OF T..,-

UNIVERSITY

OF

SORESTRY

THE PRACTICE OF FORESTRY

CONCERNING ALSO

THE FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION

THE PRACTICE OF
FORESTRY

CONCERNING ALSO

THE FINANCIAL ASPECT OF
AFFORESTATION

PERCIVAL TRENTHAM

LATE PROFESSOR OF FORESTRY AT THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, CIRENCESTKR
PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATE OF THE SURVEYORS INSTITUTION

MEMBER OF THE LAND AGENTS SOCIETY

HONORARY JOINT-EXAMINER IN FORESTRY AT THE SURVEYORS INSTITUTION
FORMERLY LAND AGENT TO THE LATE A. C. PASS, ESQ., DEVON AND DORSET ESTATE

LONDON

T. FISHER UNWIN LTD.

ADELPHI TERRACE

First published in 1912.

LIBBABT

Printed in Great Britain.

S3>37/

PREFACE

IN the following pages I have endeavoured to write such
a treatise on Forestry as will be found of universal use to
Landowners, Land Agents, and all Students of the science
of Forestry.

It is very necessary to realise that a complete knowledge
of the correct practice of Forestry can only be obtained by
approaching the subject from a scientific attitude.

There are many able foresters whose only school has
been that of the lonely woodlands, but their ability is,
nevertheless, the result of an unconscious scientific study.

There is, however, a species of humanity — a class of self-
styled experts — who advertise as being practical authorities
on Forestry matters, and who boast that they eschew all
that is scientific, but whose only passport is, in reality, that
of garrulous ignorance, and an overweening confidence in
their own inability. I cannot too strongly warn my readers
against attaching any importance to the remarks or advice
of such men as these.

Now, whereas in the cultivation of field crops, a consider-
able degree of proficiency may be acquired in an empiric
manner, by merely watching the results of one's own practice,
and without availing oneself of the lessons learnt by others,
yet, in the case of Forestry, such would be impossible, for
the life of mankind is far too short to admit of acquiring a
complete knowledge of Forestry without studying the results
of the actions of others, both of the present and past
generations, and endeavouring to draw correct conclusions
from observations so made.

vi PREFACE

Knowledge acquired in this way can only be the result
of scientific study ; and this study may be greatly facilitated
by a perusal of the current literature thereon.

As regards Forestry education, I should like to express
my opinion that British foresters can only learn their
Forestry in this country.

I scout any idea that a complete training in any contin-
ental school can act other than most prejudiciously upon
those who take such a course. For the practice in foreign
countries is governed by different economic laws. And,
although the main principles of correct continental practice
are also applicable to this country, yet to pursue, in this
country, much of the detail of such practice, would usually
result in disaster, even if not in ridicule.

Nevertheless, those who have had considerable experience
in this country will find it an inestimable advantage to pay
short visits to various continental forests.

As regards the present volume, I have emphasised in
black type a considerable number of words and sentences,
as I feel that such a course will be of great benefit to a
certain section of my readers.

I would direct especial attention to that which I have said
with regard to the choice of tree seeds (pp. 37, 38, 39, 194),
the occurrence of and the susceptibility of trees to spring
and autumn frosts (pp. 36, 37, 72, 73, 89) ; the preparation of
land by ploughing, and subsequently planting with a plant-
ing spike (pp. 67, 68, 118, 119, 132); and as to the partial
clearance and underplanting of crops of timber (pp. 163 to
175). So, also, on pp. 317 to 322, I have endeavoured to
show the fairness or otherwise of the railway rates charged
for the carriage of timber — at present such a debated point.

In Chapter XI. I have stated what I believe to be the
average yield of crops of timber upon certain qualities of soil.

In Chapter XII. I have dealt, in as simple a manner
as possible, with the complex technicalities of the financial

PREFACE vii

aspect of Afforestation, and on pp. 246, 247, 248 I have
shown the maximum present-day rental equivalents that
may be expected to accrue from planting land of a
given quality with trees, provided a particular price can be
obtained for the timber ; whilst in Chapter I. I have dealt,
in a general way, concerning the advisability or otherwise of
the afforestation of land. Also, I direct especial attention to
the data (on pp. 235 to 237) showing the enormous debt per
acre that exists upon any normally stocked area of forest
land. The whole question of the financial results of affores-
tation has hitherto received but little consideration ; and
the majority of those who are responsible for woodland
management are entirely ignorant of the subject. And yet,
reduced to its lowest terms, is not economic forestry merely
a question of £ S. D. ?

That the yields of crops of timber and the prices that will
be obtained therefor are factors of great uncertainty, no
one will deny. Yet such is no defence for the failure to
adopt correct actuarial principles when considering questions
of Forestry finance. Rather is it a reason why a high rate of
interest should be looked for instead of a low rate, which
latter so many seem to think is justifiable.

I have no hesitation in saying that a study of the
finances of Forestry is of far more importance to those
responsible for woodland management, than is the study of
any of the Natural History sciences allied to Forestry, such
as Entomology, or Botany, or the study of Fungi, interesting
and important though these be.

In another volume I hope to deal shortly with some of
these subjects, and also with certain extraneous matter, such
as the conversion and the technical qualities of timber ; and,
so also, concerning the utilisation of coppice produce, and
woodland industries connected therewith.

But such subjects are beyond the scope of the present
volume.

viii PREFACE

Lastly, I wish to express my thanks to Professor Pritchard
of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, for having
read through all my manuscripts (except Chapters I. and
XII.), and for the many valuable suggestions which he has
offered to me in connection with this work.

And I thank M. Johannes Rafn, Seed Merchant, of
Copenhagen, for much valuable information with regard to
tree seeds and their germinative capacity.

PERCIVAL T. MAW.

NUTFIELD, SURREY,

i st January 1909.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER I.

AN INTRODUCTION.

CONCERNING THE NATIONAL ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF
WOODLANDS AND OF THE AFFORESTATION OF LAND.

PAGB

The Effects upon Climatic Conditions and upon the Locality . 1-6

As regards the Temperature of the Air and Soil . . I

As regards the Moisture in the Atmosphere . — -„ . 2

As regards Soil Moisture . . . 4

As regards Protection against Erosion and Denudation . 4

As regards Shelter and Protection from Storms . . 4

As regards the Salubrity of the Atmosphere ... 5

Conclusion ....... 5

The Effects upon the Labour Market . . . 6-9

As to the Direct Effects of Afforestation with respect to Labour 6
As regards Afforestation as a Means of affording Work for

the Unemployed . . . ... 8

The Financial Returns which Afforestation is likely to yield . 9-20

As to the Possibility of Permanent Advances in the Price of

Timber . . . . . . . 13

Considerations in favour of General Afforestation Schemes . 14
Considerations which point to the Inadvisability of General

Afforestation Schemes in this Country . J;>... . 15

ix a 2

x TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER II.

FOREST SYSTEMS.

PAGE

Simple Coppice . . . . . .21

Coppice with Standards . . . . . .22

High Forest Systems ...... 22-27

(1) The Selection System . ... 23

(2) The Group System . . . . -23

(3) The Compartment System . . . . .24

(a) Compartments of Even-aged High Forest
(&) Two-storied High Forest

(c) High Forest with Coppice

(d) High Forest with Standards

The Choice of Systems . - . . . . 27-31

CHAPTER III.
THE NURSERY.

Advantages of a Home Nursery ..... 32

Formation of a Nursery . . . . « • 33'35

(1) Choice of Site x* . , -33

(2) Size of Nursery . . . . ' ,v 4. 34

(3) Laying out a Nursery . . • .34

Nursery Management . , . • • • 35'55

(1) Seed Beds . ... . . . .. . v . . 3^

(2) Liability to Frosts , . , • 3^

(3) Choice of Seed . . . . '. f • • 37

(4) The Storage of Seed . '. ... 39

(5) The Sowing of Seeds . . . • ,. 4o

(6) Treatment of Seedlings . - .•-•• . •' '• 47

(7) Other Methods of Raising Trees . i. .. . 52

(8) Stocking a Nursery with Purchased Plants « . 53

(9) The Pruning of Nursery Stock . . . . 54
(10) Lifting the Plants for Planting Out . . . '55

Insect and Fungoid and other Enemies in the Nursery . . 55-57

TABLE OF CONTENTS xi
CHAPTER IV.

PLANTING.
FENCING AND PRELIMINARY OPERATIONS.

PAGE

Fencing of Land . , .* • . 58-64

Rabbit Fences . -. -. k . '''. . 58

Fences against Stock . :>v j;^y ,, . . 61

Cost per acre of a Rabbit Fence . .„-.,. . . 61

Drainage of Land V 4 '. ••»— :-v ~<2.J ": •* . 64-66

Other Preliminary Operations ' »« .,<.«. • . .. . 66-69

Cleaning and Preparing the Land , * ., ..; »,,•-_.- '« 66

The great Advantages of Ploughing the Land . - y^-, . 68

The Laying Out of Rides and Compartments . ..«-. . 69

CHAPTER V.

PLANTING — continued.
AS TO THE CHOICE OF TREES TO PLANT.

CONCERNING ALSO THE SPECIAL DEMANDS OF TIMBER
TREES, AND THEIR HABITS, AND THE CONDITIONS
SUITED TO THEIR GROWTH, AND THEIR FINANCIAL
RETURNS.

The Individual Demands of Trees as to Locality and Soil . 70-89
The Aspect ....... 71

The Influence of Aspect and Altitude on Frosts . . 72

Aspect and Altitude in reference to Gales . . . 73

Altitude in reference to Tree Growth . . . -73

1. The Demands of Trees as to Moisture . . .74

2. The Demands of Trees as to Shelter and Protection from

Gales and Frosts ...... 76

3. The Demands of Trees as to Depth of Soil . . .78

4. The Demands of Trees as to the Mechanical Condition

of the Soil ....... 79

As to Food requirements ..... 80

As to Floods ....... 86

As to Fire ........ 87

Summary . . . . . . . . 88, 89

xii TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGB

The Peculiarities of Growth and the Conditions suited to the

Growth of Trees . . *_ . . 89-113

A. Concerning the Growth peculiar to Individual Trees : —

(1) The Shape of the Crowns .... 90

(2) The Relative Height Growth . . . .91

(3) The Persistency and Vigour of Side Branches . 92

(4) The Shade-bearing or Light-demanding Qualities of

Trees . . . . . -95

B. As regards the Conditions under which Trees may best

be Grown : —

(1) The Age and Distance apart at which Trees should

be Planted ...... 96

(2) The Merits and Demerits of Pure and Mixed Woods,

and the Methods of Mixing . . . • 97

(a) Even-aged Woods ..... 100

(£) Uneven-aged Woods .... 103

Good or Fair Mixtures . . . . _. 103

Bad and Inferior Mixtures . . . 105

Summary ...... 108

(3) The Choice of System . . . . .109

(4) The Advisability or otherwise of a Rotation of Crop-

ping . . . . . . .no

(5) The Season for Planting . . . . 1 1 1

As to the Financial Returns that may be anticipated by Planting

one Species in preference to another . . . 114-115

CHAPTER VI.

PLANTING — continued.

PLANTING OPERATIONS.

CONCERNING ALSO THE ARTIFICIAL SOWING OF
CROPS OF TREES.

The Different Methods of Planting Trees . . . 116-126

(1) Planting in Pits . . . . . . .116

(2) Planting in Holes made with a Planting Spike , » 118

(3) Planting with a Curved Planting Spade . . .119

(4) Notching or Slitting . . . . . 120

(5) Dibbling ; .. . . . . .-...' 122

As to the Choice of Methods . . . ' . .122

The Number of Trees per Acre ..... 123

Sundry matters relative to the Control of Planting Operations 124

TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii

Some Notes on the Methods of Planting in Particular Cases 126-130

On Heather Land . . . . . . .126

On Wet Peat Land . •'.- s. ' .' . . 127

On Clay Soils ..... .127

On Exposed Land . . . . . .128

Planting Frost Localities . . . . .128

Planting Shifting Sand and Sand Dunes . . .128

Planting Ornamental Trees . . . .130

Estimates for Planting and Establishing . . . 131-136

The Artificial Sowing of Crops of Trees . . . 136-141

CHAPTER VII.

THE TENDING OF YOUNG HIGH FOREST AND PRUNING.

Cleaning and Tending Young Crops . . . 142-145

Thinning ....... 145-152

Pruning Trees . . . . . . 153-158

(1) The Pruning of Green Branches , • • '53

(2) Method of Pruning . . . . . 155

(3) Season for Pruning .... T • 1 56

(4) The Effects of Pruning . . . . 157

(5) The Pruning of Dead Branches . • . .158

Tables of Thinnings . . . . . 158-162

CHAPTER VIII.

PARTIAL CLEARANCES AND UNDERPLANTING.

Partial Clearances and Stimulation of Increment . . .163

Necessity for Underplanting ...... 166

Trees used for Underplanting . . . . . 167

Financial Result of Underplanting . . . . .169

Benefits resulting from the Retention of Humus owing to Under-
planting ....... 170

Notes and Tables for Partial Clearances of Particular Species 172-175

xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER IX.

NATURAL REGENERATION OF HIGH FOREST.

PAGE

The Selection System . . . v , ' , 176-179

The Group System . . .. . . . 179-181

Natural Regeneration of Whole Compartments of Even-aged High

Forest . . . . . , . 182-187

(1) Preparatory Fellings . . . ". "'•'-*" . 182

(2) "Seed "or Regeneration Felling . ..". • • , 183

(3) Gradual Clearance of Mother Trees . . .184

The Natural Regeneration of Beech . . . 187-191

Under the Selection System . . . . .188

Regeneration of Whole Compartments . . . .189

The Natural Regeneration of Oak and other Trees . 191-193

Oak . . ;. . . . i&g rr 191

Ash . . . . . . r" ' / 191

Sycamore and Norway Maple . . $.« -•>. • • *92

Corsican and Scots Pines . . . • " . 192

Larch ,... ' . . .. .. ,. .. ^ 193

The Natural Regeneration of the Shade-bearing Conifers 193-195

The Comparative Merits and Demerits of the Systems . 195-196

CHAPTER X.

TREATMENT OF COPPICE SYSTEMS.

Simple Coppice . . . . . . 197-202

Length of Rotations . . . . . .197

Reproductive Power from Stools . « . . . 198

General Management I . ^ i ... . 199

(1) Planting up the Land . . . . 199

(2) Layering or Plashing . . ' '*' • « . 201

Coppice with Standards t *• ,.. .*.. . |.^- . 202-210

Tables of Fellings ,. . .. : . . 204

Expenses of Management . . . . . 208

The Conversion of Coppice, or Coppice with Standards, into

High Forest . . . . . . 210

High Forest with Coppice . <• . • . . 211-214

Table of Fellings . . . . . . 212

TABLE OF CONTENTS xv

CHAPTER XL

AVERAGE YIELDS FROM FOREST LAND.

PAGE

Yield from High Forest V.< . . . . 215-225

Qualities of Soil . . ..-,*-, •> .,- ;. , .-. > 215

Oak . . . . . . ^ - .. . - .. 216

Beech . . . . , . . .".... V 217

Silver Fir and Norway Spruce . , . . , . 218

Scots Pine and Corsican Pine . ... . , 219

Weymouth Pine . ... . . . 220

Ash * . . ' . ' . '.''.•'.'". 221

Larch . . . . . . . * . _ 222, 223

Douglas Fir . . . . . . ' ~ * . 224

Sitka Spruce, Cupressus macrocarpa^ Willows and Poplars . 225

Yield from Standards over Coppice . ... 226

Yield from Coppice . . . . ..,,„• 227-230

CHAPTER XII.

THE FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION.

Fallacious Methods of Presenting Financial Statements . 232-234

Initial Outlay Credited with the Income which is Receivable

only after a Period of Years ... ,, . • * 232

Correct Methods of Presenting Financial Statements . 234-263

Statement of Income obtained on Average Accumulated

Capital Sunk in Normally Stocked Areas . . 234

Statement of Gain in Capital after charging Compound

Interest •. , . . . . .>*:; . 238

Statement of Rate of Compound Interest ** , ; . . 239

Statement of Yearly Rental Principle . . . . 244

Tables of Rentals yielded by different Crops in High Forest . 246
Advantages of Annual Rental Principle . . .251

The Financial Aspect of Underplanting . . . 252-257

The Financial Aspect of Coppice with Standards . . 257-261

Comparison of Actual Land Rentals with the Net Returns from

Normally Stocked Areas . . . 261-262

Conclusion . . . . . . . • 263

xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER XIII.

TIMBER MEASURING.

PAGE

Square of Quarter Girth Measurement . . ^ 264-276

(1) Measurement of Felled Timber . . . 265
Fraudulent Girthing . . . . .268
Booking Measurements < . . . . . 270

(2) Measurement of Standing Timber . . . . 272
Booking Measurements . . . . . 273

Other Methods of Computing Contents . . . 276-283

True Contents ....... 276

Calliper Measure ....... 277

Die Square Measure ..... 7T" 278

Board Measure . . . . ^ . 278

Table of Percentage Comparison of Contents computed by

Various Methods . 282

CHAPTER XIV.

THE MARKETING, SALE, AND TRANSPORT OF WOODLAND

PRODUCE.

Coppice Areas . . . < . . * 284-289

Conditions of Sale of Coppice . . . , * . 286

Uses to which Coppice Produce is put . * . . 287

High Forest Areas • • « '.-*' • • 289-304

(i) The Marketing of Thinnings . . : •« •*> . 289

(ii) The Marketing of Mature Timber . ,:;. -^ . 290

The Sale of Timber ...... 290

The Choice between Sales by Auction, Tender, and Private

Contract ....... 295

Conditions of Sale of Timber ..... 298

The Marking and Lotting of Timber « . . . . 302

TABLE OF CONTENTS xvii

PAGE

The Felling of Timber . . . . 304-311

Season for Felling . , , . . . 307

Barking Trees . . . i' . . . 307

Extraction and Transportation of Timber . . . 311-323

Cost of Haulage by Horses ..... 312

Cost of Steam Traction . . • . . . .312

Forest Roads . . . . . . 313

Forest Tramway . . . . . .314

Timber Slides . . . . . . 316

Transportation by Canals . . . . .316

Railway Carriage of Timber . . . . 317

The Uses and Prices of Timber .... 323-333

CHAPTER XV.

SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES —
BROAD-LEAVED TREES.

Acacia . .- ^ . . .* . .^" . 334

Alder . . . . . . . . . 336

Ash . i ....... 338

Beech ......... 342

Birch ......... 346

Cherry . . . . . . . .348

Elm . . . '. ':.; • ' V1- . . . 349

Hawthorn ........ 352

Hazel . < . . •.;,: ..; ,-, :./, ^ ,;* _.-*• 353

Hornbeam ........ 354

Horse Chestnut . . . -i>-^.! *-'>*•-' • • 35^

Lime or Linden Trees . . . . . t •• 357

Oak . . . . . " . ^ . ^ . 359

Plane Trees . . . . . . . . 365

Poplars ........ 367

SpanishfChestnut ....... 372

Sycamore and Norway Maple . . . . -375

Tulip Tree . . . . . . • 377

Walnut . . . . . . . . 379

Willows . . . . . . . .381

xviii TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER XVI.

SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES — continued.
CONIFEROUS TREES.

Cupressus . . . . . > • . 386

Douglas Fir . . . . . . . . 3^9

Larch v 392

Pines . . . . . . . . 400

Silver Fir ... v ' .- - . 4*4

Spruce . . . . . • • 418

Thuya .... ... 424

CHAPTER XVII.

MEASUREMENTS FOR PURPOSES OF FOREST MANAGEMENT.

Height of Trees ....... 426

Basal Area . . . . > ( . . . 427

Form Factor . . . . '. '. . , . 428

(1) Measurement of Sample Trees . : . * . . 429

Weise's method ....... 430

Other methods . . . . . . .431

(2) Measurement of Sample Plots ..... 432

(3) Estimation by Reference to Average Yield Tables . . 434

CHAPTER XVIII.

ESTIMATION OF INCREMENT ON CROPS OF TIMBER.

1. Increment in Cubic Contents . . . •--•'• .• 437
Increment on Standing Timber . . .; . , 441
Pressler's Formula , . . . .- . 443

Schneider's Formula . . . . . . ' . 444

Maw's Formula . .- < . . . 446

Increment on Felled Timber . . * » ' . 448

Current Annual Increment * . ! . .• • 459

Average Annual Increment 4 •• . . . 451

2. Increment in Quality . * . i . .451

3. Total Increment on Invested Capital s v . . 452

TABLE OF CONTENTS xix

APPENDICES.

PAGE

APPENDIX A. — Height Tables . . . . . 459

APPENDIX B. — Tables of Contents by Quarter Girth Measurement 467

APPENDIX C— Compound Interest Tables . . . 477

APPENDIX D. — Tables of Basal Areas for given Diameters . 485

APPENDIX E.— Tables of Basal Areas for given Quarter Girths . 487

INDEX ........ 489

ERRATA

Page 49, last line.— Read "culls" instead of "calls."

138, line 36.— Read "ditissima" instead of "ditissina.

THE PRACTICE OF FORESTRY

CONCERNING ALSO

THE FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION

CHAPTER I.
AN INTRODUCTION

CONCERNING THE NATIONAL ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF
WOODLAND AREAS AND OF THE AFFORESTATION OF
LAND.

WITHIN recent years the study of Forestry in this country
has received no little attention. Many landowners have
displayed a lively interest in the welfare of their woodlands ;
and not a few politicians and other public men have
seriously considered the possibility and advisability of
adopting, on behalf of the public, certain schemes of afforesta-
tion on a large scale.

The economic importance of woodlands, and the desira-
bility of the adoption of works of afforestation in this country,
may be considered under three main headings, namely : —

(1) The Effects of Woodland Areas upon Local Climatic

Conditions, and upon the Locality.

(2) The Effects upon the Labour Market.

(3) The Financial Returns which Afforestation is likely

to Yield.

THE EFFECTS UPON CLIMATIC CONDITIONS, AND
UPON THE LOCALITY.

As regards the Temperature of the Air and Soil. — The

existence of large areas of woodland has an appreciable
effect upon the temperature of the atmosphere within such

A

2 AN INTRODUCTION

areas, when compared to the temperature of the atmosphere
in the open country. As a general rule, it may be stated that
the average temperature throughout the year is less within
woodlands than that which obtains in the open. And
furthermore, that the average summer temperature is con-
siderably less in woodlands than in the open ; whereas the
average -winter temperature is usually about the same or
very slightly lower than in the open.

Then again, extremes of heat and cold are lessened
within woodland areas. It has been found that during the
hottest days in the year, the maximum temperatures
registered within woodlands are always far below those
registered in the open; and conversely, the minimum
temperatures registered within woodlands during the coldest
days of the year are never so low as those registered in the
open ; especially is this so in the case of woodlands consisting
of ever-green trees.

So also, there are daily variations in the temperature of
the air within woodlands, when compared to the temperature
of the air in the open.

Within woodland areas, the night temperature is practi-
cally always warmer than, and never falls so low as, the tem-
perature in the open ; whereas, during the daytime, the
average atmospheric temperature within woodlands is always
less than the average temperature in the open.

The chief reason for these differences can be ascribed to
the fact that the canopy of the trees prevents the soil from
being rapidly warmed by the sun's rays ; and also, when once
the soil has become warmed, the canopy of the trees prevents
any rapid radiation of heat from the soil.

And so, also, in the case of -woodland soils, it has been
found that the average temperature of such soils is always
less than that of soils in the open country. The greatest
difference is observed in the summer months, whereas in the
winter the difference is practically nil.

As regards the Moisture in the Atmosphere. — The
presence of woodlands probably does not materially affect
the absolute humidity of the atmosphere if the neighbouring

EFFECTS OF FORESTS UPON LOCALITY 3

country consist of pasture land, or if it be under cultivated
crops, though the absolute humidity would be increased, if
the neighbouring country were a dry, more or less barren,
waste. Now, inasmuch as the average temperature of the
air is less in woodlands than in the open country, it follows
that the relative humidity of the atmosphere is much
increased by the presence of woodlands ; especially does
this increase take place in the summer and early autumn,
when the difference in the air temperatures is at its
greatest.

Hence, on account of this increase in the relative humidity,
there is always, cceteris paribus, a greater likelihood of rain
or mists occurring in a well-wooded area than in a treeless
country. This tendency to an increased rainfall is usually
only noticed at very high altitudes, or in dry, barren countries ;
for in the former case the extremes of temperature by day
and night are nearly always far greater than at low latitudes,1
and in the latter case the absolute humidity in the summer
months, as well as the relative humidity, is generally much
increased. Furthermore, when the surrounding country is
dry and somewhat barren, the summer rainfall is more
regular. So also, an increased dewfall may always be
expected on grass-land or on crops in the neighbourhood
of woodlands. Then again, as air rises and gets more
rarified, it becomes cooled, and, if its relative humidity were
already near the saturation point, the moisture contained
therein will consequently be precipitated either as mist, dew,
or rain. On the other hand, at low altitudes in fertile districts
large unbroken stretches of woodland may actually tend to
lessen the rainfall, for although the average relative humidity
is generally greater, yet the relative humidity at night-time,
in the summer months, is usually less in woodlands than in

1 However, at the lowest altitudes, or those relatively lowest in a
locality, there are often greater extremes of temperature by day and
by night, than are experienced at medium altitudes. Especially is this
the case in the spring and autumn, when, in the lowlands and coombes,
frosts are often experienced at night ; whereas, at somewhat higher
altitudes, these frosts do not occur.

4 AN INTRODUCTION

open ground, since the temperature by night in woodlands
is higher.

As regards Soil Moisture. — Woodlands exert a consider-
able influence upon soil moisture. For the canopy of the
trees and the layer of humus prevent rapid evaporation of soil
moisture; and the layer of humus, which is hygroscopic,
also absorbs moisture, as it were, like a sponge. On
account of this latter property, the layer of humus, assisted
also by the obstruction afforded by the roots and crowns of
the trees, prevents the rapid disappearance of any rainfall ;
and it prevents the consequent flooding of streams and
rivers ; and it prevents also the washing away and denuda-
tion of the soil. Consequently, the duration of the beneficial
effects of rainfall is prolonged ; especially is this the case in
the early spring, before active transpiration has begun.

It should be noted that in the summer months, an area
covered by trees will utilise a far greater quantity of water
than is lost by evaporation from the surface of bare land.
For although soil evaporation is less in woodlands than on
bare, open land, an enormous quantity of water is transpired
by the trees. Another effect produced by trees is that the
water table is lowered ; and, for this reason alone, the liability
to floods is lessened ; for a greater quantity of water must be
absorbed before flooding can take place.

As regards Protection against Erosion and Denudation.
— The beneficial effect which trees exert with respect to any
direct erosion by rainfall has just been noticed. But losses
sustained by erosion and denudation from other causes, such
as that characterised by landslips and caused by the action
of underground water or other agencies, can often be avoided,
or at any rate lessened, by the judicious planting of trees and
shrubs ; for their roots will help to bind the soil together.
In this connection, the planting of stoloniferous shrubs, or
trees which shall afterwards be kept coppiced, will generally
be more advantageous than if an attempt be made to grow
mature timber.

As regards Shelter and Protection from Storms. — The
presence of woodland is often of the greatest value, in exposed

EFFECTS OF FORESTS UPON LOCALITY 5

localities, to agricultural interests. It is most advisable that
as much shelter as is possible should be provided for farms
in exposed districts.

As regards the Salubrity of the Atmosphere. — The
atmosphere in woodlands is always more free from impurities
than the atmosphere in more thickly populated districts. It
usually shows a remarkable absence of bacteria and of
carbonic acid gas ; and on the other hand, it usually
contains more oxygen and ozone than the atmosphere near
towns. Then again, in the neighbourhood of Pine woods or
forests of Silver Fir or Douglas Fir, it is probable that the
atmosphere will contain more ozone than is found in other
forest areas, and there will usually be found also appreciable
quantities of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), owing to the oxida-
tion of turpentine.

Conclusion. — Now, with reference to the foregoing, it
is evident that afforestation may sometimes be judiciously
carried out, even though there be no direct pecuniary returns
by the sale of timber. For instance, the planting of -water
catchment areas is in practically all cases desirable, not
only on account of any probable increase in the rainfall, but
chiefly because any sudden floods are largely avoided and
the water is more gradually drained from the land, and the
supply is thus more constant. And inasmuch as this is so,
smaller reservoirs will suffice for any given supply ; and
thereby the expenses of the whole undertaking can usually
be greatly reduced.

And then again, the planting of trees will often be advis-
able in order to provide shelter for farms or houses in exposed
localities. And so, also, afforestation may often advisedly
be embarked upon in order to render the adjoining country
fit for agricultural purposes. And though such opportunities
are not very frequent in this country, partly on account of
the moist climate which already naturally prevails, yet they
do exist.

In this connection, it may be well to note that in Belgium,
and in other places in Europe, certain tracts of land, formerly
useless for agriculture, have been rendered fertile in conse-

6 AN INTRODUCTION

quence of the shelter afforded, and of the increased rainfall and
humidity of the atmosphere, resulting from the afforestation
of a part of the area.

And on the other hand, the evil effects of the destruction
of forests have in places been very evident. Districts which
once were very fertile have become almost barren ; the
rainfall in the growing season has almost vanished ; and the
summer temperature has become greatly increased. Such
examples are to be found in parts of Austria, in Cyprus, and
the Russian Steppes.

THE EFFECTS UPON THE LABOUR MARKET.

As to the Direct Effects of Afforestation with respect to
Labour. — When considering this aspect of the question, it is
necessary to have regard to the annual cost of labour which
a normally stocked forest area involves.

This of course will vary a great deal, according to the
cost of labour per day, the length of rotation under which
the timber is grown, the kind of timber grown, etc., etc.
But, on an average, it may be taken that normally stocked
areas under high forest, which are regenerated artificially (by
planting), will involve a minimum expenditure per acre per
annum of 8s. 6d.1 for labour only ; and that normally stocked
areas under coppice with standards, or high forest with
coppice, will involve a minimum expenditure per acre per
annum of us. 9d. for labour only. This latter price includes
the " making up " of the underwood.

In neither case, however, do these sums include the cost

1 The labour expenses in high forest are made up as follows : —

General expenses in respect of ditches, roads, fences,

thinning and pruning (labour only), etc. ,£023

Labour on planting, fencing, and cleaning young crops o i o

Felling timber and making up cordwood and faggots ° 5 3

Equals £,0 8 6
Add, for Haulage 040

Total cost .£0 12 6

COST OF MANUAL LABOUR IN FORESTS 7

of labour spent in raising young nursery plants, nor the
average labour cost per acre per annum, of hauling the
produce to the merchants' yards or to the railway station,
etc. Such extra cost for manual labour only would probably
average about 43. per acre per annum, if the average distance
along which the timber, etc., had to be hauled were from
3-i- to 4|- miles.

Hence the minimum cost of all manual labour expenses
incurred on nominally stocked areas of forest land (including
haulage to market) may be reckoned at from 12s. 6d. to
15s. 6d. per acre per annum. Now these labour expenses
per acre are very much below those which are incurred on an
ordinary " mixed " farm, or even on a purely " grass " farm.
And hence any afforestation of land (other than mere " sheep
runs " ) which is at all adapted to farming, would result in
diminishing the amount of labour that could otherwise be
directly employed in the district.

And on the other hand, the afforestation of purely waste
land, or land used merely for sheep runs, would necessitate
the permanent employment of additional labour.

However, notwithstanding that a permanent loss of
employment is incurred if afforestation be carried out on land
now farmed in the ordinary manner, it may be advisable, if
there be only a small area of woodlands in any neighbour-
hood, to afforest a portion of such land. For, whereas the
demand for labour on a farm is usually greatest during the
summer months, and is very small during the winter months,
the greater part of the work required to be done on forest
areas can be executed in the winter, late autumn, and early
spring. Hence regular employment all the year round,
could be found for a given number of men ; and this con-
dition of affairs is infinitely preferable to that of having a
considerable number of men out of employment during the
winter months, even though a somewhat greater number
might find employment during the summer.

However, the financial aspect of afforestation will usually
have to be considered before such side issues as the effect
upon the labour market.

8 AN INTRODUCTION

As regards Afforestation as a Means of affording Work
for the Unemployed. — Within recent years there has been
some considerable discussion as to the advisability of
adopting schemes of afforestation as a means of providing
work in the winter months for those who may be out of
employment.

It has been urged that even if such schemes did not pay
financially, they are justified and advisable, inasmuch as
" relief works " of some sort must be embarked upon, and
the planting up of land gives employment in the winter
months.

Now, apart from the financial losses which will probably
result from most schemes of afforestation embarked upon in
order to provide " relief works," a careful consideration of the
whole matter should convince even the most enthusiastic
supporter of such schemes, that the afforestation of land is
singularly unsuited as a means of affording winter employ-
ment for those who may be seeking work.

Among the more important reasons why afforestation
"relief works" cannot be considered advisable, may be
mentioned the facts that the cost of the manual labour
required in the winter months, in order to establish a crop
on maiden land (including cleaning for the first few years),
represents only about one-third l of the total outlay expended
in planting, fencing, cleaning, etc. ; and that about an acre of
land must be acquired for every £2 2 that can be distributed
as wages in the winter months.

Hence, supposing that land could be acquired for £8 an
acre, and that the cost of planting, fencing, and cleaning the
young crop, etc., were £6 per acre, then, for every £2 that
can be distributed as wages in the winter months, a capital
of £14 is required. So that, in order to provide 100 men
with winter work for 16 weeks, at £1 per week, it would be

1 This, however, must vary a great deal.

2 This depends upon whether planting be done in pits or by notching,
etc. ; i acre to £2 in wages has been taken as an average, though if the
notching of seedlings were adopted, a greater acreage would be required.
On ordinary waste land trees should seldom be planted in pits.

UNDESIRABILITY OF RELIEF WORKS 9

necessary to acquire 800 acres of land, and to expend a total
sum of .£11,200. And although ultimately some return on
this money may be looked for, yet many years must elapse
before any revenue is derived from the money thus expended.

It is a sine qua non that the expenditure on any more or
less unnecessary work, undertaken in the nature of "relief
work," should be almost entirely on behalf of the cost of the
manual labour required for such work.

There are, moreover, several other objections to any
schemes of afforestation undertaken in the nature of relief
works, amongst the more important of which may be
mentioned the following: —

(1) In frosty weather, when the distress arising from

unemployment is most severe, all planting operations
must be suspended.

(2) There is usually no suitable land for afforestation

near the big cities and towns ; and if land be
acquired at a distance, all expenses will be greatly
increased, as, for instance, the cost of railway fares,
living and sleeping accommodation, etc., etc.

(3) If somewhat high-priced agricultural land be acquired

in the vicinity of the cities or towns, the chances of
obtaining any ultimate profit will be very much
lessened ; and the amount of the annual labour, at
present employed on such land, will be much reduced,
thereby increasing rural depopulation and lack of
employment for the doubtful benefit of providing
employment for others for a few weeks in the winter
months.

(4) Planting requires considerable skill, and the casual

labour of inexperienced " hands " can only be bene-
ficially made use of to a slight extent.

THE FINANCIAL RETURNS WHICH AFFORESTATION
IS LIKELY TO YIELD.

The Financial Aspect of Afforestation, on the assump-
tion that the prices obtainable for timber will remain at their

10 AN INTRODUCTION

present levels, is fully considered in another portion of this
book (vide Chapter XII). It is there shown that if
money be borrowed at 4 per cent, interest, a direct loss will
usually be incurred by planting land, the soil and situation of
which may be classed as Quality II., with such trees as
Beech, Norway Spruce, Silver Fir, Scots Pine, Oak, and
Weymouth Pine, and this even though the land could be
acquired rent free. The losses are greatest in the case of the
first mentioned trees. If, however, money could be borrowed
at 3j per cent, interest, the losses would not be so great, and,
in the case of Weymouth Pine, a small rental equivalent of
is. 2d. per acre per annum would be returned for the land, if
the cost of establishing the crop, including fencing and
cleaning for the first few years, were £8 an acre.

If, however, the cost of establishing the crops could be
reduced to £$ an acre, small rentals could be earned by all
the crops, except Beech.

So, also, if money could be borrowed at 3 per cent,
interest, still better results would be achieved.

On the other hand, it is shown that such crops as Douglas
Fir, Larch, and Ash, will, if all goes well, not only pay
4 per cent, interest on the cost of establishing the crops, but
will yield in addition a handsome rental for the land.

Other trees which pay well in most cases to grow at
present prices are Black and White Poplars, Willows, for
cricket bats, and Spanish Chestnut. Also, although their
value in this country has not been proved, such trees as
Black WTalnut, Sitka Spruce, Tulip Tree, Thuya gigantea,
Cupressus macrocarpa, Oregon Ash, and the White Ash, will
probably yield excellent results ; although any planting of
such trees must, at present, be looked upon in the light of an
experiment.

Furthermore, with reference to the yearly rents which
crops of timber may be expected to return, as shown in
Chapter XII., it should be noticed that these data have
reference, for the most part, to crops grown on land, the soil
and situation of which is classed as Quality II. If the soil
and situation were Quality I., the crops would yield much

FINANCIAL CONSIDERATIONS 11

better yearly rentals ; but if the soil and situation were
Quality III. or IV., the yearly rentals yielded would be much
less, and any losses sustained would be much greater. And
therefore, when contemplating afforestation, it is most
important to accurately gauge the quality of the soil and
situation.

In this connection it may be stated that there is very
little land which can be classed as Quality I. for any of the
valuable trees, except the Pines, which is not already profit-
ably employed for farming or otherwise.

There are of course vast areas of " waste lands " in Great
Britain ; but these, for the most part, are only suitable for
the growth of coniferous trees, and must generally be
classed as Quality II., or III., or IV. The total area of waste
lands in this country which is at all suitable for tree growth,
is purely a matter of conjecture. One writer1 suggests
about 2j million acres in Great Britain, and f of a million
acres in Ireland. But whatever the amount may be, any
attempt at afforestation of waste lands on any large scale,
must, if the present prices which are obtainable for timber
remain unaltered, result in a colossal failure, unless indeed
money can be borrowed at a very much lower rate of interest
than is at present possible. Financed at 3 per cent, or 3^
per cent, interest, such schemes can never pay with trees
such as Scots Pine, Norway Spruce, Silver Fir, Weymouth
Pine, Beech, or Oak.

However, there are certain areas of waste land, especially
on the northern aspects, which may often be profitably
planted with Douglas Fir, Larch, Poplars, or Ash. Indeed,
the Douglas Fir, along perhaps with Sitka Spruce or Thuya
gigantea, may prove most valuable for planting extensively
on waste lands, and will, in all probability, often render
advisable the afforestation of land which could otherwise
only be afforested at a great monetary loss.

But, of the utility of these trees on the poorer classes of
land, it is as yet too soon to speak ; though it is certain
that, unless indeed the atmosphere be continually very
1 Nisbet, in the Forester ; vol. i., p. 95.

12 AN INTRODUCTION

moist, they will only succeed on fairly deep soil containing
plenty of moisture.

As regards the choice l of trees that may be planted on
waste lands, it may be accepted as a general rule that land
which is covered with heather, or at any rate on which the
heather has long been established, is almost always too acid
for the growth of any valuable broad-leaved trees ; and
therefore the choice must be confined to the conifers.

However, apart from the afforestation of waste lands, it
will nearly always pay well, even at present prices, to replant
any land from which a crop of timber has just been removed.
For such land will generally be suitable for planting some of
those species of trees which are very profitable, even though
an unprofitable species may have just been cleared. And
even if it be necessary to replant with a species which is not
at present profitable if planted on maiden land, yet, if the
land be clean, a profit may often be realised owing to the
decreased cost of establishing the crop.

Land from which a crop has been removed is usually
practically worthless except for replanting ; for the cost of
converting it into farming land is nearly always prohibitive.

So also, there are large areas of land now let to farmers
at low rents of about 53. to 73. an acre, which are very
inferior for farming purposes, but which, if afforested, should
easily return rentals equivalent to 93. or los. an acre, or
considerably more, if suitable for the growth of Douglas Fir
or Black Poplars.

Considerable quantities of such land exist on most
estates on the northern aspects, on which, it should be noted,
tree growth usually flourishes best ; whereas land with a
northern aspect is always inferior for farming purposes.
Such land, also, usually exists in considerable quantities in
districts where the surface soil is shallow, but where there is
a very disintegrated subsoil rock. However, unless a rise in
the price of home grown timber be assured, it is hardly
likely that any considerable number of landowners will deem
it expedient to sacrifice an existing present rental for the
] This matter is fully dealt with in Chapter V.

FINANCIAL CONSIDERATIONS 13

equivalent of a small increased rental, the accumulated value
of which can only be realised after the lapse of a considerable
number of years ; since, until such time, a considerable
capital must be locked up, without any yearly income being
received. Furthermore, the profitable production of timber
is penalised by the present incidence of local taxation ; the
ever growing tendency to a rise in rates ; and the levying of
charges for "extraordinary traffic," occasioned by the
removal of timber.

A consideration of the foregoing leaves little doubt that,
generally speaking, there is little inducement from a financial
point of view to afforest land on any large scale, except
when such crops as Douglas Fir or Poplars, or (in many
cases) Larch or Ash can be grown, unless, indeed, sub-
stantial rises in the prices of timber should occur and be
maintained.

As to the Possibility of Permanent Advances in the
Price of Timber. — Inasmuch as any great schemes, relative
to the general afforestation of waste lands, must end in
failure unless greater prices for timber be realised in the
future than at present prevail, almost all advocates of such
schemes have persuaded themselves, and endeavour to
persuade others, that a timber famine is imminent, or at any
rate a famine in coniferous timber ; and that, in the near
future, the prices realised for home-grown timber will be
infinitely greater than those which have prevailed for the last
few years. Now, that there is some possibility of a general
rise in prices, it is impossible to deny. But the whole
question is such a very complicated one, and depends upon
so many widely different circumstances, that it is at present
impossible to arrive at any definite conclusion upon the
subject.

Nevertheless, this matter concerning the probable trend
of prices and the available timber supply in the future,
should receive the earnest attention of all who may be
interested in the welfare of British Forestry.

Stated briefly, the following are some of the chief con-
siderations which may be urged on behalf of, and against,

14 AN INTRODUCTION

the adoption of general schemes of afforestation, from a
purely financial point of view : —

Considerations in favour of General Afforestation
Schemes in this Country : —

(1) The climate of this country is admirably suited for

tree growth.

(2) This country at present imports enormous quantities

of coniferous timber, which, if grown at home, would
represent the yearly production of about 10 million
acres of land.

(3) The easily available supplies for export, in the chief

exporting countries in Europe, are rapidly diminish-
ing ; and European countries do not at present
supply the total requirements of the whole of
Europe ; and these requirements are continually
increasing.

(4) The prices of timber will probably rise when the

produce of virgin forests is no longer forthcoming.

(5) In the advent of a change in the fiscal policy of Great

Britain, prices of home-grown timber would advance
if an import duty were levied upon foreign timber.

(6) As areas become afforested, so, it is asserted, will

new local industries, utilising wood as their raw
material, be established ; and thus, better prices
should be obtained for timber.

This, however, is very problematical, for it has not
occurred in many well-wooded districts where there
is a difficulty in marketing the timber.

(7) Improved methods could be adopted to some extent

in the marketing of timber ; thereby securing to the
grower a better price. Such methods would include
the semi-conversion of timber in the locality where
grown.

(8) The price of certain kinds of timber will probably

rise considerably owing to special circumstances.
For instance, Poplar wood,1 on account of its fire-

1 The non-inflammability of Poplar wood has long been recognised
by land agents in hop districts, and used, in consequence, for the

FINANCIAL CONSIDERATIONS 15

resisting properties, should be largely used for all
internal boarding in house building — e.g. boards for
flooring, lining, sarking, etc. Hence an increase in
the price of the timber may be anticipated.
Considerations which point to the Inadvisability of
General Afforestation Schemes in this Country : —

(1) The present forest area in Europe is far greater

than is necessary to supply the amount of timber
annually required in Europe ; and a small advance
in present prices would enable the timber on immense
areas to be profitably marketed. The same result
would follow if increased facilities for transport were
provided in districts from which it is impossible, at
present, to profitably export timber.

And moreover, apart from such industries as the
manufacture of wood pulp, a woodland area of } of
an acre, of average quality, per head of population
will easily provide enough timber for all domestic
requirements — the requirements of Great Britain are
about one-half of this amount — and, on the basis of
f of an acre per head of population, the forest area
of Europe, exclusive of Russia and Finland, is
more than sufficient. Furthermore, the forest area
of Russia and Finland shows a surplus of 400
million acres of forest land, after deducting f of an
acre per head of population of these countries ; how-
ever, much of this forest in Russia and Finland is
practically worthless, and must always remain in-
accessible.

(2) The forest area of Canada, producing, or capable of

producing, good marketable timber, is about 300
million acres. This area, if properly managed and
exploited, could perpetually supply, according to

battens of the floors of hop oasts. It is greatly to be desired that the
model bye-laws of the Local Government Board, and also the bye-laws
of the Local Authorities of all big towns and cities, should specify the
compulsory utilisation of Poplar wood, in preference to Deal and Fir, for
use, wherever possible, in building construction.

16 AN INTRODUCTION

present demands, all the timber required by the
whole of Europe, in addition to Canada's domestic
requirements.

(3) The forest area of Siberia is immense, and must in
future generations help to prevent any shortage in
the world's timber supply.

(4) The majority of waste lands in this country are far

removed from all consuming centres, and, owing to
the fact that the transport of timber must generally
be by rail or road, the cost of marketing home-
grown timber will, in many cases, exceed the cost
of marketing in Great Britain that which is grown
in foreign countries. For instance, Swedish timber,
grown within two miles of the banks of one of the
rivers flowing into the Baltic, will probably not have
cost in transportation, from the place where the log
was felled to any large British port, more than about
4d. to 5d. a cubic foot, and sometimes even less.
But on the other hand, British grown timber will
often have cost twice or thrice that amount before it
can be delivered at a large consuming centre. For,
often, the British grown timber has to be hauled
6 to 8 miles to a station, and then perhaps 50 to
60 l miles to some large town ; whereas the Swedish
grown timber, as instanced, would be taken on
sleighs to the river's edge, or perhaps shot down
a timber slide into the river, and then it would be
floated down the river to the saw-mills, at an almost
infinitesimal cost, and then shipped direct to a
British port.2

So again, timber can be felled near the coast of
British Columbia, or in parts of Vancouver Island,
and can be delivered at a British port at a cost for

1 It should be noted that if large areas were afforested, any small local
markets would soon be glutted, and the large consuming centres at a
greater distance would have to be sought.

2 Timber can be shipped from a Baltic port to London at about
2£d. to 2|d. per cubic foot.

FINANCIAL CONSIDERATIONS 17

transportation l which will not exceed that which is
often incurred in the case of British grown timber.
Furthermore, with reference to the cost of the
importation of Canadian timber, there is every
probability that, on the completion of the Panama
Canal, the rates from the Pacific coast to Great
Britain will be less than they are now. So also,
much timber may, in the future, find its way to this
country via Hudson's Bay, at a very low rate.

(5) Even if a timber famine were certain, it would often

be preferable, from a financial point of view, to re-
afTorest easily accessible areas in foreign countries
than to afforest waste land at home. For, apart
from the question of transportation already referred
to, it will often be possible, especially in countries
with a cold winter climate and a short growing
season, or wherever the surface of old forest land is
clean, to raise crops from seed at a minimum
expense ; whereas, owing to the warm, moist winter
climate in this country and the long growing season
for most vegetation, it is usually very expensive,
and often almost impossible, especially on maiden
land, to raise crops from seed. And then again,
in foreign countries there is often no necessity to
fence a young crop from rabbits, whereas in this
country it is practically always necessary. Now, a
sum of 3<Ds. per acre spent on fencing, will, at 4 per
cent, interest, represent a debt on the crop of over
£50 at the end of a po-years rotation ; this is equal
to a tax of about 3d. per cubic foot on the final yield
obtained from a crop of Scots Pine.

(6) The growing popularity of the use of creosote as a

preservative for timber, will tend to lessen the
quantity of timber used for fencing, weather board-
ing, etc., etc. ; and it will also tend to raise the
prices of inferior timber, or to reduce the prices

1 Timber can be shipped from Vancouver City to London at a cost
of about 8M. a cubic foot.

B

18 AN INTRODUCTION

of the more valuable timber. For instance, a
creosoted fence of Poplar wood would last longer
than, and for most purposes be as valuable as, an
Oak fence made of untreated timber.

(7) Except as already indicated, afforestation cannot pay

unless the prices of timber advance substantially.
But, as there is no guarantee that prices will
advance, money spent in afforestation may only too
often prove to be a very bad investment.

(8) There is an ever-growing tendency for the rates and

burdens on land to increase.

The above represent a few of the facts relating to
afforestation upon which it is possible to base an opinion
upon the subject. But in view of the great uncertainty
which prevails, and of the long period which must elapse
before any returns can be anticipated, it would seem
impossible to deny that afforestation, dismantled of its senti-
mental clothing, is other than an hideous gamble in " futures " ;
for, apart from fluctuations in the prices of timber, forests
are liable to destruction by hidden dangers, such as insects,
fungi, and fire, the number of which is legion.

No doubt a fairly strong case, based merely upon
statistics of the acreages under forest and of the imports
and exports of timber into, and out of, various countries,
can be made out in favour of afforestation. But such
hastily formed advice, based upon a portion only of the
facts of the case, is about comparable with the advice of
those so-called "poultry experts" who rashly assert that
egg production on a large scale must pay in this country ;
and, to lend colour to their assertions, they never tire of
quoting, with the greatest accuracy, statistics showing the
imports of eggs from foreign countries; and this, too, in
spite of the fact that few, if any, have ever succeeded in
making such a business, carried out upon a large scale, a
commercial success.

Advocates of afforestation maintain that the Government
have a national duty to perform in aiding private and public
enterprise in this direction.

FINANCIAL CONSIDERATIONS 19

Schemes have been suggested whereby it is proposed
that the Government should lend money to landowners for
planting, at a lower rate of interest, payable yearly, than
they can borrow in the open market, and that a mortgage
should be created upon any land so planted. But why, it
may be asked, should the credit of the community be
mortgaged in order to foster a private industry of a very
risky nature?

Others, again, suggest that the Government should
advance money, the interest on which should be deferred
and payable only after (say) fifty years, but that, as
additional security, a sufficient mortgage be granted on
land used for farming purposes only. If such a scheme
were set on foot and largely made use of, it would, in all
likelihood, result in the cry of the socialists, for the State
ownership of Land, being at last realised, in respect of a
considerable area.

Similar schemes have been propounded, whereby county
councils, municipal councils, and other corporate bodies
could provide money to undertake works of afforestation
on more favourable terms than is at present possible.

Now, if in the future schemes are instituted for thus
financing public bodies, it is earnestly to be hoped that no
schemes, involving the deferred payment of all interest, be
ever sanctioned. It will doubtless be urged that such are
justifiable, inasmuch as the " profits " will be realised in the
future. But supposing that, as is highly probable in so
many cases, a direct loss were sustained, then a future
generation must, nolens volens, inherit an undertaking in
respect of which a heavy debt has accrued, and for which
they are in no way responsible. What a legacy for one
generation to leave another !

In conclusion, it may be pointed out that, if it be the
duty of the Government to take steps to anticipate a possible
timber famine, it would be far preferable for the Government
to acquire extensive timber "limits" in Canada, in close
proximity to the coast, instead of fostering and favouring
schemes of afforestation in Great Britain.

20 AN INTRODUCTION

By such means an investment would be made which
would be immediately profitable, and which, if American
history is going to repeat itself, would show an enormous
capital appreciation in years to come. Would not a scheme
such as this be infinitely more profitable than sinking large
sums of money in works of afforestation at home ?

And finally, it should always be remembered that,
generally speaking, agriculture or husbandry is far more
profitable at the present time than forestry, and also that
husbandry necessitates a greater amount of labour per acre
than can ever be profitably employed on forest areas.

CHAPTER II.

FOREST SYSTEMS.

IN a general way, woods may be classified in three main
classes, viz. : —

(1) Simple Coppice,

(2) Coppice with Standards,

(3) High Forest,

according to the methods adopted in bringing any area of
forest land into a state of production. The system of high
forest is capable of many variations, and can be still further
subdivided into many distinct classes or systems.

SIMPLE COPPICE.

This system consists in growing trees and periodically
cutting them over close to the ground at short intervals,
usually of from 5 to 20 years. The growing stock thus
found on the ground is often referred to as " underwood."
The trees when thus cut over close to the ground are
known as "stools," and the regeneration is said to be by
" stool shoots."

It is a method that can seldom, if ever, be conducted at
a profit in the present day; but it was formerly much in
vogue for pure Oak coppice, which was grown for the bark it
produced.

Simple coppice of Ash and Spanish Chestnut is, how-
ever, grown for hop poles in hop districts, and also in the
potteries district for " crate " wood.

21

22 FOREST SYSTEMS

COPPICE WITH STANDARDS.

Under this system a combination of simple coppice and
of high forest is produced. There is an overwood of
"standards" or "stores," which are grown for mature
timber, and an underwood which is produced by the
periodic coppicing of a portion of the trees.

The standards are not all of the same age, for a certain
number are planted and others grow from seed at each time
that the stools are coppiced ; hence the standards are
distributed in age classes varying from each other by the
number of years that elapse between each cutting of the
underwood.

The number of trees of each age class should vary
according to their age; being more numerous the younger
the age class. Trees belonging to different age classes
should be evenly distributed over the whole area ; there will
therefore never be a clear felling of the standards over any
large area.

Where this system is adopted, only thinly foliaged trees
can be grown as standards ; for instance, Oak, Ash, Larch,
Black Poplars, Black Walnut, and Acacia.

For the underwood, the most suitable trees to grow are
Spanish Chestnut, Ash, Hazel, Hornbeam, Sycamore,
Norway Maple, and Alder.

HIGH FOREST SYSTEMS.

These embrace : —

(1) The Selection System.

(2) The Group System.

(3) The Compartment System.

And again, the compartment system may be further sub-
divided ; thus, there may be compartments of : —

(a) Even-Aged High Forest.

(£) Two-Storied High Forest.

(c) High Forest with Coppice.

(d} High Forest with Standards.

SELECTION AND GROUP SYSTEMS 23

1. The Selection System.

To all intents and purposes, this is the system as adopted
by nature. There are trees of practically all ages over the
entire area ; and as they become marketable they are cut ;
regeneration is practically continuous, and is almost always
brought about by natural agencies.

It is a system that should never be practised except in
the case of shade-bearing trees ; and it is more suited for
the growth of Beech than for any other kind of timber. Inas-
much as the area is never clear cut, the system has much to
recommend it on poor soils or in exposed situations, where
the laying bare of the soil is avoided. Again, when sport-
ing is a consideration, it will perpetually afford a certain
amount of somewhat inferior covert for game preservation.
It is, however, absolutely essential that rabbits should be
exterminated, otherwise natural regeneration cannot take
place.

It is the system under which Beech are grown on the
Chiltern Hills.

In practice, mature timber will only be cut on the same
area about once in every 10 to 20 years.

2. The Group System.

This system is an expansion as it were of the selection
system. It derives its name from the fact that fellings and
regeneration are started in groups or patches.

These groups or patches vary in size from about 20 yards
diameter up to J to i acre. Its derivation from the selection
system is very evident, for under the selection system,
wherever a big tree is felled, a vacant patch is left ; and, for
the greater part, the young trees that will cover this patch
will all be of the same age. When one group or patch is
regenerated, another is then felled and regenerated in its
turn ; and so on, until the whole area is regenerated. The
groups are seldom of similar shape, and usually they are seen
as strips or bands encircling the various centres where the
regeneration was begun. There is always a period of years

24 FOREST SYSTEMS

between the felling of one group and its neighbour ; by this
means only a small area is laid bare at a time, and the young
trees are protected from wind and sun by the other trees
adjoining. The regeneration is almost always brought about
by natural agencies, and takes place from seed shed from the
neighbouring trees. If the groups are large, it is advisable
to leave a few trees on any group that is being felled, so as to
insure a more even seeding.

When dealing with any area under this system the usual
plan is to endeavour to bring about the complete regenera-
tion of the whole area in a period of from 30 to 45 years,
after which it will be some 50 to 60 years, according to .the
length of the rotation, before the timber on the original
group will be ready for the axe.

It is a system that is only suitable to shade-enduring
trees, which are fairly storm-proof. On the Continent, Silver
Fir is often regenerated in this way, but the possibility of
regenerating Silver Fir naturally in this country, seems to be
confined to a few localities.

The method should give good results with Douglas Fir or
Sitka Spruce or Thuya gigantea.

3. The Compartment System.

This system of high forest is capable of many variations,
and will be considered under the subdivisions as already
indicated. But there is a broad distinction between this
system, including all its variations, and the two former
systems described, which is evidenced by the fact that under
the compartment system, fellings and regenerations are refer-
able to compartments or large blocks of land of 5, 10, 20, or
even 50 acres in extent ; whereas under the group system
fellings and regenerations take place only on small groups or
patches at a time, and under the selection system the opera-
tions are still more sporadic.

These compartments are preferably made rectangular in
shape, with sides in the proportion of 3:2. The long side
should always be at right angles to the direction of the pre-
vailing winds, for by this means the danger from windfall in

COMPARTMENT SYSTEMS 25

neighbouring compartments, owing to the felling of any
particular compartment, will be much lessened.

The compartments should be separated from each other
by grass rides or roads. Narrow rides about 12 to 15 feet
wide should run parallel to the longer side, and should be cut
more or less at right angles by broad rides or roads 24 to 30
feet wide. However, from sporting considerations alone, it
may be advisable to make the rides broader than this.

(a) Compartments of Even-aged High Forest. — This is
the most usual system adopted in growing timber, and the
method practically explains itself. At the end of the rotation,
the area is generally clear cut and replanted. Sometimes,
however, regeneration is brought about naturally, either by a
seeding from a light canopy of mother trees left standing
over the area, which method is specially suited for the
regeneration of beech, or else by a seeding from neighbour-
ing trees, on to a cleared area, in which case the seed should
be light and easily carried by the wind. This latter method
is suited for the natural regeneration of Scotch Pine or
Corsican Pine ; and in countries where the seed ripens
sufficiently, Larch may be regenerated in this manner.

These even-aged compartments may be either mixed or
pure. All thickly foliaged shade-enduring trees may Ibe
grown pure, but thinly foliaged trees should not usually
be grown pure, because as they approach maturity the
canopy always becomes too thin, which results in an abun-
dant growth of rank grass, brambles, bracken, and the like.
However, under the following conditions, pure crops of thinly
foliaged trees are admissible, namely, when —

(1) High exposed elevations are being planted and shade-

enduring trees would not be advisable ;

(2) The rotation is very short ;

(3) They are afterwards underplanted with shade-endur-

ing trees.

(&) Two-Storied High Forest. — Under this system there
are, towards the end of the rotation, two crops of trees, of
widely different ages, growing on the same land.

It is brought about by underplanting or undersowing an

26 FOREST SYSTEMS

existing crop, which has been heavily thinned. Only thinly
foliaged trees, such as Oak, Ash, and Larch, should be
underplanted, and the trees used for the undercrop should
only be shade-bearing trees. Silver Fir, Beech, and Horn-
beam will bear the greatest amount of shade, and then
perhaps Thuya gigantea ( T. plicata). These trees will usually
form the undercrop.

If, however, the canopy is thin, Douglas Fir or Weymouth
Pine, or Spanish Chestnut may be used. Norway Spruce
cannot be recommended, as, in this country, it is not tolerant
of much shade, and it robs the overwood of too much
moisture.

Under the orthodox method the two crops are harvested
at the same time ; but there is no necessity for such a course.
If desired, the older crop can be removed and the younger
crop can be allowed to grow on, until of larger dimensions :
for if the trees forming the older crop are well grown and
have not unduly large crowns, little harm will be done to the
younger crop, especially if it consists of good stout poles.

Where Ash is underplanted, it must almost always be
removed before the undercrop, as it comes to maturity so
early, viz., from 60 to 75 years.

(c) High Forest with Coppice.1 — This system is some-
what similar to the system of two-storied high forest, but it
involves the periodic cutting over, at ground level, of the
undercrop.

The standards must consist of only thinly foliaged trees,
such as Oak, Larch, Ash, Black Walnut, and Black Poplars.
The most suitable trees for the coppice are Spanish Chestnut,
Hornbeam, Ash, and Alder, and to some extent Beech, but
the stools of the latter are not usually long-lived, and its
produce, unless large, has not much value.

The essential points in which this method differs from
ordinary coppice with standards are, that the standards over
a given area are all of one age, and thus height growth is

1 This system has been named and recommended by the author as a
substitute in many cases for the more common system of coppice with
standards.

CHOICE OF SYSTEMS 27

stimulated, as they help to draw each other up ; there is a
greater proportion of them per acre ; and the well-being of
the coppice, or otherwise, receives comparatively small
consideration.

(cT) High Forest with Standards. — This is a system which
is characterised by a small crop of standards, say, 15 to 30
per acre, growing over an undercrop of shade-bearing trees.
It is rather similar to two-storied high forest, but it implies
not only a small crop of standards, but also, usually, a crop
of standards growing on for a second rotation so as to produce
extra large timber.

It is sometimes adopted in the growing of Oak timber.
For instance, Oak may have been planted along with other
trees, which have been harvested when mature, and then the
Oak are underplanted and allowed to grow on for a second
rotation.

THE CHOICE OP SYSTEMS.

It is very difficult to say which system is preferable to
another ; so much will depend upon the given circumstances
of any particular case. But there are certain merits and
demerits appertaining to each of the systems to which due
consideration should always be given.

In cases where amenities for game preservation are of
paramount importance some system of coppice will usually
be decided upon ; but when financial results alone are con-
sidered, the choice will often fall upon some system of high
forest. In this latter connection, however, there is not that
great difference in the nett financial returns as is usually
supposed, if regard is had to the invested capital in each
case.

On really poor land no form of coppice should be attempted,
for the periodic laying bare of the soil has a deteriorating in-
fluence, and the coppice produce itself, which is young and
sappy, removes a far greater quantity of plant food from the
soil than is lost by the removal of an equal volume of mature
timber.

For financial reasons, simple coppice can hardly ever be

28 FOREST SYSTEMS

recommended ; for its growth will usually result in a direct
loss to the owner, owing to the low price that now obtains
for coppice produce.

Coppice with standards can be recommended as affording
covert for game. Only the timber of thinly foliaged trees
should, however, be grown as standards, viz. : — Oak, Ash,
Larch, Black Poplars, and Black Walnut, and perhaps the
Tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera\ and the White Ash
(F. Americana), and the Oregon Ash (F. Oregona}^ and the
Picardy Poplar.

The timber produced under coppice with standards will
usually be of good girth, but it will not be so high, nor of
such good technical quality as that produced under even-
aged high forest ; especially is this the case with Oak.
Furthermore, it will usually taper to a great degree. As
usually practised, too much attention is paid to the welfare
of the underwood, considering the low returns which it yields.

It is with a view of increasing the nett returns, and the
height, quantity, and quality of timber produced, and at the
same time of preserving the amenities, which are presented
by an undergrowth of coppice, that the system of high
forest with coppice is recommended in most cases in pre-
ference to that of coppice with standards. The same
species of trees will be grown for timber as under coppice
with standards, but they will be numerically somewhat
greater.

The value of the coppice may be practically nil, except
that cut when the standards are only saplings, or when nearly
mature, so that, apart from its value as covert, it must be
looked upon simply as a natural means of pruning the young
standards, and afterwards, as keeping the soil clean, and
preventing the growth of rank grass and weeds, and thus
ultimately enabling a new crop of standards to be raised at
a minimum expenditure.

The growth of the coppice can always be favoured as
seems expedient ; it will suffer most when the standards are
from 20 to 40 years old, but provided the stools are not killed,
this does not matter. Near the edges of the rides it will

CHOICE OF SYSTEMS 29

always be advisable to favour the growth of the coppice, and
thus form an effectual screen and additional covert for game
preservation.

Another point in favour of this method is, that when the
standards are finally felled, the raising of the new crop is
confined to a minimum area, the whole of which, where
rabbits are numerous, can be fenced en bloc at a cheaper rate
per tree than is usually the case when the young trees are
each separately surrounded by a piece of netting or tarred
felt ; and also, the labour in looking after these young trees,
and preventing suppression by the coppice, is very much less
than where the trees are spread over a large area.

The quantity and quality of timber that will be produced
by this method is, so far as the overwood is concerned, about
similar to that grown as the overwood in two-storied high
forest. Under this latter system, however, the total quantity
of timber produced will be greater and more valuable than
the total quantity produced where coppice growth forms part
of the crop. These three systems should only be attempted,
however, when there is a sufficiency of moisture in the soil,
for the existence of an undercrop demands more moisture in
the soil than is necessary if such crop were growing in the
open. Also, the soil itself must at any rate be of fair quality.
Under two-storied high forest there are two periods in one
rotation, when there is a young crop affording covert for
game; hence, for this reason, it will often be preferred to
compartments of even-aged high forest.

When, however, it is desired to grow a maximum amount
of timber which shall also be of the highest quality, the pre-
ference must be given to even -aged high forest at any rate
for the shade-bearing trees, and also for such trees as Scots
Pine and Corsican Pine, which, until they approach maturity,
require a very close canopy, and are quite unsuited for being
systematically underplanted,. although the latter may be
underplanted if the rotation is a long one.

Except in the early stages of their existence, these com-
partments will afford no suitable covert whatever for game,
if they have been properly managed.

30 FOREST SYSTEMS

On poor, dry, exposed, sandy or gravelly soils, even-aged
compartments of Scots or Corsican Pine grown on a short
rotation are practically the only timber crops that can
advisedly be grown.

However, for the growth of Oak, Ash, and Larch, this
method is not so suitable as two-storied high forest ; and if
the land is too dry for underplanting, it is too dry for the
growth of good Oak, Ash, or Larch, unless indeed the two
latter are grown on a very short rotation. Even-aged
mixtures of Oak, or Ash, or Larch, with the shade-enduring
trees will give perhaps the greatest outturn in timber, but the
shade-enduring trees must be such that they do not overtop
or suppress the light-demanding trees.

The system of high forest -with standards cannot be
recommended. Financially, it will seldom prove remunera-
tive to leave the trees for a double rotation. The only crop
to which it is at all suitable is the Oak, but there is a great
tendency for the trees to become stag-headed and to throw
out numerous epicormic branches all along the stem.

Now, on poor soil, or in exposed places or wherever the
conditions for the growth of timber are inimical, some system
should be adopted, if possible, which avoids clear cutting the
whole area.

With even-aged compartments of high forest, it is often
possible to obtain natural regeneration under a shelter wood
of mother-trees (or artificial regeneration may be adopted) ;
but the greatest shelter and protection is obtained under the
group system and the selection system. However, only
shade-bearing trees can be grown under these two systems.
Under the selection system, the maximum amount of shelter
and protection is obtained, and there is at all times a certain
amount of covert for game. But the timber produced will
usually be somewhat tapering and not of very high technical
quality.

Under the group system, the advantages of shelter and
soil protection which exist under the selection system, are
retained, but there will be a larger proportion of trees of
good technical quality, especially if the groups are large.

CHOICE OF SYSTEMS 31

On the other hand, as the groups are enlarged, so will
the protection from wind be lessened.

The total quantity of timber produced under the group
and the selection systems, does not vary materially from that
produced under even-aged high forest.

As these two systems depend upon natural regeneration,
though artificial aid may be given, it is imperative that
rabbits be exterminated, or the whole areas will have to be
wired in.

CHAPTER III.

THE NURSERY.

WHEREVER planting operations are annually carried out,
it is almost imperative to raise the plants in a home nursery.
And even if planting be only carried out occasionally, it will
in many cases be advisable to make a temporary nursery
for a year or two ; especially if the area which it is proposed
to plant be of any considerable extent. In all cases, Haw-
thorns or " Quicks " should always be raised for estate
fencing purposes.

The great advantages which are presented by the use of
plants raised in a home nursery may be summarised as
follows : —

(1) There is no delay1 between raising the plants and

planting them out. Plants in trade nurseries are
often raised months before they are ordered, and
" sheued " into lines, so as to have the land cleared.

(2) They can usually be raised for a very much smaller

sum than they can be bought for.

(3) The exact treatment that the plants have received

is known.

(4) The quality and origin of the seed is usually known.

(5) The plants can be accustomed to the soil and situa-

tion in which they are going to be planted.

(6) Plants can be sent out from the nursery as they are

wanted day by day, and if a frost sets in, there need

1 If plants when ordered from a trade nursery are not in stock, they
are obtained elsewhere, and a double railway journey is the result, as,
for the sake of appearance, they will be dispatched from the nursery
where ordered.

SITE OF NURSERY 33

be no plants that have been raised and await planting
out, and thus the mortality among freshly planted
trees is reduced to a minimum.

(7) The risk of introducing insect and fungoid attacks is

minimised.

(8) No " culls " are ever used inadvertently.1

FORMATION OP A NURSERY.
(1) Choice of Site.

Generally speaking, a northern or north-western aspect
is preferable for a forest nursery.

On southern or eastern aspects the majority of trees will
start into growth too early, and hence there is a great danger
that they will suffer from late spring frosts ; and on eastern
aspects there is the additional risk of the plants suffering
from the effects of cold, dry, east winds.

The actual altitude at which the nursery is situated is not
a matter of very great importance in this country; though
trees which are intended to be planted out at high altitudes
should advisedly be obtained from nurseries at similar
altitudes. The relative altitude, however, is a matter of the
very greatest importance. A low relative altitude should
never be chosen ; for late spring and early autumn frosts are
far more frequent in valleys, dells and coombes, than on
higher ground. For the same reason, a nursery site should
never be chosen on a large expanse of level ground ; gently
sloping ground is to be much preferred.

Care should be taken that a very sheltered place is not
selected ; in fact, if the greater part of the planting is going
to be done on exposed land, the nursery itself should be
somewhat exposed, and the seedling trees can artificially
be given such shelter as may seem expedient.

If possible and convenient, the nursery should be

1 In trade nurseries it is a common practice to transplant the
vigorous plants from a bed, and to leave the weaklings or "culls" for
another year. Such culls, the produce of weakly seed, are worthless,
but they are unfortunately often used.

C

34 THE NURSERY

near the head woodman's cottage, and a plentiful supply of
water should be at hand or capable of being easily laid on.

On account of insect attacks, it should be far removed
from the estate yard, where the unbarked timber forms a
suitable breeding place for some injurious insects. And if
possible, it should be away from old pasture-land, and areas
of hardwood trees, for otherwise the ravages of the cock-
chafer grub will probably be a constant source of trouble.

And on account of beetles and pine weevils, it should
not be near coniferous woods.

The best soil to select for a forest nursery is a sandy
loam. A clay soil should always be avoided, for fibrous roots
are not easily formed in it, and the soil has a tendency to
"run together" and "set," thus rendering the rearing of
seedlings an impossibility except at great expense. A depth
of about 1 8 inches of soil is almost essential, as the supply of
moisture will be more constant and plentiful.

(2) Size of the Nursery.

This must depend upon the area that has to be planted
annually, and also upon the size and the age at which the
plants are going to be planted out. Roughly speaking, if
4-year-old plants are going to be planted at 4 feet by 4 feet,
the area of the nursery should be about 8 or 10 per cent, of
the area that is to be planted annually.

Though, if only conifers are , required, about 6 to 7 per
cent, of the area to be planted annually would suffice.

And, in ordinary estate nurseries, an additional space
should be allowed to admit of the raising of ornamental trees
and garden shrubs, and " Quicks " for fences.

(3) Laying out a Nursery.

When the site has been determined, the whole area must
be carefully prepared and fenced off against rabbits,1 and
stock if necessary. If the site is an old pasture, or if trouble
is likely to result from wireworms or cockchafer grubs, a
good dressing of gas-lime should be given, the soil then
i Vide Chapter IV.

LAYING OUT A NURSERY 35

trenched two spits deep, and another dressing of gas-lime
given and left on the surface to wash in. When trenching,
all stones should be carefully picked out for use on the paths
or roads, and the earth well broken up.

No plants can be put in the nursery until some months
after the gas-lime has been applied, as the plants would be
poisoned if put in before oxidation had taken place.

Any large nursery should be divided up into sections, of
about i acre each, by hard roads about 12 feet wide, so that a
horse and cart can be drawn along without doing damage.
These sections should again be divided up by paths about 4
feet wide, so as to admit of the use of wheelbarrows or hand-
carts. Then these smaller sections may be again divided up,
as may seem convenient, by narrow trodden tracks 15 or 18
inches wide.

About yV1 of the nursery will generally be devoted to the
raising of seedlings ; and it is advisable to have this portion
laid out in long, narrow beds, 4 feet wide, running north and
south. These beds may then be weeded and tended from
either side without being trodden upon. The broad roads
can be made of broken brick, rubble, etc., and finished with a
coating of ordinary road metal, and, for neatness, the earth
should be kept off the sides by an edging of brick on end or
of i inch creosoted boards ; but on economic lines, this latter
expense is not warranted.

NURSERY MANAGEMENT.

A portion of the nursery should always be under a
"cleaning" crop, as, for instance, potatoes or roots. And
"green" manuring, especially with lupins, can always be
recommended for any vacant part of the nursery.

It is preferable never to use ordinary farmyard manure,
as it contains so many weed seeds, but good leaf mould and
the application of artificial manures will easily compensate

1 This presumes that some seed is sown broadcast and some in
drills, and that the plants are planted out in the woods when 4 years
old. '

36 THE NURSERY

for this. These manures should only be used on the cleaning
crop, as, if applied directly to the trees, it might prove too
stimulating, and the wood of the young trees would not get
properly ripened.

(1) Seed Beds.

These must always have a very fine tilth, and a small
amount of sifted rubble or ashes should be raked over the
top soil, so as to prevent the soil from " running " together
and forming a " cake," through which the seedlings of small
seed would have great difficulty in piercing.

Over such beds as require special protection, a screen of
" peignon " or chestnut pale fencing may be stretched over a
light frame-work about 2 feet 6 inches from the ground.
This is by far the most convenient way of affording to tender
species protection from late frosts in the spring or early
frosts in the autumn, and also, provided the beds run north
and south, of affording protection from hot sun.

These screens can be very quickly rolled up, when their
protection is not required.

For instance, they might be rolled up every morning and
unrolled every evening during the end of April and all
through May as a protection against night frosts. A cheaper
method of affording this protection, but one not nearly so
convenient, is to place branches of birch, with the leaves on,
across the bed from side to side.

Under no circumstances should branches of conifers be
used for this purpose.

(2) Liability to Frosts.

Silver Fir and Beech are perhaps more in need of this
protection than any other common species. They are very
sensitive to frosts in the spring and autumn and also to hot
sun, at any rate for the first few years of their existence.

Most young trees will succumb to or be seriously injured
by late spring and early autumn frosts, but of those especially
tender, besides Silver Fir and Beech, may be mentioned
Black Walnut, Weymouth Pine, Acacia, Ash (all varieties),

LIABILITY TO FROSTS 37

Spanish Chestnut, Larch (the Japanese perhaps more so
than the European), Douglas Fir, Cupressus macrocarpa, and
Spruce (the Norway Spruce perhaps more so than the
Sitka) and Oak.

Whereas, those trees which are hardiest in respect of
these frosts, and usually not injured thereby, are Scots Pine,
Corsican Pine, Austrian Pine, Birch, White Poplar, Aspen
Poplar, and Cupressus sitchensis.

But there are some trees which may be said to occupy an
intermediate position in this respect, and they are : —
Sycamore, Norway Maple, Alder, Thuya gigantea. Lime,
Black Poplar and Black Italian Poplar, Hornbeam, Abies
concolor and Elm.

With reference to this matter, the date at which tender
species break out into leaf is a most important point. For
instance, Oak (pedunculata) often escapes because it is late
in breaking into leaf, and Sessile Oak, which is more tender,
is usually somewhat later in breaking into leaf. And so
with Nordmann's Silver Fir, a very tender species, but one
which usually escapes because it is so very late in starting its
new growth.

It will often happen that certain species of trees appear
frost-hardy in one instance and not in another, and in order
to account for these differences, it is necessary to ascribe
them to the individuality of the particular trees, and the pre-
disposition of certain seedlings to suffer, which have been
raised from the seed of particular trees growing in particular
localities ; whereas the produce of seed of the same species of
tree, but obtained from another locality or another climate,
may be perfectly hardy.

(3) Choice of Seed.

There can be no doubt that, generally speaking, the
liability to spring frosts is very greatly increased in the
case of seedlings of tender species, raised from seed which
has been grown abroad in a country where there is a very
short spring, and where there is a rapid transition from
winter to summer, and where active growth is long delayed

38 THE NURSERY

on account of the soil being frozen in spring and the roots
consequently remaining inactive. Trees grown in this country
from such seed will break into leaf early, as root activity
will be stimulated by the mild winters and long springs.
Also, a similar result would be expected if seed from trees
growing at high elevations were sown at low elevations.
It is for this reason that Scots Pine raised from seed grown
on the Continent are less hardy than Scots Pine raised from
home-grown seed.

But it does not follow from the foregoing that home-
grown seed of all species of trees is preferable where it can
be procured. Such is very far from being the case.

Home-grown seed of trees whose native habitat is in a
country where there are cold winters and very hot summers,
should never be used unless it is proved by generations of
experience to be advisable or preferable. For, unripened
seed or immature seed can never produce healthy, vigorous
trees.

On the other hand, though great caution is necessary,
there is every reason to believe that trees whose native
habitat is a country with a climate characterised by mild, wet
winters and only moderately hot summers — a climate similar
to that in this country — will, even when recently introduced,
bear strong, healthy, and vigorous seed, for which, though
produced in this country, there is every justification for using.

Such trees would be those introduced from the coast
region of British Columbia, namely, Sitka Spruce, Sitka
Cypress, Douglas Fir, and Thuya gigantea. And, if seed of
these trees be imported, it is very necessary, until experience
may prove to the contrary, that the seed of such of these
trees as also grow at high altitudes in the Rocky Mountains,
should be obtained from the coast region, and not from the
mountains.

A brief consideration of the foregoing points to the
advisability of using home-grown seed of Oak,1 Ash

1 The author has observed an unusual vigour in some seedlings of
Sessile Oak raised in this country from seed obtained in the Darmstadt
district in Germany.

HOME-GROWN VERSUS FOREIGN SEED 39

(common Ash only), Beech, Birch, Alder, Scots Pine, Wych
Elm, Hazel, and Hornbeam, and perhaps of Douglas Fir,
Thuya gigantea, Sitka Spruce, and Sitka Cypress. But to
use only foreign seed of Larch, Norway Spruce, Silver Fir,
Cupressus macrocarpa, Spanish Chestnut, White Ash, Oregon
Ash, Austrian Pine, Corsican Pine, Weymouth Pine, Black
Walnut, and Red Oak.

With regard to this latter class, experience may prove
the contrary to be the case. But conclusions should not be
too hastily arrived at. It often takes generations before
trees become acclimatised to new surroundings, and though
the seed may be plump and the seedlings appear strong and
vigorous, time alone can prove that this vigour will be main-
tained to maturity. In all cases, only the best seed of
healthy vigorous trees, should ever be used.

It may not be out of place here to state that, when con-
sidering the advisability and the suitability of the introduc-
tion of any exotic tree, the very greatest regard should be
paid to the conditions as to climate, soil, altitude, and aspect
under which it thrives in its native habitat.

The success of recently introduced conifers from the
coast region of British Columbia may be anticipated with far
greater confidence than can justly be placed upon the intro-
duction of species from countries with a marked continental
climate, and, though care is necessary, there is no need to
anticipate any such calamity from fungoid disease, as that
with which the growth of Larch in this country is now
attended.

(4) The Storage of Seed.

All seed that is not going to be sowed directly it is ripe
must be carefully stored. The seeds of Ash (the common
Ash), Yew, Hawthorn, Holly, and Hornbeam, which do not
germinate until the spring after they are collected, should be
mixed with sand and stored in pits or " pies " in the open,
where they should remain until about March a year hence,
when, as soon as they show signs of sprouting, they should
be sown in drills in carefully prepared beds. All other seed

40 THE NURSERY

should be stored in the dry, and out of the reach of vermin.
They must not, however, be allowed to become too dry and
shrivelled. An ideal storehouse is one with an earthen floor
and a thatched roof, similar to an apple house. Large seed,
like acorns and beech mast, should be kept in barrels, and
smaller seed spread over paper laid on shelves, though large
quantities must be stored in bins and shovelled over at
intervals to prevent them heating ; so also the barrels of nuts
must be carefully looked over at intervals. No seed, how-
ever, should be stored in bulk until it is properly dry, or it
will quickly heat. Seed not artificially dried should be spread
out thinly on a dry wooden floor of some building, and there
allowed to dry naturally.

(5) The Sowing of Seeds.

The actual date at which it is preferable to sow seeds will
vary according to circumstances, but, generally speaking,
sowing in nursery beds should take place towards the end of
April and in May. If the laws of Nature be followed,
autumn sowing would generally be the case, but this latter
method is open to several grave objections when practised in
a nursery. When sown naturally in the forest, the mother
trees afford shelter, the ground is kept cool until late in the
spring, and thus growth is retarded and the danger from
frosts minimised ; and even if these frosts do occur, the
shelter of the trees will keep them off the young seedlings.
But when sown in autumn in a nursery, there will usually
be enormous losses incurred from late frosts, unless artificial
protection is given. Then again, mice and vermin make
inroads upon autumn sown seed-beds, and often cause serious
loss.

On the other hand, spring sowing is not without its
objections. A proportion of the seed sown will often not
appear until the year afterwards ; for the germinative power
becomes weakened, and, in some cases, the germinative power
of a large proportion of the seed is entirely destroyed.
Hence, a consideration of this must modify the general rule.

The seed of Silver Fir, Elm, Poplar, and Willow will lose

THE SOWING OF SEEDS 41

its germinative power very quickly ; so also is this the case,
though to a less extent, with Oak, Spanish Chestnut, Birch,
Alder, Hazel, and Beech ; these latter trees retaining a good
germinative capacity for about 6 months. And though other
seed may keep for another year, it should never be used if
newer seed can be obtained. The seed of Wych Elm,
Poplars, and Willow must always be sown directly it is ripe —
this will be at the end of May and the beginning of June — for
its germinative power is lost in a few weeks. It should
be noted that English Elm never ripens its seed in this
country.

The seed of Silver Fir, which is ripe in the autumn,
should usually be sown at once, but it is absolutely impera-
tive that the seed-beds should be protected from frosts, and
also from hot sun in the summer. If sown in the spring the
same germinative capacity cannot be expected.

The seed of nearly all other trees is ripe in October ;
though Birch ripens its seed at the end of August, and it is
naturally shed up to about March. Alder ripens its seed at
the end of September, and it is usually shed in mid-winter
and early spring ; and Weymouth Pine ripens its seed about
the beginning of September, and sheds it immediately.

There is, however, no particular reason why seeds of any
common tree, except Elm, Poplar, Willow, and Silver Fir,
should not be stored for a few months and sown in the
spring, so as to lessen the liability to damage from late frosts
and from vermin. There is another advantage in spring
sowing, and that is, that the surface of the seed-bed, prepared
in spring, is in a far better mechanical condition for seedlings
to break through, than can ever be the case with a seed-bed
prepared in the autumn. Especially is this the case where
small seed are concerned ; it would not much matter in the
case of Oak, Spanish Chestnut, or Beech.

Now, although spring sowing must be the general rule in
nurseries, except as already stated, large seed such as Walnut,
Spanish Chestnut, Oak, and Hazel whose cotyledons remain
below the surface of the ground, are often sown in Autumn,
though, in the case of the two former, the risks are very great ;

42

THE NURSERY

and of these four, only the Oak and Hazel can ever advisedly
be sown in autumn. Birch may often be sown in September,
as it is so very hardy ; and, as its germinative capacity is not
strong, this practice may with advantage usually be adopted,
though naturally it is shed at a later date.

The following table will show the average germinative
capacity of good seed (spring germination, except for Elm
and Silver Fir) : —

Per cent.

SitkaSprace . 1 tQ
Norway Spruce . J

Scots Pine .

Austrian Pine

.

Corsican Pine

(

Hornbeam

Thuya gigantea
Oak
Ash

:}

Spanish Chestnut

Lime

Acacia (False)
Norway Maple
Sycamore
Weymouth Pine

to 7°

60 to 65

60

Beech .
Silver Fir

Larch (Japanese)*
Larch (European)

Douglas Fir .

Alder .
WychElm .

Cupressus macrocarpa ,

Birch .

Cupressus sitchensis (?)

Per cent.
50

40

35
3°

tO 20

* This is extremely variable, some years only about 5 per cent, germinating,
and other years 65 per cent.

When seeds are bought, their germinative capacity should
always be tested. It is a very easy matter. Three or four
hundred seeds or more (carefully counted) should be placed
on a piece of flannel spread over a soup plate ; the flannel
must be kept moist by water in the plate, and the plate
should be kept in the dark. After a time those seeds which
fail to germinate should be accurately counted and their
proportion estimated.

Before sowing seeds in the spring, it is advisable to soak
them in tepid water for some hours, so as to favour rapid and
even germination. The seed-beds, having been prepared

THE SOWING OF SEEDS 43

with a very fine tilth as already described, must be nice and
firm ; a fine tilth on a loosely made bed is of no use whatever
for small seeds. When seeds are sown they must be covered
over with soil, and the thickness of this covering should not
be more than twice the length of the seed. It will thus be
seen that seeds like Birch, Alder, and Thuya gigantea require
practically hardly any covering. Such very small seed will
get a sufficient covering if sown on the surface, and " firmed "
in with a light roller, and a little fine ashes or rubble sifted
over the top, just enough to hide the seed. This grit or
ashes should be first sifted free from dust ; it will prevent the
surface soil from " caking."

When sowing, seed may be either sown broadcast or in
drills.

If sown broadcast, the operation is quicker and cheaper,
and a greater number of seedlings can be raised on any given
area. On the other hand, the weeding of the seed-bed is
rendered almost impossible except by cutting through any
large weeds at ground level with a knife, for to attempt to
pull them up would result in also pulling up many seedlings ;
and then again, the danger of the seedlings being injured by
frost lifting is very much increased.

Any large seed, like Acorns, Beech nuts, or Chestnuts, or
Walnuts, and so also any autumn sown seed, and any seed the
seedlings from which are intended to be left for 2 years in
the seed-beds, should invariably be sown in drills ; and so
also should expensive seed. But in the case of other seeds,
it is difficult to give preference to one method over another.
Small seed, sown broadcast, should be lightly raked in, and if
necessary, rolled, and have a little fine rubble or ashes sifted
over the top.

When sowing in drills, the drills should be made across
the seed beds (which should not be more than 4 feet wide), so
as to facilitate weeding.

The drills for large seed like Oak and Spanish Chestnut
should be about 8 inches to 12 inches apart, and the nuts
placed 2 inches apart in the drills. The nuts of Spanish
Chestnut should always be sown with the point of the nut

44 THE NURSERY

downwards ; the reverse being the case with Horse Chest-
nut.

The drills for smaller seed should be about 6 inches apart,
just sufficiently wide to enable a man to place his foot between
two rows without damaging the young plants when weeding.

These drills may be marked with a stick and line, or a
special marking board may be used with advantage. This
marking board, which is placed across the bed, has three
strips of wood fastened on the under side, one down the
middle and one down each edge. These strips are about f
inch wide and J or J or J or I inch in depth, according to the
depth at which it is intended to sow the seed. These strips
are 6, 7, 8, or 9 inches apart, according to the distance which
is required between the drills ; l the under surface of these
strips may have a V-snaPed notch all the way along, so as to
leave a miniature ridge down the drill, and if the seed is
dropped along that ridge, it will fall to either side and the
drill will be more evenly seeded.

The seed may be sown by hand or poured gently out of
a "seed can," which has various cone-shaped nozzles to suit
the size of various seeds. After the seed is sown, the drills
are smoothed and the bed lightly rolled.

Seed should never be sown -when the land is wet, or
the soil will get lumpy and perhaps form a paste and interfere
with germination. In order to keep off birds, etc., it is a good
plan to " pickle " the seed in red lead, mixed with water to the
consistency of cream, or else to mix them with red lead after
soaking them in water.

It is a great mistake, and a great waste of seed to sow too
thickly ; but the seeding must be relatively thicker if the
germinative capacity of the seed is small, than when the
reverse is the case.

Speaking generally, broadcasting requires about 3 times
as much seed as when the seed is sown in drills.

The following table shows the number of seeds contained

1 Two boards may be used instead of one. In such cases, each board
need have only two strips, which are placed away from each edge one-
half of such distance as the rows are apart.

THE SOWING OF SEEDS

45

in each pound, and the quantity required for sowing in drills
per 50 feet run if the seed-bed be 4 feet wide : —

Kind of Tree.

Number of
Seeds per Ib.
about

Quantity required
per
50 feet run.

Distance apart
of Drills.

Scots Pine ....

75,000

Lbs.

•4

Inches.
6

Corsican Pine

31,000

•5

6

Austrian Pine

25,000

•6

6

Weymouth Pine .

27,000

•9

6

Norway Spruce

64,000

•4

6

Sitka Spruce ....

197,000

•15

6

Silver Fir ....

IO,OOO

3

6

Larch (European) .

70,000

•8

6

Douglas Fir ....

40,000

i

6

Thuya gigantea

341,000

•15

Broadcast

Oak (Pedunculate)

130

6-5

8

Oak (Sessile) .

155

5-2

8

Spanish Chestnut .
Beech . . ' A

112
2,OOO

7

c

8
6*

Ash . ...

6,800

J
2

6

Wych Elm . ... .

60,000

•7

6

Alder ...
Birch . .

320,000
8OO,OOO

•8
.3 to <

Broadcast
Broadcast

Sycamore ....

5,500

3 ^^ j

3

6

Norway Maple

5,500

3

6

Hornbeam

14,000

i

6

Cupressus macrocarpa

73,500

i

6

Larch (Japanese) .

103,500

•5

6

Sitka Cypress . .

128,000

•8

6

* Sown about £ inch from each other in the rows.

The following table shows the price per Ib. of seed, the

46

THE NURSERY

number of plants that may be expected from sowing I Ib. of
seed, and the price per 1000 of seedlings (for seed only) : —

Kind of Tree.

Price of

Seed per Ib.*

Number of
Plants from 1 Ib.
of Seed, if Seed
not sown too
thick, t

Seed Cost
(only)
of 1000 Plants,
about

£ 8. B.

S. D.

Scots Pine
Corsican Pine

0 4 o -\
(Foreign)
o 6 o f
(Scotch) J
026

12,000

8,000

; o 4

I o 6

o 4

Austrian Pine

036

7,000

o 6

Weymouth Pine .

080

6,000

i 4

Norway Spruce

O O IO

13,000

0 0?

Sitka Spruce ....

0160

35,000

o 5*

Silver Fir ....

006

2,000

o 3

Larch (European) .

o i 3

7,000

0 2

Larch (Japanese) .

060

9,000

o 8

Douglas Fir ....

o 14 o

6,000

2 4

Thuya gigantea

I 12 0

64,000

o 6

Oak (Pedunculate) .

O O I

7i

I 2

Oak (Sessile) .

O O I

88

I O

Spanish Chestnut .

O O 2

65

2 7

Beech
Ash

004
O O 4

800

2,<\OO

o 5

0 Ig

Wych Elm . . . •'S

W \S f.

004

*'OV^X

9,000

4r

o oi

Alder ...
Birch

008

O O c

35,000
64. ooo

o o£

O I

Sycamore ....

\J \J 3

004

T")^^

2,250

(for 12,000)
0 2

Norway Maple

004

2,250

0 2

Hornbeam ....

005

6,000

0 I

Cupressus sitchensis .

2 O O

7,000

5 9

Cupressus macrocarpa

O5O

5,ooo

I 0

* The price will always vary a good deal, according to seed years, Beech being
very often unprocurable.

f These results can only be expected with good seed, and if the weather is
favourable.

TRANSPLANTING 47

(6) Treatment of Seedlings.

As a rule, most seedlings must be moved from the seed-
beds when I year old ; in certain cases they may remain for

2 years (or even 3 years occasionally) before they are moved.

Beech, Spruce, Silver Fir, Hawthorn, and Holly are
usually left 2 years in the seed-bed ; Silver Fir occasionally

3 years. All other forest trees are usually transplanted
when I year old. Corsican Pine, P. pinaster, Spanish
Chestnut, Black Walnut, Oak, Norway Maple, and Sycamore
should always be transplanted when I year old. Other trees,
except as stated, should be transplanted at I or 2 years of
age, according to the growth their roots have made.

Any tree, unless it is going to remain permanently where
sown, requires this transplanting, to induce the formation of
fibrous roots. If left in the seed-bed, a long tap-root is
generally formed and very few fibrous roots. If such a
tree be dug up and planted, it will probably die.

The trees are transplanted into lines about l 8 inches apart,
and the trees 3 to 4 inches apart in the lines. Thus there
can be about 100,000 to 125,000 to the acre.

Before transplanting, any long tap-root must be cut off
with a sharp knife to about 4^ inches in length. This will
usually be necessary with Oak and Spanish Chestnut and
Walnuts. The usual method in transplanting is to make a
trench about 9 inches deep and with a vertical side; the
seedlings are then held against this side, and the earth put
back over the roots, which must have a vertical position.
It is most essential that the roots never get doubled up,
as they will never straighten again. The trench must be
deep enough to take the full length of the roots, and the
roots of any seedlings more than about 7 inches in length
should be cut off with a sharp knife.

Instead of getting out a trench to plant the seedlings in,
a wedge-shaped opening may be made with a broad (specially

1 The lines should never be further apart than is absolutely necessary,
as the cost per 1000 for weeding is enormously increased if the lines
are far apart.

48 THE NURSERY

made) spade about 2 feet in width, the seedlings carefully
lined in, and the soil then wedged back.

Seedlings thus transplanted are generally allowed to
remain for 2 years, after which they are usually planted out
in the woods. But if they are not going to be planted out
at the end of this 2 years, they should always, except in the
case of Norway Spruce, which may remain for 3 years,
be again transplanted into rows, which should be about
14 inches apart, and the trees placed 6 inches apart in the
rows. Thus there can be about 35,000 to the acre.

In cases where large trees are required for ornamental
planting, they should be regularly transplanted in the
nursery every other year, for otherwise they will suffer
severely from the shock of removal.

In order to save the expense of transplanting, the roots of
young transplants are often cut through with a sharp spade
dug in on either side of the rows ; such a method is
admissible if it is desired to leave the plants for only one
more year, but otherwise it is only a poor substitute for
transplanting, and the growing trees will be found too close
together in the rows.

Some trees, as for instance, Black Walnut, Pinus pinaster,
and Corsican Pine, should be transplanted every year without
fail, if their success in planting out is to be guaranteed.

A rotation, as it were, of cropping should be observed in
the nursery. Hardwood trees should follow conifers, and
vice versa, as this will minimise insect and fungoid attacks.

Throughout their life in the nursery the young plants
require constant attention. If dry weather sets in, watering
is generally necessary. Hoeing and weeding are always
necessary, and must be done 3 or 4 times a year. It is very
expensive, especially the weeding of seed-beds. The weeds,
in beds sown broadcast, must be merely cut through with a
sharp knife ; to pull them up would disturb the seedlings.

As regards the cost of nursery operations. — Hoeing
and transplanting are the chief items of expense.

There will not be much difference in the cost per 1000
plants, of hoeing seedlings, whether they were sown broad-

COST OF HOEING SEEDLINGS

49

cast or in drills ; for although the weeding under the former
method is very much more expensive per square yard or
perch, yet there will be many more seedlings on that area.

