during this month, the corn did not tiller, nor did it fpindle without difficulty, by reafon of the coldnefs of the air. Its blades rufted, and the plants remained greatly ftinted. The fainfoin which was cut towards the end of the month, was likewife very fhort. Weeds, particularly blue bottles and poppies, got the better of the wheat. . The fpring corn was very fine.
The cold and wet killed the caterpillars in great numbers, and towards the end of this month all of them had difappeared.
July.
This month was fo wet, that the roads were as impaffable as in the depth of winter : the air was fo cold that people cloathed themfelves as in winter, and were obliged even to make fires. However, the vines bloffomed j but fo flowly, that many were not out of bloom by the 15th, which gave room to fear that the vintage would be very late. On the iotb, the vines began to be tied up to their props.
At the fame time the rye began to turn yellow, and a few
warm
4S6 OBSERVATIONS Part IV;
warm days would have made it fit to cut : but the continual rains re- tarded the harveft of that grain till the end of the month.
The wheat was very fliort, and full of weeds, particularly pop- pies, blue-bottles, and fox- tails. As the feed of this laft cannot be Separated from the wheat, it lefTens its value confiderably, becaufe it gives die bread that is made of it, a bitter tafte and a purpliih colour.
The oats were very fine, cfpecially where the foil was light. Barley and peas were alio very fine : the grapes burft, efpecially thofe which grew on ftiff lands.
An epidemical diftemper attacked the poultry: this was the pip and cancers in the throat. The former was cured by cutting the tongue ; and for the latter, a finger was thru ft into their gullet, which was rubbed with fait, and their throat was afterwards wailied with vinegar. Thefe fowls voided a great deal of flimy matter, and feveral of them recovered : but as young chickens could not be treated in this manner, many of them died.
August. As we obferved in the account of laft month, the rye harveft did not begin till the end of July : confequently our farmers were bufied with that work in the beginning of Auguft. To the rye, fucceeded the wheat harveft, which was begun and finifhed without interrup- tion. The fky ftill continuing cloudy, and threatening rain, people were in fuch a hurry to houfe their corn, that they did not give the weeds, which the (heaves were full of, time to dry. The confe- quence was, that the corn piled up in barns, heated to that de- gree, that many were obliged to bring their fheaves out to air them.
Luckily, notwithftanding the uncertainty of the weather, which feemed every day to threaten rain, we had but little wet. The wind continued north, and very fharp,
As the wheat was low and thin, part of it was mowed, and fo great a quantity of weeds was gathered up with it, that fome farmers who took the pains to feparate them very carefully, found that they had two thirds more weeds than they had wheat.
After harveft, the new feed-corn, which was greatly inferior to the old, was worth from 32 to 24 livres the feptier, which weighs 240 pounds ; and the old 20. The fame meafure of oats fold for 5
livres
Chap.V. ON THE WEATHER. 487
livres 10 fols, or 6 livres. From 30 to 40 fheaves were requifite to make a mine of 80 pound weight.
The grapes did not begin to turn till the end of this month, and feme forts of them were greatly hurt by their burfting.
September.
The air was cold during all this month, which was rather wet than dry. The rains did great injury to the grapes, which, in feveral places, rotted or dropt off before they were ripe ; and in others, the vines loft their leaves, and the grapes withered : fo that, towards the end of the month, nothing was more common than to fee grapes of different degrees of ripenefs j which made thofe who were fufficiently provided with proper velTels, determine to make their vintage at two different times. Towards the 20th, great numbers of darlings and thrufhes appear 'd. I know not for what reafon they were not fo fat this year, as they generally are when there is plenty of grapes.
October.
During this month, the weather was very fharp ; "but the air was clear, and we had no wet.
The vintage was begun about the 6th ; and thofe who could cut their grapes at different times began with the red, the fruit of which was fufficiently coloured, but not fo fweet as it mould have been, This wine was pale, but is the beft of the year.
The vintage was not yet finifhed, when the faffron began to blof- fom : but as the air was fharp and dry, the flowers did not open all together, fo that people had time to gather them, and none were loft. Their chives, which are the ufeful part of this flower, were of a good quality.
Our farmers began to fow on St. Denis's day, and finifhed that work by the end of this month, their grounds being in good order. The firft town v/heat had already rifen.
November.
The air was very co>d all this month, and the fky almoft continu- ally cloudy.
Some few grounds which had been left un-fown laft month, were fown in the beginning of this..
December..
488 OBSERVATIONS Part IV.
December.
As it froze almoft continually during all this month, the culture of the earth was interrupted, and our horfes were employed in bringing wood from the foreft ; which could not be done in the fummer, on account of the badnefs of the roads.
General idea of the temperature of the air, and of the productions of the earth, during the Tear 1756.
"f X7E may be faid, in general, not to have had any frofts this ** winter, fince there was not ice enough to fill our ice-houfes. The air having been cold all the fummer, the vegetation of pjants made but little progrefs, tho' the earth was always very moift.
Wheat.
The corn came up very thin, and riller'd but little. The wetnefs of the weather made weeds grow, which, in many fields, got the better of the corn, and choaked it. The ruft which affe<£ted the blades of corn, ftopt the vegetation, fo that the plants were greatly ftinted in their growth. Thele accidents aid more hurt to the grain that grew on ftiff grounds, than to that which was on lighter foils. As we were threatened with rain during the harvefr, our farmers houfed their corn before the weeds were well dried : the confequence was, that fome of it heated fo in the barn, that part of the grain was injured. Thofe who ufed this grain for feed, perceiving that it had been hurt, fowed it very thick : but feveral others fowed much too thin. The worft was, that many poor farmers, finding their corn not good enough for fowing, left part of their fields unfown, rather than buy other corn, which was then worth 24 livres, and which was expected to fall to 1 8, after the harveft.
Twenty-four fheaves of the beff. corn of this year's growth will not yield above 80 pound weight of wheat ; and, taking them one with another, there muft be near 30 (heaves to produce that quan- tity ; though 12 will do it in a good year. This is not all: the feptier of befr new wheat makes but 18 or 20 loaves, and fometimes but 14 or 15 ; whereas good old wheat makes 24. Notwithstanding this difference, the old wheat fells for no more than 24 or 25 livres,
whilft
Chap.V. ON THE WEATHER. 489
whilft the new varies, according to its quality, from 1 8 to 2 1 livres the feptier.
Oats.
The beft lands did not yield the mod oats this year : on the con- trary, the worft produced the greateft quantities ; which has made people call this a good year for that grain. Its quality is good, and it is worth from 5 livres to 5 livres 1 o fols the feptier.
Barley. Barley too iucceeded very well.
Leguminous Plants. There was fufficient plenty of peas, beans, and lentils.
Pot-Herbs.
Our kitchen gardens were well ftored with pot-herbs : and not- withstanding the continual rains, and the coldnefs of the air, all our melons were very good.
Hay.
As the fainfoin was very fhort when it was cut, there was con- sequently but little of it : but its quality was good. The meadows afforded plenty of grafs ; but the almoft inceffant rains prevented its being got in in time, and a great deal of it was loft.
Hemp.
This year's hemp was of a. good quality, and fucceeded even in pretty dry grounds.
Wine.
The white grapes having burft very much, the quantity of fruit upon our vines was, in fact, not great : but what there was, pro- mifed extremely well till about a month before the vintage, when the fharpnefs of the air made the grapes drop off the bunches, and the bunches themfelves rotted or withered j which obliged many people to make feveral vintages, in order to fave as much as they could. In confequence of this, the price of old wine rofe from 60.
R r r to
490 OBSERVATIONS Part IV.
to ioo livres a hog mead : and the heft, new wines fold for only 50 livres. The quantity of thefe fmall wines, which may be compared to thofe of the year 1725, was not great.
Fruit.
The caterpillars having eaten up all the leaves, and even the buds for the next year's moots, in the autumn of J755, the trees had but few bloffoms on them. The caterpillars this fpring deftroyed all that had efcaped thofe of the laft autumn ; 10 that there were neither pears, apples, cherries, apricots or plums, and very few peaches, in great gardens.
In fmall ones, where conflant care was taken to deftroy the cater- pillars, there was a little fruit, efpecially apples. Wild fruits, fuch as the acorn, the beech-maft, &c. failed entirely : but there were nuts and chefnuts in pretty great abundance.
Nurseries and Plantations.