Weeding seedlings sown in drills 6 inches apart, in beds
4 feet wide, will cost 6d. per 50 feet run each time it is
done, or 2s. per 50 feet run per annum (i.e. done 4 times).
This is equal to 5d. per 1000 seedlings per annum for
weeding, and may be taken as a fair price, whether broad-
casted or in drills.

Hoeing and weeding transplants, in lines 8 by 3 inches, will
cost for doing three times, is. 3d. per 200 square feet or 50 feet
run of 4- foot bed. This is equal to 2s. 2d. per 1000 plants.

Hoeing and weeding plants twice transplanted into lines
14 by 6 inches, will cost for doing twice, 7d. per 200 square
feet. This is equal to 35. 8d. per 1000 plants.

The following table will show at a glance some of the
expenses incurred in nursery work per 1000 plants, and per
50 feet run of a 4-foot bed, or per 200 square feet : —

Per 50 feet run
or
per 200 sq. feet.

Per 1000.

Weeding seedlings/Broadcasted - • •
(done four times) \Sown in drills f ^

S. D.

c. o

2 0

S. D.

o 5

O IN

Weeding transplants in lines 8x3 inches \
(dune three times) /

i 3

2 2

Hoeing and weeding when twice transplanted \
in lines 14 x 6 inches (done twice) . /

o 7

3 8
I 6

Lining out 3- or 4-year-old plants . . .

...

3 6

The following table will show the net cost on the
average of raising nursery stock of various ages after debiting
all other charges, such as general maintenance charges,
rates, taxes, digging, and manuring the ground, watering,
lifting seedlings and transplants, and carting from the
nursery to plantations, and an allowance for failures in
the nursery (all "calls" discarded), etc.: —

D

50

THE NURSERY

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PRICES OF HOME-GROWN PLANTS 51

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52 THE NURSERY

(7) Other Methods of Raising Trees.

Many trees are usually propagated by other means than
from seed.

These other methods are : —

(1) by Suckers ;

(2) by Layers ;

(3) by Slips or Cuttings.

By Suckers. — By this means it is usual to raise White
Poplars, Aspen Poplars, and Picardy Poplars. Small plants
are dug up in the woods, the roots being severed from the
parent trees with a spade. These roots aref carefully trimmed
with a sharp knife, and then the trees are planted in nursery
lines and left there for one or two years.

By Layers. — This is the usual method for propagating
Lime and Elm. Certain trees are periodically coppiced, and
long shoots of about 8 years' growth are layered.1

By Slips or Cuttings. — This is the usual method of
propagating Black Poplar, Black Italian Poplar, Willow
Privet, Laurel, and Box. The cuttings of the three former
should be taken in the spring, just as the sap is rising ; when
if not planted into lines at once, they should be left with
their ends in water; cuttings of Privet, Laurel, and Box
are best taken in September.

The cuttings of Poplars and Willow are usually obtained
from coppiced stool shoots of about 4 years' growth, older
wood should not be used. Sometimes, however, they are
cut from uncoppiced trees, but it is not to be recommended,
and it takes much longer to cut the " slips." A sharp knife
must always be used.

The usual practice is to cut truncated " slips " about 7 to
9 inches long; these are then lined out in the nursery, by
pushing them into the soil, and leaving only about f of an
inch showing above the ground.

Great care must be taken not to skin the bark in pushing
them in, and if the soil seems a little too stiff, it is absolutely

1 Layering or Plashing is described in Chapter X.

TREE "CUTTINGS" 53

necessary to make a hole for each " slip " with an iron prong.
These cuttings are left for one or two years, when they are
ready to put out in the woods.

These cuttings will throw out perhaps 3 or 4 shoots, but
only the best one of each should be allowed to grow.

Often, in the case of Poplars, which have a terminal bud,
long cuttings, 6 to 10 feet long, are cut, and these placed out
in the wood direct. The object in this case is to obtain a
big tree in the shortest space of time possible, but such
cuttings are very expensive to buy, and can only be used if
procured at home.

So also large cuttings of Willow (10 feet long) are often
taken, so as to make a tree in the shortest possible time ;
such long cuttings often pay, especially where there is any
danger from frosts.

Many other trees and shrubs can be raised from cuttings.
Various species of Thuya and Cupressus are often raised by
this means, but if it is desired to grow timber, the practice
cannot be too strongly condemned ; for such trees will always
assume a more or less branchy, shrubby habit of growth.
The method, however, is the surest means of perpetuating
any particular characteristic which it may be desirable to
retain from an ornamental point of view.

(8) Stocking a Nursery with Purchased Plants.

Now, although the raising of seedling plants in any large
home nursery is much to be preferred, it will often be
deemed advisable to stock a small nursery with purchased
seedlings, as sufficiently skilled labour will probably not be
available.

Very great care must be taken in the selection and
purchase of the seedlings,1 and if obtained at a reasonable
price, the method is likely to give very good results.

1 It is advisable never to use seedlings imported from foreign
countries. Only recently the author observed a bed of seedlings which
was badly attacked by a fungus common in Germany but not as yet
very common in this country. An unnecessary risk is run if seedlings
are imported.

54 THE NURSERY

Even if planting is only done occasionally, it is far
preferable, in most cases, to make a temporary nursery and
school purchased seedlings for i or 2 years, rather than to
buy older trees from a trade nursery ; for success in finally
planting out will be much more certain, and if by chance
a bad stock has been purchased, the loss is small and
confined to a small area as compared to a failure when
purchased stock is directly planted out.

(9) The Pruning of Nursery Stock.

This, in the case of conifers, should never be resorted to
except that a double leader may be cut away, though often it
will be preferable not to plant the tree at all ; for the risk of
disease and insect attack is so very much increased.

But some pruning of hardwoods will often be advisable.
Whenever pruning is practised, a sharp knife should always
be used. Any trees with long tap-roots should have these
roots cut off, and a sloping cut should be made. This will
often be the case with Oak, Walnut, and Spanish Chestnut,
both when lining out seedlings and when the plants are
raised for being planted out. So also, if any roots are
injured, they must be cut off. If the roots are pruned, it is
advisable to prune off some of the side branches up to half
the length of the stem, so as to restore a correct balance
and prevent the new leaves from wilting owing to lack of
soil moisture.

The small branches must be cut off quite flush with the
main stem, not shortened back and leaving a snag.

Such pruning of the side branches, up to one-half the
total height of the tree, can always be recommended for
hardwood trees, before they leave the nursery, though it adds
to their expense. And, of course, any double leaders must
be cut off.

Any excessive pruning is very bad, for there will not be
sufficient leaf surface to elaborate good material for the
production of new roots. Excessively pruned trees become
" mop " beaded and throw up suckers or stem shoots near the
ground, owing to a state of hypertrophy which is induced.

NURSERY PESTS 55

(10) Lifting the Plants for Planting Out.

This must be done very carefully indeed. It is very
essential that they be raised right up with a spade, before
they are pulled away from the earth. If they are to a great
extent pulled up, the greater part of the fibrous roots will be
severed, and the trees will suffer accordingly. When "lifted,"
the plants are pruned as necessary, and should then be
counted and tied in bundles, and the roots wrapped round
with damp moss or straw and covered up with sacking, and
immediately carted to the site where planting is to be done.
They should then be unloaded, and their roots placed in a
trench, and then some earth thrown over the roots.

Only such plants as are wanted for one day's planting
should be brought at a time, unless the nursery is a long way
off. The roots must never be allowed to become dry, either
from the effects of wind or sun.

INSECT AND FUNGOID AND OTHER ENEMIES IN
THE NURSERY.

The chief trouble from insect enemies in the nursery is
from cockchafer grubs and -wire-worms and the Pine weevil.

The latter, though often doing enormous damage, chiefly to
Spruce and Scots Pine when from 3 to 6 years old, is
more prevalent in the forest, where it is attracted by freshly
cut tree stumps.

As regards the former pests, gas-lime on the fallow
portion of the nursery is the best remedy, as already stated.
Sometimes a system of trapping is practised for getting rid
of the cockchafer grubs. Sods of turf are laid face down-
wards here and there, or potatoes, cut in half, are hidden a
few inches in the ground at intervals. The position of the
latter should be marked by sticks, and the potatoes and the
sods of turf should be examined constantly, and the grubs
destroyed.

A preventative remedy is to dust flowers of sulphur over
the beds in May and June, which stops the beetle laying her
eggs. Land badly affected must be summer fallowed and

56 THE NURSERY

the surface raked over constantly when the grubs are near
the surface ; they can then be collected and destroyed.

The grubs bite right through small roots and gnaw the
bark from larger roots.

As regards damage Iby fungi, the most frequent cause
of trouble is from Phytophthora omnivera, Hysterium
pinastri, and Rosellinia quercina.

The Phytophthora omnivera is the cause of the " damping
off" of the cotyledons of seedling Beech. It also attacks
Ash and Maples, and occasionally other seedlings. It is
somewhat similar to the " Potato Disease."

The cotyledons become black and rotten ; and wet, damp
weather favours the disease.

The Hysterium pinastri is the Leaf-shedding Disease.
It is most common on Scots Pine when from 2 to 6 years
of age, but it also attacks other evergreen conifers. Early
in the autumn, black spots appear on the leaves ; these
contain the mycelium of the fungus ; next spring, about
April, the leaves become brown all over and are shed. It is
most common in damp localities, and in crowded nurseries.

The Rosellinia quercina is the Oak Root seedling fungus.
It attacks the roots of Oak seedlings of I or 2 years of
age, though occasionally when a few years older. The first
signification of the disease is generally the sickly appearance
of the leaves of the young plants. But an examination of
the roots will probably decide the point. The diseased tap-
roots will show small black pustules, about the size of a pin's
head. This disease spreads very quickly from plant to
plant. When discovered, a trench should be dug round the
infected area, and the plants in that area pulled up and
burnt, and quick-lime spread over the area and dug in ; and
Oak should not be placed on such ground again for some
/ears. Other diseases may be mentioned, such as Septoria
parasitica on Spruce, Botrytis cinerea on most conifers,
and Pestalozzia Hartigii chiefly on Spruce and Silver Fir.

Wherever any of these three fungous diseases appear,
the plants in the infected area should always be at once
burnt, and the soil dressed with quick-lime.

NURSERY PESTS 57

No delay in dealing with any diseases should ever be
permitted.

Apart from insects and fungi, much damage is often done
in nurseries by mice. The best means to adopt is to poison l
them. Branches of gorse put round a bed will often keep
them off.

1 In order not to poison game, the poison should be laid in drain
tiles hidden just below the ground.

CHAPTER IV.

PLANTING.
FENCING AND PRELIMINARY PREPARATIONS.

WHEN any planting operations have been decided upon, it
will practically always be necessary to fence off the area
against rabbits, and sometimes against stock, before planting
can be started. And in the case of land being planted up
for the first time, it will often be necessary to carry out a
certain amount of land drainage, though, if more than a few
shillings have to be spent per acre on such drainage, it will
usually preclude any possibility of ultimately obtaining any
reasonable return on the outlay, except under very ex-
ceptional circumstances.

FENCING OP LAND.

Rabbit Fences. — Seldom, if ever, is it safe to make a
new plantation without surrounding it with a rabbit-proof
fence for the first 10 or 15 years; by which time the bark
of the trees should be too thick for the rabbits to attack.
The amount of damage done annually by rabbits in young
plantations is enormous.

A suitable rabbit fence, consisting of wire netting, wooden
posts, and one row of wire at the top, will cost from 6d. to 8d.
per yard run.

The wire netting should be 4 feet wide ; i inch mesh, and
the No. 1 8 gauge, galvanised wire.

But, in order to save expense, it is sufficient if only the
lower 2 feet of the netting be I inch mesh, and the upper

58

RABBIT FENCES 59

2 feet ij inch mesh. Such netting is often made; but, if
there be any difficulty in procuring it, the manufacturers will
thread together two 2 feet widths (of I and i-J inch mesh);
and this will be very much cheaper than having a single
4-foot width of i inch mesh. When two widths are thus
threaded together, the ij inch mesh netting should be No.
17 gauge, otherwise it would be liable to tear. Before the
netting is unrolled, it should be dipped in black varnish,
taken out, and allowed to dry ; such a precaution will double
the life of the netting, for otherwise its coating of zinc soon
becomes defective in places.

Such netting will cost about 193. per roll of 50 yards.

The wooden posts or stakes should be 5 feet 3 inches
long, and, by preference, may be split out of Oak, Spanish
Chestnut, or Larch, with an average cross-section of about
5 by 3 (like an arris rail). Some smaller, intermediate stakes,
should also be used, in order to cheapen the cost. These
stakes and posts should be sharpened or pointed, and all
bark stripped off, and, by preference, they should be
creosoted ; but, failing that, they should be charred at
ground level, and the charred portion should be painted
over, whilst still hot, with boiling tar. However, it would be
a great mistake to tar unseasoned stakes; for that would
only hasten their destruction. Whether creosoted or not, all
posts should be barked.

The bigger stakes would be worth about ?d. each, and
the smaller stakes 3d. each, sharpened and creosoted.

The top wire should be No. 5 (or 6) 7-ply galvanised
wire. No 5 costs about 153. a cwt, and there are about 392
yards of it in I cwt.

Small straining posts, each with a strut, must be fixed
about every 230 yards. In erecting the fence, it is very
advisable to have the netting sloping from the ground
outwards, away from the ground to be planted, as this will
prevent rabbits from climbing over. The netting must also
be let into the ground and turned outwards away from the
land to be planted; for this will prevent the rabbits from
burrowing under.

GO PLANTING

The posts should be driven into the ground, holes being
made with a crowbar if necessary. They should be 10 feet
apart (to 12 feet), and a small one should alternate with a
big one. The row of wire should pass freely through
staples at the top of the posts, and should only be rigidly
fastened to the straining posts. Sometimes the staples are
driven " home " and the wire thus pinched on to each post ;
in that case, the straining posts may be dispensed with ; but
the former is the better method ; and when no longer
required, the fence is easily moved without injury.

The netting should be fastened only to the top wire, to
which it should be tied with wire. The top of the netting
should be 3 feet 2 inches to 3 feet 3 inches from the ground,
the remaining portion being turned under the ground. If it
be desired to fasten the netting by staples to the posts, it will
be necessary to drive the posts in a slanting direction ; but,
in no case must the staples be driven " home," or the netting
will be much torn when it is finally removed.

For the sake of economy, the top wire is often dispensed
with ; in that case, of course, the netting must be fastened
direct to the posts ; but such a fence is easily torn down.

The cost of such a fence may be estimated as follows : —

For 250 yards. Posts 1 1 feet apart —

34 posts, 5 inches by 3 inches (arris section), creosoted,

at 7d. each . . . . . . £o 19 10

34 stout stakes, creosoted, at 3d. each . ' . 086

i small straining post and strut, creosoted * • ' . 046

i straining bolt, nut, and washer "« . , . o o 10

68 staples at is. 3d. per 100 . . . ,0010

5 rolls of netting, i inch and ij inch mesh, and

Nos. 18 and 17 gauge, at 193. . . ; 4 15 o

250 yards No. 5, 7-ply gal. wire, at 153. per cwt. . 096
Labour of erecting, haulage, dipping netting in black
varnish, nails for strut, tying wire, supervision,
etc. . . :. . . . ..150

Total for 250 yards . .^840

Equals nearly 8d. per yard run.

A stepping-stile should always be made at various places

RABBIT FENCES 61

over the fence, otherwise it will get damaged. A couple
of big stones, one on each side of the fence, and a stake to
catch hold of, is all that is necessary.

Fences against stock are very much more expensive.

Briefly, a 6-rowed wire fence with ~f iron standards, and
a straining post every 250 yards, can be erected for about
is. id. a yard run. If wire netting be required in addition,
one row of wire may be omitted, and the additional cost will
be about 4|d. a yard run.

A morticed oak post and 4-rail fence will cost about
2s. 7d. a yard run. And a dwarf fence, with small split oak
posts and 2 rails, erected on a small bank, will cost about
is. 2d. a yard run.

Cost per acre of a rabbit fence. — This will vary accord-
ing as to whether the area to be fenced is large or small ;
and also with the shape of the area.

Any given area requires the smallest amount of fencing,
if such area is confined within a circle ; also the fencing
required for a square is less than that required for a rect-
angle.

Now, supposing that the area to be fenced is square,
and that a rabbit fence costs Sd. a yard run (= 145. 8d. a
chain), then the following will be the cost of fencing : —

For 1 acre : —

Number of chains* = \/iox4

Cost of fencing = \/io x 4 x 145. Sd.

= £<)> 4s. 6d.

For 10 acres: —

Number of chains = *J 100x4

Cost of fencing = \/ioo x 4 x 143. 8d.
, 6s. 8d.

For 40 acres : —

Number of chains — \/4oo x 4

Cost of fencing = >/4OO x 4 x 145. 8d.
15. d.

* 10 square chains — I acre.

62

PLANTING

For 100 acres : —

Number of chains = <J 1000x4

Cost of fencing = \/iooo x 4 x 145. 8d.

= / 92, 9S. 9d.

For 1000 acres: —

Number of chains = \/io,ooox4

Cost of fencing = \/io,ooo x 4 x 145. 8d.

= / 293, 6s. 8d.

The following table shows the cost per acre according
to the size of the plantation : —

Area.

Total Cost.

Cost per acre.

Acres.

I

£ S. D.

946

£ S. D.

946

10

29 6 8

2 18 8

40

58 13 4

i 9 4

100

92 9 9

o 18 6

1000

293 6 8

o 5 10 1-

Now, when making calculations as to the financial returns
to be obtained from timber growing, it will make an
enormous difference to the results if the average outlay on
fencing be taken at a large sum or a small sum per acre.

For instance, the difference in the cost of fencing per
acre of a 10 acre plantation and a 40 acre plantation, is about
£i, i os. per acre.

Now, on an 80 years rotation, the outlay per acre of
£2, 1 8s. 8d. on fencing a 10 acre plantation will have accumu-
lated in 80 years at 3 \ per cent, interest to £4.6 (nearly), or at
4 per cent, interest to £67^, and the crop per acre is a debtor
to this amount at the end of the rotation for fencing only.1

1 This presupposes that the materials of the fence when removed in
10 or 15 years' time are worthless ; any value they may then have will,
however, greatly reduce the debt.

RABBIT FENCES 63

But the outlay per acre of £i, 95. 4d. on fencing a 40 acre
plantation will only amount at 3j per cent, interest to £23
(nearly), or at 4 per cent, interest to £33!, and thus, accord-
ing to the rate of interest taken, the crop per acre at the end
of the rotation is debtor for fencing to a much smaller
amount, although even this is a considerable sum.

And the difference of the accumulated debt per acre of
the 10 acre and 40 acre plantation is £23 if 3^ per cent,
interest be reckoned, and £33, 155. if 4 per cent, interest be
reckoned.

And if the rotation had been 100 years, the difference
would have been £45, 153. (nearly) at 3^ per cent, interest,
or £74 at 4 per cent, interest.

Thus it will be seen how very important it is to keep
down all expenses at the beginning of a rotation, whether
such expenses be incurred in fencing, draining, planting, or
otherwise.

However, when making general calculations as to the
returns from timber growing, some outlay for fencing must
be provided.

It would obviously be ridiculous to charge as for fencing
i acre ; and it would be equally absurd, at any rate in the
case of private estates, to estimate as for 1000 acres. For
even if such an area were going to be planted, it will often
be dissected by roads and bridle-paths and rights of way,
across which the continuous fence could not be extended.

Perhaps the fairest method, on the average, is to reckon
as for 40 acres ; that is, about 305. per acre ; though on most
private estates that area is too large, and £2 per acre, or
£2, ios., would be a more accurate estimate.

A very important point to remember when planting up
large compact areas, in the course perhaps of the next 5
years, is the fact that, if there be no reason to the contrary,
it will be far more economical to fence the whole area at once,
than to make a separate fence each year for i of the area, or
even to fence a larger area than will be actually planted in
the next few years. For instance, if 10 acres, situated in 3
blocks on an area of 40 acres, are to be planted each year for

64

PLANTING

the next 3 years, the following table will show the relative
cost of fencing the whole area of 40 acres at once, or of
making 3 separate fences for the three 10 acre plantations.
The comparison must be made between the total capital
invested in fencing at the end of the 2nd year when the last
10 acres is just completed.

10 acres at a
time
(30 acres in all).

40 acres
at the
beginning.

Cost of fencing 10 acres in the present year

£ S. D.

29 6 8

£ S. D.

Cost of fencing 10 acres I year ago, ^"29, 6s. 8d.
amounts in I year* to .

30 7 o

Cost of fencing 10 acres 2 years ago, ^29, 6s. 8d.
amounts in 2 years* to

3i 8 3

~rr

Cost of fencing 40 acres 2 years ago, /5$ 1 35. 46.
amounts in 2 years* to

62 16 6

Total

/9T I II

£62 16 6

* Interest reckoned at 3^ per cent, per annum.

Thus, although 10 acres be fenced, -which is not going
to be planted, there is a saving of £28, 5s. 5d., or nearly
of £i an acre.

DRAINAGE OP LAND.

It may sometimes happen that a large area of land is
at present valueless, because it is water-logged, but that a
small outlay in providing means whereby the water may be
carried off, will result in the whole area becoming sufficiently
drained and capable of growing timber. In such a case, the
cost per acre over the whole area will be small, and the work
can advisedly be undertaken.

It should be remembered that there are many soils,
practically barren for agricultural purposes, which will grow
good timber if only they be not too dry, or not too wet.

Any drainage of forest land must always be by open

DRAINAGE OF LAND 65

" cuts ; " any system of pipe drainage is of course out of the
question.

Any systematic "herring bone" drainage, as is adopted
on agricultural land, can seldom, if ever, be adopted in forestry,
if a profit be desired.

Fortunately it is, generally speaking, only on stiff clay
soils where such a course would ever be wanted. Now,
supposing that open "cuts" be made 21 feet apart on flat
stiff clay land, the cost per acre, including a contribution
towards " mains " and culverts, would amount to about
£4, I os. But this sum is prohibitive ; for forest growth is
very slow on stiff clay lands, and a profit would seldom be
earned on this additional outlay.

However, much benefit will often accrue on such land by
making a certain number of channels, so as to lead superfluous
water off as quickly as possible.

Open ditches should be cut on one or both sides of the
rides in such plantations, and branch channels at intervals
should discharge at an acute angle into them.

The branch channels dissecting the compartments should
have an average depth of 3 feet, and should be about
1 5 inches wide, and cut with practically a vertical face ; and
the main channels should have an average depth of 3 feet
6 inches.

Culverts must be provided where these channels cross the
rides ; they may be made " box-shaped " with 2-inch creosoted
planks, or else concrete pipes, 12 to 24 inches diameter, may
be used. These home-made concrete culverts are very much
cheaper than purchased pipes of similar bore.

The open ditches by the sides of the rides serve not only
for carrying off water, but also as convenient points for com-
bating forest " ground " fires.

Cost of Draining. — The cost of making the " cuts " 3 feet
deep, will on stiff clay soil be 8d. a rod ; and if the " cuts " be
3 feet 6 inches deep, lod. a rod.

Now, if an area of 40 acres were divided up by channels
into blocks 44 yards by 44 yards (i.e. just under half an acre
each), there would be 40 rods of " cuts " or " ditches " to be

E

66 PLANTING

made per acre ; which, at Sd. a rod, would be £it 6s. 8d. per
acre; or, adding for culverts and mains (say) £i, ics. per
acre.

In cases where land will grow a crop of some hardy, non-
exacting species, but is too wet for some more exacting and
more valuable species, it will usually be the better plan to
grow the non-exacting species, without going to the
expense of draining, rather than to drain the land and grow
the more valuable species. This latter species will probably
be able to follow on as a second crop at the end of the rotation ;
for, it must be remembered that a crop of trees will drain the
soil to a very great extent of superfluous moisture ; the water
table will be lowered ; and the decaying roots of the previous
crop afford little water channels to carry away water to the
subsoil.

The effect of drainage by trees is sometimes very marked ;
the surface soil on peaty land often being lowered some
6 inches to i foot.

When draining peat lands of any depth, it is preferable
to effect the drainage by 2 or 3 operations, rather than
by I operation ; for in the latter case it will often happen
that the sides of the cutting will fall in. After draining, the
peat will shrink to an extraordinary degree, and planting
should not usually take place until the peat has fairly
settled.

There is another matter with respect to drainage, which
is of great importance to have regard to, and that is, the
extreme danger of draining land on which, or near to which,
a crop of timber is growing. And especially is this the case
if the crop be approaching maturity. Drainage effected for
agricultural purposes has often been known to adversely
affect a plantation near by.

OTHER PRELIMINARY OPERATIONS.

Cleaning and Preparing the Land. — It will almost
always be advisable to burn off all rubbish and rank growth
that may exist on the surface of the land. This will lessen

PLOUGHING LAND 67

the danger of the young plants being choked ; it will provide
a small quantity of easily soluble plant food, and it may
lessen the danger of insect and fungoid attacks.

When planting up, for the first time, land which is now
covered with a thick matting of grass, it will generally be
advisable, after burning it, to plough it over and bury the sod,
though there are exceptions to this rule.

There are, however, many foresters who are directly
opposed to such a course, and who maintain that it is not
only a needless expense, but that its adoption is likely to be
followed by evil effects.

It is asserted that, although the trees usually grow far
better for the first few years, their roots penetrate deeper into
the soil than would be the case if the surface were not
ploughed, and that, as the surface soil becomes consolidated,
these trees will suffer in consequence, owing to their roots
having an insufficient supply of air. And, to support this
contention, it is usual to instance the failure in early life of
some particular crop which has been grown on arable land.

Now, that certain crops, Scots Pine in particular, grown
on old arable land, especially if of a stiff nature, do often
succumb or show signs of failing before maturity is reached,
is a fact beyond doubt. But there is not the slightest
evidence to prove that it is due only to the effects of ploughing
the land.

When land is ploughed, it very soon gets consolidated
again, and, in 12 months' time, before the roots of the
young trees can have grown very much, the pressure of the
surface soil will be just as great as though it had never been
ploughed ; and this pressure will be far greater than the
pressure exerted by the humous surface soil of land previously
under a good crop of timber. Thus it is evident that the
mere fact of ploughing cannot be followed by such detrimental
results.

It is quite possible that old arable land that has been
richly manured may cause constitutional weakness in trees,
and render them more susceptible to fungoid diseases ; but
it must always be remembered that whenever the roots of

68 PLANTING

trees descend into a subsoil unfavourable to them, whether
it be a stiff, wet clay, or an impenetrable rock, or a barren
sand, they will of necessity show signs of failing. But, that
the ploughing of land will cause the roots, beyond the first
season's growth, to descend into the subsoil, is highly
improbable.

The great advantages of ploughing ordinary pasture
land are, that the young trees are more likely to become
immediately established, as their fibrous roots have a plentiful
supply of fine soil through which to push their way directly
growth begins, and they have not to compete with a thick
matting of turf for their food requirements and moisture. A
soil covering of turf transpires far more moisture than is
evaporated from the surface of bare land ; and it also prevents
rain and moisture from reaching the roots of the trees, as
may easily be realised by anyone who cuts a turf from a
lawn after a heavy storm of rain in a dry summer. The dry
state of the soil under the turf will often make it difficult to
imagine that there has been any rain at all. Then again, the
young crop will not require such attention in being kept clean
and free from being choked, as would be the case if planting
had been done direct on the turf, and smaller plants can be
used ; thus very greatly lessening the expense of planting.
On poor land the surface will remain fairly clean for 2 years
or more, but on rich land a strong growth of weeds and grass
will soon appear ; but even in such cases, it will generally be
possible to use plants one year younger than would otherwise
have been advisable. Furthermore, -wherever grass can be
prevented from growing, the danger from late and early
frosts -will be very much lessened;1 especially is this the
case on southern aspects.

Now, ploughing the land will, generally speaking, only be
necessary when the soil is covered with grass; on heather
soils, all that is necessary is usually to burn the surface.
But there are, however, certain cases when a surface cover-
ing of grass is not detrimental, and may even be beneficial.
For instance, on exposed high altitudes, its shelter will
1 This is explained later on in Chapter V., pp. 72, 73.

ROADS AND RIDES 69

benefit the plants ; but in such places the grass itself is not
usually tall and rank ; and the turf has not a close, matted
sod, like turf on good land ; nor is there the same com-
petition for plant food and water. So also, there is not the
same danger of late and early frosts during the growing
season.

And, furthermore, on poor shifting sands a loose covering
of grass will be beneficial by binding the soil together.

The Laying out of Rides and Compartments. — This
matter has already been alluded to.1 The general rule was
stated that the broad main rides or roads should be made
parallel to, or in the direction of, the prevailing winds ;
whilst only narrow rides should run at right angles to the
prevailing winds, so as to minimise the danger of windfall,
which is greatest in even-aged high forest and under the group
system.

But this general rule must sometimes be departed from
on account of the natural features of the ground. The main
ride or road should, on undulating land, be marked out with
an easy, even gradient, where possible ; avoiding unnecessary
bridges and steep inclines.

When large areas are planted, it will often be advisable
to convert some of the main rides into good hard metal
roads. If stone can be quarried near by, the cost of metalling
the roads will vary from 35. 6d. to 6s. a yard run. But such
an outlay should never be undertaken at the beginning of
a rotation ; as money would be needlessly spent without any
benefit being obtained for a long term of years.

When steep hillsides are planted, the main ride should
be along the valley at the bottom, down to which the timber
may easily be dragged ; or slides may be made to effect the
same purpose.

The proportion of any woodland area occupied by roads
and rides is often very considerable ; and, when the land is
valuable, it involves a direct loss of income ; a matter which
should be taken into account when making financial calcula-
tions.

1 Vide Chapter II.

CHAPTER V.

PLANTING — continued.

AS TO THE CHOICE OF TREES TO PLANT.

CONCERNING ALSO THE SPECIAL DEMANDS OF TIMBER
TREES, AND THEIR HABITS, AND THE CONDITIONS
SUITED TO THEIR GROWTH, AND THEIR FINANCIAL
RETURNS.

BEFORE describing the actual methods by which trees may
be planted, it is necessary to discuss at some length : —

(1) The individual demands of trees as to locality and

soil.

(2) Their peculiarities of growth, and the conditions

suited to their growth.

(3) The financial returns that may be anticipated from

planting any particular species.

For, without such knowledge, and without paying the
very greatest attention to such considerations, it is impossible
ever to carry out planting operations with success.

An enormous sum of money is annually wasted by
planting trees in localities and soils unsuited to them ; and
also by making injudicious mixtures of trees which are
otherwise suited to the locality.

THE INDIVIDUAL DEMANDS OP TREES AS TO
LOCALITY AND SOIL.

The chief factors determining the possibility of trees grow-
ing successfully, as far as locality and soil are concerned, are : —

(i) The supply of moisture in the soil and atmosphere.

70

ASPECT 71

(2) The shelter and protection that exists from gales and

from late spring and early autumn frosts.

(3) The depth of the soil.

(4) The mechanical condition of the soil ; its adhesiveness

or otherwise, etc.
To some extent, however, these factors are interdependent.

Before, however, attempting to make a choice, a careful
study of all trees in the neighbourhood should be made ; for,
provided conditions be similar, the evidence of growing
timber is far more reliable than any individual opinion.
But, of course, the absence of certain trees in a locality does
not necessarily prove that they will not succeed if planted.

Then again, before the above considerations can be fully
taken into account, it will be necessary to dig trial holes at
intervals over the area to be planted, so as to satisfy oneself
as to the nature of the soil and the moisture it contains,
etc.

Besides the four factors just mentioned, there are other
considerations to which regard must be paid, such, for
instance, as the requirements as to plant food and as to heat.
And so, again, the possibility of floods, the likelihood of
fire, and so on.

Now, before considering how the various species of trees
are affected by these factors, it is necessary to consider the
manner in which the aspect and altitude will influence the
locality and the soil.

The Aspect exerts a far greater influence on the locality
and over the welfare of tree growth than is usually supposed ;
especially is this the case where young crops are concerned.
In almost all cases the growth of trees is far better on
northern, north-eastern, and north-western aspects, than on
southern, south-eastern, or south-western aspects. In a
general way, it may be said that southern aspects are
hot and dry, and that northern aspects are cool and moist.

The intensity of the sun's rays is greater on sloping land
with a southern aspect than is the case on flat land ; and it
is least on slopes with a northern aspect. This is a direct
cause for both the soil and the atmosphere being drier on

72 PLANTING

southern than on northern aspects. Now, inasmuch as the
decay of leaves and humus, which hold moisture, as it were
like a sponge, is very much more rapid on southern aspects,
it follows that this loss of humus is accompanied by a corre-
sponding diminution in the available amount of moisture for
the crop. It is this lack of sufficient moisture which is
usually responsible for the less vigorous growth of trees on
southern aspects than is evidenced on northern aspects.

The prevalence of, and the damage caused by, late spring
and early autumn frosts, especially to young crops, is, to a
very great extent, governed by the aspect of the locality ; or
more correctly, by the aspect when considered along with the
altitude. These frosts are a more frequent cause of the
failure of young plantations than is commonly imagined.

The Influence of Aspect and Altitude on Frosts. — In
discussing this question, it is necessary to remember that
these late spring and early autumn frosts are very local
indeed. They occur usually on still, cloudless nights, when
the air is very dry, and especially after a hot, sunny day.
The area affected is usually very circumscribed ; and it is
the lowest land in the locality, especially if wet, that is
affected, to which the cold air sinks, and from whence it
cannot find an outlet ; whereas the land a few feet higher
will, as the cold air descends, and is therefore in motion, often
escape. Hence it is that these frosts are far more common
on southern aspects, where the air is dry, and at relatively
low altitudes, where the cold air remains stationary. Then
again, they are more common on stiff, wet land, which a hot
sun has chilled by evaporation, than on well-drained land.
They often extend over a large area of flat land, as, rela-
tively, it is low-lying land ; whereas on undulating and on
sloping land, the frost is confined to the valleys, dells, or
coombes. Another very important point to remember is, that
there is a greater liability to these frosts on maiden land
covered with grass and weeds, than on land that is perfectly
clean, or which has a good layer of humus covering it. For
in this latter case, the rapid evaporation of water and radiation
of heat is retarded ; whereas if there be a surface covering

ALTITUDE 73

of grass, any moisture thereon is quickly evaporated, and the
radiation of heat from the grass itself is very rapid, and thus
a frost is often induced. Also, the free circulation of air, near
the ground, is interfered with.

The liability to damage by spring frosts is almost
always more severe on southern aspects, because on such
aspects the trees break into leaf much earlier than on
northern aspects.1 So also the actual damage is usually
more severe, as, so often, the bright morning sun rapidly
thaws the twigs still covered with frozen rime. The slower
that the twigs thaw, the less will be the damage that will be
done.

Aspect and Altitude in Reference to Gales. — It is
necessary to consider these two factors together, for it does
not necessarily follow that the higher the altitude the greater
the damage that will be done by storms ; though such may
be apprehended when the aspect faces the direction of the
prevailing winds. Local knowledge is of great importance in
this respect, but it will usually be found that the south and
west of the country are more exposed to south-westerly
gales, whereas the north and east are more exposed to
north-easterly gales ; though any range of mountains or hills
in the neighbourhood will greatly determine this question.

Altitude in Reference to Tree Growth. — In this country
any reference to the actual altitude above sea level at which
trees will grow is liable to be very misleading ; especially
if comparisons be made with data as to altitudes at which
similar trees will grow on some big continent. The highest
altitudes in this country are barren, wind swept, rocky
peaks ; whereas the same altitudes on a big continent are
often at a relatively low altitude.

In Great Britain there is very little land above 1000 feet
which is suitable for timber growing ; and there is a great
deal at a lower altitude even than this which is far too
exposed and barren for timber growing. The relative alti-
tude is the determining factor.

1 And on high altitudes the growing season is very much shorter, and
spring activity much later than at low altitudes.

74 PLANTING

1. The Demands of Trees as to Moisture.

The amount of moisture, both in the soil and in the
atmosphere, is perhaps the most important consideration
affecting tree growth. The majority of trees prefer a moist
atmosphere ; especially is this the case with Sitka Spruce,
Sitka Cypress, Norway Spruce, Silver Fir, Douglas Fir,
Thuya gigantea, Ash (European), most Poplars, Alder, Cup-
ressus macrocarpa^ and Spanish Chestnut.1 However, Scots
Pine, Austrian Pine, and Corsican Pine prefer a dry atmo-
sphere.

Then again, the majority of trees require a plentiful
supply of moisture in the soil for their healthy development
and to make good the losses caused by transpiration. This
is especially the case with the above class requiring a moist
atmosphere, and so also with Tree Willows, White Poplar,
Black Poplar, Black Italian Poplar (P. Canadensis), Peduncu-
late Oak, Hornbeam, and Weymouth Pine.

Trees such as Sycamore, Norway Maple, Beech,2 Sessile
Oak, Larch, and Elm will succeed with rather less moisture.

The White Ash (F. Americana) will thrive on soils far too
dry for the Common Ash. So too, White Alder and Abies
concolor. Aspen Poplars, and Walnut trees will grow on
quite dry soils, and (perhaps) Sitka Cypress.

The best trees for very dry soils are Scots Pine, Austrian
and Corsican Pines, Acacia, Birch, and Mountain Ash.

Those trees thriving on dry soils, will, generally speaking,
thrive also on soils containing more moisture.

Birch is the most accommodating tree of all, and will grow
practically anywhere, even on sour, ill-drained soils. But,
with the exception of Birch, no trees can grow on ill-drained
land which is sour, or wet with stagnant water.

A moderate excess of water, provided it be well aerated
and is not stagnant, is not detrimental to Alder, Willows,

Spanish Chestnut will grow in a dry atmosphere and on fairly dry

soil, but the timber is then usually very shaky ; whereas, with sufficient

moisture, and other conditions suitable, it is usually of very fine quality.

2 Beech will thrive with considerably less moisture, on chalk and

other limestone soils, than otherwise appears necessary for its well-being.

MOISTURE AND TREE GROWTH 75

Poplars, Sitka Spruce, or Norway Spruce ; though, as already
stated, it is usually very difficult to get trees established on
wet localities on account of the increased danger from
frosts.

To a great extent, a damp soil will afford conditions
suitable for growing trees which on drier soils will only
thrive if the air be moist. And vice versa, a moist air will
make good the deficiencies of a dry soil ; 1 for the relative
humidity of the atmosphere will determine, to a great extent,
the degree of transpiration effected by any tree.

Thus imported trees which are naturally found in high
mountainous regions in their native country, where perhaps
the soil is thin and not capable of holding much water, but
where they are constantly shrouded in mist, will succeed,
here in Britain, only on moist soils at low altitudes, or
where the air is moist, such as in the neighbourhood of large
sheets of water — the sea, or inland lakes.

Such trees as Norway Spruce, and, to a less extent, Silver
Fir, will usually succeed far better in high mountainous
regions in their own country than they will in Great Britain.
For though in this country they may be planted on moist
soil, and though the summer rainfall may be far greater than
is the case in their native home, yet the growing season is
longer in this country and transpiration continuously more
active. Whereas, in their native home the growing season is
very short, and excessive transpiration is so often checked by
mists and fogs, and on account of the short growing season,
the total amount of moisture required is less than in this
country. Norway Spruce is more suited for growth in
Scotland than in England ; whereas, for Silver Fir, England
is more suitable, on account of the warmer summers.

From the foregoing, it will be evident that on southern
aspects, where the air is dry and, in most cases, the soil also,
care should be taken to plant only such trees as make slight
demands for moisture. Though at high elevations, owing to
the growing season being shorter and owing to active

, 1 Thus on dry soils a far greater choice of trees is possible on
northern aspects than on southern aspects.

76 PLANTING

transpiration being often retarded, a lesser degree of moisture
will usually be admissible. Or perhaps a southern aspect
will be advisable where otherwise a northern aspect would
be indicated.

2. The Demands of Trees as to Shelter and Protection
from Gales and Frosts.

The necessity for considering the liability of trees being
damaged or thrown by storms is far greater when planting
maiden land than when planting well-managed forest land.
In the former case, there is probably no shelter from other
crops of trees ; whereas in the latter case, if fellings have been
made in a direction opposite to that of the prevailing winds,
the older compartments will protect the younger crops.
Though on exposed steep hills this protection will be reduced
to a minimum.

The trees which are most likely to be thrown by the wind
are Norway Spruce and English Elm. Sitka Spruce, how-
ever, is a storm-proof tree, and has a much deeper root
system than Norway Spruce.

Douglas Firs are rather liable to have their tops blown
off, but if planted over large areas this danger greatly dis-
appears.

Scots Pine is very liable to be broken by any weight of
snow on its branches, as they are brittle. But it must none
the less be considered as a very storm-proof tree.

Although most trees, except Norway Spruce and English
Elm, are firmly anchored to the soil by their roots, yet many
of these must, for other reasons, be avoided in exposed
places.

The trees best suited to -withstand ordinary gales are :
— Austrian Pine, Corsican Pine, Scots Pine, Sycamore, and
Norway Maple.

Now, when planting up maiden land, it will often be
necessary to plant shelter belts of these storm-proof trees.
For such a purpose the Austrian Pine and Sycamore are
perhaps the most suitable. These belts should be about 30

SEA COAST PLANTING 77

feet wide, and are, of course, more efficient if planted some
years before the rest of the land. And they should always
be heavily thinned so as to encourage the formation of bushy
trees. Their efficiency is increased if evergreen shade-bear-
ing bushes are also planted.

Very few trees will thrive if subjected to gales and the
salt spray of sea-water. The best trees to plant in such
localities are the Austrian Pine, Maritime Pine (P. pinaster),
Bank's Pine (P. Banksiana), Corsican Pine, Cupressus macro-
carpa, and (probably) the White Spruce (Picea alba).

Whereas, if conditions are a little more favourable, and
also of course depending on the soil, the following trees may
succeed : Sycamore, Norway Maple, White Poplar, Ever-
green Oak, Turkey Oak, and Pinus insignis.

And again, there are several shrubs which will stand
sea-spray and exposure, the best being Sea Buckthorn
(Hippopkcs rhamnoides), Escallonia, Tamarisk, Euonymus,
Gorse, and Privet.

The susceptibility of various trees to late spring and early
autumn frosts has already been referred to.1 But it should
be noted that there is often a distinct " frost-line," in many
cases only a few feet from the ground, and that, when once
tender trees are above this line, they will usually continue to
grow without further injury. Now, as late frosts do not
always occur every year, a quick-growing species, though
tender, may sometimes succeed in a frost locality ; and some-
times big trees are planted in such a locality in order that
they may quickly grow above the frost-line. But, in any
known frost locality, or where experience would lead one to
anticipate these frosts, only frost-hardy trees should ever be
planted. Such trees are Birch, Corsican Pine, Austrian
Pine, Scots Pine, White Poplar, Aspen Poplar, and Sitka
Cypress.

Furthermore, it should be remembered that trees which
have not recovered from the shock of planting are far more
susceptible to damage than trees which are well-established
and vigorous.

1 Vide Chapter III.

78 PLANTING

3. The Demands of Trees as to Depth of Soil.

With reference to the depth of soil required by trees, the
condition of the subsoil or the rock underneath the surface-
soil is often one of the most important factors to be taken
into consideration. If the subsoil consist of a disintegrated
rock, a shallower surface-soil will suffice than would be the
case if the rock were unbroken. So also, if the stratification
of the rock be vertical, a shallower surface-soil will suffice
than if it were horizontal.

Deep soils are always more beneficial than shallow soils,
even if the trees be shallow rooted species. For the roots of
trees will have a greater space in which to find the food they
require, and there will usually be a more constant supply of
moisture.

The trees requiring the greatest depth of soil in a
finely divided state, are : — Oak, Spanish Chestnut, Ash, Black
Walnut, Acacia, Silver Fir, Douglas Fir, Cupressus macro-
carpa, Thuya gigantea, Weymouth Pine, and Sitka Spruce.

Whereas, on very shallow soils of about 15 inches in
depth, only Birch and Aspen Poplar will grow if the subsoil
be impenetrable. Spruce would grow on such a shallow soil if
there were sufficient moisture in the soil and air, but in this
country such would rarely be the case.

There are, however, some trees which naturally require
rather a deep soil, but which will grow on shallow soils, if
the subsoil rock be disintegrated. Thus Larch, Beech,
Scots Pine, English Elm, Sycamore, and Norway Maple
will grow on shallow clay soils overlying oolitic limestone.

Beech will thrive well on thin soils overlying the chalk.

Scots Pine, which naturally requires a deep dry soil,
is very accommodating, and will succeed well on many quite
shallow soils.

Trees naturally requiring a deep soil, will usually, if
grown on soil without sufficient depth, fall off greatly in
height, and never reach maturity ; and any timber which may
be grown will be of poor quality.

On shallow soils, it is often possible to grow poles 30

STIFF SOILS 79

and 40 years of age, of such trees as require a deep soil ;
whereas it would be quite impossible to grow mature timber
of such trees.

4. The Demands of Trees as to the Mechanical Condition

of the Soil.

The soil best suited to the growth of most trees is a
slightly stiffish loam with a deep soil covering of decaying
humus. Very porous soils are usually dry, especially if
shallow, and hence only suited to a comparatively small
number of trees, whereas on very stiff soils the choice of
trees is still more limited. In this latter case the roots have
a difficulty in penetrating, and they do not obtain enough
air, and the soil gets sour. The natural drainage on such
soils is bad, and they are more liable to late and early frosts.
Often, especially on sandy gravels on which only heather is
growing, there will be a pan or a hard, thin, impenetrable
layer a few inches below the surface of the soil. The roots
of trees will never penetrate such a pan ; and if it be neces-
sary to plant such land, the pan must be artificially broken up.

So also in cases where the seedling growth of trees is
required, it is most essential to have a few inches of the
humous soil, for, apart from the extra amount of moisture
assured on dry soil, it will enable the growth of seedling
roots to proceed with little hindrance.

Now, on the stiffest soils the best trees to plant are
Norway Spruce, White Poplar and Pedunculate Oak, though
the growth of all, and especially of the latter, will be very slow.

But it must be remembered that very stiff soils are not
at all suited to tree growth. Often, however, good Spanish
Chestnut coppice is grown on stiff clays, and it would seem
that many trees will succeed better on stiff soils when
coppiced, than when grown for timber. On soils not quite
so stiff, but, however, still classed as heavy land, the three
trees just mentioned will thrive, and also Sessile Oak, Black
Poplar, Black Italian Poplar, Sitka Spruce, Cupressus
macrocarpa, Silver Fir, Thuya gigantea, Hornbeam, Spanish
Chestnut, Sycamore, Norway Maple, and Beech, so also

80

PLANTING

Scots Pine, Corsican Pine, and Douglas Fir ; but it will
often be found that a short rotation, especially for the last
3 species, will have to be adopted.

Ash is the most particular of all trees, and will succeed
best on really deep stiffish loams, though lighter land,
especially moist humous soil, with a clay bottom about 4
feet below the surface, will also suit it. In a general way,
it may be said that soil really suited for growing Ash is
usually worth 303. to £2 an acre for farming purposes.

Larch is also very particular if it is to be grown to
perfection. Deep, stiff, adhesive clays are quite unsuited
to it ; so also are light, dry, porous soils, and thin soils over-
lying chalk. It delights, however, in a stony, rocky soil, if
it can obtain sufficient moisture.

Thin clays with a disintegrated rocky or stony subsoil
are very suited to it ; so also are good deep loams. When
planted on stiff clays, chalk, or dry gravels, it usually becomes
hollow or " pumped."

On light, porous soils, the best trees to plant are Scots,
Austrian, and Corsican Pines, Acacia, Birch, and White Alder.

As to Food Requirements. — The food requirements of
trees are very slight when compared to the requirements
of agricultural crops. Even the poorest soils can usually
provide all the food material necessary, provided always that
the fallen leaves be not removed from the soil.

According to Ebermayer, the loss per acre of Lime,
Potash, and Phosphoric Acid, occasioned by the removal
of crops of timber, will amount on the average in Ibs. per
acre per annum

Lime.
CaO.

Potash,
K2O.

Phosphoric Acid,
P20s-

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

By removal of timber only .

9

4

1-4

By removal of timber and leaves

62

II

8

Whereas cereal crops remove on the
average about . . .

H

28

21

SYMBIOSIS 81

It will thus be evident that most of the valuable mineral
ash is determined to the leaves, and that the timber itself
contains only a little. Hence the rapid soil deterioration,
as far as mineral plant food is concerned, that takes place
when leaves are removed from woodlands. The removal
of leaves is, moreover, also accompanied by a loss of moisture
and also a loss of nitrogen, for decaying leaves and humus
afford the chief source of nitrogen in the form of nitric acid
for the growing trees.

Now, experiments have shown that the leaves of many
trees, especially Beech, Hornbeam, and Poplars, will, as they
decay, become associated with conditions under which the
free nitrogen of the air is rendered available for plant food.
The free nitrogen of the air is also utilised by leguminous
trees such as Acacia (Robinia) by means of micro-organisms
contained in nodules on their roots. There are also trees
which are not leguminous, such as Alder, which have nodules
on their roots containing a fungus, and which, by a process
of symbiosis, manufacture and absorb nitrogenous substances,
which are, in their turn, utilised by the tree.

A somewhat similar condition prevails in the case of
Oak, Spanish Chestnut, Beech, and some other trees, on
whose roots are small mico-rhizas, the mycelial filaments of
which absorb nitrogenous substances for the tree, and perhaps
also manufacture them, thus utilising the free nitrogen of
the air.

So also, a symbiotic growth is witnessed when mixtures
of Pinus montana and Spruce are made. In this case, it
would seem that a fungus on the roots of the former aids in
the provision of nitrogenous food material for the latter ;
especially is this the case on poor sandy soils.

The amount of nitrogen required by timber crops is very
small when compared to the requirements of agricultural
crops. The perpetual removal of mature timber from well-
managed woodlands should never result in a loss of nitrogen
to the soil. There will, on the other hand, often be an actual
gain of soil nitrogen.

The average amount of lime, potash, and phosphoric

F

82

PLANTING

acid lost by the removal of mature timber has already been
noticed. But it is necessary to note that under coppice
systems, the loss to the soil of mineral plant food and of
nitrogen is more than double the loss sustained by removing
mature timber. This is evident from analyses, which show
that the percentage of Ash constituents in various parts of
trees varies considerably, as is shown by the following
table:—

Per cent, of Ash varies from

In Conifers.

In Deciduous
Trees.

Large timber*

•3 to .5

•3 to I -0

Twigs and small branches .

I-O „ 2-0

•8 „ 2-0

Bark ....

2-0 to 6-0

Leaves ....

1-5 „ 3-o

37 „ 7-6

* The heartwood of a tree contains less ash than the sapwood ; also, most of the
nitrogen in timber is found in the sapwood, there being hardly any in heartwood.

In a general way, it may be said that broad-leaved trees
remove more valuable mineral food from the soil than
conifers, that Beech removes more than other deciduous
trees, and that Silver Fir removes more than the Pines or
Spruces. But the amount is so small that the artificial
manuring with " cinereals " is not necessary.

Though, were leaves habitually removed for litter, etc.,
the loss of plant food would soon be evident.

It will be noticed that the annual requirements of trees
for timber and leaves, amount, in the case of potash and
phosphoric acid, to less than half of that removed per acre
per annum by cereal crops, and that the amount of lime
required for trees is nearly 5 times that removed by cereal
crops, but that, as the leaves contain most of the lime,
potash, and phosphoric acid, these minerals are annually
returned to the soil in an available form.

It should be remembered that any analysis of tree leaves

PERCENTAGE OF ASH

83

is liable to be rather misleading if it be taken as a guide to
the food requirements of any particular crop, or the amount
of plant food returned per acre per annum by the fall of the
leaves. For, before any correct conclusions can be arrived at,
the total weight of leaves produced per acre per annum must
be ascertained. Analyses show that the percentage of Ash
per unit of weight is far greater in deciduous broad-leaved
trees than in conifers. This is shown by the following
table :—

Ash

Black Poplar .

Elm

Lime

Acacia .

Sycamore
Aspen Poplar .
Willow .
Oak . / .

White Poplar

As far as the chemical constituents are concerned, the
best trees to plant on really poor soils are : —

Birch, Scots, Corsican, and Austrian Pines, Aspen
Poplar, Acacia, Mountain Ash, and White Alder.

The trees requiring most plant food are : —

Beech, Hornbeam, Spanish Chestnut, Silver Fir, Ash,
Elm, Oak, Sycamore, and Black Poplars.

Some trees show a preference or a dislike to certain
minerals in the soil.

Thus, any excess of lime is usually detrimental to
Douglas Fir, Weymouth Pine, Spanish Chestnut, Pinus

Per cent, of
Ash per unit
of weight,
about

Per
Ash
of
i

cen
per
iveig
ibou

7-6

Hornbeam . . ."|

I

Beech . . . .1
Birch . . . . f

4-0

\ 7-o

'

White Alder . . J

6-5

Common Alder

37

6-0

Silver Fir

3-o

Larch ....

2-5

»•

Spruce . . . .}
Weymouth Pine . . >
Scots Pine . . J

2-4

4-6

Austrian & Corsican Pine

1-8

84 PLANTING

pinaster. Plane trees, and Tulip trees. It seems to act as a
poison to them.

Whereas, Beech, Ash, Corsican Pine, Austrian Pine, Yew,
Walnut, and Box distinctly prefer a calcareous soil.

Larch usually prefers soils with plenty of lime in them,
though it never thrives where chalk is near the surface ;
this, however, cannot be attributed to the chemical com-
position of the soil or subsoil.

So again, any acidity in the soil usually acts as a poison
to trees.

Land covered -with heather is usually too acid for the
broad-leaved trees, except Alder and Birch, to grow well in,
and only conifers should be planted, for the first rotation, on
such land. Though, if the heather has not been long
established, it would often suffice for broad-leaved trees.
Such a case might occur where arable land had gone out of
cultivation and the heather had only occupied the ground
for a few years. It is the acid contained on heather land
that is so often instrumental in forming a " pan."

On these slightly sour soils, Birch, Alder, and the conifers
will succeed, if there be a sufficiency of moisture, and not an
excess of it. On the driest of such soils, only Birch, Scots,
Corsican, and Austrian Pines should be planted.

Usually speaking, trees are very intolerant of poisons in
either the soil or the air.

Near large towns and factories the atmosphere is often
laden with poisonous compounds. In such a case, deciduous
broad-leaved trees may often succeed when evergreen
trees fail.

The Plane tree (which sheds its bark), Elm, Lime, Acacia,
Black Poplars, Horse Chestnut, and Sycamore are the best
trees to plant when such conditions prevail.

On the other hand, Beech, of the broad-leaved trees, is
the most susceptible ; and of the conifers, Silver Fir.

As to Heat and Warmth. — The effects of heat on tree
growth are very varying ; for the determining point is so
often the amount of available moisture. No locality in this
country is too hot for tree growth, provided that there be a

SOUTHERN ASPECTS 85

sufficiency of moisture in the soil. This, however, is seldom
the case ; for the hotter the soil and situation, the less
moisture will there usually be.

With reference to this matter, it should be noted that
southern aspects are the hottest, and that sandy soils are
the quickest to heat, and, after them, chalky soils ; whereas
northern aspects are the coolest, and clay soils are the
slowest to become heated ; and that, as already stated,
southern aspects and sandy soils are generally too deficient
in moisture to be as favourable for timber growing as
northern aspects, or soils with more moisture in them.

There are, however, certain instances when the warmer
southern aspects are preferable. For instance, on the stiffer
soils with plenty of moisture, tree growth will sometimes be
better than on the cooler aspects ; especially is this the case
when the land is situated at a relatively high altitude, where
the danger from late frosts is minimised. And again, where
oak bark is of importance, that grown on the hottest aspects
will contain the most tannin.

Then again, it is very probable that only the hottest
aspects and localities are suitable for those exotic trees which
are accustomed to very hot summers, and which have a
difficulty in ripening their wood in this country — such, for
instance, as Black Walnut ; but care must also be taken that
the locality has sufficient moisture, and that it is not specially
subject to late spring and early autumn frosts.

Spanish Chestnut does far better in hot localities, pro-
vided there be sufficient moisture, which indeed is essential.
It is a tree far more suited to the south-west of England
than to any other part of Great Britain ; and the same may
be said of Cupressus macrocarpa, though this latter requires
a moist atmosphere as well as a moist soil.

Another advantage that can be claimed for southern
aspects and hot localities is that the extra warmth will
generally be instrumental in the production of better seed ;
especially is this the case with reference to such trees as
Silver Fir and all other imported trees, in whose native
countries hot summers are experienced.

86 PLANTING

However, by way of a summary, it may be stated that
these hot aspects are, especially if the soil be light, very much
more difficult to plant and manage than cool, moist localities ;
for growth in the spring starts early ; late spring and early
autumn frosts are common ; the effects of dry weather in the
summer are always more severe ; and the retention of a soil
covering of humus is a more difficult matter. On such
aspects, planting will often have to be confined to Scots and
Corsican Pines, or merely to Austrian Pine for shelter.

Another matter that should be mentioned is the injurious
effect that a hot sun often has on young plants, especially
when they have been recently planted out. Transpiration
takes place at a greater rate than that at which the roots,
which have not become established, can supply the necessary
amount of water, and hence the young trees wilt, and
often die.

So also, a hot sun in early spring often induces transpira-
tion before the root system has become active ; and nearly
all the evergreen conifers can be seriously injured, and
sometimes killed, in this way ; the leaves turn brown and
fall off.

Silver Fir and Beech are always, when young, very in-
tolerant of a hot sun, and protection from it is almost
imperative ; and, for this reason, these two trees, which will
bear intense shade, are far more suited for underplanting
than for being planted on open ground, and this quite apart
from their susceptibility to late frosts.

Many other trees, such as Thuya gigantea and Douglas
Fir, benefit from a little shade when young.

As to Floods. — Any prolonged flooding of land is detri-
mental to trees. The trees least injured are Alder, Willows,
and Poplars, but even these would probably be killed if
flooded during the time in which the buds were breaking out
into leaf.

In all cases where coppice areas are liable to become
flooded, the stools should be cut some distance from the.
ground, as, otherwise, the latent buds, from which the new
shoots would grow, will become rotten.

FIRE 87

As to Fire. — The danger from fire is one of the greatest
risks with which afforestation is attended. And when
planting and tending crops, every means must be taken to
minimise this risk as far as possible.

The greatest damage is to be apprehended in the case of
coniferous crops, and especially Scots and Corsican Pine.
When planting such crops, all heather and rank growth on
the surface of the land should always be burnt. And Fire
belts or Fire lines ought generally to be planted.

About every 40 acres should be surrounded by a fire
belt ; and they should also be planted by the side of any
much frequented public road, and on either side of railway
lines.

These fire belts should be about 40 feet wide, and should
be composed of broad-leaved trees. The best plan is to
keep them periodically coppiced, and thus have a very
dense canopy, under which it is impossible for heather or
grass to grow. Only one half of the width should be
coppiced at a time, and the other half should be cut some
8 or 10 years later when that portion which was first cut is
well grown up.

Poplars are the least inflammable of any trees, but, as
these fire belts are usually required on very dry Pine soils,
probably the best trees to plant will be the False Acacia
(Robinia), White Alder, and Birch.

On the better soils, fire lines may be made very much
wider, and mature broad-leaved trees grown ; but care must
be taken to keep the canopy always dense, and avoid clear
cutting.

Fire lines of barren sand are very effective, but their
cost is usually prohibitive.

Ordinary ditches, cut round the compartments, are, how-
ever, convenient points at which to attempt to stop an
existing fire.

It is always very advisable to keep all grass on the rides
cut, and have it removed, so that, when a fire occurs, it will
not easily spread across a ride,

88 PLANTING

SUMMARY.

Having regard to all the foregoing, it will be very evident
how difficult it is to make a correct choice of the trees to
plant on any particular soil and in any particular locality.
And, it is still more difficult to lay down any stereotyped
rules for planting any particular class of land.

But, by way of a summary, the following lists are given
for trees suited to particular classes of land, without
reference, however, to the financial advantage of planting one
species in preference to another.

On very Stiff Clays (if deep). — Norway Spruce,1 White
Poplar and Pedunculate Oak, and also for coppice (only),
Spanish Chestnut, Hornbeam, and Hazel.

On Clay Land, not quite so Stiff (if deep). — Norway
Spruce,1 White Poplar, Pedunculate and Sessile Oak, Black
and Black Italian Poplars, Sitka Spruce, Cupressus
macrocarpa, Silver Fir, Thuya gigantea, Common Alder,
Hornbeam, Spanish Chestnut, Sycamore, Norway Maple,
and Beech ; and also Scots Pine, Corsican Pine, and
Douglas Fir, but these latter must be grown on a short
rotation.

Shallow Clay Soils, resting on Disintegrated Lime-
stone Rock. — Larch, Beech, English and Wych Elm, Syca-
more, Norway Maple, Scots and Corsican Pines, and Sitka
Cypress.

On Dry Sands and Gravels. — Scots Pine, Corsican and
Austrian Pines, Birch, Acacia,2 and White Alder.

On Soils not quite so Dry. — The same trees, and also
White Ash and Abies concolor ; and, if a little more
moisture, Beech, Silver Fir, Sessile Oak, Aspen Poplar,
Sycamore, and Norway Maple.

On Thin Soils overlying the Chalk. — Beech, Corsican and
Austrian Pines, Yew, and Box.

On Deep pure Peats. — Birch, Scots Pine, and Weymouth
Pine ; and Norway Spruce, if the peat be not too dry ; and

1 Norway Spruce will also succeed on shallow clay soils.

2 Acacia will not succeed if the soil be sour.

TREES FOR SPECIAL SOILS 89

also, probably, Nordmann's Silver Fir, Corsican Pine,
Cupressus macrocarpa, and Thuya gigantea.

On fairly Shallow Peat Soil l with Deep Mineral Subsoil.
— The same trees, also Silver Fir, Douglas Fir, and
Thuya gigantea ; and Alder, if moist enough.

Sand Dunes on the Sea-Coast. — Austrian Pine, Pinus
pinaster, Scots Pine, Corsican Pine, Pinus Banksiana, and
(probably) White Spruce (P. alba).

For Sea-Coast planting if the Soil be good enough. — The
same trees, and also Cupressus macrocarpa ; and, if some-
what sheltered, Sycamore, Norway Maple, White Poplar,
Evergreen Oak, Turkey Oak, and Pinus insignis.

And, as shrubs — Sea Buckthorn, Tamarisk, Escallonia,
Euonymus, Gorse, and Privet.

For Localities subject to late Spring and early Autumn
Frosts (if the soil be suitable). — Scots, Corsican, and
Austrian Pines, Birch, White Poplar, Sitka Cypress, and
Aspen Poplar.

And lastly, good deep loams with sufficient moisture are
suitable to all trees.

Ash is very particular, and prefers a deep, calcareous,
marly loam.

And in the case of Douglas Fir, Weymouth Pine, Pinus
pinaster, Spanish Chestnut, and Tulip trees, any excess of
lime seems to act as a poison.

THE PECULIARITIES OF GROWTH AND THE CON-
DITIONS SUITED TO THE GROWTH OF TREES.

(A.) Concerning the growth peculiar to individual trees,
the chief points to consider, exclusive of volume increment
and financial returns, are : —

(1) The Shape of the Crowns.

(2) The Relative Height Growth.

(3) The Persistency of Side Branches.

(4) The Shade-bearing or Light-demanding qualities of

different species of trees.

1 These soils will probably be too acid for broad-leaved trees.

90 PLANTING

(B.) And as regards the conditions under which they may
best be grown, it is necessary to consider : —

(1) The Age and Distance apart at which trees should

be planted.

(2) The Merits and Demerits of Pure and of Mixed

Woods, and the Methods of mixing.

(3) The Choice of System under which the crops may

preferably be grown.

(4) The advisability, or otherwise, of a rotation in

cropping.

(5) The Season for Planting.

(A) CONCERNING THE GROWTH PECULIAR TO
INDIVIDUAL TREES.

(1) The Shape of the Crowns.

This is a matter to which due consideration must be
given when planting mixtures of trees, or when contemplat-
ing underplanting, etc. For the final development of the
crowns will, to a great extent, determine the ultimate number
of trees that may be left per acre for the final crop, and the
individual growing space they require. All the broad-leaved
trees and Scots, Corsican, and Austrian Pines naturally
develop a wide branching crown as they grow old. Whereas
Douglas Fir, Larch, Silver Fir, Spruce, and Weymouth Pine,
never normally develop a large crown, but preserve their con-
spicuous central axis even in old age ; though, if grown in
the open, they will generally be clothed to the ground with
a luxuriant growth of side branches. The Sessile Oak grows
naturally with a much straighter stem than the Pedunculate
Oak ; and it is less inclined to form a spreading crown.

As regards those trees which naturally form large crowns,
it may be mentioned that crown development should be
suppressed until the principal height growth is attained, but
that, after that period, it must be encouraged to a very con-
siderable extent, or the trees will unduly suffer.

HEIGHT GROWTH

91

(2) The Relative Height Growth.

This is a very important matter indeed when con-
templating planting a mixture. It is necessary to know
not only the ultimate height growth of the different species
of trees, but also the relative height growth of the trees when
young.

The fastest growing trees when young, and up to about
15 years of age, are, more or less, in the following order
provided that the soil and locality suit each tree : —

CLASS I.

Douglas Fir.
Cupressus macro-

CLASS II. <

Poplars.
Tree Willows.
Sitka Spruce.
Birch.

Norway Maple.
Sycamore.

'Japanese Larch.

Corsican Pine.

Austrian Pine.

Alder.

Ash (F. Oregona).

Ash (F. Americana).

Ash (European).

Weymouth Pine.

European Larch.
^Scots Pine.

I Lime.
Elm.
Thuya gigantea.
Spanish Chestnut.
Norway Spruce.

CLASS

Hornbeam.

Beech.

Oak (Sessile).

(Pedunculate).

CLASS V.

/Silver Fir.
I Yew.

their

Now, with reference to the above : —

Poplars, Willows, and Birch very soon attain
principal height growth, in from 20 to 30 years.

Norway Spruce when about 8 years old, and Silver
Fir when about 16 years old, begin to grow very quickly,
and continue this rapid height growth until their principal
height growth is attained.

Japanese Larch when about 20 years of age will usually
be caught up by the European Larch.

Beech begins to grow fairly rapidly when about 20 years
of age, if the canopy be close.

92

PLANTING

Oak, especially the Sessile Oak, grows fairly fast when
about 35 years of age.

Corsican and Austrian Pines do not retain their very
active growth for more than about 30 to 35 years.

The ultimate height growth of trees, in soils best suited
to them, is somewhat as follows : —

f Douglas Fir.

fWhite Poplar.

CLASS I.,

Sitka Spruce.

Black Poplar.

Attaining

Silver Fir.

Black Italian Pop-

120 feet and over,"
under the best

Norway Spruce.

lar.

conditions.

European Larch.

CLASS III.,

Spanish Chestnut.

.Weymouth Pine.

Averaging
85 to 105 feet, -

Cupressus macro-

when well grown,

carp a.

and on good
soil.

Ash.

Sycamore.

Norway Maple.

Corsican Pine.

^Austrian Pine.

f Thuya gigantea.

CLASS II.,

Sessile Oak.

ITree Willows.

Averaging

Beech.

Birch.

105 to 120 feet <
when well grown,

Pedunculate Oak.

Hornbeam.

and on good
soiL

Scots Pine.

Alder.

;Elm.

Yew.

(3) The Persistency and Vigour of Side Branches.

This is a matter which seldom if ever receives the atten-
tion it merits, and it varies very greatly in different species of
trees. The side branches of shade-enduring trees are
usually the most difficult to prune off naturally, as they
remain alive even in very subdued light ; whereas, under
similar circumstances, the branches of light-demanding trees
would quickly die, and in most cases fall off.

But even when the side branches are dead, some trees
will retain their dead branches for a much longer period than
other trees, and unless the dead branches of trees quickly
fall off, the quality of the timber produced will be very much
lowered.

For when the tree is cut up, it will often contain loose
dead " knots."

SIDE BRANCHES 93

As regards the persistency of the branches, it may be
stated that small dead branches drop off quicker than large
branches.

The side branches of Larch readily fall off, and give
very little trouble ; and next in order come, perhaps, those
of Ash, Birch, Poplars, and Willows.

The side branches of Oak do not very readily fall off;
and for the first 30 years of their life the trees should be
grown very close together, so as to prevent any large
branches ever being formed.

The side branches of Spruce, and Scots, Corsican,
Austrian, and Weymouth Pines, are, even when dead, very
persistent, especially if they be more than an inch in diameter.

On account of their shade-enduring qualities the side
branches of Silver Fir, Beech, Hornbeam, Spruce, and
.Douglas Fir are not readily killed, and will not, if they
become of any size, readily fall off

It is very necessary to pay the greatest attention to this
matter, when deciding on the distance apart at which planting
should be done, or when deciding upon any particular mixture
of trees, and the arrangement of that mixture.

For the success of any even-aged mixture, or at any rate
a mixture where every tree differs from its neighbour, or where
the mixture is by alternate lines of trees, is, apart from soil
and locality, almost entirely dependent upon their relative
height growth and their mutual pruning effects.

In many cases, these two considerations are entirely
ignored ; and the effect produced is often exactly similar to
the evil effects of planting trees too wide apart.

For instance, suppose a mixture of Larch and Silver Fir
were made by alternate trees, planted 4 feet apart. The
Larch would grow much faster than the Silver Fir, and, for
the first 25 years of the life of the crop, conditions would
exist similar to planting pure crops of Larch or Silver Fir
8 feet apart each way ; for, practically speaking, neither of
the trees would exert any pruning effects on each other
until the space of 8 feet were bridged over.

In the case of pure crops, the conditions for natural pruning

94 PLANTING

are ideal, if the trees are planted at the correct distance apart ;
and, when mixtures are made, the same ideal should be aimed
at ; that is to say, the height growth and the persistency of
the side branches should, as nearly as possible, be identical ;
thus admitting of the growth of perfectly clean timber,
pruned only by natural agencies.

Larch and Ash will generally prune each other nicely,
but they will not affect the pruning of side branches on any
other trees to any appreciable extent ; and any other trees
growing next to them in an even-aged mixture, will be of an
inferior quality, unless artificially pruned.

As regards other deciduous trees : — They will prune each
other fairly well, provided their relative height growth be
similar.

The Pines will prune each other nicely, and so will the
shade-bearing conifers, provided, in both cases, the relative
height growth be similar ; but, as regards the latter, there is
usually a great difference in the height growth.

And again, it may be stated as a general rule, that no
deciduous trees will properly prune the evergreen conifers,
even though the height growth be similar.

It must be remembered, that the real efficiency of natural
pruning is due to the fact that side branches are not allowed
to develop. It is quite a fallacy to suppose that well-pruned
trees can be grown, if large side branches have once developed,
unless, indeed, artificial pruning be resorted to. It is impossible
to prune their branches off naturally by means of some
vigorous growing tree. For instance, any idea that badly
grown Oak can be "pruned up with Beech" is quite
fallacious.

This question of the pruning of side branches is of far
greater importance in woods artificially planted, at a distance
of 3 or 4 feet apart, than it is in the case of woods raised
naturally from seed.

In the latter case, the trees are crowded from infancy,
and the development of side branches is always suppressed.

But, in artificial woods, the development of side branches
is encouraged to start with ; for they grow for years, until

SHADE-BEARING TREES 95

a canopy is formed, without interruption ; and, by the time
natural pruning begins, these branches are already big and
formidable.

(4) The Shade-bearing or Light-demanding
Qualities of Trees.

It is very necessary to pay great regard to this matter.
If a mixture be planted, it is imperative that, if the
species chosen have not the same height growth, the species
that grow the slowest are capable of withstanding the shade
of the quicker growing species. So also, when underplanting
is adopted, only the shade-bearing trees can be used. Any
disregard for this question must result in absolute failure.
Care must also be taken when underplanting, that the under-
crop does not catch up the over-crop before it is desired to
fell the latter.

The most light-demanding trees are : — Larch, Birch, Scots
Pine, Oak, Acacia (Robinia), Corsican Pine, Poplars, Willows,
and Elm ; also, Ash and Spanish Chestnut when mature,
though these latter too, and especially Spanish Chestnut, will
bear considerable shade when young, or when grown as
coppice.1

The trees that will bear the greatest amount of shade 2
are : — Silver Fir, Cupressus macrocarpa, Beech, Nordmann's
Silver Fir, Hornbeam, Thuya gigantea ; and, next in order,
come Sitka Spruce, Sitka Cypress, Douglas Fir, Weymouth
Pine, Spanish Chestnut (when young), Hazel, and Lime.

The Norway Spruce will only bear shade when the con-
ditions for its growth are quite favourable ; otherwise it is
quite intolerant of shade.

The shade-enduring trees are all thickly foliaged, and
their canopy is complete, and no soil deterioration should
take place under them ; but the light-demanding trees are
thinly foliaged, and, as maturity approaches, their canopy
becomes broken, and the humus disappears and the soil
becomes covered with a rank growth. The fall of leaves

1 As to the suitability of trees for coppice, vide Chapter X.

2 Vide also Chapter VIII.

96 PLANTING

from Beech and Hornbeam is especially dense and valuable,
and the condition of the soil is much improved by these
species. Spanish Chestnut trees also produce very beneficial
effects ; their canopy is, however, somewhat deficient towards
the end of a rotation.

(B] AS REGARDS THE CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH TREES
MAY BEST BE GROWN.

(1) The Age and Distance apart at which Trees
should be Planted.

These two considerations are largely interdependent.
For, cceteris paribus, the larger the trees, the greater
the distance apart at which they may be planted, and
vice versa. As a rule, trees should never be more than 4
years old when planted out, though occasionally older trees
are planted out as standards over coppice. However, the
older the trees, the greater is their expense, and the longer
they take, in nearly all cases, to become established.

It is no uncommon occurrence for a plantation made with
2-year-old trees, planted close together, to be as far advanced
in 10 years' time as a plantation made with 4-year-old plants
planted at 4 feet or 4 feet 6 inches apart. For the young
trees become more quickly established, and there is not the
same energy of growth dissipated in the production of side
branches.

Owing to the great saving in expense, young i or 2
year seedling trees should always be planted where possible.

This should always be possible on properly managed
forest land from which a crop of timber has just been cleared ;
for it should be perfectly clean. It will also be possible,
almost invariably, on poor heather land ; but on maiden land
where there is a covering of grass or other rank growth, it
will not usually be advisable or possible, unless, by ploughing
the land, it will remain fairly clean at any rate throughout
the first summer. Wherever possible, a cleaning crop, such
as potatoes, should be taken from such maiden land as is

DISTANCE APART FOR PLANTING

97

good enough to prevent a loss of more than 155. an acre
being incurred. For the loss will be refunded by the saving
effected by planting younger plants.

As a general rule, I and 2 year seedling plants should not
be planted farther apart than 2 feet 6 inches to 2 feet g inches
— that is, 7000 to 5800 plants per acre.

For the extra expense of planting the large number of
seedling trees is not very great ; and it is always most
essential to obtain a close canopy as soon as possible ; and
the necessity for rilling up blanks is largely avoided. The
actual distance apart at which trees should be planted,
depends chiefly upon the persistency of the side branches
and the vigour of each year's growth. The side branches
must be naturally killed before they are too big to readily
drop off; in other words, the trees must be planted so close
that large side branches can never develop.

The maximum distance apart at which trees three to four
years old should be planted in even-aged high forest is as
follows : —

5 feet apart

4 feet apart

/Poplars.

' \Tree Willows.

Larch.
Douglas Fir.
Cupressus macro-

carpa.
Ash.

Norway Maple.
Sycamore.
Hornbeam.
Spanish Chestnut.
Beech.
Thuya gigantea.

3 feet apart

2 feet 9 inches

2 feet 6 inches

r Austrian Pine.
Corsican Pine.
Scots Pine.
Weymouth Pine.
Spruce (Sitka), and

up to 3 feet 6

inches apart.
Spruce (Norway).

Oak.1

Silver Fir.

2. The Merits and Demerits of Pure and Mixed Woods,
and the Methods of Mixing.

As regards pure and mixed woods, there are many ad-

1 This close planting of Oak is very advisable, so as to induce height
growth. Only a very small proportion of Oak trees originally planted,
are ever worth leaving when 40 years of age.

G

98 PLANTING

vantages and disadvantages connected with each method.
But, briefly, the advantages of pure -woods are: —

(1) They are very easy to manage, and thinning opera-

tions require least skill.

(2) The whole crop is ready to be cut at the same period.

(3) Trees of the same species reciprocally prune the

branches of each other, better than is the case with
any mixture.

(4) Natural regeneration of one species is more easily

effected than that of a mixture.

But on the other hand, pure woods are often open to
grave disadvantages, namely : —

(1) All thinly foliaged trees open out their canopy when

the principal height growth has ceased, and they are
no longer able to preserve the fertility of the soil ;
rank grass and other growth will appear ; and the
amount of moisture available for the trees will be
much diminished.

(2) The danger from particular insect and fungoid attacks

is increased ; and, in the case of pure coniferous
woods, the danger from fire is greater than when
coniferous trees are mixed with broad-leaved trees.1

(3) Thinnings of some pure crops are often almost value-

less.

On the other hand, when mixed -woods are grown, the
disadvantages of pure woods are largely avoided ; and other
advantages comprise : —

(1) If some species not suited to the soil and locality

have been planted, they may be removed as thinnings,
and other trees which are more suitable may be left
for the final crop.

(2) In the case of shallow rooted trees, the danger from

storms and gales is largely avoided if they be mixed
with deep-rooted trees.

1 Pure Larch, especially if grown on flat cold land or on southern
aspects, is far more liable to Larch Disease than when grown on northern
aspects,

MIXED WOODS: ADVANTAGES 99

(3) Where the soil varies in particular spots, the trees

best suited to such places can be planted, thus
utilising the ground to the fullest advantage.

(4) Where thinly foliaged trees, which alone cannot pre-

serve the fertility of the soil, are mixed with shade-
bearing trees, whose rate of growth must be slower,
the latter, by their soil-improving qualities, cause a
more vigorous and more prolonged growth of the
thinly foliaged trees. For instance, Oak l or Larch,
when mixed with Beech or Hornbeam or Spanish
Chestnut, will grow far finer timber than were the
Oak or Larch grown alone.

(5) Mixtures of thinly foliaged trees with shade-bearing

trees will, provided the latter never outgrow the
former, yield a greater out-turn of timber per acre
than pure crops of thinly foliaged trees, as a greater
number of stems per acre is admissible and the thinly
foliaged trees will have relatively a greater growing
space.

(6) A given soil can often supply sufficient plant food and

water for a mixture of trees, whereas it might not be
able to do so for an exacting pure crop. For different
trees make different demands on the soil for plant
food and water ; and as their root systems differ,
some being deep-rooted and some shallow, the
supplies can be drawn from a larger area.

(7) More valuable thinnings will be realised by introducing

species such as Larch, Ash, and Spanish Chestnut, than
were a pure crop of Oak, Beech, or Silver Fir grown.

(8) The original cost of forming a plantation can often be

reduced by planting a proportion of cheap plants,
which can be removed as thinnings.

Whereas, the chief disadvantages of mixed woods in-
clude the following : —

(i) They are difficult to manage, and require great skill.

1 Oak must be given a start when grown with Beech, or it will be out-
grown and suppressed in most cases.

100 PLANTING

(2) The natural pruning of side branches is often very

defective, and with many mixtures it is impossible to
produce clean straight boles.

(3) Maturity is reached with different species at different
dates.

Now, as regards the formation of mixed woods, the
mixtures may be either : —

(A) EVEN- AGED;

(B) UNEVEN-AGED.

(A) Even- Aged Mixtures: — There are very many ways
of mixing trees in an even-aged mixture, the three chief
ways being : —

(i) By single trees : that is, in a sporadic manner,
(ii) By alternate rows,
(iii) By patches or groups.

(i) and (ii) Mixtures by Single Trees and by Alternate
Rows require the very greatest skill. Neither method will
give good results for all the trees unless the height growth
and the reciprocal pruning effect be similar. It is a common
practice to plant alternate rows of some hardy, quick-growing
trees along with some tender, slow-growing species ; the
hardy species are regarded as " nurses," and are cut out when
not required. But in such a case, the slow-growing, tender
species will seldom be well pruned. A better plan is to
plant at least 3 rows at a time (and often more) of the
tender species, and then a row of nurses ; for by this means
some of the tender species will be properly pruned, and the
pruning will continue after the removal of the nurses. But,
where possible, another excellent plan is to introduce any
tender species which will bear shade — and many of them
will — under the canopy of an existing crop of thinly foliaged
trees, and so make an uneven-aged mixture and bring about
the system of two-storied high forest. And if desired the
over-crop can be gradually removed and an even-aged forest
left. In such a case, however, it is imperative to plant a
large number of seedlings, so as to discount any damage

EVEN-AGED MIXTURES 101

occasioned by the removal of the over-crop, at any rate if
the latter be of any considerable size. In this connection,
it may not be out of place to state that Birch are the best of
all nurses.

So again, mixtures by single trees, when every tree
differs from its neighbour, will seldom be successful ; for even
if the trees have relatively the same height growth, one class
— that is, one-half the crop — will be of very bad quality if
there be a great difference in the mutual pruning of each
other.

For instance, suppose a mixture of Larch and Corsican
Pine be planted, and that one keeps pace with the other.
The Larch will all be excellently pruned, but the Corsican
Pine will, every one of them, be branchy and knotty, as the
Larch will exert no effect upon them whatever. Often it is
thought prudent to introduce into a mixture a valuable
species whose success as a pure crop is doubtful. In such a
case, it should be introduced sporadically, perhaps one tree
every 16 feet apart, and the majority of the crop, known
as the "ruling" species, should consist of trees which will
prune the valuable species correctly, but will not overtop
them. In such a case, the welfare of the valuable species is
the chief consideration. Its success will more than counter-
balance any loss in technical value of their neighbouring
trees, which, even if the valuable species fail, will only form a
small proportion of the whole crop, and can be removed as
thinnings.

For instance, it might be desired to grow some Larch on
cold flat land, but the chances of disease are far too great to
risk a pure crop. But, it would be a perfectly legitimate
gamble to plant Larch at intervals of 20 feet, and to have all
the rest of the area pure Scots Pine.

The great difficulty of planting mixtures by single trees
or by alternate rows, and at the same time obtaining good
results for a fair proportion of the crop, cannot be too strongly
insisted upon.

The old-fashioned promiscuous " nurseryman's " mixtures
must for ever be abandoned. The greater the number of

102 PLANTING

trees introduced into a mixture, the more difficult does the
task of correctly mixing them become.

(iii) Mixtures by Patches or Groups. — However, a
mixture by patches is as a rule the best method of forming
an even-aged mixture. It is the easiest and safest method
of forming a mixture, and any change in the character of
the soil can be utilised to the fullest advantage.

The patches may be of any size — J, £, J, or I acre, or even
more. By such a method, any ill-effects produced by lack of
pruning, or by difference in height growth, is confined only to
the trees forming the outside rings of the patches. Therefore,
the larger the patch, the less harm results from any indiscre-
tion in this respect. Though if the patches be too large,
they are, to all intents and purposes, small pure woods, and
the disadvantages of pure wood have to be considered.

It should be remembered that mixtures are found in
natural virgin forest more often than pure crops. But
Nature's method of mixing trees is to a great extent by
patches, though the patches are often small.

In the case of a mature forest, it will sometimes appear
that the mixing has been by single trees. But this is not so
in a general way. For an old tree dies and leaves a vacant
space, which usually becomes very thickly seeded, and,
although there may be many species seeded on this area, it
will usually happen that in a year or so one species will have
suppressed all others, and a pure patch grows up. And
again, at other times, another patch may be seeded with
another species, owing to differences in seed years and other
causes. And so it happens that the fine, tall, clean trees so
often to be found in virgin forest, have usually been drawn
up and pruned by trees of their own species.

And apart from this fact, it is very much easier for
mixtures to be grown successfully when thick natural seed-
ing has taken place, producing perhaps 100,000 plants to the
acre, than when artificial planting at 3 or 4 feet apart has
taken place ; for in the former case side branches hardly
have a chance of developing.

Again, it is an important matter that, when planting

GOOD MIXTURES 103

mixtures, provision should always be made, if possible, to
insure that the trees removed as thinnings are easily saleable.
The most saleable trees, when small, are usually Larch, Ash,
and Spanish Chestnut. But, of course, very often they
cannot be sacrificed.

(B) Uneven-Aged Mixtures.1 — As regards uneven-aged
mixtures, it is necessary to bear in mind that the younger
trees must always be able to bear the shade of the older
trees.

The following are some notes on particular mixtures by
single trees or alternate rows2 in even-aged high forest,
unless otherwise stated, supposing that soil and situation be
favourable ; and they have reference chiefly to the questions
of relative height growth, and the mutual pruning of side
branches ; leaving out of account financial considerations.

Good or Pair Mixtures.

Oak and Beech quite good. The Beech will often, how-
ever, catch the Oak up ; therefore it is always best to grow
the Oak pure, and to underplant, at about 45 years of age
with Beech, and thus make a two-storied high forest. This
should give most excellent results.

Oak and Spanish Chestnut. — A very good mixture, if the
Chestnut be coppiced before the Oak is surpassed ; then the
Oak should be grown as high forest with coppice. The
best plan with Oak, however, is to grow them pure, and
underplant when from 40 to 55 years of age ; afterwards the
undercrop may be coppiced if suitable. It must be re-
membered that only a very small proportion of any Oak
trees originally planted will be growing vigorously and be
worth leaving at 40 years of age. Hence it is advisable to
grow the crop pure, so as to have a large choice. For if the
ultimate result is to be successful, only quick-growing, vigorous
trees must be left. Hornbeam may take the place of either
Spanish Chestnut or Beech, though it is not so profitable.

1 Vide Chapter VIII.

2 As already stated, the disadvantages can often be lessened or
avoided by planting I row in 4 or 5, etc.

104 PLANTING

Oak with Alder makes an excellent mixture, but the
Alder must be coppiced.

Larch and Ash is quite good. However, one or other
must be ultimately sacrificed ; and underplanting must take
place with Beech or Spanish Chestnut before grass appears.
Often, however, Douglas Fir or Sitka Spruce will be prefer-
able for underplanting the Larch.

Larch and Spanish Chestnut is a very good mixture.
The Chestnut will not be well pruned ; and, by preference,
they should be coppiced.

Larch and Beech is a very good mixture, as far as the
growth of Larch is concerned ; but the Beech will not be well
pruned, and must be looked upon as an aid to growing good
Larch. It is more preferable to grow pure Larch, if the risk
can be taken, as, for instance, on a northern aspect ; or a
mixture of European and Japanese Larch may be grown,
and then either of these crops should be underplanted with
Beech when about 30 years of age.

Larch and Scots, Corsican, or Weymouth Pines. — This
is admissible where pure Larch is deemed too risky, as on
southern aspects, etc. But the Larch should only be
planted sporadically, about every 12 to 20 feet apart. If
planted closer, there would be too large a proportion of the
Pines of poor quality.

Larch and Alder.1 — An excellent mixture, but the Alder
must be coppiced.

Ash and Spanish Chestnut make a very good mixture ;
underplanting might ultimately be necessary, unless the
Chestnuts were coppiced. The Ash will always be the better
grown and cleaner trees.

Ash and Alder is very good, but the Alder must be
coppiced.

Sycamore, Norway Maple, and Spanish Chestnut will
make a very good mixture, but the former should only form
a small proportion of the crop, as they are not usually very
saleable when small.

Weymouth, Corsican, and Scots Pines make quite a good

1 Larch, of course, is out of the question on ordinary Alder soils.

BAD MIXTURES 105

mixture ; especially the two former. Ultimately the Corsican
will be outgrown, and pure Weymouth Pine can be left, or
Weymouth Pine and Scots Pine.

Douglas Pir and Sitka Spruce make a good mixture,
but at present a very expensive one.

Douglas Pir and Thuya gigantea will often be a good
mixture ; the latter will ultimately be outgrown in most
cases.

Poplars and Japanese Larch, or Tree Willows and
Japanese Larch, may be grown together, provided the Larch,
which are grown merely to afford valuable thinnings, do not
form more than half the crop. The Larch will soon be
outgrown, and must be removed as thinnings ; and artificial
pruning will probably be necessary. Underplanting with
Douglas Fir or Sitka Spruce or other trees should then often
be adopted ; and these will ultimately form a coniferous crop
after the Poplars or Tree Willows are mature.

Poplars or Tree Willows with Alder make an excellent
mixture; but the Alder must be treated as coppice on
(about) a 2 5 -year rotation.

Bad and Inferior Mixtures.

As already indicated, the broad-leaved trees should
seldom, if ever, be alternately mixed with the evergreen
conifers. For the latter will, all of them, be coarse and
inferior, and in many cases the broad-leaved trees also will
be coarse and branchy, as when mixed with very slow-grow-
ing conifers, as, for instance, Ash and Silver Fir. But even
if the broad-leaved trees be well pruned, the large number
of inferior conifers will render the mixture inadvisable.

Hence all such mixtures as Oak with the Pines or Spruce,
or Silver Fir, or Douglas Fir, are very objectionable ; so also
are mixtures of Ash with these trees, etc. In most cases,
also, the Oak will be outgrown.

Oak and Larch is objectionable, because the Oak will
soon be outgrown, and will also be unpruned.

Oak and Ash is not good ; for the Ash will soon outgrow
the Oak, and neither will be well pruned.

106 PLANTING

Ash and Beech is bad, as the Beech will surpass and
suppress the Ash. It is, however, an excellent plan to
underplant Ash with Beech. As regards the former case,
it would be perfectly correct if the Ash were cut out before
the Beech caught them up. This might be possible ; but
usually the Beech will begin to interfere with the Ash about
10 years before the latter are mature.

Douglas Fir mixed with any common trees, except Sitka
Spruce or Thuya gigantea, cannot be recommended. The
result will always be similar to growing the Douglas Fir at
great distances apart, for no other trees will prune them to
any extent.

Spruce and Corsican or Scots Pine had better be avoided,
as the Spruce will usually be left behind for the first 20
years. But if it keep pace with these trees, it may be
planted ; only, there is not much advantage in having the
mixture. Ultimately the Spruce will outgrow the Pines.

Silver Fir and Spruce or the Pines should be avoided, as
the Silver Fir grow so slowly to start with ; and when they
ultimately compete with the Spruce or Pines, both the Pines
and the Silver Fir will be very coarse and branchy.

Silver Fir and Douglas Fir is an even worse mixture.
In fact, it is impossible to obtain good results by mixing
Silver Fir alternately with any other trees, whether conifers
or broad-leaved trees.

Silver Fir should be almost invariably used for under-
planting,1 and thus for forming uneven-aged mixtures.

Larch and Douglas Fir cannot be recommended. The
Larch are often planted to lessen the expense, but they will
be outgrown and suppressed by about the twelfth to fifteenth
year, and will then all have to be cut out. Furthermore, the
Douglas Fir which have been next to them will not be well
pruned.

Larch and Spruce must be avoided. Though excellent

Larch may be grown, the Spruce will all be inferior. Another

great reason against the mixture is the fact that the Larch

aphis and the Spruce aphis are an alternating generation

1 For further details as to underplanting, vide Chapter VIII.

NURSES 107

of the same insect. And there is no doubt that the Larch
aphis is an aid to the infection of the Larch Disease.

Larch and Scots Pine is also a bad mixture, except as
previously mentioned ; for the Scots Pine will all be of bad
quality. Also the fungus of Larch Disease1 lives as a
saprophyte on the bark of Scots Pine.

The foregoing are, of course, only a few of the many
possible mixtures. But they serve to illustrate the difficulty
of achieving success when planting species alternately or by
alternate rows.

However, as already stated, the plan of having a row of
nurses here and there is quite correct when necessary ; but
these rows must not be too close together if an even-aged
mixture is being planted. The nurses usually employed are
Larch, Corsican Pine, and Scots Pine, which are quick-
growing, cheap, and hardy.

Birch, however, should usually be planted for nurses, as
they grow quickly, are immune to late and e*rly frosts, and
their shade is very slight, and they will not have to be
removed so early as the Pines. In most cases, the Birch
should be given 6 to 8 years' start before the tender species
are planted. The function of nurses is merely that of
protection from inimical influences. Hence they should
always if possible be grown as an overwood and the tender
species introduced as a separate crop under the shelter of
the nurses ; the latter should be removed when no longer
required. No attempt should be made to effect any natural
pruning by means of the " nurses " ; for such pruning can
only be effected to the detriment of their efficiency as
nurses.

Then again, the Poplars should also, in many cases, be
largely used for nurses, especially to trees that will bear
shade ; however, artificial pruning will always be necessary.
On clay land, Poplars planted every 16 feet apart, the rest of
the area being pure Spruce, should give very good results ;
or if the land be not too stiff and it be desired to grow Silver
Fir, the Poplars may be given a few years' start, say 6 or
1 According to some authorities.

108 PLANTING

8 years, and the Silver Fir planted when a slight canopy is
formed.

In these cases the Poplars should be artificially pruned,
like standards over coppice, and, when about 45 to 50 years
of age, they should yield very fine timber.

By -way of a Summary, the following general rules should
be observed : —

As to Mixtures.
In Even- Aged Woods : —

(1) When mixtures are made, they should preferably be

made by patches or groups.

(2) Mixtures by alternate species of trees, or by alternate

rows, will give good results in only a few cases, i.e.
if the mutual pruning and height growth be similar.

(3) Where quick-growing nurses are required, or where a

mixture by rows is desired, there should be 3 to 8
rows of one species together, and then I or more
rows of the other species, unless the mutual pruning
effects be similar.

(4) A greater degree of mixing is admissible with trees

sown thickly than with trees artificially planted at
comparatively great distances apart.

(5) Evergreen conifers should never be alternately mixed

with broad-leaved trees or with Larch.

(6) Evergreen conifers may usually be alternately mixed

with each other if their height growth be similar.

(7) A valuable species may often with advantage be

introduced sporadically at about every 12 to 20 feet
apart, amongst other species, but artificial pruning
will often be necessary, and, unless it be capable of
bearing some shade, it must be quicker growing than
the other species.

In Uneven- Aged Woods : —

(i) The younger trees must always be capable of bearing
the shade of the older trees.

PURE WOODS 109

As to Pure Woods.

(1) All the shade-bearing conifers may be grown pure,
and are usually preferably so grown, except when making a
mixture by underplanting thinly foliaged trees.

(2) The shade-bearing, broad-leaved trees, e.g. Beech,
may be grown pure, but at present prices it will not usually
be profitable except in a few districts.

(3) Thinly foliaged, light-demanding trees should not be
grown pure unless —

(a) The rotation be very short (when the land will still be

clean).

(b) Underplanting take place before the canopy has

become too broken.

(c) Soil and situation be only capable of growing some

thinly foliaged trees, e.g. Scots or Corsican Pines,
on poor, exposed places ; however, in such cases the
rotation should always be short.

Finally, the oracular advice may be given to "always
plant pure woods unless there be a reason to the contrary."

3. The Choice of System.

This matter has already been dealt with.1 It is, how-
ever, necessary, for the most part, to determine at the time
of planting, the particular system under which the trees are
to be grown, for certain trees are quite unsuited to some of
the systems.

But, briefly, it may be repeated that for thinly foliaged
trees the best plan is to grow them pure 2 where possible, and
then to underplant them later on, thus forming a two-
storied high forest. Or they may be grown" as standards
over coppice, or preferably as high forest over coppice.

Whereas for shade-bearing trees alone, even-aged high
forest will usually give the best results.

In the case of land now under timber, which it is intended

1 Vide Chapter II.

2 The extreme risks incurred in growing pure Larch have, however,
already been referred to.

110 PLANTING

to cut and afterwards to replant, the new crop should, if the
conditions be not suited to the growth of timber, be intro-
duced under a light shelter-wood, and clear cutting should
be avoided. This, however, is only possible with shade-
bearing species, unless the shelter-wood be very quickly
removed.