Tho' the caterpillars devoured the firft tender fhoots of trees j yet, being full of fap, they afterwards recovered.
Saffron.
This year's crop of faffron was excellent in quality, but very fmall in quantity : for the fame fpace of ground which had produced from 26 to 28 pounds, two years before, yielded this year but 5 or 6 : and the faffron of this year's growth fold for no more than 19 livres a pound, whereas that of two years before fold for 24 livres.
Distempers. There was no contagious epidemical diftemper this year.
Cattle.
The larger kind of cattle, fuch as horfes, cows, and fheep, were not fubject to any contagious diflemper.
Game and Poultry.
This year there were great quantities of hares, thrufhes, larks, par- tridges and quails.
Our
Chap.V. ON THE WEATHER. 491
Our dove-houfes afforded but few young pigeons : and tho' the poultry had plenty of water, numbers of fowls were attacked with the pip and fhankers in the throat. We have already faid how they were cured of this diftemper.
Height of the Water.
Our rivers were greatly fwelled during all the winter: they were likewife very full all the reft of the year : but yet our high fprings afforded no water.
THE END.
Dir eel ions to the Binder, for placing the Plates.
Plate
|
I. |
at page 382. |
|
II. |
. . . 430. |
|
III. |
. . . 432: |
|
IV. |
. . . 440. |
|
V. |
• • • 444- |
|
VI. |
. . . 456. |
ERRATA.
Page 117. /. 9. for broad cart-way, read broad caftway. 224. loft line, for tables, read table.
INDEX.
Page.
A.
ALLEY, what, . . • 6i
■" fliould be wider for large plants
than for fmall ones, and for
thofe that remain long on the
earth, than for thofe which are
but a fhort time on it, . 63
when firft to be ftirred for
wheat. 74
when ftirred a fecond time, ibid. rules for the feveral ftirrings of them for wheat, . . IS Arpent, proportion of it to the Eng- lifh acre, . . vid. Preface Artichokes, experiment on the cul- ture of them, . . • 3J6 Afparagus, experiment on the cul- ture of it, 3*6
B.
pARLET, one grain produced
200 ears, . . . . ' *>7
produce of a bed of it fown in
clufters, 2-35
fown with fuccefs where wheat
had failed, . " . . • 25s
experiments on it, . 295, 309
Beans, great increafe of them in the
new hufbandry, . . 126
experiments on the culture of
them, 310
at what diftance they fhould be planted, 310
Page.
Beds, what, 61
defcription of them for wheat, 7 1
how many rows of corn beft to
be fown on them, . 73, 232 •
Beet, experiments on the culture of
it, . . 3X4> 3l6> 3l8
Blights, divided by the French into
feveral kinds, .... 84
empty ears, ibid.
caufes of it, .... ibid. parch'd and fhrivell'd corn, 85 chief caufes of it, . . 86 how prevented, . . . ibid. glazed corn-, defcription of it, 88 abortive or rickety corn ; defcrip- tion of it, .... ibid. accidents occafioned by infects, 90 Burning, directions for burning weeds, &c. on commons, 16 directions for burning or burn- beaking of land, ... 43 Bujhel, proportion of the French to the Englifh, . . vid. Preface
fABBAGE, experiments on the *^ culture of it, 313, 316, 318, 319 Carrot, experiments on the culture of it, . . • 314, 3l6' 3l8 cultivated for the food of cat- tle, 32°
Chalk, a good manure for clay, 23
Clay, a good manure for fand, 24
improved
I N D
Page, improved by fand, . : 21,51
. by fhell-marle, . . 23
. . by various kinds of dung, ib.
. by chalk, .... 36
- — — by frequent tillage, 213 or ftrong foils, not to be plowed
when wet, 72
Clever, culture of it, . . . 362 Cole, culture of it, . . . .323 Colliflower, experiment on the cul- ture of it, : . . 3 1 6, 3 1 9 Corn, lefs liable to be lodged in the new husbandry, than in the old, . . 86, 117, 158, 167 preferved in the granary, by ven- tilation, 461
preferved by drying, . . 463 experiments on the prefervation
of it, 468
Crops, companion of them in the old and the new hufbandry, 115, 116, 119, 122, 125, 130, 132, 137, 141, 146, 150, 151, 155, 157, 161, 173, 180, 218, 223, 226, 251, 269, 273, 299. Cultivator, . . . vid. Horfe-boe
D. T\IS TEMPERS of Com, viz. *-* Mildew, 79. . vj
Blights, 84. . . vid. Eights Smut, 93. . . . vid. §Mntt Diitemper in rye called ergot, 104 "Drill, drops the feed in due quanti- ty and at a proper depth, 60 dtfeription of Slx.lVorlidge\ drill- plough, 43-
— — 01 the SetHbradoT, . .437
. of M. Vandusfel'% rake, 439
of M. DukamPs drill- plough, 440
Dung, more neceflary to clayey lands
than to any other, . . 13
afts by fermentation, . . 19
Mages of mixing lime with
E X.
Page. it> 12, 19
difad vantages attending the ufe of it, 12, 19, 20
tillage more beneficial than dung, 20
horfe, fheep, deer's, pigeon's, poultry, and human dur-g, good manures for clay, . 23
experiment on the ufe of it for wheat, in the new hufban- dry, 133, 266.
E. EXPERIMENTS on Wheat, by M. Dubamel, from 113 to 123 — — by M. Diancourt, from 123
to 128
by M. De la Croix, from
128 to . . . . . .131
— by M. Rouffel, from 131
to 139
by M. De Cbateau-vieux,
from 142 to 283
Barley, Oats, and Rye, . 295 Leguminous Plaits, . . . 309 Pot-herls, 313
F.
~pALLOW, time of performing the winter fallow, . . . 66
fummer fallow, . . 6y
directions for fallowing, . 6j time for manuring fallow
grounds, 6g
Flax, experiments on the culture of
it, • 334
Food of plants, . . . vid. Plants Fuller's thijile, . . . vid. Teazel
G.
fRANJRIES, directions for pre-
ferving corn in them, . 460
experiments mewing the ufeful-
nefsofthem, ... 461
H.
I N D
Page.
H.
TJTEATHS and Commons, how to be managed when broken up, -.16
enrich'd by burning the weeds
they produce, . . . ibid.
Hemp, experiments on the culture
of it, 334
its fuperior quality when raifed by
the new husbandry, . .336
Horfe-hoe, defcription of M. Duba-
mel's, 445
■ of M. De Cbateau-vieux's
fingle cultivator, . . 446
of M. De Cbateau-vieux's
double cultivator, . . 448
of M. De Cbateau-vieux's cul- tivator with mould-boards, 449
• of M. De Pillar's cultiva- tor, . 453
Horfe -hoeing, advantages of it, 57
experiment proving theie advan- tages 58
of wheat, rules for, and effects of it, . . 75, 114, 160, 205
Obfervations on it, by M. De Fitters, 4.56
I.
INDIAN Corn, . . vid. Maiz InfeSis, the caufe of blights, 87,90 deltroy the roots of wheat, 127
K. V IDNET-Beans, experiments on ^ the culture of them, . 309
L.
J EAVES, the organs of perfpira-
tion in plants, .... 4
effects of ftripping plants of their
leaves, ..... ibid.
Lime, advantages of mixing it with
dung, 12, 20
a manure for clay, . . .23
E X.
Page, a manure for loam, ... 39
for grafs, .... 43
different methods of ufing it, 40 Loam, how improved by dung and
all animal fubltances, . 31 improved by plowing in green
fucculent plants, . . .32 — — by rotten vegetables, 33 ■ ' by tanners bark, . . ibid.' by afhes of vegetables and
peat-afhes, 34
— — by foot and malt-duft, 35
by chalk, .... ibid.