When planting large areas, it will seldom be advisable to
plant with a view to the whole area being managed under
the same system. For as the soil, situation, aspect, and
altitude vary, so must the species of trees that should be
planted, and so too, in many cases, must the system under
which they should be grown.

Thus on exposed places it may be advisable to grow
shade-bearing trees under the selection system, unless the
soil be too dry. If the soil be very dry and exposed, even-
aged high forest of Scots Pine or Corsican Pine may be
indicated. Then again, in some places, if not too exposed,
the shade-bearing conifers may be grown under the group
system. And on the best land, high forest with coppice, or
coppice with standards, or two-storied high forest, will probably
be indicated, and so on.

4. The Advisability or otherwise of a
Rotation of Cropping.

In a general way, there is no necessity to observe in
forestry a rotation of cropping, as is necessary in the case
of agricultural crops. For soil exhaustion will not follow in
properly managed woodlands.

However, it will often be possible and advisable to plant a
more valuable species on land from which a less valuable
species has just been removed.

For instance, mistakes may have been made when the
previous crop was originally planted, or originally the land
may have been too poor, or the situation too unfavourable,
for any valuable, exacting species ; but after the first rotation
the soil is improved, so that a more valuable species will now
grow ; or again, a tender species which it was not possible to

ROTATION OF CROPPING 111

plant originally, may now be introduced under a slight
shelter-wood of the old crop.

Occasionally, also, the danger from insect or fungoid
attacks will render a change of cropping necessary.

For instance, it would be very indiscreet to replant with
Larch, an area which is already very badly affected with
Larch disease.

Then again, on Scots Pine or Spruce areas, there is a
great risk, in replanting with either of this species, of the
whole area being destroyed by the Pine Weevil ; and as
these two crops cannot usually be said to be remunerative
(at present prices), it will be advisable, where possible, to
follow on with some other species.

If this be impossible, the area should be burnt over, and
planting should be delayed for 2 or 3 years if the locality
be subject to the pest.

The continental method of pulling the roots out of the
ground would not pay in this country.

Furthermore, on stiff clay soils a change of cropping may
often be advisable. For instance, pure Scots Pine or Spruce
may have been originally planted, but at the end of the
rotation, the soil will be in a far better condition, and a more
valuable species can now be grown. For, to a large extent,
the soil will have become drained, and the decaying roots
of the old stumps will act as little water channels to assist in
the natural drainage, and many trees will now thrive whose
growth on maiden clay land is often inferior.

5. The Season for Planting.

Much difference of opinion exists as to the best season
for planting ; whether it should take place in the autumn or
in the spring.

Under certain circumstances one or other of the seasons
has much to recommend it.

The planting season extends from about the beginning
of October to the end of April.

In all probability, the most favourable time for planting

112 PLANTING

trees is in the late spring, when the root system has become
active, but before the buds have opened. The tree, then,
as it were, appears to make use of suppressed energy ; and,
on being planted, the root growth often continues its activity
instead of being greatly checked, and gets quickly estab-
lished.

But the amount of this late planting must always be very
limited, for it is only during an interval of about one week
that these conditions prevail.

Therefore, if a large area has to be planted, the merits
and demerits of autumn or ordinary spring planting must
be carefully considered. Though probably both autumn and
spring planting will be adopted, so as to equalise the pressure
of work.

Now, when trees are planted in the autumn, their roots
get established to some extent by the time that spring
growth commences ; and this is a distinct advantage over
ordinary spring planting. Another advantage in the case
of evergreen trees is, that the ill-effects, which sometimes
result in death, caused by a hot sun in the early spring
inducing transpiration before the roots of spring planted
trees can make good the loss of moisture, will often be
avoided.

Of course, this wilting may be sufficient to kill the
autumn planted trees, but these will have a better chance
of surviving than any spring planted trees, as their roots
will have become somewhat established.

This wilting in early spring is fairly common in the
case of Silver Fir, Scots Pine, Thuya gigantea and Douglas
Fir.

However, autumn planting is open to many objections,
amongst which the following may be mentioned : —

(1) The plants are very liable to get lifted by the

frost.

(2) They get swayed to and fro by the wind.

(3) On stiff land, the holes in which the trees are

planted tend to become water-logged, and the roots
of the trees may become rotten.

PLANTING SEASON 113

On the other hand, these dangers are largely avoided
when spring planting is adopted.

In the majority of cases, it is nearly always preferable to
dig the pits some weeks before the trees are planted, as the
soil becomes more mellow and sweetened. However, on
well-drained, moist, light soil, this does not much matter.
But on any land inclined to be acid, it should be
adopted.

On stiff clay soils great care is necessary. It is generally
a mistake to dig the pits in the autumn and plant them in
the spring, as they will become filled with water, and will
eventually dry with a "puddled," caked surface. They
should be dug at about the end of March, and planted up a
fortnight afterwards.

As a general rule, it may be said that porous land in
sheltered localities should be planted in the autumn, but
that stiff land or exposed places should be planted in the
spring.

And any localities subject to late frosts should be planted
as late in the spring as possible.

So also, late spring planting should be adopted for
trees which are difficult to transplant, such as Corsican
Pine, Black Walnut, or tender species like Weymouth
Pine.

On the whole, perhaps, broad-leaved trees and Larch
are more suitable for autumn planting than evergreen
conifers.

In mid-winter planting must generally be suspended
on account of frosts. No planting should ever take
place if there be the least frost in the air or on the
ground.

Damp, still, muggy days are the best for planting.

It must be remembered that planting must always
be finished earlier in the case of trees which flush
their buds and leaves early, than where the reverse
is the case. And it must be finished sooner in the
South of England, than in the North of England or
Scotland.

H

114 PLANTING

AS TO THE FINANCIAL RETURNS THAT MAY BE
ANTICIPATED BY PLANTING ONE SPECIES IN
PREFERENCE TO ANOTHER.

This question of the financial returns is one of the greatest
considerations affecting planting. The aim and desire must,
in nearly every case, be to grow those trees which will yield
the greatest pecuniary returns.

But before the most valuable species can be determined
upon its probable success must be assured ; and it is there-
fore necessary to carefully weigh all the considerations that
have been previously discussed in this chapter.

The financial returns of crops of particular species are
discussed hereafter.1

For the most part, the conclusions arrived at are refer-
able to pure crops, but they should enable a valuable
opinion to be formed as to the financial advisability of any
mixture.

It is, however, necessary to allow for differences due to
the trees being grown under different systems; also, the
enhanced value that certain species have over others as
thinnings should not be lost sight of. And another
important point to note is, that the soil may be of one
quality for one species, and yet of another quality for some
other species.

For instance, the soil may be first quality for Scots Pine,
and yet only third quality for Ash.

However, the following table will show the order in which
the different species stand, with reference to their pecuniary
returns, if the soil and situation were equally suited to all,
beginning with those that make the greatest return. It is
presumed that the cost of planting, fencing, and cleaning the
crop for the first few years is £S per acre.

It must be noted that many of the trees will often only
be grown in mixtures. But it is imagined that a proportionate

1 Vide Chapter XI I.

FINANCIAL CONSIDERATIONS

115

area is stocked with a pure crop; and that each species is
grown on its most suitable rotation.

If average

Remarks.

Order of Merit.

price

per foot

equals

S. D.

If all money spent on planting, or re-

Douglas Fir

o 9

ceived for thinnings, etc., be calculated
at 4 per cent, compound interest, then,

Black Poplar

\ o 8

on average land, Douglas Fir should

Black Italian Poplar .

J

return a rental for the land (after pay-
ing interest on planting, etc.), equiva-

Cupressus macrocarpa(?}

o 6

lent to about j£"i, los. per acre ; Larch,

White Poplar .

o 6

8s. to los. ; Ash, 73. to gs. per acre

Larch.

I O

per annum.

Ash .

i 6

Spanish Chestnut

I 0

Sitka Spruce (?)

o 6|

Thuya gigantea .

o 74

There is veiy little difference in the

Weymouth Pine.

o 7i

financial position of these trees ; and,
if monies spent and received be cal-

Corsican Pine .

o 6i

culated at 4 per cent, compound

Oak ....

1 9

interest, then there will usually be a
direct loss, even though the land were

Scots Pine . . ~-^-

o 7

reckoned rent free, unless, as will often

Silver Fir .

o 6£

be the case with the conifers, the cost
of planting, fencing, and cleaning the

Norway Spruce .

o 6i

young crop be less than £8 per acre.*

Beech . .

I 0

* Vide Chapter XII.

Note. — Tree Willows will give a better return than Poplars if a large
proportion of the timber can be sold at a big price, say, 33. to 6s. a cubic
foot for cricket bats.

CHAPTER VI.
PLANTING — continued.

PLANTING OPERATIONS.

CONCERNING ALSO THE ARTIFICIAL SOWING OF
CROPS OF TREES.

THE DIFFERENT METHODS OF PLANTING TREES.

AMONGST the more common methods adopted for planting,
may be mentioned the following : —

(1) Planting in Pits.

(2) Planting in Holes made with a Planting Spike.

(3) Planting with a Curved Planting Spade.

(4) Notching :

(a) With an Ordinary Spade ;

(£) With Schlich's Spade ;

(r) With a Wedge-shaped Planting Iron.

(5) Dibbling with an Iron Dibble.

1. Planting in Pits.

This is the most expensive method, but it is the only
method admissible with large plants. The actual size of
the pits must vary according to the size of the plants ;
but they must be large enough so as to admit of the roots
having a natural position, and sufficiently deep so as to
prevent any roots from being doubled up. It is a very
common error to make the pits too wide and not deep enough.
Pits for 4-year-old plants should generally be dug 8 to 10

116

PIT PLANTING 117

inches wide, and 10 to 12 inches deep. If there be a soil
covering of turf, it should be removed in two thin slices, and
placed on one side. This is most easily done with a specially
made spade, or iron, the exact width of the holes, with the
blade set on at an angle to the shaft. After the turf is taken
off, the holes are got out with a spade, using also a pick-axe
if necessary ; the earth should be placed on the other side
of the hole to that where the turf was put.

When the time arrives for planting, each tree requires a
man and a boy to plant it, if it is to be properly done ; one
man, single-handed, cannot possibly plant any considerable
quantity of trees in pits. A boy should hold the tree in the
centre of the hole, whilst the man fills in the hole. When a
little of the finest earth has been filled in, the boy should
give the tree a gentle shake, so as to cause the earth to fall
in between the rootlets, and at the same time he should
gently draw it up, so that the " neck " of the tree is slightly
above the level of the ground. Then the rest of the earth
should be filled in and firmly trodden in by the man, but
in doing so, he must take very great care not to injure the
bark of the young tree with his boots. Also, the very
greatest care must be taken to insure that, when finally
planted, the tree stands exactly the same distance out of
the ground as -when in the nursery. If planted too deep,
the tree will never thrive ; especially is this the case with
Spruce and other conifers. When the planting is finished,
the two pieces of turf should be placed, face downwards, on
each side of the tree. The practice of putting the turf at
the bottom of the hole must be condemned, as raw turf is
apt to heat ; and on the other hand, its effects, when placed
on the surface, are most beneficial as evaporation of moisture
is retarded.

The cost of making the pits will be about i8s.
to 2os. per 1000; but of course a great deal depends on
the soil. The cost of planting the trees will be about 93.
to i os. a 1000. However, the pits will not cost more than
153. or i /s. per 1000, if the land has been previously
ploughed.

118 PLANTING

2. Planting in Holes made with a Planting Spike.

This is a method which should be very much used ; it
is suitable for all 3-year-old plants, and for many 4-year-old
plants, and even older plants in some cases.

The planting spike consists of a straight wooden handle
or shaft inserted into a heavy iron head. The head should
be about 14 inches long, and in section 5 inches square at
the top. From this section it should taper down to a fine
sharp point. This head may be hollow, and of cast iron,
but the actual point should be of hardened steel. It is really
like a crowbar with a very big head and a wooden shaft.
Occasionally a cross "["-handle 'ls provided, but it is better
to have a plain shaft, for the cross handle causes the
workmen's arms to get unduly jarred, and causes unneces-
sary discomfort

When the holes are made, another man follows on and
does the planting. He holds the trees in position with one
hand, and, with a trowel in the other hand, scrapes to-
gether some soil, and fills in the hole, and then treads it
firmly.

The cost of planting in this way will be from 6s. to 93.
per 1000.

Where there is a soil covering of turf, it must first be
removed, and then replaced face downwards. Also, in such
a case, it will generally be necessary for a separate man to
hoe up a little fine earth before the holes are made, with
which the man who is doing the planting may fill in the
holes, since he would have a difficulty in scraping together
the earth with a trowel. This will considerably add to the
expense.

The cost of removing turf, hoeing up soil, and planting,
will be from 135. to i6s. per 1000. This, however, compares
very favourably with 2/s. to 303. a 1000 for making and
planting in pits.

Instead, however, of separately removing the turf, and
hoeing up soil for each tree, it will be much cheaper to
plough the land, when planting can then easily be done for

SCOTCH PLANTING SPADE 119

6s. or 75. per 1000; and there will be the additional
advantage that the land will remain more free from any
rank growth for the first year or so.

3. Planting with a Curved Planting Spade.

This is another cheap method of planting. It is suited to
about the same sized trees as can be planted by means of
the planting spike.

The spade has an ordinary wooden handle, but a long,
curious shaped blade. This blade is about 16 inches long,
and the last portion, of about 8 or 10 inches of it, is curved
slightly upwards. The head of the blade is about 7 inches
wide ; it then rapidly becomes narrow, so that, at 8 inches
away from the head, it is about 3^ inches wide ; from thence
it tapers gradually to the end, where it is about 2j inches
wide. Two men are required to plant a single tree, when
this implement is used.

One man carries the spade and another man the plants
and also a small ordinary spade. The first man inserts the
curved spade at an angle into the ground, at about 8 inches
from the spot where it is desired to plant the tree. He
then levers the soil up so that the curved blade comes near
the surface. Then the other man cuts down with the
ordinary spade on to the long, curved blade, at the spot
where the tree is going to be planted. Here he parts away
the soil, so as to make room for the tree. He is then handed
a tree by the other man, which he inserts. The long, curved
spade is then worked up and down, so as to shake earth
about the roots ; and then it is withdrawn, and the earth
over the roots is firmly trodden in.

Now, the removal of the long-bladed spade leaves a
channel leading down to the roots of the tree. And it is
most important to heel in the mouth of this channel, so as
to prevent the air from drying up the roots of the plants
Much harm will be done if this precaution be omitted.

The cost of planting by this method will vary from us.
to i.6s. per 1000.

120 PLANTING

This method could not be practiced if there be a thick
soil covering of turf, unless the turf be first removed. It is
chiefly suitable for light friable soil ; and it should not be
tried on stiff land with clay near the surface.

4. Notching, or "Slitting."

This is only suitable for I or 2 year seedling plants, or
such seedlings as have no stout side roots.

(a) When an ordinary spade is used, it is best to get an
old, short spade, which is well sharpened. And it is very
desirable that the blade be vertical, and in a line with the
shaft. There are various ways of notching with the spade,
but the L system is perhaps the best. The spade is inserted
vertically into the ground ; it is then withdrawn, and then
again inserted vertically at right angles to the end of the
original cut, thus cutting an |_.

Then the operator levers the ground up, and the tree is
slipped in by a boy at the corner of the |_. The spade is
then withdrawn, and the ground firmly trodden. In many
cases the services of a boy, to assist the planter, are dispensed
with. It is very essential that the tree should be in a vertical
position after it is planted. And in order to effect this the
planter should stand rather in front of, and to the side of
the place where he is going to plant the tree. The spade
should be inserted so that the first slit shows a somewhat
convex, perpendicular face. This may be illustrated
thus :—

Spade ist slit I Spade

faces I ^ faces

2nd slit
Position — >. •

of
man.

Other systems consist in making the cuts in the shape
of a T, or by cutting a maltese cross, and then inserting the
spade a third time, a little distance away, and thus opening
up the centre of the cross. This slitting is only suitable if
the soil covering does not fall to pieces during the operation.

NOTCHING 121

The cost of thus notching or slitting will be from 43. 6d.
to 53. 6d. per 1000.

(£) Notching with Schlich's Spade is an improvement on
ordinary notching, and 3-year-old plants can often be notched
by this means. The spade has rather a long blade, which, at
the end, narrows in a great deal, and has a more or less
pointed end. The centre of the blade is rather thick, and the
end and sides taper to a feather edge.

The spade is inserted quite vertically, and then swayed to
and fro. By this means a wide opening is made at ground
level, which, lower down, tapers in to a " neck," and then
again broadens out.

The spade is then withdrawn and the plant inserted care-
fully by a boy and held in position. The man then inserts
the spade vertically about 4 inches behind the original cut,
but parallel to it ; he then works it to and fro, so as to close
up the opening. Again he inserts it in front of the original
cut, and again works it to and fro. By this means not only is
the top of the opening closed, but also the wide opening at
the bottom of the cleft. If the spade be only worked one
way towards the tree, the bottom of the cleft will not be
closed in. It is therefore most important to work it both
ways. This working of the spade to and fro, to close the
opening, effects an appreciable amount of cultivation of the
soil.

Finally, the ground must be firmly trodden round the
tree.

The cost of notching with a Schlich's spade will vary from
75. to 93. per 1000.

(c) Notching -with a Wedge-shaped Planting Iron. —
This is suitable for the same sized trees as can be notched
with Schlich's spade. The operation is performed in much
the same way, but the earth is only pressed back from one
side. The iron is a clumsy implement, and has nothing to
recommend it.

In all forms of slitting, great care must be taken that the
roots never get doubled up. The roots of the trees should
always be put right down to the bottom of the notch or slit,

122 PLANTING

and then raised to the correct level. The boy inserting the
plants should be provided with a long wooden spatula, similar
to that used by navvies for cleaning their spades, only much
longer. With this, the roots can be nicely pushed down
without doing them any injury.

It is most important never to adopt any kind of notching
on stiff clay soils. For the sides of the notch or slit will dry
with a hard-glazed surface, through which the young roots
cannot easily penetrate.

5. Dibbling.

This is a convenient and cheap method of planting
seedlings on light soil. A one-handed iron dibble, or
planting "peg," is used. A man inserts it into the ground,
withdraws it, and then, with the other hand, places the tree in
position. Then he inserts the dibble a little distance off, and
closes the opening by pressing the soil back. In as much as
the dibble is inserted with only one hand, it could not be
used on any but very light porous soils.

The cost will be about 43. per 1000.

As to the Choice of Methods.

This has been to some extent already indicated.

A great deal will depend upon the nature of the land.

Where possible, dibbling should be adopted, as it is the
cheapest method. But where it is required to plant larger
plants, such as 3-year-old plants, or, in many cases, 4-year-old
plants, the planting spike can usually be recommended
over any other method. It is cheap, and the young plants
have fine soil, in which to start their growth, put into the holes.
Thus they meet with far better conditions than if they be
notched. In cases where there is no surface soil that can be
scraped into the holes, notching may be a little cheaper ; but
soil can easily be provided by turning over a furrow every
2 feet 6 inches or 3 feet, according to the distance apart at
which the planting is to be done ; and, then, making the holes
with the spike along the furrow.

It may be argued that notching is less objectionable on

TREES PER ACRE 123

clay soils than is the use of the spike, as the spike com-
presses the clay on all sides ; but it must be remembered
that the roots start to grow in fine soil put in the hole, and
by a later period the compressed clay will have regained its
normal pressure owing to the action of earth worms, etc.

However, on really stiff clays, planting in pits is usually
preferable ; and, of course, large trees must also be planted
in pits.

The Number of Trees per Acre.

This will vary according to the distance apart at which
the lines are made, and also according to the disposition of
the trees in the lines.

There are various methods of arranging the disposition
of the trees over the area, but more commonly the trees are
arranged by "squares" or by "equilateral triangles." In
the latter case, each tree is the same distance apart from all
its neighbours, but the lines are nearer together than the
distance from tree to tree. In the former case, the lines are
the same distance apart each way, but the trees are not the
same distance apart from all their neighbours.

The triangle system is a little more difficult to carry out,
and it requires relatively a greater number of trees per acre,
but close canopy is sooner formed, and natural pruning is
much better effected.

To calculate the number of trees for " square " planting : —
Divide the number of square feet per acre by the square of
the distance apart from tree to tree.

Thus, for 4 feet planting,

43>5°° = 2722 trees per acre.
4x4

To calculate the number of trees per acre for "triangle "
planting : — Divide the number of square feet per acre by the
square of the distance apart from tree to tree, and multiply
the result by 1-155.

Thus, for 4 feet planting,

1-155 =

4x4

124

PLANTING

The following table shows the number of trees required
per acre for "square " planting : —

Distance apart
in feet.

Trees required
per acre.

Distance apart
in feet.

Trees required
per acre.

ii

19,360

I2|

278

2

10,890

13

257

^

6,970

i3i

239

3

4,840

14

222

3^

3,556

Hi

207

4

2,722

15

193

4*

2,151

i Si

181

5

1,742

16

170

Si

1,440

i61

164

6

1,210

17

150

6*

1,031

17*

142

7

889

18

134

7i

774

184

127

8

680

19

120

8^

603

194

114

9

537

20

108

91

482

22

90

10

435

24

75

ioi

395

26

64

II

360

28

55

"i

329

30

48

12

302

33

40

Sundry matters relative to the Control of
Planting Operations.

When holes are being dug, or when notching is being
carried out, it is not of course possible in practice to dig
them with mathematical accuracy as to their distance apart.

CONDUCT OF PLANTING OPERATIONS 125

But where several men are working together, the most
competent man should be responsible for keeping the line.
Thus, if there be six men digging, this competent man will
take every sixth row, and the line of this row should be
marked or indicated by sticks. The position of these sticks
is ascertained by carefully measuring the distance from the
last row which this man dug. Then the other men take their
line from this man as best they can.

Each man should have a stick of his own, cut to the
correct length of the distance from hole to hole, with which
he should measure the distance from hole to hole along his
line.

When actually planting in pits, if a mixture is being
planted, the head woodman should place the correct species
in the holes, just in advance of the planters, so as to avoid
confusion.

When notching is being carried out, and a mixture is
being planted, it is very difficult to keep the lines and avoid
confusion with the mixture. But there should be sufficient
men, so that one man plants all his rows, for the day, in a
similar manner.

When planting operations are taking place, great care is
necessary that the roots of the trees are not left exposed to
sun, frost, or dry winds, before they are planted. If there be
a home nursery near, the plants required for each day may
be brought daily to the centre of the day's operations. They
should be laid with their roots in a trench, and a little soil
and damp straw or moss thrown over them.

If the nursery be some way off, two or three days' supply
may be brought, but they should be properly " sheued " into
trenches, and their roots covered up with soil.

They should not lie too thickly in the trenches, other-
wise* air will get down in between them and dry the
roots.

In such cases, the plants required for each day's planting
are carried every day to the centre of the day's operations,
and protected with soil and wet moss, etc. Only sufficient
plants should be given out at a time for about an hour's

126 PLANTING

planting. These should be laid in baskets, and their roots
covered with moss.

When plants arrive from a trade nursery from a distance,
they must usually be similarly treated. But sometimes they
will arrive in a frost. In such a case, if the frost look like
lasting, they should be unpacked and placed in a barn or
cellar, and their roots covered with wet moss and straw. The
frost must be kept from them at all costs. If they were not
unpacked they would probably become heated, and thereby
be injured.

If they have been unduly long in arriving after they
were dispatched, or if they appear to have been tampered
with, they should be signed for, at the railway office, as
" damaged."

It may not be out of place to state that, when plants are
brought from a trade nursery, they should be carefully chosen,
and they should be inspected in the nursery, if possible, at
the end of the summer, when the leaf is still on. A few
should be dug up, and their roots carefully examined, and
their age and treatment noted.

In some cases it would pay to send the head wood-
man to superintend the raising and dispatch of the
plants.

SOME NOTES ON THE METHODS OF PLANTING
IN PARTICULAR CASES.

It has already been noticed, that the planting up of maiden
land is attended with far greater risks and more expense
than the planting of land from which a good crop of timber
has just been removed.

Whenever planting is done on land with a surface cover-
ing of rank grass, it will be imperative to use larger plants
than should usually be used where the surface covering is
of short growth, and such planting, with large plants, will
necessitate planting them in pits. But, often, it will be
preferable to plough the land, and plant smaller trees in holes
made with a planting spike.

On heather land, all that is usually required is to burn

PEAT LAND 127

the surface covering and cut away any gorse after burning,1
and then either notch in seedlings, or plant 3-year-old trees
with the planting spike.

When thus planting a hillside, the best plan is to turn a
furrow horizontally across the slope, and then to plant in
the line of the furrow. This will help to catch any surfaced
water as it comes down the slope. And when planting
with the spike, it affords a supply of earth to fill in the
holes with.

Wherever a "pan" exists near the surface, it must be
broken through. An ordinary crowbar will usually be the
best means of doing this. Though subsoiling with steam
tackle will do more efficient but more costly work.

On -wet peat land, an excellent plan, after having cut
open drains as previously described, is to dig out large squares
of peat, and plant by means of the spike, or by notching, or
dibbling, etc., on the top of these squares. This is known as
"tumping;" and it renders the surroundings of young
seedlings drier than would otherwise be the case. It is
always desirable to have mineral soil next to the roots of
the young trees, for, as already stated, very few trees will
grow in practically pure peat soils.

If mineral soil exist near the surface, it can easily be
obtained, and the holes made with the planting spike may be
filled in with this soil. But otherwise, it will be advantageous
to cart some soil on to the area, and place 2 or 3 handfuls
into each small hole. It will also be very beneficial, on such
land, if a little basic slag or ground lime be previously mixed
up with such soil.

On clay soils, if wet and very stiff, it is often advisable to
adopt " tumping." 2 Big, square, deep sods are cut out and
placed face downwards. This should be done in the autumn ;

1 If slow-growing trees be planted, it will probably be necessary to
grub the gorse ; this, however, will be very expensive, and will add £i an
acre or more to the cost, according to the quantity of gorse.

2 This tumping on stiff land was largely practised a century ago, or
more, when planting apple trees on such land ; only, very large "tumps"
were made.

128 PLANTING

and then in the spring the small trees can be planted with a
planting spike, etc. Birch should be used as nurses.

On exposed land, when planting in pits, it will be advis-
able to place the trees in one corner of the pit : namely, in
that corner farthest away from the direction of the prevailing
wind. By this means, the stem of the tree will not make
such a big hole when it is swayed by the wind.

Planting Frost Localities. — This has already been largely
dealt with. It will often be advisable, where only a moder-
ately hardy species is decided upon, to plant large trees so
that they quickly get above the frost line. In the case of
broad-leaved trees which have been planted some years, and
which have become frost-bitten, excellent results will often
follow if such trees be cut over in the spring close to the
ground.

Then, if in that spring late frosts be absent, the trees will
often grow 4 to 8 feet, and so rise above the frost line.

In such localities, wherever there is an existing crop of
timber, it should never be clear cut. But a shelter-wood
should be left, and then at any rate half-hardy species may
be planted, if they will withstand the shade.

It is necessary to be very suspicious of frosts occurring
on low lying moist land, or on clay soils.

A most excellent way of establishing a crop in frost
localities is to plant pure Birch, and then to underplant them,
some 8 to 12 years later, with the species that it is desired to
grow ; but the latter must be able to withstand a little shade.

Planting Shifting Sand, and Sand Dunes. — The first step
to take, is to endeavour to bind the sand together, and to
prevent it from being constantly shifted from place to place.

Screens of wattled hurdles should be erected on the wind-
ward side of the area to be planted. Against this a bank of
sand will quickly be formed ; then the hurdles must be raised
and the bank made higher. Thus, ultimately the land on
the leeward side will be sheltered from the wind and storms.
It is preferable to have two parallel rows of hurdles, near each
other, so that the sand is caught between them ; and thus a
wider bank is formed.

SAND DUNES 129

In the case of sand dunes near the sea-shore, where the
sand is salt, the surface of the sand must be bound together
by planting or sowing various sand grasses, such as the
Marram Grass1 (Psamma ( — Ammophila) arenaria), Baltic
Marram (P. Balticd], the Sea Lyme Grass (Elymus arenarius)^
and Sea Carex (Carex arenarid).

Until a soil covering of grass or the like be obtained —
and it will often grow naturally — and until the sand has
been washed free from all salt, the planting of trees should
be deferred. When planting takes place, the marram grass,
etc., should be forked up where each tree is to be planted.
Then, as each tree is planted, it should be firmly trodden
in, and the marram grass placed round it, so as to act as a
mulch and keep off the sun. If the expense can be incurred,
a handful of good stiffish loam, inserted with each tree as
it is planted, will materially assist in assuring a good
start.

Any trees intended for planting on barren sands should
have very fibrous roots ; and if 2- or 3-year-old plants (which
are the most suitable) be planted out, they should have been
transplanted every year in the nursery. They should be
finally planted out in the months of March and April.

It is advisable, if possible, to have a nursery near the
sea and in a fairly exposed position, so as to acclimatise the
trees.

In the case of Inland Sand Dunes, similar protective
methods must be adopted. The binding together of the
sand can be effected by various grasses and plants, such as
Couch Grass or Twitch, the Creeping Willow (Salix repens),
Salix arenaria, and the Everlasting Pea (Lathyrus sylvestris).
Sometimes Jerusalem artichokes are planted as " nurses " for
the young trees, and to prevent the sand from blowing about
Another plan sometimes adopted is to partially cover the
surface of the sand with faggots or other vegetable rubbish,
such as cut reeds, etc., and then to sow tree seeds, or else to
plant young trees.

1 The marram grass will soon die as the surface of the sand becomes
stale.

I

130 PLANTING

So, again, the ground is often partially covered with sods
of heather, in which pine or other seeds have been sown
previously to the sods having been cut.

This plan is expensive, but still it has given very good
results.

Planting Ornamental Trees. — Special care is usually
called for when planting a few ornamental trees. They are
often rather large, and will require to be firmly staked. The
trees should be fastened to the stakes with bands of hay, in
the figure-of-S fashion, and the ends of the bands tied with
string. This will allow the tree to expand and prevent
chafing.

Small valuable trees planted in exposed places should be
protected by screens of wattle hurdles. Often it will be
advisable to plant shelter belts of quick-growing trees a few
years before the more valuable trees are planted. The
shelter belt should consist, partly at any rate, of broad-leaved
trees, some of which should be coppiced after they have been
planted 3 or 4 years, and thus a thick screen will soon be
effected.

When in the nursery, any trees intended for planting out
when comparatively old, should be regularly transplanted
every other year. When removed for planting out, the
more earth that can be taken up with the roots the
better.

Sometimes it is desired to transplant a fairly large tree
from one part of a garden to another.

In such a case a deep trench should be dug all round the
tree, at a distance of about 2 feet from the centre — or more
according to the size of the tree — during the previous spring
to that in which it is to be removed. This trench should be
dug with a sharp spade so as to cut through any roots which
are met with. The trench should then be tightly filled with
straw, and the top just covered with earth. The tree must
be kept well watered all the summer through, so as thus to
induce the growth of new fibrous roots within the 2-feet
radius. Then, when the tree is planted, it will not be so likely
to die.

PLANTING ESTIMATES 131

ESTIMATES FOR PLANTING AND ESTABLISHING.

The following estimates will serve as useful guides. It is
in all cases supposed that the trees are raised in a home
nursery ; otherwise the expenses will usually be far greater.

It is also presumed that an area of about 40 acres is
fenced at a time, at a cost of 303. an acre.

Supervision is not specially charged, as it is reckoned
along with the annual outgoings of the whole area under
forest management. The cost of weeding and cleaning,
cutting out rank grass and replacing dead trees, is, however,
included, thus giving the total cost of establishing a
plantation.

(1) Pure Douglas Fir. — On good deep loam now covered
with grass ; 2 year 2 year plants used. Pit planting 4 by 4
feet apart : —

Digging pits, 2700, at i8s. per 1000 . ... . ^290
Planting, at 95. per I ooo . . . ••;'"" . 146
2750 1 2 year 2 year, at 305. per 1000. „ .426

Planting only . . £7 16 o

Rabbit fencing ^i 10 o

Cutting-out, etc. . . . . i 14 o

340

Total cost per acre . £i i o o

(2) Douglas Fir. — Same as (i) (i.e. 2 year 2 year plants;
4 by 4 feet apart), but trees put in with a planting spike.
The land first ploughed deeply once in the autumn : —

I ploughing .- £o 13 o

Planting with spike and trowel, at 75. per 1000 . o 19 o
2750 plants, at 305. per 1000 . . . . 426

Planting only . ; . £$ 14 6

Rabbit fencing ^i 10 o

Cutting-out, etc. . . . .1106

Total cost per acre
1 To allow for waste.

132 PLANTING

(3) Douglas Fir. — Same as (2), but ploughing omitted, and
the turf removed at each place where a tree is to be planted,
and also some earth hoed up to fill in the holes with : —

Removing turf, hoeing, and planting, at i6s. per

1000 ^210

2750 plants, at 305. per 1000 . . . 426

Planting only . -.£636

Rabbit fencing . . . . . j£l IO O

Cutting-out, etc. . . . . i 14 o

340

Total cost per acre ^9 7 6

(4) Mixed Ash, Larch, and Spanish Chestnut. — On grass
land ; planted 4 by 4 feet in small pits ; trees I year 2 year : —

Digging pits, 2700, at
Planting, at 95. per icx
1000 Larch, i year 2 y
850 Spanish Chestnut,
900 Ash, at us. 6d. .

Fencing
Cutting-out, etc.

175. per looo .
yo .

£2

O
I
0

6

4

12
I
10

0

6
6
9
4

ear, at 125,
at 255. 6d.

Planting

, 6d.
only

.^I IO 0

. i 15 o

£s

3

15

i

Total cost per acre

£9

O

I

(5) Mixed Ash, Larch, and Spanish Chestnut. — Same as
(4), only the land ploughed and the trees planted with the
planting spike : —

i ploughing £o 13 o

Planting, at 75. per loco o 19 o

Plants (as before) . . . . . . 246

Planting only . . ^3166

Fencing £i 10 o

Cutting-out, etc i 1 1 6

Total cost per acre . ^6180

PLANTING ESTIMATES 133

(6) Pure Oak. — Planted in pits 3 by 3 feet apart ; I year
2 year plants used ; on stiff grass land : —

Digging 4840 pits, at 1 8s. per 1000 . . * . ^471
Planting, at 95. per 1000 . . . ' . . 236
4900 Oak, at i8s. per 1000 f . . . , 483

Planting only .- . £10 18 10

Fencing . ; . . . ._ . ^i 10 o

Cutting-out, etc. . . . .150

2 15 o

Total cost per acre (say) . ^13 14 o

(7) Pure Oak. — Same as (6), only 4 feet apart : —

Digging 2700 pits, at i8s. per 1000 . . .^286
Planting, at 95. per 1000 . . . . . 143
2750 trees, at i8s. per looo . . . . 296

Planting only . .^623

Fencing ^i 10 o

Cutting-out, etc. . . . .1150

3 5 o

Total cost per acre > £9 7 3

(8) Pure Oak. — Same as (6) (i.e. 3 by 3 feet apart, with
I year 2 year plants), only on perfectly clean land from
which a crop of timber has just been removed, and the trees
planted with a planting spike : —

Planting 4840 trees, at 8s. per looo . - . . ^i 18 9
4900 plants, at i8s. per 1000 . . > . / . 4 8 3

Planting only . . £670

Fencing *••- ... . . .^i 10 o

Cutting-out, etc ..... ; .0150

- 2 5 °

Total cost per acre . ^8 12 o

134 PLANTING

(9) Pure Oak. — Same as (8), only 4 feet apart : —

Planting, 2700, at 8s. per 1000 . . . £i i 6

2750 plants, at i8s. per 1000 . V . . 296

Planting only . . ^3110

Fencing . . . . . . ^i 10 o

Cutting-out, etc. . . . .126

2 12 6

Total cost per acre • ;£6 3 6

(1O) Pure Scots Pine. — Planted on grass land ; in pits
3 by 3 feet apart ; 2 year 2 year plants used : —

Digging 4840 pits, at i8s. per 1000 . . ..£471

Planting, at 95. per 1000 236

4900 plants, at 133. per 1000 . . . . 339

Planting only . . ^9 14 4

Fencing ^i 10 o

Cutting-out, etc. . . . .100

2 10 o

Total cost per acre (say) . £12 4 o

(11) Pure Scots Pine, on grass land ; I year 2 year
plants used ; 3 by 3 feet apart ; planted with a planting spike ;
the land first ploughed : —

i ploughing

Planting 4840 plants, at 73. per 1000

4900 plants, at us. per loco . .-.-.,.,

Fencing
Cutting-out, etc.

Total cost per acre (say) . £7 16 o

PLANTING ESTIMATES 135

(12) Pure Scots Pine. — Same as (n), only trees 4 by
4 feet apart : —

i ploughing .. " . . .-v;-» . * ;£o 13 o
Planting 2700 trees, at 75. per 1000 . * . 0190
2750 trees, at ITS. per i ooo ,, , «. . i 10 3

Planting only . -^323

Fencing ...... . £i 10 o

Cutting-out, etc. . . . . i 12 6

3 2 6

Total cost per acre (say) -^650

(13) Pure Scots Pine. — Planted 3 by 3 feet apart ;
I year 2 year plants on heather land ; a furrow being turned
for each line of trees, and a planting spike being used : —

Burning the surface, and turning a furrow every

3 feet V .£056

Planting 4840 plants, at 73. per 1000 . , . i 13 10
4900 plants, at us. per looo . .. « . 2 14 o

Planting only

£4 13 4

Fencing
Cutting-out, etc.1

. ;£l 10 0

. . .046

i 14 6

Total cost per acre (say) .

^680

(14) Pure Scots Pine. — Same as (13), only 2 year
seedlings being used : —

Burning the surface, and turning a furrow ..£056

Planting 4840 plants, at 6s. per 1000 „ . i 9 o

4900 trees, at 2s. 6d. per 1000 . . &J . . .- 0123

Planting only • . '. . £269

Fencing £i 10 o

Cutting-out, etc.1 .N . . .0100

200

Total cost per acre (say) .^460
1 This will often be unnecessary.

136 PLANTING

(15) Pure Douglas Fir. — 2 year seedlings ; on waste
land ; planted with a planting spike ; 3 by 3 feet apart : —

Burning and turning a furrow . ~ . . .^056
Planting 4840 plants, at 6s. per 1000 . . 190
4900 plants, at los. per 1000 .-'*•'. . 290

Planting only . .^436

Fencing ^i 10 o

Cutting-out, etc.1 . . . .0100

200

Total cost per acre (say) .^630

With reference to the above, the cost of planting Spruce
will be a trifle under that of planting Scots Pine ; whilst
that of Larch will be very slightly in excess of the cost of
planting the Scots Pine.

The great increase in the cost when trees are planted
close together should be noted ; so also, should the saving in
cost, which can be effected when planting land that is
perfectly clean.

And, as a general rule, it may be stated that even on
foul land, it is cheaper and better to clean the land and to
plant a large number of seedlings, and to keep them clean,
than to plant a small number of larger trees, which may be
big enough to escape injury from any rank grass.

THE ARTIFICIAL SOWING OF CROPS OF TREES.

Woods may sometimes be formed by direct sowing.
But it will seldom be satisfactory to try and thus establish
a wood on maiden land, as, owing to the rank growth of
grass and weeds, the young crop will get choked. However,
there are exceptions, which will be noted. Furthermore,
sowing is uncertain, and in many cases, if the seed be
expensive, it is considerably more expensive than planting
seedlings, and should not be attempted.

1 This item may be much more, or perhaps even less, according to
the soil covering.

DIRECT SOWING 137

The sowing of acorns, even on rather rank land, is often
successful, and so also is the sowing of the seed of Spanish
Chestnut and Walnut, for these species have very large
seed, with a large store of food material, and the seedlings
possess great energy, and it is very probable that the best
grown trees of these species will prove to be those that have
been sown in situ. However, any direct sowing on foul
grass land is almost sure to end in failure. If the land be
clean, acorns may be either dibbled in, or sown broadcast
and ploughed in with a light furrow. If the land be at
all foul, it must be ploughed and cleaned, and then the
acorns should be dibbled in lines 2 feet apart each
way, and the acorns should be 6 inches apart in the
lines.

Heather land may easily be sown with the seeds of
Scots Pine or Corsican Pine, provided that the heather be
not too rank and be not mixed with much bracken, brambles,
etc. Sometimes it will be preferable to burn the surface
and sow the seed a year afterwards ; a small amount of
heather gives very beneficial protection.

On hillsides it will often be advisable to turn a furrow
horizontally along the hill, about every 15 inches apart,
and sow the seed along the furrow, lightly raking it in and
firming the ground.

The seed may be sown at the end of April, if a seed-bed
be thus prepared. But, if it be sown broadcast, it should
be sown much earlier, so as to let heavy rains wash the seed
into the soil through the heather. A good fall of snow will
effect the same purpose.

Wherever seed are sown in lines on land that is at all
foul or likely to become foul, it will often be advisable, in
order to save expenses in connection with the cleaning of the
young crop, to have the lines far apart, say 5 or 6 feet, and
to sow the seed very close together in the lines. By this
means the cost of hoeing and cleaning will be very much
reduced.

The seed in the lines may advisedly be sown in 3 parallel
rows about 3^ to 4 inches apart from each other. Then

138 PLANTING

when the trees grow, those in the centre row should be very
well pruned trees, having been pruned by the two outside
rows, which are retained until the trees in the centre rows
are large enough to prune each other.

This method, however, is open to the objection that the
small trees planted so closely in the lines which are far apart,
sway about a great deal, and chafe the stems of each other,
and thereby increase the risk of diseases.1 The same plan
may be adopted when dibbling in seedlings, but it is open
to the same objection.

Sowings may, however, often be made with advantage on
clean land which is now growing timber. The new crop, if
shade-bearing, may be sown and left as an under crop in
two-storied high forest ; or else, if light-demanding, it may
be sown under a very light canopy after most of the
old crop has been removed. In the latter case, the shelter
wood must not be retained for more than a year or so, but,
owing to the covering of leaves, any rank growth of grass
will be kept in check, and the young crop should easily hold
its own.

The season and manner for sowing has already been
discussed.2 It should be remembered that stale seed should
always be avoided.

Direct sowings, however, should never be attempted
unless the soil and situation be favourable, though Birch
seed may be sown almost anywhere, except on rank grass,
where the seedlings would be smothered.

Generally speaking, seed is either sown broadcast, or in
lines, or in patches.

On ordinary clean forest land, all that is necessary is
to rake it in, so that it reaches the mineral soil. If the land
be not clean enough, patches or lines must be hoed up.

These lines should be about 2 feet apart. On the average,
only about half of the quantity of small seed necessary for
sowing broadcast will be required for sowing in lines.

1 The author has observed a great prevalence of Nectria ditissina in
Beech and Oak so grown.

2 Vide Chapter III.

DIRECT SOWING 139

The cost of labour in sowing must vary greatly. On
perfectly clean forest land, seed can be broadcasted, or
sown in lines or patches, and raked in for about 45. 6d.
an acre.

But if it be necessary to hoe up lines and clear them of
weeds, etc., the cost will be about £i an acre ; though, if a
plough can be worked, the labour should not be more than
i os. an acre.

Dibbling acorns, in rows 2 feet apart and acorns 6 inches
apart in the rows, costs about I2s. an acre.

For sowing small seed in rows, a seed-can is most useful,
and will save a great deal of time. When the seed is sown
in little patches, about 6 or 7 seeds, if small, should be sown
on each patch. This, though, will depend upon the germina-
tive capacity and other considerations.

The following table will show the relative cost of sowing
broadcast and sowing in lines about 2 feet apart, and also
of dibbling i or 2 year seedlings at the rate of 10,000, 6000,
and 4000 per acre (i.e. just over 2 feet, 2 feet 6 inches, and
3 feet 3 inches apart).

It is assumed that the land is perfectly clean ; that unless
otherwise stated, the cost of sowing and raking in is 43. 6d.
an acre ; that, for sowing in strips, about half the amount of
seed usually sown broadcast is necessary ; and that the cost
of dibbling is 45. per 1000.

Fencing against rabbits is not included.

When comparing the cost of direct sowing with the cost
of dibbling in seedlings, as shown in the following table,
it must be noted that nothing has been charged for keep-
ing the sown crop clean. Thus, if any cleaning be neces-
sary, it will materially add to the expense. If the land
were foul with weeds, the cost of cleaning, for the first
year, would vary from 8s. to £1, 5s. per acre, or even
more.

[TABLE.

140

PLANTING

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EXPENSE OP CROPS SOWN DIRECT 141

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CHAPTER VII.

THE TENDING OF YOUNG HIGH FOREST AND PRUNING.

CLEANING AND TENDING YOUNG CROPS.

MOST young crops will in the early stages of their existence
require a great deal of care. Much more so is this the case
with young plantations on maiden land.

It will always be necessary to cut annually all rank
growth of grass, weeds, bracken, brambles, and the like, until
all fear of the young crop being choked is passed : for serious
harm will be done to the young crop unless it be thus
kept clean.

In a Pine district a short growth of heather is beneficial
rather than otherwise ; and on exposed high altitudes a thin
soil covering, even of grass, will often prove beneficial,
provided it is not high enough to choke the plants.

But, in all other cases, there is no doubt that young crops
will thrive far better on land that is perfectly clean than
on land that is covered with grass or weeds, even though the
latter be kept down by cutting.

The reason is somewhat obscure. To some extent it
may be due to undue pressure on the roots and exclusion of
air from them when the land is covered with grass, but the
main reason is probably due to rapid changes of the
temperature of the air near the ground level, and to the
reduction in temperature of that air, owing to the presence of
the covering of grass ; a reduction which in many cases will
result in late spring and early autumnal frosts. In sylvi-
culture it is impossible to incur the expense of hand or
horse hoeing the young crops in order to keep them clean,

142

CLEANING YOUNG PLANTATIONS 143

as is done in the case of farm crops ; nor indeed would it be
advisable, at any rate beyond the first year, for it is impossible
to avoid injuring the young roots.

All that can be done is to clean or " cut out " the young
plantations until the young trees are sufficiently tall, so that
there is no danger of their being choked. It should be done
annually until the young trees are about 4 feet in height.

Where very small trees are planted this cutting out will
probably be necessary twice a year until the trees are about
2 feet 6 inches in height; after which, once a year will
suffice.

Each cutting out will cost from 45. to 6s. an acre. If the
trees are very small and close together the larger amount
will have to be paid, as cutting is then more difficult. This
cutting out may be done with "fag hooks" or short
" grubbing " scythes. A man will cut out about half an acre
a day.

The following will represent the expense incurred in
cleaning young plantations and filling up "blanks" caused
by the death of some of the trees, and " firming " or
" treading in " plants that have been swayed by the wind.

Case I. — Trees, 4 years old, 2700 per acre : —

Cutting out once a year for first 3 years, at

45. 6d. per acre ,£0 13 6

Replacing dead trees l 0150

Treading in trees swayed by the wind . . o i 6

Total /i 10 o

Case II. — Trees, 2 year seedlings, 7000 per acre : —

Cutting out, first year twice, at 6s. . . £o 12 o

„ second year twice, at 6s. '. . o 12 o

„ third, fourth, fifth year once, at 55. 015 o

Total . * £i 19 o

Note. — Replacing dead trees will not usually be necessary, as such a
large number have been planted originally ; also, the trees being very
small will probably not require any " treading in."

1 This item will often be very much more.

144 TENDING OF YOUNG HIGH FOREST, ETC.

Now, much of this cleaning or "cutting out" could be
avoided if the land had been ploughed and cleaned prior to
planting ; and if good enough and suitable a " cleaning "
crop such as potatoes taken from it.

Often, when a young crop, consisting of a tender species
up to 5 or 6 years, does not do well, it will be found very
useful to plant rows of nurses every 16 feet or so, of Larch
or Scots Pine or Birch ; these rows should usually be
planted East and West so as to screen off the hot sun ; but
often it will be advisable to put them at right angles to
the prevailing wind.

Such a plan can often enable a valuable crop to be grown
where late frosts occur ; in such a case the nurses must be
Birch or Scots Pine, preferably the former. The Larch
would not succeed.

These nurses should be removed when no longer required.
It would, however, be futile to plant the nurses, if the tender
crop were already permanently injured.

Then again, backward plantations of broad-leaved trees
can often be improved by cutting the trees back to the
ground level 2 to 4 years after planting. ( Vide " Pruning " at
end of this chapter.)

Apart from the cleaning of a young crop and the cutting
of rank grass in the first 2 or 3 years, some attention will
often be necessary when from 7 to 10 years old. This is
really another "cleaning" if that word should be used to
express those cultural operations which do not pay for
their cost, whereas the word "thinning" is usually applied
only if the material cut will pay for the cost of the opera-
tion.

As already stated, the cost of cutting out rank growth until
trees are 4 to 6 feet high should be considered as part of the
original cost of forming the plantation ; but expenses
incurred after that date should be considered along with
the annual outgoings.

This cleaning at 7 to 10 years of age is not always
necessary ; but in the case of coniferous plantations it will
always be wise to go over them and cut out, collect, and burn

THINNING 145

dead and sickly trees ; with a view to aiding the suppression
of insect and fungoid attacks, and of fire.*

Then again, in natural regenerations or when artificial
sowing has taken place, it will often be necessary to clean out
much of the young crop to prevent overcrowding and to
prevent the seedlings from becoming too spindly, in which
case, they might be unable to support their own weight when
they were a few years older, and so get bent over by the
wind. This cleaning on natural regeneration areas is some-
times done by freeing individual trees, and sometimes by
cutting narrow strips 2 feet wide ; in this latter case the trees
on the edges of the strips become stronger and so free them-
selves.

THINNING.

The primary object of thinning is to aid the more
valuable trees in that struggle for existence, which results in
the survival of the fittest, when Nature alone has her
course.

In the latter stages of a rotation heavy thinnings are
often made in order to increase the quarter-girth measure-
ment and for the production of timber of larger dimensions.
Such thinnings are, however, really partial clearances.1

Now, with reference to thinnings in the early stages of a
rotation : —

After an area has been planted or raised from seed, there
is always a period of risk and uncertainty, especially if there
is no shelter-wood over the young crop, until the young crop
has closed in overhead and close canopy has been formed.

When this has taken place much anxiety is removed.
From this time onwards the trees are struggling with each
other for supremacy. If artificial aid is not forthcoming this
struggle is continued to a dangerous extent ; the trees
become too thin and lanky, and, when ultimately any
thinning takes place, the trees left will be unable to with-
stand gales of wind or heavy falls of snow.

On poor soil this prolonged struggle is especially notice-

1 Vide Chapter VIII.

K

146 TENDING OF YOUNG HIGH FOREST, ETC.

able ; on good soil individual trees are quicker to assert them-
selves.

In Nature the selection system is largely observed, and
this danger is to a great extent averted in an uneven-aged
wood growing under the selection system, for the patches of
trees of the same age are small, and those on the outside
avail themselves of more light and air.

With reference to thinning, some foresters classify
trees as : —

(1) Dominating or Vigorous.

(2) Dominated.

(3) Suppressed.

(4) Dead and Dying.

Dead and dying trees should always be cut and removed
from the forest, or the danger from insects, fungi, and fire is
increased. For the same reason suppressed trees in conifer-
ous woods should always be removed ; the vigorous and
dominated trees, alone, being usually left. Though at each
chinning, the vigorous trees should usually be individually
considered and any dominated trees removed if likely to
interfere with the growth of the former in the next few
years.

Some dominated trees must often be removed if inter-
fering with each other. Sometimes from bad management or
other cause the vigorous trees have an unduly large crown
and branch development in proportion to the length of their
stems ; such trees should always be removed : they occupy
more ground than should be allotted to them.

When, however, dealing with hardwood areas, and especi-
ally shade-bearing hardwoods, it is often a good plan to
leave all the suppressed trees, provided they be healthy ; for
they will shade the soil, help to preserve the humus, and
keep out the wind and sun. Beyond removing dead and
sickly trees, all that is necessary is to free the best-grown
trees from any undue competition with their neighbours, all
else being left1

An endeavour should be made to have vigorous quick-

1 This is termed by French foresters :— " Eclaircie par le haut."

THINNING

147

growing trees with moderate-sized crowns evenly distributed
over the whole area.

One disadvantage of this method is that by leaving the
suppressed poles whose increment is at a standstill, there is
a small financial loss, as capital is left uninvested, but this is
to a great extent compensated for by the fact that the soil is
kept exceedingly clean, to the consequent benefit of the main
crop.

It is difficult to say for certain at what periods of their
lives trees require thinning. Much will depend upon the
quality of the soil, the situation, and the distance apart at
which the trees were originally planted.

But taking a general average with trees planted 4 feet
apart, the first thinning should take place in the case of: —

Years.

Larch . . at 10 to 12
Douglas Fir . „ 12 „ 15
Ash . . . „ 13 „ 16
Spanish Chestnut „ 14 „ 16
Corsican Pine . „ 15 „ 20
Oak . . . , 17 „ 22

Scots Pine
Weymouth

Spruce
Beech

Silver Fir

Years.

'Pine' }at '8 l° 23

: :)" i8"24

• „ 24 „ 32

All thinnings in the early part of a rotation should be
slight, except under particular circumstances ; for example, an
area under Larch which is badly diseased.

" Thin little and often " is a sound saying.

After the first thinning, the operation must be repeated
every 5 to 10 years, according to the kind of crop and the
density required ; though in the latter stages of a rotation
when the principal height growth has ceased, the thinnings
are often not so frequent — say, every 10 to 15 years.

Provided other considerations admit of it, light-demanding
trees require more frequent thinning than shade-bearing
trees, and quick-growing trees than slow-growing trees.

Trees whose side branches die quickly and easily fall off,
as, for instance, Larch, can be thinned relatively more
heavily, than trees whose side branches are very persistent,
as, for instance, the shade-enduring trees ; and also Oak and
Scots Pine up to the first 30 years at any rate. For this

148 TENDING OF YOUNG HIGH FOREST, ETC.

reason, pure Scots Pine planted at 3 feet apart, and pure Oak
at 2 feet 6 inches is far preferable to 4 feet planting ; so also
Spruce planted at 3 feet and Silver Fir at 2 feet 6 inches
will give better results than if planted at 4 feet apart.

Until the principal height growth is attained thinnings
should toe slight, and the trees should be close enough
together to cause all side branches to die and fall off, and
thus clean timber will be produced.

Light-demanding trees will usually require thinning in
the pole forest stage about every 5 to 7 years, and shade-
bearing trees every 8 to 12 years.

After the trees are about 45 to 55 years old, very little
thinning is necessary in conifer crops unless partial clear-
ances are desired or natural regeneration cuttings are
required.

On good soil, or in sheltered positions, or on cool aspects,
or at low altitudes thinnings must be begun earlier, and must
be more frequent, and may be somewhat heavier than when
the reverse is the case.

On poor soil, or on hot aspects unless moisture is plentiful,
or at high elevations, or in exposed places, forest growth is
slower than when the reverse is the case, and therefore a
greater number of trees per acre should be found of any
given age, if a similar density of canopy is to be produced.
In the Black Forest 5 per cent more Beech were found on
southern than on northern aspects. In exposed places, the
edges of the wood should be thinned heavily from the
beginning, so as to encourage the growth of side branches
and to get bushy trees which will form a good wind-break.
Austrian Pine are often planted for this.

Now, whereas it is obvious that some thinning is neces-
sary, any severe interruption of the canopy in the early
stages of a rotation should always be avoided, except in rare
instances.

A great mistake is often made by starting to thin woods
too early; some people are frightened when they see the
branches interlacing, but the lower branches should inter-
lace; the sooner they do the better, and under proper

EPICORMIC BRANCHES 149

conditions they will kill each other off, and effect natural
pruning ; there should be no need for artificial aid in pruning.

Any severe thinning in the early stages of a crop encour-
ages the expansion of the crown and growth of side
branches, to the detriment of the height growth ; though the
individual trees will increase their quarter-girth measurement
to a greater extent than if the canopy is close. Trees taper
unduly if too heavily thinned, especially during the pole
forest stage.

On the other hand, trees left unthinned too long, will
probably lose even in height growth, for their vigour will be
slight, and they will be liable to be blown over by the wind.

With some trees, especially Oak and Chestnut, an
unduly thick canopy will often cause, especially in the latter
half of a rotation, the flushing of latent buds along the stem,
and epicormic branches will be thrown out. The reason of
this is because the crown is too small, and the root system is
too vigorous in proportion, and hence the excess of soil
nutrients and water cause the flushing of latent buds.

On the other hand, a similar result often follows where
stems grown in close canopy are suddenly exposed, especially
in the case of Oak. In this case it is due to the stimulating
action of sunlight on the trunks, the bark of which is com-
paratively thin and tender when grown in close high forest,
and also to a state of hypertrophy induced by an excess of
soil nutrients. Other evil effects which usually supervene if
a close-canopied young crop is suddenly thinned, may be
traced to exposure of the tender bark and buds to inimical
influences, such as frost, cold winds, and hot sun. Often,
early spring growth will be induced, and the young foliage
and shoots may be injured by a late spring frost.

The thinning of pure Oak woods requires special care,
partly on account of the liability of these trees to throw out
epicormic branches, and partly because there is great diffi-
culty in growing trees with tall clean boles and crowns of a
moderate size.

Up to the age of 30 to 35 years they must be grown very
close to stimulate height growth, and to kill off side branches ;

150 TENDING OF YOUNG HIGH FOREST, ETC.

after that age any undue struggle for existence must be
avoided or the whole crop will be a failure. After the first
thinning has been made, other very slight thinnings should
be made every 5 to 8 years until the principal height growth is
attained ; and directly the humus disappears and weeds begin
to grow, underplanting or undersowing should take place.

For this purpose, Spanish Chestnut or Beech, or a
mixture of them, are the best trees to plant.

It must always be remembered that the execution of
thinnings and the density of the canopy will greatly affect
the amount of moisture available for the crop.

As far as the question of moisture alone is concerned, a
serious interruption of the canopy will not be so harmful on
fertile soils as it will be on poor soils, or wherever the condi-
tions for the growth of timber are unfavourable.

The soil will probably contain a maximum amount of
moisture when the canopy is neither too thick nor too thin.

With this object in view, the canopy should be as thin as
is compatible with the retention of humus and dead leaves.

For if the canopy is unduly thick, transpiration through
the leaves is at its maximum ; so also is the interception of
atmospheric precipitations, rain and dew ; whilst evaporation
of moisture from the surface of the soil is reduced to a
minimum.

Now, if this canopy be somewhat broken, transpiration
and interception are lessened, and, provided that humus does
not disappear, evaporation of soil moisture will not be very
much increased.

But, if the canopy be still more broken, humus will
disappear, and evaporation of soil moisture will be increased ;
later on, grass and a rank growth of weeds will appear, and
transpiration and interception of moisture will again take
place, though this time, chiefly from the soil covering of
grass and weeds, instead of only from the trees as in the
former case.

Having regard to this, it is obvious that the greatest care
is necessary on dry soils or on hot southern aspects, where
usually the soil is lacking in sufficient moisture.

DENSITY OF CANOPY 151

Often under such conditions, especially towards the end
of a rotation, it is found that only a limited number of trees
can thrive, but though a heavy thinning will probably be
indicated, the greatest care must be taken not to destroy the
humus.

It must be evident that the aspect upon which trees are
growing is a matter of great importance in determining the
degree of thinning that should take place.

As already indicated, it will usually be necessary on a
southern aspect to have the canopy as thin as is compatible
with the retention of humus ; but on northern aspects the
relative density of the canopy may usually be either greater
or less.

A denser canopy is admissible because, owing to the
greater amount of moisture in the soil and air on northern
aspects, tree-growth is more vigorous in spite of the fact that
the light is less intense. This, however, would not be the
case if there was plenty of moisture on any given southern
aspect.

Then again, on the other hand, the canopy may be
thinner on a northern than on a southern aspect, because the
humus will not disappear so quickly, and any rank growth
of grass and weeds will be slower to appear.

It will nearly always be preferable to have the thinner
canopy, provided that the principal height growth of the crop
has been attained, since the individual trees will put on a
greatly increased increment ; and the money realised for that
portion of the crop which is removed, should earn 3^ or 4
per cent, interest, and perhaps more.

And moreover, whenever the conditions for the growth
of timber are favourable, though a somewhat thicker canopy is
admissible than when the reverse is the case, it will usually
be advisable to have a somewhat thinner canopy than is the
case on poor soil, provided always that the principal height
growth has been obtained, though not until then, for the
evil effects of wind and insolation will not be so serious, and
the trees will be quicker to form close canopy again.

When thinning mixed woods, the requirements of

152 TENDING OF YOUNG HIGH FOREST, ETC.

different species of trees must be considered ; light-demand-
ing trees must have relatively more growing space than
shade-bearing trees. If the shade-bearing trees catch up and
surpass the light-demanding trees, one class or other must
be removed.

Care must always be taken to preserve the required
mixture.

If other considerations admit of it, remove as thinnings
such trees as are valuable and saleable when small, and not
small trees of those species which are more or less valueless.
It should be noted that Ash, Spanish Chestnut, and Willow
are valuable even when small, and are much used for split
hurdles, etc. Small Larch are nearly always saleable, and
are always useful for estate purposes. But often it would be
most unwise to cut these out, as they will be required as
mature timber.

Finally, it may be stated that the general principles to
be observed in ordinary thinning operations are, speaking
generally, that thinnings should be so conducted that in
the early part of a rotation the side branches are allowed to
interlace and cause the death of each other, thus leaving all
pruning to natural agencies and, at the same time, stimulating
height growth; and that in the latter part of a rotation,
thinnings may be more severe, but, unless underplanting takes
place, never so severe as to result in the disappearance of
humus, and the consequent loss of soil moisture, and the
growth of rank grass and weeds. For, apart from soil
deterioration, a great expenditure will be incurred in clean-
ing the land and keeping it clean, when the time arrives for
the establishment of a new crop. Whereas, under correct
management, it should be possible to produce a new crop at
a minimum of expense, using seedling or quite small trees,
which for a year or two should be able to grow without
interference by weeds or rank growth.

It is recognised by the agricultural community that
farming land should be kept scrupulously clean : it is equally
important to observe the same principle in connection with
land used for the growth of timber.

PRUNING CONIFERS 153

PRUNING TREES.1

It has already been stated that if mixtures of trees have
been made with due care and if thinnings have been properly
conducted, that the pruning of trees should hardly ever be
necessary. However, there will always be exceptions, and
young standards growing over coppice will usually require
some attention.

(1) The Pruning of Green Branches.

In the case of conifers an almost invariable rule should
be observed : namely, " never prune a green branch." One
great reason is that the danger from insect and fungoid
attacks is so very much increased by such an operation.
The exudation of turpentine is, to some extent, a safeguard
against fungoid attacks, but usually this exudation is so
great that the healing of the wound is retarded. On the
other hand, many injurious insects are attracted by the
smell of turpentine exuding from a freshly cut surface.

However, there is one great exception to this rule, and
that is in the case of Douglas Fir. This tree, if pruned, heals
very rapidly and in a striking manner ; for broad annual rings
of new bark quickly occlude the wound, in a manner which is
peculiar to this tree alone.

It would not, however, be wise to prune Douglar Fir until
it is 10 to 12 years of age, on account of the danger of the
Pine weevil.

As regards the other Conifers, if any pruning be done, it
is less objectionable in the case of Silver Fir than in that of
any of the rest of them. It is, however, necessary to cut
away any double leader, whether on coniferous trees or not,
which may be found in young plantations.

In the case of trees other than conifers, the pruning of

green branches is not attended with such risks, and is

indeed often desirable. Young hardwood trees growing as

" standards " over coppice will usually require pruning and

1 See also " Nursery Work," Chapter HI.

154 TENDING OF YOUNG HIGH FOREST, ETC.

will pay for so doing ; and even some of the branches on the
older "standards" may advisably be cut if they do not
exceed about 3 inches in diameter. Any exposure of heart-
wood will usually result in decay.

The side branches of young hardwood trees in even-
aged woods will often require pruning. The necessity for
this will be more frequent in mixed woods than in pure
woods, and especially, of course, if the trees have been
planted far apart. But pruning is very expensive, and
unless it is done well, more harm than good is done to the
trees.

It should never be resorted to unless it is quite certain
that it will not be effected by natural agencies in a reasonable
time ; and even if this seems unlikely, it will often be
preferable and cheaper, in the case of young hardwood trees
which have not been planted more than 4 or 5 years, to cut
them over very close to the ground, and to subsequently
allow a single stem to grow from each of these coppiced
trees. The new stem is very vigorous, and the whole of the
energy of the root system appears to be largely directed in
making a long leading shoot, to the detriment in growth of
side branches.

Young hardwood trees thus cut over will often be far
taller in 6 or 8 years' time than similar trees not cut over,
and they are always cleaner and more free from side
branches.

This method of cutting trees over at the "collar" is
often practised in the case of Ash at the time of planting ;
and it is a very usual custom in the case of planting trees to
form a hedgerow; in this latter case, however, the cut is
made about 2 inches above the collar, so as to induce the
throwing out of many side branches near the ground.

Where the growth of timber trees is required, it will
generally be preferable, if this practice is adopted, to cut
them over after they have been planted out for 2 or 3 seasons
(or even more in some cases). If Beech trees were cut over
at the time of planting, most of them would be killed, though
Oak, Ash, Spanish Chestnut, Hornbeam, Sycamore, and

PRUNING BROAD-LEAVED TREES 155

Norway Maple would not resent this treatment. But if
these latter are cut over at the time of planting, their
ultimate height in 6 years' time will not be so great as if
they had been cut over 3 years afterwards, when the roots are
thoroughly well established ; for in this latter case a very long
shoot will be made, whereas in the former case the first
year's shoot will be small, and in the second year some of
the energy of the plant will be directed to the growth of
side branches.

When young crops 20 or 30 years old are pruned, it will
usually be waste of money if any but the best trees or those
likely to be left for the final crop are pruned.

The pruning of softwoods, such as Poplars, Willows, and
Lime, is usually dangerous, as their wood generally de-
composes before the wound is healed over, and in such
cases can offer no resistance to the entrance of spores of
fungi.

Only very small branches, which quickly heal, should be
pruned off such trees. It is occasionally necessary to saw
off big branches, as may happen in the tending of ornamental
timber, but the cutting of branches over 3 inches diameter is
attended with considerable risk.

(2) Method of Pruning.

Branches should always be pruned absolutely flush -with
the stem, except in the case of very large limbs, as mentioned
hereafter.

If the branches are small, a sharp knife should be used ;
otherwise a small pruning saw should be used, but the
circumference of the cut surface should always be trimmed
round afterwards with a sharp knife, in order to encourage
the bark to quickly occlude the exposed surface. If the
branches are not cut quite flush with the stem, the small
projections or " snags " die, and never, even when the bark
has closed over, become incorporated with the live wood, but
remain as dead knots in the timber.

Young standards in coppice may best be pruned with a
sharp chisel fitted to the end of a long pole, and this is

156 TENDING OF YOUNG HIGH FOREST, ETC.

pushed from below upwards. For bigger branches ladders
and hand-saws must be called into requisition.

Generally speaking, trees should be pruned to -f of their
total height, all small branches below this height being
entirely removed flush with the main stem. Under no
circumstances should small branches be merely trimmed
back to a side twig or bud, as is practised in the case of
some fruit trees.

When dealing with ornamental timber, big branches may
often have to be removed. Now, whenever a big branch has
to be removed, it should first be sawn through for a few
inches underneath at a distance of about 2 feet from the face
of the main stem ; then this cut should be completed through
from the upper side. This leaves a short length of 2 feet,
which is then sawn off in the ordinary way flush with the
stem ; then the circumference must be trimmed round with a
sharp knife and the cut surface painted over with creosote,
or tar and turpentine, or some other suitable antiseptic.

It is necessary for the branch to be removed in two
lengths, as otherwise there is a great chance of the heavy
branch falling and tearing a long strip of bark and sapwood
away from the main trunk.

Sometimes only a portion of a big limb is removed.
In such a case, unless there is a large side branch on this
limb, a length of 8 or 10 feet should be left between the main
trunk and the cut surface ; for the flushing of latent buds will
then probably take place, and this small length will continue
to live. If only a short length were left, it would gradually
rot and get hollow, and form a channel whereby water and
the spores of fungi would enter the main trunk.

With reference to the above, it is preferable only to
remove that portion of a limb beyond the first large side
branch ; for this side branch will keep the rest of the limb
alive, provided it be sufficiently large.

(3) Season for Pruning.

Much difference of opinion exists as to the best season
for pruning. Generally speaking, the autumn is the best

EFFECTS OF PRUNING 157

time, but it should never take place during a frost. If
pruning is done in the summer, the wounds generally heal
quicker than if done at any other time ; but the cut surface is
more liable to decompose and form a suitable growing
medium for fungous spores.

Where large branches are removed, there can be no doubt
that autumn is the best time, for any tar or antiseptic put on
the cut surface would fail to penetrate or remain on if the
operation took place in the summer or spring.

Many more experiments are, however, required before
this difficult question can be definitely decided.

(4) The Effects of Pruning.

The pruning of branches off young trees causes the
energy of growth to be directed to the leading shoot ; hence
the beneficial effects seen in the case of trees in a young
plantation which have hitherto made very little headway,
but which, on being pruned, so often begin to " get away "
almost immediately.

Trees approaching maturity which have been well pruned,
either naturally or artificially will have a higher form factor
— that is, they will be more cylindrical and less tapering.

The reason is because increment in girth is greatest near
the top of the bole, usually just below the lowest branch of
the crown, provided always that the trees are properly
grown.

A tree with many side branches on the stem, will often
have broader annual rings near the base than higher up, and
will therefore be very tapering.

Again, the pruning of side branches will stimulate height
growth even in the case of middle-aged trees, provided the
period of natural height growth has not ceased and the trees
be still vigorous.

The effect of pruning of big branches on old trees is at
times apparently rather contradictory, though not really so.
If senile decay be already approaching and the tree be
beginning to become "stag-headed," the removal of side
branches will determine the soil nutrients to the crown,

158 TENDING OF YOUNG HIGH FOREST, ETC.

restore the balance between leaf and root activity, and the
tree will continue to thrive.

But suppose big branches be cut off such trees as Oak
(or those which have a tendency to throw out epicormic
branches) when they are mature or nearly mature, and whilst
they are still vigorous, the result will be to actually induce
stag-headedness in a few years. The reason of this is
because a state of hypertrophy will be induced ; the roots
will supply more water and soil nutrients to the crown than
are required, and this will have the effect of flushing latent
buds along the stem ; when, however, these latter have grown
into branches they will make an additional demand upon the
roots for moisture and soil nutrients which cannot be
supplied, the result being that the epicormic branches
appropriate the soil nutrients, to the detriment of the crown
of the tree, which consequently becomes stag-headed.

(5) The Pruning of Dead Branches.

This would always be advisable if the expense could be
incurred. In young plantations, and especially Larch planta-
tions, they are often knocked off with a stout stick. But
unless additional light is required for underplanting it would
be better to leave their removal to natural agencies. For if
they are so small that they can be thus knocked off, they will
fall off of their own weight in a few years' time, when they
will probably come out at the " socket." Whereas in knocking
them off a small snag will often be left ; and inasmuch as it is
deprived of the leverage exerted by the weight of the whole
branch, it will be many more years before it finally falls or
rots away.

TABLES OP THINNINGS.

The following tables give data showing how pure crops
should be thinned in even-aged high forest. In all cases it is
presumed that three-year old trees have been planted : —

TABLES OF THINNINGS

159

BEECH.

Close-Canopied High Forest. Good average soil and situation.
Quality II.

Years since
planted.

Poles cut.

Poles left.

Average distance
in feet apart,
about

Height to top
of tree.

20

Rubbish.

2500

30

800

1700

5

28

40

720

980

64

42

50

325

655

8

56

65

250

405

10*

71

80

105

300

12

81

95

IOO

2OO

141

90

105

50

150

17

94

120

Final crop,

150 trees.

...

98

OAK.

Close-Canopied High Forest. Good average soil and situation.
Quality II.

Years since
planted.

Poles cut.

Poles left.

Average distance
in feet apart,
about

H«ight to top
of tree.

20

Rubbish.

1800

5

...

25

370

1430

si

24

32

5oo

930

7

32

40

390

540

9

42

50

140

400

ii

53

60

IOO

300

iai

64

75

no

190

iSj

77

90

60

130

18

87

105

30

IOO

21

92

120

Final crop,

ioo trees.

...

94

160 TENDING OF YOUNG HIGH FOREST, ETC.

ASH.

Close-Canopied High Forest.* Good average soil and situation.
Quality II.

Years since
planted.

Poles cut.

Poles left.

Average distance
in feet apart,
about

Height to top
of tree.

13

1800

5

23

20

700

IIOO

64

36

27

400

700

8

46

35

220

480

9i

56

45

220

260

13

66

55

140

120

19

72

70

Final crop,

1 20 trees.

78

* Slight partial clearances are made at the forty-fifth and fifty-fifth years.

SILVER FIR.

Close-Canopied High Forest. Good average soil and situation.
Quality II.

Years since
planted.

Poles cut.

Poles left.

Average distance
in feet apart,
about

Height to top
of tree.

30

...

2300

4*

24

35

800

1500

51

30

45

500

1000

64

42

55

400

600

8*

55

65

220

38o

ioi

68

77

100

280

"i

80

90

Final crop,

280 trees.

...

90

Note. — Norway Spruce will be somewhat the same. But as it
grows very much quicker while young, the thinnings will be begun
earlier, and there will be a smaller number of trees at the respective
dates all the way through, and the rotation may be reduced to about
77 years.

TABLES OF THINNINGS

161

LARCH.

Close-Canopied High Forest. Good average soil and situation.
Quality II.

Years since
planted.

Poles cut.

Poles left.

Average distance
in feet apart,
about

Height to top
of tree.

12

500

1800

...

...

18

700

IIOO

6|

26

25

400

700

8

38

32

220

480

9i

50

40

ISO

330

III

60

50

70

260

13

69

60

60

200

I4|

75

70

Final crop,

200 trees.

...

80

Note. — Better results would usually be obtained if partial clearances
were made from about the thirty-fifth year onwards, and the crop
underplanted.

SCOTS PINE.

Close- Canopied High Forest. Good average soil and situation.
Quality II.

Years since
planted.

Poles cut.

Poles left.

Average distance
in feet apart,
about

Height to top
of tree.

20

800

1400

51

26

30

500

900

7

39

40

300

600

8i

52

50

160

440

10

62

60

no

330

ill

69

70

70

260

13

74

80

Final crop,

260 trees.

...

77

162 TENDING OF YOUNG HIGH FOREST, ETC.

Oorsican and Austrian Pine will be about the same,
though they grow very much quicker for the first 30 years ;
but during this period they require rather a greater relative
density. Weymouth Pine will also be similar, though its
height growth is finally greater than Scots Pine.

DOUGLAS PIR.

Close-Canopied High Forest. Very good soil and situation.
Quality I.

Years since
planted.

Trees cut.

Trees left.

Average distance
in feet apart,
about

Height to top
of tree.

14

1800

5

35

20

600

1200

6

50

27

430

770

71

65

35

270

500

9*

79

45

250

250

13

94

55

60

190

15

1 06

65

60

130

I8|

118

75*

50

80

23i

128

85

Final crop,

70 trees.

...

135

* A rotation of 75 years will prove more profitable if the same price per foot
can be obtained for the timber as will be realised at a later date.

Note. — The above table for Douglas Fir is based upon careful
estimates made as to its rate of growth both in this country and its
native country. In this country there are, however, no plantations old
enough to verify the later stages of the above table.

CHAPTER VIII.
PARTIAL CLEARANCES AND UNDERPLANTING.

Partial Clearances for the production of mature timber of
large girth, are often made at intervals before the final
felling.

Under certain conditions this policy can be strongly
recommended.

It consists in a succession of very heavy thinnings remov-
ing from -J- to J or more of the smaller trees forming the crop.
These heavy thinnings should not take place until after the
principal height growth has ceased, as to seriously check
height growth would be very bad practice. In making these
partial clearances the canopy is broken, and the trees which
are left standing enjoy a maximum amount of light and air,
with the result that in practically all cases a greatly enhanced
increment per individual stem takes place, provided always
that the trees are still vigorous, and that senile decay has not
yet begun.

Often the width of annual rings will be doubled.

The actual reason for this enhanced increment is some-
what open to discussion, but probably it is due to the follow-
ing reasons : —

(1) The increased intensity of light will render the

assimilation of carbonic acid gas (CO2) more active,
through the existing foliage of the crown.

(2) Dormant buds will be flushed and new foliage pro-

duced ; and hence increased assimilation.

(3) Food supplies from the soil are required to nourish a

163

164 CLEARANCES AND UNDERPLANTING

smaller number of trees, which correspondingly
benefit thereby.

(4) Owing to the destruction of humus food supplies are

temporraily increased.

(5) An immediate utilisation of reserve food material,

which was stored up in the stem whilst close canopy
prevailed, takes place. (Hartig's theory.)

In connection with this latter reason, it should be noted
that reserve food material is far greater in broad-leaved
deciduous trees than in conifers, and greater in Larch than
in the other conifers.

Sometimes this increased increment does not take place
for a year or so until after the partial clearance.

In such cases the reason will often be that the trees were
not vigorous enough at the time of the partial clearance.
However, in a few years' time, when the foliage and roots
have recovered their normal activity, and also after new
foliage and new roots have grown, the trees begin to actively
respond to the treatment they have received.

One result of the increased increment is the production of
broader annual rings than would otherwise have been the
case.

Now, in the case of conifers, broad rings are mostly made
up of spring wood which is of low density, for the tracheids
which are formed in the spring have thin walls and large
lumina ; the reverse, however, is the case with the autumn
wood.

But in the case of broad-leaved trees, it happens that
timber with broad annual rings consists mostly of autumn
(i.e. summer) wood, which is, generally speaking, of greater
density than the wood formed in the spring.

Especially is this the case with reference to the so-called
" ring pored " trees — Oak, Ash, Elm, Spanish Chestnut, and
Acacia — for the spring wood of these trees consists mostly of
large " vessels," which are not nearly so strong or dense as
the " sclerenchyma " or hard tissue which forms the greater
part of the autumn wood.

Bearing this in mind, it will not usually be advisable to

STIMULATION OF INCREMENT 165

conduct partial clearances in coniferous crops to such an
extent that the annual rings will be increased beyond a
normal width ; though the case is different with hard-
woods.

It should be remembered that timber of the highest
technical value should have annual rings of the same width
throughout. Generally speaking, trees will form wide rings
until the canopy is close ; then the rings will be narrower, and
will again become wider on a thinning taking place.

In the early part of a rotation, trees growing vigorously
will form wider rings than in the latter part of a rotation
under relatively similar conditions ; for as maturity is reached
their vigour declines.

Now, whereas the vigour of a whole crop may be declin-
ing, and the annual increment on the saleable timber may
represent a lower rate of interest than that which seems
reasonable, and whereas in many cases it would be considered
prudent to clear cut the whole crop and invest the money,
realised by the sale thereof, so as to yield a higher rate of
interest, it will often be possible, by making a partial clear-
ance, to so stimulate the crop that is left, that a better invest-
ment, or one equally as good, will be effected.

By this means it is quite possible that the crop left may
increase in value at the rate of 4 or 5 per cent., or even more,
whereas formerly it was earning perhaps only 2\ or 3 per
cent.

Thus it is evident that the rotation for a portion of the
crop can often be beneficially prolonged from a financial point
of view.

It must be remembered that besides the increase in
actual volume there will usually be an increase in the quality
or price per foot at which the timber would sell, as the
individual trees will have a larger girth than is usually the
case.

By means of partial clearances, timber of large girth can
be produced in a much shorter period than would usually be
the case. The girth increment will be somewhat similar to
that which obtains in the case of standards over coppice,

166 CLEARANCES AND UNDERPLANTING

but the trees will be tall and the boles clean, instead of
the short, stumpy trees that are so often seen growing as
standards over coppice as usually practised.

When fellings are made for natural regenerations, the
same enhanced increment usually takes place. There is, how-
ever, this distinction in the method under consideration —
namely, that whereas natural regeneration fellings are
effected at the end of the rotation, and entirely in the
interests of the succeeding crop, the fellings or partial clear-
ances above described are made entirely with a view to
increase the value and girth of the trees left standing ; they
are made successively from the time when the principal
height growth has ceased, so that from this period onwards
the canopy is kept broken.

The method may be practised with any trees, provided
they are storm proof and still growing vigorously, so that
they respond to the treatment

The method has its disadvantages.

For the canopy is seriously broken, and consequently the
risk of soil deterioration, viz., the disappearance of humus, the
lack of moisture, the growth of rank grass and weeds, etc., is
very great.

For this reason underplanting or undersowing must
almost invariably be resorted to in the case of thinly
foliaged trees, unless they are mixed with thickly foliaged
trees.

With the thickly foliaged shade-enduring trees, the fellings
should not be so severe as to cause the growth of weeds and
grass, and thus induce the necessity for underplanting. For
it would never be satisfactory, and should be avoided, however
good the soil. When shade-enduring trees are partially
cleared, there will often be a certain amount of natural
regeneration, but it will be very uneven and usually worthless
except for soil protection purposes.

Whenever pure crops of Larch, Oak, or Ash are found,
they should always, if not too old, and if the soil is good
enough for those crops grown pure, be partially cleared and
underplanted or undersown ; for even if they are not partially

SHADE-BEARING TREES 167

cleared, the canopy always becomes broken towards the end
of a rotation (except where the rotation is very short, as for
instance, Larch grown for pit timber), and thus necessitating
underplanting if the land is to be kept clean. The degree to
which the partial clearance should take place will vary greatly.
If it is desired that no trees forming the overwood should be
removed until the undercrop is grown into strong stout poles,
it must of course be much heavier than if several successive
partial clearances are made whilst the undercrop is growing.
Provided the underplanting is done thick enough, this latter
method is far preferable, since the removal of older trees from
amongst a young crop which is thick in the ground, does not
do an enormous amount of damage, if the older trees are well
grown, and have not unduly large crowns.

When pure crops of thinly foliaged trees are thus under-
planted, a two-storied high forest is the result.

If the undercrop be subsequently coppiced, it would bring
about the system of high forest with coppice ; though this
system is best brought about, except in the case of Oak on
stiff soils, by arranging a proper mixture at the time of
planting, and subsequently, say at 16 or 20 years of age,
coppicing those trees planted for that purpose.

Scots and Corsican Pine can be underplanted, but usually
the growth of these pines should be confined to the poor dry
soils, where underplanting would be a failure, and where a
fairly short rotation is indicated.

The trees used for underplanting must l*e able to bear
shade, at any rate whilst they are young and during the pole
forest stage.

Silver Fir, Cupressus macrocarpa^ Beech, Nordmann's
Silver Fir, Hornbeam, and Thuya gigantea (plicata) will bear
the greatest amount of shade of any timber trees. Sitka
Spruce1 (Picea sitchensis], Sitka Cypress1 (Cupressus

1 A great deal more experience is required with these trees
in this country before they can be recommended largely for underplanting.
Cupressus macrocarpa seems peculiarly suitable, as it will then escape its
greatest enemy — cold, dry, east winds ; intense frost will kill the tree. It
will bear a very great amount of shade.

168 CLEARANCES AND UNDERPLANTING

sitchensis), Douglas Fir, Weymouth Pine, Spanish Chestnut,
and Hazel and Lime will also bear considerable shade.
However, when mature, Spanish Chestnut is a light-demand-
ing tree. Ash l will bear a certain amount of shade during
the first 25 years of its existence ; but it is a very light-
demanding tree when older. Norway Spruce will bear
considerable shade when the locality exactly suits it ; but it
requires a fairly moist soil and a very moist atmosphere to
grow it to perfection. Generally speaking, it is not suited
for growth in the south of England ; though it will succeed
on certain high table-lands ; and its growth in Scotland is
far better than its growth in the south of England.

But even where Norway Spruce will grow well, it cannot
be recommended for underplanting, as it renders the soil
intensely dry, to the detriment of the overwood.

The age at which underplanting takes place is a matter
of the greatest importance. It will depend upon the species
and the condition of the overwood. It should be done
before the soil covering of humus has disappeared, and con-
currently with the first partial clearance.

Regard should be had to the rate at which the undercrop
will probably grow, or the overwood may be .caught up and
its growth interfered with, before it is ready for the axe.

Cupressus macrocarpa, Douglas Fir, and Sitka Spruce are
the quickest growing of the shade-enduring trees mentioned,
and for the first 30 years an average growth of 2 feet to 2
feet 9 inches may be relied upon, per annum.

Of the other trees, Thuya gigantea and Weymouth Pine
are the quicker growing, when an average growth of i foot
3 inches to i foot 9 inches may be expected, per annum.

The cost of underplanting is very small, since the land
is always very clean, or should be so, and therefore no
subsequent cleaning of the young crop is necessary. The
chief item will be for fencing against rabbits.

1 Ash, when sown in situ, and so also most other trees, will bear more
shade than when planted ; because in subdued light trees, which are
only moderate shade bearers, will often fail to recover from the shock of
being transplanted.

COST OF UNDERPLANTING 169

The following is a fair estimate when the plants are
produced in a home nursery : —

3000 2 year seedling Beech, at 45.* per 1000 . ^o 12 o
Planting with spike and trowel, or with " dibble,"

at 45. 6d. per 1000 . ". ! . .- . ". 013 6

Add for fencing (say)

* The price of the plants is very variable, as it depends so much upon seed
years.

Now, if the overwood be not removed for another 40 years,
the undercrop will merely be a debtor, at that date, to the
original cost of planting, accumulated at compound interest.
For this undercrop must be considered as growing free of
all rent and annual charges, which must be debited to the
overwood alone.

Now, £2, 153. 6d. will amount in 40 years at 4 per cent,
to £13, 6s. od.

Hence when 40 years old, the undercrop will only be
debtor to the amount of £13, 6s. od., if 4 per cent, on the
outlay is required.

It will usually be found that this has been more than
earned, and when the enhanced financial position of the
overwood, and the condition of the soil has been taken
into account, it will be evident that underplanting is not
always conducted at a financial loss, as has been stated by
some.

Even if a loss of £2 or £3 l were incurred up to the
time that the overwood was removed or that both crops were
simultaneously felled, the underplanting of the crop will have
been justified, for the additional cost of planting and establish-
ing a crop on foul land with 4-year-old plants, will be at least
£4 or £$ an acre, or even more, than the cost of planting

1 In some cases even a greater debit sum is justifiable, as it will be
made good in the latter part of the rotation of the undercrop. — Vide
Chapter XII.

170 CLEARANCES AND UNDERPLANTING

and establishing a crop on perfectly clean land with seedling
plants.

And it may be pointed out that an additional outlay of
£i at the beginning of a QO-year rotation will, at 4 per cent,
amount to £34, or at 3^ per cent, to £22, thus rendering the
final crop at the end of the rotation debtor to that additional
amount.

Hence it will be seen how essential it is to keep the land
clean, if it can be effected without additional expense.

Other benefits derived from underplanting can, for the
most part, be traced to the effects of the soil covering of
humus which results from the growth of an undercrop. Now,
humus prevents rapid changes in the soil temperature ; and
also lessens the danger from late spring frosts, both by pre-
venting excessive radiation of heat from the soil, and by
delaying active vegetation in the early spring. This delay-
ing of spring growth will often result in the production of
denser spring wood, as the weather, when active growth
begins, will usually be warmer. It will also have the effect
of reducing the proportion of spring wood to autumn (or
summer) wood, which, in the case of all timbers is, generally
speaking, a very important matter, since the smaller the
proportion of the spring wood, the more valuable will be the
timber.

Then again, a layer of humus will tend to prolong the
growing season.

Humus, by its own decomposition, affords a gradual supply
of plant food in an easily available state ; though if it decays
at a greater rate than it is formed by the annual fall of
leaves, soil deterioration will quickly follow. Then also, as
it decays, it provides a constant supply of CO2, which is
instrumental in gradually setting free hitherto insoluble
plant food.

Humus also assists in the percolation of water through
the soil. It absorbs water like a sponge, and prevents the
rain water from running too quickly off the land, and retards
evaporation, and thus insures a more plentiful and constant
supply of moisture.

HUMUS 171

It should be noted that a soil covered with grass1 involves
a greater loss of moisture than if covered by trees ; and more
moisture is lost by transpiration from a soil covering of either
grass or trees than would be lost by evaporation from clean
open ground such as a ploughed field. But if this open area
be covered with a layer of humus, the loss of moisture will be
still further diminished. For this reason self-sown seedlings
or young nursery plants thrive much better where there is a
layer of humus than where it is absent, if other conditions be
equal. Then again, humus exerts a mechanical condition on
the soil which is beneficial to young seedlings. It renders
the surface soil less hard and more easy of penetration; and
on clay soils it is especially valuable, as it prevents them from
" setting."

In the previous chapter it was stated that a woodland
area will contain a maximum amount of moisture when the
canopy is as thin as is compatible with the retention of
humus. Hence, since by underplanting the canopy becomes
more dense, the total amount of moisture in the soil will be
lessened. But the exhaustion will take place from the subsoil,
and will hardly be noticeable in the surface soil.

It is, however, very probable that this lessening of the
available supply of moisture for the overwood will cause them
to become less tapering, as the moisture and soil nutrients
they absorb will only be sufficient for the formation of broad
rings in the upper part of the boles, instead of, perhaps, an
equally broad ring all the way down the stem.

From this it is evident that on soils too dry for underplant-
ing any attempt to that effect would be likely to cause the
overwood to become stag-headed, as well as being a failure as
far as the underwood itself is concerned.

Underplanting will never of itself stimulate the increment
of the overwood ; but it will prevent the falling off in incre-
ment which would take place if the ground became covered
with grass and weeds.

A consideration of the foregoing leads to the conclusion

1 Certain woodland grasses do not transpire moisture to the same
extent as ordinary grasses, and therefore are not so harmful.

172 CLEARANCES AND UNDERPLANTING

that underplanting and partial clearances should never be
attempted on poor soils lacking in moisture. For in such
soils the overcrop would probably be injured and the under-
crop would not thrive ; for all trees are less tolerant of shade
on dry soils or where the conditions are not suitable for their
growth. On such soils a short rotation of even-aged high
forest will generally be indicated.

But on the other hand, whenever the soil is deep and good
and has a sufficiency of moisture, it is undeniable that crops
consisting of only thinly foliaged trees, such as Oak, Ash, and
Larch, will yield better returns if partially cleared and under-
planted ; whereas crops consisting of only thickly foliaged
trees may have slight partial clearances made if large girthed
timber is required, but not to such an extent as to cause the
growth of grass and weeds ; and they should not be under-
planted.

NOTES AND TABLES FOR PARTIAL CLEARANCES.

Oak. — The first heavy thinning or partial clearance may
be made at about 60 years of age, though on stiff clay lands
it may be delayed till about 80 years.

From the 5Oth to 8oth years, the clearances should be
repeated every 10 years; after that every 15 years. The
early thinnings must not be too severe, or epicormic branches
will appear, though this danger is lessened as the bark
becomes thicker.

Underplanting should take place before any rank growth
appears. On most soils a mixture of Beech and Spanish
Chestnut will probably be most suitable ; or Spanish Chestnut
alone. On stiff clays, Hornbeam will probably succeed the
best, and, in places where there is much light, a fewr Norway
Maple and Sycamore. Alder will also often be advisable,
especially if the land is wet ; it should, however, be periodi-
cally coppiced.

The fast-growing conifers should not generally be used,
unless the underplanting is long delayed, for otherwise the
Oak will be overtaken.

TABLES FOR PARTIAL CLEARANCES 173

However, Thuya gigantea will often be successful, as its
ultimate height growth is not excessive.

On average soil the following table will show the number
of trees cut, etc. : —

TABLE OF CLEARANCES. — Average soil and situation.

Years.

Trees
before a
thinning.

Trees removed.

Trees left.

Ratio.

Number.

Per acre.

Feet apart.

50

540

140

400

ioi

60

400

i

100

300

12

70

300

i

100

200

15

So

200

i

50

150

17

90

*5<>

i

50

100

21

105

100

i

33

69

26

H5

69

I

23

46

30

130

Final crop,

46 trees.

...

...

...

Note. — The best trees with long clean boles should always be left.
If high forest with coppice is formed, the cuttings should be about every
15 or 20 years, corresponding with the length of rotation.

Larch should be partially cleared from 30 to 35 years
onwards ; though sometimes, on account of Larch Disease, it
will be begun much earlier.

The cuttings may be rather heavy.

Douglas Fir is one of the best trees to use for underplant-
ing the Larch, and probably also Sitka Spruce. If under-
planting is done before the 3Oth year, slower growing trees
should be used. Beech is very excellent, also Spanish Chest-
nut and Thuya gigantea.

If high forest with coppice is required, the conifers must
of course be excluded, so also should Beech ; Spanish Chest-
nut is the most suitable for the underwood. Sometimes
sowing may be tried instead of planting ; but there is really
little to recommend it. Its first cost is a little cheaper than

174 CLEARANCES AND UNDERPLANTING

planting seedlings ; but the results are uncertain, and time
may be lost, and there is considerable danger from mice
and other vermin, which cannot very well be remedied on
a large area.

TABLE OF CLEARANCES.— Soil and situation very good.

Years.

Trees before a
thinning.

Trees
removed.

Trees left.

Per acre.

Feet apart.

35

600

250

350

II

45

350

83

267

»|

55

267

1^133

134

18

65

134

1 = 67

67

26

__75 to 80

Final crop,

67 trees.

...

...

Ash may be partially cleared and underplanted in much
the same way; but instead of underplanting with another
species of tree, it will often be possible to have a two-storied
high forest consisting entirely of Ash, and the undercrop
can be naturally regenerated, provided the soil is not too
moist. If, however, the soil is too moist, it will be found that
the seedlings will get choked by weeds, etc. If naturally
regenerated, the seedlings will bear far more shade than if
trees are planted.

Scots Pine, if it is found growing on good soil, may be
partially cleared like Larch, but the first partial clearance
should not take place until it is 38 to 45 years of age. It
may also be underplanted with the same trees as may be
used for underplanting Larch.

Silver Pir and Spruce (if the latter be in a very
sheltered locality) may be partially cleared from the 45th
year onwards.

TABLES FOR PARTIAL CLEARANCES 175

TABLE OF CLEARANCES.— Average soil and situation.

Trees removed.

Trees left.

Years.

Trees before a
thinning.

Ratio.

Number.

Per acre.

Feet apart.

45

900

i

300

' 600

H

52

600

i

200

400

ioi

60

400

i

133

267

i*i

70

267

^

133

134

El

85 to 90

Final crop,

134 trees.

...

...

...

Care must be taken not to allow the introduction of grass
and weeds. Underplanting must of course not be attempted.

Beech may have the first partial clearance made when
about 50 years of age. It will often be found at the end of
the rotation that there is a certain amount of natural
regeneration. In such a case it will often be advantageous to
leave it and form a mixed wood by artificially introducing
other species.

TABLE OF CLEARANCES. — Average soil and situation.

Years.

Trees before a
thinning.

Trees cut.

Trees left

Per acre.

Feet apart.

50

580

i = 193

387

I0t

60

387

4 = 129

258

13

70

258

£ = 86

172

16

85

172

4 = 57

U5

191

100

115

4 = 38

77

24

I2O

Final crop,

77 trees.

...

...

CHAPTER IX.

NATURAL REGENERATION OF HIGH FOREST.

IT has previously been stated that the natural regeneration
of high forest may take place under : —

(1) The Selection System;

(2) The Group System ;

(3) Compartments of Even- Aged High Forest.

THE SELECTION SYSTEM.

This system is chiefly suited to the regeneration of Beech.
In order to insure its success, it is essential that the young
trees should be able to bear a great amount of shade. Some
of the shade-bearing conifers might be regenerated in this
manner, especially on exposed south-western aspects, where
a maximum amount of shelter is required. The coniferous
timber thus produced would very often be of poor quality, as
there would be a minimum amount of natural pruning of the
trees by each other ; and as the older trees became isolated,
the annual girth increment would probably be too rapid to
produce timber which is really strong and dense.

The system is not generally suited to very dry soils,
though Beech prove an exception on poor chalky or lime-
stone soils.

Unless the soil is really good, rotations under the selec-
tion system should be fairly short.

Fellings and thinnings should not be made upon the

176

SELECTION SYSTEM 177

same area more than about once in every 15 years; though
these periodic cuttings vary from 10 to 20 years.

Where a large area is being dealt with, it will be
advisable to divide it up into a number of equally productive
areas, corresponding in number with the number of years
that elapse between the fellings which take place over
any single area. Thus an equal yearly income may be
looked for and the management of the area will be more
methodical.

Whenever grass and weeds appear on vacant spots, it
should either be removed, and the ground broken up so as
to form a seed-bed, or else artificial aid should be given by
way of planting.

Rabbits must always be exterminated from the woods.

The number of trees, which will vary more or less in age
classes, since fellings and thinnings take place periodically
(and consequently the regeneration will also be more or
less periodical), will be determined by the length of the
rotation.

The canopy should be about as dense as that found in
even-aged high forest, except that the relative density of
the older trees should be somewhat less, so that the younger
trees may have rather more light and growing space. If
this relative density is required, it may be ascertained
by comparing the number of trees in any age class with
the number of like age that would be occupying a
similar area under close-canopied high forest, supposing
always that the trees of the particular age class under the
selection system are all growing together on a confined
area.

In order to make this comparison per acre, it is necessary
to multiply the number of trees per acre in an age class
under the selection system, by the number of age classes ;
and that will show the number of trees which an acre fully
stocked with that age class will be supporting.

Thus, supposing that Beech are grown under the selection
system, and that the oldest trees are cut when 105 years, and
that cuttings are made every 1 5 years, and that the following

M

178

NATURAL REGENERATION

number are found per acre of the different age classes, just
before a felling will take place : —

Years.
15
30
45
60

75

90

105

Trees.
700

357
188
103

57
43
23

Then, as the number of age classes is 7, the number of
trees found per acre, if stocked with only one age class, will be
as shown in the following table, where the number per acre
in close-canopied high forest is also shown : —

JUST BEFORE A FELLING.

Age Class,
Years.

Number of Trees represented,
if one acre stocked with
one class.

Trees per acre,
Even- Aged High
Forest.

15

700 x 7 = 4900

...

30

357><7 = 2499

2500

45

188x7 ~= I3l6

1300

60

103 x 7 = 721

770

75

57x7 = 399

475

90

43 x 7 = 3oi

330

io5

23 x 7 = 161

200

Thus it will be seen that, in the above case, the relative
density is about correct ; the older age classes being some-
what more thin on the ground.

Now, if it be desired to perpetually retain this density at
each felling, some of the trees in all the younger age classes
must always be thinned out at the same time that the
mature trees are cut.

The correct principle to observe is to first remove from
these younger age classes such trees as appear likely to form
large crowns and are occupying more space than their

BEECH: SELECTION SYSTEM

179

height growth merits, and also any visibly suppressed trees
of any class.

The following table, referable to the previous example,
shows the number of trees that should be removed at each
thinning and the number that should be left in order to
attain this ideal standard : —

TABLE FOR FELLINGS OF BEECH WOOD UNDER SELECTION
SYSTEM. Rotation, 105 years. Average soil and situation.

Age Class,
Years.

Just before a
felling.

Trees cut every
15 years.

Trees left.

15

700*

343*

357

30

357 f'

169

188

45

i SI

85

103

60

103

46

57

75

57

H

43

90

43

20

23

105

23

23

...

* This number will obviously depend upon the efficiency of the previous
regeneration.

THE GROUP SYSTEM.

This system must only be attempted in the case of shade*
bearing trees which are also fairly storm proof ; for although
the young crop has a maximum amount of shelter, the old
trees exposed by the felling are liable to suffer unless indeed
the groups are very small.

It is a most excellent system to pursue on poor dry soils,
in places not too much exposed ; for the young crop will
obtain a maximum amount of moisture and shelter combined,
as the side shade and protection will help to preserve humus,
and diminish evaporation of moisture from the surface of the
soil that would otherwise take place owing to direct heat and
air currents.

On very dry soil the groups must be larger than would
be admissible on good land.

180 NATURAL REGENERATION

Whenever an area is being dealt with under this system,
it is advisable, if possible, to obtain from that area an equal
yearly income ; as indeed is the case under all systems of
forest management.

Thus, supposing there be an area of 432 acres treated on
the group system with a rotation for the timber of 72 years,
and that an interval of 9 years between neighbouring groups
is desirable, it could be treated in the following way : —

The whole area may be divided into 18 compartments of
24 acres each, and the area may be considered as comprising
two woods or blocks of 9 compartments each, one of which
blocks, that to the leeward of the prevailing winds, should be
regenerated in the first 36 years, and the other block in the
next 36 years.

Now, as regards this block of 216 acres, one method
would be to take 54 groups of I acre each, at intervals
throughout the whole block, and regenerate them in the first
year ; then 9 years hence to make 54 fresh fellings by
enlarging these groups ; then 9 years hence, and again 9
years after that, to repeat the operation, when the whole
block will have been regenerated within the 36 years.

But such a method would give an intermittent income
from the area managed under this system.

It would be far preferable to enter a different compart-
ment each year for 9 years, and then to return to the original
compartment. And this would insure an equal annual
income from the whole area, and little difficulties arising
over the rearing of game might be avoided, as only I
compartment out of the 9 would be disturbed in any one
year.

Thus in the first year, 6 groups of i acre1 each (or 12
groups of J acre each) may be felled in Compartment No. I. ;
in the 2nd year, 6 groups (or 12) in Compartment
No. II.; and so on, until in the loth year, Compartment
No. I, will again be entered, and the original groups enlarged
by making fresh fellings. This scheme is continued until by
the 36th year the whole 9 compartments have been
1 One acre groups will in many cases be too large.

GROUP SYSTEM 181

regenerated, after which the other block will be treated in the
same way.

This method, however, of cutting groups somewhere in
the wood every year, could not be adopted in the case of
Beech, as it would be necessary to wait for the seed years,
otherwise the vacant patches would become covered with a
rank growth of weeds if a seed year were long delayed.
This might, however, be avoided by artificial means, or
possibly by making the groups very small, when practically
the selection system would be adopted.

The whole essence of the group system is that the
cleared areas are small, and that the feelings of neighbouring
groups are always intermittent. The great advantage of
having small groups is that the young crop gets a very great
amount of protection from the older trees, and in the case of
conifers the danger of ravages from the Pine weevil
(Hylobius abietis) is greatly lessened by having these
intermittent fellings and small areas, and a good seeding is
assured.

In as much as rides or roads do not lead through all the
groups — such a thing would be impossible — it is necessary
that a long interval should elapse between the regeneration
of outside groups and the time when the centre groups are
again felled, for this will enable the timber from the centre
groups to be drawn out through a crop which is at least 35
or 40 years old, and thus excessive damage is avoided.

In cases where the groups are very large, some mother
trees should be left overhead as a shelter wood ; but these
very large groups must, to all intents and purposes, be
considered as small irregular shaped compartments.

The timber grown under the group system should be of
higher technical value than that grown under the selection
system, as there will be a smaller proportion of unpruned
trees.

This group system must not be confounded with the
method of mixing trees by patches or groups, as is practised
when planting mixtures in even-aged high forest.

182 NATURAL REGENERATION

NATURAL REGENERATION OP WHOLE COMPART-
MENTS OP EVEN-AGED HIGH FOREST.

The usual method of effecting natural regeneration under
a shelter wood of mother trees is by making several fellings
and gradually clearing the mother trees off the ground. It
will be convenient to consider this method under three
headings : —

(1) Preparatory Fellings.

(2) A " Seed Felling " or *' Regeneration Felling."

(3) Gradual Clearance of Mother Trees.

(1) Preparatory Fellings. — These consist of very heavy
thinnings, and may or may not be necessary, according to
the state of the land and the density of the crop.

The great object is to obtain a good seed-bed, and trees
which will bear plenty of seed towards the end of the rota-
tion, when it is desired to bring about the natural regenera-
tion. If the trees are growing very close together, there
will probably be a thick soil covering of undecayed leaves,
or " raw " humus, as it is termed. Such a condition would
be quite unsuitable for a germinating bed for tree seeds,
supposing a "seed felling" were attempted at one operation.
When such conditions prevail, it is necessary to make a
preparatory felling, so as to cause the humus to decay more
quickly. But in many cases, especially on very dry silicious
soils, the land will have become acid or sour owing to the
slow decay of dead leaves. Such surface soil would never
produce a crop of seedlings of broad-leaved trees, as long as
it remained sour. The mere opening up of the canopy will
not suffice to sweeten the soil, but it will be necessary to
cultivate the land and, in most cases, especially if Beech are
to be regenerated, to apply lime.

Furthermore, trees growing in close canopy would, if
suddenly exposed, be liable to suffer from sunburn, and also
to be thrown by the wind. And again, they would not be
likely to bear much seed (if any) for some years to come.

Hence one or more preparatory fellings, or partial clear-
ances, are often necessary when the trees are approaching

THE "SEED" FELLING 183

maturity, so as to induce the production of seed, to accustom
the trees to isolation, and to form a good seed-bed.

It will, however, often be found that the woods have
already been sufficiently thinned, and that the humus has
already disappeared, and the ground is covered with a growth
of rank grass and weeds.

In such a case, if natural regeneration be attempted, the
grass must be broken up, and the seed-bed prepared, and the
seed felling made immediately, or, in the case of Beech,
when a good seed year comes. It is quite impossible to
obtain a good regeneration while the land is covered with a
mat of grass ; so also is it impossible on very " hard " land,
even though clean.

It is an excellent plan to turn pigs on to any area that is
thus covered with grass, but their snouts should not be
ringed ; for then they will root up the grass, and prepare an
excellent seed-bed. If pigs cannot be procured, a forest
plough must be used.

It should be remembered that humus will disappear more
quickly on southern aspects than on northern aspects,
other conditions being similar. It will also decay quicker
on soils containing lime than on other soils. Heat and
moisture combined favour its decomposition, whilst exces-
sive wet in the soil retards it. On exposed places, it will
often be a good plan to dig or plough small surface trenches
in order to catch the leaves and prevent them from being
blown away. These surface trenches or ditches should be
in short parallel lengths, and each series should alternate
with a series crossing at right angles : —

It must be remembered that the land always becomes hard
unless the surface soil has a layer of decomposing leaves in it.
(2) A Seed Felling or Regeneration Felling is made
when a good seed year has come. As its name implies, it
is the felling made for the actual regeneration of the area.

184 NATURAL REGENERATION

It consists in the removal of all the trees except a few, which
are left as mother trees, to seed the whole area ; and also, to
form a light canopy or shelter wood for the young crop.

In the case of those trees which bear an abundant crop of
seed very frequently, there is no need to wait for a seed
year ; but different areas may be felled annually, and thus
worked so as to produce an equal yearly income.

Scots Pine, Ash, Norway Maple, Sycamore, Douglas Fir,
and Spruce bear abundant crops of seed every 2 or 3 years,
and Oak every 3 to 5 years.

But Beech produce good crops of seed very spasmodically,
from every 5 to 12 years, and in their case it is always
necessary to wait for a good seed year ; thus making it
impossible to obtain an equal yearly income from any area
under Beech only, though preparatory fellings and gradual
clearances of mother trees tend to minimise this defect.

The age at which trees produce seed is a matter of very
great importance. The best seed is generally produced
about 10 to 20 years after the trees have completed their
principal height growth. Seed from very young trees
should not generally be used, and seed from very old trees
that have long passed maturity should never be countenanced.
Oak, Beech, and Silver Fir produce good seed from the
6oth year onwards.

Most other trees bear seed very much earlier, say from
the 1 5th to 3Oth year, and often very much earlier, when the
conditions under which they may be placed are inimical to
their proper growth and development, or when they enjoy a
maximum amount of light and air, as when situated on the
edges of rides, etc.

When making a felling, great care should be taken that the
seed trees should be distributed evenly over the whole area.

(3) Gradual Clearance of the Mother Trees. — The dates
at which the shelter wood of mother trees should be removed,
will depend on the requirements of the young crop, and
upon the soil, locality, aspect, altitude, and the rate of growth
of the young crop, and many other considerations.

The gradual clearance will usually begin in the 2nd or

REMOVAL OF "MOTHER" TREES 185

3rd year after a good crop of seedlings appears on the ground,
and will be continued about every 3 years up to the I5th
year, or even longer in some cases. However, where the
seedlings are intolerant of shade, the mother trees must be
removed almost immediately.

And even if the seedlings will bear shade, the majority
at any rate should be removed when the undercrop is well
established, and before it is more than 4 or 5 feet high ; then
the young trees are supple and pliant, and little damage
need be feared. Some of the young trees will be ruined,
but with many thousands of young trees per acre this does
not matter.

However, the removal of any old trees when the young
crop is from 20 to 35 feet high, must do a great deal of
damage, for the latter are too stout to bend over without
breaking. Hence, when old trees have still to be cut, it will
probably be best to wait until the pole forest stage is
advanced, when the poles will be capable of withstanding
considerable weight.

If the mother trees are removed too early, the young
crop will not get that shelter from hot sun and late and
early frosts which is so essential. If the seedlings are light-
demanding and hardy, it is best to remove the shelter wood
quickly : the reverse for slow-growing, tender species. On
very dry soils, all trees require more light, and are less
tolerant of shade than they would be if the supply of moisture
were plentiful. And on high altitudes where the growing
season is shorter, more light is necessary than at low
altitudes. Therefore, other conditions being equal, on very
dry soils, or at high elevations, the mother trees should be
thinner on the ground, and should be removed when the
young crop is smaller than when the trees are growing in
good moist soil, or at low altitudes.

A consideration of the aspect should also affect the
density of the mother trees and the dates of their removal.

Though southern aspects are hot and dry, the intensity
of the light is greater than on northern aspects, which are
cool and usually moist, and it will usually be found that a

186 NATURAL REGENERATION

thinner canopy is admissible on northern aspects than on
southern aspects, if other conditions are similar.

There is a greater necessity for shelter on southern
aspects than on northern aspects, for there is a greater
liability to early spring and late autumn frosts ; and humus
will disappear more rapidly, and the soil will more quickly
get heated. But if there is a reasonable shelter wood, it
will of itself, directly, afford protection from frosts, and also
indirectly, by preserving humus, and thereby delaying the
date of active vegetation in the spring.

When, however, an area is well seeded, there should be
no unnecessary delay in removing the mother trees, and the
sooner their shade can prudently be dispensed with, the
more moisture will the young crop obtain, in the shape of
rain and dew, and also from the soil. But if the removal of
the shelter trees were to cause the appearance of grass and
weeds, there would be less moisture available for the young
seedlings.

However, when the young crop is once well established,
and thick on the ground, it will of itself prevent much of the
evil effect that would otherwise result to the soil on account
of the removal of the mother trees.

Natural regeneration sometimes fails owing to a rank
growth of grass, which is either due to bad management, or
to a seed year having been insufficient, or the quality of the
seed being bad, or to some unavoidable circumstance. In
such cases, artificial aid in the shape of soil preparation, and
usually of planting seedlings, should be given.

It is not easy to get an even natural regeneration over
any large area. It will usually be necessary to complete the
process by artificial means.

Usually a wood is regenerated for one species only, but a
mixture can be produced by introducing artificially other
species, when the mother trees (or most of them) have been
cleared.

For instance, on an area naturally regenerated for Beech,
quick-growing trees, such as Larch, Ash, Poplars, may be
planted singly, or in groups or patches, but slow-growing

"STRIP" SYSTEM 187

trees, like Oak, should only be planted in groups or patches ; for
otherwise they would be outgrown before they were fit to fell.

The system of natural regeneration under mother trees,
with the gradual clearness of those trees, is only suitable for
trees which are storm proof, and generally speaking, for those
whose seedlings can endure shade.

However, Oak may be thus regenerated, but the mother
trees must be very thin on the ground, and must be very
quickly removed. Scots Pine is sometimes treated in this
way, but the method cannot be recommended.

Occasionally, the system of high forest with standards is
brought about by leaving some of the mother trees for a
second rotation, but the method can never be recommended.

There is a modification of the compartment system just
described, which is sometimes referred to as the "strip"
system of natural regeneration. By this method, a strip of
a compartment is taken in hand, and regenerated under
mother trees just as the whole compartment might have been.

It is usual, however, to treat three adjoining strips at the
same time. One strip being in the preparatory stage,
another in the regeneration felling stage, and another in the
stage at which the trees are being gradually cleared. By
this method the possibility of an incomplete seeding is some-
what lessened, and operations are more concentrated ; but in
the case of certain conifers, the danger from injurious insects,
especially the Pine weevil, are much increased.

THE NATURAL REGENERATION OP BEECH.

There is no doubt that it is far preferable to regenerate
an area of Beech naturally along with the shelter of the
mother trees, than to clear cut and resort to artificial
planting.

For, during the first few years of their existence, young
Beech are very susceptible to late spring and early autumn
frosts, and also to hot sun in the summer ; hence it is always
most beneficial to have a shelter wood over the young crop.

The same may be said of Silver Fir. And other trees —

188

NATURAL REGENERATION

Spruce, Douglas, Thuya gigantea, Weymouth Pine, Ash, and
Spanish Chestnut — find a little shade when young more
beneficial than otherwise. On the other hand, Oak, Scots
Pine, Corsican Pine, and Larch are always very light-
demanding.

Beech may be naturally regenerated under the three
systems already referred to ; but in no case is the natural
regeneration likely to be a success if the soil is in the least
degree sour. So exacting is Beech in this respect, that it has
been said that it will not naturally regenerate unless there
be plenty of lime in the soil. This, however, is not strictly
correct; but there is no doubt that natural regeneration is
far more certain on a soil which is distinctly calcareous.

The selection system has already been dealt with in a
general way. But it may be noted that unless the soil is
good, a short rotation of about 90 years will usually give the
best results, unless bigger timber is especially desired.

Great care should be taken not to " overcut " the trees in
the older age classes ; for such a course is equivalent to
spending capital instead of income.

The following table will show the number of trees under
the selection system that should form the growing stock per
acre, and the number that may be cut, if cuttings be made
every 1 5 years, and if the oldest timber be cut at 90 years : —

BEECH UNDER SELECTION SYSTEM. Rotation, 90 years.
Average soil and situation.

Years.

Trees just
before felling.

Trees cut
every 15 years.

Trees left.

15

820*

407*

413

30

413

194

219

45

219

99

120

60

120

54

66

75

66

16

50

90

50

50

* This must depend upon the efficiency of the previous regeneration.

BEECH

189

If the rotation for mature timber be 120 years, and
cuttings are to be made every 15 years, the number of trees
will be as follows : —

BEECH UNDER SELECTION SYSTEM. Rotation, 120 years.
Average soil and situation.

Years.

Trees just
before a felling.

Trees cut
every 15 years.

Trees left.

Per acre.

15

620*

308*

312

30

312

148

164

45

164

74

90

60

90

4i

49

75

49

ii

38

90

38

II

20

105

20

8

12

120

12

12

...

* This must depend upon the efficiency of the previous regeneration.

Regeneration of Whole Compartments of Beech High
Forest. — When regenerating an area consisting chiefly of
Beech, all other species growing as a mixture are generally
removed before the seed felling, and thus the Beech only
are regenerated. Then, if a mixture be required, other trees,
of which Larch is the most suitable, and also Ash, may be
planted when the gradual clearance is complete, or nearly so.

Often there is an " advance " growth of seedlings. These,
if healthy and thick on the ground, may be left ; if not more
than about 8 years old. If older, they will usually have been
suppressed, and may never develop into strong, healthy trees,
even when the shade of the older trees no longer exists ;
therefore, they must be removed in the first preliminary
felling. In many cases no other felling or thinning will be
necessary until a good seed year has come, but the particular
conditions of the soil and crop will determine this. The
edges of the wood should be left denser than the rest,

190 NATURAL REGENERATION

especially if the area lie exposed to gales or dry winds. Now,
suppose that up to no years old a wood has been merely
thinned in the ordinary manner, and that there were found
210 trees to the acre, it would probably be advisable to cut
out 60 of the smallest, leaving 150. If in 3 or 4 years' time
the dead leaves have nicely decayed, well and good ; but if
the admission of a little more light seems desirable, another
30 trees should be cut. Probably all can then go on until a
good seed year comes ; then about 65 trees should be cut,
leaving 55 on the ground. The biggest trees and those with
big crowns should be cut, and clean-grown tall trees, about
1 2 feet quarter girth at breast height, should be left as seed
and shelter trees.

The gradual clearance should usually begin about the 2nd
year after the fall of the seed, and should be made about
every 3 years ; all the mother trees being removed by the
nth or 1 2th year, if possible.

If the regeneration be more or less of a failure, it will
often be necessary to postpone the gradual clearance, and to
wait for another seed year. But the best plan is to resort to
artificial means, and either to sow or to plant I or 2 year
seedlings. It will be the cheaper method, for otherwise rank
grass will make its appearance, and soil preparation will be
necessary, and the crop will be uneven, and time will be lost.

The utmost care is necessary in removing the mother
trees. They should not be removed during a frost (unless
there is deep snow) for the young crop is then very brittle.
Again, they should always be removed by the home staff of
workmen ; and, if cut into short lengths, they are more easily
handled.

With trees other than Beech, the various fellings are not
so clearly defined. The seed years are more frequent ; and
when once the surface soil is in good condition, seeding will
probably soon take place, other conditions being fulfilled.
Furthermore, the ground is not so likely to deteriorate if the
ist year fails ; it will have a chance of seeding the next year
or the year after that. But, in the case of Beech it might be
fallow for 10 years or more.

OAK AND ASH 191

Good seed years can be foretold in the case of Beech, and
to some extent in the case of Oak, by the thickening of the
future flowering buds in the autumn and winter ; it is more
common after hot summers.

THE NATURAL REGENERATION OP OAK AND
OTHER TREES.

A pure Oak forest, mature and ready for the axe, will
seldom be found in good forestry, but it will often be found
mixed with Beech and other trees. If the Oak be evenly
distributed, it may sometimes be advisable to attempt re-
generation of a pure Oak wood. About 25 trees will be
enough to leave per acre for the shelter wood ; but, when the
young crop is covering the ground, they must be quickly
removed, for the seedlings are intolerant of shade. By the
end of 6 years, all the shelter trees should be removed.

All big branchy Oaks should be removed at the seeding
felling, leaving only those that have clean stems, and crowns
which are not too spreading.

Once in 3 or 5 years a good Oak seed year usually comes,
and it is necessary that the acorns get well buried by I to 2
inches of soil covering. The removal of trees at the seed
felling will effect this to a great extent ; otherwise raking by
hand or other cultural operations must often be resorted to.

It is an excellent plan to turn pigs on to the land for a few
months.

On soils of average or inferior quality, natural regenera-
tion is often successful ; whereas, on the best soils containing
more moisture, and on southern aspects, the growth of rank
grass often proves too troublesome.

If success is not achieved at the first good seed year,
artificial means should be adopted at once.

The Natural Regeneration of Ash is rare over any
extensive area ; but in many cases it can be very profitably
resorted to, as it produces abundance of seed very frequently.
If, however, it has been grown in a mixed wood, it must
often be cut before the other trees, as it is mature at about
65 to 70 years of age ; and if it has been grown pure and then

192 NATURAL REGENERATION

underplanted with other trees, the undercrop will not be
mature by the time the Ash has to be cut ; but v/hen grown
as a pure crop, it may often be partially cleared and an
undercrop of Ash obtained naturally. Both crops can then
grow as a two-storied high forest of Ash. When the older
trees are ready to be felled, in say 30 years' time, it will
be possible to obtain another undercrop of Ash in a few
years' time. Thus a perpetual two-storied high forest
may be grown. This natural regeneration of Ash will
hardly be possible on very moist soils, as there is almost
certain to be a strong growth of nettles and other weeds on
such soils, however dense the overwood of Ash may be kept.

Ash may also be regenerated under the selection or
group systems ; and of these two, the latter is preferable.

Sycamore and Norway Maple would seldom be profitable
as pure woods or as forming the greater part of a mixture.
They are not usually valuable enough when young ; there-
fore they should only be introduced sparingly by planting.

Each of these trees, however, produce abundance of seed,
and readily regenerate naturally, if the soil be suitable.

The Natural Regeneration of Corsican Pine or Scots
Pine is rare under a shelter wood, and should not be
attempted ; for the young trees are intolerant of shade, and
do not require the shelter. Also, when growing under mother
trees, they are very liable to fungus attacks of Hysterium
pinastri — the leaf-shedding disease, — and of Botrytis cinerea.

Then again, any seedlings that have once suffered from
shade, never recover.

If, however, it is attempted, only about 12 trees per acre
should be left, and these must all be removed by the time
the young crop is 3 or 4 years old.

In most cases, the soil under a pure crop of Scots Pine
will be covered with rank grass, unless the crop were only
about 40 years old. This strong grass will appear even on
soils, which, when originally planted, were so poor as to
produce only heather ; since the soil will have become better
aerated, and somewhat enriched in plant food.

The best method of naturally regenerating Scots Pine

CONIFERS 193

or Corsican Pine, is to clear cut strips of from 40 to 70 yards
wide, and allow the seed to blow on to the cleared portions
from trees on a neighbouring area. These strips should be
to leeward, with respect to the prevailing winds, of the trees
from which the seed is expected. As soon as one strip is
well seeded, and free from the danger of the Pine weevil,
another strip may be cleared, and so on.

When grass and weeds appear, artificial aid must always
be resorted to ; the cheapest plan to adopt is to notch in
seedlings. If heather only cover the ground, it is not
detrimental ; in fact, in moderation it is somewhat beneficial,
unless, indeed, it grows very big. It will always be advisable
to plant the edges of these strips, if they lie on the shady
side of older trees, with some trees that will bear shade ; for
this purpose, Weymouth Pine is often very suitable.

Larch could be regenerated in the same way. It would
be more likely to be successful on Northern aspects, but,
generally speaking, the seed does not ripen sufficiently in
this country to make it ever advisable.

THE NATURAL REGENERATION OF THE SHADE-
BEARING CONIFERS.

In this category may be included Silver Fir, Nordmann's
Silver Fir, Thuya gigantea, Douglas Fir, Cupressus macro-
carpa, Norway Spruce, Sitka Spruce, Sitka Cypress, and
Weymouth Pine.

Before attempting the natural regeneration of these trees
on any considerable scale, it is necessary that more informa-
tion be forthcoming as to their seed-bearing capabilities in this
country ; and also as to the quality of the seed they will bear.

For, though all these trees may bear abundant crops of
seed, it by no means follows that they will produce strong,
healthy plants.

It may require centuries of acclimatisation before some of
them will produce seed in this country that can be relied upon.

In reference to this matter, the greatest caution should be
observed when contemplating the growth from home-grown
seed of such trees, the climate, of whose native habitat, is

N

194 NATURAL REGENERATION

marked by very cold winters and very hot summers. In
many cases, trees from such climates are shy of bearing seed
in this country ; or even if they bear seed in abundance in
this country, as many of them do, there is a great probability
that only weakly and tender trees will be produced there-
from. Whereas those trees introduced from a country
where the climate is somewhat similar to that of this country,
are far more likely to produce seed that will grow into strong,
healthy, vigorous plants. A consideration of the foregoing
may explain the reason why Silver Fir is often so shy of
reproducing itself naturally in this country; and it will
explain the inferiority of home-grown Larch seed.

It is probably always preferable to obtain foreign seed of
Silver Fir, Nordmann's Silver Fir, Norway Spruce, Wey-
mouth Pine, and Cupressus macrocarpa. This latter produces
abundance of seed in this country, but it would not be wise
to use it largely, until more experience is gained with
reference to trees produced from home-grown seed.

On the other hand, there is every likelihood that home-
grown seed of Thuya gigantea, Douglas Fir, Sitka Spruce,
and Sitka Cypress will produce strong, healthy trees.

There is, indeed, much young Douglas Fir, self-sown and
otherwise, which, so far as present experience goes, is
perfectly healthy and vigorous.

When seed from these four species of trees is imported,1
it is very essential that it should have been collected in the
damp regions near the coast in British Columbia. Such
seed of Thuya gigantea and Douglas Fir would be far more
likely to give better results altogether, than seed obtained
from higher altitudes in the Rocky Mountains ; though
experience may prove even the contrary to be the case.

The natural regeneration, however, of these coniferous
trees whose seed admit of it and make it desirable in this
country, may, with the exception of Norway Spruce, be
effected under either of the three systems.

Norway Spruce is not suitable for natural regeneration, as

1 This matter of the importation of seed is also referred to in
Chapter III.

CHOICE OF SYSTEM 195

it is not storm proof, though it might be naturally regenerated
in a mixture along with other shade-bearing conifers whose
height growth is somewhat similar. It is sometimes thus
regenerated along with Silver Fir on the Continent.

The group system is peculiarly suited to the regeneration
of these conifers, for their seed is light and easily carried by
the wind, and as long as the felled patches remain free from
grass, the young crop gets a maximum amount of moisture ;
and the older trees give protection on all sides from cold
winds, and thus lessen surface evaporation. If the soil be dry,
the patches or groups must be larger than would otherwise be
admissible ; though the danger from windfall will be increased.

When the compartment system of regeneration under a
shelter wood is resorted to, the procedure will be much the
same as in the case of Beech. But Douglas Fir and Wey-
mouth Pine will not bear so much shade, and the canopy
must be thinner, and the mother trees removed earlier.

In the case of Douglas Fir it is very essential to gradually
accustom the future mother trees to isolation, otherwise
they are rather liable to have their tops broken off by gales.
For this reason the group system will usually be preferable.

THE COMPARATIVE MERITS AND DEMERITS OP
THE SYSTEMS.

Compartment System : —
Merits—

(1) Operations are concentrated ; therefore supervision is

easier ; and damage caused by the removal of timber
is more cheaply repaired — e.g., roads.

(2) Side shade is avoided ; therefore it is not so detrimental

to light-demanding seedlings.

(3) The greatest proportion of good timber is produced.
Demerits —

(1) Soil deterioration is quicker, both on account of side

light and of dry winds.

(2) In exposed places, windfall is to be feared.

(3) If a seed year fails, a greater loss is incurred ; therefore

the risks are greater.

196 NATURAL REGENERATION

Group System: —
Merits—

(1) There is a greater amount of protection to the young

crop and a maximum amount of moisture.

(2) Soil deterioration is not so rapid.

(3) It is the most suitable system for dry soils.

(4) Side light and wind are excluded from the felled area.

(5) There is a greater likelihood of success in the case of

shade-bearing conifers.
Demerits —

(1) Operations are scattered ; therefore expenses are

increased.

(2) The older trees on the windward side of prevailing

winds are liable to be thrown unless the groups are
very small.

Selection System : —
Merits—

(i) There is a maximum amount of protection to the soil
and young crop from wind and sun ; therefore it is
advantageous in exposed localities.
Demerits —

(1) Operations are very scattered.

(2) It produces the least amount of timber of high technical

quality ; though the total production is about the
same as under the other two methods.

(3) It is not generally suited for very dry soils ; though

Beech on thin calcareous soils is an exception.

The regeneration of Scots Pine and Corsican Pine from
neighbouring areas on to cleared strips, though the best
method to adopt for the natural regeneration of these light -
demanding trees, will not often give very uniform results,
and artificial aid must generally be given. Usually the
land quickly becomes covered with rank grass, and the soil
thus quickly deteriorates.

But if only heather appeared, the result would usually be
satisfactory.

CHAPTER X.

TREATMENT OF COPPICE SYSTEMS.

SIMPLE COPPICE.

THERE can be no doubt that the system of simple coppice
must in the near future almost disappear, if not entirely so,
unless some more profitable use for its produce should
present itself than is at present in vogue. The treatment,
however, may be considered in some detail, since the
management of the underwood grown under the other
coppice systems will be largely governed by the same
principles.

When dealing with an area under coppice, one of the most
important points to settle is the length of the rotation that
should be adopted.

This will depend upon the species of coppice grown and
the purposes to which it is intended that the produce should
be put.

The following will show some of the rotations that are
suitable under certain circumstances : —

Length of Rotation.
Years.

Pure Oak coppice, grown for bark . . .-.,:. 16

Alder coppice (suitable on wet soils) . ; ;, ,25 to 30

Ash and Spanish Chestnut, for hop poles ,,» 14 „ 16
Ash and Spanish Chestnut, for split hurdles

and crate wood .'" . . . ".' V 10 „ 15

Ash and Spanish Chestnut, for barrel hoops . 6 „ 10

Hazel . . = ... > V : . . . 6

Coppice poles, for pit props .», . . . 25 to 30

The reproductive power of trees when coppiced is a
matter of much importance.

197

198 TREATMENT OF COPPICE SYSTEMS

This reproduction is usually from stool shoots, but in the
case of Aspen Poplar, White Poplar, White Alder, and
Acacia, it is chiefly from root suckers thrown out from the
stoloniferous roots of these trees. Usually trees will only
produce stool shoots when coppiced early in life ; but they
vary much in this respect. And the manner in which they
have been coppiced, the quality of the soil in which they are
growing, and the exposure of the stools to strong sunlight
or otherwise, will greatly affect their reproductive powers.
Generally speaking, Ash, Beech, Birch, Norway Maple, and
Sycamore should not be grown on a longer rotation than
25 years, or they will not stool satisfactorily; though a
longer rotation might sometimes be advisable for Alder,
Spanish Chestnut, Oak, and Hornbeam.

Spanish Chestnut is often found to produce vigorous stool
shoots when trees 100 years of age are cut down.

On good soil, or when exposed to sunlight, stools will
produce shoots more readily than when the reverse is the case.

Continual coppicing has usually a prejudicial effect on
most trees, though Hornbeam and Oak stools will last
for centuries. Stools of Ash, Birch, Willow, and Beech do
not, as a rule, survive many rotations. After about 4 or 5
rotations their vigour has usually disappeared.

Again, the stool shoots of Oak, Ash, Alder, and Spanish
Chestnut are usually very vigorous whilst the stools are still
healthy ; but the stool shoots of Beech are not possessed of
the same vigour. The common conifers have practically no
power of reproduction by stool shoots.

Great care is necessary in coppicing the stools at the end
of each rotation ; if badly done they will soon decay. They
should always be cut sloping or pointed, so that water will
easily run off ; for decay would soon set in if water were to
remain on the surface. And the stools should also invariably
be cut as close to the ground as possible, except on low land
subject to floods. They should always be cut with a sharp
instrument ; small coppice with a hand-bill, and larger stuff
with an axe.

When the area has been cut, it should be carefully looked

CUTTING UNDERWOOD 199

over, and any stools carefully dressed with a hand - bill
wherever they present a jagged or split face, or wherever the
bark has become separated from the wood.

An owner of coppice sometimes cuts and converts coppice
produce, and puts it upon the market himself. But the usual
practice is to sell the underwood unconverted to small dealers,
who have a special knowledge of the retail market. But it is
always preferable to have the coppice cut by the home staff
of workmen, and not to allow the buyer to cut it as he chooses.

The cost of cutting underwood per acre must vary con-
siderably. It will be rather more for areas under simple
coppice than for the smaller amount of coppice grown along
with standards.

But coppice 25 years old will cost about £1 per acre;
20 years old, i6s. per acre ; 16 years old, I2s. 6d. per acre ; 12
years old, IDS. per acre.

The season for cutting does not usually matter very
much provided the leaf is off.

Oak coppice for barking will be cut when the bark will
peel — i.e.) the end of April or the beginning of May.

In localities subject to late spring frosts the coppice
should not be cut until somewhat late, as by so doing the
young coppice shoots will be delayed in their growth, and
thus may escape a late frost. Otherwise it is best to cut
it in the autumn, for the sooner that it is cut, converted,. and
removed, the better.

As regards the general management of simple coppice,
there is not a great deal that calls for special attention. It
is the easiest of all systems to manage.

Perhaps the most important point is to insure that a
full stock of healthy stools is always present.

There should be about 600 stools per acre, and thus on
an average they should be about 8J feet apart. Any
deficiency in this respect should be made good either (i)
by planting, (2) by " layering " or " plashing."

(1) Planting.— If planting is adopted it will generally
be necessary to plant out about 100 trees every time the
coppice is cut over ; though this will depend upon the species

200 TREATMENT OF COPPICE SYSTEMS

grown, and for Spanish Chestnut 50 should be ample. Four-
or five-year-old plants should be used, and each must be
protected from rabbits. Small guards of wire netting put
round each tree and kept in place by a stake will cost about
id. each. But a cheaper method is to make a similar guard
of tarred felt, which will cost about ^d. each, and be equally
effective.

Sometimes bigger trees are planted out with a view
to lessening the liability of their being choked by the quick-
growing shoots from the stools ; but there is really no
advantage in this method.

Large trees, say 7 feet high, usually make only a small
growth until their roots are established and the extra expense
of planting these large trees would be far greater than the
expense incurred in cutting back any strong shoots that
threaten the smaller trees after they have been planted out
for 3 or 5 years.

The cost of planting 100 4-year-old plants, each pro-
tected with a piece of tarred felt, will be about IDS. 6d.,
or say ijd. each, provided the plants be raised in a home
nursery ; except in the case of Spanish Chestnut, when the
cost would be about I2s. 6d. per 100, or i|d. each.

In many cases the wire netting or tarred felt is omitted,
as it is not so serious if plants grown for coppice are bitten
by rabbits as is the case if they have been planted for the
production of timber ; but it is usually very indiscreet to
omit this protection.

The plants are sometimes cut over at the collar at the
time of planting, with a view to numerous stool shoots being
thrown out during the current rotation, but it is best generally
to wait and cut them over at the beginning of the next
rotation.

Occasionally sowing is resorted to instead of planting, and
in the case of Oak it has proved very successful. The acorns
should be dibbled in, where the underwood is thin, during
the autumn the underwood is cut ; and all underwood
should be cleared off the area by the middle of April.

It is usually impossible to get the underwood converted

LAYERING 201

and removed in time to plant during the current spring, but
every effort should be made to enable the planting to take
place as it is most important not to lose a year's growth.

(2) Layering or Plashing. — This is a favourite means of
increasing the growing stock of stools of Ash and of Spanish
Chestnut ; it has been largely practised in Sussex and Kent.

To effect this end, long stool shoots, not more than 2\
inches in diameter at the base are cut partly through close
to the ground, bent over and pegged down at one or more
points near where the soil has been bared, and then covered
at these places with a small mound of earth. Longitudinal
slits may be made in the bark to encourage the formation
of roots. This layering should be done as early as possible
and before the stools begin to flush their latent buds.

It will usually be best to effect this layering during the
autumn, when the underwood is cut, though often it is done
about 6 years afterwards in places where the coppice appears
unduly thin.

The cost of thus layering stool shoots will be about
3s. 6d. per 100 " mounds." Hence it is very much cheaper
than planting ; but protection from rabbits cannot very well
be given.

Other details of management l include cleaning ditches,
hedging, repairs to gates and dead fences, trimming and
brushing rides, etc.

Wherever coppice is grown, whether as simple coppice
or otherwise, it will always be advisable to avoid having it
mixed in a promiscuous manner.

Oak, if grown, will usually be for its bark, and should
always be so grown quite pure. Hazel is only suited to a
very short rotation, and is therefore quite unsuited for being
mixed with other species.

Spanish Chestnut and Ash may be grown together and
usually afford the most remunerative kind of underwood that
can be grown. But the local markets must be studied, and
buyers for a local industry involving the use of a particular
species will give a relatively greater price for pure under-
1 The laying- out and selling of coppice is dealt with in Chapter XIV.

202 TREATMENT OF COPPICE SYSTEMS

wood of that species than for mixed underwood ; for in the
latter case they have to seek another outlet for produce they
do not require.

Alder coppice wood will almost invariably be grown
pure ; not only on account of its special market, but also
because the soil to which it is suited will not admit of the
usual species being grown.

The cultivation of Osiers can hardly be regarded as a
branch of forestry ; very useful information with reference to
its cultivation will, however, be found in the Board of Agri-
culture Leaflet, No. 36.

COPPICE WITH STANDARDS.

Having regard to the low prices that obtain for coppice
produce, there can be no doubt that when dealing with an
area under coppice with standards, every effort should be made
to produce a maximum amount of standards, and to insure
that they are of the highest quality that can be grown.

The quantity of underwood that may be produced is a
matter of small importance in comparison with the overwood.
The underwood should be looked upon chiefly as a means
of naturally pruning the young standards and of drawing
them up ; of protecting the soil from the effects of wind and
insolation ; and of affording sufficient covert for game.

If strict attention be paid to this, an area under coppice
with mixed standards of Larch, Ash, and Oak will prove far
more remunerative than an equal area under even-aged high
forest of Oak ; and very nearly as profitable as a similarly
grown crop of Ash or Larch.

With this object in view, it is imperative to have a long
rotation for the underwood, especially in the case of Oak and
Ash, otherwise these trees soon cease in height growth and
develop crowns in early life.

These latter trees can often be grown to perfection along
with Alder coppice (on a long rotation).

A rotation of from 18 to 26 years should generally be
adopted to effect this end ; by such means the standards
will be well pruned by the underwood to a height of about

COPPICE WITH STANDARDS 203

40 feet. There will be an additional advantage in that the
underwood being of big dimensions will generally fetch a
relatively higher value and be more marketable ; though for
certain purposes, as for instance, hop poles, the majority of it
will be far too big ; another advantage is the fact that the
soil is not laid bare so frequently.

One great disadvantage, however, in having a long rota-
tion, is the fact that the young trees planted out at the last
felling are very apt to get suppressed, and in the case of Ash
to be too drawn up and to become too thin and lanky, as the
underwood grows so much faster ; but this can easily be pre-
vented by cutting back any shoots that threaten the young trees
from time to time. This attention must never be omitted.

Previous to each cutting over of the coppice, all healthy,
well-grown seedling trees, known also as " Saplings," " Stores,"
" Standils," and also a few very clean, well-grown stool shoots,
or "tellers," of Oak or Ash, should be carefully marked with
a ring of white paint or otherwise, so that they are not cut
over along with the coppice. When the coppice is cut, these
may be thinned out to the required number, but a full stock
of them should always be left. It is better to have too many
than too few. When the underwood is all cleared off, the
area must be restocked with young trees to form future
standards, and also to replenish some of the worn-out stools.
It will sometimes happen that many seedling plants appear ;
if this be the case, the necessary number of trees to plant
may be perhaps only 70 Larch. But usually with a 20-year
rotation, 50 to 70 Larch, 50 Oak, and 50 Ash may be planted
per acre for standards, provided of course the soil be suit-
able ; and besides this, 60 Spanish Chestnut to replenish the
underwood stools ; or these may be increased by plashing.

If Spanish Chestnut is not suited to the soil, some more
Ash may be planted, and some Sycamore and Norway
Maple, or perhaps Hornbeam will be advisable. Generally
speaking, Spanish Chestnut and Ash are the most valuable
trees for coppice growth, and Alder on suitable soils. Trees
4 years old should be planted choosing of course the vacant
spaces. No young tree should be planted nearer than 7 feet

204 TREATMENT OF COPPICE SYSTEMS

to any healthy stool, and the trees themselves should be
planted 4 feet apart from each other, and in small pure
patches of from 5 to 9 trees each ; though the miniature
groups of Larch may be fringed with Ash, especially if a
stool is near, for the Ash will bear some shade when young,
and may ultimately be coppiced if necessary.

It is necessary to plant out many more trees than are
wanted at the next cutting over of the coppice, because many
will die and only exceptionally vigorous trees are required to
grow on for mature standards in the future ; therefore a
large number to select from is imperative.

If the rotation is shorter than 25 years and it is intended
to grow mature timber of the same age as when the under-
wood is grown on a larger rotation, it will not be necessary
to plant out so many trees at each felling, nor will so many
trees of the various age classes be left per acre.

The following tables will indicate the approximate
density for various rotations, and results after their manner
should be aimed at; though it is impossible to obtain
mathematical accuracy in forestry operations : —

TABLE FOR OAK STANDARDS ONLY.

Average soil and situation.
Rotation of Standards, 100 years. Rotation of Underwood, 25 years.

Years.

Oak Trees
just before a fall.

Oak Trees
cut.

Oak Trees
left.

25

Per acre,
(say) 150

83

67

50

67

44

23

75

23

15

8

100

8

8

Total

248

ISO

98

Trees planted for standards
„ „ coppice .

200 at each felling.
60

Total

260 trees.

OAK STANDARDS

205

TABLE FOR OAK STANDARDS ONLY.

Average soil and situation.
Rotation of Standards, 100 years. Rotation of Underwood, 20 years.

Years.

Oak Trees
just before a fall.

Oak Trees
cut.

Oak Trees
left.

20

(say) 125

55

70

40

70

40

30

60

30

17

13

80

13

7

6

100

6

6

...

Total

244

"5

119

Trees planted for standards

„ „ coppice .

Total

170 at each felling.
^60 „ „

230 trees.

TABLE FOR OAK STANDARDS ONLY.

Average soil and situation.
Rotation of Standards, 96 years. Rotation of Underwood, 12 years.

Years.

Oak Trees
just before a fall.

Oak Trees
cut.

Oak Trees
left.

12

(say) I TO

40

70

24

70

22

48

36

48

2O

28

48

28

12

16

60

16

5

n

72

II

3

8

84

8

4

4

96

4

4

...

Total

295

no

185

Trees planted for standards

„ „ coppice .

Total

140 at each fall.
JQ » „
190 trees.

206 TREATMENT OF COPPICE SYSTEMS

TABLE FOR MIXED LARCH AND ASH STANDARDS (in equal
proportions).

Average soil and situation.
Rotation of Standards, 75 years. Rotation of Underwood, 25 years.

Years.

Larch and Ash
just before a fall.

Larch and Ash
cut.

Larch and Ash
left.

25

(say) 150

IOO

50

50

50

35

15

75

15

15

Total

215

ISO

65

Trees planted for standards
„ „ coppice .

Total

200 at each felling.
6° » »

260 trees.

TABLE FOR MIXED LARCH AND ASH STANDARDS (in equal
proportions).

Average soil and situation.
Rotation of Standards, 80 years. Rotation of Underwood, 20 years.

Years.

Larch and Ash
just before a fall.

Larch and Ash
cut.

Larch and Ash
left.

20

(say) 120

60

60

40

60

28

32

60

32

21

II

80

II

II

...

Total

223

120

103

Trees planted for standards
„ „ coppice .

Total

170 at each felling.
_6o „ „

230 trees.

MIXED STANDARDS

207

TABLE FOR MIXED OAK, ASH, AND LARCH STANDARDS.
Soil and situation — Quality I.

Rotation for Standards : Oak, 100 years ; Larch and Ash, 80 years.
Rotation for Underwood, 20 years.

Years.

Just before a fall.

Trees cut.

Trees left.

Oak.

Larch and Ash.

Oak.

Larch and Ash.

Oak.

Larch and Ash.

20

(say)
40

(say)
64

20

28

20

36

40

20

36

10

18

10

18

60

IO

18

4

10

6

8

80

6

8

I

8

5

...

100

5

...

5

...

.,.

...

Total .

81

126

40

64

4i

62

207

104

103

Trees planted for standards

Total standards .
Trees planted for coppice

Total

Oak. Larch. Ash.

60 50 40 at each felling.

150
60

210 trees.

About one or two years after the coppice is cut, all young
standards should be pruned l which are in need of it ; and a
year or two after that, the young trees just planted should be
freed from any coppice shoots which threaten them.

As regards the species of tree that may be planted for
standards, they must always be thinly foliaged trees, and
as already stated, Oak, Ash, and Larch are usually selected.

But on clay soils Black Poplar and Black Italian Poplar
will usually prove most valuable ; though they should never
be grown in conjunction with Oak. The White Poplar may
also be planted on very stiff clay soils, where it seems to
thrive better than the other Poplars ; but generally it is not

1 See Chapter VII.

208 TREATMENT OF COPPICE SYSTEMS

so suitable, as it is rather more branchy and spreading in its
habit, especially when young. The Picardy Poplar (probably
a variety of P. canescens] is also admirably suited as a
standard over coppice.

Other trees which are admirably suited for standards over
coppice are the Black Walnut, Tulip Tree, White Ash
(F. Americana) and the Oregon Ash. These latter trees
suffer much from early and late frosts, and there is no
method so suitable for insuring success with tender species as
to plant them over a coppice area.

There is every probability that these trees, especially the
Black Walnut and the Oregon Ash, would prove very
remunerative ; though it is impossible as yet to anticipate
with what favour or otherwise their appearance upon the
market would be regarded by timber merchants.

The Tulip tree requires a stiffish soil, and grows rather
faster than the Oak. The other three trees grow very rapidly,
if not affected by adverse circumstances ; the Black Walnut
has, however, much difficulty in ripening its wood when
young, and is therefore very liable to be cut back by
autumn frosts. The White Ash will probably succeed better
than any other Ash on light soils lacking in moisture.

The expenses of management of an area under coppice
with standards are greater than those of an area under
ordinary high forest.

These expenses must vary a great deal ; but on a normally
stocked area — that is, where all stages of the overwood and
underwood are equally represented from youth up to
maturity — the minimum net expenses will average about
6s. 3d.1 per acre per annum, or say 45. per acre per annum,
over and above a sum of 2s. 3d. represented by the annual
value of the sporting,2 provided the areas are large.

This sum of 6s. 3d. includes, however, the average cost of
replanting a certain number of trees every time the under-

1 This does not include the cost of felling the standards, or of haulage.

2 In many cases this will be too low a figure for the sporting ; but
with large compact areas the sporting will be worth a much smaller sum
per acre, than where the woods consist of small scattered coverts.

AVERAGE EXPENSES 209

wood is cut, and also auction expenses ; so that it is hardly
comparable with the average expenses incurred under high
forest, which, as stated elsewhere, may be taken as 2s. per acre
per annum, over and above a sum of is. 3d. represented by
the value of the sporting.1

These minimum expenses on a normally stocked area
may be detailed as follows : —

Planting 250 trees at end of rotation of 20 years . ,£170
Expenses of sale, advertising, and half-year's * credit

allowed to underwood buyers . . . . 0170

Cutting underwood 0160

Total . .^300

Or, average per annum equals 35. . . . £o 3 o
Add — For hedging, ditching, brushing rides, and

repairs to dead fences and gates (on large areas) . o i 8

Rates ..... o o 10

Attention to young crop, pruning, general super-
vision (on large areas), etc 009

Total per acre per annum . • ;£° 6 3

* This half-year's credit is included, as it must be deducted from the gross
receipts when considering the net financial returns from coppice with standards ;
though not properly speaking an outgoing.

In the above estimate, nothing has been allowed for
felling the standards, although it is far preferable that they
be felled by the home staff of woodmen, yet the branch and
cordwood, and faggots will about equal the cost of felling. It
is almost always advisable to sell the standards separately
from the underwood.

With a view to increasing the sporting amenities of a
wood, so-called " covert plants " are often planted. There is
generally more necessity for planting these in woods grown
under high forest systems than where coppice is grown, but
their employment may be considered here.

1 The sporting value of land under ordinary high forest is never so
great as is the case when the system of coppice with standards is
followed.

O

210 TREATMENT OF COPPICE SYSTEMS

Even in well-managed coppice with standards, it will
often be advantageous, especially on level ground, to have a
thick screen of evergreen shrubs at the end of any area over
which the pheasants are driven. This will hide the " guns "
from view, and the birds are not so likely to turn back ; and
in order to make them rise better this screen may be cut as a
bank, starting from ground level about 40 feet within the
boundary and sloping upwards, and the top of this sloping
screen may be made still higher by planting one or two rows
of trees on the very edge of the boundary.

For such a screen, Laurel, Holly, and Rhododendron and
Thuya gigantea may be recommended, provided the soil be
suitable. These shrubs and trees, and so also Yew, Box,
Privet, Snowberry, and Gaultheria (G. Shallori) — the latter a
dwarf growing shrub of rambling habits — will bear a great
deal of shade, and are very suitable to plant as affording
" covert " in even-aged high forest, where the canopy is too
dense for ordinary coppice trees.

The Conversion of Coppice or Coppice -with Standards
into High Forest.

There are many who advocate the conversion of coppice
or coppice with standards into high forest, with a view to
obtaining greater profits.

There is no doubt that nearly all areas under simple
coppice could produce a far greater income under some other
system ; but the system of coppice with standards should
not be too hastily altered for one of even-aged high forest.

On very poor dry soils there is no doubt that an even-aged
forest of conifers is far more suitable, since hardwoods, and
especially the coppice shoots of such trees, require and extract
from the soil far more food nutrients than coniferous trees.

But on stiff clay soils an attempt to convert the area
into an even-aged high forest, would, with timber at its
present price, result in a great failure.

On such soils coppice with standards of Oak or of
Poplar will give better returns than any even-aged forest.
Coppice with Larch and Ash standards will be about as

HIGH FOREST WITH COPPICE 211

remunerative as, and far safer than, an even-aged high
forest of pure Larch. It should be noted that there are
many soils too poor to grow mature standards of exacting
trees such as Ash and Spanish Chestnut,1 but which will
readily grow 30- or 4O-year-old poles of such trees, which are
usually very saleable.

The foregoing is often observed to be the case on shallow
soils in which deep-rooted trees may be growing.

Where conversion into even-aged high forest is deter-
mined upon, it may be done : —

(1) by planting the desired crop among the coppice

stools ; or

(2) by taking a short rotation of the best stool shoots

and clear cutting the area when they have reached
their maturity.

In any case, if there are existing standards over the
coppice they should be left unless nearly mature, or unless,
for young trees, they have unduly large crowns.

By the latter method of selecting the best stool shoots
excellent results are often obtained, and at a minimum of
expense.

But it should not be tried if the majority of stools are
old and enfeebled.

When attempted, about 3 stools' shoots should be allowed
to grow for the first 3 years to prove which is the most
vigorous and valuable ; then the best should be selected and
the other two removed. Any deficiency in the desired
number of shoots should be made good by planting.

HIGH FOREST WITH COPPICE.

The great advantages of this system have already been
referred to as a means of growing timber, of the thinly
foliaged trees, of the highest technical quality, and still pre-
serving the advantages that an undergrowth of coppice
presents for game preservation.

Plantations made de novo with this object in view might

1 To grow really fine timber free from shakes, Spanish Chestnut
requires a deep loam with plenty of moisture.

212 TREATMENT OF COPPICE SYSTEMS

on suitable soil consist of a mixture in about equal propor-
tions of Larch, Ash, and Spanish Chestnut. They should
be gently thinned in the ordinary, way, removing first of
all the Larch that do not show exceptional vigour, until the
twenty-fifth year, when all the Chestnut should be carefully
coppiced and only the best Larch and Ash left.

The underwood may then be treated on a rotation of
16 years or as may seem suitable, but it can hardly have any
more pruning effect on the standards, as they will be out
of its reach by the time it has grown up again. At this first
felling of the underwood, no trees should be planted to
increase the number of stools as the overhead canopy will
be rather thick, and it is better to wait until just before grass
begins to appear or until the next rotation, when about
100 to 150 should be planted and a like number the rotation
after, if found necessary ; they will then grow vigorously,
as the canopy will be much broken, and by the time the
standards are mature at (say) 73 years, there should be about
500 vigorous stools per acre.

Table for High Forest -with Coppice. — Grown as even-
aged high forest for the first 25 years ; then an overwood of
Larch and Ash left, and an underwood of Spanish Chestnut
and some Ash coppiced periodically every 16 years.

TABLE FOR HIGH FOREST WITH COPPICE.
Average soil and situation.

Years.

Trees just before
a fall.
Larch and Ash.

Trees cut.
Larch and Ash.

Trees left.
Larch and Ash.

25

800

400

400

41

400

240

160

57

1 60

105

55

73

55

55

...

At 4ist year (or previously) and at 57th* year, 150 Spanish Chestnut
to increase coppice stools.

* As may seem necessary ; but the Chestnut trees originally coppiced at the
25th year may prove sufficient.

HIGH FOREST WITH COPPICE

213

At the end of the rotation of the overwood there should
be about 500 vigorous stools per acre, and amongst these
about 650 Ash and Larch should be planted so as to per-
petuate the system. They should be evenly distributed over
the whole area ; no tree should be planted nearer than 6 feet
to any healthy stool; and the trees should generally be in
small groups of 5 to 9, each species kept separate and
planted 4 feet apart from each other.

A rotation of 14 to 16 years will be quite enough for the
underwood,1 or the Larch and Ash will get suppressed, and
even with this length of rotation the underwood must be
very carefully kept from injuring the future overcrop.

When the Ash and Larch are planted, it will be cheaper
to fence the whole area against rabbits, provided it is over 10
acres in extent, and provided the trees were otherwise going
to be protected with small wire guards, costing id. each.

If guards of tarred felt could be erected at a cost of Jd.
each, the fencing of the whole area would only be cheaper if
it were 30 acres in extent or over.

TABLE showing the working of above example in perpetuo.

Years.

Trees just before a fall.
Larch and Ash.

Trees cut.
Larch and Ash.

Trees left.
Larch and Ash.

15

(about) 600 * *

100

500

30

500

ISO

350

45

350

IQO

160

60

160

105

55

75

55

55

...

About 70 trees to be planted at the soth year, and again at the end
of each rotation of underwood, as may seem necessary in order to increase
number of coppice stools.

* This of course depends on the success of the previous planting.

If, when the coppice is first cut over, it appears that the

1 A longer rotation is indicated for ordinary coppice with standards,
as the standards are of various ages, and the trouble of freeing the
youngest age class is comparatively little.

214 TREATMENT OF COPPICE SYSTEMS

Larch and Ash have been unduly drawn up, a fringe of
coppice should be left all round the area for some 4 or 5
years longer, as a protection from wind until the young
standards have become strengthened ; and, as a screen for
game, the coppice should always be encouraged near the
rides and roads.

Where Oak are grown under this system, it will be
necessary to plant, on existing coppice areas, a larger number
of trees per acre (about 1000) ; as usually such a small
proportion develop into strong, vigorous trees, and as they
are slower growing, they must be present in greater numbers
at the respective dates.

The first rotation should not be more than 10 or 12
years, otherwise the trees will be suppressed. The subsequent
rotations of the underwood may conveniently be 16 to 20
years or 25 years, though such a plan rather complicates
the management. A similar plan may be adopted in the
case of Larch and Ash, though it is not so essential.

CHAPTER XL

AVERAGE YIELDS FROM FOREST LAND.

THE following yields from particular crops may be expected
on certain soils and situations, provided the crops escape
damage from insects, fungi, and fire. As regards the values
attached to the timber and the thinnings, it must be
remembered that these are subject to great variation ; the
value of thinnings has in many cases been placed somewhat
low since they can usually only be disposed of locally, and
any increase in the area under timber would probably be
accompanied by a diminution in the amount per acre
received for thinnings. The soil and situation are made
referable to one of four qualities — Quality I. being the best,
and Quality IV. the worst. Quality II. represents soil and
situation of good average quality.

The identical soil and situation may be of different
quality for different species of trees.

The number of cubic feet of thinnings is reckoned down
to 2 inches quarter girth under bark, so that measurements
may be compared with continental data which, for timber
only, are reckoned down to 3 inches diameter over bark.
The value placed upon the final yields, presupposes that the
purchaser fells the timber ; whereas the thinnings are cut out
by the home staff of woodmen.

In all cases it is presumed that 3-year-oJd trees have
been planted : —

2151

216 AVERAGE YIELDS FROM FOREST LAND

OAK.1

Close-Canopied High Forest. Soil and situation — Quality II.

Years
since
planted.

Thinnings removed.

Cubic feet left
to 2 in. q. g.

Average
per tree, cub. ft.,
2 in. q. g.

Cubic feet
to 2 in. q. g.

Value.

£ 8. D.

20

...

...

...

...

30

30

I O O

...

...

40

70

2 10 0

1060

2

50

150

5 10 o

1460

4

60

200

7 10 o

1890

7

75

450

1700

2340

13

90

480

24 o o

2730

21

105

460

34 o o

2930

29i

120

Final crop,

loo trees.

3000 cub. ft.
to 6 in. q. g.

35i

Value of final crop, 3000 cub. feet, at is. gd.
= ,£262, los.

Total yield of thinnings = 1840 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.
„ ,, final crop = 3550 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.

Total = 5390

Average annual increment =

Note. — Much more satisfactory returns would be obtained by making
a partial clearance at about the 6oth or yoth year, and then under-
planting, if such has not already taken place.

1 The yield of Oak Bark is dealt with in Chapter XIV.

YIELD FROM BEECH

217

BEECH.

Close-Canopied High Forest. Soil and situation — Quality II.

Years
since
planted.

Thinnings removed.

Cubic feet left
to 2 in. q. g.

Average per tree,
2 in. q. g.

Cubic feet
to 2 in. q. g.

Value.

£ S. D.

20

...

...

...

...

30

...

420

i

40

30

0 10 0

990

i

50

130

300

1660

»i

65

250

6 10 o

2500

6|

80

400

16 15 o

3400

Hi

95

500

23 o o

4000]

20

105

350

16 o o

4350

29

120

Final crop,

150 trees.

4800 cub. ft.
to 6 in. q. g.

36

Value of final crop, 4800 cub. feet, at is.
= £240.

Total yield of thinnings = 1660 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.
„ „ final crop = 5400 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.

Total = 7060

Average annual increment = '° °

218 AVERAGE YIELDS FROM FOREST LAND

SILVER FIR.

Close-Canopied High Forest. Soil and situation— Quality II.

Years
since
planted.

Thinnings removed.

Cubic feet left
to 2 in. q. g.

Average per tree,
2 in. q. g.

Cubic feet
to 2 in. q. g.

Value.

£ S. D.

30

...

...

...

...

35

Nil

700

i

45

200

2 10 0

1400

i|

55

280

3 10 o

2550

4

65

320

400

3900

ioi

77

360

600

5HO

IS*

90

Final crop,

280 trees.

6050 cub. ft.
to 6 in. q. g.

24

Value of final crop, 6050 cub. ft., at 6|d.
= (say) £164.

Total yield of thinnings = 1160 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.
„ „ final crop = 6700 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.

Total = 7860

Average annual increment =-- '- — ?

90

= 87^ cub. ft.

Norway Spruce. — The total yield of Norway Spruce will
be rather less. The thinnings will yield rather more, and be
begun earlier, but the final crop will not be so great. Usually
a rotation of 70 to 80 years will be sufficient for the Spruce.

Norway Spruce on an So-year rotation should give an
average annual increment of 80 cubic feet on soil and
situation of Quality II.

YIELD FROM SCOTS PINE

219

SCOTS PINE.

Close-Canopied High Forest. Soil and situation — Quality 11.

Years
since
planted.

Thinnings removed.

Cubic feet left
to 2 In. q. g.

Average per tree,
2 in. q. g.

Cubic feet
to 2 in. q. g.

Value.

£ S. D.

20

...

...

...

30

30

O IO O

1000

l|

40

200

2 10 0

1900

31

50

220

4OO

2600

6

60

300

500

3080

9i

70

300

650

3460

i3i

So

Final crop,

260 trees.

3450 cub. ft.
to 6 in. q. g.

16

Value of final crop, 3450 cub. ft., at 7d.

= £lOQ, I2S.

Total yield of thinnings = 1050 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.
„ „ final crop = 41 50 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.

Total = 5200

Average annual increment =

= 65 cub. ft.

Corsican Pine. — The yield from Corsican Pine should be
considerably greater, as much more will be yielded by
thinnings ; the final crop may be expected to yield about
the same. An average annual increment of 75 cubic feet
should be given on Quality II. soil, on an So-year rotation.

220 AVERAGE YIELDS FROM FOREST LAND

WEYMOUTH PINE.

Close-Canopied High Forest. Soil and situation — Quality 1.

Years
since
planted.

Thinnings removed.

Cubic feet left
to 2 in. q. g.

Average per tree,
2 in. q. g.

Cubic feet
to 2 in. q. g.

Value.

£ 8. D.

2O

...

...

...

30

40

o 14 o

1 100

Ii

40

260

3 5 o

2000

3i

50

300

500

2650

6|

60

35°

6 10 o

3300

roi

70

400

9 15 o

4010

15*

80

Final crop,

260 trees.

4270 cub. ft.
to 6 in. q. g.

19

Value of final crop, 4270 cub. ft., at 7 Jd.
= (say) £133, I

Total yield of thinnings = 1350 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.
„ „ final crop = 4950 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.

Total = 6300

Average annual increment =

80

= 79 cub. ft.

YIELD FROM ASH

221

ASH.

Close-Canopied High Forest. Soil and situation — Quality 11.

Years
since
planted.

Thinnings removed.

Cubic feet left
to 2 in. q. g.

Average per tree,
2 in. q. g.

Cubic feet
to 2 in. q. g.

Value.

£ S. D.

13

...

...

...

...

20

IDS. loo poles

3 10 o

...

...

27

2os. 100 poles

400

870

Ij

35

5os. 100 poles

5 10 o

1200

H

45

430

21 IO O

1430

Si

55

700

35 o o

1440

12

70

Final crop,

120 trees.

1900 cub. ft.
to 6 in. q. g.

2O

Value of final crop, 1900 cub. ft., at is. 6d.
= £142, IPS.

Total yield of thinnings = 1380 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.
„ „ final crop = 2400 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.

Total = 3780

Average annual increment =

= 54 cub. ft.

Note. — It would be far preferable to partially clear the Ash from the
35th year onwards ; though, in the above case, the thinnings have been
very heavy at the 45th and 55th years.

222 AVERAGE YIELDS FROM FOREST LAND

LARCH.

Close-Canopied High Forest. Soil and situation— Quality II.

Years
since
planted.

Thinnings removed.

Cubic feet left
to 2 in. q. g.

Average per tree,
2 in. q. g.

Cubic feet
to 2 in. q. g.

Value.

£ S. D.

12

8s. 100 poles

2 O O

...

...

18

175. ioo poles

6OO

...

...

25

80

500

870

I*

32

240

700

1380

2|

40

275

800

1850

Si

50

309

QOO

2450

9£

60

450

1500

2800

H

70

Final crop,

200 trees.

3000 cub. ft.
to 6 in. q. g.

17

Value of final crop, 3000 cub. ft., at is.
= £150-

Total yield of thinnings = 1360 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.
„ „ final crop = 3400 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.

Total = 4760

Average annual increment = 47—

70

= 68 cub. ft.

Note.— In nearly every case more satisfactory results would be
obtained by making partial clearances from about the 35th year and
underplanting, than by keeping a close-canopied high forest.

YIELD FROM LARCH

223

LARCH.

Soil and situation — Quality L
Partially cleared at the 35th year, and underplanted.

Years
since
planted.

Thinnings removed.

Cubic feet left
to 2 in. q. g.

Average per tree,
2 in. q. g.

Cubic feet
to 2 in. q. g.

Value.

£ S. D.

12

2 O O

...

18

25

700

...

26

120

700

1050

If

35

375

II 0 0

1460

4i

45

332

10 0 0

2286

8*

55

1197

45 o o

2345

in

65

1260

55 o o

1876

28

80

Final crop,

67 trees.

3200
over 6 in. q. g.

50

Value of final crop, 3200 cub. feet, at is.
= £160.

Total yield of thinnings = 3309 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.
„ „ final crop = 3350 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.

Total = 6659

Average annual increment = -—

80

= 83J cub. ft.
Note. — The value of a cleaning at the 8th year has been taken as nil.

224 AVERAGE YIELDS FROM FOREST LAND

DOUGLAS FIR.'

Close-Canopied High Forest. Soil and situation — Quality I.

Years
since
planted.

Thinnings removed.

Cubic feet left
to 2 in. q. g.

Average per tree,
2 in. q. g. ,

Cubic feet
to 2 in. q. g.

Value.

£ S. D.

20

173. 100 poles

500

I800

I*

27

540

goo

3465

4i

35

1080

17 10 o

5OOO

10

45

3000

75 o o

6750

27

55

1800 at gd.*

60 o o

8930

47

65

3000 at gd.*

101 0 0

9180

7o|

75

Final crop,

1 30 trees.

11,200 cub. ft.
to 6 in. q. g.

89

* For that which is over 6 inches quarter girth.

Value of final crop, 11,200 cub. ft., at gd.
= £420.

Total yield of thinnings = 9,620 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.
„ „ final crop = 11,570 cub. ft. at 2 in. q. g.

Total = 21,190

Average annual increment

21,190
75

282^ cub. ft.

1 There are no mature crops of Douglas Fir in this country, but
the author submits the above table after careful study of the rate of
growth of young crops in this country, and also after careful study of the
rate of growth in its native country, where in many cases the climate is
very similar.

WILLOWS AND POPLARS 225

Sitka Spruce is another very fast-growing tree, and
though its height growth is somewhat similar to that of
Douglas Fir, it will not probably increase in girth measure-
ment at the same rate as Douglas Fir when growing under
similar conditions. However, the out-turn per acre should
be about half-way between that of Douglas Fir and of Silver
Fir.

Cupressus macrocarpa is another tree which in suitable
localities should give a somewhat similar out-turn.

Tree Willows and Poplars are very fast-growing trees,
especially the Black Poplars. These will produce a greater
quantity of timber in a short time than any other broad-
leaved trees.

With reference to all the previous tables, it may be stated
that a greater final yield is in nearly all cases possible, by
restricting the thinnings in the latter half of any rotation.
But the adoption of such a course would result in committing
the common continental error of striving after maximum
final yields which, in most cases, results in a net monetary
loss, when compared with the results of crops which have
been somewhat heavily thinned, from the time that the
principal height growth was attained.

The above data may all be represented graphically, both
as to volume or value, by dividing a circle into segments the
area of which is proportionate to the volume or value of the
thinnings removed at any time and of the final yield — the
dates of the respective thinnings and their volume or value
are marked, as also are particulars of the final yield, in
their respective segments.

[YIELD FROM STANDARDS OVER COPPICE.

p

226 AVERAGE YIELDS FROM FOREST LAND

YIELD FROM STANDARDS OVER COPPICE
Standards, Mixed Oak, Larch, and Ash.

Oak on a loo-year rotation. Ash and Larch on an 8o-year rotation.
Coppice on a 2O-year rotation. Soil and situation — Quality 1.

Cubic feet cut to 6 in. q. g.

Standards felled.

Age.
Years.

Average per
tree,
to 6 in. q. g.

Oak.

Larch.

Ash.

155

...

...

5 Oak . , ,

100

31

16

320

99

I Oak \

5 Larch J-
3 Ash J

80

f l6
| 64

I 33

24

1 08

120

4 Oak }
4 Larch >-
6 Ash J

60

f 6
\ 27

[ 20

5

45

36

10 Oak ]
9 Larch [•
9 Ash J

40

{ >

200

473

255

Totals.

Total yield every 2oth year = 928 cub. ft. to 6 in. q. g.

which = 1091 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.
Average annual increment * for standards only from a normal area

- ^ = 54 cub, ft.

* The contents of the young standards of 20 years' growth has been left out
of account.

Standards, Mixed Ash, and Larch.

Rotation of Standards, 75 years. Rotation of Coppice, 25 years.
Soil and situation — Quality II.

Cubic feet cut to 6 in. q. g.

Standards felled.

Age.
Years.

Average per
tree,
to 6 in. q. g.

Larch.

Ash.

256

147

8 Larch\
7 Ash /

75

( 32
1 21

170

117

17 Larch \
18 Ash J

50

{ 'ii

...

...

50 Larch\
50 Ash /

25

{ :::

426

264

Totals.

Total yield every 2$th year = 690 cub. ft. to 6 in. q. g.
which = 980 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.
Average annual increment for standards only from a normal area

, f^Qf^

cub. ft.

ASH AND CHESTNUT COPPICE 227

YIELD PROM COPPICE.

Any statement of the yield from various coppice areas in
cubic contents will not be of much practical advantage, as it
is all " small stuff." And it will vary not only with the soil
and species of trees, but also with the length of rotation
adopted. But on areas under simple coppice with a 1 6-year
rotation it will vary on average soil from 50 to 70 cubic feet
quarter girth measure (reckoning down to I inch diameter)
for Ash and Spanish Chestnut, and 35 to 55 cubic feet for
Oak.

The yield from coppice growing under standards will not
be so great, on account of the overshadowing by the
standards.

It is of far more importance to know the yield in money
value that may be expected from coppice. This value,
however, is subject to extraordinary variations ; much more
so than the variations in the price of large timber.

In many parts of the country coppice produce is almost
unsaleable, while in other parts of the country £12 to £16 is
still realised for the best coppice of Ash when about 1 6 to 20
years old.

The prices obtained for coppice depend almost entirely
upon local demand. So that unless there is a local demand,
either from some local factory for some special purpose, or
else from some large town for firewood, etc., only a nominal
sum can be expected per acre by the sale of coppice.

Pure Ash coppice is generally the most saleable, and then
pure Spanish Chestnut or a mixture of Spanish Chestnut
and Ash. But ordinary mixed coppice, consisting largely
of Hazel, is almost unsaleable except near large towns.
Alder coppice occasionally pays well per sey but not
often ; it is, however, often extremely valuable as an aid for
growing other trees, especially Oak or Ash. It will thus be
seen that the value of coppice depends upon the uses to
which it can be put. Buyers of coppice have to base their
price upon the retail demand in the neighbourhood. The
saleable value of the coppice will be represented by the

228 AVERAGE YIELDS FROM FOREST LAND

difference in the value of the gross receipts for the " made
up" produce and the working expenses, after deducting a
fair profit for the underwood buyer.

Thus, to take an example : —

Some coppice under standards is for sale. It is 3 miles
from an agricultural town. There is no market for hop
poles or crate wood or hoops. It is 1 1 years old.

What price will an underwood buyer give for it ?

The Gross Receipts from the sale of the produce when
made up are estimated to be : —

i ioo faggots, at 8s. per 100 . . . .^480
30 bundles pea-sticks (25 in a bundle), at 3d.

per bundle . . . . . . . 076

24 bundles bean-sticks (25 in a bundle), at 4|d.

per bundle 090

35 bundles Thatcher's rods for. " spicks " and

"ledgers" (50 in a bundle), at 3d. per bundle 089
16 bundles "glatting" rods for fences (25 in a

bundle), at lod. per bundle . . . . 0134
2000 fencing stakes, at 35. 9d. per ioo . . 3150
4 cords of firewood (8 x 4 x 4), at 95. per cord . i 16 o

17 7

The Expenses : —

Cutting underwood . . . . . . £o 10 o

Tying up noo faggots at 45. 6d.* per ioo. . 296
Cutting -out and tying (including withies) : —

30 bundles pea-sticks, at id. per bundle *. 026

24 „ bean-sticks, at i^d. per bundle . 030

35 „ Thatcher's rods, at ijd. per bundle 038

1 6 „ "glatting" rods, at 2d. per bundle 028

2000 fencing stakes, at 8d. per ioo . . 0134

Cording 4 cords of firewood, at 35. 6d. per cord o 14 o

£4 18 8
Plus a sum for buyers' profit, risk, bad debts,

etc. . . »-'<• 'V- --,-- •{.:.• ..;: ..... .,-. 4 10 o

Therefore, saleable value of coppice ~. . ^2811
or (say) £2, IPS.

*• This includes withies.

VALUE OF COPPICE PRODUCE 229

The above example shows the small value of coppice in
the absence of any special market. If the underwood had
been cut by the home staff, the saleable value would of course
be increased by the IDS. reckoned for cutting it.

So also, occasionally, an owner may convert his own
coppice, and thus save the dealer's profit, but such a course
will seldom be advisable, as it requires a life-long experi-
ence to dispose of the made-up produce of coppice to
the best advantage. It may be objected that £4, los. is
a very large profit for the dealer, considering the small
value of the gross receipts. But it must be remembered
that it is not all profit, and that the dealer has consider-
able risks, and would prefer not to be burdened with the
trouble of converting unless he saw his way to obtaining a
fair profit. In cases where the produce is more saleable,
he would not look for a much greater profit — perhaps
another pound or two — for he would be subjected to greater
competition.

Thus, when hop poles are required, it is still possible to
obtain from £4 to £7 an acre for 1 6-year-old coppice. So
again, in the neighbourhood of turning factories, where toys,
chair legs, etc., are made, from £6 to £10 an acre may be
expected for well-grown coppice, 16 to 18 years old. Or,
where pit props are in demand, £10 to £16 an acre may be
obtained for coppice, 22 to 25 years old.

However, all other things being equal, the distance from a
consuming centre is the determining factor regulating the
price.

And in a general way it may be stated that if the produce
has to be hauled by road, a depreciation will be witnessed
amounting to 155. to £i per acre for 1 8-year-old coppice, for
every single mile by which the coppice area is separated
from the consuming centre.

In cases where there are large areas under coppice for
which there is perhaps only a very poor sale, landowners
could in many cases increase the demand by initiating or
rendering financial support for the starting of some local
industry ; such, for instance, as the manufacture from

230 AVERAGE YIELDS FROM FOREST LAND

Spanish Chestnut of the so-called "cheap economic" split
fencing.1

So also it is probable that the dry distillation of wood
would also prove profitable.2

1 This manufacture of fencing has already been started by the Stanley
Underwood Company.

2 The author hopes in another volume to give some details of investi-
gations he has recently made in Sweden (1906). However, considerable
capital would be required for the venture. In all probability, the best
means would be to distil over once in portable retorts in the woods, and
then to have a central plant (which is very expensive) where the crude
product can be refined and thereafter fractionally distilled.

CHAPTER XII.

THE FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION.

AN estimation of the exact financial position which attends
the execution of any planting operations is one of the most
important subjects relating to Sylviculture.

It is unlikely that any extensive works of afforestation
will ever be carried out, unless there be sufficient evidence to
prove that a reasonable return may be anticipated on the
outlay expended. Occasionally those who contemplate works
of this nature seek expert advice as to the probable financial
returns ; but, only too often, the advice tendered is absolutely
worthless, and the estimated returns are never likely to be
realised.

In many cases, those tendering advice would appear to be
happily ignorant of the elementary principles relating to
actuarial calculations ; they often make the most random
statements, which are usually accepted without a challenge ;
whereas a moment's consideration should convince any
thoughtful person that such hypertrophied estimates are
merely the illusory product of the fond imagination of some
over-zealous, self-styled expert.

There can be no doubt that much of the advice given
with reference to schemes of afforestation can only lead, if
followed, to grave financial losses ; unless, indeed, the prices
realised for home-grown timber should advance very con-
siderably above those that obtain at present.

Now, even if the estimate of the rate of growth of the
timber, and the amount that can be removed as thinnings,
and the value of the final crop, be quite correct, there are

231

232 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION

several methods of presenting a statement showing the
financial result of such a crop. Some of these methods are
correct, but others, though plausible and often made use of,
are, unfortunately, absolutely incorrect.

FALLACIOUS METHODS OP PRESENTING FINANCIAL
STATEMENTS.

Initial Outlay Credited with the Income which is
Receivable only after a Period of Years. — It is of no un-
common occurrence for those who seek advice as to the
probable profits that may be anticipated from any planting
operations, to be advised of the annual revenue derived from
continental forests, and to be told that a similar annual
return may be expected on an outlay of only a few pounds,
spent in planting and fencing.

For example, an owner who contemplates planting is
told that the revenue from some existing forest is £i, IDS.
per acre per annum. Then he is advised that the cost of
establishing a crop will be perhaps £S an acre ; that the land
is now valued at £12 an acre; and that, on this proposed
investment of £20 an acre, he may hope to secure the same
returns. An increased rental of (say) £i, with an additional
capital expenditure of only £8 ! Over 12 per cent, interest!
What more profitable undertaking can be embarked upon ?

Another method, often employed, is to suggest that the
net annual return on the initial outlay will be equivalent to
the value of the final crop, divided by the number of years in
the rotation, it being presumed that the various sums of
money received from time to time from the sale of thinnings
will be equivalent to the annual outgoings.

And again, yet another method, often adopted, is to
assume that the gross annual return on the initial capital
invested per acre is equivalent to the value of the average
annual production of timber per acre, and that, if from this sum
a deduction of from 2s. to 4.5. be made, on account of rates and
other annual outgoings, the remaining sum will be equivalent
to the net annual return which the investment will yield.
The following example will illustrate these two latter

FALLACIOUS VALUATIONS 233

methods. It is intended to plant Scots Pine on grass land
worth £10 per acre. It is estimated that the cost of
establishing the crop, including cleaning for the first 3 or 4
years, and replacing dead trees, will be £8 an acre; and
when 30 years old the thinnings will yield IDS. an acre ; at
40 years, £2, los. an acre ; at 50 years, £4; at 60 years, £$ ;
at 70 years, £6, 55. ; and that, when 80 years old, there will
be a final crop of 3450 cubic feet, over 6 inches quarter girth
measure, which, at 7d. a cubic foot, will yield £100, I2s. ; also,
it is assumed that, at the end of the rotation, the value of
the land remains unaltered.

The total number of cubic feet (down to 3 inches top
diameter) which will be produced, is estimated at 5050 cubic
feet, which gives an average annual production of 63 cubic
feet. And the average annual outgoings, over and above any
sum received as a sporting rent, are estimated at 2s. an acre.1

Now, by adopting the first of these two methods it would
appear that the initial outlay of £iS would yield a net
annual return of approximately £i, 55.

For the

Value of final crop _ £100, 125.

Number of years in rotation 80

= £r, 5s. (nearly).

This equals, apparently, nearly 7 per cent, interest on the
outlay of £18.

And by the second method, the average annual produc-
tion of 63 cubic feet of timber would, at 7d. a cubic foot, be
worth £i, 1 6s. gd.

Hence —

The gross annual return equals ...»..»,.. . £i 16 9
Less, for annual outgoings . . . . 020

The net annual return equals . . * . ^i 14 9

Now, this £i, 145. gd. equals, apparently, about 9f per
cent, interest on the initial outlay of £iS.

Methods, such as these, though plausible, are absolutely

1 This does not include any sum representing the cost of felling the
timber or making up cordwood, or of cleaning the young crop.

234 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION

fallacious. They compare favourably with certain literature
emanating from some financial " house " whose reputation is
doubtful, and they should be as carefully avoided as are the
latter's solicitations.

The whole fallacy of the principle of the above valuations
lies in the fact that it is assumed that money can be borrowed
for 80 years without any interest ever being charged upon
it, which, of course, is utterly absurd.

In the above example, if all monies received or spent
during the rotation be debited with 4 per cent, compound
interest, the correct net annual rental that may be antici-
pated is only 35. 2d. ; or if 3 per cent, interest be assumed,
the net annual rental will be 6s. id. per acre. This is
surely a poor return on an outlay of £iS.

CORRECT METHODS OP PRESENTING FINANCIAL
STATEMENTS : —

Statement of Income obtained on Average Accumulated
Capital which has been Sunk in Normally Stocked Areas.

— In cases where it is desired to make a comparison with
the returns obtained in continental forests, it must be
remembered, that these returns represent the yearly income
from a fully developed normally stocked area, which, of
necessity, has a large capital debit account per acre ; and a
net return of £i, IDS. per acre per annum will not usually
represent a very high rate of interest. This capital debit
sum will depend upon the original value of the land, the cost
of planting, and the length of the rotation, etc.

Thus, with reference to the previous example, where
Scots Pine are grown on an 8o-year rotation, it will be
necessary, in order to find the average capital sum per acre
invested in a normally stocked area, to imagine that I acre
is planted per annum until the 8oth year, and to calculate at
compound interest, all the monies spent and received till the
end of the 8oth year, and then to divide the total debt by Si.1

1 This is to allow of having i acre fallow, as, finally, when a crop is
felled, the land is not planted till the year after. The cost of planting
this i acre is accounted for in the average outgoings of the 8ist year.

ACCUMULATED DEBT PER ACRE 235

Hence, calculating compound interest as 3 J per cent. : —
Debtor account to the end of the 8oth year : —
i acre planted every year, for 80 years, involving
an outlay of £18 per acre (land, £10 ; plant- Dr.

ing, £8) = ,£18x434 ..... £7812 o o
Value of i acre of land, taken at 8oth year * . 10 o o
Outgoings at 2s. per acre per annum on all land
planted up = 2s. x 10,114 . • . . ion 8 o

£8833 8 o

* This is to allow of having I acre fallow, as, finally, when a crop is felled, the
land is not planted till the year after. The cost of planting this i acre is accounted
for in the average outgoings of the 8ist year.

Creditor account to the end of the 8oth year : —
Thinnings valued at zos. received from off i acre, Cr.

every year from the 3oth year= los. x 135-5 . £67 15 o
Thinnings, £2, los. from i acre, every year from

the 4oth year = £2, los. x87«5 • • • 2l% I5 °
Thinnings, £4 from i acre, every year from the

5oth year =£4x5 3-4 ..... 213 12 o
Thinnings, £$ from i acre, every year from the

6oth year=^5 x 29-25 . . . . 146 5 o

Thinnings, £6, 55. from i acre, every year from

the 7oth year = (£6, 55. x 12 . .." . . . 75 o o
Final crop, taken from the acre first planted,

£lOO, I2S.* . . ... . . IOO 12 O

£821 19 o

* It is presumed that the cost of felling is defrayed by the sale of the branch
wood and tops under 6 inches quarter girth.

Now, the actual debt equals the difference between the
debtor and creditor accounts : —

£8833 8 o Dr.
821 19 o Cr.

1 1 9 o actual debt on the whole area.

Therefore the average debt per acre in the example under

consideration : —

= £8011,93.

81
= (say) £100.*

* It is really somewhat more, if strict account be taken of the non-productive
land occupied by rides and roads.

236 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION

Now it will be quite correct, in principle, to state
that the value of the average annual increment is equal to
the gross annual revenue which is yielded on this average
capital charge per acre of £100.

E.g., the average annual production per acre is 63 cubic
feet, that is (say) —

50* cub. ft., at 7d. = £i 9 2,
13 cub. ft., at 3^d. = o 3 10

£i 13 o

* It would not be correct to value the 63 cubic feet at yd., as a portion of
this average annual increment is small "stuff" and therefore worth less per
foot.

Hence, the gross return equals £1, 135. and the net
return is obtained by deducting the outgoings from the
gross return.

Now, the minimum outgoings per acre on a normally
stocked area, will include the 2s. over and above any sum
receivable as a sporting rent, as already described, and, also,
an average sum per acre for replanting an area equal to that
annually cut ; and also an average sum per acre to defray
the cost of felling the final crop.1

Thus, the annual outgoings will be about as follows : —

Per acre.

Ordinary outgoings, as mentioned ... .,£020
Proportionate charge for replanting . . . o I 6 *
„ „ for felling . . . 021

Total net outgoings . . £o 5 7

Hence, the actual net return per acre equals .

Less

Net return per acre . . ... • ;£i 7 5

* The cost of replanting the land just cleared, and establishing the crop, is
placed at £6 an acre.

1 This is necessary, as, in arriving at the gross returns, the timber
has been valued down to 3 inches diameter ; and the faggots, etc., made
from any smaller "stuff" will usually only pay for the making up.

ACCUMULATED DEBT PER ACRE 237

Hence, in the above example, the net return on the
average accumulated capital per acre of ;£ioo will only be
£1, 75. 56. ; that is if per cent1

From the foregoing, it will be evident that whenever
afforestation is advocated, and the returns from fully stocked
normal areas are instanced, as a proof of the profits that
may be anticipated, it is always necessary to remember that
these annual profits represent the annual income from a
large accumulated capital per acre, and are not the im-
mediate annual profits that may be looked for as arising
from the initial outlay, represented by the value of the land
and the cost of establishing a crop.

The following table shows the average accumulated
capital per acre expended in forming some normally stocked
areas ; 2 all calculations being made at 3 J per cent.

If Value of Land
and Cost of
establishing a Crop
equals

Average accumulated
Capital per acre
equals (about)

Scots Pine.*

£6

/35

8o-year rotation.

12

68

Soil and situation —

18

100

Quality II.

27

156

Oak.t

41

£39

I2o-year rotation.

,, 12

135

Soil and situation —

IS

235

Quality II.

27

400

* Vide table in Chapter XI.

t The area of land occupied by rides and roads has not been taken as exactly
the same in all cases.

1 Assuming, as already stated, that, until the area be normally
stocked, all monies received or spent are credited or debited with 3^ per
cent, compound interest.

2 A normally stocked area presumes, here, that a succession of
mature crops, of equal area and value, can be felled, annually, from the
present date, onwards.

238 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION

The above table will serve as a rough guide for estimating
the average capital per acre that will accrue by the time that
any area, which it is intended to plant, becomes normally
stocked and capable of yielding a sustained annual yield,
provided that the rotation be either 80 or 120 years; and
that the dates of thinnings and their value be somewhat
similar to Scots Pine, if an So-year rotation be adopted ;
or to Oak, if a 120-year rotation be adopted. If, however,
the accumulated value of thinnings and the final crop be
respectively greater, the capital debt will be reduced, and
vice versa.

Statement of the Gain in Capital after charging Com-
pound Interest. — Another method, occasionally adopted, for
presenting a financial statement is to state that, after charg-
ing compound interest on all monies, spent and received up
to the end of the rotation, there will remain as additional
profit a lump sum of £ — .

For instance, a landowner is advised that on an outlay of
£25 (which includes the value of the land) he may, by plant-
ing conifers on a 7O-year rotation, obtain compound interest
at the rate of 2\ per cent, and, at the end of the 70 years
should also have an extra profit of £105.

Now, an ordinary individual will usually imagine that this
extra £105 at the end of 70 years is equal to an additional

profit of — - = £i, los. per annum ; which, on the outlay of

£2$, is equal to an additional interest of 6 per cent. Thus,
without asking any further questions, he imagines that he
may get 6 per cent //#.$• the 2| per cent already accounted
for, which equals 8 J per cent altogether. In all probability, he
will think this a good investment And, though he may regard
the suggested final yield from the crop as too optimistic, he
feels confident that he may safely expect to get 5 or 6 per
cent on his outlay ; and forthwith gives instructions for the
planting to be carried out

Needless to say, this line of argument on the part of one's
client is absolutely fallacious. The extra £105 at the end of
the 70 years, only equals about us. 6d. per annum on the 2\

RATE OF COMPOUND INTEREST 239

per cent, tables ; or /s. 46. per annum on the 3^ per cent,
tables ; so that the investment is not nearly so good as it
would appear at first sight. Now, although the advice
tendered is quite correct, it is, as already explained, very mis-
leading, and its adoption should never be countenanced by
any one.

Statement of the Rate of Compound Interest. — Another
method, perfectly correct in principle, and advocated by
many, is to state the rate of compound interest which any
proposed investment in afforestation may be expected to
yield, by the end of the rotation.

Now, in order to find this rate of compound interest,
it is necessary to add together the net value received for
the final crop and the various sums of money received from
time to time by the sale of thinnings, such sums being
reckoned as accumulating at compound interest to the
end of the rotation. From this gross credit sum must be
deducted the accumulated value, at compound interest to
the end of the rotation, of all the annual outgoings. Then,
add the value of the original cost of the land,1 and the
resulting sum will represent the increased value of the
original outlay. Then, from tables,2 find the rate of com-
pound interest at which the original outlay will amount at
the end of the rotation to the present net credit sum.
The rate of compound interest at which the value of the
thinnings and the annual outgoings is reckoned will make
a difference to the ultimate result. If a high rate be taken
a better result will generally be shown than if a low rate
be taken, unless, indeed, the thinnings be very slight,
and their accumulated value is less than that of the annual
outgoings.

The above may be thus illustrated by reference to the
data given for a crop of Larch (Soil and Situation, Quality
II.) in Chapter XL, when, if the land cost £12 per acre;

1 It is presumed that the value of the land remains the same at the
end of the rotation. The original cost of planting is left out, as it is
capital lost for ever.

2 Vide Appendix.

240 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION

planting ,£8 ; and the net annual outgoings be 2s., and if 4
per cent, compound interest be reckoned : —

£1 value of thinnings at I2th year will amount

in 58 years* to ^2x97 . = ^19 8 o

£6 value of thinnings at i8th year will amount

in 52 years to £6 x 7-7 . . . = 46 4 o

^5 value of thinnings at 25th year will amount

in 45 years to £$ x 5-8 . . . = 29 o o

£7 value of thinnings at 32nd year will amount

in 38 years to £7 x 4-4 . . . . = 30 16 o
^8 value of thinnings at 4oth year will amount

in 30 years to £& x 3-2 . . "•...• * . :. = 25 12 o
^9 value of thinnings at 5oth year will amount

in 20 years to ^9 x 2-2 . . . . = 19 16 o
^15 value of thinnings at 6oth year will amount

in 10 years to ^15 x 1-5 . . . ] % ' = 22 10 o
Value of final crop, 3000 cub. ft., at is. . . 150 o o

(say) £343 o o

Deduct outgoings, 2s. per acre per annum (over
and above any sum received as a sporting
rent), for 70 years = 2s. x 364 1 (say) . 36 o o

£30? o o

Add original value of the land . . . 12 o o
Net Credit Sum . ^319 o o

* If compound interest be reckoned at 4 per cent., £i amounts to 97 in 58 years,
f £i per annum amounts to ^364 in 70 years. Therefore is. amounts to 3645.
in 70 years.

Now, the original outlay was £20 per acre. Therefore,
£20 has amounted to .£319 in 70 years; and £1 has
amounted to 15-9 in 70 years.

And by reference to tables 1 it is seen that, at 4 per cent,
compound interest, £i amounts to 15-57 in 7° years.

Therefore, it follows that the rate of compound interest
that has been yielded is just over 4 per cent.

In the above case, if the sums received for thinnings, and
the cost of the annual outgoings, had been reckoned at 3 J per
cent, compound interest instead of 4 per cent, the net credit
sum would have been £292, which would have represented
about 3f per cent, compound interest, on the original outlay.

With reference to the former case, where the value of
thinnings, and the cost of outgoings is calculated at 4 per
1 Vide Appendix.

RATE OF COMPOUND INTEREST 241

cent, the following rates of interest will be yielded, varying
according to the original value of the land : —

If the land be Rate of compound interest

worth yielded will be

£i* si Per cent-

5 4f »

Rotation, 70 years -j J2, 4 "

22 3* r,

32 3t

* Though good land will not be sold for such a sum, yet the soil value of land
from which a crop of timber has been cleared can not for forestry investigations be
put at a higher value, for generally it would cost £20 to ^30 to stub up the roots
and convert it into agricultural land, and unless it were replanted it would only be
worth about gd. to is. per acre per annum for rough shooting, unless indeed it
had some other special value.

In the above case, if the rotation had been prolonged to 100
years, when, at the 75th year, thinnings to the value of £16
might have been cut, and a final yield of 3800 cubic feet (over
6 inches quarter girth) attained, and worth, at is. a cubic foot,
£ 1 90, the rates of interest yielded would have been as follows : —

If the land be Rate of compound interest

worth yielded will be

£i 4i per cent.

5 4t

Rotation, 100 years •[

22 o4 „

32 3 „

If, on the other hand, the Larch were to be grown on a short
rotation of (say) 38 years for pit props, the results would be
much better. The thinnings would be rather heavier, so as
to encourage an early girth increment, and the following
might be expected, on the same quality land : —

Value of thinnings at the I2th year = £2.

„ „ 1 8th „ = 7.

25th „ = 7.

3 ist „ = 7-

Final crop at the 38th year worth standing (say) £50.

These results would yield the following rates of interest : —

If the land be Rate of compound interest

worth yielded will be

£i 6 per cent.