Lodging of Corn, productive of di-
ftempers in it, ... 86
Luferne, culture of it, . . . 346
will bear great cold, . 351, 361
mould not be fown with any other
Plant, 351
excellence of this fodder, 352,
3Co-> 363- experiments on it, 354, 364, 365 method of tranfpianting it, 355 its produce when cultivated ac- cording to the new hufban-
drv> • • • 357> 359> 361 when its roots are cut, their di- rection is altered, . . 358
M. MAIZE, the culture of it by M. Aimen, . . . . 2S3
in North America, . 287
Marie, fhell-marle a manure for clay, ...... 23
where and how found, . .27 the feveral kinds of it, . . ibid. great ufe made of it by the Ro- mans, 29
defcription of a clay refembling it, and prejudicial to vegeta- tion, 30
Manures, the different kinds of
them, 19, 246
fit for clayey foils, ... 20 time
I N D
Page.
time of manuring fallow grounds, 6g
Meadows, how broken up, . 18 when wet, muft be drained, i& improved by chalk, ... 37
by water, . . 375,378
M. De Cbateau-vieux's manner of
dreffing them, . . . 379
how to be drained, . . . 381
Melon, experiment on the culture of
it, 3l6
Mildew, called by the French rou'ille
or rujl, 79
defcription of it, . ibid.
caufes and effects of it, 79, 210 the cure of it, .... 83 dangerous to feed cattle with fod- der that has been rufted, 84 Millet, the culture of, . . 305
N.
3\7£^ Hujbandry, comparifon of
the number of ftalks of corn
on an acre in the new and in
the old husbandry, . 61,77
brings frefh earth to the roots of
plants, - .62
advantages attending it, j$, 192
comparifon of the increafe of corn
in the old hufbandry and the
new, 75 • - • v*d- Crops
■ compared with the old, 77, 197,
201, 255.
fupplies the want of dung, 232
prelerves garden plants in vigour
without watering, 315, 317, 319
O.
0
ATS, common culture of, 66 their roots apt to be deftroyed
by infects, 90
experiments on, . . . 296
Onions, experiment on the culture
of them, . . . . . .318
E X.
Page. P. S
pARSLET, culture of it, 322
Parfnep, culture of it, . ibid.
Pafture Lands, muft be foftened by
the autumnal rains before they
are plowed up, ... 18
fhould be incloled, . . . 371
how improved, .... imNT
what feeds are beft for upland
paftures, 373
Peas, experiments on the culture of
them, 309
Perfian-wheel, defcription and ufe of
it, 376
Plants, their food ; . . . 4 Earth their principal food, . 5 not probable that the different fpecies of them are fed by dif- ferent food, .... ibid. their food diftributed within the
earth, j.q
Plough, defcription of a ftrong, and of a light plough, for common
ufe, 48
ufe of Mr. Tull's four coulter'd
P]ough> 55
Chinefe, defcription of it, 308
M. De Chateau-vieux's three coul- ter'd plough, . . . 380
properties of ploughs, . . 424
defcription of" M. De Chateau* vieux's plough, . . . 425
directions for ufing it, . . 429
defcription of M. Duhamel's plough, 430
light plough, . . 445
Plowing, fteep hills to be plowed nearly horizontally, . . 50
manner of plowing ftrong foils,
5*i 53-
■ light foils, . . . 52, 53
wetlands, . . 54, 185.
advantages of plowing deep, 1 39, 185.
advantages
INDEX.
Page, advantages of frequent plow- ing, 205
Pot-herbs, experiments on the cul- ture of them, . . . 313 great advantages of the new husbandry in the culture of them, 315
R.
r>APE, culture of it, . . 323 * Rice, the culture of it in
China, 306
Ridges, whether the produce of land is increafed by making them high ? . . . 54.
Roots, their divifion into tap or car- rot, and fibrous, 1 experiment to Ihew how far they
fprcad, 2
of trees, extend to a great di- ltance, 3
when broken, never grow longer, but produce lateral roots, ibid.
freih earth brought to them by the new hufbandry, . . 62
the effects of different roots upon the foil, 65
of corn, liable to be deftroyed by infects, 90
of beans, extend upwards of 3 feet from their italic, . 127
of wheat, extend iS inches per- pendicularly, . . . 127 Roivs, of corn, how many mould be on each bed, . 73, 232, 300
Rufi, vid. Mildew.