5 5

Rotation, 38 years -\ 12 4^ „

18 3f

32 2| „

242 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION

In comparing the foregoing tables it would appear that,
if a high price (e.g., £32) be paid for the land, it would be
more advantageous to have a long rotation of 100 years, than
a short rotation of 38 years.

Such, however, is not the case. But it serves to illustrate
the inadvisability of adopting this method of showing the
comparative financial results of works of afforestation ; and
it also shows how misleading calculations may be, unless all
points be carefully considered.

The two cases are not directly comparable. The apparent
advisability of the long rotation is explainable thus : —

In both cases the planting, etc., cost £8, and the land is
worth £32, and up to the end of the 38th year the results
are practically identical — z>., 2f per cent, compound interest
has been earned on the initial outlay. However, had the land
been worth nothing, the £8 spent on planting and establishing
the crop — which may be termed the " live " capital — would
have earned over 6 per cent, compound interest ; but the
large proportion of " dead " capital in the land (e.g., £32)
brings the interest earned down to 2f per cent, compound
interest. Now, if the rotation be continued to the looth year,
the interest earned for the next 62 years on the "live"
capital, which is now a far greater sum than the value of the
land, and which is represented by the value of the net credit
sum, less the value of the land at the end of the 38th year,
is very much more than 2f per cent. — say 5 per cent, for the
next 20 years, then 4 per cent, then 3 per cent, and finally
at the end of the rotation, perhaps only ij per cent or 2 per
cent — so that, as the proportion of dead capital is com-
paratively small from the 38th year, an increased rate of
interest beyond the 2f per cent, is shown on the total capital —
both live and dead capital — by the end of the looth year.

Now, in order that the two cases may be made directly
comparable, it is necessary that the calculations should be
spread over the same number of years.

By this means, the result of a succession of 38-year
rotations up to the looth year may be directly compared
with the result of the single i co-year rotation.

Thus, a succession of 38-year rotations for 100 years, on

RATE OF COMPOUND INTEREST 243

land worth £i an acre, returns 4^ per cent, compound interest,
and not 6 per cent, compound interest, as was yielded on a
small capital in a single 38-year rotation ; for with a succes-
sion of 38-year rotations, it is only a small amount of the
capital that is re-invested at 6 per cent. ; the rest is calculated
at 4 per cent., the same rate as the value of the thinnings
and the cost of the outgoings is reckoned at.

The above compares with 4| per cent, compound interest
yielded by a single loo-year rotation ; and just over 4f per
cent, compound interest yielded by a succession of ^o-year
rotations.

In the above cases, the net credit sums at the end of the
looth year are : —

Net Credit Sums,
i.e.,
— Original outlay.
+ Accrued profits.
- Accrued outgoings.

With a succession of 38-year rotations

^1070

»»

70

1015

With the

loo-year rotations

737

Thus, there is only a little difference between the financial
advantages of the 38- or /o-year rotations where monies
can be borrowed or lent at 4 per cent. ; but the disadvantage
of the long rotation of 100 years is very marked.

The foregoing method of presenting the financial aspect
of planting operations, i.e., by stating the rate of compound
interest which it is anticipated may be yielded upon the
initial outlay, is, while quite correct in principle, open to
several grave objections, viz. : —

(1) The results obtained by long and short rotations are

not directly comparable.

(2) The general public do not fully comprehend all that

compound interest involves ; they do not realise the
enormous difference in capital value, which a differ-
ence of J per cent, makes at the end of a long term
of years ; and hence they may be misled.

244 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION

(3) No data are provided which are in any way comparable

with the ordinary methods of estimating the value of
agricultural land.

(4) The rate of interest yielded varies whenever the cost

of planting or the value of the land varies, and thus,
in each individual case, it is necessary to refer to tables
before the rate of interest can be ascertained.

(5) And since, cceteris paribus, the interest varies along

with the original outlay, it raises the presumption

that, even in the case of the same species of tree, the

annual income receivable is re-invested at different

rates of interest, whenever the initial outlay differs.

Statement on the Yearly Rental Principle. — By far the

best method of presenting a financial statement of the profits

likely to be realised by an investment in afforestation, is to

state the equivalent yearly rental that could be obtained if

the profits or net credit sum at the end of the rotation were

discounted into a yearly payment.

The yearly rental thus obtained from areas under even-
aged high forest represents the yearly interest yielded upon
the cost price of the land, and also upon the capital invested
in planting and establishing the crop.

In order, however, to admit of these rentals being
directly compared with existing agricultural rents, it is
necessary to make a further deduction, representing the
yearly interest on the extra capital spent on planting. After
such deduction has been made, the remaining sum will be
equal to the "land rental" which will be obtained.

The advisability or not of afforestation can thus generally
be seen from a comparison of these " land rentals " with the
existing rents obtained under agriculture, provided always
that there be no appreciation or depreciation in the price
per foot of timber. There may, however, be special reasons
for afforestation when direct profits are not looked for, as
for example, the planting of water catchment areas.

Now, in order to find the net annual rental that any
even-aged high forest crop will yield, the credit sum at the
end of the rotation is found in the same way as already
described when finding the rate of compound interest yielded,

EQUIVALENT ANNUAL RENTAL 245

except that the value of the land is not added, and the
original cost of planting and establishing the crop is
deducted.1 Then, this net credit sum is discounted into a
yearly payment, at the same rate of interest as is reckoned
on monies received for thinnings or spent as outgoings.

Thus, in the case of the Larch with a 38-year rotation : —

The accumulated credit from the sale of timber = ^91 o o
Less, accumulated outgoings * . • .• * • 8100

£82 10 o
Less original cost of planting ..... 800

Total net credit sum to be discounted into a yearly

payment ........ ^74 10 o

* The outgoings are taken to be 2s. per acre per annum over and above any
sum received as a sporting rent. These outgoings do not include the cost of felling
the final crop, or any sum for planting or cleaning the crop in the first year or so.

Now, by reference to the 4 per cent, tables,2 it will be seen,
that in 38 years £1 per annum amounts to £85-97 : —
Hence, ^85-97 = the accumulated value of £i per annum

ifv

Hence, the yearly rental representing a rent for the land, and
interest on the cost of planting and establishing the crop, is
equal to 173. 4d. per acre, if the 4 per cent, tables be used.

And if the 3! per cent, tables be used throughout, the net
credit sum to be discounted is £72, 153., which is equivalent to
an annual rental of i8s. lod. per acre. And if the 3 per cent.
tables be used throughout, the net credit sum is £70, i6s.,
which is equivalent to an annual rental of £,1, os. 5d. per acre.

The following tables show the maximum rentals 3 that may
be obtained from large areas under even-aged high forest.

1 The reason for this difference is, that the credit sum, which is to be
discounted into a yearly payment, must include only deferred profits,
after paying back the original sum spent on planting.

2 Vide Appendix.

3 These rentals are all referable to the data for crops given in
Chapter XL, unless otherwise stated.

246 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION

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EQUIVALENT ANNUAL RENTALS 247

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248 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION

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EQUIVALENT ANNUAL RENTALS 249

The full rentals given, representing interest on the cost
price of the land and upon the capital spent on planting and
establishing the crop, presume that planting, etc., cost £8 an
acre (the cost price of the land is immaterial to the calcula-
tions if it be worth the same at the end of the rotation as at
the beginning).

The rentals given for the land only, when planting costs
•£5 °r £3, could also be approximately arrived at by deduct-
ing the yearly interest on the cost of planting from the full
rentals given. If the rotation be long, the difference from
the actual land rental is very small, but on a short rotation
of 50 years, the land rental would be (on the 4 per cent,
tables) about 8d. per acre too little if the planting cost .£3,
and (say) 5d. if the planting cost £5 ; and about 3d. and 2d.
respectively on a 7O-year rotation.

On the 3 per cent, tables these deficiencies are rather
greater.

If, on the other hand, the cost of planting and establish-
ing the crops be greater than £8 per acre, the land rentals
obtained, after deducting interest on the cost of planting,
would be slightly too great.

In the foregoing tables, it is presumed that only 3-year-
old trees are planted. Hence, when younger trees are
planted, as when planting, fencing, etc., costs only £3 per
acre, there will be a slight discrepancy, and the rentals, as
stated, will be slightly too high, unless the extra density of
the crops so planted makes good the advantage of the
i or 2 years' growth which the older plants possessed at the
time of planting.

The same discrepancy presents itself when applying the
tables to naturally regenerated areas, but the error is slight,
in as much as thickly sown naturally regenerated areas will
often when 20 years old show nearly as good growth as a
plantation 20 years old made by planting 3-year-old trees.

The error can, however, be eradicated by adding to the
cost of planting, fencing, etc., 2 or 3 years' interest on such
cost, and then considering the land rentals as referable to
this increased cost of planting.

250 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION

Furthermore, no allowance has been made for loss of
capital in land occupied by rides.

The rentals, as stated in these tables, are for crops grown
in close canopy, except in the case of the Larch on the
So-year rotation, and to a less extent in the case of the
Ash. Better rentals will, however, always be shown, especi-
ally in the case of Oak, -whenever partial clearances or
very heavy thinnings can advisedly be made.

It is, in most cases, a great mistake to strive after obtain-
ing maximum final yields, by leaving a maximum number
of trees per acre. The rule to observe, though somewhat
oracular, is : " Leave a minimum number of trees per acre,
after the principal height growth has been attained, as is
consistent with sound principles."

Short Rotations. — The advisability of always having, in
close-canopied high forest, relatively short rotations instead
of long rotations, provided that there be no increase in the
price per foot obtained for the timber, is very important,
as is shown in the case of Larch in the above tables.

So too, Douglas Fir grown on a rotation of 55 years, will,
if pd. a foot can be obtained for the timber over 6 inches quarter
girth, give a far better result than when grown on a 7 5 -year
rotation, the timber being sold at the same price per foot.

Thus, adopting the data given in Chapter XL, the fol-
lowing comparisons may be made for Douglas Fir grown on
ist quality soil and situation.

Interest
Tables.

Rotation.

Full Rental,
Cost of Land,*
and Planting,
etc.

Land Rentals if Planting, etc.,
costs

£8.

£5.

£3.

£ S. D.

£ S. D.

£ S. D.

£ S. D.

3 per cent, j

55
75

3 16 o
3 7 10

3 II 2
330

3 13 5

3 5 o

3 14 ii
3 6 4

3j per cent |

55
75

3 5 ii
2 17 3

304
2 II 8

3 2 9

2 13 II

3 4 5
2 15 5

4 per cent j

55
75

2 17 0

280

2 10 7
2 I 7

2 13 3

2 4 I

2 15 i
2 5 10

* If planting, etc., costs ^8 per acre.

EQUIVALENT ANNUAL RENTAL 251

Finally, it may not be out of place to summarise the
great advantages which this method of finding the yearly
rentals possesses over any of the other methods which are
sometimes adopted for expressing the financial results of
afforestation.

Advantages of the Annual Rental Principle : —

(1) Data are given which are directly comparable with

existing agricultural rents, if from the full rental
a sum be deducted as representing interest on the
cost of planting.

(2) The yearly rental shown on any given interest tables

is practically the same (unless the rotations are
very short) whatever the cost of planting may be ;
and of course it is immaterial what the value of
the land may be.

(3) No other method presents the case in such an easily

understood manner.

(4) If the rental is stated, any person can easily (without

reference tables) satisfy himself as to the advisability
of the undertaking in various cases where the value
of the land may differ : e.g., a rental of 8s. per acre
can perhaps be anticipated by planting Weymouth
Pine ; then, if the cost of the land and of planting
were £8, a yearly interest of 5 per cent. l would be
obtained. But if the land and planting cost £16,
a yearly interest of only 2^ per cent.1 would be
obtained, and so on.

(5) The yearly interest receivable is presumed to be re-

invested at the same rate of interest as is reckoned
on any monies received for thinnings, or spent to
defray annual outgoings ; whereas if the final result
be expressed as yielding a certain rate of compound
interest, the rate at which the yearly income is
deemed to be re-invested will vary with the rate of
compound interest yielded.

1 Each yearly rental being re-invested at 3^ per cent, or 4 per cent.,
according to the discount tables upon which the net credit sum is
discounted.

252 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION

UNDBRPLANTING.

The financial result of underplanting may also be shown
by stating the yearly rentals that may be expected. The
method, however, of presenting these rentals is somewhat
complicated, since unless both crops be felled at the same
time, they are apt to be deceptive.

If both crops be felled at the same time, there is no
difficulty; the rental of the undercrop merely increases (or
decreases) the rental of the overcrop, for such period as the
undercrop has been planted.

If, however, both crops be not felled at the same time,
great care is necessary, if the exact financial position of the
undercrop is to be accurately conveyed.

Thus, supposing that a crop of Larch 35 years old be
underplanted -with Silver Fir, and that the Larch be all
removed in 45 years time, and that the Silver Fir be
allowed to remain on for another 45 years — that is, until
they be 90 years old — and that the cost of planting and
fencing will be (say) £4. an acre. The same yield may be
expected as is given in Chapter XL for Silver Fir grown
pure, except that at the 45th year 1400 cubic feet may be
expected instead of 1600 cubic feet. These 1400 cubic feet
at the 45th year should be worth about £22. Hence, on
the 4 per cent, tables, —

By the goth year there will be a credit sum as follows : —

^3, ios. received at the 55th year amounts in

35 years to ^13 12 o

£4 received at the 65th year amounts in 25

years to 940

£6 received at the 77th year amounts in 13

years to 9120

Final crop, 6050 cub. ft., at 6W. . . . 164 o o

^196 8 o
Less, outgoings, 2s. per annum for 45 years* . 12 2 o

£184 6 o
Less, debit to cost of planting . . * v 400

Therefore, the net credit sum = ^180 6 o
* The cost of felling early thinnings will be defrayed by the sale of faggots.

RENTALS FROM UNDERPLANTING 253

This equals a yearly payment on the 4 per cent, tables of

= 45. 4d. per acre (full rental).

This equals a rental for the land only of

45. 4d. - 33. 2d.*

= is. 2d. per acre (land rental).
* Equals 4 per cent, on the cost of planting.

If this statement only were given, it would appear that
after paying 4 per cent, on the cost of planting, fencing, etc., an
additional land rental of is. 2d. would be earned, both for
the last 45 years of the Larch rotation, and also afterwards
for the next 45 years whilst the Silver Fir are growing
alone.

This, however, is not, strictly speaking, correct, and it is
necessary to have regard to this matter, for otherwise a
forester might argue that though up to the end of the
Larch rotation the underplanting were advisable, yet the
Silver Fir should also be cut at this date, and the land
rental of is. 2d. sacrificed for some other crop which, when
planted on the vacant land, will return a greater land rental.

The explanation of the above lies in the fact that the
land rental of is. 2d. is the average for the whole 90 years,
and most of this rental will be actually earned after the
Larch have been removed.

Thus, to analyse the facts more closely : —

The exact financial position of the Silver Fir at the end
of the 45th year will be as follows : —

Value of timber . . £22 o o
Less, cost of planting, etc. 400

Net credit sum . £18 o o

This equals a full yearly rental on the 4 per cent, tables of
35. per acre.

But the planting cost £4 an acre, and 4 per cent, paid on
this outlay equals 33. 2d., so that the land rental shown
will be 35. — 33. 2d.

This equals minus 2d. per annum for the first 45 years.

254 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION

But during the next 45 years (i.e., after the Larch are
removed), the financial position of the Silver Fir will be as
follows : —

Credit from sale of timber (as already stated) .^196 8 o
Less, annual outgoings, 2s. for 45 years . . 1220

^184 6 o
Less, debit capital in the growing timber at the

45th year 22 o o

^162 6 o

This equals a yearly payment on the 4 per cent,
tables of : —

&**3 = 26s. icd.

121

Now, 4 per cent, on the debit capital of £22 equals
175. /d. So that the rental for land only, equals

£i, 6s. lod. - 175. 7d.

= 9s. 3d. per acre

land rental earned during the last 45 years.

Thus, it will readily be seen that, in the above case it
would have been absolute folly to have felled the Silver Fir
along with the Larch.

It will be observed that the Silver Fir, when used as an
undercrop, will have paid 4 per cent, on the outlay, and in
addition will have returned an average land rental of is. 2d.
for the 90 years. This is equal to an additional capital
value of £48. Now, this compares very favourably with the
results of a crop grown by itself at the same expense when
the land rental returned is nil, interest on the cost of
planting alone being earned.

The rental thus shown for Silver Fir, when used for
underplanting, would of course be correspondingly better on
the 3j or 3 per cent, tables.

With reference to the foregoing two methods of showing
the financial position of underplanting, it is really necessary
to make the two valuations as shown, whenever the two crops
be not felled simultaneously. For, as already explained, the
former is misleading without the latter ; and the latter will

RENTALS FROM UNDERPLANTING 255

often be misleading without the former, especially where a
" minus " land rental is shown for the first period.

The following shows the financial position of an under-
crop of Beech where the soil and situation are Quality II. : —

Thus, suppose that a crop of Oak, grown on a i2O-year
rotation, be underplanted with Beech at the 5<Dth year, and
that the Beech be allowed to stand for 50 years after the
Oak are removed, thereby being also grown on a i2O-year
rotation ; and that the Oak be partially cleared from
the 5Oth year onwards, and that the cost of underplanting
will be £$ an acre, the following yields1 may be ex-

pected : —

At the 5oth year . £i\ (Net, after cost of

„ 65th „ . 3/ felling is paid for).

„ 8oth „ . 12

» 95th „ . 23

„ io5th „ . 16

„ 1 20th „ final crop worth ,£220.

At the /oth year, when the Oak are removed, it is
estimated that the standing crop of Beech will be worth ^"80.
By the I2oth year the net credit sum will, on the
3j per cent, tables, be as follows : —

£i received at the 5oth year amounts in 70

years to ....... ,£1120

^3 received at the 65th year amounts in 55

years to . . .... . . 19 18 o

£12 received at the 8oth year amounts in 40

years to ....... 47 8 o

received at the 95th year amounts in 25
years to ... . . • « . 54 5 o

received at the io5th year amounts in 15
years to . . . . . 26 14 o

Final crop . . . 220 o o

^379 7 o
) outgoings, 2s. per annum for 50 years . 1320

£366 5
Less, cost of planting . . . . , 30

Therefore, net credit sum = ^363 5 o

1 These yields are comparable with the data given in Chapter XL,
but owing to the overwood of the Oak they are not so great.

256 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION

This equals a yearly payment on the 3^ per cent,
tables of: —

- — T- = 45. 2d. per acre
1736

full rental throughout the whole rotation.

This equals an average rental, for the land only, of: —

45. 2d. - 2s. id.

= 2s. id. per acre

land rental throughout the whole rotation.

But at the /oth year, when the Oak are removed, the
result will be as follows : —

Accumulated value of timber . . . . ^85 10 o
LesS) cost of planting . . . . . 300

Therefore, net credit sum = £82 10 o

This equals a full rental on the 3^ per cent, tables of
53. 8d. per acre.

But the planting cost £3 an acre, and 3^ per cent, on
this outlay equals 2s. id., so that the land rental shown
will be : —

53. 8d. - 2s. id.

= 3s. 7d. per annum for the first 70 years.

And during the last 50 years, after the Oak will have
been removed, the financial position of the Beech will be as
follows : —

Credit from sale of timber (as already stated) . ^379 7 o
Less, outgoings, 2s. per annum for 50 years . 1320

^366 5 o
Less, debit capital in accumulated value of

timber at the 7oth year, as previously stated 85 10 o

Therefore, net credit sum = ^280 15 o

This equals a yearly payment, on the 3J per cent, tables,
of £2, 2s. lod.

Now, 3^ per cent, on the debit capital of £85, los. equals
£2, 193. rod.

RENTALS FROM UNDERPLANTING 257

So that, the rental, for land only, equals minus 173. per
acre for the last 50 years of the rotation.

Thus, in the above case, it would not be correct to leave
the Beech as close-canopied high forest for another 50 years ;
for such a course would result in a direct loss of 173. per acre
per annum (on the ^ per cent, tables). Either the Beech
must be felled along with the Oak, or else, perhaps, a partial
clearance will be indicated.

It will be noticed that, up to the time, that the Oaks were
to be removed, the Beech will have paid very well indeed,
leaving an additional land rental of 33. ;d. per acre per
annum for the 70 years, since planted ; and this equals an
additional capital sum after paying 3^ per cent, interest on
the cost of planting, of nearly £$2.

A perusal of the foregoing data with reference to under-
planting will serve to show that a substantial profit can,
often, be secured by introducing, as an undercrop, even such
crops as Beech and Silver Fir, crops which, when planted by
themselves, will seldom more than pay for the accumulated
expenses of planting, unless, indeed, a very low rate of interest
be looked for.

The reason why a better result is usually thus shown for
an undercrop is that it is growing rent free, .as it were, and
free, also, of all rates and, practically, of all annual outgoings
for so long as the overcrop remains ; and, then again, the
crop can be planted and established at a minimum cost, as
the land is (or should be) perfectly clean.

In addition to the actual profits secured, the indirect
benefits to be derived from underplanting, under suitable
conditions, are very numerous and must not be forgotten.

COPPICE WITH STANDARDS.

The financial aspect of crops grown under this system
may, also, be shown by calculating the annual rentals
obtainable.

Thus, with reference to the crop of mixed standards of
Oak, Larch, and Ash, grown over coppice, cut on a 2O-year

R

258 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION

rotation, where the soil and situation are Quality I. (for details
see Chapter XL) the rental may be arrived at in the following
manner : —

Receipts at the end of each rotation : —

200 cub. ft. of Oak * £16 14 o

473 cub. ft. of Larch * 2340

255 cub. ft. of Ash* 18 4 o

= (say) ^58 o o
Underwood (mixed underwood) cut for sale . 500

£63 o o

* The cost of felling the timber is balanced by the sale of the cordwood, etc.,
below 6 inches quarter girth.

Expenditure : —

Annual outgoings,* is. per acre per annum on
the 4 per cent, tables (this includes all
expenses not otherwise accounted for) . £i 10 o

Expenses at the end of the rotation t . . 300

Total . . £4 10 o
* Over and above a sum of 2s. 3d. received for sporting. f Vide Chapter X.

Hence, the net credit sum, at the end of the

rotation = £63 o o

Less . 4 10 o

Therefore, the net credit sum * = ^58 10 o

* The capital left in the land is presumed to be the same at the end of each
rotation.

Now, on the 4 per cent, tables, this equals a yearly pay-
ment of £i, 193. 3d.

But, part of this represents interest on the capital left in
the land, at the end of each rotation.

This capital left at the end of each rotation equals : —

In Standards (say) £26 5 o

Add, for live stools and newly-planted trees

(say) ..... . . . . ' 3 15 o

Therefore, the total capital left at the end of

each rotation . . f . . = ^30 o o

and 4 per cent, on £30 equals £it 45.

RENTALS: COPPICE WITH STANDARDS 259

Hence, the rental for land only,

= £1,195. 3d.-;£i, 45.

= 155. 3d. per acre per annum

land rental on the 4 per cent, tables.

On the 3^ per cent, tables, the rental yielded for the land,
only, would be £it os. $d. per annum.

So, again, with reference to the crop of Larch and Ash
standards grown over coppice, cut on a 2 5 -year rotation
(for details, see Chapter XL), the rental may be arrived at as
follows : —

Receipts every 25th year : —

426 cub. ft. of Larch ...... £21 6 o

264 cub. ft. of Ash ...... 19 16 o

By sale of young standards . . . . 480

10
Underwood (chiefly Ash) cut for sale . 10 10

£56

Expenditure : —

Annual outgoings, is. per acre per annum for

25 years, equals (say) on 4 per cent, tables ^220
Expenses at end of rotation . . . . 380

£$ 10 o

Hence, the net credit sum at the end of the

rotation = £$6 ° °

Less 5 10 o

Therefore, the net credit sum = ^50 10 o

On the 4 per cent, tables this equals a yearly payment of
£i, 45. 3d. per acre.

But, the capital left in the land, at the end of each
rotation, equals : —

Value of standards . . . • . • ;£i5 5 o
Live stools and newly-planted trees . .' . 3 15 o

Total . £ig o o
Now, 4 per cent, on £ig equals 153. 3d.

260 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION

Hence, the rental for the land only,

= ;£i, 43. 3d. - 155. 3d.
= 93. per acre per annum

land rental on the 4 per cent tables.

On the 3! per cent, tables, the rental yielded, for the land
only, would be I2s. Qd. per acre per annum.

These rentals for the land only, when under coppice
•with standards, may be more clearly seen from the following
tabular statement : —

Rotation

Land Rentals.

Coppice, with Standards of

Quality.

of

Coppice.

At 4%.

At 8J%.

Years.

S. D.

£ S. D.

Oak ( ioo years) . .\
Larch and Ash (80 years) j

I.

20

15 3

i o 5

Larch and Ash (75 years) .

II.

25

9 o

0 12 9

Now, these results compare very favourably with the
rentals for pure crops of Oak, or Larch, or Ash, when grown
under even-aged high forest, viz. : —

Cost of

Land Rentals.

Pure High Forest of

Quality.

Planting and

Establishing.

At 4%.

At 8J%.

£.

S. D.

S. D.

Larch (80 years), partially!
cleared . . . ./

I.

8

14 8

19 o

Larch (70 years)

II.

8

10 o

13 4

Ash (70 years) .

II.

8

9 3

12 II

Oak (120 years)

II.

8

1 3 o

jo 3

Hence, it is evident that the cultivation of Oak, Larch, or
Ash, as standards1 over coppice is far more remunerative

1 Owing to the prevalence of Larch Disease, it is almost imperative,
unless great risks are to be incurred, to abandon the cultivation of pure
Larch (European) in close-canopied high forest. Its success, as
standards over coppice, is far more assured.

REVENUE FROM NORMAL AREAS 261

than is usually supposed ; and, the conversion of existing
areas of coppice with standards into ordinary close-canopied
high forest should seldom be undertaken, unless, indeed, the
land be really too poor for any growth but coniferous high
forest; or, unless the cultivation of Douglas Fir, or some
other tree yielding a better land rental than Larch or Ash,
be desired.

However, the system of high forest with coppice can
always be recommended in preference to that of coppice with
standards.

COMPARISON OP ACTUAL LAND RENTALS WITH
THE NET RETURNS PROM NORMALLY STOCKED
AREAS.

It will be instructive to compare the actual land rentals,
as already given for various crops, with the (approximate)
net annual returns which would be received from the same
crops from normally stocked areas, in which, of course, the
average invested capital per acre is usually very great (vide
page 237). It is assumed that the areas are large.

It is hoped that such a comparison of the results of the
same crops, expressed by two different methods, will help
to remove much of the ambiguity which at present so often
envelopes the statements of the financial results of afforesta-
tion as usually placed before the public.

In all cases the returns include the value of any sporting
rights, estimated at is. 3d. per acre in the case of high
forest and 2s. 3d. per acre in the case of coppice with
standards.

These returns must be looked upon as the maximum
that can be obtained at the given prices from the given
quality of soil under the respective systems and rotations.
The crops have been placed in the table in their order of
merit. Outgoings are reckoned at a minimum.

It will be noticed that these net returns from normally
stocked areas afford no criterion of the pecuniary advantage
of planting one crop in preference to another.

262 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION

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SUMMARY OF RESULTS 263

CONCLUSION.

A study of all that has been dealt with in this chapter
leads to the conclusion, that, unless there be a substantial
rise in the price of timber, there is little inducement to plant
maiden land with Oak, Beech, the Pines, Norway Spruce, or
Silver Fir. In fact, if the land were to be had rent free, the
planting of such crops would, on the average, only pay 3 per
cent, to 3j per cent, interest on the cost of planting and
establishing the young crops.

On the other hand, it may be stated that the cultivation
of Douglas Fir, Black Poplars, Ash, Larch, and Spanisli
Chestnut will often pay well ; returning, not only 3 J to 4
per cent, interest on the cost of planting, but, also, the
equivalent of a handsome yearly rental for the land occupied
by them.

Furthermore, it is practically always advisable and profit-
able to replant land from which a crop has just been removed,
for, the land must be considered as practically valueless,
except for the purpose of tree growth. And greater profits
may be anticipated usually from such land, for, if it has been
properly managed, the expenses of replanting should be
much less than the expenses of planting a crop on maiden
land.

Wherever natural regeneration, or the planting of seedlings
can be adopted, it will generally be possible to pay, even in
the case of Oak, Beech, the Pines, Norway Spruce, or Silver
Fir, not only 3 per cent, or 3^ per cent, interest on the cost
of establishing the crop, but, also, the equivalent of a small
yearly rental for the land as well.

And again, certain crops, when used for underplanting,
may often pay, although, when grown by themselves, a
direct loss will usually be experienced.

And lastly, standards of Oak, Larch, and Ash, grown
over coppice, will generally yield as good results as pure
crops of such trees when grown as close-canopied high
forest. Especially is this the case with the two latter species.

CHAPTER XIII.

TIMBER MEASURING.

SQUARE OP QUARTER GIRTH
MEASUREMENT.

THERE are various methods by which the contents of timber
may be measured ; but the method in general use for
measuring timber in the round in this country is that known
as the square of quarter girth measurement (or simply, as
quarter girth measurement).

Stated briefly, the method is to take a quarter of the
girth in inches at the centre of an evenly tapering tree;
make an allowance for bark ; and then square this (under
bark) quarter girth ; divide by 144 to bring to feet ; and
then multiply by the length of the tree in feet.

This method is sometimes known as the quarter
girth measure with 144 divisor in order to distinguish
it from a method often adopted by the railway com-
panies, and known as the quarter girth measure with
113 divisor; which latter method gives the true con-
tents of a tree ; whereas, the contents as computed
by the former method, are very much less than the true
contents.

Now, when measuring large timber, as, for instance, when
it is sold at so much per foot, it is not usually the custom to
measure, as timber, anything that is less than 6 inches
quarter girth under bark (or sometimes 5 inches according to

264

FELLED TIMBER 265

custom) ; for all under these dimensions is considered as
cordwood.

However, when measuring small timber, pitwood, and
the like, such an allowance would be absurd. And, if sold
at per foot, the conditions of sale should stipulate that all
measurements be taken down to 3 inches diameter over
bark.

However, it will seldom be that such small poles are
measured and sold at per foot ; they will usually be sold by
weight, or by the 100, etc.

1. Measurement of Felled Timber.

When timber has been felled and is being sold at so
much a foot according to measurement, the very greatest
care and accuracy is necessary in order to arrive at the
correct contents.

Occasionally a third party, as for instance an auctioneer,
is agreed upon by the vendor and purchaser to measure the
timber, and it is agreed that the purchase money shall be
based upon his measurements ; but, usually, the vendor's
agent and the purchaser meet and measure up the timber
together, and a certain amount of bargaining as to measure-
ments is in some cases adopted. For, sometimes, it will be
impossible to take the girth at the correct place ; then again,
small girthed pieces and tops are often guessed at, in order to
save time, and so on.

The actual modus operandi of measuring a felled tree
will depend upon the shape of the tree or log.

If the log tapers evenly from the butt to where it is cut
off at the top, it is measured in one length, and the girth is
taken at the centre of the log.

If, however, the log does not taper evenly — that is, if
there be many "stops" — each length from stop to stop
must be measured and booked separately, unless, indeed,
both parties agree to measure any length beyond a stop.

A stop is a projection or a point where the girth
measurement suddenly alters ; as, for instance, just

266

TIMBER MEASURING

below where a big branch has grown out from the main
stem.

The following illustration will explain this : —

Girfhed here

Thus, in the above case the log is 39 feet long, but there
are two stops at " A " and " B."

Therefore, the first length of 17 feet is taken up to the
beginning of the first stop, and at half-way along this length
the girth is taken and the quarter girth under bark ascer-
tained, viz., 1 8 inches.

Then a second length of 10 feet to the next stop is
taken, and the quarter girth under bark at half-way along is
found to be 14 inches. And then the third length of 12 feet
is taken, and the quarter girth at half-way along is found to
be 7 inches. All these measurements are separately booked,
and the contents afterwards worked out in the office by
reference to tables.1

Occasionally, in order to save time, a measurement is
made beyond a stop. But in such cases the greatest judg-
ment is necessary ; and, without a great deal of experience,
it is never safe to go beyond a stop.

In the above example, if the log had been taken in one
single length, the quarter girth measurement would have
been (say) 14 J inches, and the contents would have been
computed at nearly 2 cubic feet more than the correct
contents. But supposing that the first length of 17 feet had
been taken separately ; and that then, the buyer suggested,
that the rest of the log should be taken in one length "so as
to save time." The vendor would thereby lose considerably,
for the girth would come just above the second stop and
1 Vide Appendix.

FELLED TIMBER 267

would be (say) 8| inches. Thus the contents of the last 22
feet of length would be 1 1 cubic feet (if measured in one
length) instead of i/J cubic feet if properly measured.

A loss of perhaps IDS. for 2 minutes' work !

So again, some logs have no distinct stop, but if the taper is
not even and falls away very much after about f the length of
the bole, it will often be advisable, from the vendor's point of
view, to suggest not measuring, in the length, the last few feet
of the log, so as to get a greater quarter girth measurement
(taken before the taper begins to fall away).

It should be remembered that there is no commercial
immorality in suggesting the taking of the measurements in
a certain way so as to work out to one's own advantage ; l
but that, according to the custom of the country, no length
shall be measured beyond a stop at any single time unless
both parties agree.

In measuring the length, a tape is the most accurate
method, though it is rather liable to get entangled and
injured, and it takes rather much time. A quicker method
is to have an 8-foot rod with the feet marked on it. The
length can then be taken by this, and a scribe mark, indicating
each rod's length, should be made on the log.

Great accuracy is, however, necessary in measuring the
length with a rod ; as mistakes are very easily made.2

No attempt at undue haste in using the rod should ever
be countenanced.

The lengths are generally measured to the nearest foot
or half-a-foot ; odd inches being disregarded. Directly the
lengths are measured they must be carefully booked.

In measuring the Quarter Girth, a string is nearly always
used except by Railway Companies (in many cases), or if
there is a special agreement to measure with a tape.

1 It will be admitted that in the majority of cases, buyers and
merchants whose experience in timber measuring is usually far greater
than that of any land agent or forester, are more likely to get the better
of any bargaining as to measurements than the latter.

2 It is very easy to skip a few inches at the end of each rod's length ;
so that, unless the rod is used carefully and slowly, it is far better to use
a tape.

268 TIMBER MEASURING

A curved " needle," somewhat like a sickle with a hooked
end, is passed under the log at the place where the girth is
required ; the string is then caught on the hook and pulled
under the log; and the girth is then found by pulling the
string tight to a knot, which should have been previously tied
in the string at one end. Then the knotted end is let go of,
and the man, taking the girth, pulls the string away from
the log without releasing his ringers from the place on the
string where the free end met the knot on the other end.
The string is then folded into four equal lengths, and then
stretched along an ordinary 2-foot rule ; and the quarter
girth thus read off. Then an allowance for bark is made ;
and the quarter girth measurement, under bark, is booked
next to the length of which it is the quarter girth. The
quarter girths are usually measured to the nearest \ inch.

Occasionally a discussion will arise as to whether a thick
or thin string should be used in girthing. When a thick
string is used there will be a loss of measurement at each
bend in the string as it is folded into four.

In practice a piece of whip cord is used ; for very thin
string would constantly be breaking.

As a matter of fact, there is very little difference between
the use of thick and thin string when girthing rough barked
trees, as the thin string fits more closely into the crevices in
the bark. But when smooth barked trees, such as Beech,
are being measured, the use of thick string involves a distinct
loss to the vendor.

Fraudulent girthing. — There are two common means
whereby a land agent or forester may be deceived, if the
girthing is being done by an unscrupulous purchaser or his
agent.

1. The string may be unduly stretched in girthing, and

the free end of the string not brought right over to
the knot.

2. Not including a length of string equal to the full girth

when the string is being folded into four.
As regards the first device, it is, of course, perfectly
correct to pull the string tight ; but there is a great deal of

FELLED TIMBER 269

difference between so doing and absolutely stretching the
string to its utmost. A yard of string, especially if wet,
will easily stretch 2 inches when a tree is being girthed ; but,
when folded into four, and the quarter girth is being read
off, it cannot be stretched at all and the vendor has thereby
lost J inch of quarter girth ; which is a very substantial loss
indeed — the more so, the greater the girth of the tree.

For instance, a butt 25 feet long has a correct quarter
girth under bark of 28^ inches, but if the string is unduly
stretched the quarter girth as read is 27 inches.

By the correct method the contents are 141 cubic feet ;
but by the fraudulent method the contents are only I26J
cubic feet; a loss, at is. a foot, of 143. 6d. on a single large
butt.

A plea is sometimes put forward to the effect that the
custom of the country sanctions the method of stretching
the string. Such, however, cannot be the case. For no
custom, which is bad on the face of it, will ever be upheld
in a court of law. As well might the girth be taken with
elastic as for such a proposition to be sanctioned.

No man can set up a prescriptive right to be dishonest.

As regards the second device, that of not including the
full girth in the folded string : — Detection here is not so
easy. The fraudulent measurer will either shift the position
of his finger and thumb, as he holds the free end of the
string, nearer to the knot on the other end (which is rather
difficult to do) ; or, he will have two (or more knots) and
girth the tree to the knot farthest away, but fold the string
into four to a nearer knot.

Hence, in view of possible fraud, the vendor's agent
should always girth the trees, even if the purchaser insists
on doing it also. But as stated elsewhere,1 it is always
advisable to avoid selling timber at a price per foot, the
purchase money to be afterwards ascertained by measure-
ment.

Allowance for Bark. — This is to a great extent governed
by the custom of the country.

1 Vide Chapter XIV.

270 TIMBER MEASURING

In many parts of the country an allowance of I inch for
every foot quarter girth is made for bark ; and J inch for
every 6 inches quarter girth. Thus, if a tree girths 1 2 inches
or up to \7\ inches, an allowance of I inch is made. If it
girths 18 or up to 23!, ij inches are deducted; and from 24
up to 29!, 2 inches ; and so on. An allowance of I inch to
I foot quarter girth is equal to a deduction of \ of the
contents as computed if measured over bark.

This allowance is about correct for thick barked trees
such as Oak, Elm, Ash. But, for thin-barked trees, such as
Beech or Sycamore, it is really far too much. However, if
no agreement has been made upon the subject, the custom of
the country must be observed.

It may be noted that in some parts of the country, as in
Buckinghamshire, no allowance whatever is made for Beech
bark.

In order to judge what a reasonable allowance for bark
would be, it should be remembered that the correct
mathematical allowance is -39 of an inch from the quarter
girth for every J of an inch that the bark is in thickness.

Booking Measurements of Felled Timber. — All measure-
ments are, of course, booked, immediately they have been
ascertained, into a note-book. Separate pages should be
set apart for each species of tree; and often the various
species are divided into two or more classes, according to
quality ; but this will usually depend upon the conditions of
sale.

The number of each tree of each species, or of each class
of the same species, is separately entered.

In the majority of cases when measuring felled timber, a
different price has been agreed for the same kind of timber,
according to its girth ; or according to the contents of any
particular log. Separate columns should always be left for
filling in the various totals which are to be priced differently.

Often, small girthed tops are not measured ; but the con-
tents are guessed and booked at once.

The following shows a specimen page, supposing that all
timber 12 inches quarter girth and upwards be sold at one

FELLED TIMBER

271

price, and that all timber under 12 inches quarter girth be at
another price. (Often half-price).

Note.— (The totals filled in at the office).

OAK.

Page i.

No. of
Tree.

Length.

Quarter
Girth.

Total
12 in. and over.

Total under
12 in., and tops.

,30

17

60

...

I

12

IS

19

I 10

IO

...

7

27

7

Tops

9

2

/"

I 18

18

IO

491

fri

20

6

Tops

5

When the vendor's agent and the purchaser are measur-
ing timber together, both parties book the measurements ;
and, at the end of a day's measuring, the measurements in
one book should be read out and checked with the other
book, and any discrepancy made good there and then, and
each party should sign each other's book.

If the purchaser has felled the timber, all tops and branch
wood under 6 inches quarter girth will, in the ordinary course
of affairs, belong to him, unless otherwise agreed; and they
will not be measured.1 For in the case of large timber they
will about equal the cost of felling; though the allowance
would be absurd in the case of long poles. But, if the vendor
has felled the timber, such tops and branch wood will belong
to the vendor, and are usually sold separately as stacked cord-
wood. However, the vendor's agent should always endeavour
to sell to the merchant any tops, even if they are under 6 inches
quarter girth, for any price over about 2d. a cubic foot will
usually be more profitable than selling cord wood at 8s. or los.
a cord. In most cases, however, the merchant has no use
whatever for small branch wood.

1 Vide Chapter XIV.

272 TIMBER MEASURING

2. Measurement of Standing Timber.

The same general rules hold good as have been described
for the measurement of felled timber. But timber is never
measured with a purchaser while still standing ; it is merely
measured so that the vendor or an intending purchaser may
ascertain its value before a sale takes place, etc. Thus, with
a little experience, the orthodox method of measuring and
booking is often departed from ; but so long as a correct
valuation is arrived at, this does not matter.

The girth, however, is taken at 4 or 5 feet from the
ground ; then an allowance is made for the " taper " of the
tree, so as to give the girth at half-way up the first length
that is being taken ; and then an allowance is made for bark
as already described.

Now, the girth of standing timber is nearly always taken
with a leather "timber strap," which is marked so as to
directly read the quarter girth measurement (over bark).

This strap should have a fixed iron hook on one end, so
that a man can girth a large tree single-handed by throwing
the strap round when the hook will catch on the bark. It is
very necessary that the strap be well seasoned and stretched
before it is marked ; otherwise, with use, it will stretch a great
deal and be very inaccurate ; the unmarked strap should be
wetted and hung up for several months with a heavy weight
attached to the end of it.

The height or length of the tree, or any portion of it, is
usually guessed at — the scientific height measurers never
being used for practical purposes. Sometimes timber poles
(marked with paint every 2 or 3 feet) are used, or a long
stick can be cut (say 12 or 14 feet long) and the feet notched
on, and this, if held up at arm's length by a man, will afford
the measurer a good guide as to the height of a tree. This
latter method is in common use even with those who have
had much experience in measuring standing timber ; but the
orthodox timber poles (perhaps 4 or 5 six-feet poles fitting
into each other) are only used by those whose experience is
very limited. Lengths, not reached by the pole, must be

STANDING TIMBER 273

guessed at, and, so also, must the quarter girths of all lengths
except the first. In satisfying oneself as to the correctness
of any quarter girth measurement, a good check can often be
obtained in cases where long tall trees taper evenly, by add-
ing to the estimated quarter girth measurement at the ground
level the estimated quarter girth at the top of the tree at the
place where it is (say) 6 inches (quarter girth), and then
dividing by 2 in order to arrive at the mean quarter girth.
However, in the case of trees with a high form factor, this
would give far too small a girth. And in a somewhat similar
manner, checks can often be made by working downwards
from spots on the tree where the measurer feels very certain
that he knows the quarter girth ; for as a rule the eye becomes
trained to read certain quarter girths, e.g. 12 inches or 15 or
21, etc., more correctly than others.

The booking of measurements may be done in a similar
manner to that already described for felled timber. But in
order to save time, experienced measurers usually book the
contents straight away ; either by reference to a " timber
card " or, if in practice, without such aid, though, to refresh
one's memory, the multiplying factors for the various quarter
girths should be written on the cover of the note-book.

Usually, the tops and small " stuff" are booked separately ;
but sometimes all may be conveniently booked together. For
instance, if " tops and under 1 2-inch quarter girth" are to be
valued at half-price, it is quite as easy merely to book one-half
of the contents of such small timber, and to price it out at the
full price, as to separately book the true contents at half-price.

So also, when a defective tree is being measured and
valued, a deduction must be made.

But, instead of booking the correct measurements and
putting an estimated price against them, it will be preferable,
in many cases, to consider the whole as " tops " (if separately
booked), or to book reduced contents at full price.

It is, however, impossible to more than indicate a few of
the variations that may be made, for, with experience, every
measurer will adopt his own particular methods in measuring
and valuing standing timber.

s

274

TIMBER MEASURING

Care, however, should be taken not to measure " tops "
and big limbs "too hard," for there is always a risk that
large limbs will splinter if the tree fall on them ; and, if
separately cut off, an allowance must be made to cover the
extra cost. In all cases, it is best to price out as for felled
timber, and to "leave" enough in the tops as cordwood or other-
wise, to pay for the cost of felling. And, finally, it is of the
greatest importance that a measurer should get in the habit of
always standing the same distance off a tree when estimating
its contents ; otherwise the eye will never get properly trained.

The following indicate some methods of booking : —

ASH-f 12 inches and over, at 2s. 3d. per cubic foot.

I Under 12 inches, at is. 3d. per cubic foot. Page I.

No. of
Tree.

12 in. and
over.

Under
12 in. q. g.

Remarks.

I

70

18

2

68

16

3

...

52

Tree shaky, all booked as tops

4

47

12

5

30

18

10 ft. of butt omitted as not sound

OAK.

Page i.

N.B. — Only half contents under 12 in. q. g. booked ;
but all to be priced out at is. lod.

No.

Feet.

No.

Cubic feet.

I

50

10

30

2

47

II

27

3

51

12

51

4

56

13

30

5

40

H

47

6

38

15

49

7

30

16

30

8

3r

17

25

9

3i

18

21

STANDING TIMBER

275

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276 TIMBER MEASURING

OTHER METHODS OP COMPUTING CONTENTS.

As regards other methods of measuring timber for various
purposes, there are besides the quarter girth method just
described, the following : —

(1) True Contents Method.

(2) Calliper Method.

(3) Die Square Method.

(4) Board Measure Method.

True Contents. — This is the method almost universally
adopted on the Continent when measuring " round " timber.
It gives the true mathematical contents. It should be noted
that on the Continent the contents of standing crops are
nearly always calculated over bark.

To arrive at the contents, the length in feet is multiplied
by the superficial area of the mean section in feet.

This mean sectional area is found, when timber is felled,
by finding the mean diameter, and then : —

(i) by reference to tables ;
or (2) by the formula : area = fV

when r = radius
and TT = 3- 14159*
which gives the same result as

— ^-5, when d = diameter.
4

The diameter is taken in inches, and must be reduced to
feet before being multiplied by the length in feet.

In order to take the diameter, the use of callipers is
resorted to ; or sometimes a tree compass. In as much as
the section of the majority of trees is not circular, but some-
what elliptical, it is advisable to take two diameters at right
angles to each other, and then to take the average of the
two and calculate as for a circle. By this latter method the
error in the true sectional area will only average about I or
ij per cent, whereas if one diameter only be taken, the error
may amount to as much as 4 per cent.

By the formula — — the contents of a log are found thus :

4
(Mean diameter in inches)2 x length in feet

~^3~
For — x 144 (to reduce to feet) = 183.

TRUE CONTENTS 277

Then, again, practically the same result is obtained by
the following : —

(Mean quarter girth in inches)2 x length in feet

"3~

This is known as the quarter girth measure with 113 divisor,
and is often adopted (under bark) by the railway companies.
In order to find the mean sectional area of standing

timber by the formula - — , the sectional area is taken at

4

breast high, and then the mean sectional area is found by
multiplying by the form factor,1 and hence the true contents
may be found.

Calliper Measurement. — This is a method used in the
royal dockyards and elsewhere for " round " timber. It
shows rather the stowage requirements, than the contents.
For the contents, as computed by this method, give a result
far greater than the true mathematical contents ; as it sup-
poses, as it were, that the round timber is square, and that the
side of the square is equal to the diameter of the round timber.

To find the contents, the mean diameter is taken with
the callipers and the contents are equal to : —

(Mean diameter in inches)2 x length in feet
144 ~

The following figure illustrates the method : —

Thus the shaded portion is included in the measurements
though it does not exist.

1 Vide Chapter XVI I.

278

TIMBER MEASURING

Die Square Measurement. — By this method, the contents
are computed by multiplying the length of the log by the
area of the greatest square that can be obtained out of the
section of the log, either at its smallest end or out of its
mean section. The contents of the rounded sides are left
out of account.

The contents may be found by the following formula : —

(Quarter girth in inches)2 x length in feet
181

The following figure illustrates the method : —

The shaded portion is not included in the measurement,
although it exists.

Board Measure. — This is the method in common use
in America. The contents are computed according to the
estimated number of superficial feet of i-inch boards that
can be cut from a log, allowance being made for bark,
waste from sawdust, etc.

For logs not more than 40 feet in length, the following
rule 1 holds good : —

Deduct ij inches from the mean diameter in inches
at the small end of the log ; square the result and

multiply by — ( = 7854).
4

This gives the sectional area at the small end.
Then deduct Aths and divide by 12 to bring to board
measure and multiply by the length of the log in feet.
1 British Columbia log scale.

PERCENTAGE COMPARISONS 279

The following examples will show the percentage com-
parison between the foregoing methods.

A log is 28J1 feet long by 20 inches quarter girth (at half
its length) over bark. Taper equals i inch quarter girth in
7 feet length. Then the

True contents (over bark) : —

by the 1 13 divisor = 2OX2OX28*

or, by the formula

= 100 cub. ft.
— —

= §o* x 80 x ^ x 2ji

73- 7T 4 I44

= 1600 x 28J

7T ' 144

45200 45200

3.I4I59XI44 ™ 452-38896

= loo cub. ft. (nearly).

* P , _ circumference _ 80
TT TT .

True contents (under bark) : —
= ioo-£
= 83^ cub. ft.

This shows a deduction of i6f per cent, as compared with
the true contents over bark.

However, usually in practice ij inches would be deducted
for bark on this particular log, and thus the contents would
be:—

J8ixi8i x 28| = 854 cub. ft.
113

By Quarter Girth Measurement (over bark) : —

Contents = - x 28*

144

= 5650

72
= 78^ cub. ft. (over bark).

This shows a deduction of 2\\ per cent, as compared with
the true contents.

1 This particular length is taken in order to bring the contents to 100.

280 TIMBER MEASURING

By Quarter Girth Measurement (under bark) : —

If an allowance for bark of I inch to I foot is made, the
contents over bark must be reduced by Jth.

Hence, the contents under bark equals 65TM:h cubic feet,
i.etj nearly 65 J cubic feet (under bark).

This shows a deduction of 34J1 per cent, as compared
with the true contents (over bark).

By Die Square Measurement out of section at the
smallest end : —

Contents =

lol

= 42^ cub. ft.
* As the taper is I in 7, the quarter girth under bark at small end equals 16^.

This shows a deduction of 57 J per cent, as compared with the
true contents (over bark).

By Die Square Measurement out of the average
section : —

Contents = l8?* l8^* x 28J

lol

= 53 Jt cub. ft.

* i\ inches deducted for bark, as in practice.

t This is mathematically rather too much, as i\ inches only had been deducted,
instead of if, which should be adopted in order to show the correct percentage.

1 For quickly comparing the true contents over bark as found in
continental tables, the deduction may be taken as 35 per cent. ; and then
the true contents, if divided by 10 and multiplied by 6J, will give the
quarter girth contents under bark. This, however, will usually be too
great, as continental tables usually include all branchwood, or else down
to 3 inches diameter. If it be required to compare the former with
quarter girth contents down to 3 inches diameter, no definite rule can be
given ; so also no definite rule can be given if it be required to compare
the true contents of timber down to 3 inches diameter with the quarter
girth contents down to 6 inches diameter, for so much will depend upon
the size of the trees.

In the latter case, if the trees be large, say 40 cubic feet quarter girth
each, another 10 per cent, deduction might suffice, making 45 per cent.
in all ; so that the true contents down to 3 inches diameter should be
divided by 10 and multiplied by 5^ to bring to the quarter girth contents,
down to 6 inches quarter girth, under bark. But if the trees are smaller
the total deduction would be 55 per cent, or more.

PERCENTAGE COMPARISONS 281

This shows a deduction of 46^ per cent, as compared with
the true contents (over bark).

But if if inches, the correct bark allowance of i inch to
I foot is allowed : —

Contents =

This shows a correct deduction of 47 J per cent, as compared
with the true contents (over bark).
By Calliper Measurement : —

By formula d* <in inches> x length in feet.
144

Contents =

11300
" 88^826

= 127^ cub. ft.
or (say) 127 cub. ft.

This shows an excess of 27 per cent, over the true contents.
By Board Measurement : —

Mean diameter at smallest end equals 23 inches (not
quite). /. 23— ij = 2i| inches.

Sectional area = 2i|x2i|x —

4

= 36305 1 1

Deduct -^-ths ( = 99-0138) 363-0511 -99-0138

= 264-0373

4- by 12 = 22-033 = (say) 22«
Multiply by length, 28 J x 22 = 621-5

.*. Contents = 621^ feet (super) board measure.

This is (say) 6^th times more than the true cubic contents.

Thus, in the previous example, where the bark allowance
was I inch to I foot, and the taper was I inch quarter girth

282

TIMBER MEASURING

to every 7 feet length, the following percentages hold good
when compared to the true contents (over bark) : —

+ or -
per cent.

Cub. ft. True contents, over bark ....

100

0

,, ,, „ under bark

83J

-i6§

„ Quarter girth, over bark ....

784

-214

,, „ „ under bark

654

-344

„ Die square, from section at small end

424

-574

,, „ from average section

1274-

-474

621* I

Say 6i times

greater.

In the same way the following percentages hold good when
compared to the contents by quarter girth measurement
(under bark) : —

+ or -
per cent.

Cub. ft

. Quarter girth, under bark

100

0

>)

„ „ over bark ....

U9f

+ I9f

M

True contents, over bark ....

I52|

+ 52|

h

Die square, from section at small end

64f

-351

ii

„ from average section

80

-20

M
Super.

Calliper measure
ft. Board measure

i94i
9481 {

+ 94i

Say 9| times
greater.

Stack Measure. — This, as its name implies, shows the
contents of stacked wood. It is used for cordwood, etc. It
gives far more than the actual true contents of timber as the
interstices are measured in.

CORDWOOD 283

In different parts of the country, cords of wood are made
up to various sizes ; common sizes being : —

8x4x4 feet = 128 cub. ft., stacked measure
8x3x4 „ = 96 „ „

12x4x4 „ =192
1 6 ft. 4 in. x 2 ft. 6 in. x 2 ft. 2 in. = 88£ cub. ft., stacked measure.

If it be desired to know the timber contents of a cord, it may
be reckoned that a cord 8x4x4, containing 128 cubic feet
stacked measure, will yield : —

For Poles -~ ,,

and For very small

Split Cordwood.

ioo cubic feet down to 60 cubic

{Quarter Girth
Measure
(under bark).

A standard is a measure for converted timber.
A St Petersburg standard contains 165 cubic feet (true
contents.)

CHAPTER XIV.

THE MARKETING, SALE, AND TRANSPORT OF WOODLAND

PRODUCE

COPPICE AREAS.

WHEN disposing of coppice, the first steps to take are to
mark out the area into portions likely to suit the buyers.
These portions are variously known as " lands," " drifts," or
" hags." They should all be of a given width, as, for instance,
I chain wide, and should run parallel right through the
compartment from ride to ride. Thus the area of any given
length is easy to reckon ; for 10 square chains are equal to I
acre. Along each ride the boundary of each " hag " should
be marked by a numbered stake so as thus to avoid confusion
amongst the purchasers.

It is very advisable that the coppice be cut by the home
staff of woodmen, so that they may be cut close to the
ground and with a sloping surface free from jagged edges.
When cutting the coppice, the woodmen should throw the
coppice, growing along the edge of a " hag," inwards, towards
the hag to which it belongs, so as to avoid disputes between
the buyers.

Any large area of coppice should be cut early in the
season, in order to ensure an early removal of the produce.

However, before the coppice is cut, the approaching sale
should be advertised, so that intending purchasers may inspect
it and form their estimates of its value.

It is very important that the woodward or forester should
render every assistance in showing the lots and in giving all

284

MARKETING STANDARDS 285

information possible as to the roads that may be used for
removal, date of removal, etc., etc. Where the coppice is
growing under standards, all the tellers and saplings, which it
is desired to leave, shoifld be marked with a ring of white
paint, rather near the ground, so that, when cutting the
underwood, no mistake may be made. It is advisable to
leave a maximum number, and then, after the underwood is
cut, any superfluous ones can be cut out. Generally speak-
ing, there will always be some standards and young trees of
all the age classes to be cut out. Sometimes these are sold
along with the coppice and felled by the purchasers. But,
this is a plan that cannot be recommended. It is far
preferable for the home staff to fell them and to sell them
separately, as the greatest care is necessary not to injure the
standards which are left growing ; and also, as a rule, buyers
of coppice do not require big timber. When the standards
are thus felled by the home staff, a reasonable time should
be given to the underwood buyer for clearing his " stuff" up ;
but, the conditions of sale should contain a clause stating
that the standards will be felled on and after (say) I5th March,
or later, of course, if there be Oak trees which it is intended
to bark ; but that no compensation will be paid for any
damage or inconvenience occasioned to the underwood
buyer by reason of his not having cleared his area.

Standards, thus felled, should also be " knotted," " corded,"
and "faggoted" by the home staff; and "tushed" out into
the rides ready for loading up.

Any poles, which may have been cut, may be placed in
heaps in the rides and sold by the " heap " or the " load," etc.

All standards and poles should be pulled out into the
rides as soon as trimmed up, as much damage would be
done if this were deferred until the stools had flushed their
new shoots.

As regards the actual selling of coppice, it is far preferable
in nearly all cases, to sell it by auction, unless, indeed, it is
only a small area when the expenses of advertising and
printing would render it inadvisable. Underwood buyers are
not so liable to form a " ring " amongst themselves as the

286 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE

dealers in big timber who fully appreciate these advantages
of co-operation, although, at an auction sale, such is illegal.
And, it is reasonable, therefore, to anticipate more spirited
bidding and better prices through a sale by auction than by
any other method, provided always that there be a good
local demand for the coppice.

Where there are large areas of coppice in any neighbour-
hood, it is very advisable to provide a lunch or dinner (by
ticket only) for all likely purchasers ; and this should be
advertised in the sale catalogue. Especially can this be
recommended, if other owners of underwood do not offer it.
The sale should take place after the dinner. Occasionally,
however, the dinner is given after the sale, and is offered,
only, to those who have bought one or more lots at the sale.

If coppice be a drug on the market, and buyers be very
scarce, it will often be possible to effect a sale by deferring
the final payment until after the purchaser has realised ; but
it will be necessary for the owner to take this risk, and not
the auctioneer.

The usual practice is for a deposit of 20 to 25 per cent,
to be paid at the sale ; the balance to be paid in from 3 to 6
months' time ; and a bond or surety, approved by the
auctioneer, to be given meanwhile.

A considerable discount of 5 per cent, to 7| per cent,
should, however, be offered for a cash payment of this
balance.

As regards the conditions of sale, they should be short
and concise. They should stipulate, inter alia, that : —

(1) No person advance less than ics. at a time on any

bidding.

(2) How payment is to be effected.

(3) A fine of £$ for every tree, teller, or store wrongfully cut.

(4) No horse suffered to go at large upon any land under

a fine of £i for each offence.

(5) No dogs 1 to be brought on the land, under a penalty.

1 Occasionally it is inserted that all dogs brought on will be shot.
This is wrong and illegal ; a more rational stipulation would provide for
the recovery of a heavy fine from the owner of the dog.

COPPICE: CONDITIONS OF SALE 287

(6) No person shall cut withies except on payment to,

and as directed by, the forester.

(7) All coppice to be made up by 1st April (in many

cases a month or two later), otherwise a fine of 2 \ per
cent, on the purchase money. And if not made up
and carried away1 by I5th April, a further fine of 2\
per cent, making 5 per cent, and so on for every
fortnight's delay.

(8) Only duly authorised roads and drives shall be used

for the removal of the produce.

(9) No responsibility is taken as to the accuracy of the

sale catalogue.

(10) If the purchaser fail to comply with the above
terms, he shall forfeit his deposit money ; and his
lots shall be resold ; and he shall be liable to make
good any deficiency in respect of the original
purchase price, occasioned by the resale, together
with the expenses attached thereto.

(n) Any purchaser found poaching on the land, or
possessed of nets and other poaching tackle, shall
forfeit his deposit money, and also his lots and the
value of any labour he may have bestowed upon
them, besides being liable to ordinary legal pro-
ceedings.

The following are some of the chief uses to which under-
wood is put : —

Spanish Chestnut —

12 to 1 6 years old : — Hop poles, split gate hurdles.

17 to 20 years old : — Straining posts for hop yards.

12 to 1 8 years old: — The patent split pale and wire

fencing.
6 to 9 years old : — Best grade barrel hoops.

Ash —

12 to 1 6 years old: — Hop poles, crate wood, split gate
hurdles, chair legs, tool handles.

1 It is convenient to be allowed to stack the produce in the rides up
till the ist of June, so as to await the demand for bean and pea sticks, etc.

288 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE

Oak—

14 to 1 8 years old : — Hop poles, rustic fence work, gate
hurdles, and (formerly) for its bark.

Hazel —

6 to 8 years old : — Inferior hoops (e.g. for cement barrels),
Wattle hurdles, Thatchers, " spicks," and " ledgers."

Willow—

6 to 8 years old : — For wattle hurdles.

1 6 to 25 years old : — For gunpowder (must be barked).

Alder—

16 to 25 years old : — For gunpowder (must be barked).
Also broom heads, cigar boxes, clogs, toys, etc.

These are only a few of the special uses. Larger poles
can be put to many uses. For instance, 20 to 25 years old
poles are saleable near collieries for pit props, Beech poles
at the chair factories, Sycamore for turning fancy articles,
and so on.

Other general uses, not already mentioned, include
clothes props, fencing stakes and bands, walking sticks, bean
sticks, and pea sticks. However, the sale of faggots and
firewood will often account for the disposal of a large pro-
portion, and this is the final method by which any underwood,
not otherwise saleable, is disposed of.

As regards the General Arrangement of Felling Areas
and the amount to be cut each year : —

There is not the same necessity, so far as damage by
wind and insects is concerned, to avoid cutting too large an
area at any single time, or consecutive areas year after year,
as exists in the case of coniferous high forest. It is,
however, advisable to arrange that the cutting areas for
each year are intermittent ; but, usually, the whole area,
to be cut in any one year, should, if convenient, be in one
block, as this facilitates supervision and entails least expense
in repairs to roads, gates, etc., and, as a matter of principle
the fellings should proceed in a direction opposite to that of
the prevailing winds.

MARKETING OF THINNINGS 289

As far as possible, an equal area, under the same rotation,
should be cut annually. Thus, if the rotation is 20 years, the
whole area may be divided by 20, and that will give the area
to be cut annually.

And, instead of cutting each year's fall in one long
sequence, it is preferable to divide the area up into about
4 blocks and enter each block every 4th year ; and thus each
annual fall will vary from its neighbour by four years.

HIGH FOREST AREAS.

(i) The Marketing of Thinnings.

High Forest. — The marketing of thinnings is, when
remote from a good centre, usually somewhat difficult. Any
trees to be cut out should be marked by the forester 1 either
with a handbill or a scribe ; this marking should never be
left to the discretion of the ordinary woodmen. The trees
should be cut as near the ground as possible, and then
trimmed up, and the small " stuff" tied up into faggots. If
there be big branches, there will also be some cordwood to
make up.

After the poles have been trimmed up, the best plan is to
pull them out into the rides, and, unless they be very large,
to sort them into heaps of 20 or 25 each, and then sell them,
either by auction or privately, at so much a heap. An
auction sale would only be admissible if there were large
quantities.

The larger trees, cut towards the end of a rotation, may,
usually, be conveniently sold in little lots of 4 or 5 to each ;
the trees of each lot being left in the rides close to each
other.

The trees should be pulled out by the home staff, so as to
insure the least possible damage being done to the trees left
standing.

1 This marking of thinnings may advisably be done in the summer
when the leaf is on and when the forester has most spare time on his
hands.

T

290 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE

However, generally speaking, it is not easy to sell thin-
nings, and in most cases they must be used for estate purposes
— fencing, etc. ; though near collieries they will sell for pitwood,
and near large towns a considerable quantity, especially of
Larch poles, can be disposed of for rustic garden work, fences,
pergolas, etc. But the whole question of the profitable dis-
posal of thinnings will depend upon the distance from the
market.

(ii) The Marketing of Mature Timber.

Whenever arranging for the felling of mature timber, it
is a matter of the greatest importance that all fellings
proceed, from year to year, in a direction opposite to that
of the prevailing -winds ; and thus the danger from windfall,
in the crops left standing, is minimised.

And, also, the fellings on coniferous areas should always
be intermittent ; that is to say, neighbouring areas should
not be felled consecutively ; and an interval of from 5 to 7
years should elapse after a felling, before an adjoining area
is felled ; for this will minimise the danger to be apprehended
from the Pine weevil and other insects.

Then again, where there is a large area under timber, an
attempt should always be made to produce an equal yearly
income from the woods ; and, therefore, to effect this purpose,
an equally productive area should be felled annually.

The Sale of Timber.

There are three ways of effecting the sale of timber : —

(1) By Auction (or Roup).

(2) By Tender.

(3) By Private Contract.

In all three cases it may be sold in any of the following
ways : —

(a) Standing ; for a Lump Sum.

(fr) Standing ; at a Price per Foot ; the contents to be
ascertained after it is felled.

(c) Felled (by home staff) ; for a Lump Sum.

SALE OF TIMBER 291

(d) Felled (by home staff); at a Price per Foot; the
contents to be ascertained after the contract to
purchase.

In cases (a) and (£) it is usual for the purchaser to fell the
trees ; but this should be clearly stated in the Conditions of
Sale. And, in cases (£) and (d) it should be clearly stated
who is to measure the timber, and what is to be measured as
timber ; and an arbitrator should be appointed in cases of
dispute.

Now, before discussing the advantages and disadvantages
of sales by auction, tender, or private contract, it will
be advisable to discuss the merits and demerits of selling
timber : —

(i) Standing or Felled.

(ii) For a Lump Sum ; or at a Price per Foot.

As regards the former, in a general way it may be stated
that mature timber (especially if large) should, usually, be sold
after it has been felled. There are, however, exceptions to
this rule. Now, if a timber merchant buy timber standing,
he cannot be quite certain, even if he knows the locality well,
how the trees will " come down." And, therefore, it would be
decidedly indiscreet of him if he were to offer a " top " price,
and allow himself no factor for safety. So that, if the trees be
all sound, the owner will probably lose considerably. And
then again, if a merchant, who perhaps does not know the
locality, be once deceived by the timber, he is not likely to
be a keen buyer on that estate in the future ; and, through
his influence, the estate may get a bad name.

If, on the other hand, the trees be felled by the home
staff, he can gauge the quality easily, and a maximum price
may be offered.

However, when once the trees be felled, the owner has to
sell ; and, to some extent, he is in the hands of the timber
merchant, unless indeed, he converts, or partially converts,
the timber himself. It should be remembered that, if
timber be left unmeasured for any length of time, after
it is felled, it shrinks considerably, and an appreciable
loss will thereby be incurred by the owner. But, on large

292 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE

estates, where a considerable amount of timber of good
quality is annually put on the market, this chance of a
failure to obtain a fair price is not much to be feared ; for,
it would not be a sound policy on the part of the merchants
to attempt to " squeeze " the owner of the timber. Such a
policy might be described as an attempt to " kill the goose
that lays the golden egg." However, the owner of an estate
where timber is put on the market intermittently, is not in
such a favourable position ; and, it will generally be best for
him to sell the timber standing ; and, if he cannot obtain his
price, he can wait for another year ; for, in as much as he will
not have any methodical plan of fellings, this will not matter,
unless indeed he requires the money.

So also, hedgerow timber may often, with advantage, be
sold standing, as it will seldom form part of any methodical
plan of fellings, and will not therefore interfere with any
general plan of management ; but, as already stated, a
maximum price must not necessarily be expected.

Then again, those timber trees which must be quickly
removed from the woods after being felled, may, with
advantage, be sold standing. Such trees include Ash, Beech,
and Sycamore, whose colour deteriorates if left lying in the
woods. The sale of timber while standing may also be
practised in the case of crops which are clear cut when young ;
as, for instance, 4O-year-old coniferous crops fit for pit props.
In such a case, there is not the same likelihood of the timber
of young crops deceiving a purchaser as is the case with more
mature timber.

In all cases, however, when timber is sold standing, a few
sample trees should always be felled by the home staff so
that the timber merchants may have a criterion upon which
to base their estimates.

Such a method will eliminate much of the uncertainty
that attends the purchase of standing timber, and will often
render it advisable to sell standing when otherwise such
a method would not be admissible. It is often urged that
timber should be sold standing, as the buyer then fells it ;
and that the men whom he employs are more used to felling

SALE OF TIMBER 293

timber than the home staff; and that it will be more
economically and efficiently done ; and that the stools will
be cut closer to the ground.

This, however, cannot, generally speaking, be considered a
sound argument.

On very small estates, where the sale of timber is not
frequent, it may be the case ; but, on large estates most of
the woodmen should be good timber fellers, and the work
should always be done by piece-work. The workmen
should always be instructed to cut the trees as low as possible ;
and, if it is done by piece-work, it will not usually be to their
advantage to leave high stools, any more than it is for those
who are working for the timber merchants. If the timber
merchant buys for a lump sum, it is immaterial to the owner
of the estate, whether the trees are cut low down or not. If,
however, a price per foot has been agreed upon, the owner
will often lose through the manner in which the trees have
been cut by the timber merchant Often big stools will be
left; large boughs which are worth los. to 155. each, and
which, at a cost of an extra is. or 2s., should have been lopped
before the tree was felled, are splintered by the fall of the
tree; and, therefore, not measured. And, then again, much
small timber, of 7 inches, 8 inches, 9 inches, and even of 10
inches quarter girth, is severed at these girths (instead of
being severed at 6 inches quarter girth), and, if the tops are
long, the mean quarter girth will perhaps be 5 inches, and
the whole is claimed as tops, under timber size, and will
not therefore be paid for, whereas, all over 6 inches quarter
girth should properly be paid for (or according to the
arrangement.)

It is, therefore, always advisable for all timber to be
felled by the home staff, unless it is sold standing for a lump
sum.

As regards whether timber should be sold for a lump
sum or at a price per foot, there can be no doubt what-
ever that, in nearly all cases, it should be sold for a lump
sum.

In some cases, locally, prejudice exists against this

294 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE

method. It is claimed that every timber merchant, who
desires to make an offer, has to measure the timber, and that,
as only one can have the timber or any particular lot, the
time spent by the others in measuring that timber is entirely
wasted. This, however, is more in the nature of an excuse to
avoid a little trouble, than a valid reason against the method ;
for in all trades and businesses there is always a certain
amount of unremunerative labour. Measurements and a
valuation must always be made by the agent or forester ;
and, in many cases, the estate measurements are given, and,
often, when the estate is known, relied upon by the buyers
(but at their own risk).

When a lump sum has been offered and accepted, there
is usually no more trouble between buyer and seller, except,
perhaps, as to unnecessary damage done to roads, gates, and
fences.

But, if a price per foot has been agreed upon, and the
contents have to be measured up, differences often arise, and
there is usually cause for some dissatisfaction. It is only
natural.

If the timber is going to be sold by auction, it is often
inserted that the auctioneer shall measure, and that his measure-
ments shall be taken ; but, as he will not usually have had much
experience in this business when compared to that of land
agents, timber merchants, and foresters, it will not usually be
satisfactory to either party.

Then again, if the land agent or forester measure with
the timber merchant, such questions arise as : — Who shall
girth the trees? Is thick or thin string to be used? Is it
right to stretch the string to its utmost, provided it does not
break ? Can the use of the tape be refused for measuring
the length? What is the allowance for bark? What
allowance is to be made for inferior timber, frost shakes,
and so on ? What is to be measured as timber ? etc., etc.
And thus unpleasantness and friction arise, which could
easily be avoided, if only the timber were sold for a lump
sum.

CHOICE OF METHODS OF SALE 295

The Choice as between Sales by Auction, Tender,
and Private Contract.

There is always much difference of opinion as to the best
method to adopt in order to obtain a price for timber. In a
general way, it may be said that sales by tender are
infinitely preferable to any other method. However, the
merits and demerits of each of the three methods may be
briefly considered, along with a short description of each.

Sale by Auction. — It is a sine qua non that the auctioneer
employed be well up in this particular line of business.
He must know the "Trade," and the "Trade" must know
him ; otherwise, success cannot be anticipated.

The success of the sale depends largely upon the auctioneer.
He alone is responsible for the advertising, and the prepara-
tion of the catalogue. If he be a good judge of timber and
if he know the demands of the trade, the lotting may be left
to him, but not otherwise ; and the conditions of sale must
always be submitted to the agent of the estate for approval.

A sale by auction encourages spirited bidding, and thus
a better price may be obtained for the timber than if there be
no competition. But auction sales render facilities for buyers
to form a " ring," and thus defeat the desired competition.

When a ring is formed, those in the ring do not bid
against each other, but, after the sale, they usually meet
together and have a " knock out " sale amongst themselves ;
and divide the spoils of their ill-gotten gains.

If the lots be large, there is always more likelihood of
a successful ring being formed, than if the lots be small. For,
in the latter case, the " big men " will not deign to admit the
" small fry " into their confidence, and initiate them into the
advantages of co-operation.

It must be distinctly understood that the formation of a
ring at an auction sale is quite illegal. But its existence is
very difficult to prove.

It is, however, a consolation to reflect that there are many
buyers who will never, under any circumstances, enter, or join
a ring.

296 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE

It is said that a "Dutch" auction prevents a ring being
successful. To some extent this may be so ; because, if there
be a single buyer outside the ring, a bid from him will
secure the timber, and he cannot be " squeezed " out of that
particular lot. Another disadvantage of an auction sale is
that the expenses are very great ; so that, if only a small
quantity of timber is for sale, it is quite out of the question,
for the cost of advertising alone would be prohibitive. And
then again, the timber must be sold to the highest bidder,
even though his presence on the estate may be undesirable.
The auctioneer is bound to accept the offer of the highest
bidder, unless, indeed, the owner reserves the right to bid,
and buys the timber in. But such a course is usually
disastrous. Another disadvantage is the fact that there is
often considerable delay in getting the timber removed ; for
the auctioneer, who is responsible for the money, will not,
very properly, take the least risk ; and thus, in the case of
buyers whose financial position is somewhat doubtful, there
is often much delay ; whereas, had the timber been sold by
tender or private contract, the offer of such a buyer would not
have been accepted.

Sale by Tender. — By this method, the almost universal
plan is to sell the timber for a lump sum, either standing or
felled. The sale may be made quite public by advertising, etc. ;
or tenders may be invited from (say) 6 or 10 likely purchasers.

The timber is sold either as a single lot, or it is divided
into several lots. Any considerable quantity should always
be divided up, as explained hereafter. It is the usual
practice to prepare a printed form of tender, in which are
given all particulars as to the number of trees and lots, and
also the conditions of sale ; and a day should be specified
by which the tenders are to be delivered.

In some parts of the country, a room is hired in the nearest
town and the tenders are handed in by the merchants them-
selves, to the agent, and opened by the latter in their
presence.

This method, however, is to be deprecated as it renders
the formation of a ring an easier matter than it is even at

CHOICE OF METHODS OF SALE 297

an auction ; for the buyers can arrange matters amongst
themselves half an hour before the appointed time.

The better plan is to stipulate that all the tenders be sent
by post to the land agent's office ; this will make it very
difficult for a ring to be formed, as the buyers may not have
discovered all those who are tendering. Other advantages
are, that the method is not expensive ; the agent can refrain
from accepting the tender of any person who is undesirable ;
and the advantages of competition which may exist at an
auction are also obtained.

Sale by Private Contract. — This method is often advis-
able, especially for small quantities of timber. It is the least
expensive of any method, but, on the other hand, there is no
competition. However, a local builder or wheelwright will
often give a better price for a small quantity of timber than a
merchant who resides at a distance. So also, it will often
be advisable to sell privately to a local timber merchant, pro-
vided that he offer a fair price. But large quantities should
be sold by tender, and, in many cases, the local merchant will
be able to tender the highest, owing to the small cost of the
haulage of the timber to his yard.

Now, in all sales of timber every assistance should be
given to possible purchasers in showing them the timber. If
the railway station is far off, arrangements should be made
with some liveryman to meet any train, on receiving notice
to do so, and this fact should be advertised. Then again,
when merchants come to inspect and measure timber, which
is to be sold for a lump sum, a woodman should be put at
their disposal to assist in girthing the trees, etc., for this may
save the merchant another day's visit, or at anyrate avoid the
necessity of sending a foreman down to measure.

In all cases instructions should be given to any woodman
thus deputed to assist, and to others who come in contact
with those who come to inspect the timber, not to be too
loquacious and not to repeat the names of all those who have
come to inspect and measure the timber. And thus, in cases
of sales by tender, it will not be so easy for the buyers to
form a ring if so minded.

298 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE

Conditions of Sale of Timber.

The following is an abstract of suitable conditions of
sale of timber, by tender. Many of them are also applicable
to conditions of sale by auction or by private contract.

(1) All tenders must be upon the printed form annexed
hereto, and must be signed by those tendering, who must
also append their addresses.

(2) All tenders marked outside " tenders for timber " are
to be sent by post to "A.B." (here insert address of land
agent), and are to be received not later than twelve o'clock
on the day of , at which time the
tenders will be opened and notice sent by post to each person
whose tender is accepted.

(3) The vendor does not bind himself to accept the highest
or any tender.

(4) If more than one lot is tendered for, a separate sum
must be set against each lot so tendered for. And each of
such sums shall be considered as a separate tender.

(5) Each purchaser shall immediately upon the acceptance
of his tender (or tenders) pay to the said " A.B.," a deposit of
£,2$ per cent, on the amount of the purchase money, and shall,
within 14 days from the date of the acceptance of the tender (or
tenders), deliver, at his own expense, to the said " A.B.," bills or
promissory notes, endorsed by a responsible surety, approved
by the said " A.B.," for the remainder of the purchase money,
payable to the said " A.B." or his order, 4 months after the date
upon which his tender (or tenders) was accepted. Until such
security is given and accepted, no purchaser shall enter upon
the land and fell or remove any part of the said timber or trees.

If default is made in giving such bills or notes as aforesaid
the deposit money shall be forfeited, and the property in the
timber and trees, purchased by any person thus making
default, shall revert to the vendor. Any purchaser may pay
cash in lieu of giving the bills or notes, for the remainder of
the purchase money, and he will thereupon be allowed dis-
count at the rate of 4 per cent, per annum on any amount of
such latter sum as he pays for in cash.

CONDITIONS OF SALE 299

(6) (If sold standing). — All the trees are to be felled in a
proper and workmanlike manner ; and these, together with all
lop and top, cordwood faggots (and bark), are to be removed
and cleared off the estate by the day of

; and any trees, or the lop and top, or cordwood, or
faggots, or bark remaining on the estate after that date shall
be forfeited to and become the property of the vendor without
compensation to the purchaser.

(6a) (If sold when already felled). — Only those butts,
limbs, and tops, which are marked with one or more bands of
paint are included in the sale, and these are to be removed
and cleared off the estate by the , etc.

(7) The purchasers shall use all possible caution to pre-
vent damage to lands, timber, fences, gates, or growing crops,
in the felling and removal of the timber. All unnecessary
damage occasioned to property, or damage caused by the
negligence of any purchaser or those deriving authority under
him, shall be compensated for and made good by such pur-
chaser to the satisfaction of the said " A.B."

And in the case of Hedgerow Timber, Park Timber, and

the like : —

(a) (If sold standing). — All those trees growing in any
field, or on any meadow land — and such trees are
marked with a white cross — shall be "grub"
felled, and all large surface roots shall be extracted
and the soil evenly filled in.

(&) All timber felled on to any grass land or on to any
arable field shall be removed along with all lop
and top, etc., by the ist day of April 19 1
etc., as per sect. (6). Any damage occasioned
to be made good as per sect. (7) ; and any claim
that a tenant may make upon the vendor for
damage sustained shall be satisfied by the pur-
chaser occasioning such damage.

1 A later date must be allowed if Oak trees are to be barked ; those
on grass land should be left until after hay harvest, unless removed
immediately.

300 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE

(8) (If sold standing). — Any purchaser wrongfully cutting
down any tree, teller, or sapling, shall pay to the vendor treble
the value of such tree, teller, or sapling.

(9) No saw pits shall be made on the estate, nor engines
or steam tackle used in the extraction of the timber without
the written permission of the said "A.B.," and upon such
terms as he may decide if his permission be given.

(10) No horses shall be allowed to wander at large on any
part of the estate ; and no dogs shall be brought on to the
estate by any purchaser or those authorised by him. The
purchaser shall pay to the vendor a penalty of 2Os. for every
offence so committed.

(11) The said " A.B." shall have full power to dismiss,
from off the estate, any employee of any purchaser who shall
be guilty of any gross negligence, or of drunkenness, or other
act of gross misbehaviour, or of poaching, or if nets or other
poaching tackle be found in his possession ; and such person
shall not be again employed.

(12) Only such private roads as are pointed out shall be
used for the removal of any timber or other produce.

(13) If any purchaser shall fail or neglect to pay the
purchase money, or if he shall become bankrupt before
the purchase money is paid, the vendor or his agents shall
be at liberty to take and secure all timber and trees and
other produce arising therefrom, purchased by such purchaser,
and still remaining on the estate. The vendor shall be at
liberty to sell and dispose of the same, and to retain so
much of the proceeds of such sale as shall pay off the
purchase money, together with all expenses connected with
such seizure and sale, rendering the over-plus, if any, to such
purchaser or those claiming under him. But such seizure
and sale shall not discharge such purchaser or his surety
or sureties from their respective liability upon any bill or
note then unpaid, any further or otherwise than to the extent
of the net proceeds arising from such sale.

(14) Any matter of dispute, as between vendor and
purchaser, arising out of this sale, or referable to these
conditions of sale, shall be referred to " X.Z.," Esquire, of

CONDITIONS OF SALE

301

(address), who shall act as arbitrator in this matter. But
no mistake whatsoever in the particulars of sale shall
invalidate the sale of the several lots or any of them ; and
no compensation shall be paid or allowed by the vendor
in respect of any such mistake or mis-statement.

The following form of tender should be annexed : —

FORM OP TENDER.
...the undersigned

of.

hereby offer to purchase (fell) and carry away the lots mentioned in the
Schedule annexed hereto, at the sums placed opposite to such lots, in
accordance with the foregoing particulars and conditions of sale, to

which hereby agree in all respects, as witness

signature(s) hereunder.

Dated this, day of.

19.

SCHEDULE.

No. of Lots mentioned in the foregoing
particulars.

Price to be paid for each
Lot.

Number.
Lot

£

s.

D.

Lot .' .

Lot . .

Lot . . . . .

Lot . . .

Lot , , . ; „. . r

Lot . -S- »•.

Lot . . « . ,

Lot . . . . '.

Lot . . . . .

Lot . . . . .f 0
Total . r :

Signed,

302 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE

The Marking and Lotting of Timber.

The separate marking of timber, previous to the felling
thereof, will often be unnecessary, as, for instance, where a
whole area is to be clear felled. But, wherever there can be
any doubt as to what is to be felled, marking must take
place ; either the trees to be cut must be marked, or those
that are to be left must be marked. In the former case, as,
for instance, hedgerow timber or trees to be cut under
the selection system, or thinnings to be removed, the trees
may be simply blazed with a handbill. And in the latter
case, when the marked trees are to be left, they should be
marked by a ring of white paint, etc., since no harm must be
done to the tree. It is very important that trees should be
marked on both sides, as otherwise mistakes are often made.

Where trees are to be sold standing, each tree to be
felled should be marked with a ring of white paint, and
should be separately numbered, unless the whole of a given
area is to be felled and sold in one lot, or unless the excepted
trees are marked and the remaining trees on the area are
comprised in one lot.

The Lotting of Timber is a matter that requires very
great experience. It will almost always be necessary, and
the folly of selling large lots of mixed timber cannot be
too strongly condemned. The different species of trees
should almost invariably be sold separately ; and, in many
cases, separate lots should be formed for different qualities of
the same species.

For merchants continually get orders for some particular
class of timber; and, on the other hand, they often have
much difficulty in disposing of certain classes of timber;
so that if they have a full stock of all kinds except the
particular class for which they have a special order, they
cannot possibly give a full price for a mixed lot in order to
obtain some trees of the particular species they require.
Then again, the lots should never be too large. Their actual
size will depend upon the amount of timber to be sold and
upon the local market.

LOTTING OF TIMBER 303

Small local buyers should always be catered for; and
if there is a probability that 8 or 10 lots of £10
to £15 a-piece would find a ready sale, such small
lots should be made up ; but most of the lots in a
big sale may conveniently range in value from £100 to
£200.

When lotting standing timber, the trees comprising any
one lot should be fairly close together; and, except as
previously stated, each tree should be marked in paint with
the number of the lot to which it belongs, and, in many cases,
the consecutive number of each tree in a lot is also added in
paint, or it may be stamped on with a numbering hammer,
a blaze having first been made on the bark.
For example : —

Lot 3 Lot 3 Lot 4

71 72 I

Sometimes neighbouring lots may be marked with different
coloured paints so as to assist in identification and avoid
confusion. In cases where most of the trees consist of two
or three species and there are a few trees of various other
species here and there, it will often be convenient to assign the
few odd species to one lot, as it would not be worth while to
make separate lots for each of the miscellaneous species.
Occasionally, lotting may be effected by area in the same
manner that coppice is lotted by area. Such a procedure
would be advisable in cases where young coniferous crops
are sold standing for pit wood ; or where mature pure crops
are being cleared and there is much uniformity in the quality
of the timber.

When lotting felled timber, the first question to decide is
whether the timber or poles are to be left lying as they are
felled or are to be drawn out to the rides and more or less
assorted. A great deal of money is often wasted in unneces-
sary lotting, or rather, in attempting to arrange the lots in
a neat order.

Trees cut under the selection system, or thinnings made
in high forest, or standards cut when growing over coppice

304 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE

should almost always be pulled out on to the rides by the
home staff, as great care is required not to injure the trees
left growing. They can then to some extent be sorted and
arranged in lots. Quite small poles may be placed in heaps ;
but it would not pay to drag bigger trees into neat heaps, as
it were. Where an area is clear cut, or where, if not clear
cut, the trees left standing are all big trees and not easily
damaged, it will be best to leave the felled trees as they fall
and not to pull them out to the rides, for, although they must
ultimately be pulled out before being loaded up, the cost of
so pulling them out is seldom recouped by the owner by any
extra price obtained from the buyer.

When lotting the timber, the trees should be marked at
the butt end ; the number of the lot should generally be in
paint, and the number of the tree may be stamped with a
numbering hammer. The number of the lot should also be
painted on the trunks, or some mark put so as to readily
distinguish it from any neighbouring lot ; as by the use of
different coloured paints, or one or more parallel bands
across the trunks, etc.

It must be distinctly understood that no pole or limb or
top is included in any lot unless it be marked with paint ; for
the vendor, who fells the timber, retains all cordwood and
faggots.

Occasionally, as described in some cases of standing
timber, the lotting can be done by area ; when this is so, the
trees on the boundary of any lot should be thrown inwards,
towards the lot to which they belong, so as to avoid confusion
on the boundary line.

THE FELLING OP TIMBER.

It has already been stated that trees should be felled as
close to the ground as possible.

Small trees up to about 6 inches quarter girth are felled
with the axe only ; but larger trees are felled with the axe
and saw. The axe is first "laid in" all the way round, as
low down as possible, and then the rest of the butt is sawn

FELLING TIMBER 305

through. As the sawing proceeds metal wedges are driven
in behind the saw so as to preventt he saw becoming jammed,
and, finally, to tilt the tree over. Usually the tree must be
felled in the direction of its natural inclination ; but, occasion-
ally for special reasons, it is thrown in another direction ; in
such cases it must be pulled over with ropes, previously
attached to the top of the tree, and assisted by driving in
wedges.

Wherever there are large valuable limbs or perhaps a
double leader on the side on which the tree is going to be
thrown, these should be first severed before the tree is thrown.
For otherwise such limbs will be splintered ; and, for the
sake of an extra 2s. or 33., about 153. or £i's worth of timber
is often thrown away.1

These limbs are cut by a hand-saw by a man who ascends
the tree. This man, sometimes called the "jack," will usually
put on climbing irons to assist him to get up.

When felling on steep hillsides, the trees should, if
possible, be thrown uphill as less damage will be done in the
fall ; and, during gales, felling should usually be suspended, as
it is decidedly dangerous.

When small trees are being sawn through, 2 men can
easily work the saw ; but, with large trees, 3 me^n are neces-
sary and can well do the work with a good saw. However,
in some parts of the country a cord is attached to the saw
at either end and it is worked by 5 men, but though this
method be slightly quicker, the cost of sawing will be more
expensive per cubic foot. Strong, hard working men will,
when on piece-work, usually work with 3 men on the
saw.

Three men should be able to lay in with the axe, and
saw through an oak tree 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet diameter
in about 2 hours.

1 When felling is by piece-work an extra is. besides the rate per foot
paid for felling, should be paid for each limb thus severed, as it involves
greater labour. The woodward or forester should previously indicate
each three where he requires a branch or limb to be thus separately
severed.

U

306 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE

It is very essential, however, to have a good sharp saw
made of the best steel.

A good saw should have : —

(1) The cutting edge slightly convex ; more so for soft
woods than for hard woods.

(2) The teeth should be more or less triangular, and
should provide ample space for removing the sawdust.

(3) The teeth should be well "set" to alternate sides;
and more so for soft woods than hard woods.

(4) The back of the blade should be thinner than the
front, so as to minimise jamming.

After the trees are felled, they are " trimmed-up " or
" squared-up " or " knotted " or " rounded-up." This con-
sists in cutting off with the axe all the side branches flush
with the trunks and trimming up the trees. The trees should
not, as a rule, be cross cut, as this should be left to the
purchasers, who may require particular lengths, etc.

After rounding-up, all unsaleable timber, generally under
6 inches quarter girth, is made up into cordwood and
faggots — the larger "stuff" into cordwood and the small
" stuff," or " browse," into faggots. The size of a cord varies
in different parts of the country.

Common sizes are : — 8x4x4 (feet)
12x4x4 „
12x4x3 „
16 ft. 2 in. x 2 ft. 6 in. x 2 ft. 2 in.

When the vendor fells the timber himself, he retains or
sells separately the cordwood and faggots ; but if the timber
merchant fell the timber, he is entitled to the cordwood and
faggots, unless otherwise agreed. As a general rule, it may
be taken that the profit on the cordwood and faggots will
about pay for the cost of felling.

The amount of cordwood obtained from trees must vary
greatly ; but, in the case of well-grown tall Oak, it will
average about I cord (12x4x4) to every no to 130 cubic
feet, and in the case of inferior Oak, it will average about I
cord to 65 to 75 feet, or even less.

FELLING TIMBER 307

Prices for Felling, etc. — These are subject to great varia-
tion, but the following is perhaps a fair average : —

Felling and rounding-up broad-leaved trees 53. to 75. per 100 ft.

„ „ conifers '. . 35. 6d. to 55. per 100 ft.

Cording (8x4x4) 35. 6d. a cord.

„ (16 ft. 4 in. x 2 ft. 6 in. x 2 ft. 2 in.) 2s. 6d. a cord.

Faggoting (including withies) . . . 33. 6d. to 43. 6d. per 100.

The best Season for Felling. — Generally speaking, felling
should be done in late autumn and winter ; for the less sap
in the wood, the better for most purposes. Winter felled
timber is always stronger and more durable, and shrinks
less. However, where timber is sold by weight, as, for
instance, pit wood, it should be felled when the sap is in
it, provided that the same price per ton can be obtained
for it.

Then again, timber felled in the summer is usually easier
to split ; and timber that it is required to steam and bend can
be more easily treated when felled with the sap in it.1

If timber has to be barked, the felling must, of course, be
delayed until the bark will " run."

In forests of Spruce and Scots Pine, if the Pine weevil
(Hylobius abietis) be very much to be feared, it is some-
times advisable to fell the trees in the summer, and bark
them immediately, but small rings of bark should be left on
the stems, so as to minimise the danger of splitting and
cracking.

Barking Trees.

The barking of timber is now almost confined to Oak
trees, the bark of which is used for tanning hides. The
bark of most other trees contains tannin; but it is seldom
that any bark except Oak is used for tanning in this
country.

Other trees are sometimes barked for special purposes,
as, for instance, Alder and Willow, which are going to be

1 It is very probable that green wood can be more easily impregnated
with preservatives than seasoned wood or winter felled wood. But in all
such cases where green wood is used, it must be treated immediately after
being felled.

308 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE

made into gunpowder ; and, as regards Alder, some of the
bark at any rate should always be chipped off, soon after it
is felled, so as to hasten the drying, and preserve the timber.

As soon as the bark will " run " — about the end of April
and beginning of May1 — the trees are felled and barked.
Before being felled, each tree is tested to see if the bark
will " run," and a strip of bark, about 3 feet long, is removed
from all the way round the base of the tree ; then the tree is
felled and the bark ripped off.

At the time of barking, only such branches are trimmed
off the trees as is necessary to enable the men to remove the
bark. The trimming-up or rounding-up of the timber
must wait until after barking operations are over ; for no
time must be lost, as the bark will only run for a few
weeks.2

The bark is cross cut with a handbill (one edge of which
is straight, the other curved) all the way round the stem or
branch at short intervals of about 3 feet if on the butts, and
perhaps 18 inches on the smaller branches; and then one
longitudinal cut is made along each section. Then a barking
iron or chisel is inserted along the longitudinal cuts, and the
bark ripped off. If the bark will not come away, it should be
gently tapped with the " flat " of an axe or a wooden mallet.
But the small profit in barking renders it impossible to spend
much labour on bark that will not easily run. The less
tapping the better, as it injures the bark. The bark always
runs better during warm, damp, muggy weather ; and better
in the morning and evening than during the daytime.

Occasionally, as in the Forest of Dean, the trees are
barked when still standing. In this case the men ascend by
means of ladders, strip the bark and throw it down.

The only advantage of this method is that the trees can be
felled in the following winter, and so escape being felled when
the sap is in them. But the extra expense involved, and also

1 This is in the South of England. In the North it will be much
later. The sessile Oak is often a little later than the pedunculate.

2 There is, however, a second and third flow of sap at later periods ;
but it is very rare for trees to be barked at these dates.

BARKING 309

the risk of injury to the men, is hardly warranted ; and if
standards growing over coppice were thus felled, considerable
harm would be done to the coppice, which would have made a
year's growth by the time the trees were felled.

After the bark is stripped, it is stacked up. Occasionally,
a regular staging is made of small poles supported by forked
stakes, but unless the land is very wet, all that is necessary is
to support a single long pole, at about 2 feet from the ground,
by means of two or three forked stakes and then to pile the
bark against this.

Medium-sized pieces are placed face inwards against
either side of this pole — their ends on the ground, and their
tops resting against the pole — these two sides thus form an
equilateral triangle with the ground. On the apex, as it
were, of this triangle, the smallest pieces of bark are placed ;
and then, above this row of small pieces, the largest slabs
of bark from the trunk are placed, face downwards, so as to
form a capping and keep the wet out.

The bark is then left like this for about 3 weeks x or until
it be dry, when it is sent off to the tannery. Good bark,
when dry, should be a pinky colour, and should snap easily
when broken, and not bend or be pliant. The small thin
bark of coppice shoots and young trees is more valuable than
the coarse bark of older trees. And the bark of trees
growing on hot southern aspects is more valuable than the
bark of trees growing on cool northern aspects. The more
quickly it has seasoned, the more valuable will it be. In
drying, bark will lose about one-third of its weight when green.

The amount of Bark obtained from Timber. — This will
vary very greatly, but, on an average, it may be taken that : —

One ton of bark will be yielded from :

no to 130 cub. ft. (q. g.) of large hedgerow timber,
150 „ 175 „ „ of mature high forest trees,

380 „ 500 ,, „ of coppice shoots, down to i in. diameter,

the rotation being 12 to 15 years.