Rye, fubject to a diitemper which the French call ergot, . 104
caufes and effects of this diitem- per, 105
experiments on it, . . 295
cut for fodder, .... 297
Page. S. CJINFOIN, culture of
it, 337
quantity of feed to an acre, 340 when and how to be cut, . 341 precautions to be obferved in making it into hay, . 342 how to threih it, and preferve tue feed, ...... 343
experiments on it, . . . 345 Sand, ufed as a manure for clayey
foils, 22
fea-fand an excellent manure for clay, ...:.. 21 improved by clay, . . 24, 25 •
. fea-oufe, ... 26
marie, . . . 27, 53
A ltercorary for the improvement
of fandy foils, ... 29
Seed, at what depth it mould be
fown, 59
the drill drops it in proper quan- tity, and at a proper depth, 60 beit where the plants arrive at the greater! perfection, . . 63 necefiary to change it, . . 64 Sembrador, account of it, . . 437 Septier, a meafure containing 12 French bufhels, vid. Preface Scorzonera, experiments on the cul- ture of it, . 314, 316, 318 Sicilian Wheat, experiment on
it, <•' • 199
Smut, defcription of it, . . 93, 95 caufes of it, ... . 94, 95 means to prevent and cure
it, 96
the kind of it called uftilago, or
burnt grain, .... 100 Smyrna JVheat, experiment on
it, 249, 290
at what degree of maturity to be
reaped, 250
S s s
Soiv-
INDEX.
Page. Page.
Sowing, time of fowing wheat, 72, fteep for preferving it from the
129, 186, 227. fly, 333
of corn in clufters, 235, 245,
247. v-
advantages of fowing thin, 302 T/ENTILAT'OR, applied to the
Spelt, experiment on it in the new " prefervation of corn, . .461
hufbandry, .... 195 Vine, the culture of it, . . 383
Steeps, method of making one, 98 experiments on the culture of
various ingredients recommended it, 403
for making them, ... 98 good effects of the new In- directions for fteeping grain, 100 bandry in the culture of
experiments to (hew how far they it, 42
are of ufe, .... 106 Vineyards, the management of them
for preferving turneps from the * in England, .... 389
fly, 333 . difpofition of the vines in
Stercorary, defcription of it, . 38 them, '. 406
Strawberries, experiment on the cul- UftUego, or burnt grain, . . 100
tureofthem, . . . 316 caufesofit, 101
means of preventing and curing T. it> 10^
'-TEAZEL or Fuller's thiftle, ex- W>
■ periment on the culture of TTfEATHER, account of it du-
.it, 317 ring the years 1 755 and 1756,
'Tillage, necefiary to enable plants by M. Duhamel, . . . 473
to extend their roots in fearch Weeds, how deftroyed on com-
of food, 11 mons, 17
preferable to dunging of land, inftrument invented by G. Piatt
ibid. for grubbing them up, ibid.
beneficial to ftrong lands, 12, names of the moft hurtful to
14. farmers, 109
to light lands, 13,14 means of deftroying them, no
defign of it, $$ Wheat, how to obtain the beft for
rendered more perfect by Mr. feed, 6g
Tull's four coulter'd plough, how fown in the common
55. way, . . . . ■ . . ibid,.
"Twnep, common culture of it, 323 may be cut before it is full
culture of it according to the new ripe, ibid.
hufbandry, .... 324 how benefited by the new huf-
ilireftions for feeding cattle with bandry, 70
ir, 327 time of lowing it, 72, 129, 186,
experiments on the culture of 227.
it, ....*.. . 329 quantity
INDEX.
Page.
quantity proper to be fown on
different foils, .... 73
in the new hufbandry,
140, 159, it;6, 234-, 239.
at what depth it mould be fowri on different foils, ... 73
how many rows fhould be upon each bed, ... 73, 232
when proper to horfe-hoe it firfr, 74
the fecond time, ibid.
rules for repeating the horfe- hoeing of it, . . . . 75
how affected by the different hoe- ings, ...... ibid.
its roots liable to be deltroyed by infects, '90
directions for the choice and pre- paration of the feed, 97,228
lefs liable to- be lodged in the
new husbandry, than in the
Page
old, . . . 86, 117, 209
Experiments on the culture of
it, lid. Experiments
good effect of the fpring-hoe-
"4
method of drilling it in equally diftant rows, . . . .155 Sicilian, experiment on it, 199 what temperature of the feafon beft for fowing it, . . 230 Smyrna, experiment on it, 249 of different countries, experi- ments thereon, . . . 292 how cleanfed from fmut, . 466 preferved from infects, by venti- lation, 466
Wine, general directions for making
it, • 4'4
Wcod-land, how to be managed when broken up, 15
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