It must be remembered that bark is usually sold by the
ton of 21 cwt.

1 Sometimes the bark will season in about 10 days.

310 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE

The Price of Bark is now very low indeed, compared to
that which prevailed a few years ago. It fluctuates from
year to year, but usually in a downward direction. This is
largely due to imported tanning substitutes from foreign
countries. The most important, perhaps, are preparations
from Quebracho wood from Argentina; and from the
Quercus Aegilops from the Mediterranean. An average
price for Oak bark delivered at a tannery is at present l about
£2, 55. to £3 a ton.

The Cost of Barking. — The usual custom is to pay a
certain sum to include felling and barking and stacking-up
the bark, and to pay a separate sum for rounding-up the
timber afterwards.

Large Oak trees are usually felled and barked for about
£i, 53. to £i, 75. a ton of bark. And the cost of rounding-up
such trees will be about is. 6d. per 100 cubic feet; but the
barking of coppice poles would cost from £2, 5s. to £2, 155. a
ton of bark, for the bark is thin and the labour much greater.

Three men should, if the bark "runs" easily, peel and
stack up about J a ton of bark from a large tree in about 3
hours. A small gang of 6 or 7 men can very conveniently
work together when felling and barking. If 4 men are
barking, they can just about keep pace, in the case of large
timber, with the 3 men who are felling the trees. Now in
fine weather, if on piece-work, very good wages can be earned ;
but on the other hand, the men may often be stopped for
rain.

The Advantages or otherwise of Barking. — There is,
usually, still a small margin of profit on barking, and even if
there were no direct profit, it must be remembered that the
timber will often, as it were, be felled for nothing ; and, if the
timber has to be sent by rail, there will be an additional
saving in the cost of transportation.

But, on the other hand, winter felled oak is better than
that felled in the spring ; and if a better price can be
obtained for the former, it will in many cases be the better
policy to fell the oak in the winter.

1 1908.

BARKING 311

No general rule can be laid down, as so much depends
upon the distance away at which the tannery is situated.

The following instance will show an advantage in
barking : —

If winter felled :—

150 cub. ft. of timber at is. 6d. . . . . ,£11 5 o
Less, cost of felling and knotting, at 6s. 6d. per 100

cub. ft. . . . . .' . . . 099

£10 15 3
If spring felled :—

150 cub. ft. of timber, at is. 6d. . . £11 5 o
i ton bark, at ^2, us. at tannery . .2110

- ^13 16 o
Less, cost of felling and barking, at ,£1, 6s.

per ton . , • . . . ^i 6 o
Delivery - > :- , . . . . o n 9
Knotting, 150 cub. ft. at is. 6d. per 100 ft. 023

200

16 o

This shows a gain of £it os. gd. on 150 cubic feet of
timber, which equals a gain of I Jd. per foot by barking.

But, as the winter felled Oak will often be worth an
additional id. per foot, the gain will only be Jd. per foot.

EXTRACTION AND TRANSPORTATION OF TIMBER.

As already stated, the timber must almost always be
dragged out from where it is growing on to the rides, where
it can be loaded up. There is often a great waste of horse
power in doing this. Quite small logs may be pulled out
without any particular device being resorted to ; but, for
large poles, a dragging shoe or sledge should be put under
the forward end of each tree, and thus it will easily ride over
the ground. For large trees, where the ground is always
more open, a pair of " tushing " wheels, sometimes known as a
timber "bob" or "janker," may be used. By this means
the heavy end of the log is raised up off the ground, and

312 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE

thus the draught is much lessened. Occasionally the trees
can be loaded up, where they are felled, on to the timber
waggons, but this will not be very often.

When loading a timber waggon, a couple of " skids " or
" leaders " are placed at an angle from the ground to the top
of the waggon, and the logs are then pulled or rolled up by
means of one or more horses pulling (on the other side of the
waggon), on to chains which pass over the waggon and round
each end of the log.

As regards the Cost of Haulage by Horses. — If the timber
is near a good hard road, and if the gradients are not very
steep, a fair average is to allow id. to ijd. per foot quarter
girth measurement for the first mile, and then Jd. a foot up to 5
miles, and beyond this distance Jd. per foot per mile (i.e., 3
miles for id.).

If, however, the trees lie in an inaccessible place, or the
woodland rides be very wet and gradients bad, it may easily
cost 2d. to 3d. a foot to haul for the first mile on to, perhaps,
a good road. For it may require double the number of horses
or more to do this first length of hauling, and sometimes the
trees have to be " tushed " a long way before they can be
loaded up. Then again, even if there be a good hard metalled
road, the cost will be greatly increased if the gradients be
bad, for extra horses must be used. But if there be only a
bad gradient here and there, two waggon loads may proceed
together, and when the bad gradient is reached, they must
stop, and put all horses on to one waggon ; haul this up ; and
then come back for the other waggon. This, of course, all
means delay and extra expense. An extra id. a foot spent in
hauling means something like £10 to £20 per acre; and
hence the advantage of having good roads and rides on
woodland areas cannot be too strongly insisted upon ; for
timber merchants are not slow to accurately gauge the cost
of extracting timber.

The Cost of Steam Traction on roads is considerably
less ; though, in many cases, the timber will have to be
" tushed " out for a much greater distance, on account of the
engine and trucks not being allowed in the woods, or not

FOREST ROADS 313

being able to approach so near to the felled area as the
timber waggons.

It must be remembered that heavy engines and loaded
trucks will often do a great deal of damage to grass rides ;
and, especially, to any culverts which may cross a ride.

But when once on truck the cost of steam haulage by road
may be put at TVd. per mile per cubic foot (i.e.t 10 miles for
id.).1

If traction engines are used, they should only be allowed
in the woods during the summer season.

Forest Roads. — The necessity for having good roads
leading from the area upon which the timber is growing has
already been noticed ; and it has been stated, that in large
forest areas, it will generally be necessary to convert some of
the main rides into hard roads, unless such areas be inter-
sected by hard roads, either public or private.

The making of metalled roads is, however, very expensive ;
even if stone can be quarried close by and can be had for the
labour of quarrying it. At 6s. a yard run, the cost per mile
would be £528. It will seldom be possible to make a road
at a less cost, and in many cases the cost will be very much
more. To what extent such an outlay is advisable, is a
matter requiring much consideration, and cannot be decided
with mathematical precision. However, a calculation after
the following manner will assist in arriving at a correct con-
clusion.

. Thus, supposing that there be 1 500 acres of forest ; that
it be normally stocked with all age classes ; that 20 acres a
year of mature timber, averaging 60,000 cubic feet, can be
cut ; that the average hauling distance from the centre of
the area to the nearest metalled road be I mile ; that at
present there be an indifferent grass track for this distance ;
and that it be estimated that a saving in haulage of Jd. per
foot for this mile could be effected if the track were made
into a good metal road.

Then the saving in haulage per annum would be £125 if

1 A somewhat smaller charge for very long distances, — about ^d. per
foot per mile.

314 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE

the road were metalled. But from this it would be necessary
to deduct interest on the cost of making the road : —

5 per cent, on ^528 equals (say) . . ^26 o o
and the annual upkeep of road (say) . 44 o o

= total debit of . £70 o o per annum.

Therefore, it would appear that the making of the I mile
of road for the benefit of 1 500 acres would result in a gain of
£55 per annum ; or a gain of nearly gd. per acre per annum,
on a normally stocked area.

In the above case, if the whole area were more mature
and were to be all cleared in the next ten years, the whole
cost of the road would be far more than paid for by the saving
effected on the haulage during the first year.

However, a decision, as to whether the money saved in
the cost of haulage would find its way into the pocket of the
owner of the estate, or the timber merchant, or the timber
hauler, can only be arrived at in theory.

Then again, it will often be possible and advantageous to
make a private road connecting up two main roads, and thus,
perhaps, effecting a saving of 3 or 4 miles haulage by making
a short length of new road. But in this case the saving will
not be at the same rate per foot, as the comparison is
different. It may be that Jd. to Jd. per foot per mile will be
saved if only horse traction be considered ; but, in the case
of steam traction, the saving will perhaps be only y^d. per
mile.

Forest Tram-way. — Instead of making a hard road, the
making of a forest tramway will sometimes be preferable.
There is not a great difference in the actual cost, or in the
upkeep, if depreciation on the rails and rolling stock be
taken into account.

If there be no levelling of gradients, etc., a good horse
tramway, including 4 sets of two bogies each, will cost, laid
complete, about £300 to £400 per mile. The haulage, usually,
will cost about fths of that of ordinary road haulage by
horses ; but in cases where there is a long decline, the haulage
will be very much less.

FOREST TRAMWAY 315

However, unless the tramway leads to the place where
the timber is to be converted, it will generally be preferable
to make a hard road and rely upon ordinary haulage, unless
the length of tramway is very long — at least over i mile.
For, at the end of the tramway, the timber would have to be
unloaded, and then reloaded on to waggons ; so that, unless
the length of tramway be sufficient to more than pay for the
cost of reloading, out of the saving effected by the cheaper
cost of tramway haulage over ordinary road haulage, there
will not be much advantage in having the tramway instead of
a metalled road.

The advantages of a tramway over a road are briefly : —

(1) Haulage is very cheap.

(2) The tramlines can be moved, and spurs are easily

made right up to the nearest ride where the timber is
growing.

And the disadvantages are : —

(1) That unloading and reloading on to waggons is

usually necessary.

(2) That the tramway lines are not serviceable for other

vehicles of commerce (if so desired).

In laying tramways, a gradient up to I in 13 is admissible,
and curves with a radius of from 70 to 80 feet ; though, if only
short lengths of timber are being removed, the radius of a
curve may be much less. The rails should weigh about 5 Ibs.
per foot, and there should be sleepers about every 3 feet 6
inches apart. Lighter metal will suffice if the sleepers be
closer together.

The most serviceable sleepers (or ties) are, for portability,
those made of corrugated steel ; though creosoted wooden
sleepers may be used. The usual gauge is 24 inches. Near
dangerous places, as where a steep gradient must terminate
in a curve, a short length of " run away lines " should be
provided, if possible. These should lead up hill, so as to stop
the bogies or trollies, and switch points will have to be
provided, so as to turn the trollies off. This, however, would
involve having a man stationed at these points.

316 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE

The following specification has been given for a tramway
1 300 yards long.1

1300 yards light railway material, 24 in. guage, consisting of: —

(1) 520 flat-bottom steel rails, 14 Ibs. per yard, in 15 -feet sections,

complete, with fish-plates, bolts, and nuts.

(2) 1300 single corrugated steel sleepers, 30 in. long, 3^ in. wide,

by £ in. thick, complete, with their necessary bolts and nuts
for laying 3 feet apart, with riveted clips for 14 Ib. flat-
bottom steel rails, with clutch bolts, 4f in. by i in., and with
nuts and washers.
The above at 2s. Qd. per yard of line . . . . ^178 15 o

Two sets of points at ^3 600

Four sets each of two bogies, with double screw brakes,
swivel bolsters, chains, jacks, and all necessary

fittings, complete 54 16 o

1300 creosoted Scots Pine intermediate sleepers, 3 ft.

by 5 in. by i^ in. . . . . . . n 14 o

Labour on laying track and tarring rails . . . 35 o o

Total . . ^286 5 o
This equals 43. 5d. per yard run.

Timber Slides. — Occasionally in this country the use of
timber slides may be advantageous in extracting timber.
As, for instance, when timber is grown on a high plateau and
the descent down is very awkward. A slide is made of
poles of timber ; it is trough shape in section ; and its
surface must be free from projections. They are, however,
very expensive, and do not last many years.

The use of timber slides can never be of such common
occurrence in this country as in many places abroad. Nor
can the drifting or rafting of timber in streams and rivers
often be resorted to in this country, although it is, where
practicable, the cheapest means of transporting timber,
and has the additional advantage of helping to season it.

So, again, the sledging of timber on frozen tracks is
out of the question.

Transportation by canals in barges costs about id.
per foot per 1 5 miles. The cost, however, is very variable,
and is largely governed by local competition.

1 "A Forest Tramway," by F. Moon : Transactions of Royal Scottish
Arboricultural Society ^ January 1908.

RAILWAY RATES 317

Railway Carriage of Timber. — This is a matter of great
importance to all who are interested in the production and
utilisation of timber. For the cheaper the freight, the less local
should be the market for timber; and, consequently, better
prices might be anticipated in any sale of timber. The cost of
transporting timber, whether by road or rail, to a consuming
centre, is one of the chief factors in determining its price.

The cost of carriage by rail is, roughly, id. per foot
(q. g.) per 16 miles including the cost of loading, but not of
unloading. It is, however, subject to very great variations
governed by competition with other lines, facilities for
loading, etc., etc.

Within recent years much has been heard about the
difference in railway rates on home-grown and imported
timber ; and the railway companies are constantly accused
of attempting to penalise the trade in home-grown timber,
whilst fostering the trade with foreign countries.

However, the case against the railway companies is not
really so bad as some over-zealous champions of the cause
for the home producer would lead one to believe. For the
rates per measured " ton " in round timber and converted
or squared timber are not directly comparable. But, that
discrepancies per actual ton weight do arise, and often
very considerable discrepancies, cannot be denied. Though
to what extent they can be justified, on the ground of
" through rates," or of having a large constant quantity
to handle, or of being more easily handled, or of a given
weight requiring less stowage room,1 (as is the case when
converted timber is carried instead of " round " timber) is
a very difficult question to decide, impartially.

In order that this question may be more fully understood,
it is necessary to consider, in some detail, the methods
adopted by the railway companies in arriving at the weights
of timber, and to contrast some actual rates per measured
" ton " with the proportional rates per actual ton of foreign
and home-grown timber.

1 There may, however, not be much difference if the round timber
is green and the converted timber is seasoned.

318 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE

Briefly, the conditions of the railway companies are as
follow : —

(1) For squared timber the 144 divisor1 is used.

(2) For round timber — string under bark and 113 divisor

(or if measured over bark, an allowance for bark to
be made). Includes loading.

But on (i) Scotch railways, (2) or from Scotch
railways to England or Wales, (3) or from North-
Eastern Railway stations —

Tape over bark, and 144 divisor, and loading2
is not included.

(3) The companies reserve the right to charge separately

for bark when measuring with string under bark and
113 divisor.

(4) Timber, in pieces over 6 tons, is charged 25 per cent.

over usual rates.

(5) The weights of timber are ascertained from the
measurements on the assumption that : —

Acacia . . . „

Ash . . ^

Beech ........

Hornbeam

Oak

Elm (if string under bark, and 113 divisor)

And that :—

Alder

Birch . . . ....

Spanish Chestnut

Elm (tape over bark, and 144 divisor)

Fir

Hemlock

Larch

Pine

Spruce

Maple

Plane . . . .....

Poplar . . . • „ . . *.•.*•
Sycamore . . . . : . • • . .

Walnut IS

1 Vide Chapter XIII.

2 Tape over bark rates are not the same as string under bark rates. In
nearly all cases, tape over bark rates may be agreed upon by the sender.

40 cub. ft.

(as measured)

equal i ton.

50 cub. ft.

(as measured)

equal I ton.

RAILWAY RATES 319

(6) Rates for round timber do not include unloading.

(7) When round timber is consigned, the number of cubic

feet must be declared by the sender ; or else an
extra charge will be made.

(8) For pieces of timber, of less than four tons weight,

which, owing to their length, require more than I
truck, a minimum charge of I ton per truck is made
for each truck so used, whether carrying part of
the load or used as a safety waggon only.

(9) Pit-wood for mining purposes is charged at measure-

ment weight and tape over bark with 144 divisor.

(10) Except between stations on Scotch railways, the
following special conditions hold good, and special
rates per ton are quoted for 2 tons and upwards : —

(a) Fir and Pine deals, battens, and boards ^ 66 cub. ft.
(unprepared, and not exceeding 4 in. (as measured)
in thickness, post and rails, Fir cut > equal I ton,
square for fencing (and not exceeding and

4 in. in thickness) J special rates.

(£) Planks, sawn or hewn square, or waney-edged logs of

Alder . .

Ash

Beech

Birch

Chestnut

Elm

Fir

Larch

40 or 50 ft.

per ton
(vide sect. (5)),

Pine ....

0 special rates.

Spruce . . . , . . .

Hornbeam ... * «•'.'•

Plane . X- • »' •

Poplar . . . ...

Sycamore .

(c) Pitwood and telegraph poles (consigned direct to a mine),
ordinary measurement weight, but special rate, viz., 20 per
cent, over rate for deals, battens, and boards.

With reference to the above, it may be stated, by way of a
summary, that

(i) Battens, deals, and boards of Fir and Pine are carried

320 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE

at a special rate, and 66 cubic feet (actual or true
contents) are reckoned to I ton.

(2) Planks or square baulks of all timbers are carried at

the same special rate, and 40 or 50 cubic feet (actual
or true contents) are reckoned to one ton.

(3) Round Timber at ordinary rates and

{Quarter girth measurement over bark,
,44 divisor;'
Or true contents under bark,1 113
divisor,
are reckoned to i ton.

Thus, it is evident that Fir or Pine (only), battens, deals,
and boards are given a preference over planks or square
baulks of Fir or Pine ; for 66 cubic feet (true contents) are
carried to the ton instead of 50 cubic feet (true contents).
This preference for the battens, deals, and boards is equivalent
to an import duty on the planks or baulks ; hence, merchants
are not likely to employ home labour to saw planks, etc., into
scantlings, when they have the extra railway freight to
pay.2

Now, before comparing any rates between square timber
(whether imported or not) and round timber, it is necessary
to note the difference between the two forms of measuring
timber in the round ; and to compare their measurements
with the true contents.

With a bark allowance of I inch to I foot, a log
containing 78^ cubic feet over bark with 144 divisor,
will give nearly 83 J cubic feet under bark with the 113
divisor. So that the latter gives just over 6 per cent, more
contents.

But in the above case the true contents, measured over
bark, would be 100 cubic feet

Thus, by the tape over bark method, each measured

1 The rates per measured ton are not necessarily identical for the two
forms of measurement ; and loading is only included in the 113 divisor
case.

2 But probably they could not saw up so cheaply as is done abroad,
even if all timber, good and bad, were imported in baulks.

RAILWAY RATES

321

"ton" contains rather more cubic contents than ij "tons"
of square timber.

So that, cceteris paribus, a rate of 143. a ton for timber
in the plank would be equal to a rate of 173. lod. a ton for
timber in the "round";1 therefore, an increase of 2/f per
cent, on the rate for square timber should be made for round
timber. But, in order to make a perfectly impartial
comparison between rates on imported planks or baulks and
home-grown timber in the round, it is necessary to make
some allowance for the difference in the weight per foot of
the same kind of timber, owing to the home-grown timber
being consigned in a green state and the imported timber
being more or less seasoned.

This cannot be determined with mathematical accu-
racy, as every individual case differs; but, in a general way,
there is a striking difference in the weight per foot (true
contents).

Without entering into too much detail, the following may
be taken as a rough average of the weights per foot (true
contents) of the heavy timbers and of the conifers, both in
the green state and when seasoned : —

Weight per foot
(true contents)
in green state.

Weight per foot
when seasoned.

Oak ...

<

\

Beech . -. .

Hornbeam .

i 63 Ibs.

> 46 Ibs.

Acacia.

Elm ....

t

Ash ....

55 Ibs.

t

Conifers *

47 Ibs.

31 Ibs.

But, as the home-grown timber may not be absolutely
green, and as the imported timber will not be absolutely

1 This presumes that the weight of wood and bark is equal (per
volume), and that the timber is not barked.

X

322 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE

seasoned, the following average weights may be taken, in
order to effect the comparison : —

Weight per foot
(true contents)
in more or less
green state.

Weight per foot
in more or less
seasoned state.

Oak .

Beech ....

Hornbeam .

59 Ibs.

50 Ibs.

Acacia.

Elm .

t

Ash .

53 Ibs.

t

Conifers

45 Ibs.

34 Ibs.

Thus, in the case of Oak or the other heavy woods, except Ash,
there is an actual increase in weight, owing to carrying green
timber, instead of more or less seasoned timber, of 18 per cent.

And in the case of conifers, the increase amounts to 32^
per cent.

So that it would seem that the railway companies are
justified, when carrying home-grown timber in the "round,"
in adding to their rate per ton for square timber.

In the case of the heavy woods,* 27-4% + 18% = (say) 45%

„ „ conifers, 27-4% + 32-3% = „ 59%

* Except Ash, when it should be 27-4 per cent, plus 6 per cent., equals (say)
33 per cent.

Thus, for given rates per ton in the plank, the rates
for timber in the round, tape over bark, should be as follow : —

Heavy Hardwoods. Conifers,
v j

Rate in round
should be

If rate per ton In
plank equals

Rate in round
should be

£ S. D.

£ S. D.

£ S. D.

I o 4

o 14 o

I 2 3

190

100

i II 9

i i 9

o 15 o

i 3 10

on 7

080

o 12 9

and so on.

RAILWA;Y RATES 323

And then again, in fairness to the companies, it must be
admitted that the timber in the round occupies a great deal
more space per actual cubic foot than square timber.

It is urged by some that the bark should be carried free of
charge, but there seems no justification for such an assertion.

Having regard to the foregoing facts, it would seem that,
speaking generally, the railway companies' charges are
perfectly fair, except in the preference given to foreign
boards, battens, and deals, and also the preference on pitwood
(consigned direct to a mine), and on telegraph poles, scaffold
poles, etc. (in many cases).

THE USES AND THE PRICES OP TIMBER.

In dealing with the prices obtained for timber in the
wholesale market, it is impossible to give more than an
approximate estimate of the value ; for so much depends
upon the local markets, the distance from a converting and
manufacturing centre, the accessibility of the timber, the
quality of the timber, and so on. Then again, it is of great
importance to have a good knowledge of the various uses to
which timber is put ; for this will often reveal the demand, or
otherwise, of any particular timber in any particular locality.

In all cases the cost of haulage and extraction must be
carefully considered.

With reference to the prices quoted hereafter for timber,
for which the general market has no special demand, such, for
instance, as Oak burrs, Walnut, Box, Lime, Cherry, it will
invariably be the better plan for the vendor's agent to
endeavour to place such timber in its special market, and so
to obtain a better price. It involves much extra trouble,
but such extra trouble will be amply repaid.

Occasionally, also, it will pay to place some of the more
common timbers in the hands of the converters. For
instance, good Beech might be "slabbed" and sent to the
chair-making districts, and so on.

The following list will show some of the chief uses to
which timber is put, and also the prices that may be expected,

324 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE

if there be a reasonable market within a reasonable distance.
In all cases the higher prices indicate the best quality timber,
and usually that of large dimensions ; whereas, the lower
prices are for small or inferior timber : —

OAK (Pedunculate or Sessile) : —

Uses. — High-class building work, window- and door-sills,
coffins, panelling, church fittings, ship-building, cask
staves, furniture, railway and other waggon building,
spokes, parquet flooring, ladder rungs, railway " keys,"
posts, piles, groynes, gates, and fencing, and, in fact,
wherever great strength and durability are required.

Note. — The pedunculate is the stronger and harder wood of
the two.

"Brown" Oak. — In some cases, when Oak are
felled, they are seen to be " Brown," though apparently
healthy, and the timber is quite sound. Such Brown
Oak have a great value, though not now so highly
prized as formerly. The timber is cut into veneers,
and used for ornamental furniture, picture frames,
cabinets, fancy boxes, etc.

Oak "burrs,"1 and Pollard Oak. — Often large
" burrs," or cushion-like excrescences, from which a
mass of small twigs are growing, are found on the
trunks of Oak trees (and other trees), and after the
same manner, large cushions are found at the top of
the trunks of Pollard Oaks, where they have been
periodically pollarded. These burrs or cushions are
of great value. They are very ornamental, and are
cut into veneers, which present an appearance some-
what like " Bird's eye " Maple, owing to the partial
development of a mass of latent buds.

The veneers are used for ornamental furniture, etc.

1 The primary cause of these " burrs " must generally be ascribed to
various errors in sylvicultural management, which result in the flushing
of latent buds ; whereas the secondary cause, which prevents normal
development, is most usually due to spring and autumn frosts ; though
there are other causes, such as repeated damage by deer or cattle ;
fungous disease of the young twigs (? Myxoderma\ etc., etc.

OAK: PRICES AND USES 325

OAK — continued.

Prices. — Good quality Oak (pedunculate or sessile) is
worth is. 6d. to 2s. per foot for butts over 12 inches1
quarter girth ; one-half that price, i.e., Qd. to is. per
foot, for trees under 12 inches quarter girth, or for tops.
Or sometimes different prices are paid, according to
the total number of feet in a tree, e.g. : —

For trees containing 10 cub. ft. or under, 9d. to is. per foot.
For trees containing over 10 cub. ft. and under 20 cub. ft.,

is. 3d. to is. 6d. per foot.
For trees containing over 20 cub. ft. and under 30 cub. ft.,

is. 6d. to is. Qd. per foot.
For trees containing over 30 cub. ft, is. 9d. to 2s. per foot.

Brown Oak is worth from 73. to 145. a cubic foot
according to quality and demand.

Oak " Burrs " or " Pollards " are worth from 2s. 6d.
to i os. per foot super, for every I inch in thickness.

TURKEY OAK: —

Uses. — This timber is very inferior to the pedunculate
or sessile Oak. It is a quick-growing tree, and has
not the same strength ; nor has it such a well-
marked " grain."

It may be used for panelling or any interior work,
where great strength is not required, furniture, etc. It
might be used extensively in place of much of the
imported oak from Austria and elsewhere.

Price. — 5d. to pd. per cubic foot.

RED OAK (Q. rubra):—

This timber is superior to that of the Turkey Oak.
There is, however, no home-grown timber on the
market. It would be reasonable to anticipate a price
of lod. to is. 2d. per cubic foot.

1 When timber is bought or valued on this plan, the average quarter
girth of the butt, or of any length from stop to stop, is taken as
determining whether full price or half shall be paid. No artificial stops
are made ; as, for instance, by measuring a length up to the exact spot
where the tree or bole ceases to be 12 inches quarter girth.

326 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE

ASH :—

Uses. — Wheelwrights' work, coach building, agricultural
implements, shafts, furniture, chair legs, tool handles,
oars, and wherever elasticity is of importance. The
timber should not be more than about 70 years old
when cut. English grown Ash is superior to im-
ported Ash for nearly all purposes.

Prices. — Large sound butts, is. 6d. to 2s. 6d. a cubic foot.
Small trees, if sound, is. to is. 6d.

SPANISH CHESTNUT :—

Uses. — It is an excellent substitute for Oak in many cases.
It is quite as durable as Oak, but not so strong. It
is used for gate posts, fencing, furniture. Good sound
Chestnut free from shakes, as for instance, that grown
in the South-West of England, can be substituted for
Oak in most house-building work ; and for the out-
side timber work of old " half-timbered " houses and
cottages. The timber should usually be cut before it
is more than 65 years old, though in the South-West
of England slightly longer rotations are admissible.

Prices. — lod. to is. 6d. for butts 12 inches quarter girth
and over; 6d. to is. for tops, or trees under 12
inches quarter girth.
ELM (English) : —

Uses. — Coffins, tin plate boxes, seats of wooden chairs,
weather boarding, wheelbarrows, cart bottoms, pulley
blocks, keels of ships, boarding for stall partitions in
farm buildings, naves for wheels, etc.

Prices. — For sound butts 12 inches quarter girth and over,
8d. to is.; under 12 inches quarter girth and tops,
4d. to 6d.

ELM (Wych) :—

This wood is tougher than English Elm.
Uses. — It is used for the same purposes as English Elm ;
but for many purposes it is a more valuable wood.
Young Wych Elm poles are often used for shafts
instead of Ash, though they are heavier.

ELM— BEECH— SYCAMORE— POPLARS 327

ELM (Wych) — continued.

Prices. — About the same as for English Elm. But in
some parts of the country 2d. or 3d. a foot extra can
be obtained, especially for young Wych Elm.

BEECH :—

Uses. — Furniture, and especially the legs and backs of
wooden chairs, piano making, backs of hair brushes,
boot and shoe trees, plane boxes, and other carpenters'
tools. Keels of ships (sometimes). Frames of butter
churns, cider presses. It lasts well under water and
is used for planking (under water).

Prices. — These are very variable. Usually lod. to is. 4d.
for butts 21 inches quarter girth and over; and
5d. to /d. for trees under 12 inches quarter girth
and tops. But if near a chair factory or other manu-
facturing centre, up to 2s. a foot may be expected for
large good butts, and is. to is. 6d. for smaller
trees.

NORWAY MAPLE AND SYCAMORE :—

Uses. — Furniture, dairy utensils, bread-platters, and,

generally, for turning toys, reels, etc.

Large girthed clean butts have a special value as

rollers in calico mills; but they must be over 18

inches quarter girth.
Prices. — lod. to is. 4d. a foot for fairly large timber,

5d. to lod. for small timber. If large enough for

mill rollers, 33. to 55. a foot.

POPLARS (Black and Black Italian and White):—

Uses. — Packing cases, bottoms and sides of carts, brake
blocks for railway and other carriages, floor boards.
It is the least inflammable of any wood. It makes
excellent pulp wood.

Black and Black Italian Poplar have a special use
for butter boxes or cases, as their timber is the least
odorous of any timber.

328 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE

POPLARS — continued.

Prices. — If near a good market, 8d. to is. 3d. But
ordinarily, 6d. to pd. In London large butts fetch
from is. 3d. to is. 6d. As a rule the Black Poplars are
worth id. to 2d. a foot more than the White Poplar.

The Lombardy Poplar is of little value, and is
usually a drug on the market at 3d. a foot.

TREE WILLOWS : —

Uses. — Packing cases, bottoms and sides of carts, floor
boards, charcoal for gunpowder, toy making. There
is a special market for cricket bats, for which pur-
pose the " close-barked " trees x are the best.
Prices. — 6d. to lod. a foot.

But if suitable for cricket bats, up to 73. a foot may
be obtained.

HORNBEAM :—

Uses. — Cog-wheels and other woodwork in machinery,
pulley blocks, wooden screws and nails, turnery, and
various minor purposes. The wood is very hard.
Prices. — lod. to is. 3d.

LIME :

Uses. — Piano sounding boards, cabinet work, turnery,

packing cases, leather cutting boards.
Prices. — pd. to is. 3d.

Occasionally a big price is obtained for special
butts in a special market.

WALNUT :—

Uses. — Furniture, carving, gun stocks.

Note. — Most of the walnut used is of foreign origin ; and
English-grown timber is not easily saleable at a good price.
Gun stocks are imported roughly shaped, and home-grown
timber cannot compete with them ; but home-grown timber
should sell readily for furniture.

Walnut " Burrs," are very valuable, and are cut
into veneers. This trade, however, is almost entirely
confined to France.

Vide Chapter XV.

WALNUT— BIRCH— ALDER— ACACIA 329

WALNUT — continued.

Prices. — Walnut Timber (Juglans regia), is. 36. to
2s. 6d. (or more) a cubic foot.

The Black Walnut should be worth considerably
more — (say), 2s. to 33. a cubic foot.

Walnut " Burrs " are bought by weight in the
"trade," at from £2$ to £40 per ton.

BIRCH : —

Uses. — Furniture and cabinet making. Bobbins, staves
for cheap barrels, clogs, turning, pudlocks, charcoal
for gunpowder.

Note. — Many of the pudlocks used in London scaffolding
consist of imported Birch. In America, thin layers of wood
are skimmed off round the circumference of a log and used as
seats for tramcars, railway station seats, garden seats, etc.

Prices. — 4d. to 8d. a cubic foot.

ALDER : —

Uses. — Clogs, cigar boxes, broom heads, toys. The
timber will last well when entirely underground or
when always under water, and is occasionally used
for wooden drains. It is one of the best woods for
charcoal for gunpowder.

Prices. — 5d. to Qd. a cubic foot.
HORSE CHESTNUT: —

Uses. — Rollers for cotton mills (if large), pattern making
(for castings), bottoms of carts, packing cases, turning.

Prices.— 6d. to Sd. a cubic foot.
ACACIA (False Acacia) : —

Uses. — Gate and fence posts — (it is very durable), — tree
nails, and by cabinetmakers, for it is a very hand-
some wood. On the Continent it is used for cart shafts
and for spokes of wheels. It is a very elastic wood.

Prices. — Probably is. to is. 6d. ; but the timber is seldom
on the market.

PLANE : —

Uses. — Furniture, turning.

Prices. — About is. a foot; but it is rarely on the market

330 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE

BOX:—

Uses. — Mathematical instruments and foot-rules, turn-
ing, wood-engraving blocks.

Prices. — Probably 2s. to 6s. a cubic foot ; but home-grown
timber is seldom on the market.

It is generally bought by weight — say, £4. to £12
a ton.
HOLLY :—

Uses. — Much the same as for Box ; it is also stained in
imitation of Ebony.

Prices. — Probably 2s. to 5s. a cubic foot, if over 4 inches

quarter girth ; or say £4 to £10 a. ton.
CHERRY : —

Uses. — Furniture, cabinet making, interior decorative
work in houses, wooden block flooring, turning,
musical instruments.

Prices. — 6d. to is. 3d. a cubic foot.
LARCH :—

Uses. — Sleepers, pit props, for strutting and shoring
tunnel work, etc., gates, fencing, straining poles in
hop gardens, bridge building, and for general estate
work. The timber is very durable, but has a tendency
to warp and twist, and is not very suitable for ordinary
building construction.

Prices. — If large and sound, lod. to is. 5d. Small trees

and poles, 6d. to lod.
SCOTS PINE:—

Uses. — The timber, if well grown and free from side
branches, can be used for all the purposes for which
the " Red " Deal of commerce is used. For instance,
general building purposes — joists, rafters, trusses,
doors, and door frames, window frames, etc., pit
timber, telegraph and telephone poles, scaffolding, etc.
Note. — Unless, however, it be grown in very close canopy
when young, the preference will always be given to imported
timber.

Prices. — 4d. to 8d. a foot for large clean timber ; 2d. to
4d. for small or badly grown trees.

PINES— DOUGLAS FIR— SPRUCE 331

OORSICAN PINE is used for the same purposes, and
worth the same price. But Austrian Pine is much
inferior in quality and value, and is always coarse
and knotty.

WEYMOUTH PINE: —

Uses. — This is the " Yellow Pine " of commerce, and is
used for high-class joinery, shelves, door panels, cup-
boards, etc., packing cases.
Prices. — 6d. to 8d. a foot for clean grown trees.

DOUGLAS FIR:—

Uses. — This is the " Oregon " Pine of commerce. The
heart wood is very strong and durable, and may be
used wherever strength is necessary. In constructive
building work — joists, rafters, trusses, quarter parti-
tions, bridge building, sleepers, pit props, masts and
spars of ships.

The sap -wood may be kiln dried, by which means
the " figure " of the wood is brought out, and it can be
used for all interior house decorative work : — e.g.,
panelling, skirting, window boards, match lining,
stair treads and risers, newels, handrails, shelves, etc.
Prices. — There is no home-grown timber on the market
at present ; but it is quite reasonable to expect 9d. to
is. 3d. a cubic foot for closely grown timber, since
home-grown timber is of excellent quality in all
respects.

NORWAY SPRUCE :—

Uses.— This is the "White Deal" of commerce. The
white Christiana flooring boards are cut from this
tree.

It may be used for the same purposes as the
imported timber, though it will seldom be of the same
quality, except that grown in Scotland. Its uses
embrace : — floor boards, inferior joinery, skirting,
mouldings, packing cases, scaffold poles, pit props.
It makes excellent pulp wood.

Prices. — 4d. to /d. a cubic foot.

332 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE

SILVER FIR :—

Uses. — It can be used for the same purposes as Spruce.

The imported timber is often known as " White "

Pine.
Prices. — 4d. to /d. a cubic foot.

THUYA GIGANTBA :—

Uses. — The timber is very durable and, in its native
habitat, the timber is very valuable, and is used for
gate posts, " shingles," outside weather boarding,
and also largely in house construction and interior
work, though it is not so suitable as the Douglas Fir
for this purpose. The timber could be used as a
substitute for Larch in many cases.

Prices. — It seems reasonable to anticipate a price of 6d.
to icd. a cubic foot.

PIT TIMBER FOR PROPS, ETC. : —

Almost any kind of timber can be used for such
purposes ; though coniferous timber is more frequently
used than the timber of broad-leaved trees.

Almost any tops or poles down to 2.\ to 3 inches
diameter at the small end can be used, if they are
straight. They are used in various lengths from 2 feet
2 inches and upwards.

Prices. — Poles suitable for pitwood are usually sold by
the ton weight, or by the load, etc. The actual
price in the forest will chiefly depend upon the
distance from a colliery. About £i, 2s. a ton is
paid by some collieries for suitable poles delivered
at the colliery ; so that, the price in the forest
would be about £i, 2s. a ton, less the cost of
haulage, say is. a ton per mile (for road haulage) if
there were no middleman's profit to be allowed for.

RAILWAY SLEEPERS:—

Within recent years foreign timber has been
almost exclusively used for this purpose, but formerly
home-grown Larch was chiefly used, and sometimes
Oak.

CORDWOOD AND FAGGOTS 333

RAILWAY SLEEPERS — continued.

Fairly large timber is necessary for cutting into
railway sleepers, which are 9 feet long by 10 inches by
5 inches. If two sleepers are to be cut out of one
length, the small end of the log must be 12 inches
quarter girth under bark. But if only one sleeper is
to be cut, the small end need only be 8J inches
quarter girth under bark.

Prices. — The timber will be bought at so much a foot,
in the ordinary way.

CORDWOOD is used chiefly for firewood, though some
kinds are burnt for charcoal, and there are other
minor uses.

Prices. — This will depend upon the size of the cord and
the vicinity to a good market, etc.

In well-wooded districts a cord 8 by 4 by 4 feet is
worth from 8s. to IDS. ; a cord 16 feet 4 inches by 2
feet 6 inches by 2 feet 2 inches is worth from 43. 6d.
to 6s. 6d. ; though if near large towns another 25 per
cent, or 50 per cent, may be added to these prices.

These prices are equal to about 55. per ton weight,
and as the heating power of wood is about half of that
of good coal, the price compares very favourably with
that of coal, in spite of the more or less unavoidable
waste in burning more wood than is required.

FAGGOTS :—

Prices. — These vary largely, according to the size of the
faggots and the demand, etc.

Small faggots of " browse " — />., tops of coniferous
trees — (about 5 feet long) are worth about 53. to
6s. 6d. a 100.

Small faggots (about 5 feet long) of coppice or
hardwood trees, 8s. to los. 6d. a 100.

Large faggots of coppice or hardwood trees, 135.
to 1 8s. a 100.

CHAPTER XV.

SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES —
BROAD-LEAVED TREES.

ACACIA (False Acacia).
Robinia pseudo- Acacia = The Acacia (False) or Locust Tree.

IT is not a native tree to this country.

As to Seed. — The seed ripens in early autumn in
England, but it rarely ripens in Scotland.

Home-grown seed should generally be avoided.

Spring sowing is to be recommended, but the seed should
be kept in the pod until the season for sowing arrives, other-
wise its germinative capacity rapidly deteriorates.

The germinative capacity is about 55 per cent.

One pound of seed contains about 22,000 seeds.

The timber is very hard and durable and elastic. It is
the most durable (when felled young) of any timber that can
be grown in this country.

It is an easy timber to work, but often causes sores to
those engaged in working it ; apparently, on account of some
poisonous properties inherent to it.

It is largely used for making long wooden pegs or nails
for use in shipbuilding.

SoU and Situation. — A light, deep, dry soil is the most
suitable for it. It will not thrive on wet soils or stiff clays.

On poor, deep, dry soils, it grows quite well, where other
broad-leaved trees, except Birch or White Alder, would
absolutely fail. It requires considerable summer warmth,
and is very tender as to spring and autumn frosts.

Southern aspects suit it best, provided frosts are avoided.

334

ACACIA 335

Cultivation, etc. — It is a very light-demanding, thinly
foliaged tree. Its roots are stoloniferous and extend over
a large area, and it throws up innumerable suckers.

It is a very rapid-growing tree, but generally becomes
rotten at the heart when more than 40 to 60 years of age,
at which period it should be felled.

Occasionally it may be planted as standards over coppice ;
but there is at present very little market for its timber, and
its chief use should be for estate fences, gate posts, etc., for
which purpose, however, it will not pay to grow it separately.

It is valuable for planting as a fire belt on dry sandy
Pine soils, in the same way that White Alder and Birch may
be planted ; but, otherwise, it is of little sylvicultural interest,
until a greater price can be obtained for its timber in the
open market.

It shoots very well from the stool, when coppiced.

It is the only large leguminous tree that has been planted
for timber in this country ; and on poor soil the nodules on
its roots are instrumental in rendering the free nitrogen of
the air available for the use of the tree.

336 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

ALDER.

Alnus glutinosa = Common Alder.
Alnus incana = The White Alder.

The Common Alder is a native tree to this country.

As to Seed. — The seed ripens at the end of September,
and the germinative capacity is about 25 per cent. One
pound of seed contains about 320,000 seeds.

Trees 25 years old give good crops of seed, and good
seed years occur every 2 or 3 years.

The timber is soft and splits easily, and is of a reddish-
brown colour. It lasts for a long time under water, but
otherwise soon decays.

If logs are not converted at once, they must be barked,
or strips of bark must be taken off, so as to help it to dry ;
otherwise, it very quickly deteriorates.

Soil and Situation. — A moist soil is essential. It will
grow in the wettest of soils, provided there be no stagnant
water. It is very sensitive to drought. A moderately deep
soil is necessary. It is fairly hardy as to late frosts.

Cultivation, etc. — It is a light-demanding tree ; but will
bear considerable shade when young or when coppiced, pro-
vided the soil be sufficiently moist. It is an excellent tree
for coppice on very wet soils. It grows very rapidly from
the stool and lends itself to a long rotation as underwood,
coppice poles 25 years old often being 40 feet high, and
very straight and clean. The stools are long-lived.

Short rotations are harmful to it.

It is not a very profitable tree to grow by itself; and the
market for its timber is not very good in most localities.
It is most useful as coppice under Poplars, Willow, Ash,
or Oak.

The White Alder grows well on the same kind of soil as
the Common Alder. But it will also thrive on very dry soil ;
and it can bear a considerable amount of shade. It is very
quick growing when young. It has stoloniferous roots, and
throws out innumerable suckers.

ALDER 337

It has been used successfully to bind together spoil heaps,
consisting of the waste from stone quarries.

Planted at considerable distances apart, the ground soon
gets completely covered ; and the barren spoil heap, formerly
an eyesore, presents a pleasing spectacle.

It is also most useful for forming fire belts of coppice on
dry barren sands, where most other hardwoods would fail.

Of Insects. — A saw-fly, Croesus septentrionalis, often does
considerable damage by defoliating the trees.

338 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

ASH.

Praxinus excelsior = The Common Ash or European Ash.
Fraxinus Americana = The White Ash or American Ash.
Fraximis Oregona = The Oregon Ash.
Praxinus viridis = The Green Ash.

The Common Ash is a native tree to this country, and
is one of the most valuable trees that can be grown.

It produces seed freely and constantly from about the
3Oth year onwards ; or earlier if grown in the open.

As to Seed. — The seed ripens in October, but does not
germinate until the second spring. The seed should be kept,
meantime, in pies of moist sand, and finally sown in drills in
April of the 2nd year.

An average germinative capacity of the seed is about 60
to 65 per cent. ; and I Ib. of seed contains about 6800 seeds.

The timber quickly deteriorates if left in the forest ; it
loses less weight in seasoning than any other hardwood
timber.

The timber is very valuable ; and is usually worth as
much per foot, or more, than the best English Oak. It is
the most elastic of any British-grown timber, and is far
superior to all imported European Ash.

Soil and Situation. — A deep marl (if not too stiff) or a
good loam with some lime in it, is the most suitable soil for
Ash ; and a constant, plentiful supply of moisture is essential ;
but wet soils should generally be avoided, as spring frosts are
far more common on such soils. Shallow soils, or stiff soils,
or light dry soils are quite unsuited to it.1 A thick humus
soil covering is of great advantage.

The tree is very susceptible to late spring and early
autumn frosts, and the greatest caution is necessary when
planting it. Fortunately, it is usually rather late in coming
into leaf. It likes moist air; and succeeds far better on
northern than on southern aspects. Where late frosts are

1 However, Ash poles, up to 20 or 30 years old, can be grown on
stiff clays and on other soils which are quite unsuitable for mature timber.

ASH 339

feared, the young crop should be raised under a light shelter
wood.

Cultivation, etc. — The Ash is a very thinly foliaged tree,
and pure crops of Ash are quite unable to keep the soil clean
or preserve soil moisture for more than a few years.

The trees are very light-demanding after they are about
20 to 30 years of age ; but, up to that period, they will bear
slight shade ; so also will young coppice poles. Young self-
sown Ash will bear far more shade than planted trees.

The trees grow very rapidly when young ; and are not
usually checked very much by being transplanted, as is the
case with Oak and Beech and Spanish Chestnut.

Any newly planted trees which do not grow rapidly
should be cut over at the ground level, and the best shoot
only allowed to grow.

Ash is peculiarly suited to being cut over in this manner,
and the resulting growth is generally very clean and straight,
and possesses less tendency to forked growth. The cutting
over may be done at the time of planting, but it is best to
wait one, two, or more years.1 The forked growth is often
caused by the young leading shoot being nipped by frost and
the subsequent development of two opposite buds lower
down.2

Ash make excellent standards over coppice.

In high forest they may, advisably, be grown pure and
underplanted, with seedling shade-bearing trees, before the
land has got in a foul state. Again, Ash can often be easily
regenerated, naturally ; and the shelter of the mother trees
affords beneficial protection to the young crop from frost.
This natural regeneration will not usually be possible on very
moist soils, as the young crop will get choked by weeds.

1 An instance occurred where some Ash, which had been planted 14
years and were not thriving, were thus cut over, and then grew 1 1 feet
in one season.

2 All the lower buds open later than the bud of the leading shoot ;
hence the leader is more likely to suffer. In Germany a forked growth
is often caused by the larva of the Ash bud moth attacking the bud of
the leading shoot.

340 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

But on fairly moist soils, it is often very easy and very
profitable.

Ash naturally regenerated may be perpetually grown as
a two-storied high forest, the upper storey being removed
when necessary.

Larch and Ash grow well as a mixture for about 30 years ;
after that, one or other of the species should usually be cut
out (as the Larch will surpass the Ash), and underplanting
should take place.

Ash and Spanish Chestnut is another very good mixture ;
though the Chestnut, thus grown, will be rather coarse ; but
they can advisably be coppiced.

Ash is peculiarly suitable for the system of high forest
with coppice. And for being partially cleared from the 35th
year onwards.

Usually, when Ash is grown in a mixture, in high forest,
it should be planted in small pure groups or patches ; for its
side branches will have little pruning effect on any other trees
except Larch, with which it may be mixed by single trees.

The thinnings of Ash and small poles are most valuable.

Young Ash standards in coppice should, if the rotation be
a long one, be freed from time to time of any growth of
coppice which threatens them, otherwise they will be unduly
drawn up, and will be unable to support their own weight
when the coppice is cut.

Rotation. — This must be short — from 65 to 75 years.1

Average Returns from pure crops in high forest should be
per acre : —

Thinnings . . . 1380 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.
Final yield (at 70 years) . 1900 „ 6 „
Total production . . 3780 „ 2 „

Average annual increment, 54 cub. ft.

Equivalent net rental2 for land only } at 3% = 173.

(from date of planting) j" at 4% = 93. 3d.

1 Thus, seldom can any undercrop be felled at the same time.

2 After deducting interest on £&, the cost of planting and establish-
ing the crop

ASH 341

Of Fungi. — The Canker Fungus (Nectria ditissima)
causes cankerous spots on the bark, and the timber becomes
blackened, and acquires a most unpleasant smell.

Various species of Polyporus (or Bracket fungi) attack
the stems and branches. Fames igniarius causes white rot.

Of Insects. — The Ash Bark Beetle (Hylesinus fraxint]
attacks the upper branches of healthy trees, and often kills
them. This beetle, together with H. crenatus, is very
common on sickly trees.

The Ash Branch Bark Beetle (H. oleiperda} also occasion-
ally does damage. Cockchafer grubs gnaw the roots of
young trees.

Of other Pests. — Rabbits are, perhaps, more fond of eating
the bark of Ash than of any other tree.

The American Ash, or White Ash, and the Oregon
Ash have probably a great future in this country. Though,
until their success be proved by time, any planting of them
must be regarded somewhat in the light of an experiment.
There is, however, every probability that the Oregon Ash will
prove a most valuable tree in this country ; and may, possibly,
rival the Common Ash.

Both grow very quickly, and they are peculiar in that
their seed germinates during the first year. They are usually
rather later in coming into leaf than the Common Ash, and
so often escape a spring frost when the common variety
suffers.

The White Ash will grow on rather dry, sandy soils,
such soils being far too dry for the Common Ash. It is
therefore worth an extensive trial on such soils. It is the
quickest growing of any variety of Ash.

The Green Ash is not likely to be of much value, as it does
not usually grow to a large size.

342 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

BEECH.
Pagus sylvatica = The Common Beech.

This tree is a native tree to England, but not, apparently,
to Scotland.

As to Seed. — The seed ripens in the autumn.

From the 6oth year onwards the Beech produces good
crops of seed. But seed years are very intermittent ; a really
good year occurring about once in every 5 to 1 2 years.

An average germinative capacity of the seed is about
50 per cent.

And i Ib. of seed contains about 2000 seeds.

The timber is not very strong, nor is it durable when
exposed to inimical influences ; though it will last well under
water. It lends itself to being steamed, and then bent ; and
it takes creosote very well. It is very liable to be worm eaten.
It must be quickly removed from the forest, as it soon
deteriorates if left, and loses its colour. If felled when the
sap has risen, the timber invariably becomes inferior in
colour, and streaked with black markings.

Soil and Situation. — Beech will thrive on a very great
variety of soils, but, generally speaking, a fairly deep soil is
necessary. It delights in a calcareous soil, and will thrive on
shallow soils resting on chalk, or on shallow day soils resting
on disintegrated limestone rock. It is not suited to very stiff
clays ; but, on moderate clays, if the situation be not too wet,
it will succeed admirably. Any prolonged flooding of the
land is usually fatal to it. Very dry soils are not suited to it ;
but, on deep light land of fair quality it usually succeeds well.
It should not be planted on land that has long been covered
with heather, as such land is nearly always too acid, even if
well drained, for the growth of Beech, or any broad-leaved
trees, except Birch or Alder. Beech are very susceptible to
late spring and early autumn frosts, and the former danger is
intensified, inasmuch as the trees usually break out early into
leaf. Young Beech are very susceptible to hot sun ; and, for
the first few years of their existence, overhead shade and

BEECH 343

shelter is very beneficial to them. Northern aspects are far
more suitable for their growth than southern aspects.

Cultivation, etc. — The Beech is a very densely foliaged
tree, and can bear a very great amount of shade. Its side
branches are not easily pruned off by other trees. It is of
slow growth when young ; but, ultimately, grows to a great
height provided it be crowded, and provided its strong
tendency to form a crown be delayed. It receives a consider-
able check on being transplanted ; and it is very impatient of
pruning until it has become well established. If any plants
be cut over, at ground level, at the time of planting, as may
be done with Ash, Norway Maple, or Sycamore, they are
almost sure to be killed. Even when well established, the
tree will not usually stand being coppiced for more than a
few times ; and, after about the second cutting, its vigour is
lessened each time it is coppiced.

Beech makes an excellent hedge, and will stand trimming
well ; and, when thus treated, the leaves, though dead, are
retained all through the winter.

Its dense foliage and thick fall of leaves enables it to
protect and improve the soil in an extraordinary manner.
For this reason it is a very desirable tree in most mixtures.
It may be grown pure, as even-aged high forest, or under
the group or selection systems. It is most valuable for
mixing with other broad-leaved trees, or with Larch. It is,
however, far preferable to use it in uneven-aged mixtures
than in even-aged mixtures ; for, in the latter case, it will
ultimately outgrow and overtop most broad-leaved trees, and,
owing to its slow growth when young, it will fail to prune
any other trees unless they, also, are slow growing. And
then again, if planted on open land, the young trees suffer
from late frosts and hot sun. However, if attempted, even-
aged mixtures should nearly always be by patches, though
Beech and Larch may be otherwise mixed ; but unless the
Beech form the greater proportion of the crop, they will be
very coarse. The Beech is admirably suited for underplant-
ing ; and, if the land be clean enough, I year seedlings can
be dibbled in at a very small cost. However, none but

344 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

thinly foliaged trees should be underplanted, except under
rare circumstances.

Natural regeneration is very easy, provided the land be
clean and be not at all acid or sour,1 and also that rabbits be
kept down. But the " seed " felling must be delayed until a
good seed year comes.

Thinnings are usually necessary from about the 25th year
onwards.

Rotation. — 90 to 130 years for even-aged high forest.
But on poor land or under the selection system a rotation of
85 to 100 years will usually give the best result.

Average Returns from pure crops in close-canopied high
forest should be per acre : —

Thinnings . . . 1660 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.
Final yield (at 1 20 years) 4800 „ 6 „
Total production . . 7060 „ 2 „

Average annual increment, 58f cub. ft.

Equivalent net rental2 for land only | at 3%= is. id.

(from date of planting) ) at 4% = minus 45. 8d.

Of Fungi. — Phytophthora omnivera often destroys beds
of seedlings in the nursery, causing the well-known "damping
off." It is somewhat similar to the potatoe disease.

Nectria ditissima causes a canker on the stem. Beech
is also attacked by various species of Polyporus and Fomes
or Bracket fungi, e.g., Fomes fomentarius, Fomes igniarius,
Polyporus sulphur eus. Agaricus melleus is a very common
saprophyte on the decaying stumps of old Beech trees.

Of Insects. — The Felted Beech Scale — Cryptococcus
fagi — is very common, and often does great damage to trees.
It is recognised as a white felt-like substance on the bark of
the trees.

The weevil (Orchestes fagi) attacks the leaves of trees.

1 For this reason natural regeneration is far more common and far
easier to effect in cases where the soil contains much lime, than where
there is little or no lime in the soil.

2 After deducting interest on ^8, the cost of planting and establishing
the crop.

BEECH 345

The Aphis (PhilapMs fagt) attacks the leaves, and causes
the so-called blight.

Cockchafer Grubs gnaw through the roots of seedlings
and young trees ; and often do great damage.

The foliage is eaten by the larvae of the Hop Dog Moth
(Bombyx pudibundd).

346 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

BIRCH.

Betula alba = The Common Birch.

Betula papyracea = The Paper Birch.
Betula lutea = The Yellow Birch.

There are two distinct varieties of the Common Birch : —

(i) The smooth bark variety = Betula alba pubescens.

(ii) The rough bark variety = Betula alba verrucosa.

The Common Birch is a native tree, but not the others.

As to Seed. — It produces much seed when about 25 years
of age ; and good seed years are very frequent.

The germinative capacity of the seed is only about 20 per
cent.

One pound of seed contains about 800,000 seeds. The
seed ripens about the end of August.

The timber is moderately hard, and does not split well.
It is a very handsome wood.

Occasionally large " burrs " are met with which are very
valuable for cutting into veneers.

Soil and Situation. — Birch will grow on almost any soil,
but it seems to avoid chalky soils. It springs up naturally on
water-logged land and on dry barren sands. It is quite
immune to late spring and early autumn frosts.

Cultivation, etc. — It is a very light-demanding tree. As
a timber producer it is of little value in this country ; but it is
the "best " nurse " which exists.

Where it is desired to plant a frost tender species in a
locality subject to late spring and early autumn frosts, the
growth of Birch affords a ready means of effecting this
purpose. Two year seedling Birch may be dibbled in, and
the tender species planted in about 10 years' time. Such
tender species must be able to withstand some shade ; but
the canopy of Birch is very light and thin.

After the same manner, a few Birch growing over young
crops of Silver Fir or Beech, will afford welcome protection,
not only from frosts but also from hot summer sun.

Birch may also be planted as fire lines on very dry sands,

BIRCH 347

but it is not so efficient as White Alder, as it is not so dense,
nor will it submit to much coppicing ; for most of its reserve
nutriments go to form seed.

The Paper Birch may possibly prove superior to the
Common Birch in many cases. It grows quicker and taller,
and endures more shade than the Common Birch ; but it
appears to be much more exacting.

The Yellow Birch grows up to 100 feet in its native
country, and is much used for furniture.

348 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

CHERRY.

Prumis avium = The Common -wild Cherry or Gean or

Mazzard.
Prunus padus = The Bird or Black Cherry.

As to Seed. — The seed or "stone" should be sown as
soon as it is ripe, about the beginning of July ; otherwise, its
germinative power is quickly lost.

The timber is hard and not very heavy ; and the heart-
wood is of a beautiful brownish-pink or brownish-yellow colour,
and takes a very fine polish. It is valuable to furniture- and
cabinet-makers, and is used for parquet flooring, and for
ornamental wooden block floors. It is also sometimes used
for the heads of wooden golf clubs.

Soil and Situation. — The trees grow on almost any soils,
though a fairly deep soil is necessary for their proper develop-
ment. They will grow on thin soils if the subsoil rock be
disintegrated. They delight in calcareous soils and prefer
a fairly dry soil. Stiff wet soils are not suited to them.

Cultivation, etc. — The trees are quick growing, thinly
foliaged, and light-demanding ; though the Prunus padus will
bear very slight shade. Both species will coppice well. The
Prunus avium (or Gean) makes the taller and better tree, and
its timber is rather darker than the Bird Cherry.

The Gean is only suitable for a short rotation of 60 to
70 years, as it is apt to become rotten at the heart, though
apparently sound when standing. It will probably pay to
plant on many rather poor soils ; and it might be grown as
standards over coppice. The present market for its timber is
small and unremunerative ; but if the timber became better
known, it should find a ready market. For there is an
increasing tendency for furniture- and cabinet-makers to work
up some of the less common kinds of timber ; and, with a
little patience and trouble, a good market might be created.

ELM 349

ELM.

Ulmus campestris = The Common or English Elm.
Ulmus montana = The Wych or Scots Elm.
Ulmus Americana = The American Elm or The White

Elm.

The Scots Elm is native to this country, but the other
two varieties have been introduced.

As to Seed. — The seed of the English Elm never ripens in
this country ; but the Scots Elm seeds freely and frequently.
The seed is ripe in about the first week in June, and should
be sown immediately. The germinative capacity of the
seed is about 25 per cent., and I Ib. of seed contains about
60,000 seeds. Good seed years are very frequent. The
English Elm is propagated by root-suckers.

The timber is not very strong as regards resistance to
weight, tension, and shearing. But it is very difficult to split ;
and it is very durable. The timber of the Scots Elm is
stronger and more elastic than the Common Elm ; and,
when young, is often used in the place of Ash. In many
parts of the country, it is worth about 3d. a foot more than
the Common Elm, provided it be cut when quite young. The
heartwood of the English Elm is reddish-brown in colour,
but that of the Scots Elm is not conspicuous in this manner.

Soil and Situation. — Elm require a considerable amount
of moisture. They will grow in a great variety of soils ; but,
dry sandy soils, or thin chalky soils, or very stiff clays, are
quite unsuited to them.

Clays that suit the Sessile Oak will also generally grow
good Elm ; and Elm will grow on soils which are far too stiff
for Ash.

Generally speaking, Elm require a deep soil, but they will
thrive very well on quite thin clay soils, provided that the
subsoil rock be disintegrated. Stoney subsoils seem to suit
them, as is the case with Larch.

The Elm are fairly hardy as regards late and early frosts ;
and they are one of the few trees which seem to grow equally

350 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES •

well on southern aspects. The Wych Elm does not require
so much warmth as the English Elm, and will grow well in
the North of England and Scotland, whereas the English
Elm thrives best in the South of England.

Cultivation, etc. — Both trees are very light-demanding.
The Scots Elm, unless grown in close canopy, tends to form
a large crown in early life, whereas the English Elm is a
straighter growing tree. Both trees ultimately develop very
large boughs, which often break off and split down the trunk.
The Wych Elm is more storm-proof and deeper rooted than
the English Elm ; and it grows faster than the latter. The
English Elm is one of the least storm-proof trees there are.
Both trees coppice very well and grow vigorous stool shoots
even if the trees are 40 or 50 years old. Both trees also
produce an abundance of suckers.

They may be grown in even-aged high forest, or as
hedgerow timber.

The English Elm may, possibly, be grown as standards
over coppice. It makes the better hedgerow tree of the two,
as it forms a taller and straighter bole, though its roots are
very spreading.

It will, however, seldom be advisable to plant Elm in the
South of England, for there is an abundance of it in the
hedgerows ; and the supply is quite equal to the demand ;
and, furthermore, after severe gales enormous quantities are
often, of necessity, thrown upon the market with a corres-
ponding diminution in price.

In the North of England and Scotland, the Wych Elm
will often prove more profitable than most trees, when grown
upon suitable soil.

On a long rotation of 25 years, Wych Elm forms very
valuable coppice ; and the stools last a long time.

Of Fungi. — Various species of Polyporus and Pomes attack
the tree through wounded surfaces.

Of Insects.— The Elm Bark Beetle — Scolytus destructor
— is often very destructive. It, generally, first attacks the
ends of branches and tops, and works down the tree, separat-
ing the bark from the wood.

ELM 351

The American Elm. — May prove very valuable in this
country; but it is too early at present to form an opinion.
When young it is very quick growing, transplants well, and
seems decidedly hardy as to late frosts. Also, it appears to
bear rather more shade than the English or Scots Elms.

352 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

HAWTHORN.
Crataegus oxyacantha = The Common Hawthorn or " Quick."

This is of interest as being the most common species to
plant for hedgerows ; and it forms the best fence against
stock that can be grown.

As to Seed. — The seed or " haws " are ripe in November.

They should be immediately mixed with dry sand, and
stored for about 16 months in a heap or pie out in the open.
By this means the outside pulp is rotted off, and the seed is
then fit for sowing, which should take place in the beginning
of March.

Soil and Situation. — It will grow almost anywhere ;
except on very wet soils or on very dry soils, where its
growth is unsatisfactory. It delights in deep marly soils. It
is extremely hardy as to spring and autumn frosts.

HAZEL 353

HAZEL.
Corylus avellana = The Hazel.

This is more a shrub than a tree, and is found largely in
coppice.

It is native to this country.

As to Seed. — One pound of seed contains about 420 nuts.

Soil and Situation. — It will grow on almost any soil, but
not on swampy ground. It is little injured by spring and
autumn frosts.

Cultivation, etc. — It is invariably treated as coppice ; the
stool shoots are vigorous and the stools last a long time.

It will bear considerable shade.

Hazel coppice has now very little value, and should seldom,
if ever, be planted. Where it predominates, it should be
grown on a short rotation of 6 or 7 years, when the produce
is more easily sold than if left until older.

354 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

HORNBEAM.
Carpinus Betulus = Common Hornbeam.

It is native to England, and possibly to parts of Scotland.

As to Seed. — It produces seed freely when about 40 years
of age ; and seed years are very frequent.

The germinative capacity of the seed is about 65 to 70
per cent, and I Ib. of seed contains about 14,000 seeds. The
seed does not germinate until the second spring, and must
be kept in sand, as is done in the case of Ash seed.

The timber is very hard, heavy, and tough, but not very
durable when exposed to inimical influences. It is very liable
to be cross-grained.

Soil and Situation. — Hornbeam is found naturally on
rather stiff clay lands, but it will grow on almost all soils,
provided they be deep. It is distinctly hardy as regards
spring and autumn frosts, and will, therefore, often succeed
where Beech must fail.

It will grow on much heavier clay soils than Beech could
possibly succeed upon.

Cultivation, etc. — Hornbeam is densely foliaged, and will
bear a great amount of shade, but not so much as Beech.
Like the Beech, it is a great soil improver. It grows quicker
than Beech when young, but later on it is surpassed by Beech.
It never grows into very tall trees, like Beech; but has a
strong tendency to form a branched crown.

The Hornbeam may be grown and cultivated in a similar
manner to the Beech ; but its smaller out-turn usually
renders the latter preferable wherever it can be grown.

However, in cases where underplanting has been decided
upon, and only a short rotation is desired for the undercrop,
it will often be preferable to underplant with Hornbeam
instead of Beech ; as the former more quickly grow into
saleable timber.

Hornbeam makes excellent coppice, and the stools last
for centuries. It is quite probable that, in view of the low
price of coppice produce, the Hornbeam will prove one of

HORNBEAM 355

the best trees to grow for coppice; for it will bear great
shade, and there will not be the same expense in keeping the
ground fully stocked.

Hornbeam is admirably suited for the coppice in the
system of high forest with coppice.

The Hornbeam may be cut over at ground level the year
it is planted ; but it is best to wait for another year. The
tree is not much checked by being transplanted, and grows
rapidly when young.

Of Fungi. — Nectria ditissima causes a canker on the
stems.

Of Insects. — Cockchafer grubs do much damage to
seedlings and young plants.

The larvae of the Winter Moth (Geometra brumata) some-
times devour the foliage.

356 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

HORSE CHESTNUT.
.dSsculus hippocastanum = The Common Horse Chestnut.

It is not a native tree; and is said to have been
introduced about 1629.

The Timber is soft and not durable, and is of small
market value.

Soil and Situation. — A fairly deep soil is necessary, but
the tree is not very particular, though it will not thrive on
very stiff wet clays. It appears to like calcareous soils. It
is fairly frost hardy, even though it breaks out very early
into leaf.

Cultivation, etc. — The tree is quick growing, but of little
sylvicultural value, and the market for its timber is bad. It
is able to bear a fair amount of shade.

When sown in the nursery, the nuts should be placed
with the scar downwards; a very vigorous growth is made
the first year; seedlings i year old being often over 12
inches high.

Of Fungi. — Nectria cinnabarina often does great
damage to the crowns of the trees.

LIME TREES 357

LIME OR LINDEN TREES.
Tilia Europea = The Common Lime, or Linden, Tree.

There are several varieties of the European Lime, but
none of them are native to this country ; though the tree is
said to have been introduced by the Romans.
Of these varieties may be mentioned : —
Tilia grandifolia = The large or broad-leaved Lime.
Tilia parvifolia — The small-leaved Lime.
Tilia rubra.
Tilia intermedia.

As to Seed. — The seed ripens in this country in
October ; and the best trees can only be grown from seed ;
though, usually, the trees are propagated by layers.

One pound of seed of the broad-leaved variety contains
about 5000 seeds ; and I Ib. of the small-leaved variety
about 15,000 seeds.

The germinative capacity of both varieties is about 55
per cent.

The seed should usually be sown as soon as ripe, and the
beds protected from frosts as the seed germinates. If sown
in the spring, the seed should be stored in rather damp sand
(but not wet sand) ; for, if stored in the dry, much of the
seed will not germinate until the second spring.

The timber is white, soft, and close-grained, and is lighter
in weight than that of any other common broad-leaved
species. Like all white-wooded trees, it should be quickly
removed from the forest after being felled.

Bast is obtained from the bark.

Soil and Situation. — The Lime will grow upon almost
any soil provided that it be fairly deep and not too dry ; and,
on the other hand, not too wet.

It is often found growing upon thin dry soils overlying
disintegrated limestone rock.

It usually requires a fairly sheltered situation.

The trees are tender as to spring and autumn frosts, and
also as to drought.

358 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

The broad-leaved species is rather more exacting than the
other species.

When grown for ornament in towns, or when the atmos-
phere is impure, a smooth-leaved variety (e.g., T. intermedia}
should be planted, as its leaves are washed clean by each
heavy shower of rain.

Cultivation, etc. — The trees grow fast, especially the
broad-leaved variety ; and on good soil they are capable of
withstanding considerable shade. They su ffer little from being
transplanted, and get established almost at once. They stand
pruning very well ; but, as is the case with all soft-wooded
trees, only small branches should be pruned, on account of the
danger from fungous attacks. The trees coppice well, and
the stools are long-lived.

Lime may be used for underplanting thinly canopied
crops, and may often be useful where other species, except
Hornbeam, might outgrow the overwood before the latter
were ready to be felled. The trees are thickly foliaged, and
their fall of leaves can well protect the soil.

Trees raised by layering appear to have a greater tendency
to throw out side branches and to develop a mass of latent
buds along the stem and at the base of the tree than is the
case with those trees raised from seed.

Owing to the limited market for the timber, the planting
of lime can hardly be recommended. A limited number of
trees can often be sold well if the retail market be sought
out ; but, otherwise, there is only a poor market for the
timber.

If, however, the timber could be sold for about is. 6d. a
cubic foot, it would probably pay to plant it, especially the
broad-leaved variety.

Of Fungi. — Nectria ditissima sometimes causes a canker
on the bark of the stems and branches.

Nectria cinnabarina, the Coral Spot Fungus, causes a
canker on the branches.

Of Insects. — The larvae of the Winter Moth (Cheimatobia
brumata) devour the foliage.

OAK: PEDUNCULATE AND SESSILE 359

OAK.

Quercus pedunculata = The Pedunculate Oak.

Quercus sessiliflora = The Sessile Oak.

Quercus cerris =The Turkey Oak.

Quercus rubra =The Red Oak.

Quercus ilex =The Evergreen or Holm Oak.

Of these varieties the Pedunculate and Sessile Oak are

of the greatest sylvicultural importance in this country.
They are both native trees.

As to Seed. — Seed is produced freely from about the 6oth
year onwards, and good seed years occur about every 3 to 6
years. The seed ripens in October. It is of the greatest
importance that only the best seed should ever be used. Seed
should be collected from strong, vigorous trees, and also from
such as show a predisposition in youth to form a long leading
shoot, and to grow a clean stem free from side branches.1
Such trees should be specially marked as "seed" trees.

The germinative capacity of the seed is about 60 to 65
per cent. ; and I Ib. of acorns of the pedunculate variety
contains about 130 acorns, whereas I Ib. of the sessile variety
contains about 155 acorns.

The timber is very strong and durable, and most valuable.
The timber of both species has the same market value ; though
the pedunculate is rather the better.

Soil and Situation. — Both these Oak prefer a deep, moist,
stiffish loam for their best development. However, they will
both grow on stiff clays. The pedunculate Oak will grow on
very stiff wet clay soils if not sour ; but, on such land, the
growth is very slow indeed.

The sessile Oak is not suited to very stiff clays ; but it
will thrive well, and is found naturally on rather dry soils,
provided they be fairly deep, such soils being far too dry for

1 The absence of side branches is not always entirely dependent upon
the adoption of correct sylvicultural methods ; for, occasionally, trees
growing in the open show a pronounced tendency to grow with a clean
stem free from side branches.

360 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

the pedunculate Oak. The sessile Oak will also thrive at
higher elevations than the pedunculate Oak.

Both trees are susceptible to late spring frosts ; but, as
they are amongst the latest trees to break into leaf, they
often escape damage, when other trees suffer.

In this connection it should be remembered that the
sessile Oak is sometimes rather later in breaking into leaf
than the pedunculate Oak.

Severe winter frost is harmful to these Oaks ; and much
damage is often done to the timber by frost cracks, a
bole often splitting all the way down. These trees will
succeed better on southern aspects than most other species ;
they have a deep root system, and are very storm-proof
trees.

Cultivation, etc. — Both trees are very light-demanding,
and both have a strong tendency to form large crowns, and
to develop and retain side branches. In this respect the
sessile variety is rather more tolerant of slight shade, and
does not possess such a strong tendency to form large
crowns, and it will usually grow with a longer bole than the
pedunculate variety.

The foliage of the trees is not dense ; and pure crops,
when about 40-60 years of age, will fail to keep the surface-
soil clean, and the supply of moisture will be lessened.

Only a very small proportion of the trees planted on any
area will ever develop into clean, quickly-growing trees, as
compared to crops of other species. Therefore, when grown
in high forest, it will usually be preferable to plant pure Oak,
at a distance of 3 feet apart each way, and then to under-
plant the crop when the canopy is getting broken at (say) 50
to 60 years of age. By this means, there will be a large
number of trees to choose from, as the whole crop left at
(say) 50 years, should consist of only strong, healthy, vigorous
trees. After about the /oth year, the crop should be partially
cleared at intervals. Close-canopied mature crops of Oak
are never profitable, with the timber selling at its present
price. The thinnings may usually be left to nature, till the
trees are about 20 feet high. The thinnings and partial

OAK: PEDUNCULATE AND SESSILE 361

clearances should be made very gradually in close-canopied
crops, otherwise epicormic branches will be thrown out, and
the trees may become stag-headed. The undercrop, if
suitable, may be periodically coppiced, thus constituting high
forest with coppice.

Even-aged mixtures with Oak are usually not very
satisfactory, as the Oak will generally be outgrown, unless
indeed the other trees be coppiced. Where, however,
mixtures are attempted, the oak should be planted (pure) in
patches, unless indeed the mixture consist of Oak and
Hornbeam. In this case, however, it will often be necessary
to give the Oak artificial aid during the first 30 or 40 years.
One of the best uses for Oak is as standards over coppice.
They should be planted close together in little groups of
about 5 or 7, so as to insure having I good tree in each
group. The young standards must be pruned of side-branches
at each cutting over of the coppice. Five-year-old plants (i.e.t
I year 2 year 2 year) should usually be planted as standards ;
but for ordinary planting 3-year-old plants should generally
be used.

Some of the best crops of oak have been raised by sowing
acorns in situ. On arable land the acorns may be sown
broadcast, and ploughed in with a light furrow.

When crops are raised by artificial sowing, another good
plan is to sow in lines about 5 to 6 feet apart, and to have
about 3 rows of acorns in each line. By this means a saving
is effected in the labour cost of cleaning ; and the close
sowing in the rows ensures having some clean grown plants
to choose from when thinnings are made.

Any young crops that do not show vigorous growth
during the 2nd and 3rd summer after being planted out,
should be coppiced over at the actual ground level, and,
finally, the best shoot selected to grow into a tree. The
best time to cut such trees over is in May.

Oak may sometimes be naturally regenerated under a very
light canopy of mother trees. About 20 tall, well-grown
trees are enough to leave per acre, and most of these must
be removed in about 2 years' time, and the remainder by the

362 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

4th or 5th year, operations being governed by good seed
years.

Rotation. — This should be from 90 to 1 30 years on good
soil.

Average Returns from pure crops in close-canopied high
forest should be per acre : —

Thinnings . . . 1840 cub. ft. down to 2 in. q. g.
Final yield (at 1 20 years) 300O „ „ 6 „

Total production . . 5390 „ „ 2 „

Average annual increment, 45 cub. ft.

Equivalent net rental1 for land only2) at 3% = 35. 3d.

(from date of planting) ) at 4% = minus 35.

Of Fungi. — Rosellinia quercina causes root rot in
seedlings and young nursery plants, and often causes great
damage. Nectria ditissima causes a canker on the bark of
the stems and branches. Various species of Polyporus and
Femes (Bracket Fungi) attack the stems through wounded
surfaces — e.g., F. igniarius and Fomes fomentarius, both pro-
ducing white rot. White rot is also produce by Hydnum
diversidens and by Stereum hirsutuui. P. sulphureus produces
a red rot.

Of Insects. — The larvae of the Tortrix viridana often
defoliate the trees ; and the larvae of the Cockchafer grub
(Melolontha vulgaris) do considerable damage to the roots of
trees — often killing them — in nurseries and young plantations.
Wherever Cockchafer grubs cause trouble in a nursery, it is
an excellent plan to grow a few broad-leaved trees near the
boundaries of the nursery, and to keep these trees cut back to
a height of about 12 feet. When the beetles emerge, they
will fly to these trees to feed upon the foliage. They can
then be shaken down, collected, and destroyed. The larvae
of the Oak Boring Bark Beetle (Bostrichus dispar] often kills
young trees.

The larvae of the Small Black Weevil (Orchestes querci]^

1 Vide Chapter XI I.

2 After deducting interest on ^8, the cost of planting and establishing
the crop/

THE TURKEY OAK 363

and of the Winter Moth (Cheimatobia brumata), and of
the Brown tail Moth (Bombyx chrysorrhcea), and of the
Lackey Moth (Bombyx neustria}, attack the foliage. Various
species of Gall Wasps (Cynips) cause galls of various
kinds. C. querci produces the " Oak Apple Galls." C. kollari
produces the Oak Marble Galls, etc.

The Turkey Oak. — This is a tree of little value sylvi-
culturally, unless it should increase considerably in market
value. Its timber is not durable, nor is it so strong or tough
as the common Oak. However, for internal decorative house-
work and for furniture, it might be largely used, as it is a
handsome wood when properly converted. It shrinks much
on seasoning, and has a great tendency to crack and split.

The tree is hardier, less exacting, and of quicker growth
than the common Oak.

The acorns, with their moss-covered cups, do not ripen
until the second autumn.

The Red Oak or American Oak. — This is an extremely
fast-growing tree, and should be given an extensive trial in
this country.

The tree thrives on somewhat light dry soil, provided it
be deep ; it is not so successful on stiff clays.

The timber is not likely to prove very durable or of great
value. But the rapidity of its growth will compensate for its
low price per foot. The timber will probably prove very
suitable for all internal house construction, for furniture,
barrel staves, etc.

The trees coppice very well. They might with advantage
be grown as standards over coppice. The acorns take 2 years
to ripen.

The Evergreen or Holm Oak. — This must be regarded
only as an ornamental tree, as it is a very slow-growing tree
indeed. It is less injured by salt spray and sea breezes than
probably any other broad-leaved tree, and can be strongly
recommended for seaside planting if the soil be sufficiently
deep. It prefers a little lime in the soil. It is a difficult tree
to transplant, since it makes a long naked tap-root.

The timber is very heavy and hard, and very durable,

364 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

and is marked with a most beautiful grain, and takes a very
high polish. It shrinks much on seasoning, and takes a long
time to season.

For high-class furniture and interior decorative work, it is
of the greatest value, though usually unprocurable. The
acorns take 2 years to ripen.

WESTERN PLANE 365

PLANE TREES.

Platinus orientalis =The Eastern Plane Tree.
Platinus occidentalis = The Western Plane Tree.

The Eastern Plane is little grown in this country ;
though a variety of it, the London Plane = P. orientalis
acerifolia, is very common, and may be treated in the same
way as the Western Plane.

The Western Plane : —

As to Seed. — One pound of seed contains about 93,000
seeds.

When grown from seed, it is always preferable to use
foreign seed. It is, however, very easily grown from cuttings
or " slips," and may also be propagated by layers.

The Timber is fairly hard, yellowish-white in colour,
handsome, and ornamental ; the best of it is often cut into
veneers. There is little on the market in this country, but
there is every reason to anticipate a ready sale at remunera-
tive prices if any constant supply were available.

Soil and Situation. — A deep, rather moist, loamy soil is
necessary ; but the tree also grows, when once established, on
rather stiff clay soils, if well drained.

Dry soils, or very stiff clays, or soils containing an excess
of lime, are quite unsuited to it.

It requires rather a sheltered locality, and is tender as
to spring and autumn frosts. Owing to the habit it has
of shedding its bark, it is admirably suited for planting in
or near towns, or wherever the atmosphere is smoky or
impure.

Cultivation, etc. — The tree is light-demanding, and the
foliage usually not quite so dense as that of Sycamore. It is
a fairly quick-growing tree, and should prove profitable to
plant, if the timber could be sold for is. 6d. a cubic foot.
Owing to its demands for shelter, it may be grown as
standards over coppice, though as an ideal standard its
foliage is much too dense; but, considering the usual low
price for coppice, this is a minor consideration.

366 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

The Western Plane is usually of more rapid growth than
the Oriental Plane, and also, generally forms a taller and
straighter bole.

Of Fungi. — The Plane-Leaf Fungus attacks the foliage,
and causes the premature fall of the leaves.

BLACK AND BLACK ITALIAN POPLARS 367

POPLARS.

Populus nigra = The Black Poplar.

Populus Canadensis =The Canadian Poplar, or Black

Italian Poplar.

Populus alba =The White, or Afoele, Poplar.

Populus canescens =The Grey Poplar.
Populus tremula =The Aspen Poplar.
Populus pyramidalis = The Lomlbardy Poplar.

THE BLACK AND THE BLACK ITALIAN POPLARS.

These are very much alike in all respects, and demand
much the same conditions, and may be considered together.

Neither of these two trees are native to this country.
The latter is said to have been introduced in 1769, but the
former was probably introduced by the Romans.

As to Seed. — The seed of both ripens at about the end of
May or beginning of June, and it must be sown at once, as its
germinative capacity is very quickly lost The seed is
collected along with the downy mass surrounding it.

Both trees are, however, best raised from cuttings.

The timber is white, soft, and tough, and does not easily
fracture. It is more nearly fire-proof than any other timber ;
and, for this reason, should be often used for floor boards.
It is used for the battens in hop oasts on account of its
fire-resisting qualities. The timber is also nearly free from
smell ; and is, for this reason, used for butter boxes. By
some, the timber of P. Canadensis is considered superior to
that of all other varieties.

Soil and Situation. — Good deep moist loams are the best
kind of soil for the growth of the Black Poplars. But they
will also thrive on stiff clays, but not on the very stifTest.
Sour soils, or water-logged soils, are quite unsuited to them ;
and they should never be planted on very dry soils. They
are slightly sensitive to late and early frosts — P. Canadensis
being harder than P. nigra in this respect.

Cultivation, etc. — The trees grow very rapidly when

368 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

young, averaging about 2 feet 6 inches or rather more each
year. The trees sometimes take a year or two before they
get established, as the roots are not very fibrous, but they
have great recuperative power, and, in many cases, grow
quickly from the actual date of transplanting.

It will often be advisable to cut the trees over close to the
ground I or 2 years after planting out ; this should always
take place if the trees do not seem to be growing well, or if
they have been injured by frost

The trees should not usually be pruned, except as to quite
small branches, since fungous attacks may supervene.

All Poplars are very light-demanding, and their foliage is
thin ; and, per se, they will never protect the soil.

The Black Poplars are very profitable trees to plant, and
good butts always sell well in the London market.

Poplars may be grown as standards over coppice, or as
the standards in high forest with coppice, or they may be
grown in ordinary high forest.

It is almost impossible, unless artificially pruned, to mix
them by single trees or alternate rows with any other species
except the tree willows, as their growth is so fast that neither
the Poplars, nor their neighbouring trees, will ever be properly
pruned.

On estates, where there is a creosoting plant, Poplars
might be grown pure, planted 4 feet 6 inches to 5 feet apart
each way ; and the thinnings can then be creosoted, and used
for estate fencing, etc. ; but, unless creosoted, small Poplar
poles have practically no value at all.

Small willows are much more saleable, as they can be used
for split gate hurdles ; and, when barked, can be sold, where
there is a market, for the best quality charcoal.

Now, in order to provide valuable thinnings, Larch may
be mixed with Poplars, the latter planted sporadically over the
area. The Japanese Larch is preferable to the European
Larch for this purpose, owing to its more rapid growth
when young. The Japanese Larch is, however, rather
expensive.

In all these cases the Poplars must be artificially pruned

THE WHITE POPLAR 369

if necessary, in spite of the risk of disease ; the Larch will
exercise no pruning effect on the Poplars.

Poplars and Spanish Chestnut form an excellent mixture
in the proportion of about I to 10, though the Poplars will
have to be artificially pruned.

In many cases it will be advisable to coppice the Chestnut
about every 25 years ; though on good Chestnut soils the two
should be able to grow to maturity.

There is a good deal of simple coppice on clay soil consist-
ing chiefly of Chestnut, which should most certainly be planted
up with Poplars, as standards in high forest with coppice.

Then again, over simple Alder coppice, Poplars should be
planted largely in many cases, and the quick-growing Alder
coppice shoots will naturally prune the Poplars.

So also, Poplars over Ash coppice should be grown as high
forest with coppice on many soils, which are too stiff for
mature Ash.

It should be noted that the necessity for artificial pruning
is largely avoided when Poplars are planted over existing
copice areas, owing to the very rapid growth of the coppice
shoots.

Rotation. — This should be short — about 50 to 60 years.

An average annual increment at the rate of 100 cubic
feet (q. g.) per acre is often grown.

THE WHITE POPLAR OR ABELE.

This is a native tree to this country.

As to Seed. — The seed ripens about the end of May ;
but the trees are, however, best raised from suckers, dug up
in the forest.

Layering may also be adopted, but the best trees are
grown from suckers.

Cuttings are not to be recommended.

The timber is white and light, but not quite as good as
that of the Black Poplars just described. It is rather liable
to have " ring " shakes.

Soil and Situation. — The tree will grow on similar soils to
those described for the Black Poplars.

2 A

370 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

But it will also grow on the very stiffest of clay soils ;
and, on such soils, it is probably the most profitable tree to
plant.

The tree appears quite immune to spring and autumn
frosts, and hence is of the utmost value in many cases.

Cultivation, etc., is similar to that described for the
Black Poplars.

The tree throws out innumerable root suckers, and spreads
naturally by such means.

Rotation. — This should be from 50 to 60 years.

THE GREY POPLAR.

This is not a native tree.

It is probably an hybrid between P. alba and P. tremula.

It is very similar in all respects to the White Poplar ; and
thrives under the same conditions.

It is raised from suckers, which are developed in great
profusion.

It will grow in rather drier localities than the Black
Poplars or the White Poplar ; and like the White Poplar, it is
very frost-hardy.

THE ASPEN POPLAR.

This is a native tree to this country.

As to Seed. — The seed ripens about the end of May, and,
like all Poplar seed, must be sown at once.

It is generally raised from root suckers, and sometimes
by layering. Cuttings are not very successful.

The timber is white and brittle, and is inferior to that of
the White Poplar, being worth from \ to f as much.

Soil and Situation. — It will grow on any soils suited to
the other Poplars just described. But it will also grow on
drier soils than the other Poplars will grow upon ; and also
on more shallow soils. It can exist on very dry soils, but its
growth is then poor.

It is very frost-hardy.

Cultivation, etc. — The Aspen must usually be regarded
as a weed. It may be used in the place of Birch, as a pro-

POPLARS: FUNGI AND INSECTS 371

tecting species in frost localities on dry soils ; but, on moist
soils, the White Poplar is much more valuable.

The Aspen is often very difficult to get rid of, and its
quick-growing root suckers often interfere with more valuable
trees.

THE LOMBARDY POPLAR.

This is not a native tree.

The timber is of less value than all the other Poplars
described, and the stem is usually somewhat corrugated, and
there is much waste in conversion.

It should never be planted from a sylvicultural point of
view.

Of Fungi. — Melampsora pinitorqua produces a rust on
the leaves of Aspen Poplars, and sometimes on the leaves of
the White and Grey Poplars.

Little harm is directly occasioned thereby, but this
Melampsora is an alternate generation of the Caeoma Pine-
torquum, which injures the leading shoots of Scots Pine.

Other species of Melampsora produce a rust on various
Poplars : e.g., M. larici tremula (on Aspens), or M. larici
populina (on Black Poplars), which is the alternate generation
of Cceoma laricis.

Polyporus sulphurous causes Red Rot in the- timber of
Poplars.

Of Insects. — The larvae of the Cossus Ligniperda, or Goat
Moth (so named on account of its vile odour), damages the
timber.

The timber is also much damaged by the larvae of the
Large Longicorn Beetle ( Cerambyx carcharias).

The larvae of the Small Poplar Longicorn Beetle — (C.
populned) — attacks the branches.

The larvae of the Satin Moth (Bombyx salicis) and the
beetles and larvae of the Red Poplar Leaf Beetle (Lina
populi] and of the Aspen Leaf Beetle (L. tremula) feed
upon the foliage.

Mistletoe is very frequently found on Poplars.

372 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

SPANISH CHESTNUT.
Castanea vulgaris — Spanish Chestnut.

The Spanish Chestnut is not a native tree to this
country.

As to Seed. — The seed rarely ripens properly in this
country ; and home-grown seed should not be used.

The germinative capacity of the seed is about 60 per
cent. ; and I Ib. of seed contains about 112 nuts.

The timber is of excellent quality, fairly hard, strong,
and very durable. It also splits very well.

The timber is, however, very liable to " cup " or " ring "
shakes ; though, if grown on a deep loam with sufficient
moisture it is usually quite sound. There is only a small
proportion of sapwood ; and the sapwood quickly changes to
heartwood.

Soil and Situation. — A deep soil is necessary with a fair
amount of moisture. Soils with more than a small amount
of lime in them are quite unsuited to its growth ; so also are
very wet soils. The tree will grow on dry sandy soils, but
the timber is invariably shaky. Very stiff clays are not suit-
able for growing mature timber ; but, Chestnut coppice often
succeeds well on such land. The tree suffers from severe
winter frosts ; and is very susceptible to late spring and early
autumn frosts ; and thus, it is very difficult to establish on
cold clays or on land subject to late frosts, unless indeed it be
used for underplanting.

A considerable amount of summer heat is necessary, in
order that the wood may be properly ripened ; and thus it
succeeds far best in the south-west of England, where, on
northern aspects, its growth is all that can be desired.

Elsewhere in this country it often succeeds better on
southern aspects, where it obtains the necessary warmth.

Cultivation, etc. — The Spanish Chestnut will bear con-
siderable shade until about 25 years of age; afterwards, as
maturity is approached, it must be considered as a light-
demanding tree. It is usually somewhat slow-growing until

SPANISH CHESTNUT 373

it has been planted out 3 or 4 years, for transplanting checks
it ; but, after then, its growth is very rapid in suitable local-
ities. The tree has a great power of reproduction from
stools, and the stools are very long-lived. It also throws out
suckers to a considerable extent. The side branches are
rather persistent ; and a close canopy is necessary, in order to
effect natural pruning, and to prevent the development of
side branches. The tree, even when well grown, has a very
considerable taper ; more so than any other tree grown under
similar conditions.

The foliage is fairly dense, and the leaves form good
humus, and improve the soil ; and pure forest is usually quite
admissible. It is one of the most profitable broad-leaved
trees that can be largely planted, coming next to Black Poplar
and Ash.

Permanent even-aged mixtures by single trees will not
usually give satisfactory results for the whole mixture.

Chestnut and Ash, or Chestnut and Larch, makes a very
good mixture, however mixed ; though the Chestnut will be
coarse, and should, in most cases, be periodically coppiced.
By this means (under the system of high forest with coppice),
the soil will be kept very clean, and the best Ash or Larch
will be grown, if only the locality be suitable.

Spanish Chestnut coppice is, along with Ash, the most
valuable.

Spanish Chestnut is very suitable for underplanting Oak,
or Ash, or Larch.

The thinnings may usually be left to natural agencies,
until the trees are 25 feet high.

The thinnings are amongst the most saleable and valuable
of any species, and should therefore be included in many
mixtures by single trees, even if they are not required for the
final crop.

They will prune all their broad-leaved neighbours (except
Poplars) very well. They are, however, an expensive tree to
plant.

Rotation. — In high forest 70 years. Though, in moist
climates and on good soils the rotation may be somewhat

374 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

longer, as, under the best conditions, the timber is quite
sound.

The average annual increment is about 65 cubic feet.

The tree is remarkably free from fungoid and insect
attacks. However, a Bark Beetle sometimes kills the trees.

SYCAMORE AND NORWAY MAPLE 375

SYCAMORE AND NORWAY MAPLE.

Acer pseudo-platanus = Sycamore.
Acer platanoides = Norway Maple.

Acer campestris =The Field Maple.

Neither of these trees are native to this country.

As to Seed. — They both produce abundant crops of seed
from about the 35th year onwards; and good seed years are
very frequent.

The germinative capacity of both Sycamore and Norway
Maple is about 55 per cent; and I Ib. of seed of either
Sycamore or Norway Maple contains about 5500 seeds.

The timber of both species is fairly hard and whitish ;
but not very durable in the open. Large clean butts are in
great demand ; otherwise, the market is not usually good.
The timber should be quickly removed from the forest, as,
like all white timbers, it deteriorates if left

Soil and Situation. — Both trees will grow on almost any
soil, except very dry sandy soils, provided they be fairly
deep, or that the subsoil be disintegrated.

The Norway Maple is even more accommodating than
the Sycamore. Both trees are very storm-proof and grow
fairly well by the seaside, especially the Norway Maple.

They are somewhat susceptible to late spring frosts.

Cultivation, etc. — On moist deep soils the trees will bear
a fair amount of shade when they are young. The foliage is
fairly dense, but pure crops will seldom be advisable. Gener-
ally, they should be planted, sporadically, in even-aged high
forest, or in little groups of 3 or 5, when they should be
allowed to grow to maturity, which is reached at about 100
years.

As coppice, the stools do not last very long, but the stool
shoots are vigorous ; those of the Norway Maple more so
than the Sycamore.

Both trees grow very rapidly when quite young, averaging
1 8 inches to 2 feet 6 inches a year; and very little shock is
experienced in being transplanted. In fact, these two trees,

376 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

Alder, Birch, Ash, and Hornbeam suffer less from transplant-
ing than almost any other valuable timber trees, and grow
more rapidly from the start.

If desired, Sycamore and Norway Maple may be cut over
at the ground level, at the time of planting ; though it would
be better to wait for one year. But usually there is no need
to cut the trees over, as their natural growth is vigorous and
straight.

Rotation. — This should be about 90 to 100 years.

Of Fungi. — Rhytisma acerinum causes the familiar black
blotches on the leaves, but little harm is done thereby.

Phytophthora omnivera sometimes causes " damping off"
in the young seedlings.

Nectria cinnabarina (showing reddish pustules on the
bark of fairly young wood, when dead) often causes great
damage to the living trees.

Various species of Polyporus (the Bracket Fungi) attack
the stems through wounded surfaces.

Of Insects. — Cockchafer grubs gnaw through the roots
of seedlings and young trees.

The Field Maple is of little sylvicultural importance. It
is a native tree, and grows wild amongst coppice and in
hedgerows.

It never grows to any great size, and, except as inferior
coppice growth, should be regarded as a weed.

THE TULIP TREE 377

TULIP TREE.
Liriodendron tulipif era = The Tulip Tree.

This tree, known variously as " Canary Wood," " Yellow
Poplar," and " White Wood," is native to Canada and the
United States of America.

As to Seed. — It flowers profusely in this country, but
home-grown seed is generally useless.

One pound of seed contains about 10,000 seeds.

Seed sown in spring will often take a year before it
appears ; hence autumn sowing is to be recommended, but
the seedlings must be protected with screens, etc.

The timber is soft, and, when recently felled, is usually
a crimson red colour, but afterwards it becomes a greeny-white
colour. It is an easily worked wood, and is used by furniture-
and cabinet-makers. It is largely used for the " backing " or
" blind " wood upon which veneers are set.

Soil and Situation. — Deep soils, with plenty of moisture,
are essential. It will thrive on clay lands if not excessively
stiff. It avoids calcareous soils, and very dry soils.

It is very tender as to late spring and early autumn
frosts, and hence many clay soils are too cold for its
growth.

Southern aspects suit it best, if spring and autumn frosts
can be avoided.

Cultivation, etc. — It is a thinly foliaged, light-demanding
tree. It requires considerable summer warmth, in order to
ripen its wood before autumn frosts set in.

It should be grown as standards over coppice, or as
standards in high forest with coppice ; for, under such
circumstances, the danger from late and early frosts is
minimised.

It should, generally, be avoided in even-aged high forest,
as the risks are too great.

The Tulip tree is rather slow-growing when young, and
makes a long tap-root ; it must therefore be transplanted
frequently, so long as it remains in the nursery.

378 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

It is not a very good tree to transplant ; and hence trans-
planting should be done very late in the spring.

The tree begins to grow fairly rapidly when about 10
years old ; and, when grown closely, will form a clean, straight
bole free from branches for about 50 feet in height.

On account of its demands for summer heat, it should
only be grown in the south of England.

There is, however, a risk that the home-grown timber will
not sell well, though it be of excellent quality.

The expensive " Tulip " wood, used for veneers, is not the
timber of this tree.

THE BLACK WALNUT 379

WALNUT.

Juglans regia = The Common Walnut.

Juglans nigra = The Black or American Walnut.

Neither of these trees are native to this country.
Imported seed of Black Walnut should always be used.

The timber of both species is valuable, and of a dark
brown colour, the sapwood being white. The Black Walnut,
however, grows the finest timber, and, for timber production,
should be grown in preference to the Common Walnut.
The timber of the common variety is very liable to " heart "
shakes, and is not of such a fine colour as that of the black
variety. The sapwood is very liable to be worm-eaten.
Any burrs on the trunks are very valuable indeed, if of
any considerable size.

Soil and Situation. — A deep, light, rather dry loam is
the best soil for Walnuts, especially if it rest on a chalky
or marly subsoil. Cold, stiff, clay soils or subsoils are quite
unsuited to it. Any excess of moisture is very harmful to
its growth. Both species, and especially the American
variety, are very susceptible to late spring and early autumn
frosts. A considerable amount of summer heat is necessary,
in order to ripen the wood ; especially is this the case with
the American variety.

The American variety should only be planted in the
south of England.

Southern aspects suit it best, if spring and autumn frosts
can be avoided.

Cultivation, etc., of the Black Walnut. — The tree is very
light-demanding and thinly foliaged. It forms a very long
tap-root, but will transplant readily if properly schooled in
the nursery. Wherever possible, however, it should be sown
in situ. In order to effect this, the best method is to
germinate the seed in a heap, and then to dibble the
already sprouted nuts into the land. It is a very fast-
growing tree.

On account of the great damage done by frosts, it should

380 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

only be planted over existing coppice areas ; either as
standards over coppice, or as standards in high forest with
coppice.

It is usually too risky to plant it in even-aged mixtures.

Rotation. — This should be 80 to 100 years.

The financial return from planting it should be good,
even if only is. 6d. a cubic foot were realised for its timber.
If, however, the timber were to realise 55. to 73. a cubic foot —
the price obtained for the best imported timber — the tree will
prove to be one of the most profitable that can be planted.

However, time alone can prove the market value of any
considerable quantity of home-grown Black Walnut.

And, though extensive planting can be recommended on
suitable land in the south of England, it must be looked
upon in the nature of an experiment.

TREE WILLOWS 381

WILLOWS.

Salix alba =The White Willow.1

Salix alba caerulea.

Salix viridis.2

Salix fragilis =The Crack Willow.

Salix viminalis =The Osier.

Salix caprea =The Goat Willow or Sallow.

Of the above mentioned trees, the first four are tree
Willows of considerable importance. Salix viminalis is the
Osier which is cultivated for the production of basket
material ; 3 but 5. caprea — a small broad-leaved tree — is of
little sylvicultural value, and practically worthless. Salix
caprea is a native tree to this country ; so also, in all
probability, is Salix alba and its varieties ; but S. fragilis and
5. viminalis have been introduced from foreign countries.

The propagation of Willows is effected by means of
" cuttings " or " sets," which should be obtained from stool
shoots or from the young branches of pollarded trees. Such
cuttings will produce a far more vigorous growth than
cuttings taken from the young wood, at the ends of the
old branches, on ordinary standard trees. The cuttings
should be taken when the sap is rising in the spring, and,
if not immediately planted out, they should be left with their
ends in water.

The Timber of the tree Willows is light in weight, soft,
and very tough, and, as a general rule, can be used for any
of the purposes for which Poplar timber is used.

The economic value of the cultivation of tree Willows
lies chiefly in the use of the timber for the manufacture of

1 S. alba is also sometimes known as the Huntingdon Willow.

2 S. viridis has also been known as 5. Russelliana or the Bedford
Willow ; but, locally, these names are also applied to S. fragilis.
Therefore, in order to avoid confusion, local names should be aban-
doned.

3 For further information about Osiers and their cultivation, vide
Board of Agriculture Leaflet, No. 36.

382 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

cricket bats. Except for such purposes, the cultivation of
tree Willows will not prove nearly so remunerative as the
cultivation of Black Poplars.

The Planting of Willows for the Production of Timber
for Cricket Bats.1

Whenever it is desired to grow Willow timber for the
manufacture of cricket bats, the greatest care is necessary,
in order to obtain the right kind of stock.

The best timber is produced by Salix alba cczrulea and
that of Salix viridis ; 2 and Salix alba ranks next. On the
other hand, the timber of Salix fragilis or its varieties is
quite unsuited for any except the cheapest kinds of bats, and
is usually difficult to sell.

The trade requirements demand a " close bark," or fairly
smooth bark, with branches somewhat erect or fastigiate ;
whereas trees of Salix fragilis and its varieties which have a
coarse open bark and a spreading crown, are always avoided
by trade buyers.

In this connection it has been noticed that the female
trees are more erect and fastigiate than the male trees ; and,
therefore, until the contrary may be proved, cuttings obtained
from female trees of the proper varieties should alone be
planted ; and, furthermore, these cuttings should be taken
from a stock obtained from trees growing in the counties of
Essex, Herts, or Suffolk, where alone the best bat Willow is
at present to be found.

The timber of 5. alba, S. alba ccerulea, and 5. viridis is
white, soft, tough, not easily split, and light in weight. The
timber of 5. alba c&rulea is the lightest of all, and hence is

1 For further information on this subject, vide "Bulletin No. 8, 1907,
The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew ; " also an article by A. E. Pratt in the
Quaterly Journal of Forestry, October 1907.

2 Salix viridis is an hybrid between S. alba and S. fragilis. It is
very variable in its habit ; sometimes it resembles very nearly the habit
of S. alba or S. alba carulea; but at other times it resembles the S.

fragilis. It is, however, only when it approaches the S. alba or its
varieties in its habits, that it produces a good timber for the manufacture
of bats.

WILLOWS FOR CRICKET BATS 383

the most valuable of all the bat Willows. The quicker the
trees are grown and the wider the annual rings, the more
valuable is the timber for bat making. So again, the greater
the amount of sapwood, the more valuable the timber ; for, any
heartwood is darker in colour, heavier, and more apt to split.

The timber of Salix fragilis and its varieties is darker in
colour than that of the trees just mentioned ; and it is also
heavier and more readily split. Hence, therefore, its inferiority
for the manufacture of cricket bats.

Soil and Situation. — Willows require a deep, moist soil.
They should never be planted on dry soils, or on shallow
soils, or on soils where there is stagnant water. They are
found naturally on the deep, rich, silty soils near the banks
of streams. But they may be planted with every chance of
success in nearly all deep, moist soils, provided there be no
stagnant moisture. Very stiff clay soils are, however, not
suitable; though they usually succeed well on fairly stiff
clay soils.

The trees are tender as to spring and autumn frosts ; and
a fairly sheltered position is preferable.

Cultivation, etc. — The trees are very light-demanding.
They should usually be grown pure, when the young trees or
the " sets " may be placed 5 to 6 feet apart from each other.
Sometimes Larch may be mixed with them, so as to afford
more valuable thinnings. In such cases the Larch and
Willow can be mixed in almost equal proportions, the trees
being planted 4 feet to 4 feet 6 inches apart from each other.
In most instances the Willow trees will grow very much faster
than the Larch, but the latter should generally attain a fair
size before being suppressed, and will then be readily sale-
able in most districts.

Before, however, the Willows are planted, a choice must be
made between planting large " sets " (or cuttings) — about 10
to 1 5 feet long — and between planting young trees raised from
small " sets," and schooled for a year in a nursery.

If the "sets" have to be bought, the latter method will
generally be preferable, since the long " sets " are very
expensive to buy. But in cases where the " sets " can be

384 SYLVICULTUKAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

taken without payment, the use of long " sets," planted out
directly, can nearly always be recommended, provided enough
long " sets " can be taken. The advantages of using long
" sets " are that :—

(1) A mature tree is obtained in the shortest possible

time ; and the labour cost of planting the " sets " is
only about I2s. per 1000.

(2) The expense of schooling in a nursery is avoided.

(3) The expense of planting out x young trees in pits at a

cost of say £i, 8s. per 1000 is avoided ; so, also, is the
cost of cutting out any rank grass from amongst the
young trees.

(4) The large " sets " will often be above the frost line ;

whereas small trees might be cut over by frosts.

(5) Hedgerow Willows can thus be easily grown without

any fear of being choked.

The young trees must be carefully tended ; all double
leaders must be cut away ; and the boles kept free of side
branches for three-fifths of their length.

As soon as a clean bole, 20 feet in length, has been
attained, the trees should be given ample growing space so
that a maximum girth expansion may take place.

It must be remembered that heartwood is not required,
and that the broader the annual rings, the more valuable is
the timber for bat making.

Timber under n or 12 inches quarter girth is of no value
for bat making, as it is not large enough to be split up into
pieces from which bats can be made ; for the face of a bat is
a longitudinal radial section, and does not contain any of the
"core "of the log.

Any length of timber 2 feet 3 inches2 long, or some

1 These large " sets " should be inserted about 2 feet in the ground, so
that they may not be swayed by the wind. A hole should be made with a
crowbar, the " set " inserted, and earth then filled into the hole and firmly
trodden in. On no account must these long " sets " be pushed in, or the
bark will become injured.

2 Bat lengths are 2 feet 2 inches long ; 2 feet 3 inches is taken to
allow a margin for safety.

WILLOWS FOR CRICKET BATS 385

multiple of 2 feet 3 inches, would be saleable if it were of
good enough quality, and n or 12 inches quarter girth at its
smaller end.

Rotation. — As a general rule, it will be found that the
trees should be cut when from 30 to 35 years of age.

Financial Returns. — In cases where most of the timber
can be sold for bat making, at the current price of 5s. to 6s. 6d.
per cubic foot, the growth of tree Willows is by far the most
profitable sylvicultural undertaking that can be embarked
upon.

Of Fungi. — Various species of Melampsora having a
change of generation in a Caeoma form (probably often on
conifers) produce a rust on the leaves.

Polyporus sulphureus produces red rot in the wood.

Fomes igniarius produces white rot.

Of Insects. — The larvae of various Longicorn Beetles,
especially Cer&mbyx carcharias, bore into the sapwood. The
larvae of the Goat Moth — Cossus ligniperda — bore into the
timber. So also do the larvae of the Willow Wood Wasp —
Sirex dromedarius.

The foliage is attacked by the larvae of various Spinner
Moths — e.g., Bombyx antigua and Bombyx salicis, and also
by the beetles and larvae of the leaf beetles Lina populi and
Lina tremulcz.

The bark is attacked by a scale insect, Coccus salicis,
which appears as a felted white scale.

A weevil, Cryptorhynchus lapathi, gnaws the bark of the
young shoots of trees, whilst its larvae burrow into the wood
and form small galleries.

2 B

CHAPTER XVI.

SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES — continued

CONIFEROUS TREES.

OUPRBSSUS.

Cupressus macrocarpa.

Cupressus Sitchensis = The Sitka Cypress.

CUPRESSUS MACROCARPA.

THIS is native to California, and is said to have been
introduced in 1838.

As to Seed. — It ripens seed in this country, but home-
grown seed should never be used except experimentally.
One pound of seed contains about 73,500 seeds, and the
germinative capacity is about 15 to 20 per cent. The tree
can be raised from cuttings, but such trees are inadmissible
from a sylvicultural point of view.

The timber is somewhat soft, but of good quality ; and
should be equal in value to that of Norway Spruce.

Soil and Situation. — Moist, deep soils are essential for
its maximum development. On dry soils, or on shallow
soils, it will not thrive.

It succeeds on stiff clay soils if it escapes spring and
autumn frosts, to which it is rather susceptible. It is a very
storm-proof tree, and withstands salt sea breezes and gales.
It prefers a moist atmosphere, and is often much injured by
cold, dry east winds.

On light, deep, moist, humous soils resting on clay, it
succeeds admirably, if only the atmosphere be moist enough.

CUPRESSUS MACROCARPA 387

Cultivation, etc. — It is a very rapid-growing tree when
young ; and trees which have been planted out 10 years are
often 20 to 30 feet high.

Seedlings grow rapidly, and are often 2 feet 6 inches to
3 feet high at the end of the second summer.

The tree will bear a great amount of shade ; and a close
canopy is necessary, in order to suppress and kill off the side
branches. The foliage is very dense.

It is admirably suited for underplanting or undersowing.

It may be grown as even-aged high forest, either as a
pure crop, or else mixed by patches.

Mixtures by alternate trees or rows of trees would, how-
ever, succeed in the case of: —

Cupressus and Douglas Fir.

Cupressus and Sitka Spruce.

Cupressus and Thuya gigantea.

On suitable localities the tree could also be grown under
the selection or group systems.

Any planting of this tree must be looked upon as an
experiment ; but if its timber were saleable at 6d. to 8d. a
cubic foot, it would be one of the most profitable trees that
could be grown, coming near to Douglas Fir and Black
Poplars.

CUPRESSUS SITCHENSIS.

This is sometimes called the C. Nootkatensis, or the Sitka
Cypress or the Alaska Cypress. It is a native to the west
coast of North America. It is said to have been introduced
in 1850.

As to Seed. — One pound of seed contains about 128,000
seeds, and the germinative capacity is about 1 5 to 20 per
cent. Home-grown seed should prove quite satisfactory.
Plants raised from cuttings should never be used, if the
production of timber be desired.

Cultivation, etc. — This tree may be experimented with
and grown in the same manner as C. macrocarpa. Its timber
is of excellent quality, but it will not prove so remunerative
as C. macrocarpa^ as its growth is not nearly so rapid.

388 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

It is, however, a hardier tree than the C. macrocarpa ; and
is, usually, not much injured by spring or autumn frosts. It
prefers deep, moist, humous soils, but will also grow fairly
well on thin clay soils resting on broken calcareous rock ; it
will succeed on drier soils than the C. macrocarpa.

The Sitka Cypress is expensive to raise, and it is hardly
likely to prove a remunerative tree to plant in this country,
unless there be a substantial rise in the prices of timber.

VANCOUVER DOUGLAS FIR 389

DOUGLAS FIR.
Pseudotsuga Douglasii = The Douglas Fir or Oregon Pine.

There are several varieties of this tree, the two chief
varieties being those known as : —

(1) The Vancouver or Oregon variety.

(2) The Colorado or glaucous variety.

Only the Vancouver variety will be considered, as there
is nothing to recommend the glaucous variety, which is very
much slower growing ; and any assertion that it is hardier
or stands a colder climate, is quite unfounded, for the
Vancouver variety thrives high up in the Rocky Mountains
as well as at the sea coast.

The Vancouver Douglas Fir is native to the west coast
of North America, and grows to perfection on the coast
regions of British Columbia. It is said to have been
introduced in 1828.

As to Seed. — Good crops of seed are produced from
about the thirtieth year onwards, and there is every prob-
ability that home-grown seed will prove quite as good as
any imported seed, provided that it be collected from trees
raised from seed grown upon the coast regions of British
Columbia.

One pound of seed contains about 40,000 seeds, and the
germinative capacity is about 30 per cent.

The timber is fairly hard and resinous, and very strong,
provided it be grown in close canopy. It forms heartwood
earlier in youth than most other trees.

It is a handsome timber, especially the sapwood, if the
latter has been kiln-dried.

It makes most excellent timber for all interior carpenters'
and joiners' work ; but it is not very durable for outdoor
work, unless painted or preserved in some way.

Soil and Situation. — A deep, rather moist, though well-
drained soil is necessary. It succeeds admirably on a deep,
porous soil with a cool bottom. It will grow on stiff clay
soils, but its development is not very good under such

390 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

circumstances, and a short rotation of about forty to fifty
years will usually then be indicated.

Chalky soils or those containing an excess of lime, seem
very inimical to it in most cases. It should never be planted
on such soils unless there be abundant proof that it is likely
to succeed. It should be avoided on very dry soils.

It prefers a damp atmosphere, and will succeed better in
the west than in the east of England.

It is tender as to spring and autumn frosts, and on
exposed localities the trees are apt to lose their leaders ;
though, in crowded pure plantations, this latter danger is
minimised to the greatest extent.

Cultivation, etc. — The tree is thickly foliaged, and a
moderate shade bearer, and its side branches require a close
canopy in order to prevent their development. It bears
pruning very well indeed.

It is a very rapid-growing tree, and soon surpasses
practically all other trees which may happen to be planted
with it. In its native country it often attains the enormous
height of 300 feet and over.

It may be used for underplanting thin-foliaged trees,
provided the canopy be not thick. In this respect it is
necessary to take into consideration its rapid height growth,
as the over crop would have to be cut directly it is caught up.

It may well be grown in even-aged high forest, but
must, usually, be grown quite pure, or else mixed by patches,
on account of its very rapid growth.

Possibly an even-aged mixture of Douglas Fir and
Corsican Pine, planted 3 feet 6 inches apart, would give good
results ; but the pines should all be removed as thinnings.

Douglas Fir and Thuya gigantea occur naturally together,
but the Douglas Fir usually soon outgrow the Thuya.

Japanese Larch will sometimes keep pace for a time with
Douglas Fir, but finally they will have to be removed ; and
they will not have exerted any pruning effect on the
Douglas Firs.

Douglas Fir and Sitka Spruce is a very good mixture.

Douglas Fir can also be grown upon the selection

VANCOUVER DOUGLAS FIR 391

system or the group system, provided that home-grown
seed prove satisfactory in every respect.

Rotation. — This, in even-aged high forest, is about 55 to
75 years.

Average Returns from pure crops in even-aged high
forest should, on Quality I. soil, amount per acre to : —

Thinnings . * . 9,620 cub. ft to 2 in. q. g.
Final yield (at 75 years) . 11,200 „ 6 „
Total production . .21,190 „ 2 „

Average annual increment, 282 J cub. ft.

Equivalent net rental1 for land only ") at 3% = £3, 33. od.
(from date of planting) I at 4% = £2, is. 7d.

Of Fungi. — Many of those enumerated as attacking
other conifers will also attack Douglas Firs ; but up to the
present there is not sufficient evidence to detail any complete
list of fungi which can be considered very frequent in this
country.

The tree is by no means free from fungous attacks, and
it should on that account be planted only in localities
suitable to its growth.

The Honey Fungus and Trametes radiciperda ( = Fomes
annosus) attack it.

Phoma pithya causes a canker on the twigs, branches,
and small stems.

Botrytis cinerea ( = B. Douglasii) attacks the foliage and
young shoots of the current year's growth.

Pestalozzia Hartigii causes a bark canker on the twigs
and stems of seedlings and young plants.

Of Insects. — Many of those attacking other conifers
will, in all probability, also attack the Douglas Fir.

The Pine Weevil ( = Hylotoius abietis), and Cockchafer
grubs attack young plants.

1 After deducting interest on £8, the cost of planting and establishing
the crop.

392 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

LARCH.

Larix Europea =The European Larch.
Larix leptolepis = The Japanese Larch.
Larix occidentalis = The Western Larch.
Larix Kurilensis = The Kurile Larch.
Larix Siberica = The Siberian Larch.

None of these trees are native to this country.

EUROPEAN LARCH.

This is a native to the mountains of Central Europe,
the Bavarian Alps, and the Tyrol.

As to Seed. — It ripens seed in this country, but home-
grown seed should never be used.

One pound of seed contains about 70,000 seeds, and
the germinative capacity of the seed is about 35 per
cent.

The timber is hard, tough, and durable, but it is liable to
twist and warp, and, therefore, should not be used in house
construction. But it is a most valuable timber, and makes
the best railway sleepers, and is largely used for general
estate purposes. It makes excellent fencing material, and the
wood, even when quite young, is hard and durable ; hence,
thinnings from young Larch plantations are nearly always
saleable.

The wood splits fairly well.

Soil and Situation. — For its successful growth Larch is
very particular ; a deep, well-drained loam with a fair amount
of moisture, is quite suitable to it. Dry, sandy, or gravelly
soils are quite unsuited to it ; so, also, are thin soils resting
on chalk, or stiff clay soils, or any badly-drained soil. On
stiff clay soils it often grows well, but the trees, even if they
look healthy, are usually hollow or " pumped."

On dry soils the timber is always brittle, and very often
decayed, such timber being termed " foxy " in the incipient

LARCH: EUROPEAN 393

stages of the disease. Trees grown on thin, chalky soils or
dry soils are also often quite hollow or " pumped."

This hollow condition can be detected by tapping the
trees with a stick, when, if hollow, the sound emitted will
disclose the fact.

Larch succeeds admirably on shallow clay soils overlying
disintegrated limestone rock. It appears to delight in very
stony soils ; and, in all probability, its failure on certain soils
is due to a lack of air to the roots. A free circulation of air
is very necessary for its success ; hence, on flat sheltered
localities it will often prove a failure. Northern aspects are
almost always preferable to southern aspects, for its
well-being.

The trees suffer a good deal from late frosts, but this
largely depends upon the extent to which the leaves have
developed. If the leaves have been unfolded about a week,
little damage is usually done, but if a frost occur just
previous to this, irreparable damage will often be done.

Cultivation, etc. — Larch is a very thinly foliaged, light-
demanding tree, and pure crops are quite unable to protect
the soil. It is quick growing until the principal height
growth has been attained ; but it often suffers a considerable
check on being transplanted, unless, indeed, quite small plants
are used. The side branches easily drop off, and are readily
pruned by all other trees whose rate of height growth is
similar. But the side branches of Larch have practically no
pruning effect on the side branches of other trees.

On account of the ease with which Larch cleans itself,
pure crops may be planted from 4 feet to 4 feet 6 inches
apart, and the thinnings may at all times be more severe
(provided there has been no previous overcrowding), than
would be judicious with any other species of tree.

It is, however, a very risky proceeding to plant Larch
pure, on account of the extraordinary damage wrought by
the Larch disease. When forming plantations the probability
of ravages from this disease should always be very carefully
considered.

Pure plantations of European Larch should certainly

394 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

seldom be made on any but the very best localities, where, if
fortunate, the disease will not make its appearance. Some-
times, however, an owner is willing to take the risk of loss
from Larch disease ; and, if at the end of 20 to 25 years
there be 200 sound trees per acre, these can be underplanted
and should give most profitable returns ; and the small
diseased poles, which have been cut out, can be used for
rustic work, fencing, etc.

On northern aspects, at a somewhat relatively high altitude,
Larch will often remain free from disease if the soil be really
suitable for its growth.

But the disease is almost certain to occasion immense
damage wherever the conditions are unsuited to its growth ;
as, for instance, on unsuitable soil, on southern aspects, on flat
land, or on land liable to spring or autumn frosts. In many
cases the disease is noticed on trees planted on maiden land,
whereas it may be absent on similar localities from which a
crop of timber has been removed, where the soil is left well
aerated and covered with a good layer of humus.

Then again, the disease is always more prevalent in
crowded plantations which need thinning, and where the free
circulation of air is impeded.

However, in cases where it is particularly desired to grow
pure Larch to start with, as in places where the thinnings are
very saleable, a mixture of European and Japanese Larch
should be planted, for the latter have so far proved to be
more or less free from disease. By this means the risk is
lessened.

In as much as pure crops of Larch are unable to protect
the soil, they must be underplanted before the land gets foul.
But it will almost always be preferable if they be first parti-
ally cleared from about the 3Oth to 4Oth year, and often much
earlier ; for the trees cannot have too much light and air as
they approach maturity.

Beech, Spanish Chestnut, Douglas Fir, Thuya gigantea
and Silver Fir may be used for this underplanting. But
Beech or Spanish Chestnut are particularly suitable, as the
soil improves so much under their thick fall of leaves ; and

LARCH: EUROPEAN 395

much finer Larch can be grown than if no underplanting had
taken place, unless, indeed, the soil be very rich and deep.
The Spanish Chestnut will prove more remunerative than the
Beech.

Often, however, owing to very heavy thinnings having
been made on account of Larch disease, underplanting has to
be resorted to at a much earlier date ; in such cases, the
Douglas Fir should not be used, as it will catch up the Larch
before they are ready to be felled.

Where Larch are mixed with other trees, they should
usually be planted sporadically, at considerable distances
apart (say 12 to 16 feet), or else in little sporadic groups of 3
or 5, so as to ensure obtaining one good tree in each group ;
and thus they will only leave a few badly pruned neighbours.
If they be mixed by alternate trees or alternate rows, their
neighbouring trees will nearly always be branching and badly
pruned, unless artificial pruning be resorted to.

However, they may be thus mixed with Ash (forming
about half the crop), for the young Ash will grow clean enough
up to about 20 years of age, even when next to Larch ; after
that date, if a permanent mixture be required, the thinnings
should be conducted so that a mixture by patches is left ; and
underplanting must be resorted to directly the land shows
signs of becoming foul.

The mixture of Larch and Beech is very much recom-
mended, but it is really only suitable for an uneven-aged
mixture ; unless, indeed, only a few Larch be planted amongst
a practically pure crop of Beech.

If an even-aged mixture, in about equal proportions, be
attempted, it will not be very successful. The Beech will all
be coarse, as they are very slow growing when young, and
both species will practically be growing like separate crops
planted 8 feet apart.

Larch form excellent standards over coppice, and should
be planted in little groups of 3 or 5, so as to ensure having
one good tree from each group.

They require much protection from the vigorous coppice
shoots, as they are very impatient even of side shade.

396 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

Larch, also, can advisedly be grown as standards in high
forest with coppice ; new plantations under this system can be
formed by planting Larch and Spanish Chestnut alternately,
and subsequently coppicing the Spanish Chestnut.

Rotation. — The rotation should be from 70 to 80 years,
though shorter rotations often prove very profitable for pit
timber.

Average returns from pure crops in high forest should be,
per acre : —

Thinnings . . . 1360 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.
Final yield (at 70 years) . 3000 „ 6 „
Total production . . 4760 „ 2 „

Average annual increment, 68 cub. ft. q. g.

Equivalent net rental 1 for land only ) at 3%= I7s. 2d.
(from date of planting) j at 4% = ios.

Of Fungi. — The Dasyscypha calycina (or Peziza Will-
kommii) = The Larch Disease or Larch Blister Disease,
does immense damage to young crops, especially up to about
the 2Oth year.

On account of this disease, the growing of European
Larch is now a most risky undertaking ; the Japanese Larch
has, however, hitherto proved more or less immune.

In order to combat the spread of the disease, great care
should be taken that all seedlings be raised from seed
obtained from strong, healthy trees ; for, the individual vigour
of trees is hereditary. The produce of sickly trees has a
predisposition to be attacked, though the disease is probably
not actually hereditary.

In this connection the use of home-grown seed should
always be tabooed, as the summer heat in this country is not
sufficient for the production of the finest seed.

Phytophthora omnivera sometimes kills young seedlings.

Agaricus melleus = The Honey Fungus, characterised by
its black rhizomorph strands and its cluster of mushroom-like

1 After deducting interest on ^8, the cost of planting and establishing
the crop.

LARCH: JAPANESE 397

sporophores, attacks the roots of young and old trees, and
usually very rapidly kills them.

Trametes pini attacks the stems, usually when more than
20 years old ; it decomposes the heartwood, but does not
affect the sapwood. The trees gradually become hollow or
"pumped."

Polyporus sulphureus produces red rot in the timber.

Tramates radiciperda (Fames annosus) attacks the roots.
It produces a red rot, and causes the base of the stem to
become hollow.

Of Insects. — Argyresthia lsevigatella(or Ti neal&vigatella)
hollows out and destroys the leading shoot and also the side
shoots.

Coleophora (or Tinea) laricella = The Larch Mining Moth,
burrows into the needles and kills much of the foliage of the
trees. The attacked foliage looks as though it were frost-
bitten.

Chermes laricis = the Larch Bug or Larch Aphis, often
does great damage, especially in plantations up to about 20
years of age. The sap is sucked from the leaves. In late
spring and early autumn the trees often look as though covered
by pieces of cotton wool ; for the young lice, on hatching out,
soon get covered with a white fluffy down.

This Aphis is the sexless form of Chermes abietis.
Hence, this is another reason against having mixtures of
Larch and Spruce.

THE JAPANESE LARCH.

The Japanese Larch is native to the central part of Japan,
and was introduced about 1861.

As to Seed. — One pound of seed contains about 103,500
seeds, and the germinative capacity of the seed is about 35 per
cent. The latter, however, varies very considerably from year
to year, in some years being almost nil, whilst in other years
it is as much as 60 to 65 per cent.

Cultivation, etc. — The tree is very similar to the European
Larch in most of its requirements. It grows, however, con-

398 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

siderably faster when young, but, usually, gets caught up by
the European species after about the 2Oth year. When quite
young, it will often keep pace with Douglas Fir or Poplars.
Up to the present time, it has proved much more immune to
insect and fungous attacks than the European variety, and, as
already stated, it has hardly ever been attacked by the. Larch
disease or canker.

Its foliage is flushed early, and it is even more liable to be
injured by spring frosts than European Larch.

The chief advantage in growing Japanese Larch lies in
the fact that they very quickly afford valuable thinnings ; and,
if necessary, mature trees can be grown, even though the
European Larch would fail owing to disease.

However, the Japanese Larch is more expensive to raise
from seed than the European Larch.

An excellent plan is to grow a mixture of the two species,
and if disease do not make its appearance, the European
variety should be left ; for these trees will, as mature timber,
give far better returns. The Japanese Larch grow faster
when young, but usually they will not seriously interfere
with the European Larch.

OTHER LARCHES.

The Western Larch is a tree native to British Columbia.
Little, however, is known concerning its growth in this
country. It should be largely experimented with, as there is
every possibility of its proving most successful indeed.

In its native country it grows to a great height, and the
boles are usually very clean. It is peculiar in possessing a
very thick bark, which often enables it to resist destruction
by forest fires.

The Kurile Larch is native to the Kurile Islands, in the
north-east of Japan.

It is of little sylvicultural value in this country, as it does
not ultimately form such a large tree as the European
variety, and it is very expensive to raise.

It is usually very quick growing when young, and is said

LARCH: SIBERIAN 399

to be hardy as to spring and autumn frosts, and also as to
drought.

The Siberian Larch is native to Siberia. It is not, how-
ever, suited for growth in this country. As might be expected,
it comes into growth very early in the spring, and is ex-
tremely tender as to late frosts.

400 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

PINES.

There are many varieties; and these may be classified
according to the number of needles contained in each sheath.
The following Pines contain 2 needles in each sheath : —

Finns sylvestris = The Scots Pine.
Pinus Austriaca = The Austrian Pine.
Pinus laricio = The Corsican Pine.

(The Star, or Cluster, or
Pinus pinaster j Maritime Pine.

( Bank's Pine, or the Scrub,
1 or Jack Pine.

Pinus Mugho.

Pinus pinea = The Stone or Umbrella Pine.

The following Pines contain 3 needles in each sheath : —

Pinus ponderosa.

Pinus insignis = The Remarkable Pine.

Pinus rigida, sometimes called Pitch Pine.1
Pinus sabiniana.

The following Pines contain 5 needles in each sheath : —

Pinus strobus = The Weymouth Pine.

Pinus excelsa.

Pinus cembra = The Swiss Stone Pine.

Pinus Lambertiana.

The above are only a few of the many varieties that are
sometimes met with in this country ; but, only those of
sylvicultural interest in this country will now be considered.

SCOTS PINE.

The Scots Pine is a native tree to this country.

As to Seed. — The tree produces seed freely, and good
crops are obtained from the 3Oth year onwards. Good seed
years are very frequent, and occur every two or three years.

1 The Pitch Pine timber as imported is the wood of the Pinus
palustris.

SCOTS PINE 401

Home-grown seed from strong, healthy, vigorous trees is
far preferable to any imported seed.

One pound of seed contains about 75,000 seeds, and the
germinative capacity is about 65 to 70 per cent.

The timber is rather soft, durable (especially when grown
in close canopy), and resinous.

However, unless the trees be grown in close canopy, the
timber is possessed of wide annual rings; such timber is
then very soft and not durable.

The red Baltic deals and battens are cut from this tree.
The timber is extensively used for the carpentry and joinery
in house construction. Home-grown timber, especially that
grown in Scotland, is quite as good as the imported timber,
provided always, that the former has been grown under
correct sylvicultural principles.

Soil and Situation. — Scots Pine is very accommodating
as to the soils it will grow upon. Though, naturally, liking a
deep gravelly loam, it will grow on stiff clays, or on very dry,
practically pure, sands. It will accommodate itself to rather
shallow soils, though not so shallow as those upon which the
Norway Spruce will thrive. It will succeed on wet peaty
soils, provided the water be not stagnant.

It is extremely hardy as to spring and autumn frosts ;
and trees raised from home-grown seed are practically never
injured, though those produced from continental seed do not
seem so hardy in this respect.

The trees are also very storm-proof1 and hardy as to
drought. As a pioneer crop Scots Pine is most valuable.
On heather land it can often advantageously be raised in
situ from seed.

On hot, dry, southern aspects this and the Corsican Pine
are often the only trees that are likely to thrive and produce
valuable timber ; though their best growth is seen on cool
northern aspects.

Cultivation, etc. — The trees are very light-demanding
during all stages of their existence. Their side branches are

1 Heavy falls of snow break off many branches, which are brittle ;
and the crowns of trees often suffer considerably.

2 C

402 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

very persistent ; and the canopy for the first 30 years must
be very close, so as to prune them off naturally and prevent
them from attaining any considerable size.

The plants grow quickly from the seedling stage onwards,
and small plants, not over 4 years old, suffer but little check
in being transplanted.

On ordinary heather land, with which the trees are
naturally associated, I- or 2-year-old plants will be quite big
enough to plant out.

On grass land 3- and 4-year-old plants must usually be
planted. Provided the heads of the plants be free, Scots Pine
suffer less than most trees from a soil covering of grass. This is
also the case with Corsican Pine, Hornbeam, Birch, Sycamore,
and Norway Maple. The foliage of Scots Pine is compara-
tively thin, and pure crops cannot usually protect the soil
after about the 4<Dth year. However, they are not very
suitable for being underplanted ; l and, if the land be good
enough to grow an undercrop, it will seldom be advisable to
plant Scots Pine, except where it is used as a pioneer crop,
as in frosted localities on good soil, where it may be planted,
so as to render possible the introduction of a more valuable
species at a later date.

Generally speaking, Scots Pine should only be grown as
even-aged high forest. It is quite unsuited for standards
over coppice.

Where Scots Pine must be grown, it will generally be
advisable to grow it pure ; for, mixed crops, except the mixtures
be by patches, are seldom satisfactory.

There are, however, one or two mixtures by alternate
rows, etc., that can be recommended.

Scots and Corsican Pine may be grown together, especially
if it be desired to have a mature crop of Corsican Pine, and if
the success of a pure crop of Corsican Pine be doubtful.

The Corsican Pines grow much quicker when young than
the Scots Pines ; so that the latter must be removed if the

1 The necessary partial clearances may result in the production of
unduly wide annual rings to the detriment of the technical quality of the
timber.

SCOTS PINE 403

former succeed. It is, however, preferable not to mix them
unless there is any special reason for so doing.

Scots and Weymouth Pine may, in the same way, be
advisable if the success of pure Weymouth Pine be doubtful.

Scots Pine often pay v/ell when grown on short rotations
of 35 to 40 years, if there be a market for pit wood.

The land is left clean at the end of a short rotation, but
is very foul at the end of a long rotation, if a pure crop has
been grown.

The natural regeneration of Scots Pine should only be
attempted by leaving strips of trees, and allowing the seed
to blow on to a vacant area. Wherever heather land exists,
a young crop can usually be easily established from seed.
But it will seldom be possible, except, perhaps, on northern
aspects at high altitudes, to obtain natural regeneration on
land from which a crop has just been cleared ; for, though
originally heather land, it will, in most cases, be found to be
covered with grass, owing to the soil improvement that has
taken place. Such would not, however, usually be the case
in dry continental climates.

Rotation. — This should be about 80 to 90 years for large
mature timber.

Average returns from pure crops in high forest should be,
per acre : —

Thinnings . . 1050 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.

Final yield (at 80 years) . 3450 „ 6 „
Total production . . 5200 „ 2 „

Average annual increment, 65 cub. ft.

Equivalent net rental 1 for land only ) at 3%= is. 3d.

(from date of planting) ) at 4% = minus 33. 4d.

Of Fungi. — Phytophthora omnivera attacks seedlings.

Hysterium pinastri ( = Lophodermium pinastri), known
as the Leaf-shedding disease, attacks young trees, especially
those from I to 7 or 8 years of age.

Botrytis cinerea attacks the foliage and young shoots,

1 After deducting interest on ^8, the cost of planting and establishing
the crop.

404 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

often doing very great harm to young trees and nursery
stock.

Agaricus melleus ( = the Honey Fungus) characterised
by its black rhizomorph strands on the roots, and its mush-
room-like fructifications, attacks the roots. The needles of
infected trees turn pale, and the trees soon die.

Trametes radiciperda ( = Pomes annosus), and known as
the Red Rot Root Fungus, often attacks trees of all ages,
which, when once attacked, usually quickly die. The needles
of trees, when attacked, turn pale ; and at the base of the
stem, or on the roots just below the soil, the bracket-like
fructifications may be found. These appear as somewhat
flat, corky incrustations or brackets with wrinkled margins ;
at first they are of a yellowish-white colour, but later on they
turn dark brown on the top, being snow-white underneath.

Trametes pini attacks the boles of trees, usually after
they are about 35 years of age. Bracket-like fructifications
appear on the stem ; the heartwood rots away, and the tree
becomes hollow. The sapwood of Pines and also of Larch is
not affected, but the sapwood of Spruce and Silver Fir is
decomposed just like the heartwood.

Peridermium pini acicola = The Pine Needle Blister, or
Bladder Rust, attacks the foliage of Scots and other Pines.

Young trees up to 12 years of age are most frequently
attacked, though often older trees. New foliage is never
attacked, but only needles I or 2 years old.

In the spring, small orange vesicles or blisters may be
seen on the leaves.

Peridermium pini corticola = The Pine Bark Blister or
Canker, often does immense damage to Scots and other
Pines, especially on southern aspects. Young trees up to
about 1 5 years of age are chiefly attacked ; if it occur in older
trees, the attack is confined to the younger wood, the bark of
which is thin.

It is characterised by the appearance on the smooth
young bark, of bladder-like pustules filled with yellowish-red
spores.

Oaeoma pinitorquum, known as the Pine Shoot-twisting

SCOTS PINE 405

fungus, is the Cceoma form of Melampsora pinitorqua, which
causes a well-known rust on the leaves of Poplars. The Cceoma
chiefly attacks Scots and Wey mouth Pines up to about 12
years of age.

Yellow Cceoma pustules appear on the bark of the current
year's shoots, causing a cankerous appearance, and the shoots
become twisted and bent.

Cerastoma piliferum^ a saprophyte, causes the bluish dis-
coloration of Scots Pine and other coniferous timber.

Of Insects. — Scots Pines are perhaps more liable than
any other trees to insect attacks.

Cockchafer grubs (the larvae of Melolontha vulgaris)
gnaw through the roots of young trees, especially in new
plantations made on grass land or on land recently ploughed.
Nursery stock also often suffers from the ravages of the grubs,
and also from wireworms (the larvae of Agriotes lineatus).

The Pine Weevil ( = Hylobius abietis), sometimes known
as the large brown Pine weevil, gnaws the bark off the stems of
young conifers, usually from 2 to 7 years old, and consequently
kills them. Scots Pine and Spruce are chiefly attacked, but
also other conifers ; and, occasionally, broad-leaved trees. On
account of the great damage done by this insect, the fellings
in Scots Pine and Spruce woods should never be consecutive,
but should be arranged intermittently. Also, when replanting
Scots Pine or Spruce areas with coniferous crops, it is
advisable, where possible, to burn the area over or to wait for
2 or 3 years before replanting ; the latter method, however,
should be avoided if possible. Bark traps should be laid to
catch the weevils.

The Small Brown Pine Weevil ( = Pissodes Notatus),
attacks Scots, Corsican, and Weymouth Pines in particular,
and, occasionally, Spruce and Larch.

The weevils prick the bark through and suck the sap.
The young trees look as if pricked with pins, and little beads
of resin ooze out.

Young plantations of 3 to 8 years old are attacked.
The insect is chiefly confined to Scotland.

The Large Pine Beetle = Hylesinus (or Hylurgus) pini-

406 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

perda, attacks Scots Pine in particular, though, occasionally,
other Pines and Spruce.

Trees of any age may be attacked. Attacks are often
worse along the edges of rides or roads, or in woods near
timber yards. The eggs are laid along a " mother gallery "
under the bark of recently felled timber, or of sickly trees.

The damage is occasioned by the beetles (not by the
larvae), and they are generally beetles of the second generation
in any year, which bore into the tops of Pine shoots, just
below the buds and feed on the pith, thus hollowing out the
shoots, which break over with the first storm of wind.

The Crutch Pine Beetle ( = Hylesinus palliatus), is chiefly
confined to Scotland, where it attacks Scots and other Pines
and conifers.

The Pine Sawfiy (^ — Lophyrus pini}^ attacks Scots and
Austrian Pines chiefly. The leaves are eaten by the larvae
or caterpillars.

The young caterpillars eat the edges of the leaves, leaving
the midrib. But as they get older they eat the whole of the
leaves.

The Fox-coloured $&wfty = (Lophyrus rufus), also does
much damage, in the same manner as the L. pini.

The Pine Shoot Tortrix or Twig Twister = Retinia
(Tortrix) buoliana, chiefly attacks young Scots Pine up to 12
years of age, though other Pines are sometimes attacked.
The attack is especially prevalent on southern aspects.

The larvae or caterpillars bore into the buds and there
hibernate during the winter. Next spring, as the buds
develop, the larvae feed on and hollow out the young twigs,
which only partially develop and then fall over and die.

Of other Pests. — Squirrels do much harm by eating off
the bark high up in the trees.

AUSTRIAN PINE.

This is not a native tree to this country.
As to Seed. — One pound of seed contains about 25,000
seeds, and the germinative capacity is about 65 to 70 per cent.

CORSICAN PINE 407

The timber is soft, resinous, and durable, but is coarse
and very knotty, as usually grown in this country.

Soil and Situation. — The tree delights in calcareous soils,
and even thrives on poor thin soils resting upon chalk.
Generally speaking, it prefers a deep dry gravelly loam. It
will succeed on ordinary clay soils, but not on very stiff wet
soils. It is very storm-proof, and very hardy as to drought
and as to spring and autumn frosts.

Cultivation, etc. — It is a very light-demanding tree,
though not so much so as Scots Pine ; and its foliage is a
little denser than that of Scots Pine. Its side branches are
very vigorous and persistent, and a very close canopy indeed
is necessary in order to kill off these branches. Trees, planted
3 feet apart, need not, usually, be thinned till they are 25 to
30 feet high. It is only suitable for even-aged high forest,
and, in most respects, may be similarly grown as Scots Pine ;
but it is much faster growing when young.

It stands sea breezes well, and can be used for planting
sandy tracts along the sea coast.

Except for such purposes, or as shelter belts, it will seldom
be advisable to plant it, as the Corsican Pine, which is similar
in most respects, will, in this country, grow timber of higher
technical value.

The trees do not transplant well, and should be moved
every year whilst in the nursery. They should be planted out
late in spring.

Of Fungi and Insects. — Speaking generally, the fungi
and insects which attack the tree are the same as those which
attack Scots Pine.

CORSICAN PINE.

The Corsican Pine is not a native tree, and is said to have
been introduced about the year 1815.

As to Seed. — One pound of seed contains about 31,000
seeds, and the germinative capacity is about 65 to 70 per cent.

The trees can produce good crops of seed from the 3Oth
year onwards ; but it is not advisable to use home-grown
seed.

408 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

The timber is light, soft, resinous, and durable. It is very
similar to that of Austrian Pine, but is, when grown in this
country, of greater technical quality and possesses fewer
knots. It is worth as much per foot as Scots Pine.

Soil and Situation. — Deep dry soils suit it best ; but it is
not very exacting in respect of soil.

Like Austrian Pine, it succeeds on soils overlying chalk,
but, in such cases, it requires rather more surface soil than
Austrian Pine.

It thrives quite well on moderately stiff clay land. How-
ever, nursery stock should always be raised on dry friable
soil ; for, on stiffish land, the seedlings will never form good
root systems. Very wet soils are quite unsuited to it. In its
early existence, say up to 3 years old, it is much injured by
continual wet weather in the growing season. It prefers a
dry atmosphere.

It is very hardy as to drought, and, also, as to spring and
autumn frosts. It is, also, a very storm-proof tree.

It stands sea-spray very well, and is one of the best trees
to plant on sandy, seaside tracts.

Cultivation, etc. — The tree grows very quickly when
young ; a good deal faster than Scots Pine. It is very light-
demanding. Its side branches are very persistent, and a close
canopy when young is very necessary in order to prevent
their development. It has a deep root system, and nursery
plants must be transplanted every year until planted out, say
at 2 or 3 years old, otherwise they will be devoid of fibrous
roots.

Corsican Pine is, perhaps, the most difficult tree to trans-
plant. It should be planted out late in spring, just as the
buds are expanding. It is far easier to transplant 2-year-
old trees than 3- or 4-year-old trees. On heather land it is
one of the best pioneer crops, as it grows so quickly ; but, on
grass land, Scots Pines may be preferable, as larger plants
are necessitated, and the Scots Pines transplant readily.

Corsican Pine is only suitable for even-aged high forest.
If its success be undoubted, it will generally be preferable to
plant it pure — 3 feet apart each way.

CORSICAN PINE 409

Corsican and Scots Pines may be evenly mixed when
the success of the Corsican Pine is doubtful.

Corsican and Weymouth Pines make a good mixture in
cases where the success of a pure crop of Weymouth Pine is
doubtful. The Corsican Pines must be removed as thinnings,
for the Weymouth Pines will surpass them.

Corsican Pine and Douglas Fir is an admissible mixture
where a final crop of Douglas Fir is desired, and the expense
of planting a pure crop is considered too great.

Rotation. — The best rotation is about 80 years, though,
as with most coniferous crops, quite short rotations often pay
very well for pit timber.

Average returns from pure crops in high forest should
be, per acre : —

Thinnings . . ' . 1680 cub. ft. to 2 in q. g.
Final yield (at 80 years) . 3600 „ 6 „
Total production . . 5500 „ 2 „

Average annual increment, 75 cub. ft.

Of Fungi and Insects. — The fungous and insect attacks
are similar to those mentioned as affecting Scots Pine.

Of other Pests. — Rabbits, usually, will not persistently
attack Corsican Pine. But, in hard winters, if they can find
nothing else to eat, they will readily feed on the bark.

In cases where only a few Corsican Pines have been
planted, they are often attacked by rabbits, who, out of
ignorance, like to sample the bark, but soon come to the
conclusion that it is distasteful.

Squirrels do much harm by " ringing " the trees near the
top.

THE STAR, CLUSTER, OR MARITIME PINE.

This is not a native tree, and is said to have been intro-
duced in 1596.

The timber is coarse, resinous, and rather heavy. It is
very inferior to Scots Pine timber. The tree never grows
with a straight bole.

Soil and Situation. — It prefers deep, dry, sandy soils ;

410 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

but it will grow on a variety of soils, provided they be
deep.

Chalky or any calcareous soils are quite unsuited to it ; so
also are wet soils. It is tender as to frosts ; but it is a storm-
proof tree, and has been very successfully planted on sandy
dunes by the sea-shore. It stands the sea blasts very well.

Cultivation, etc. — The tree is very light-demanding ; and
is of a coarse branchy habit, the ends of the branches turning
somewhat upwards.

Like Corsican Pine, it is a very difficult tree to transplant.
Nursery stock should be transplanted every year without fail,
until planted out at, say, 3 years old. The planting out
should take place late in the spring. The tree has a very
long tap-root, and very few fibrous roots. Hence, where
possible, it should be raised in situ from seed.

Except for sea-coast planting, there is little to recommend
the cultivation of the tree.

BANK'S PINE.

This is a native tree of Eastern America.

The timber is of very little commercial value ; and on
poor soil the trees are only from 15 to 25 feet high.

Soil and Situation, etc. — It will grow on almost any
soil ; and its value lies in the fact that it may succeed on dry,
nearly barren, rocky soils, where almost all other trees will
fail. It is very hardy as to frosts, and will also withstand sea
breezes very well. It has been successfully planted on sand
dunes; and, in Denmark, is so planted on the coast along
with the White Spruce (P. alba).

PlNUS INSIGNIS.

The P. insignis is native to California, and is said to have
been introduced in 1833.

Soil and Situation. — It prefers light, dry, deep soils, and
is very tender as to spring and autumn frosts. Dry, cold,
easterly winds are also detrimental to it

WEYMOUTH FINE 411

Generally speaking, it has no sylvicultural value in this
country ; but on the west coast of England, it has been used
with success in planting dry shifting sand in localities much
exposed to the sea blast ; though their development is small
under such circumstances. The buds of the trees are not so
liable to be pierced and riddled by the blowing sand as are
the buds of most other Pines.

WEYMOUTH PINE.

The Weymouth Pine is not a native tree; but it was
introduced from Eastern North America in 1705.

As to Seed. — Trees, 30 years old, produce good crops of
seed ; and good seed years occur every 2 or 3 years ; the
seed usually ripens in October in this country ; and, if it be
required, it should be collected at once, as the seed is almost
immediately scattered.

However, home-grown seed should not be used, except
experimentally.

One pound of seed contains about 27,000 seeds, and the
germinative capacity is about 55 per cent.

The timber is white, light, soft, and contains but little
resin. It is one of the lightest woods when seasoned ; and it
shrinks very little in seasoning, and does not warp. It is not
durable when exposed to inimical influences, but is very
suitable for all interior joinery ; and it makes excellent pulp
wood.

The White or Yellow Pine of commerce is cut from the
Weymouth Pine.

Soil and Situation. — Deep, sandy loams, with a good
supply of moisture, suit the tree best of all.

Calcareous soils in most cases seem quite unsuited to it.
It often grows well on peaty soils, provided they contain no
stagnant water ; and, also, on clay soils, but under such cir-
cumstances, they are often difficult to establish, on account of
spring and autumn frosts, to which the Weymouth Pine is
very susceptible.

On dry, sandy soils the tree will often thrive well, but it is

412 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

rather liable to become diseased wherever the conditions for
its growth are not favourable. In all cases a deep soil is
essential. It prefers fairly sheltered situations, and cold, dry,
east winds are inimical to it.

Cultivation, etc. — The tree is capable of withstanding
considerable shade, especially if the soil be moist; and its
foliage is denser than that of most Pines. It grows very fast
when once it is established. It is rather shy of transplanting ;
but, if this be done late in the spring, there is not much
danger to fear. Its side branches are very persistent, and a
very close canopy is necessary in order to prune them off.
The tree is peculiar in transpiring an enormous amount of
moisture, and, for this reason, the greatest care is necessary
if it be used for underplanting.

It may be grown pure as even-aged high forest ; but, as
it is rather liable to fungous attacks, it is less risky to plant a
mixture.

Thus, Weymouth and Scots or Corsican Pines may be
evenly mixed, the Weymouth Pines being left for the mature
crop, if all goes well. They should be planted 3 feet apart
each way.

It is rather difficult to make any other mixture by
alternate rows or trees, unless the inferior growth of one of
the species be not objected to.

However, Weymouth Pine and Sitka Spruce might
give good results, though it would be a very expensive
mixture ; for both species are expensive to raise.

But, as is the case with most species, the most satisfactory
manner of forming mixtures is, generally, by groups or patches,
when, if fairly large groups be made, almost any species can
be mixed, provided the soil be suitable.

Weymouth Pine is admirably suited for underplanting
crops of Larch or Ash, provided that the soil be not too
dry. The light overhead canopy will afford the Pines the
shelter they require from frosts ; and the cost of raising
a crop can be very much reduced by planting 2-year-old
plants.

Rotation. — The best rotation is about 80 years.

WEYMOUTH PINE 413

Average returns from pure crops in high forest should be,
per acre : —

Thinnings , . . 1350 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.
Final yield (at 80 years) . 4270 „ 6 „
Total production . . 6300 „ 2 „

Average annual increment, 79 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.

Equivalent net rental l for land only \ at 3% = 43. id.

(from date of planting) J at 4% = minus is. $d.

Of Fungi. — Many of those attacking Scots Pine also
attack the Weymouth Pine.

Agaricus melleus and Trametes radiciperda very
frequently cause much damage.

Peridermium strobi, sometimes called P. ribicolum, is the
Weymouth Pine Bark Blister. It often does enormous
damage to young crops. It is characterised by pinky red,
bladder-like vesicles, which appear on the stems.

Other fungi attacking the Weymouth Pine are : —
Hysterium pinastri, Botrytis cinerea, Caeoma pinitor-
quum, Trametes pini, and Peridermium pini acicola.

Of Insects. — Most of those attacking Scots Pine will also,
occasionally, attack Weymouth Pine ; though, generally
speaking, the tree is not nearly so subject to insect attacks as
the Scots Pine.

Pissodes notatus is, however, fairly common in Scotland.

1 After deducting interest on ^8, the cost of planting and establishing
the crop.

414 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

SILVER PIR.

Abies pectinata =The Common Silver Fir.

Abies Nordmanniana = Nordmann's Silver Fir.
Abies concolor.
Abies grandis.

The Common Silver Fir is native to the mountains of
Central Europe; and is said to have been introduced in 1603.

As to Seed. — Good crops of seed are produced from
about the 6$th year onwards, in its native habitat.

It bears seed in the warmer parts of this country ; but
home-grown seed should never be relied upon, except for
experimental purposes.

One pound of seed contains about 10,000 seeds, and the
germinative capacity is about 40 per cent.

The timber is white, soft, and light ; and, if grown in
close canopy, is of excellent quality. It may be used
for the same purposes as Spruce. It is easily worked, and
splits well. Strasburg Turpentine is obtained from this
tree.

Soil and Situation. — A deep soil is essential, and a fair
amount of moisture. On dry, sandy, or gravelly soils it
will not, usually, succeed.

It is extremely tender as to spring and autumn frosts ;
and, also, as to hot summer sun, when the plants are
young.

It will thrive on stiff clay soils, if it can get established ;
but, except when used as an undercrop, it will so often
be killed by frosts, that it should seldom be planted in the
open on such soils.

It likes a fairly moist atmosphere, and a warm climate ;
and it succeeds best in the south and south-west of England,
or in the neighbourhood of the sea or inland lakes ; and it
prefers northern aspects.

It has a deep root system and is a storm-proof tree.

Cultivation, etc.— The tree is rather a bad " transplanter,"

SILVER FIR 415

and, like most conifers, succeeds best if planted out late in
the spring. It is very slow growing when young, trees 12
years old being often only 6 or 8 feet high. It bears an
immense amount of shade ; more even than the Beech. Its
side branches are not readily killed ; and a very close canopy
must be retained until the trees are 50 feet high. In the
latter part of its rotation, its growth is very rapid indeed. It
may be grown in even-aged high forest ; but it should
almost invariably be raised under a light shelter-wood, so as
to protect the young crop from frosts and sun. It should be
grown pure, or else mixed by patches or groups ; for, its slow
growth will prevent it being pruned by practically any other
trees ; nor will these other trees be pruned by the Silver Fir,
for the vigorous growths of the latter will be too late to effect
the desired end.

Silver Fir should, however, as a general rule, be used only
for underplanting, for which purpose it is admirably suited.
As the undercrop in two-storied high forest, it will generally
give a better financial return than if grown as even-aged
high forest. When used for underplanting, the overcrop
can be removed when the Silver Fir are about 40 years
old, and the latter should then be allowed to grow on
to maturity.

Also, apart from the question of the advisability of raising
crops from home-grown seed, Silver Fir can be grown under
the group and selection systems.

Natural regeneration is very easy in its native country,
and it is often found in the south and west of England, and
in Ireland ; but, it is doubtful if these trees will retain the
vigour of, or produce as good seed as, their parents.

For experimental purposes, the seed from these self-sown
English trees should be carefully collected, and the young
trees raised therefrom should be carefully watched. Ultim-
ately, a generation of acclimatised trees might be reared,
whose seed could be relied upon, and which would, probably,
then be preferable to any imported seed ; and the extreme
tenderness as to frosts might thus be eradicated.

Rotation. — The best rotation is from 80 to 100 years.

416 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

Average returns from pure crops in high forest should be,
per acre : —

Thinnings . . . 1160 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.
Final yield (at 90 years) . 6050 „ 6 „
Total production . . 7860 „ 2 „
Average annual increment, 87 J cub. ft.

Equivalent net rental l for land only j at 3% = I s. rod.

(from date of planting) J at 4% = minus 33. 6d.

Of Fungi. — Phytophthora omnivera causes "damping off"
of seedlings.

Pestalozzia Hartigii produces a canker on the bark of
young stems in nurseries and young plantations. The attack
is generally near the ground level.

Agaricus melleus = the Honey Fungus, and Trametes
radiciperda (Pomes annosus) = The Red Rot Root Fungus,
attack the roots.

Trametes pini attacks the boles of trees, after the age of
about 35 years, and decomposes the heartwood and also the
sapwood ; though in Pines and Larch the sapwood is not
attacked.

JEcidium elatinum produces "Witches Broom." This
aecidium is the resting spore stage of Melampsorella cerastii.

It is characterised, in the early stages, by annular swellings
which appear on the twigs and branches.

Triuhosphceria flarasitt'ca = The Silver Fir Needle Blight
Fungus, attacks plantations when about 20 to 40 years old.
The young twigs are attacked and the needles turn brown
and hang down.

Phoma abietina causes a canker on the twigs and
branches of small Silver Firs.

Lophodermium nervisequum = The Silver Fir Leaf Scurf,
attacks 2-year-old needles in the spring of their 3rd year.
It takes the form of a rust, and afterwards causes leaf-
shedding.

1 After deducting interest on ^8, the cost of planting and establishing
the crop.

NORDMANN'S SILVER FIR 417

Of Insects. — On the whole these are not very destructive.

Cockchafer grubs gnaw the roots of young plants.

The Giant or Yellow Wood Wasp { — Sirexgigas), bores
into the boles of the Silver Fir, and also of Larch and Spruce.

Hylobius aTbietis sometimes gnaws the bark of young
stems, up to about J years of age.

Nordmann's Silver Pir. — This is native to the mountains
in the south-east of Europe, and is said to have been intro-
duced in 1845.

It is of about similar value to, and may be cultivated in
the same manner as, the Common Silver Fir. It has the
advantage of being less liable to be injured by spring frosts,
as its growth in spring starts very much later than the
common variety.

According to some writers, it can endure more shade even
than the Common Silver Fir.

Abies concolor is well worth an extensive trial. It trans-
plants better than most of the other Silver Firs ; and the
trees are quicker growing when young than most of the other
varieties. It is less injured by spring frosts ; and will grow
on considerably drier soils than any other of the Silver Firs.

Abies grandis is recommended by some. It appears to
be somewhat hardier, and rather quicker growing when
young, and, also, more easy to transplant than the Common
Silver Fir.

2 D

418 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

SPRUCE.

Picea excelsa = The Norway Spruce.
Picea Sitchensis = Sitka Spruce.
Picea alba = The White Spruce.

None of the Spruces are native trees.

NORWAY SPRUCE.

The Norway Spruce is said to have been introduced
about 1550.

As to Seed. — Good crops of seed are produced from
about the I5th year onwards; and the seed years are
frequent. However, it is a difficult question to decide whether
home-grown seed should be used.

One pound of seed contains about 64,000 seeds, and the
germinative capacity is about 70 to 75 per cent.

The timber is white, light, and soft, but is not durable
when exposed to inimical influences. It is the tree from
which the white Christiana deals are cut. It makes excellent
pulp wood.

Soil and Situation. — The Spruce will grow in a great
variety of soils, but any dry soil is quite unsuited to it. It
thrives on stiff clay soils, and also on peaty soils, provided
they are not water-logged.

It requires a less depth of soil than almost ary other tree,
provided it can obtain sufficient moisture. It prefers a very
moist atmosphere, and hence succeeds better on northern
aspects. As explained elsewhere, its growth in England is
seldom satisfactory, except on tablelands at high elevations,
or on northern aspects, or where there is really a great deal
of moisture in the soil. However, the climate in Scotland is
much more suited to its growth. The tree likes a short grow-
ing season with a rapid transition from winter to summer ;
and it delights in being frequently shrouded in mist and
fog.

NORWAY SPRUCE 419

It is rather susceptible to late spring frosts ; and is very
liable to be thrown by the wind.

Cultivation, etc. — It is a thickly foliaged tree. It is very
fibrous rooted, and will transplant easily, but it generally
takes a few years to become established after being planted
out, after which it makes a rapid height growth, and, like
Silver Fir, Larch, and Douglas Fir, preserves a straight
central stem.

Its side branches are very persistent and are very difficult
to prune off naturally, so that a close canopy, when young,
is very essential.

It bears a good deal of shade where the conditions for its
growth are really suitable ; but, generally speaking, it is a
very inferior shade bearer in most parts of England.

Even on good moist soils, its utility for underplanting is
of doubtful value, for it transpires a very great amount of
water in the spring, and robs the overcrop of its due supply,
and hence often does more harm than good. If planted
under Oak, it will often cause the latter to become "stag-
headed."

The best timber will be grown, if it be planted pure in
even-aged high forest. Mixtures, except by groups or patches,
are very difficult to arrange.

Norway Spruce and Weymouth Pine should give good
results ; but, if the soil be suitable for Weymouth Pine, it
will not usually be profitable to plant Spruce.

Leaving out of consideration the advisability of the
growth of trees from home-grown seed, and also the expense
of protection against rabbits, Spruce may be grown under the
selection system ; though the quality of the timber will not
be very good.

And it may also be grown under the group system ;
but the groups must be small, as the tree is not storm-
proof.

All thinnings must be very slight until the principal height
growth has been attained.

Rotation. — The best rotation on average land is from 75
to 85 years.

420 SYLVICULTURE NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

Average returns from pure crops in even-aged high forest
should be, in cubic feet, per acre :—

Thinnings . . . 1000 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.
Final yield (at 80 years) . 5000 „ 6 „
Total production . . 6400 „ 6 „
Average annual increment, 80 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g.

The rental equivalents will be about the same as those
given for Silver Fir.

Of Fungi. — Phytophthora omnivera often causes the
"damping off" of large quantities of seedlings.

Pestalozzia Hartigii produces a kind of canker or blister
on the bark of the smooth stems of Spruce, and also of Silver
Fir and other trees in nurseries, and in young plantations.
The attack is generally near the ground level, and the trees
wilt and die.

Septoria parasitica attacks the leading shoots of seedlings
and young trees of Norway Spruce and Sitka Spruce. The
base of the young shoots is generally affected in about June ;
they hang down, wither, and die. Later on, black fungous
specks can be seen on the bark and the needle cushions of
the attacked shoots.

Agaricus melleus ( = the Honey Fungus) and Trametes
radiciperda (Fomes annosus) = the Red Rot Root Fungus,
attack the roots.

Trametes pini attacks the boles of trees after about the
age of 35 years, affecting the heartwood and also the sap-
wood and causing the bole to become hollow.

Lophodermium macrosporum (= the Spruce Leaf Scurf),
attacks the leaves of 2-year-old shoots of young trees,
generally from 10 to 30 years of age. It either merely pro-
duces a rust, or else causes actual leaf shedding.

Botrytis cinerea attacks the foliage of young trees and
nursery stock.

Nectria curcubitula produces cankerous patches on the
bark of small stems and branches.

Chrysomyxa abietis (= the Spruce Needle Rust or
Blister), produces a rust on the current year's needles only.

SITKA SPRUCE 421

It is most frequent in plantations from 10 to 30 years of
age.

Polyporus vaporarius attacks the stems through wound
surfaces.

Of Insects. — Hylobius abietis ( = the Pine Weevil) gnaws
the bark of 2- to /-year-old trees. As mentioned, when
dealing with Scots Pine, the fellings should always be inter-
mittent, so that neighbouring Spruce areas differ by 6 to 8
years. If possible, Spruce should not be planted on areas
from which a crop of Spruce or Scots Pine has just been
removed. Bark traps should be laid.

Pissodes notatus ( = the Small Brown Weevil), Hylesinus
(or Hylurgus) piniperda ( = the Large Pine Beetle), and
Cockchafer grubs, also do much harm.

Chermes abietis ( = the Spruce gall Aphis), is the sexual
form of the sexless Larch Aphis. It attacks young Spruce
from about 10 to 20 years of age. The lice suck the sap of
the young shoots, and a cone-like gall results.

SITKA SPRUCE.

The Sitka Spruce, sometimes known as Menzies Spruce,
is native to Sitka Sound and the coast region of British
Columbia ; it is said to have been introduced in 1831.

As to Seed. — One pound of seed contains about 197,000
seeds, and the germinative capacity is about 70 to 75 per
cent. There is every reason to anticipate that home-grown
seed will prove equal in every respect to that which is
imported ; but great caution is necessary until this be
proved by generations of experience.

The timber of well-grown trees is of excellent quality ; it
is soft and white, and may be used for the same purposes as
that of Norway Spruce.

Soil and Situation. — Deep soils are essential ; so also
is a plentiful supply of moisture, and a damp atmosphere, if
its maximum development is to be attained. On very stiff
clay soils it shows promise of being one of the most profitable
trees that can be planted. It delights in a deep, moist,

422 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

humous soil resting upon a cool stiffish bottom. Shallow soils,
or very dry soils are quite unsuited to it. But it will succeed
on deep, somewhat dry soils, especially if the aspects be north.
It has a deep root system and is a storm-proof tree.

Cultivation, etc. — It is capable of bearing considerable
shade if the soil be moist enough ; and it may be used for
underplanting, where the overhead canopy is light.

It transplants readily, and is a very quick growing tree ;
and, in some cases, it will practically keep pace with Douglas
Fir.

Its side branches are vigorous, and a close canopy is
necessary in order to effect natural pruning.

It may be grown in even-aged high forest, when it is
best grown pure.

Mixtures by alternate rows or single trees are difficult to
arrange.

Sitka Spruce and Douglas Fir, or Sitka Spruce and
Weymouth Pine will grow excellent timber ; but, both these
mixtures are very expensive.

Sitka Spruce and Thuya gigantea should give very good
results.

In order to lessen the expense, a mixture of Sitka Spruce
and Corsican Pine may be planted, all the latter being removed
as thinnings.

Sitka Spruce will also, in all probability, succeed well
under the group or selection systems.

It is very suitable for underplanting, if the overhead
canopy be light.

Like all thickly foliaged trees, it is quite unsuited for
standards over coppice.

Rotation. — The best rotation is from 70 to 75 years.

Average returns from crops grown in this country have
yet to be proved. But it will, in all probability, prove rather
more profitable than Weymouth Pine.

Of Fungi and Insects which will attack it in this country,
it is somewhat premature to treat of; but, many of those
enumerated when treating of Norway Spruce and Scots
Pine have already attacked the Sitka Spruce.

WHITE SPRUCE 423

Wherever the conditions are not really suited to the
growth of the tree, it is almost certain to fall a prey, sooner
or later, to attacks of fungi or insects.

Some species of fungus affecting the foliage seems very
prevalent on young trees planted on dry land.

As to other Pests. — The needles of Sitka Spruce are
very prickly, and to a great extent they afford protection
against deer and other animals which like to feed on young
trees.

WHITE SPRUCE.

The White Spruce is a native tree to North America.

Though it is of little importance as a timber producer in
this country, it may possibly prove to have a great value for
planting on exposed sand dunes on the sea coast.

It appears extremely hardy in every respect. It has
been very successfully planted, along with the Banksian Pine,
on exposed, sandy tracts on the coast of Denmark.

424 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES

THUYA.

Thuya gigantea =The Giant Arborvitse, or the Red

"Cedar" of British Columbia.
Thuya occidentalis = The American, or Common Arborvitae.

Only the Thuya gigantea will be considered, as the T.
occidentalis is of little sylvicultural importance in this
country.

The Thuya gigantea is a native tree to British Columbia,
and grows most luxuriantly near the damp Pacific Coast. It
is said to have been introduced in 1854.

As to Seed. — It bears abundant crops of seed from about
the 3Oth year onwards. Home-grown seed is likely to prove
satisfactory in all respects. Imported seed from European
continental countries is likely, in time to come, to cause some
disappointment, and may with advantage be avoided.

All seed should be obtained from near the sea coast of
British Columbia.

One pound of seed contains about 341,000 seeds, and the
germinative capacity is about 60 to 65 per cent.

The timber is soft and very resinous, brownish in colour,
and splits well. It is a very durable timber, and, for outdoor
fencing, gate posts, etc., is invaluable. In its native country,
huge quantities of the timber are split or sawn into
" shingles," which take the place of roofing tiles or slates. It
is largely used for weather boarding. It is not much used
for interior house work, except for " match lining."

The value of its timber on the British market has yet to
be proved ; but it should be worth about 6d. to pd. a cubic
foot, according to the current level of prices.

Soil and Situation. — A moist, porous soil is most suitable
for its growth. It will succeed on almost any soils, except
very dry or water-logged soils. It grows fairly well on stiff
clay soils, or on thin clays resting on disintegrated limestone
rock, though in such localities its development is not rapid.
It is a storm-proof tree, and fairly hardy as regards spring
and autumn frosts. It is apt to be much injured by a hot

THUYA GIGANTEA 425

sun inducing transplantation in the early spring. It possesses,
however, an extraordinary recuperative power ; and often
survives the bad effects of the most inimical influences. It
prefers a moist atmosphere, and succeeds best on northern
aspects.

Cultivation, etc. — The tree is very thickly foliaged, and
bears a great amount of shade on moist soils. It transplants
fairly well, but takes a few years to become established, after
which it makes a very rapid growth, often being 40 feet high
when 25 years old. It does not, however, retain this rapid
growth after the tree is about 55 feet high ; but it still increases
rapidly in girth measurement.

A close canopy is necessary, in order to prune off the side
branches when young.

The Thuya gigantea is admirably suited for underplanting
crops of thinly foliaged trees. It may also be grown in even-
aged high forest, either quite pure, or mixed by patches.
If mixtures by single trees be required, Thuya and Wey-
mouth Pine, or Thuya and Douglas Fir, or Thuya and
Sitka Spruce may be planted. In the two latter cases it
will usually be finally suppressed, and will have to be cut out
as thinnings.

The tree could also be grown under the selection or
group systems.

Rotation. — The best rotation in even-aged high forest will
be about 70 to 80 years.

Average returns. — An average annual increment of 80 to
85 cubic feet (to 2 inches quarter girth) may be anticipated.

The question, whether the cultivation of this tree will
prove remunerative, will depend upon the reception of its
timber in the open market. It ought to sell readily ; but,
until this be proved, any plantations that may happen to be
made by planting this tree, must be looked upon in the light
of an experiment.

The tree seems remarkably free from attacks by fungi or
insects.

CHAPTER XVII.

MEASUREMENTS FOR PURPOSES OF FOREST MANAGEMENT.

THE ordinary method of measuring standing timber has been
dealt with in another chapter.

But, for certain investigations into the growth of crops
where large areas have to be measured and great accuracy is
required, the ordinary method is not suitable ; for it would
require a very great deal of time, and, moreover, the actual
height of the tree is more or less of an uncertainty.

Continental foresters adopt another method. It is very
much quicker, and insures greater accuracy ; and, where a
large area under timber is being measured, their usual custom
is to assess the total true mathematical contents measured
over bark, including, also, branch wood.

It will be instructive to note their methods of measuring
standing trees or whole crops of timber, as, to a great degree,
their methods will be found indispensable in this country,
when making scientific investigations ; although quarter girth
measurements should usually be adopted instead of true con-
tents measurements.

Now, the true contents of standing timber are found by
multiplying together, the exact height, the basal area at
breast high, and the form factor.

The exact height of standing trees may be found by the
use of various height measures, of which an instrument known
as Brandit's Hypsometer is, perhaps, the best. It is some-
what like a miniature telescope containing a dial with angles
marked upon it. This dial is pivoted and can be released
by pressing a button ; and becomes again fixed when the

426

BRANDIT'S HYPSOMETER 427

pressure on the button is withdrawn. On fairly level ground
the upward angle, from a line horizontal with the observer's
eye to the very tip of the tree, is first ascertained, by looking
through the eye-piece and releasing the dial by pressing
the button ; when the cross wires cut the top of the tree and
the dial is steady, it should be fixed by taking the pressure
off the button. The angle can then be read ; and, having
measured the horizontal distance from the centre of the tree
to the observer, the height of the tree, from a point in a line
horizontal with the eye, can be ascertained by reference to
tables.1 To the height thus ascertained must be added the
length between the ground level and a point on the tree in a
line horizontal with the observer's eye. This will give the
correct height of the tree.

If the observer be standing on much higher ground than
that upon which the tree is growing, it will be necessary to
measure the tree in two lengths, and add the two together.
The first length is from a line horizontal with the observer's
eye to the top of the tree, and the second length is from the
same horizontal line to the bottom of the tree.2 The sum of
these two will give the height of the tree.

There are other hypsometers, such as Weise's, Faust-
mann's, Konig's, which may be preferred by some. The
principle of all is that of trigonometrical relations.

The basal area at breast high is obtained by taking
the diameter over bark at 4% feet above the ground. The
basal area is the product of: —

(Diameter)2 x— .
4

The diameter is taken in inches by means of callipers, or
of a tree compass. Callipers are preferable to the tree compass,
as the latter is usually heavier and is apt to give too small a
diameter. For very great accuracy, two diameters at right
angles to each other should be measured, and the mean of

1 Tables for use with this instrument will be found in Appendix A.
The hypsometer may be obtained from Herr Max Woltz, Bonn,
Germany.

2 The downward angle being read.

428 MEASUREMENTS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT

the two diameters taken ; for trees often present a broader
face one way than another.

As the height is taken in feet, the basal area must there-
fore be reduced to feet, and the two multiplied together, e.g.,

P2 (in inches) x -x height in feet.
144 4

In practice this will be obtained from tables.

This will give the true contents of a cylinder equal to the
total length of the tree, and having a diameter, all the way
up, equal to the diameter at breast high.

Thus the contents as found will be far too great. The
correct contents are only a fraction of this amount The pro-
portion which the actual contents bear to this cylinder is known
as the form factor. It is, therefore, necessary to multiply the
product of the height and basal area (at breast high) by the
form factor, in order to arrive at the actual contents.

The tables of average form factors in general use are
all calculated on measurements taken at breast high ; there-
fore, in applying them, it is very necessary to be strictly
accurate in taking the measurements at breast high, or the
results will not be correct.

These form factors are usually referable, either to the
total contents, including all small branches, or else to such
contents as have a diameter of 2} inches1 and upwards, over
bark. It is only these latter that are of any practical applica-
tion in this country.

It must be clearly understood that these average form
factors cannot be taken in order to find the accurate contents
of any single particular tree. They are the average form
factors obtained from measurements made on innumerable
trees growing in close-canopied high forest.

Therefore, if only a single tree or a small number of trees
is being measured, it is not correct to apply the form factor
from average tables.

Under such circumstances, the mean diameter (for timber
only) must be estimated by the eye, just as the taper of a

1 7 centimetres.

FORM FACTORS 429

tree is estimated in the British method of measuring stand-
ing timber ; and the height up to the timber limit must also
be ascertained, and the contents of timber will be : —

Timber height (in feet) x (mean diameter)* x jr.

144 4

Hence it will be seen that the continental method has no
advantage over the British method, where a single tree, or
only a small number of trees, is being individually measured,
except that the height is measured more accurately if an
hypsometer be used.

The form factor is really the proportion which the
basal area of a cylinder, having the contents of and being as
long as a given tree, bears to the basal area of that tree at
breast high. If trees have the same height, the form factor
will nearly always be different in the case of trees having
different diameters ; though all trees, whatever their height
or diameter, would have the same form factor if the degree of
taper from the tip of the tree to the ground were uniformly even.

In well-grown, close-canopied high forest, it is found that
the girth of trees of the same species will usually vary accord-
ing to the height, during the period in which active height
growth is taking place ; and the form factor, as found in
average tables, is usually made referable to the height of a tree.

Now, if a crop of timber were not uniform in any respect,
it would be necessary to measure every tree individually, and
no use could be made of average form factors or any other
average data.

But, where crops are fairly uniform, the contents of any
area, whether large or small, may be found through the use
of average data by the following methods : —

(1) Measurement of Sample Trees.

(2) Measurement of Sample Plots.

(3) By estimation from Average Yield Tables.

1. Measurement of Sample Trees.

This excellent method involves, in its simplest form, the
finding of the true average stem and multiplying the contents

430 MEASUREMENTS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT

of that stem by the number of trees on the area. If the area
be very large, the average tree and the number of trees, on a
comparatively small measured area, are first ascertained, and
the contents completed ; and from this the contents of the
large area are calculated.

The initial difficulty is to find the average stem.

An excellent method is that adopted by Weise, in which
every stem is counted and assigned to a diameter class (each
class usually varying I inch in diameter). When all the
stems are thus counted and classified, a count back up to 40
per cent, of the total number of stems is made, beginning
with the stems in the biggest diameter class. The diameter
class into which this count back leads, will contain the true
average stem which is required.

Thus if an area contained 3000 trees classified thus : —

Diameter.
Inches.

Number.

8

51

9

*S9

10

345

ii

685

12

764

13

500

H

336

15

122

16

38

Total .

3000

Then a count back of 40 per cent-

40 x 3000

100
= 1200

—equals 1200 trees from the i6-inch diameter class; this
would lead into the 1 2-inch diameter class.

WEISE'S METHOD

431

Hence by this rule the average tree is one of [ 2 inches
diameter.

Having ascertained this, the height of several trees having
this diameter is accurately measured, and the average height
arrived at ; then the average form factor, for the species of
tree having this height, is ascertained from tables ; and then
the contents of this average stem are found, e.g., basal area x
height x form factor ; and the contents of the whole area are
equal to the contents of the average stem x number of stems
on the area.

If the crop be mixed, the species of trees must be kept
separate ; and their contents separately computed.

Whenever there is no objection to the contrary, a few of
the average stems should be felled, and their contents accu-
rately measured ; for by this means, still greater accuracy
will be obtained, and the use of an average form factor
dispensed with.

A method giving still greater accuracy is to find the basal
area and height for each class ; and then the contents of all
the trees in each diameter class ; and finally the contents, on the
whole area, by adding the contents of each class together thus : —

Diameter.
Inches.

Number
of trees.

Basal area,
in feet.

Height,
in feet.

Form
Factor.
Timber
only.

Contents
in cubic feet.

Per stem.

Whole class.

8

51

•349

17-799

44

•45

352-420

9

159

•44 1

70-119

48

.46

1,548-227

10

345

•545

188-025

51

•47

4,5o6-959

ii

685

•659

45I-4I5

54

-48

11,700-547

12

764

•785

599740

56

-48

16,078-011

13

500

•921

460-500

58

-48

12,820-320

H

336

1-069

359-I84

60

•47

10,128-876

15

122

1-227

149-694

62

•47

4,361-966

16

38

1-396

53-048

63

-46

1,537-331

3000

Total .

63,034'657

432 MEASUREMENTS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT

Now, by Weise's method, the average sample stem is
21-1008 cubic feet, and the contents per acre = 21- 1008 x
3000 = 63,302-400 cubic feet, a difference of less than J per
cent.

Various other methods have been evolved for determin-
ing the contents of an area by the estimation of sample
trees.

These, for the most part, divide the total number of trees
into classes of equal numbers, and take one or more sample
trees for each class, and thus arrive at the total contents.

By Brandt's method, a constant proportion (usually I per
cent.) of the number of trees in each class is taken for
samples ; the I per cent, being reckoned roughly on every
hundred, or fraction of a hundred over fifty; and two or
more diameter classes, if containing under 50 trees, are
grouped together.

By Urich's method, one sample tree is taken for every
TOO trees, and is considered to have the diameter of that
class from which most of the trees making up that 100 are
drawn.

But Weise's method, and that of finding the contents of
each diameter class, are far preferable for ordinary use.

2. Measurement of Sample Plots.

By this method, several plots of about one-half or one
acre each are selected and measured at various spots over
the whole area ; their contents computed ; and then the con-
tents of the whole area found according to the proportion the
total area bears to the plots.

This method has to some extent already been indicated
when describing the method of selecting sample stems on a
single given measured area if the total area be very large.

But the method now under consideration presupposes the
taking of several small plots ; and it will often be expedient
to measure every tree on each of the plots, or the contents
may be found by the taking of sample trees as previously
described.

In selecting the plots, care should be taken that they are

FORM FACTORS

433

as nearly representative of the whole area as possible ; and
they should never be taken (or only a very small proportion
of them) on the edges of rides or roads, as, in such places, the
growth and development is usually greater than elsewhere.

The principle involved in these two methods of measure-
ing large areas of timber should certainly be adopted largely
in this country. If the true contents over bark be com-
puted, the contents by quarter girth measurement under bark
(allowing I inch to I foot) will be approximately 65 per
cent1

The quarter girth measurement contents can also be found
by using a reduced form factor when finding the contents by
the true basal area method, i.e., by taking the diameter.

Thus, in the case of a crop of Beech, the reduced form
factors would be as follows, if the average form factors in
continental tables, according to the height of trees, were : —

Height of Tree.
Feet.

Form Factor.
True Contents.
For Timber only.

Reduced Form Factor.
For Quarter Girth
Contents,
under bark
if diameters were
taken over bark.

45

•35

•23

50

•40

•26

60

•45

•29

90

•5o

•32

100

•50

•32

However, in most cases it will be preferable to take the
quarter girth measurements at breast high, and then to use the
unreduced form factors direct, if form factors are going to be
used at all. But the application of continental form factors
must at present be used with great caution in this country ;
for, speaking generally, crops of timber are not raised in this
country in the same density as was the case with the crops
from which the average form factors have been taken. There-
fore, it will be wise to omit the use of form factors, at any

1 Vide Chapter XIII.

2 E

434 MEASUREMENTS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT

rate, until their efficiency has been assured by collecting the
average form factors for innumerable crops of normal density
in this country.

At present the average sample trees must be measured in
the ordinary way, except that an hypsometer should be used
for accurately gauging the height.

Where possible, the sample trees should be felled and
accurately measured, and their form factors ascertained, and
a careful record of them kept for future use.

3. Estimation by Reference to Average Yield Tables.

This is a method which will give approximately correct
results if average yield tables be obtainable.

It is, therefore, very useful in the making of working plans,
or in drawing up a report on any woodland area, especially
for estimating the contents of the younger crops. But, when
great accuracy is necessary, their use cannot be recom-
mended.

There are no average tables in general use, at present, for
crops grown in this country.1 Any attempt to apply con-
tinental tables cannot be expected to give more than a rough
estimate, as the conditions under which they are grown, both
as to culture and climate, vary very greatly from those that
obtain in Great Britain.

The application of the tables to an existing crop is not an
easy matter. It is necessary to know the age of the crop and
the quality of the land for the species of crop that is growing.

In order to ascertain the age of a crop, it is necessary to
fell a few trees and count the annual rings, except that, in the
case of young coniferous crops, it is nearly always possible to
count the annual whorls, thus avoiding the necessity of felling
any trees.

The quality of the land is much more difficult to estimate.
It is, of course, necessary, because the average yield tables are
referable to land of a particular quality for the particular crop
under consideration.

For practical application there ought to be average yield
1 But vide Chapter XI.

QUALITY OF SOIL AND SITUATION 435

tables for at least three and by preference five qualities of
land. It should be noted that the quality of the land is refer-
able to its quality for a particular crop. Thus, any given
area may be second quality for one particular crop, but only
third quality for another.

One of the best guides as to the quality of land is the
height of the crop at different ages ; or, at any rate, the height
considered in conjunction with the quarter girth measurement.
If the crop be of normal density, the height alone would
usually be a sufficient guide in the case of crops approaching
maturity ; though, in the case of younger crops, it is often
found that up to a certain age a somewhat inferior soil may
show as good height growth as a soil of better quality.

If a crop has been unduly thinned, increment in girth
takes place to the detriment of height growth ; and regard
must always be paid to this fact when applying yield tables.

Various attempts have been made to assess the quality of
the soil according to a scale, allotting points for different
attributes somewhat after the method adopted in judging live
stock in the show ring.

But this method cannot be recommended. It may have
an academic interest ; but that is all. It is of no more use in
judging the quality of forest land than it would be in judging
agricultural land for farming purposes.

Experience alone can determine the quality of the land.
In this connection it will be of great advantage to have a few
trial holes dug so as to inspect the nature of the subsoil.
Then again, due regard must be paid to the nature of the
natural surface vegetation, the altitude, the aspect, and many
other considerations which present themselves to an ex-
perienced eye.

But even when the quality of the land and the age of the
crop have been determined, the tables are not easy of applica-
tion, for it will seldom be found that the number of trees per
acre corresponds exactly with the number indicated in the
tables for the particular age. To some extent the contents
may be computed by taking an amount proportionate to the
indicated number and the actual number; but this cannot

436 MEASUREMENTS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT

give a very accurate result, because the individual trees of
the crop, the density of which is below normal, will, owing to
their increased growing space, have a greater cubic contents
per tree than the trees of the normal crop.

Thus it is evident that great experience is usually
necessary in order to obtain a fairly accurate estimate.

CHAPTER XVIII.

ESTIMATION OF INCREMENT ON CROPS OF TIMBER.

IT is a matter of the very greatest importance, for those
responsible for the management of woodland areas, to be
able to correctly gauge the increment or increase in value of
the timber crops under their charge. For, an accurate know-
ledge of the increment that is taking place in any crop, in any
given year, or that is likely to take place during the next few
years, affords, when compared with the present capital repre-
sented by that crop, the only data which can show, for the
time being, the financial return that is being obtained from
the invested capital. Whenever this increment in value falls
short of the returns that could reasonably be obtained by
investing the capital elsewhere, it will seldom be in accordance
with the true principles of forestry, to allow the crop to con-
tinue growing in its present condition. In many cases it will
indicate that the whole crop should be clear felled ; in other
cases, perhaps, a partial clearance of the crop will be indicated,
in order to admit of an increased increment on the trees left,
which may prove very remunerative.

The increment in value of any crop may be expressed as
the sum of the increment in cubic contents and the increment
in the price per cubic foot.

1. Increment in Cubic Contents.

One method of ascertaining this increment is to accurately
measure the total contents of any crop at two different

437

438 ESTIMATION OF INCREMENT

periods, when, provided no thinnings have taken place, the
difference in the total contents will give the increment over
the period taken. To be of any real value, the measurements
must be very accurate ; and to avoid complications the con-
tents just after a thinning should be known and compared
with measurements taken before another thinning is made.
Now, suppose that a crop, after being thinned, contained
1500 cubic feet of saleable timber, and that 10 years after-
wards the saleable contents were computed at 2200 cubic
feet. Then the increment for the period will have been 700
cubic feet, and the average annual increment for that period
will have been 70 cubic feet.

Possessed of these data, it is quite easy to show at what
rate of interest the volume of the crop has been increas-
ing; this information of course being most valuable. It is
most important to reckon the rate of compound interest (and
not simple interest), for the result is the same whether one is
reckoning in cubic feet or in £ s. d.

The easiest way to find this rate of interest is to find the
proportionate amount to which I cubic foot has increased in
the 10 years, and then to refer to interest tables l showing
the amount of I (£) at different rates per cent, for different
periods.

Now, 1500 amounts to 2200 in 10 years.

Therefore, i = 1-46.

1500

Hence, on referring to tables, it is found that I amounts to
1-46 in 10 years at 3f per cent, or 3-75 per cent.

It is, of course, absolutely fallacious to argue that

On 1500 the gain is 700 in 10 years
„ 100 „ 46-6,, 10 „

Therefore, in i year the gain per cent, is 4-66.

The true rate of compound interest as already found by
reference to tables, can also be found in the following way,
which is given here, because it will help to explain some of

1 Vide Appendix C.

COMPOUND INTEREST FORMULA 439

the formulae usually adopted in scientific forestry investiga-
tions : —

Let a = present contents of the crop

„ A = former contents „

„ n = the number of years between the two measurements

„ p — the rate per cent, yielded.

Hence, the increment = a - A

a — A

and the average annual increment = - — .

n

Now, if n be only i year,

100 \p :: A : a- A.

and a — Ax i*op.

But, if n is for a greater period than i year,

'n

a = A x i'Opn

This formula will give the true rate of compound interest.
But it is not very readily applicable for ordinary use.

It may, however, be simplified with results approximately
correct by expressing the per cent, as equal to the per cent.
that the average annual increment for the period bears to the
mean contents during that period.

Now, the mean contents are
and the average increment

Hence : —

A.

100

J.

n
a-A.

o

n

a + A

2

a-A

n a + A

200

440 ESTIMATION OF INCREMENT

This formula gives a rate of compound interest very
slightly lower than the true rate of compound interest.

It will readily be seen that where data are available, this
formula is applicable for general purposes, whether a per-
centage increase in cubic feet or in money value is being
considered ; and, whether it is the percentage that has occurred
in the past or will occur in the future.

For general purposes the formula might be expressed
thus : —

_ 200 Increment

n Contents or value now

+ contents or value at period of n years

In the example given above the rate of interest that took
place during the last 10 years is given ; but, speaking generally,
it will be found that it is of far more importance to be able to
gauge the probable rate of interest that is likely to take place
in the future, or is taking place at the present moment.

In this connection it is necessary to have regard to the
fact, that, in crops of normal density, any change in the rate
of height growth, or of the width of the annual rings for a
short period of years, is nearly always very gradual, and when
once the principal height growth has been attained the total
increment per acre, from year to year, or from one short
period to another, does not usually vary suddenly. Hence, the
increment that may be expected in the immediate future may
be considered as about the same as that which has just accrued.
Perhaps a little more, or a little less, according to the vigour
and density of the crop, and as other circumstances shall dictate.

But the rate per cent, that will be yielded will not usually
be so high, for the increment has to be reckoned as a per-
centage on a much greater capital.

When, however, investigating the rate of growth of crops,
it will not usually be found that any accurate measurements
of that crop have been previously taken ; hence, it will often
be necessary to gauge the increment of the crop without
previous measurements for comparison.

This may be done by finding the increment on average
sample trees, and then calculating the increment per acre.

FUTURE INCREMENT 441

It is difficult to calculate the past increment for a whole
crop for more than just a year or so by this means, as owing
to the removal of trees by thinning it is difficult to estimate
what are fair average sample trees of the crop that existed
prior to the thinning. And, also, the trees that are selected
will, owing to the increased growing space, have wider annual
rings than the true average for the past period.

But this difficulty is not presented in reckoning the pre-
sent or the future increment, except that in the latter case
the annual rings will get narrower as the trees again require
to be thinned, or if the trees are already mature ; in these
cases, however, any change will be very gradual.

In order to find the future increment the present contents
are deducted from the estimated future contents ; and in
order to find the future contents, it is necessary to know
what will be the increase in height, and in girth or diameter ;
and, as already indicated, this is taken as equal to the rate of
increase in height and diameter that has just recently taken
place.

Thus, if measurements be taken at breast high, and if

D = diameter in future (under bark)

d = present diameter (under bark)

H = height in future

h = present height

F/ = form factor

The increment will equal : —

Now, while timber is still standing, the average in-
crease in height may be guessed ; but the increase in
diameter can only be found by finding the width of the recent
annual rings ; and this is best done by the use of a boring
tool, known as Pressler's borer. With this tool a hole is
bored about an inch or two inches into the stem, and a round
spill of wood is extracted, whilst the borer is still left in the
tree. This spill of wood will show the width of a certain
number of annual rings, and by this means the diameter
increase is ascertained. For purposes of greater accuracy, it

442 ESTIMATION OF INCREMENT

is well to make two borings at right angles to each other
and to take the average between them. The boring should
always be done in a horizontal plane and directed towards the
centre of the tree. If the rings be not distinct, an alcoholic
solution of aniline will usually make them more visible.

Now, since the average width of the annual ring is the
average annual radial increase, it follows that the average
annual increase of diameter is twice the width of this ring.

Hence, it is easy to estimate the future diameter 5 or 10
years hence ; and, in practice, it is not advisable to exceed
the latter number of years.

For example, supposing a tree be 10 inches diameter
under bark at breast high, and that it be 45 feet high (to
the top), and that the form factor for saleable timber be 0-4,
and that it be required to find the increment that will take
place in the next 8 years.

It is reckoned that the tree will be 9 feet higher in 8 years'
time, and, as found with a Pressler borer, the last 6 years'
growth show i inch radius.

Therefore, in 8 years' time the diameter will be increased
by 2-66 inches. Hence, it will be 1 2-66 inches ; and the form
factor may be taken as the same as previously.

Hence, by the formula given, the increment will be, in
feet :—

/(i2.66)^ x 54 x Afljogxir

V 144x4 / V 144X4

_ /i6o-27 x 22 x 54 x 4 \ /ioox 22 X45 x«4\
V 144x4x7x10 / ~ \ 144x4x7x10 /

= 1 8-8 -9-8.
= 9 cub. ft.

And the percentage increment, if obtained by a formula
already explained, will be : —

. __ 200 18-8-9-8

n 18-8+9-8

. , . 200 9

~8~ < 2^6

= 28^6
= 7-86 per cent.

PRESSLE1TS FORMULA 443

Now, in order to shorten and simplify the calculations,
various formulae have from time to time been suggested for
readily obtaining the percentage increment on standing
timber.

But in most cases it is necessary to assume that the
height is the same for both periods, and so also the same form
factor. Now, the assumption of the same height will not
materially affect the results obtained. But, the assumption
of the same form factor as well, will, in most cases, give
results which are materially defective.

However, if the height and form factor are the same at
both periods, the cubic contents at both periods are respectively
proportionate to the basal areas at both periods ; and so also
to the square of the diameters at both periods.

Hence, the rate of compound interest can be found by
reference to the square of the diameters only, at the respective
periods. Hence, if

D = future diameter (under bark)

d = present diameter (under bark)

n = number of years in period

p = the percentage

T, 200 D2-^2

Then p — x D,-^

and this is Pressler's formula.

Now, this formula has been still more simplified, thus : —

This latter simplification must, however, be used with
very great care. It gives practically the same result, provided
D and d are very nearly equal ; but if there be a big
difference, then the rate per cent, that is indicated will be far
too great.

Hence, with this method, n must never represent a large
number of years ; and, the smaller the diameter of the tree,
the greater will be the error.

If, however, n be taken for only one year, the percentage
will be very slightly too much, if the percentage for the
coming year is under consideration. If the formula be

444 ESTIMATION OF INCREMENT

applied for the percentage increment for the past year, the
past diameter increment for the single year equals twice the
breadth of the last annual ring; equals D — d, if

D = present diameter,

d = diameter one year ago ;

and D + d may be taken as equal to twice the breadth of the
present diameter, although this is really somewhat too great,
and therefore gives too small a percentage ; but, except with
trees of small diameter, it will not materially alter the result.

Hence : —

, Breadth of last ring in inches x 2 400

Present diameter x 2 i

. __ Breadth of last ring 400
Diameter i

Now, in order to obtain a true average ring, the number
of rings forming the last inch of radius should be counted,
and the above formula divided by this number.

Thus, if

n — number of rings in last inch of radius
D = diameter (at breast high),

Then p =

Dxn

. .

Dxn

This is Schneider's formula, and it gives the percentage l
increment for the coming year that will take place on the
basal area at breast high.

This formula may be represented in terms of quarter girth
measurement thus : —

315

Quarter girth x n (years in i in. radius)'

Now, as already mentioned, the percentage as indicated
by applying the above formulae to data obtained from
measurements made at breast high on standing timber, is
not, generally speaking, correct.

It assumes that the height and form factor remain the

1 This percentage is slightly too high ; and in the case of trees with
small diameters the discrepancy is increased. Though for the past year,
the percentage will be slightly too little.

SCHNEIDER'S FORMULA 445

same for both periods. This, however, is a wrong assumption
if the width of the annual rings be the same all the way up
the stem. For, in such a case, if the height be the same, the
form factor must be greater ; and conversely, if the form factor
be the same, the height must be greater.

The application of the formulae as above described will,
on an evenly tapering tree, only give correct results if the
width of the recent annual rings at half-way up the stem is
in reality one-half of the width of such rings at ground level.
But this should never be the case with trees that are growing
under correct sylvicultural management. In trees approach-
ing maturity the annual rings will usually be widest at the
top of such part of the bole as is clean and free from branches,
and therefore in the case of well -grown timber it is obvious
that the percentage as indicated by the formulae, when
measurements are taken at breast high, is far too small.

Now, the assumption of the same height growth in trees
approaching maturity will not materially affect the result ;
the chief error lies in the assumption of the same form factor.

In the application of Schneider's formula this error may
be corrected by multiplying the percentage as indicated at

breast high by

Diameter at breast high
Diameter at half-way up any evenly-tapering tree'

if the width of the rings at half-way up be taken as the
average width over the stem.

But the diameter half-way up the stem is an unknown
quantity ; it is, however, equal to

>/(Diameter at breast high)2 x form factor.
Therefore, if

p = percentage as indicated at breast high by Schneider's formula,
D = diameter at breast high,

the true percentage increment is equal to

D

A/D2 x form factor (for total contents)

This method for correcting the percentage, as indicated
at breast high, is also applicable to Pressler's formula, if a

446 ESTIMATION OF INCREMENT

period of only one year be taken ; but if Pressler's formula be
applied for a period exceeding one year, it is not possible to
correct the percentage by the above method.

However, the method of ascertaining the percentage
increment for the coming year on standing timber, from
measurements taken at breast height, may be still more
simplified. Thus, if

n = number of rings in last inch of radius

D = diameter (at breast high, under bark)

Ff = form factor (for total contents)

p = the percentage increment on total contents
Then

And this is Maw's formula.

Now, the percentage thus indicated will be slightly too
high, both by this formula, and also by Schneider's formula
(as corrected). Furthermore, the error will be greater in the
case of trees with small diameters than in the case of those
with large diameters, though the increased error that would
otherwise arise in the former case, is somewhat lessened when
the increment due to the next year's leading shoot is taken
into account.

This formula may be represented in terms of quarter girth
measurement.

Thus, if

QG = quarter girth (at breast high, under bark)
Yf = form factor

n = number of years in last inch of radius
p = the percentage increment
Then

Often, however, Schneider's formula, — — , may be

dxn

applied direct to standing trees, with a fair degree of accu-
racy by ascertaining the mean diameter (d) by ocular
estimation.

MAWS FORMULA 447

Generally speaking, it will be of more practical value to
know the percentage increase which is taking place upon
that which is timber only, instead of the percentage on the
total contents.

Now, practically all the increase can be reckoned as
timber, for in trees of timber size there is always, in the same
species of tree, about the same quantity of material which is
under timber size ; and, although much of the increment takes
place on that which is under timber size, yet it is about
counter-balanced by that which was formerly just under
timber size, being measured as timber, since the increment
upon it has brought it up to timber size.

Therefore, in the case of trees with small diameters, this
percentage will be very much greater than the percentage
upon the total contents, for the proportion of that which is
timber only to the total contents is very small ; and thus, the
mean diameter (or quarter girth) is less. So also, the mean
diameter (or quarter girth) is less in the case of trees with
large diameters, though not in the same ratio as in the former
case.

It should be noted that this mean diameter is the diameter
of a cylinder the full height of the tree, having a total con-
tents equal to the cubic contents of that which is timber
only. Obviously, this diameter must be less than the
diameter of a cylinder whose contents are equal to the cubic
contents of the whole tree, including that which is under
timber size.

Now, the previous formula may be used for ascertaining
the percentage increase (on standing timber) upon that which
is timber only, if the form factor for timber only be substituted
for the form factor for the total contents.

Hence, if

Yft = form factor for timber

p = percentage increment on timber only
Then

400

Having regard to the foregoing details, as to gauging the

448 ESTIMATION OF INCREMENT

increment on standing trees by the use of a Pressler borer, it
is evident that the method is complicated and uncertain.
The objections may be summarised by stating that : —

(1) The formulae are complicated, and can apply to one
year only.

(2) The form factor is an uncertainty.

(3) The increase in height growth is disregarded.

(4) The actual use of the borer is harmful to the trees.

(5) The width of the annual ring, at the base of the tree,
is 'often not a fair average width.

Therefore, it will almost invariably be the better plan
to fell a few average sample trees and investigate the
increase that takes place on the average diameter.

The percentage increase on the total contents of felled

timber can at once be found by the 4 — formula ; the

dxn

diameter under bark being taken at half-way up the stem ;
and the width of the average annual ring can be found by
Pressler's borer, or, better still, by cross-cutting the stem at
this point.

But, in order to be quite accurate, it is preferable to find
the total contents of the increment, and then to express this
as a percentage on the total contents, or on the contents of
that which is timber only, which latter must also be found.

For example, supposing that a felled tree be 50 feet long,
and that the average diameter under bark be 7 inches, and
that the average width of the last few rings is J inch each,
and that in the next year the height growth will be increased
by I foot : —

Then, by Schneider's formula, the percentage increase for
the current year equals : —

400
7x6

= 9-5 per cent.

This, however, as already indicated, is slightly too high a
percentage.

So again, the increment and percentage may be found by

INCREMENT ON FELLED TIMBER 449

means previously indicated. Thus, leaving out of account
the increase in height growth, the increment equals : —

(7-r)2 x TT x 50 _ (7)2 x ?r x 50

144x4 144x4

1642 1925

112 144

= 14-66 - 13-37

= 1-29 cub. ft.
And the percentage equals : —

200 I'29

~T < 28-03
= 9-2 per cent.

This percentage is slightly too low, as the increase in height
growth for I year has been left out of account.

Similarly, the increment can be expressed as a percentage
on the contents of that which is timber only, after such con-
tents have been ascertained.

Thus, if in the above example the length of the tree to 3
inches diameter be 36 feet, and the mean diameter of that
length be 8 inches. Then the timber contents equals : —

(8)2x7rX36
144x4

64 X 22 X 36

144x4x7

= 1 2-6 cub. ft.
And the percentage equals : —

°° I>29

i 12-6+13-89
= 9-74 per cent.

In many cases a certain degree of accuracy, in obtaining
the percentage increment on timber only, can be obtained by
applying Schneider's formula, and using a somewhat smaller
diameter than the average diameter.

Similarly also, as already described, the percentage of
compound interest for a period of 5 or 10 years, or the
increment for a period, may be ascertained, on felled timber,

2 F

450 ESTIMATION OF INCREMENT

by measurements taken at half the length of the tree ; and, in
the making of working plans, some such calculations should
always be accurately made for crops approaching maturity.

For purposes of greater accuracy, the increment, or the
percentage increment, may be obtained from data referable
to trees belonging to different diameter classes in the crop ;
instead of from data referable only to the average diameter
class.

Attempts are often made to estimate the percentage that
is taking place in any crop by reference to average yield
tables.

This is a method, however, that cannot be recommended.
It is almost impossible to obtain an accurate result, unless the
crop under consideration correspond almost exactly with the
data yielded in the tables. For instance, supposing that on
a soil of medium quality a smaller growing stock were found
than was indicated by the tables, for a soil of similar quality,
and that an attempt were made to assess the increment by
taking a proportionate amount of that indicated in the
tables, the result would be very inaccurate ; inasmuch as,
the actual crop, having been more heavily thinned than is
indicated in the tables, will, owing to the greater amount of
growing space allotted to the individual trees, increase at a
greater rate per cent, than the normal crop as found in the
tables.

Where, however, the tables are used for this purpose,
care should be taken that the increment, for any period, be
not expressed as a percentage on any stock, which includes
an amount which should properly be removed as thinnings at
the commencement of the period and before the calculations
are made.

Current Annual Increment.

Another matter, which should receive a forester's attention,
and by which much valuable data can be obtained, is the
making of a comparison of the current annual increment per
acre, or the current average increment for short periods in
the life of a crop, with the average annual increment through-
out the entire life of the crop.

CURRENT ANNUAL INCREMENT 451

Now, in the pole forest stages of any crop, the current
annual increment per acre almost invariably far exceeds the
average annual increment

But the current annual increment per acre will usually
reach its maximum towards the end of the pole forest stage,
after which it decreases ; it will continue longer in the case
of shade-bearing trees which can be left thicker on the
ground than is the case with light-demanding trees which, as
the principal height growth is attained, require to be freely
thinned.

On good soil the maximum current annual increment per
acre is attained sooner than on poorer soil.

The culmination of the current increment per individual
tree is attained long after the culmination of such increment
per acre. It is most necessary to avoid confusion on this
matter, and to remember that the latter is largely governed
by the number of trees per acre.

However, the average annual increment attains its
maximum a long time after the date of the culmination of
the current increment ; and it will continue to rise for so
long as the current annual increment exceeds the average
annual increment.

But the current increment, when it ceases to be equal to
the average annual increment, decreases annually much more
quickly than the average annual increment.

Practically speaking, however, the percentage increment
is of far more value than the mere amount of the current or
the average annual increment, if the treatment of any
particular crop is under consideration.

Now, besides the increment, or the percentage increment
in contents, that is taking place, or is likely to take place in
the near future, it is of the greatest importance to consider,
also, the increment in quality or in the price per foot cube
that may be anticipated.

2. Increment in Quality.

The increment in quality or money value per foot, may be
conveniently expressed as a percentage on the present price.

452 ESTIMATION OF INCREMENT

Thus, to take a previous example, if, 10 years ago, a crop
contained 1500 cubic feet of saleable timber worth 8d. a
foot, and is now estimated to contain 2200 cubic feet of sale-
able timber worth rod. a foot :

Then the percentage of increment in money value

will have been

200 10-8

X

10 18

= ??? x — = 2-22 per cent.
10 9

Now, the percentage increment in contents has already been
shown to have been 3-75 per cent.

Hence the total increment in value will have been 5-97
per cent.

This is the percentage of increment, both in quality and
contents, which in the above example will have been yielded
on the capital value represented by the present crop of timber.

For practical purposes, such an estimate is invaluable.
It will help, along with other sylvicultural considerations,
to govern the treatment which any particular crop is to
receive. For crops approaching maturity, the percentage
arrived at, as indicated above, may be taken as approxi-
mately equal to the percentage that will actually be earned
by allowing the present crop to stand for the period under
consideration.

3. Total Increment on Invested Capital.

To be strictly accurate, the percentage will not be quite
so great, as the value of the land must be taken into consider-
ation, thus increasing the capital upon which the return is
obtained. And, so also, the return will be lessened by the
annual outgoings in respect of the land and crop.

Therefore, it is necessary to find the total increase in
value and to express this as a percentage on the total capital
represented by the crop and the land. However, in> order
to arrive at the exact percentage increment, the outgoings
must also be taken into account by increasing the capital, by
such a sum as represents the net annual outgoings (i.e., total

INCREMENT ON INVESTED CAPITAL 453

annual outgoings less any annual sum represented by a sporting
rent, etc.) capitalised at 25 or 28 years' purchase, or as may
be deemed expedient.

Now, it is difficult to assign any particular value to the
land over and above its capitalised sporting value, for, as
stated elsewhere, when once planted, it has practically no
value as agricultural (farming) land, and can only be
profitably utilised by replanting.

If the sporting be worth is. 6d. an acre (and this is ample
if a large area of high forest be under consideration), the
total capital value of the land may be usually taken at from
£3 to £7 an acre for planting purposes.1

If very great accuracy be required, the particular rental
value obtainable for the land only,2 after interest is charged
on the cost of establishing the crop, should be added to the
annual sporting value, and the sum of these capitalised at
25 to 30 years' purchase. By this means the value is made to
depend upon the species of the crop that can be grown and
its estimated rental value for land only.

Therefore, taking the previous example, in which

1 500 cub. ft., at 8d. = ,£50 (present value of crop)
2200 cub. ft., at lod. = ,£91-6 (future value of crop in 10 years),
and the increment in value is ^41-6 ;

and supposing that the land, including the sporting value, be
worth £5 ; and that a capital of £4 will provide for the
annual outgoings over and above any sum received as a
sporting rent :

The rate of compound interest yielded for the period

of 10 years

200 41-6

A,

10 50 + 5+4 + 91-6 + 5+4

200 x 41-6

10 ' 159-6

41^- = 5-21 per cent.
79-8 5

1 This assumes the capitalised sporting value to be (say) £2. and the
capitalised rental value for planting to be ^i to .£5.

2 Vide Chapter XI I.

454 ESTIMATION OF INCREMENT

In this instance, the difference in the percentage thus
indicated, after taking into consideration the value of the
land and the annual outgoings, is somewhat large ; but, this
difference is very much less when the value of the crop
largely exceeds that of the land only ; and becomes less as
the value of the crop becomes larger.

In cases where a thinning has taken place during the
period under consideration, it will be necessary to ascertain
the sum to which the money value of that which was thinned
out will amount at compound interest (say 3^ per cent.) by
the end of the period, and to add this sum to the increment
in value of the rest of the crop, and also to the mean capital

as found by the --- formula.

Thus, taking the previous example, let it be supposed
that in 4 years' time £6 worth be removed by a thinning.
This £6 will amount, in the remaining 6 years of the period
at 3£ per cent, compound interest, to £7^7.

Hence the percentage will be

200* x 41-6+7-37
n 59+100-6 + 7-37

= 5-8 per cent.
10 166-97

* Wherever the - formula is used, the percentage shown will be slightly
n

less than the true mathematical percentage yielded.

Finally, it is well to remember that, when considering the
treatment that any crop should receive, conclusions should
not be hastily drawn from actuarial data alone. It is
necessary to consider the particular demands of the species
of trees, the quality of the timber, the condition of the
soil, local markets, and many other details, which the circum-
stances of the case may suggest.

But, after giving due weight to all other considerations,
actuarial calculations must largely govern the treatment that
is meted out to any particular crop.

When the increment in quantity and value on any crop
s not sufficient, it is imperative that some action should be

INCREMENT ON INVESTED CAPITAL 455

taken. It may be that only a thinning is necessary, or a
partial clearance, in which case the increment of the crop
which is left may be greatly stimulated, and may show a
very high rate of interest on the capital upon which it is
being earned. On the other hand, it may be that a total
clearance will have to be effected.

A particular practice may be correct though actuarial
data have not been considered ; but, that is no proof that
they are unnecessary.

Indeed, they alone will often afford the chief, if not the
only, evidence that a particular practice is wrong.

NOTE. — These Tables may be obtained from Messrs
WALTER AND WALTER, Heatherside, Brockenhurst,
Hants, bound separately. Price, is. 6d. net.

APPENDICES

OF

FOREST TABLES

2 G

APPENDIX A

TABLES TO BE USED ALONG WITH BRANDIT'S1 HYP-
SOMETER FOR ASCERTAINING THE HEIGHT OF
TREES

EXPLANATION

The measurer first reads the upward 2 angle to the top of the tree.
This upward angle will be the angle formed by a line horizontal with the
observer's eye, and by a line from the observer's eye to the top of the
tree.

The observer must move backwards or forwards until the angle, as
read, is equal to one of the angles for which tables are given. When
such angle is ascertained, the horizontal distance from the observer to
the centre of the tree must be measured, and the height then ascertained
from the tables. To this, however, must be added 3 the height from the
ground-level to the place where a line, horizontal with the observer's
eye, cuts the trunk of the tree.

For instance, an angle of 38° is read, and the horizontal distance
from the observer to the centre of the tree is 50 feet, and the vertical
distance from the ground-level to a horizontal line from the observer's
eye is 5 feet 6 inches.

Then, on reference to the tables, a height of 39-06 feet is obtained.
To this must be added the 5 feet 6 inches.

Hence, the total height of the tree = 39-06 + 5-5 feet

= 44-56 feet.

1 Or other instrument for measuring the angle.

2 Vide Chapter XVII.

3 This presumes that the observer's eye is not below the level of the base
of the tree.

459

HEIGHT TABLES

30° 35
38° 40

Base.

Height from level of observer's eye, the angle being

Base.

30°

35°

38°

40°

I
2
3
4
5

6

7
8

9

10

ii

12

13
14
15

16

17
18

19

20

21
22
23

24
25

26

27
28

29

30

3i

32
33
34
35

36
37
38
39
40

4i
42
43
44
45

46
47
48
49
50

0-58
1-15

1-73
2-31
2-89

0-70
1-40

2-10
2-8o
3-50

0-78
1-56

2-34
3-13
3-9i

0-84

1-68
2-52
3-36
4-20

I
2

3
4

5

6

7
8

9

10

ii

12
13

H
15

16

17
18

19

20

21
22

23
24

25

26

27
28
29

30

31

32
33
34
35

36
37
38
39
40

41

42

43
44
45

46
47
48

49
50

3-46
4-04
4-62
5-20

5-77

4-20
4-90
5-60
6-30

7-00

4-69
5-47
6-25

7-03
7-81

5-03
5-87
6-71

7-55
8-38

6-35
6-93
7-5i
8-08
8-66

7.70
8-40
9-10
9-80
10-50

8-59
9-37
10-16
10-94
11-72

9-23
10-07
10-91
n-75
12-59

9-24
9-8 1
10-39
10-97
ii-55

11-20
II-9O
1 2 -60
13-30
I4-OO

12-50
13-28
14-06
14-84
15-62

13-43
14-26
15-10

15-94
16-78

12-12
12-70
13-28

13-86

14-43

1470
15-40

16-10
16-80

I7-5I

16-41
17-19
17-97
18-75
19-53

17-62
18-46
19.30
20-14
20-98

15-01

15-59
16-17
16-74
17-32

18-21

18-91
19-61
20-31

2I-OI

20-31
21-09
21-87

22-66

23-44

21-81

22-66

23-49
24-33
25-17

17-90
18-48
19-05
19-63

20-21

21-71
22-41

23-11

23-81
24-51

24-22
25-00
25-78
26-56

27-34

26-01
26-85

27-69

28-53
29-37

20-78
2I-36

21-94

22-52
23-09

25-21

25-91
26-61

27-31

28-01

28-13
28-91
29-69
30-47
31-25

30-21

3I-05
31-89
32-72
33-56

23-67
24-25
24-83
25-40
25.98

28-71

29.41

30-11
30-81

31-51

32-03
32-82
33-60
34-38
35-16

34-40
35-24
36-08
36-92
37-76

26-56

27-14
27.71

28-29

28-87

32-21

32-91
33-61
34-31

35-01

35-94
36-72
37-50
38-28
39-o6

38-60

39-44
40-28
41-12
41-96

460

HEIGHT TABLES

Base.

Height from level of observer's eyes the angle being

Base.

30°

35°

38°

40°

51

52
53
54
55

56

57
58

e

61
62
63
64
65

66
67
68
69
70

71
72

73
74

75

76
77
78
79
80

81
82
83
84

85

86
87
88
89
90

91
92

93
94
95

96
97
98

99

100

29-44
30-02
30-60
31-18

31-75

35-71
36-41

37-u
37-8i
38-51

39-85
40-63
41-41
42-19
42-97

42-79
43-63

44-47
45-31
46-15

51

52
53
54
55

56
57
58
59
60

61
62
63
64
65

66
67
68
69
70

7i

72
73
74
75

76
77
78
79
80

81
, 82
83
84

85

86

87
88

89
90

9i
92

93
94
95

96
97
98

99

100

32-33
32-91

33-49
34-06

34-64

39-21
39-91
40-61

4I-3I
42-02

43-75
44-53
45-31
46-10
46-88

46-99
47-83
48.67
49-51

50-35

35-22

35-80
36-37
36-95

37-53

42-71

43-41
44-11
44-81

45-51

47.66

48-44
49-22

50-00
50-78

5I-I9
52-02
52-86
53-70
54-54

38-11
38-68
39-26

39-84
40-41

46-21
46-91
47-61
48-31
49-01

51-56
52-35
53-13
53-91
54-69

55-38
56-22
57-o6
57-90

58-74

40-99
41-57
42-15
42-72
43-30

49-71
50-41
51-12
51-82

52-52

55-47
56-25
57-03
57-82
58-60

59-58
60-42
61-25
62-09
62-93

43-88
44-46
45-03
45.61
46-19

53-22

53-92
54-62

55-32
56-02

59-38
60-16

60-94
61-72
62-50

63-77
64-61

65-45
66-29

67-13

46-77
47-34
47-92
48-50
49-07

56-72
57-42
58-12
58-82
59-52

63-28
64-07
64-85

65-63
66-41

67-97
68.81
69-65
70-48
71-32

49-65
50-23
50-81
5I-38
51-96

60-22
60-92
61-62
62-32
63-02

67-19

67-97
68-75
69-53
70-32

72-16
73-00

73-84
74-68
75-52

52-54
53-12
53-69
54-27
54-85

63-72
64-42
65-12
65-82
66-52

71-10
71-88
72-66

73-44
74-22

76-36
77-20
78-04
78-88
79-71

55-43
56-00
56-58
57-i6
57-74

67-22
67-92
68-62
69-32
70-02

75-00
75-78
76-57
77-35
78-13

8o-55
8i-39
82-23
83-07
83-91

30° 35
38° 40'

461

HEIGHT TABLES

42° 44!
45° 46
48°

Base.

Height from level of observer's eye, the angle being

Base.

42°

44°

45°

46°

48°

I
2

3
4
5

6

8
9

10

ii

12
13
14
15

16

17

18

19
20

21
22
23

24
25

26

27
28

29

30

31
32

33
34

35

36
37
38
39
40

4i
42
43
44
45

46
47
48

49
50

0-90
i -80
2-70
3-60
4-50

0-97
i-93
2-90
3-86
4-83

I -00
2-OO

3-oo
4-00
5-oo

1-04
2-07

3-n
4-14
5.18

i»n

2-22

3-33
4-44

5-55

I
2

3

4

5

6

8
9

10

ii

12

13
14
15

16

17
18

19

20

21
22

23
24

25

26

27
28

29
30

31
32

33
34

35

36
37
38
39
40

4i
42
43
44
45

46
47
48
49
50

5-40
6-30

7-20
8-10
9-00

5-79
6-76

7-73
8-69
9-66

6-00
700
8-00
9-00

10-00

6-21

7-25
8-28
9-32
10-36

6-66

7-77
8-88

IO-OO

II-II

9-90
10-80
11-71
12-61
I3-5T

10-62
n-59
12-55
13-52
14.49

II-OO
I2-OO
13-00
I4-OO
I5-00

n-39
12-42
13-46
14-50

15-53

12-22
13-33
14-44

15-55
16-66

14-41
I5-3I
16-21
17-11
1 8 -oi

15-45
16-42

I7-38
18-35
i9-3i

1 6 -00
17-00
18-00
19-00
20-00

16-57

17-60
18-64
19-68
20-71

1777
18-88
19-99
2I-IO
22-21

18-91
19-81
20-71
21-60
22-51

20-28
21-25

22-21
23-I8
24-14

21-00
22-00
23-00
24-OO
25-00

21-75
22-78
23-82
24-85
25-89

23-32
24-43
25-54
26-65

27-77

23-41

24-31
25-21
26-11
27-01

25-11
26<D7
27-03
28-00

28-97

26-OO
27-00
28-00
29-00
30-00

26-92
27.96
28-99
30-03
31-07

28-88
29-99
31-10
32-21
33-32

27-91
28-81
29-71
30-61
3i-5i

29-94
30-90
3I-87
32-83
33-8o

31-00
32-00

33-oo
34-oo
35-00

32-10

33-14
34-17
35-21
36-24

34-43
35-54
36-65
37-76
38-87

32-41
33-31
34-22
35-12
36-02

34-76
35-73
36-70
37-66
38-63

36-00
37-oo
38-00
39-oo
40-00

37-28
38-31
39-35
40-39
41-42

39-98
41-09
42-20

43-31
44-42

36-92
37-82
38-72
39-62
40-52

39-59
40-56
4I-52
42-49
43-45

41-00
42-00
43-oo
44-00
45-00

42-46
43-49
44-53
45-56
46-60

45-54
46-65
47.76
48-87
49-98

41-42
42-32
43-22
44-12
45-02

44-42
45-39
46-35
47-32
48-28

46-00
47-00
48-00
49-00
50-00

47-63
48-67
49-71
50-74
5I-78

51-09
52-20
53-31
54-42
55-53

462

HEIGHT TABLES

Base.

Height from level of observer's eye, the angle being

Base.

42°

44°

45°

46°

48°

51

52
53
54
55

56

57
58
59
60

61
62
63
64
65

66

67
68
69

70

7i

72

73

74
75

76
77
78
79
80

81
82

83
84

85

86

87
88

89
90

9i
92
93
94
95

96
97
98

99

100

45-92
46-82
47-72
48-62
49-52

49-25
50-22
51-18
52-15

53-n

51-00
52-00

53-00
54-oo
55-oo

52-81
53-85

54-88
55-92
56-95

56-64

57-75
58-86

59-97
6 1 -08

51
52
53
54
55

56
57
58

59
60

61

62
63
64
65

66

67
68

69
70

7i

72

73
74
75

76
77
78
79
80

81
82
83
84
85

86

87
88

89
90

9i
92
93
94
95

96
97
98
99

100

50-42
51-32
52-22

53-12
54-02

54-08

55-04
56-01
56-98
57-94

56-00
57-oo
58-00
59-00
60-00

57-99
59-03
60-06
61-10
62-13

62-19
63-30
64-42

65-53
66-64

54-92

55-83
56-73
57-63
58-53

58-91
59-87
60-84
61-80
62-77

6 1 -oo
62-00
63-00
64-00
65-00

63-17
64-20

65-24
66-27

67-3I

67-75
68-86
69-97
71-08
72-I9

59-43
60-33
61-23
62-13
63-03

63-74
64-70
65-67
66-63
67-60

66-00
67-00
68-00
69-00
70-00

68-34
69-38
70-42

71-45
72-49

73-30
74.41
75-52
76-63

77-74

63-93
64-83
65-73
66-63
67-53

68-56
69-53
70-50
71-46
72-43

71-00
72-00
73-oo
74-00
75-oo

73-52
74-56
75-59
76-63
77-66

78-85
79-96
81-07
82-19
83-30

68-43
69-33
70-23
7I-I3
72-03

73-39
74-36
75-32
76-29
77-26

76-00
77-00
78-00
79-00
80-00

78-70

79-74
80-77
81-81
82-84

84-41
85-52
86-63
87-74
88-85

72-93
73-83
74-73
75-63
76-53

78-22
79-18
80-15
81-12
82-08

81-00
82-00
83-00
84-00
85-00

83-88
84-91

85-95
86-98
88-02

89-96

91-07
92-18

93-29
94-40

77-43
78-34
79-24
80-14
81-04

83-05
84-01
84-98

85-95
86-91

86-00
87-00
88-00
89-00
90-00

89-06
90-09
9I-I3
92-16

93-20

95-51
96-62

97-73
98-84
99-96

81-94
82-84

83-74
84-64

85-54

87-88
88-84
89-81
90-77
91-74

91-00
9200
93-oo
94-00
95-oo

94-23
95-27
96-30
97-34
98-38

101-07
102-18
103-29
104-40
105-51

86-44

87-34
88-24
89-14
90-04

92-71

93-67
94-64
95-6o
96-57

96-00
97-00
98-00
99-00

IOO-OO

99-41
100-45
101-48
102-52
103-55

106-62
107-73
108-84
109-95
1 1 1 -06

42° 44°
45° 46°
48°

463

HEIGHT TABLES

50
55'

52'
60C

Base.

Height from level of observer's eye, the angle being

Base.

50°

52°

55°

60°

I
2

3
4

5

6

8

9

10

ii

12

13
14
15

16

17
18

19

20

21
22
23

24

25

26

27
28
29
30

31
32

33
34

35

36
37
38
39
40

4i
42
43
44
45

46
47
48
49
50

1*19

2-38
3-58

4-77
5-96

1-28
2-56
3-84
5-12
6-40

1-43
2-86
4-28

5-71
7.14

i-73
3-46
5-20
6-93
8-66

I
2

3
4

5

6

8

9

10

ii

12
13
14
15

16

17
18

19

20

21
22
23
24
25

26

27
28

29
30

31
32

33
34
35

36
37
38
39

40

7-15
8-34
9-53
io-73
11-92

7-68
8-96
10-24
n-52
12-80

8-57

10-00

11-42
12-85

14-28

10-39

12-12

13-86
15-59
17-32

I3-H
14-30

15-49
16-68
17-88

14-08
I5-36
16-64
17.92
19-20

15-71
17.14

18-57

20-00

21-42

19-05
20-78
22-52

24-25
25-98

19-07
20-26

21-45
22-64

23-84

20-48
21-76
23-04
24-32
25-60

22-85
24-28

25-71
27-13
28-56

27-71

29-44
31-18
32-91

34-64

25-03
26-22

27-41
28-60

29-79

26-88
28-16
29-44
30-72
32-00

30-00

31-42
32-85

34-28
35-70

36-37
38-11

39-84
41-57
43-30

30-99
32-18

33-37
34-56

35-75

33-28
34-56
35-84
37-12
38-40

37-13
38-56
40-00
41-42
42-84

45-03
46-77
48-50
50-23
51-96

36-94
38-14
39-33
40-52
41-71

39-68
40-96
42-24
43-52
44-80

44-27
45-70
47-13
48-56
49-98

53-69
55-43
57-16

60-62

42-90
44-09
45-29
46.48

47-67

46-08
47-36
48-64
49-92
51-20

5I-4I
52-84

54-27
55-70
57-13

62-35
64-09
65-82

67-55
69-28

48-86
50-05
5I-24
52-44
53-63

52-48
53-76
55-04
56-32
57-6o

58-55
59-98
61-41
62-84
64-27

71-01

72-75
74.48
76-21
77-94

41
42
43
44
45

54-82
56-01
57-20
58-40
59-59

58-88
60-16
61-44
62-72
64-00

65-69
67-12
68-55
69-98
71.41

79-67
81-41

83-14
84-87
86-60

46 .

3

49

50

464

HEIGHT TABLES

Base.

Height from level of observer's eye, the angle being

Base.

50°

52°

55°

60°

51

52

53
54
55

56

57
58
59
60

61
62

63
64

65

66
67
68
69
70

7i

72

73
74
75

76

77
78
79
80

81
82
83
84
85

86
87

00

OO

89
90

91
92

93
94
95

96
97
98

99

100

6078
61-97
63-16
64-35
65-55

65-28
66-56
67-84
69-12
70-40

72-83
74-26
75-69

77-12
78-55

88.33
90-07
91-80

93-53
95-25

51

52
53
54
55

56
57
58
59
60

61
62
63
64
65

66
67
68

69
70

71

72

73
74

75

76
77
7«
79
80

81
82
83
84
85

86

87
88
89
90

91
92

93
94
95

96
97
98

99

100

66-74
67-93
69-12
70-31
7i-5i

71-68
72-96
74-24
75-52
76-80

79.98
81-40
82-83
84-26
85-69

96-99

98-73
100-46
102-19
103-92

72-70

73-89
75-08
76-27
77-46

78-08
79-36
80-64
81-92
83-20

87-12
88-54
89-97
91-40
92-83

105-66

107-39
109-12
110-85
112-58

78-66

79-85
81-04
82-23
83-42

84.48
85-76
87-04
88-32
89-60

94-26

95-69
97-11

98-54
99-97

114.32
116-05
117-78
119.51
121-24

84-61
85-81
87-00
88-19
89-38

90-88
92-16

93-44
94-72
96-00

101-40
102-83
104-25
105-68
107-11

122-98
124-71
126-44
128-17
129-90

90-57
91-76
92-96

94-15
95-34

97.28
98-56
99-84

IOI-I2
IO2'4O

108-54
109-97
ui-39
112-82
114-25

131-64
133-37
135-10
136-83
138-56

96-53
97-72
98-92

100-11

101-30

103-68
104-96
I06-24
I07-52
I08-80

115-68
117-11
118-54
119-96

121-39

140-30
142-03
I43-76
145-49
147-22

102-49
103-68
104-87
106-06
107-26

110-07

ni-35
112-63
113-91
115-19

122-82
124-25
125-68
127-10

128-53

148-95
150-69
152-42
I54-I5
155-88

108-45
109-64
110-83

112-02
113-21

116-47
H7-75
119-03
120-31
121-59

129.96

I3I-39
132-82

I34-25
I35-67

I57-62

159-35
161-08
162-81
164-54

114.41
115-60
116-79
II7-98
II9-I8

122-87
124-15
125-43
126-71
127-99

137-iQ
138-53
139-96

I4I-39
142-81

166-28
168-01
169-74
171-47
173-21

50° 52
55° 60'

465

2 G 2

APPENDIX B

TABLES SHOWING THE CONTENTS OF TIMBER,
EITHER ROUND OR SQUARE, BY THE QUARTER
GIRTH MEASUREMENT

Thus, a log 17 feet long by 9 inches quarter girth will, on reference
to the tables, be found to contain 9 cubic feet and 6 inches.

Note. — According to custom, any fraction of a cubic foot is multi-
plied merely by 12 and expressed as inches — 12 of such inches equal i
cubic foot. Thus, in the above example, the correct cubic contents equal
9^4 cubic feet = 9 cubic feet 972 cubic inches.

But, in order to facilitate the use of the tables in practice, the
fraction T^j of a cubic foot is multiplied by 12, and the result, f^,
expressed as 6j\ ; or, leaving out fractions of an inch, merely as 6 inches
— that is, one-half a cubic foot.

467

CONTENTS OF TIMBER, QUARTER GIRTH
MEASUREMENT

5, 6, 7
inches

Average Quarter G-irtli (in inches) under

Bark.

Length

Length

in

in

feet.

feet.

5

5i

6

6J

7

7i

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

6

O

I 3

i 6

I 9

2 O

2 4

6

7

2

I 5

i 9

2 O

2 4

2 8

7

8

4

I 8

2 O

2 4

2 8

3 I

8

9

6

I 1O

2 3

2 7

3 o

3 6

9

10

9

2 I

2 6

2 II

3 5

3 ii

10

11

I II

2 3

2 9

3 2

3 9

4 3

11

12

2 I

2 6

3 o

3 6

4 !

4 8

12

13

2 3

2 8

3 3

3 9

4 5

5 i

13

14

2 5

2 II

3 6

4 i

4 9

5 5

14

15

2 7

3 i

3 9

4 4

5 i

5 10

15

16

2 9

3 4

4 o

4 8

5 5

6 3

16

17

2 II

3 7

4 3

5 o

5 9

6 7

17

18

3 i

3 9

4 6

5 3

6 i

7 o

18

19

3 3

4 o

4 9

5 7

6 5

7 5

19

20

3 5

4 2

5 o

5 10

6 9

7 9

20

21

3 7

4 5

5 3

6 2

7 i

8 2

21

22

3 10

4 7

5 6

6 5

7 6

8 7

22

23

4 o

4 10

5 9

6 9

7 10

8 ii

23

24

4 2

5 o

6 o

7 o

8 2

9 4

24

25

4 4

5 3

6 3

7 4

8 6

9 9

25

26

4 6

5 5

6 6

7 7

8 10

10 2

26

27

4 8

5 8

6 9

7 ii

9 2

10 6

27

28

4 10

5 10

7 o

8 2

9 6

IO II

28

29

5 o

6 i

7 3

8 6

9 10

ii 4

29

30

5 2

6 3

7 6

8 9

IO 2

ii 8

30

31

5 4

6 6

7 9

9 i

10 6

12 I

31

32

5 6

6 8

8 o

9 4

IO IO

12 6

32

33

5 8

6 ii

8 3

9 8

II 2

12 10

33

34
35

i1!

7 i
7 4

8 6
8 9

9 ii

10 3

ii 7
II II

13 3
13 8

34
35

36

6 3

7 6

9 o

10 6

12 3

14 o

36

37

6 5

7 9

9 3

10 10

12 7

14 5

37

38

6 7

8 o

9 6

ii i

12 II

14 10

38

39

6 9

8 2

9 9

ii 5

13 3

15 2

39

40

6 ii

8 5

10 o

ii 9

13 7

15 7

40

468

CONTENTS OF TIMBER, QUARTER GIRTH
MEASUREMENT

Average Quarter Girth (in inches) under

Bark.

Length
in

Length
in

feet.

feet.

8

»i

9

9i

10

10J

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

6

2 8

3 0

3 4

3 9

4 2

4 7

6

7

3 i

3 6

3 ii

4 4

4 10

5 4

7

8

3 6

4 o

4 6

5 o

5 6

6 i

8

9

4 o

4 6

5 o

5 7

6 3

6 10

9

10

4 5

5 o

5 7

6 3

6 ii

7 8

10

11

4 10

5 6

6 2

6 10

7 7

8 5

11

12

5 4

6 o

6 9

7 6

8 4

9 2

12

13

5 9

6 6

7 3

8 i

9 o

9 ii

13

14

6 2

7 o

7 10

8 9

9 8

10 8

14

15

6 8

7 6

8 5

9 4

10 5

ii 5

15

16

7 i

8 o

9 o

IO O

ii i

12 3

16

17

7 6

8 6

9 6

10 7

ii 9

13 0

17

18

8 o

9 o

10 I

ii 3

12 6

13 9

18

19

8 5

9 6

10 8

ii ii

13 2

14 6

19

20

8 10

IO O

ii 3

12 6

13 10

15 3

2O

21

9 4

10 6

ii 9

13 2

14 7

16 i

21

22

9 9

II 0

12 4

13 9

15 3

16 10

22

28

10 2

ii 6

12 II

14 5

15 ii

17 7

28

24

10 8

12 0

13 6

15 0

16 8

18 4

24

25

II I

12 6

14 o

15 8

17 4

19 i

25

26

ii 6

13 0

14 7

16 3

18 o

19 ii

26

27

12 0

13 6

15 2

16 ii

18 9

20 8

27

28

12 5

14 o

15 9

17 6

19 5

21 5

28

29

12 IO

14 6

16 3

18 2

20 I

22 2

29

30

13 4

15 o

16 10

18 9

20 10

22 II

80

81

13 9

15 6

17 5

19 5

21 6

23 8

31

82

14 2

16 o

18 o

20 o

22 2

24 6

32

33

14 8

16 6

18 6

20 8

22 II

25 3

33

34

15 i

17 o

19 i

21 3

23 7

26 o

34

85

15 6

17 6

19 8

21 II

24 3

26 9

35

86

16 o

18 o

20 3

22 6

25 o

27 6

36

37

16 5

18 6

20 9

23 2

25 8

28 4

87

38

16 10

19 o

21 4

23 9

26 4

29 i

88

39

17 4

19 6

21 II

24 5

27 i

29 10

39

40

17 9

20 i

22 6

25 i

27 9

30 7

40

8, 9, 10

inches

469

CONTENTS OF TIMBER, QUARTER GIRTH
MEASUREMENT

11, 12, 13
inches

Average Quarter Girth (in inches) under

Bark.

Length
in

Length
in

feet.

feet.

11

Hi

12

12|

13

13|

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

6

C o

5 6

6 0

6 6

7 o

7 7

6

7

5 10

6 5

7 o

7 7

8 2

8 10

7

8

6 8

7 4

8 o

8 8

9 4

10 I

8

9

7 6

8 3

9 o

9 9

10 6

ii 4

9

10

8 5

9 2

10 0

10 10

ii 9

12 8

10

11

9 3

10 I

II 0

ii ii

12 II

13 ii

11

12

10 I

II 0

12 O

13 o

14 I

15 2

12

13

10 II

II II

13 o

14 i

15 3

16 5

13

14

ii 9

12 10

14 o

15 2

16 5

17 8

14

15

12 7

13 9

15 o

16 3

17 7

18 ii

15

16

13 5

14 8

16 o

17 4

18 9

20 3

16

17

14 3

15 7

17 o

18 5

19 ii

21 6

17

18

15 i

16 6

18 o

19 6

21 I

22 9

18

19

15 ii

17 5

19 o

20 7

22 3

24 o

19

20

16 9

18 4

20 0

21 8

23 5

25 3

20

21

17 7

19 3

21 0

22 9

24 7

26 7

21

22

18 6

20 2

22 0

23 10

25 10

27 10

22

23

19 4

21 I

23 o

24 II

27 o

29 i

23

24

20 2

22 0

24 o

26 o

28 2

30 4

24

25

21 0

22 II

25 o

27 I

29 4

3i 7

25

26

21 10

23 10

26 o

28 2

30 6

32 ii

26

27

22 8

24 9

27 o

29 3

3i 8

34 2

27

28

23 6

25 8

28 o

30 4

32 10

35 5

28

29

24 4

26 7

29 o

34 o

36 8

29

30

25 2

27 6

30 o

32 6

35 2

37 ii

30

31

26 o

28 5

31 o

33 7

36 4

39 2

31

32

26 10

29 4

32 o

34 8

37 6

40 6

32

33

27 8

30 3

33 o

35 9

38 8

41 9

33

34

28 7

31 2

34 o

36 10

39 ii

43 o

34

35

29 5

32 i

35 o

37 ii

41 i

44 3

35

36

30 3

33 o

36 o

39 o

42 3

45 6

36

37

31 i

33 ii

37 o

40 i

43 5

46 10

37

38

31 ii

34 10

38 o

41 2

44 7

48 i

38

39
40

32 9
33 7

35 9
36 9

39 o
40 o

42 3

43 5

45 9
46 ii

49 4
50 7

39

40

470

CONTENTS OF TIMBER, QUARTER GIRTH
MEASUREMENT

Average Quarter Girth (in inches) under

Bark.

Length

Length

in

in

feet.

feet.

14

14J

15

15J

16

16i

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

6

8 2

8 9

9 4

10 0

10 8

II 4

6

7

9 6

10 2

IO II

ii 8

12 5

13 2

7

8

10 10

ii 8

12 6

13 4

I4 2

15 i

8

9

12 3

13 i

14 o

15 o

16 o

17 o

9

10

13 7

H 7

15 7

16 8

17 9

18 ii

10

11

14 ii

16 o

17 2

18 4

19 6

20 9

11

12

16 4

17 6

18 9

20 0

21 4

22 8

12

13

17 8

18 ii

20 3

21 8

23 i

24 7

13

14

19 o

20 5

21 IO

23 4

24 10

26 5

14

15

20 5

21 10

23 5

25 o

26 8

28 4

15

16

21 9

23 4

25 o

26 8

28 5

30 3

16

17

23 I

24 9

26 6

28 4

30 2

32 i

17

18

24 6

26 3

28 i

30 0

32 o

34 o

18

19

25 10

27 9

29 8

3i 8

33 9

35 ii

19

20

27 2

29 2

3i 3

33 4

35 &

37 9

20

21

28 7

30 8

32 9

35 o

37 4

39 8

21

22

29 ii

32 i

34 4

36 8

39 i

41 7

22

23

31 3

33 7

35 ii

38 4

40 10

43 5

23

24

32 8

37 6

40 o

42 8

45 4 24

25

34 o

36 6

39 o

41 8

44 5

47 3

25

26

35 4

37 ii

40 7

43 4

46 2

49 2

26

27

36 9

39 5

42 2

48 o

27

28

38 i

40 10

43 9

JI 8

49 9

52 ii

28

29

39 5

42 4

45 3

48 4

5i 6

54 10

29

30

40 10

43 9

46 10

50 o

53 4

56 8

30

31

42 2

45 3

48 5

51 8

55 i

58 7

31

32

43 6

46 8

50 o

53 4

56 10

60 6

32

33

44 ii

48 2

5i 6

58 8

62 4

38

34

46 3

49 7

53 i

56 8

60 5

64 3

34

35

47 7

54 8

58 4

62 2

66 2

35

36

49 o

52 6

56 3

60 o

64 o

68 o

36

37

50 4

54 o

57 9

61 8

65 9

69 ii

37

38

5i 8

55 5

59 4

63 4

67 6

71 10

38

39

53 i

56 ii

60 ii

65 o

69 4

73 8

39

40

54 5

58 5

62 6

66 9

71 i

75 7

40

14, 15, 16

inches

471

CONTENTS OF TIMBER, QUARTER GIRTH
MEASUREMENT

17, 18, 19
inches

Average Quarter Girth (in inches) under

Bark.

Length

Length

in

in

feet.

feet.

17

m

18

18*

19

191

.ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

6

12 0

12 9

13 6

14 3

15 0

15 10

6

7

14 o

14 10

15 9

16 7

17 6

18 5

7

8

16 o

17 o

18 o

19 o

20 o

21 I

8

9

18 o

19 I

20 3

21 4

22 6

23 9

9

10

20 I

21 3

22 6

23 9

25 I

26 5

10

11

22

23 4

24 9

26 i

27 7

29 o

11

12

24

25 6

27 o

28 6

30 i

3i 8

12

13

26

27 7

29 3

30 10

32 7

34 4

13

14

28

29 9

31 6

33 3

35 i

36 ii

14

15

30

31 10

33 9

35 7

37 7

39 7

15

16

32

34 o

36 o

38 o

40 i

42 3

16

17

34

36 2

38 3

40 5

42 7

44 !0

17

18

36

38 3

40 6

42 9

45 i

47 6

18

19

38

40 5

42 9

45 2

47 7

50 2

19

20

40

42 6

45 o

47 6

5o i

52 9

20

21

42 i

44 8

47 3

49 ii

52 7

55 i

21

22

44 2

46 9

49 6

52 3

55 2

58 8

22

23

46 2

48 ii

5i 9

54 8

57 8

60 5

23

24

48 2

5i o

54 o

57 o

60 2

63 4

24

25

50 2

53 2

56 3

59 5

62 8

66 o

25

26

52 2

55 3

58 6

61 9

65 2

68 8

26

27

54 2

57 5

60 9

64 2

67 8

71 3

27

28

56 2

59 6

63 o

66 6

70 2

73 ii

28

29

58 2

61 8

65 3

68 ii

72 8

76 7

29

30

60 2

63 9

67 6

71 3

75 2

79 2

30

31

62 2

65 ii

69 9

73 8

77 8

81 10

31

32

64 2

68 o

72 o

76 o

80 2

84 6

32

33

66 2

70 2

74 3

78 5

82 8

87 i

33

34

68 3

72 3

76 6

80 9

85 3

89 9

34

85

70 3

74 5

78 9

83 2

87 9

92 5

35

36

72 3

76 6

81 o

85 6

90 3

95 o

86

87

74 3

78 8

83 3

87 ii

92 9

97 8

37

38

76 3

80 9

85 6

90 3

95 3

loo 4

38

89

78 3

82 ii

87 9

92 8

97 9

102 II

39

40

80 3

85 i

90 o

95 i

100 3

105 7

40

472

CONTENTS OF TIMBER, QUARTER GIRTH
MEASUREMENT

Average Quarter Girth (in inches) under

Bark.

Length

Length

in

in

feet.

feet.

20

20J

21

21J

22

22|

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

6

16 8

17 6

18 4

19 3

20 2

21 I

6

7

19 5

20 5

21 5

22 5

23 6

24 7

7

8

22 2

23 4

24 6

25 8

26 10

28 i

8

9

25 o

26 3

27 6

28 10

30 3

3i 7

9

10

27 9

29 2

30 7

32 I

33 7

35 2

10

11

30 6

32 I

33 8

35 3

36 ii

38 8

11

12

33 4

35 o

36 9

38 6

40 4

42 .2

12

13

36 i

37 ii

39 9

41 8

43 8

45 8

13

14

38 10

40 10

42 10

44 ii

47 o

49 2

14

15

41 8

43 9

45 ii

48 i

50 5

52 8

15

16

44 5

46 8

49 o

5i 4

53 9

56 3

16

17

47 2

49 7

52 o

54 7

57 i

59 9

17

18

50 o

52 6

55 i

57 9

60 6

63 3

18

19

52 9

55 5

58 2

61 o

63 10

66 9

19

20

55 6

58 4

61 3

64 2

67 2

70 3

20

21

58 4

61 3

64 3

67 5

70 7

73 10

21

22

61 i

64 2

67 4

70 7

73 ii

77 4

22

23

63 10

67 i

7o 5

73 10

77 3

80 10

23

24

66 8

70 o

73 6

77 o

80 8

84 4

24

25

69 5

72 II

76 6

80 3

84 o

87 10

25

26

72 2

75 10

79 7

83 5

87 4

9i 5

26

27

75 o

78 9

82 8

86 8

90 9

94 ii

27

28

77 9

81 8

85 9

89 10

94 i

98 5

28

29

80 6

84 7

88 9

93 i

97 5

101 II

29

30

83 4

87 6

91 10

96 3

IOO 10

105 5

30

31

86 i

90 5

94 ii

99 6

104 2

108 ii

81

32

88 10

93 4

98 o

102 8

107 6

112 6

32

33

91 8

96 3

101 0

105 ii

IIO II

116 o

33

34

94 5

99 2

104 i

109 i

114 3

119 6

34

35

97 2

IO2 I

107 2

112 4

117 7

123 o

35

36

IOO O

105 o

1 10 3

115 6

121 0

126 6

36

37

102 9

TO7 II

H3 3

118 9

124 4

130 i

37

38

105 6

110 10

116 4

121 II

127 8

133 7

38

39

108 4

113 9

H9 5

125 2

131 i

137 i

39

40

in i

116 9

122 6

128 5

134 5

140 7

40

20, 21, 22

inches

473

CONTENTS OF TIMBER, Q. G. MEASUREMENT

23, 24, 25

inches

Length

Average Quarter Girth (in inches) under Bark.

Length

in

in

feet.

23

23i

24

24J

25

25J

feet.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

6

22 O

23 o

24 o

25 o

26 o

27 I

6

7

25 8

26 TO

28 o

29 2

30 4

31 7

7

8

29 4

30 8

32 o

33 4

34 8

36 I

8

9

33 o

34 6

36 o

37 6

39 o

40 7

9

10

36 9

38 4

40 o

41 8

43 5

45 2

10

11

40 5

42 2

44 o

45 10

47 9

49 8

11

12

44 i

46 o

48 o

50 o

52 i

54 2

12

13

47 9

49 10

52 o

54 2

56 5

58 8

18

14

5i 5

53 8

56 o

58 4

60 9

63 2

14.

15

55 i

57 6

60 o

62 6

65 i

67 8

15

16
17

11 I

61 4

65 2

64 o
68 o

66 8
70 10

69 5
73 9

72 3
76 9

16
17

18

66 i

69 o

72 o

75 o

78 i

81 3

18

19

69 9

72 10

76 o

79 2

82 5

85 9

19

20

73 5

76 8

80 o

83 4

86 9

90 3

20

26, 27, 28
inches

Length
in
feet.

Average Quarter Girth (in inches) under Bark.

Length
in
feet.

26

26J

27

27J

28

28J

6
7
8
9
10

11
12
18
14
15

16
17
18
19
20

ft. in.
28 2
32 10

37 6

42 3
46 ii

ft. in.
29 3
34 i
39 o
43 10
48 9

ft. in.
30 4
35 5
40 6
45 6
50 7

ft. in.
31 6
36 9

42 o
47 3
52 6

ft. in.

32 8
38 i
43 6
49 o

54 5

ft. in.
33 10
39 5
45 i
50 9
56 5

6
7
8
9
10

11
12
13
14
15

16
17
18
19
20

5i 7
56 4
61 o

65 8
7o 5

53 7
58 6
63 4
68 3

73 i

55 8
60 9

65 9

70 10

75 ii

57 6
63 o
68 3
73 6
78 9

59 10
65 4
7o 9
76 2
81 8

62 o

67 8

73 4
78 ii
84 7

75 i
79 9
84 6
89 2
93 10

78 o
82 ii
87 9
92 8
97 6

81 o
86 o
91 i

96 2

ioi 3

84 o
89 3
94 6
99 9
105 o

87 i
92 6
98 o

103 5
108 10

90 3
95 10
ioi 6
107 2
112 9

474

CONTENTS OF TIMBER, Q. G. MEASUREMENT

Average Quarter Girth (in inches) under Bark.

Length

Length

in

in

feet.

29

29J

30

30J

31

S1J

feet.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

6

35 o

36 3

37 6

38 9

40 o

41 4

6

7

40 10

42 3

43 9

45 2

46 8

48 2

7

8

46 8

48 4

50 o

5i 8

53 4

55 i

8

9

52 6

54 4

56 3

58 i

60 o

62 o

9

10

58 5

60 5

62 6

64 7

66 9

68 ii

10

11

64 3

66 5

68 9

71 o

73 5

75 9

11

12

70 i

72 6

75 o

77 6

80 i

82 8

12

13

75 ii

78 6

81 3

83 ii

86 9

89 7

13

14

81 9

84 7

87 6

90 5

93 5

96 5

14

15

87 7

90 7

93 9

96 10

IOO I

103 4

15

29, 30, 31

inches

Average Quarter Girth (in inches) under Bark.

Length

Length

in

in

feet.

32

32i

33

33J

34

344

feet.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

6

42 8

44 o

45 4

46 9

48 2

49 7

6

7

49 9

51 4

52 ii

54 6

56 2

57 10

7

8

56 10

58 8

60 6

62 4

64 2

66 i

8

9

64 o

66 o

68 o

70 i

72 3

74 4

9

10

71 I

73 4

75 7

77 ii

80 3

82 8

10

11

78 2

80 8

83 2

85 8

88 3

90 ii

11

12

85 4

88 o

90 9

93 6

96 4

99 2

12

13

92 5

95 4

98 3

TOI 3

104 4

107 5

13

14

99 6

102 8

105 10

109 i

112 4

115 8

14

15

106 8

110 0

H3 5

116 10

120 5

123 ii

15

32, 33, 34

inches

Length

Average Quarter Girth (in inches) under Bark.

Length

in

in

feet.

35

35J

36

36i

37

37J

feet.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

6

51 o

52 6

54 o

55 6

57 o

58 7

6

7

59 6

61 3

63 o

64 9

66 6

68 4

7

8

68 o

70 o

72 o

74 o

76 o

78 I

8

9

76 6

. 78 9

81 o

83 3

85 6

87 10

9

10

85 i

87 6

90 o

92 6

95 i

97 8

10

11

93 7

96 3

99 o

101 9

104 7

107 5

11

12

IO2 I

105 o

108 o

III 0

114 i

117 2

12

13

no 7

H3 9

117 o

120 3

123 7

126 II

13

14

119 i

122 6

126 o

129 6

133 i

136 8

14

15

127 7

131 3

135 o

138 9

142 7

146 5

15

35, 36, 37

inches

475

CONTENTS OF TIMBER, Q. G. MEASUREMENT

38, 39, 40

inches

41, 42, 43
inches

44, 45, 46
inches

Average Quarter Girth (in inches) under Bark.

Length

Length

in

in

feet.

38

38J

39

39J

40

40J

feet.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

6

60 2

61 9

63 4

65 o

66 8

68 4

6

7

70 2

72 o

73 ii

75 10

77 9

79 8

7

8

80 2

82 4

84 6

86 8

88 10

91 i

8

9

90 3

92 7

95 o

97 6

IOO O

IO2 6

9

10

ioo 3

102 II

105 7

108 4

III I

113 II

10

11

no 3

113 2

116 2

119 2

122 2

125 3

11

12

120 4

123 6

126 9

130 o

133 4

136 8

12

18

130 4

133 9

137 3

140 10

H4 5

148 i

18

14

140 4

144 i

147 10

151 8

155 6

159 5

14

15

150 5

154 4

158 5

162 6

166 8

170 10

15

Average Quarter Girth (in inches) under Baik.

Length

Length

in

in

feet.

41

41i

42

42|

43

431

fee

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

6

70 o

71 9

73 6

75 3

77 o

78 10

6

7

81 8

83 8

85 9

87 9

89 10

91 II

7

8

93 4

95 8

98 o

ioo 4

102 8

IO5 I

8

9

105 o

107 7

no 3

112 10

115 6

118 3

9

10

116 9

119 7

122 6

125 5

128 5

131 5

10

11

128 5

131 6

134 9

137 ii

141 2

144 6

11

12

140 i

143 6

147 o

150 6

154 I

157 8

12

18

151 9

155 5

159 3

163 o

1 66 ii

170 10

18

14

163 5

167 5

171 6

175 7

179 9

183 ii

14

15

175 i

179 4

183 9

188 i

192 7

197 i

15

Average Quarter Girth (in inches) under Bark.

Length

Length

in

in

feet.

44

44J

45

45J

46

46J

feet.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

6

80 8

82 6

84 4

86 3

88 2

90 I

6

7

94 i

96 3

98 5

ioo 7

102 10

105 I

7

8

107 6

no o

112 6

115 o

117 6

120 I

8

9

121 O

123 9

126 6

129 4

132 3

135 I

9

10

134 5

137 6

140 7

143 9

146 ii

I5O 2

10

11

147 10

151 3

154 8

158 i

161 7

165 2

11

12

161 4

165 o

168 9

172 6

176 4

180 2

12

18

174 9

178 9

182 9

186 10

191 o

195 2

18

14

188 2

192 6

196 10

201 3

205 8

2IO 2

14

15

201 8

206 3

210 II

215 8

220 5

225 2

15

476

APPENDIX C

TABLES SHOWING THE CAPITALISED VALUE OF £1
AND OF £1 PER ANNUM, AT VARIOUS RATES
OF INTEREST

I
EXPLANATION OP TABLES

These tables may be used for a variety of purposes. And to all who
may seek to express an opinion upon the financial aspect of afforestation,
their use is almost indispensable.

For example, £10 is spent per acre in planting and fencing. What
will be the debt per acre in 90 years time on the 4 per cent, tables ?

By reference to the tables —

£i amounts at 4 per cent, to 34-119 in 90 years.

• *. £10 „ „ „ 34-119x10 »

= ^341, 35. icd.

Or again, is. a year has been paid per acre for rates on a wood for
the last 95 years. What sum of money does this represent at the present
time on the 4^ per cent, tables ?

By reference to the tables —

£i per annum will have amounted to ,£1432-684

I432'684

• • is. ,, ,, jj AJ 20

= £71, I2s. 7d.

Or again, at the end of a rotation of 80 years there is a net credit
sum of ^120 per acre, which may be looked upon as deferred profits, after
paying for all outgoings, etc. What yearly net rental is this equivalent
to on the 3^ per cent, tables ?

By reference to the tables, it is seen that —

^419-306 is the accumulated value of £i per annum.

. *• ;&! 5) » 55 AJ

£

419-306

I X 120
4I9-306
1 20 X 20

shlllmgs-

= Ss- 8d- net rental

per annum.
477

CAPITALISED VALUE OF £1 AND £1 PER ANNUM

In
Years.

2f per cent.

3 per cent.

In
Years.

£1 amounts
to

£1 per annum
amounts to

£1 amounts
to

£1 per annum
amounts to

I

2

3
4
5

6

7
8

9

10

ii

12

13
H
15

16

17
18

19

20

21

22
23
24
25

26

27
28
29
30

31

32

33
34
35

36
37
38
39
40

4i
42

43
44
45

46
47
48

49

50

1-027

1-055
1084
•114
•145

I-OOO

2-027
3-o83
4-168
5-282

1-030
I -060
1-092
•125
•159

I-OOO
2-030
3-090
4-183
5-309

I
2

3

4
5

6

7
8

9

10

ii

12
13
H
15

16
17
18

19
20

21

22

23
24

25
26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33
34

35

36
37
38

39

40

4i
42
43
44
45

46
47
48

49
50

•I76
•209
•242
•276
•311

6-427
7-604
8-813
10-056
H-332

•194
-229
-266
•304
•343

6-468
7-662
8-892
10-159
11-463

•347
•384
•422
.461
•502

12-644
13-992
I5-376
16-799
18-261

•384
•425
-468
•512

•557

12-807
14-192
15-617
17-086
18-598

•543
•585
1-629

1-674
1-720

19-763
21-307
22-893
24-523
26-197

1-604
1-652
1-702

1-753
i -806

20-156
21-761

23-4H
25-II6
26-870

1-767
1-816
1-866
1-917
1-970

27-917
29-685
3I-50I
33-368
35-285

i -860
1-916

1-973
2-032
2-093

28-676
30-536
32-452
34-426
36-459

2-024
2-080

2-137
2-196
2-256

37-256
39-280
41-360
43-498
45-694

2-156

2-221

2-287
2-356
2-427

38-553
40-709
42-930
45-218

47-575

2-318
2-382
2-447
2-5I5
2-584

47-951
50-269
52-652
55-iQo
57-6x5

2-500

2-575
2-652
2-731
2-813

50-002
52-502
55-077
57-730
60-462

2-655
2-728
2-803
2-880
2-959

60-199
62-855
65-583
68-387
71-268

2-898
2-985
3-074
3-167
3-262

63-275
66-174
69-159

72-234

75-401

3-041
3-124

3-210

3-299
3-389

74-228
77-269

80-394
83-605
86-904

3-359
3-460
3-564
3-671
3-78i

78-663
82023
85-483
89-048

92-719

3-483
3-578
3-677
3-778
3-882

90-294
93-777
97-356
101-033
104-811

3-895
4-011
4-132
4-256
4-3^3

96-501
100-396
104-408
108-540
112-796

478

AT DIFFERENT RATES OF INTEREST

In
Yeai s.

2| per cent.

3 per cent.

In
Years.

£1 amounts
to

£1 per annum
amounts to

£1 amounts
to

£1 per annum
amounts to

51

52
53
54

55

56
57
58
59
60

61
62
63
64
65

66
67
68
69

70

71

72
73
74
75

76
77
78
79
80

81

82
83
84
85

86

87
88

89
90

9i
92

93
94
95

96
97
98
99

IOO

3-989
4-098
4-211
4-327
4-446

108-694
112-683
116-781
120-993
125-320

4-515
4-650
4-790
4-934
5-082

117-180
121-696
126-347
I3I-I37
136-071

51

52
53
54

55

56
57
58
59
60

61
62
63
64
65

66
67
68

69

7o

7i

72
73
74
75

76

77
78

79
80

81
82
83
84
85

86

87
88

89
90

9i
92
93
94
95

96
97
98

99

IOO

4-568
4-694
4-823

4-955
5-092

129-767
134-335
139-029
I43-853
148-809

5-234
5-391
5-553
5-720
5-891

I4I-I53
146-388
151.780

157-333
163-053

5-232
5-376
5-524
5-675
5-832

I53-90I
I59-I33
164-509
170-033
175-709

6-068
6-250
6-437
6-631
6-829

168-945

175-013
181-263
187-701
194-332

5-992
6-157
6-326
6-500
6-679

181-541
I87-534
193-691
201-017
206-518

7-034
7-245
7-463
7-687

7-917

201-162
208-197

215-443
222-906

230-594

6-862
7-05I

7-245
7-444
7-649

213-197
220-060
227-112

234-357
241-802

8-155
8-400
8-652
8-911
9-I78

238-5H
246-667
255-067
263719
272-630

7-859
8-076
8-298
8-526
8-760

249-452
257-312
265.388
273-686
282-212

9-454
9-737
10-030
10-330
10-640

281-809
291-264
301-002
3II-032
32I-363

9-001
9-249
9-503
9-765
10-033

290-973
299-975
309-224
318-728
328.493

10-960
11-288
11-627
11-976
12-335

332-003
342-964

354-252
365-880
377-856

10-309

iQ-593
10-884
11-183
11-491

338-52I
348-836
359-429
370-3I3
38I-497

12-505
13-086
13-497
13-883
14-300

390-I92
402-898

4I5-985
429-464

443-348

11-807
12-131
12-465
12-808
13-160

392-988

404'795
416-927

429-393
442-201

14-729
I5-I7I
15-626
16-095
16-578

457-649
472-378
487-550
503-176
5I9-272

13-522
13-894
14-276
14-669
15-072

455-362
468-884
482-779
497-055
511-724

17-075
I7-587
18-115
18-658
19-218

535-850
552-925
570-5I3
588-628
607-287

479

CAPITALISED VALUE OF £1 AND £1 PER ANNUM

In

Years.

3J per cent.

4 per cent.

In
Years.

£1 amounts
to

£1 per annum
amounts to

£1 amounts
to

£1 per annum
amounts to

2

3
4

5

6

8
9

10

ii

12
13
H
15

16
17
18

19

20

21
22

23

24

2$

26
27
28
29
30

31
32

33
34
35

36
37
38
39
40

41
42
43
44
45

46
47
48

49
50

1-035
I-07I
1-108
1-147
1-187

I -000

2-035
3-io6

4-214
5-362

1-040
I -08 1
I-I24
1-169
1-216

I-OOO
2-040
3-I2I

4-246
5-416

I

2

3
4
5

6

7
8

9

10

ii

12
13
H
15

16

17
18

19
20

21

22
23
24
25

26
27
28
29
30

31

32

33
34

35

36
37
38
39
40

4i
42
43
44
45

46
47
48
49
50

1-229
1-272
1-316
1-362
1-410

6-550
7-779
9-051
10-368
11-731

1-265

1-315
1-368
1-423
1-480

6-632
7-898
9-214

10-582
12-006

1-459
1-511

1-563
1-618

1-675

13-141
14-601
16-113
17-676
I9-295

1-539
i -60 1
1-665

1-731

i -800

13-486
15-025
16-626

18-291
20-023

1-733
1-794
1-857
1-922
1-989 j

20-971
22-705
24-499
26-357
28-279

1-872
1-947
2-025
2-106
2-191

21-824
23-697
25-645
27-671
29.778

2-059
2-131
2-206
2-283
2-363

30-269
32-328
34-460
36-666
38-949

2-278

2-369
2-464

2-563
2-665

31-969
34-247
36-617
39-082

41-645

2-445
2-531
2-620
2-711
2-806

4I-3I3
43-759
46-290
48-910
51-622

2-772
2-883
2-998
3-n8
3-243

44-311
47-084
49.967
52-966

56-084

2-905
3-006
3-in

3-220

3-333

54-429
57-334
60-341

63-453
66-674

3-373
3-508
3-648
3-794
3-946

59-328

62-701
66-209

69-857
73-652

3-450
3-571
3-696
3-825
3-959

70-007
73-457
77-028
80-724
84-550

4-103
4-268
4-438
4-616
4-801

77-589

81-702

85.970
90.409

95-025

4-097
4-241

4-389
4-543
4-702

88-509
92-607
96-848
101-328
105-781

4-993
5-I92
5-400
5-6x6

5-841

99-826

104-819

IIO-OI2

115-412

121-029

4-866
5-037
5-213
5-396
5-584

110-484
II5-350
120-388
125-601
1 30-997

6-074
6-3.7
6-570
6-833
7-106

126-870

132-945
139-263
145-833
152-667

480

AT DIFFERENT RATES OF INTEREST

In
Years.

3J per cent.

4 per cent.

In
Years.

£1 amounts
to

£1 per annum
amounts to

£1 amounts
to

£1 per annum
amounts to

51

52
53
54
55

56
57
58
59
60

61
62

63
64

65

66
67
68

69

70

7i
72

73
74
75

76
77
78
79
80

81
82
83
84

85

86
87
88

89
90

9i
92

93
94
95

96
97
98

99

100

5-780
5.982
6-192
6-408
6-633

136-582
142-363
I48-345
I54-538
160-946

7-390
7-686
7-994
8-313
8-646

159-773
167.164
174.851
182-845
191-159

51

52
53
54
55

56

57
58
59
60

61
62
63
64
65

66
67
68
69

70

7i
72
73
74
75

76
77
78

79
80

81
82
83
84
85

86
87
88

89
90

9i
92

93
94
95

96
97
98

99

100

6-865
7-105

7-354
7-611
7-878

167-580

174-445
181-550
188-905
196-516

8-992
9-351
9-725
10-115
10.519

199-805
208-797
218-149
227-875
237-990

8-153
8-439
8-734
9-040
9-356

204-394
212-548
220-988
229-722
238-762

10-940
11-378
n-833
12-306
12-798

248-510
259-450
270-828
282-661
294-968

9-684
10-023

10-373

10-737

1 1 -1 1 2

248-119
257-803
267-826
278-200
288-937

i3-3io
I3-843
14-396
I4-972
I5-57I

307-767
321-077
334-920
349-317
364-290

II-5OI
11-904
12-320
12-752
I3-I98

300-050
3II-552
323-456
335-777
348-530

16-194
16-842

I7-5I5
18-216
18-945

379-862
396-056
412-898
430-414
448-631

I3-660
I4-I38
I4-633
I5-I45
I5-675

361-728
375-389
389-527
404-161
419-306

19-703
20-491
21-310
22-163
23-049

467.576
487-279
507-770
529-081
55I-244

I6-224
I6-792

17-379
I7-988
18-617

434-982
451-206
467-999
485-379
503-367

23-971
24-930

25-927
26-965
28-043

574-294
598-266
623-197
649-125
676-090

19-269

19-943
20-64I
2I-364
22-112

521-985
54I-254
561-198
581-840
603-205

29-165
3o-33i
31-545
32-807
34-H9

704-I33
733-299
763-631
795-176
827-983

22-886
23-687
24-5I6

25-374
26-262

625-317
648-203
671-890
696-406
721-780

35-484
36-903
38-379
39-9H
41-511

862-102
897-586
934-490
972-869
1012-784

27-I8I
28-I32
29-II7
30-I36
3I-I9I

748-043
775-224
803-357
832-475
862-611

43-I7I
44-898
46-694
48-562
50-504

1054-296

1097-467
1142-366
1189-061
1237-623

481

CAPITALISED VALUE OF £1 AND £1 PER ANNUM

In
Years.

4J pep cent.

5 per cent.

In
Years.

£1 amounts
to

£1 per annum
amounts to

£1 amounts
to

£1 per annum
amounts to

I
2

3
4

5

6

8

9

10

ii

12
13
14

J5

16

17
18

19

20

21
22
23
24
25

26
27
28

29

30

3i
32
33
34

35

36

37
38
39
40

4i
42

43
44
45

46

47
48
49
50

1-045
1-092
1-141
1-192
1-246

I -000
2-045
3-137
4-278
5-470

1-050
I-IO2
I-I57
1-215
1-276

I-OOO
2-050
3-I52
4-310

5-525

I
2

3

4

5

6

7
8

9

10

ii

12
13
H
15

16
17
18

19

20

21
22
23
24
25

26

27
28
29

30

3i
32
33
34
35

36
37
38
39
40

4i
42

43
44

45

46
47
48
49
50

1-302
1-360
1-422
1-486
1-552

6-716
8-019
9-38o
10-802
12-288

1-340
1-407
1-477
I-55I
1-628

6-801
8-142

9-549
11-026

12-577

1-622
1-695
1-772
1-851
1-935

13-841
15-464

17-159
18-932
20-784

1-710

1-795
1-885
1-979
2-078

14-206

I5-9I7
17-712
19-598
21-578

2-022

2-113

2-208
2-307
2-4II

22-719
24-741
26-855
29-063
3I-37I

2-182

2-292
2-406
2-526
2-653

23-657
25-840
28-132

30-539
33-065

2-520
2-633
2-752
2-876
3-005

33-783
36-303
38-937
41-689

44-565

2-785
2-925
3-071
3-225
3-386

35-719
38-505
41-430
44-502
47-727

3-I40
3-282
3-429
3-584

3-745

47-570
50-711
53-993
57-423
61-007

3-555
3-733
3-920
4-116
4-321

5i*i3

54-669

58-402
62-322

66-438

3-9I3
4-089
4-274
4-466
4-667

64-752
68-666
72-756
77-030
81-496

4-538
4-764
5-003
5-253
5-5i6

70-760
75-298
80-063
85-066
90-320

4-877
5-096
5-326

5-565
5-8i6

86-163
91-041
96-138
101-464
107-030

5-791
6 -08 1

6-385
6-704

7-039

95-836
101-628
107.709
114-095
120-799

6-078
6-351
6-637
6-936
7-248

112-846
118-924
125-276
I3I-9I3
138-849

7-39*
7-76i
8-149
8-557
8-985

127-839
I35-23I
I42-993
I5I-I43
159-700

7-574
7-9I5
8-271
8-643
9-032

146-098
I53-672
161-587
169-859
178-503

9-434
9'905
10-401
10-921
11-467

168-685
178-119
188-025
198-426
209-348

5%

482

AT DIFFERENT RATES OF INTEREST

In
Years.

4J per cent.

5 per cent.

In
Years.

£1 amounts
to

£1 per annum
amounts to

£1 amounts
to

£1 per annum
amounts to

51

52
53
54
55

56
57
58
59
60

61
62
63
64
65

66
67
68

69
70

7i

72

73
74

75

76
77
78
79
80

81
82
83
84

85

86

87
88

89
90

9i
92
93
94
95

96
97
98
99

100

9-439
9-863
10-307
10-771
11-256

I87-535
196-974
206-838
217-146
227-917

12-040
12-642
13-274
I3-938
I4-635

220-815
232-856
245-498

258-773
272-712

51
52
53
54
55

56
57
58
59
60

61
62
63
64
65

66
67
68
69
70

7i

72

73
74
75

76

77
78

79

80

81

82
83
84
85

86
87
88

89
90

91
92
93
94
95

96
97
98
99

100

11-762
12-292
12-845
I3-423
14-027

239-174
250-937
263-221

276-074
289-497

I5-367
16-135
16-942
17-789
18-679

287-348
302-715
318-851
335-794
353-583

14-658
15.318
16-007
16-727
17-480

303-525
318-184
333-502

349-509
366-237

I9-6I3
20-593
21-623
22-704
23-839

372-262
391-876
412-469
432-093
456-798

18-267
19-089
19-948
20-846
21-784

383-7I8
40I-985
42I-075
44I-023
461-869

25-031
26-283
27-597
28-977
30-426

480-637
505-669
531-953
559-550
588-528

22-764
23-788
24-859

25-977
27-146

483-653
506-418
530-207
555-066
581-044

31-947
33-545
35-222

36-983
38-832

618-954
650-902
684-447
719-670
756-653

28-368

29-645
30-979

32-373
33-830

608-191

636-559
666-205
697-184
729-557

40-774
42-813
44-953
47-201
49.561

795-486
836-260
879-073
924-027
971-228

35-352
36-943
38-605
40-343
42-158

763-387
798-740
835-683
874-289
9I4-632

52-039
54-641

57-373
60-242

63-254

1020-790
1072-829
1127-471
1184-844
1245-087

44-055
46-038
48-109
50-274

52-537

956-790
1000-846
1046-884
1094.994
1145-296

66-417

69737
73-224
76-886
80-730

1308-341
1374758
1444-496
1517-721
1594-607

54.901
57-371
59-953
62-651
65-470

1197.806
1252-707
1310-079
1370-032
1432-684

84-766
89005

93-455
98-128

103-034

I675-337
1760-104
1849-109

1942-565
2040-693

68-416

71-495
74-712

78-075
81-588

I498-I55
1566-572
1638-067
1712-780
I790-855

108-186

H3-595
119-275

125-239
131-501

2143-728
2251-914
2365-510
2484-785
2610-025

483

APPENDIX D

TABLE SHOWING THE BASAL AREA FOR TREES OF
DIFFERENT DIAMETERS, AND, FOR COMPARISON,
THE BASAL AREA ACCORDING TO QUARTER
GIRTH MEASUREMENT OF THOSE TREES

485

TABLE OF BASAL AREAS

Diameter
(in inches).

True Basal Area.

Square feet.

Quarter Girth
(in inches).

Basal Area according
to Quarter Girth
Measurement.
Square feet.

3
4

7

0-049
0-087
0-136
0-196
0-267

2-35
3-H
3-92
4.71
5-49

0-038
0-068
O-IO7

0-154
0-209

8
9

10

ii

12

Q-349
0-441

o-545
0-659
0-785

6-28
7-07
7-85
8-64
9-42

0-274

0-347
0-428
0-518
0-616

13
H
15

16

17

0-921
1-069
1-227
1-396
1-576

10-21

10-99
11-78
12-57
13-35

0-724
0-838
0-964
1-097
1-238

18
19

20
21
22

1-767
1-968
2-181
2-405

2-639

14.14
14-92

15-71
16-49
17-28

1-388
1-546
1.714
1-888
2-073

23
24

"I
26

27

2-885

3-141
3-408

3-687
3-976

1 8- 06
18-85
19-63
20-42

21-20

2-265
2-467
2-676
2-895
3-I2I

28
29

30
31
32

4-276
4-586
4-908
5-241
5-585

21-99
22-77

23.56
24-35
25"3

3-357
3-6oi

3-855
4-117

4-385

33

34

33!
37

5-939
6-305
6-681
7-068
7-466

25-92
26-70
27-49
28-27
29-06

4-665
4-950
5-248
5-549
5-846

38

39
40

41
42

7-875
8-295
8-726
9.168
9-621

29-84
30-63

3I-4I
32-20

32-99

6-183
6-516
6-851
7-200

7-566

43
44

3

47
48

10-084
10-559
11-044
11.541
12-048
12-566

33-77
34-56
35-34
36-13
36-9 1
37-70

7.919
8-294

8-673
9-065
9-461

9-870

486

APPENDIX E

TABLE SHOWING THE BASAL AREA BY QUARTER
GIRTH MEASUREMENT FOR TREES OF DIFFERENT
QUARTER GIRTHS

487

TABLE OF BASAL AREAS

Quarter
Girth.

Basal Area by
Quarter Girth Measurement.
Square feet.

Quarter
Girth.

Basal Area by
Quarter Girth Measurement.
Square feet.

Inches.

In decimals.

Fractions.

Inches.

In decimals.

Fractions.

2*

0-027

A

19

2-51

2^

3

0-062

TV

I«i

2-64

...

4

O-III

i

20

2-78

...

5

0-173

i

20i

2-92

...

6

0-25

i

21

3-o6

3rV

6£

0-29

24

3-21

7

o-33

i

22

3-36

...

7i

o-39

...

tf|

3-52

3i

8

0-44

...

23

3-67

...

*i

0-50

i

23i

3-84

9

0-56

...

24

4-00

4

9i

0-63

...

24i

4.17

...

10

0-69

§

25

4-34

...

ioj

0-77

•Si

4-52

II

0-84

...

26

4-69

...

"i

0-92

...

26^

4-88

12

100

i

27

506

$A

If|

109

27i

5-25

...

13

1-17

...

28

5-44

...

I3i

1-27

ii

28^

5.64

...

14

1-36

...

29

5-84

...

I4i

1-46

...

29*

6-04

6

I4l

i-5i

ii

30

6-25

H

15

1-56

....

3i|

700

7

Hi

1-67

...

34

802

8

16

1.78

if

36

900

9

i6i

1*89

...

39

10-56

xo&

17

201

2

42

I2'2$

12*

174

2-13

...

45

14-06

I4TV

18

2-25

...

48

1 6-00

16

*|

2-38

...

5i

1806

I«£

* Two inches quarter girth under bark equals approximately 2| inches
diameter over bark, the measurement down to which timber is included in
continental tables (7 centimetres).

488

INDEX

Abbs (vide Silver fir), notes on, 414-417
conco/or, 417
grandis, 417

Acacia, prices and uses of timber, 329
seed of, 42, 334
soils for, 74, 88, 334
sylvicultural notes on, 334, 335
timber of, 334
Accumulated debt on normal areas,

234-238
A cer platanoides (vide Norway Maple),

notes on, 375, 376
pseudo-platanus (vide Sycamore), notes

on, 375, 376
Acidity in soils, 84
Acorns, sowing of, in woods, 137
Advantages of annual rental principle,

251

of good roads, 312-314
of mixed woods, 98
of pure woods, 98, 99
&cidium clatinum, 416
sEsculus (vide Horse Chestnut), notes

on, 356
Afforestation, considerations in favour

of, 14

financial aspect of, 231-263
reasons showing inadvisability of,

15-13

relief works, 8, 9

schemes, may result in disaster, 19
schemes, proposals for Government

aid, 19
Agaricus melleus (= Honey Fungus),

344* 391, 396, 404, 413, 416, 420
Age classes under selection system, 177,
178, 188, 189

Age for planting trees, 96, 97

of seed production, 184

when thinnings commence, 147
Agtiotes lineatus ( = wireworm), 405
Alaska cypress (vide Cup> essus Sitchen-

$w), notes on, 387, 388
Alder coppice, 197, ^oi-^os, 227

coppice, use of, 288

prices and uses of timber, 3 -9

seed of, 39. 41, 42, 45- 46, 336

soils for, 74, 88, 8y, 336

sylvicultural notes on, 336, 337

timber of, 336

Allowance for bark, 269, 270
Alnus (vide Alder), notes on, 336, 337
Altitude, influence of, 72, 73, 185

relative, 33
American Ash, 341

Elm, 351

White wood, 377
Annual increment, 450, 451

rental principle, 244-262

ring, effected by pruning, 157
Aphis, 345

Argyresthia Icevigatella, 397
Arrangement of coppice felling areas,
288, 289

of fellings, group system, 180
Artificial sowing of crops of trees,

13^-141
Ash, American, 74, 341

average annual increment, 221, 340

bark beetle, 341

branch bark beetle, 341

coppice, 197, 201, 227

coppice, use of, 287, 288

cutting over at ground level, 154
2 H

490

INDEX

Ash, Green ( = /r. viridis), 341

height of, 91, 92, 1 60

high forest over coppice, 212-214

(mineral) percentage of, in leaves, 83

(mineral) percentage of, in timber, 82

natural regeneration of, 191, 192

Oregon, 208, 341

partial clearance of, and underplant-
ing, 1 66, 167, 174

planting estimates for, 1 32

prices and uses of timber, 326

rental yielded by, 246-248, 260, 262,
340

returns from, 221, 340

rotation for, 340

seed of, 38, 39, 4*. 45, 4$, 338

soils for, 74, 78, 80, 84, 89, 338, 339

standards over coppice, 202, 203, 206,
207

sylvicultural notes on, 338-341

thinning of, 1 60

timber of, 338

two-storied high forest, 174, 192

yield table, coppice with standards,
226

yield table, high forest, 221
Aspect, 12, 183, 185, 1 86

influence of, 71, 72

in relation to thinnings, 148, 151

of nursery, 33

Aspen leaf beetle (Z. tremulce}, 371,
385

Poplar, notes on, 370, 371
Atmospheric moisture and tree growth,
74-76

moisture within woodlands, 2

temperature within woodlands, 2, 3
Auction sales of coppice, 285, 286

sales of large timber, 295, 296
Austrian pine, height of, 91, 92

seed of, 39, 42, 45, 46, 406

soils for, 74, 76, 77, 88, 89, 407

sylvicultural notes on, 406, 407

thinning of, 162

Autumn planting, objections to, 112,
H3

wood, 164, 170
Average annual increment, 450, 451

annual increments of various trees,
216-224, 226, 227

yields from forest land, 215-230

Average yield tables, application of,
434-436, 450

BAD Mixtures, 105-107

Bank's pine (vide P. Banksiana), notes

on, 410
Bark, allowance for, in measuring, 269,

270

price of, 310, 311
Barking, 307-311
Barrel hoops, 287, 288
Basal area, ascertaining, 426, 427
Bean sticks, 228
Beech, average annual increment, 217,

344

financial result of underplanting with,

255-257

height of, 91, 92, 159

natural regeneration of, 176-179,
187-191

partial clearance of, 166, 175

prices and uses of timber, 327

rental yielded by, 246-248, 256, 257,
262, 344

returns from, 115, 217, 344

rotation for, 344

seed of, 39, 41-43, 45, 46, 342

seed years, 184, 191

selection system, 177-179

sylvicultural notes on, 342-345

thinning of, 159

timber of, 342

yield table, 217

Betula (vide Birch), notes on, 346, 347
Birch, direct sowing, 138

for frost localities, 128

nurses, 101, 107, 144

prices and uses of timber, 329

seed of, 39, 41-43, 45, 46, 34&

soils for, 74, 78, 88, 89, 346

sylvicultural notes on, 346, 347

timber of, 346
Black Poplars, notes on, 367-369

Walnut, 208

Walnut (vide Walnut), notes on, 379,

380

Bladder rust, 404
Board measurement, 278-282
Bombyx antigua, 385

chrysorrhaea (= Brown tail moth),
363

INDEX

491

Bombyx neustria ( = Lackey moth), 363

pudibunda, 345

salicis, 371, 385

Booking measurements, felled timber,
270, 271

measurements, standing timber, 274,

275

Bostrichus dispar, 362
Botrytis cinerea, 56, 192, 391, 403, 404,
413, 420

Douglasii (cinered), 391
Box, 86, 88, 210, 323

prices and uses of timber, 330
Bracket fungi, 341, 344, 362, 376
Branches, removal of, if large, 156
Brandit's hypsometer, 426, 427
Broad-leaved trees, pruning of, 154, 155
Brown Oak, 324, 325

tail moth, 363
Burrs, 323-325, 328

Cceoma laricis, 371

pinitorquum, 371, 404, 413
Calcareous soils, tree growth on, 83,

84

Calliper measure, 277, 281, 282
Canada, forest area of, 15
Canadian Poplar, notes on, 367-369

timber "limits," acquisition by

Government, 19, 20
Canal, transport by, 316
Canary wood, 377
Canopy, density of, 150, 151
Capital in normally stocked areas, 234-

238
Carpinus (vide Hornbeam) notes on,

354, 355

Castanea (vide Spanish Chestnut), notes

on, 372-374
Catchment areas, 5
Cerambyx carcharias, 371, 385

populnea, 371
Cerastoma piliferum, 405
Chalky soils, trees for, 88
Cheimatobia brumata (vide Geometra),

355, 358, 363
Chermes abietis, 397, 421

laricis, 397
Cherry, 323
prices and uses of, 330
sylvicultural notes on, 348

Cherry, timber of, 348

Choice of forest systems, 27-31, 109,

no

methods of planting, 122, 123
seed, 37-39
system of Natural Regeneration,

195, 196

Chrysomyxa abietis, 420
Clay soils, digging holes, 113
planting of, 127, 128
replanting, in
trees for, 88, 207

under coppice with standards, 210
unsuited for notching, 123
Cleaning and preparing land for plant-
ing, 66-69

young crops, 142-145
Clearance of " mother " trees, 184-187,

190, 191

Clogs, wood for, 288
Cluster Pine (vide P. pinaster), notes

on, 409, 410
Coccus salicis, 385
Cockchafer grubs, 55, 341, 345, 355,

362, 376, 391, 405, 417, 421
Coleophora laricella, 397
Comparison of cost of sowing and

planting, 140, 141
percentage of various measurements,

282

Compartment system, 24-27
Compartments, regeneration of, 182-

187, 189-192, 195
Compound interest, ascertaining, 438-

454

yielded on planting, 239-244
Conditions of sale of coppice, 286, 287

of sale of timber, 298, 301
Conifers, pruning of, 153, 154
Conversion of coppice or coppice with
standards into high forest, 210,

211

Coppice, felling arrangement, 288,

289

sale of, 284-286
simple coppice system, 21
systems, 21, 197-214
with standards, 22, 28, 202-210
with standards, financial aspect of,

257-261
Coppicing stools, 198, 199

492

INDEX

Coral spot disease (M cinnabarina),

3$6, 358, 376
Cord, size of, 283, 306
Cordwood, 306

prices of, 228, 333

Corsican Pine, average annual incre-
ment, 219, 409

height of, 91, 92

natural regeneration of, 192, 193,
196

prices and uses of timber, 330

returns from, 115, 219, 409

rotation for, 219, 409

seed of, 39, 42, 45, 46, 407

soils for, 74, 76, 77, 80, 88, 89, 408

sowing of direct, 137

sylvicultural notes on, 407-409

thinning of, 162

timber of, 408

underplanting of, 167

yield of, 219

Corylus (vide Hazel), notes on, 353
Cossus ligniperda, 371, 385
Cost of annual outgoings, coppice with
standards, 6, 7, 208, 209

annual outgoings, high forest, 6, 7,
236

bark and barking, 310, 311

canal transport, 316

cleaning or "cutting out" young
plantations, 143

cleaning sown areas, 139

cording, 307

cutting coppice (underwood), 199,
228

dibbling, 122, 139

dibbling acorns, 141

drainage, 65, 66

faggoting, 307

felling trees, 307

forest tramway, 314, 316

hoeing up lines for sowing, 139

horse haulage, 312

labour in sowing, 1 39

layering or plashing, 2OI

making up underwood produce, 228

manual labour in forests, 6, 7

notching (a) with ordinary spade,
121

notching (K) with Schlich's spade, 121

nursery operations, 48, 49

Cost of planting in pits, 117
planting seedlings, 140, 141
planting trees (per 100) in coppice

areas, 200
planting with curved planting spade,

119
planting with planting spike, 118,

119

planting various crops, 131-136
rabbit fence, 60
rabbit fence per acre, 61-64
railway transport, 317, 322
road making, 69, 313, 314
rounding up felled timber, 310
seedlings and transplants, 50, 51
shipping timber from Baltic ports, 16
shipping timber from Vancouver, 17
slitting (vide notching), 121
sowing (direct) crops of trees, 139-

141

steam traction, 312
treading in young plants, 143
underplanting, 168, 169

Couch grass, 129

Covert, absence of, 29
plants, 209, 210

Cratewood, wood for, 287

Creeping willow, 129

Cricket bat willows (vide Willow), 382-

385

Crtxsus septentrionalis^ 337
Crowns, shape of, 90
Crutch pine beetle, 406
Cryptococcus fagi, 344
Cryptorhynchus lapathi, 385
Cupressus macrocarpa, seed of, 37, 39,
42. 45, 46, 386

soils for, 74, 77, 78. 88, 89, 386

sylvicultural notes on, 386, 387

timber of, 386

yield, 115, 225

Nootkatensis (vide C. Sitchensis), 387,
388

Sitchensis, seed of, 39, 42, 45, 46, 387

Sitchensis, sylvicultural notes on, 387,

388

Current annual increment 450, 451
Cutting coppice. 198, 199, 284, 285

over recently planted hardwoods, 144,

154,155
Cuttings or slips, 52, 53

INDEX

493

Cynips kollari, 363
querci, 363

"DAMPING OFF" of seedlings (vide
Phytophthora), 56, 344

Dasyscypha calycina (Larch Disease),
396

Dead branches, pruning of, 158

Decaying leaves and nitrogen, 8 1

Density of timber, 164

Denudation (vide erosion), 4

Depth of soil and tree growth, 78, 79
to plant, 117

Destruction of forests, evil effects of, 6

Diameter classes, 431

Dibbling, 122

Die square measurement, 278, 280, 282

Direct sowing of crops of trees, 136-141

Direction of fellings, 290

Distance apart for planting, 96, 97

Distillation of wood, 230

Divisor, " 113," " 144," 264, 318, 319

Douglas Fir, average annual increment,

224, 391

height of, 91, 92, 162
natural regeneration of, 193-19$
planting estimates for, 131, 132, 136
prices and uses of timber, 331
pruning of, 153

rental yielded by, 246-148, 250, 262
returns from, 115, 224, 246-248, 262,

391

rotation for, 224, 250, 391
seed of, 37-39, 42, 45, 46, 389
so{ls for, 74, 76, 78, 80, 86, 88, 89,

389, 390

sylvicultural notes on, 389-391
thinning of, 162
timber of, 389
yield table, 224

Drainage of land, 64-66

Draudt's method of measuring, 432

Drifting timber, 316

" Drifts," size of, 284

Dry soils, trees for, 88, 89

EASTERN PLANE, notes on, 365
" Eclair tie par le /taut" 146, 147
Effects of drainage on trees, 66

of forests upon labour market. 6-9

of pruning, 157, 158

Effects of thinning upon humus, 150,

151
of trees upon climatic conditions, and

upon the locality, 1-6
Elm bark beetle, 350

prices and uses of timber, 326, 327
seed of, 39-42, 45, 46, 349
soils for, 78, 88, 349
sylvicultural notes on, 349-351
timber of, 349
Epicormic branches, 149
Erosion and denudation, prevention of,

by trees, 4

Estimates for planting, 131-136
Estimation of increment in cubic con-
tents, 437-451
of increment in value or quality,

451-454
European Larch (vide Larch), notes on,

392-397
Even-aged high forest, compartments

of, 25

mixtures, 100-103
Everlasting pea, 129
Expenses of management, coppice with

standards, 6, 7, 208, 209
of management, high forest, 6, 7,

236, 245, 258

Exposed land, planting of, no, 128
Extraction of roots, III

FAGGOTS, 228, 306

price of, 333
Fagus (vide Beech), notes on, 342-

345
Fallacious estimates concerning forestry,

232-234
Felled timber, lotting of, 303, 304

measurement of, 265-271

sale of, 291-293
Felling standaros over coppice, 209

season, 307

timber, 304-307
Fellings, direction of, 290

under group system, 180
Felted beech scale, 344
Fences against stock, 61
Fencing rods, 228

stakes, 228

trees against rabbits, 29
Field Maple, 376

494

INDEX

Financial aspect of afforestation, 10-20,

231-263
aspect of coppice with standards, 257-

261
aspect of underplanting, 169, 252-

257

position of various trees, 115
Fire lines, 87, 346, 347
Floods, 86
Fames, 350, 362, 385

annosus {=Trametes radiciperdd),
391, 397, 404, 413, 4l6, 420

fomentarius, 344

igniarius, 341, 344
Food material, resources of, 164

requirements of trees, 80-83
Foreign seed, when advisable, 39, 194
Forest roads, cost of, 313, 314

tramway, 314-316
Form factor, 428, 429, 433
Formulae for compound interest, 439,

443, 444, 446, 447
Fox-coloured sawfly, 406
Fraudulent girthing, 268, 269
Fraxinus (vide Ash), notes on, 338-341
Frost line, 77

localities, planting of, 128

localities, trees for, 77, 89
Frosts, in relation to aspect and altitude,
72, 73

susceptibility of trees to, 36, 37

GALES, liability to, 73

Gall wasps, 363

Gaultheria, 2IO

Geometra (Cheimatobia) brumata, 355,

358, 363

Germination capacity of seeds, 42
Giant arborvitas (vide Thuya gigantea),

notes on, 424, 425
wood wasp, 417
Girth increment, 163-166
Girthing, fraud in, 268, 269
Goat moth, 371, 385
Good mixtures, 103-105
Graphic representation of yield tables,

225
Grass land, frosts on, 68, 69

soil covering of, 142, 171, 186, 192
Green Ash, 341
Grey Poplar, notes on, 370

Group system, 23, 179-181, 195
Groups, mixtures by, 102
Gunpowder, wood for, 288, 308

" HAGS," size of, 284
Hard tissue, 164
Haulage by horses, 312

by steam traction, 312, 313

of timber (annual cost per acre), 6
Haws, 39, 352
Hawthorn, seed of, 352

sylvicultural notes on, 39, 352
Hazel coppice, 197, 201

coppice, uses of, 288

notes on, 353

seed of, 39, 4*, 353
Heat and tree growth, 84-86
Heather land, acid, 84

land, planting of, 127

land, sowing of direct, 137

pan, 79, 127

soil covering of, often beneficial, 142
Height, ascertaining exactly, 426, 427

growth, 91, 92

measurement of, 272, 274

of Ash, 91, 92, 160

of Beech, 91, 92, 159

of Douglas Fir, 91, 92, 162

of Larch, 91, 92, 161

of Oak, 91, 92, 159

of Scots Pine, 91, 92, 161

of Silver Fir, 91, 92, 160

of Spruce, 91, 92

of Weymouth Pine, 91, 92, 162
High forest systems, 22-27

with coppice, 26-29, 167, 211-214

with standards, 27, 30
Hillsides, planting of, 127

sowing of, 137
Hoeing in nursery, 49
Holly, 210

prices and uses of timber, 330
Home-grown seed, 38, 39, 194
Honey fungus ( = Agaricus meUeus), 391 ,

396, 404, 413, 416, 420
Hoops (barrel), wood for, 287, 288
Hop dog moth, 345
Hop poles, wood for, 287, 288
Hornbeam, prices and uses of timber,
328

seed of, 39, 42, 45, 46, 354

INDEX

495

Hornbeam, soils for, 74, 79, 88, 354

sylvi cultural notes on, 354, 355

timber of, 354
Horse chestnut, notes on, 356

prices and uses of timber, 329

haulage, 312
Hot aspects, trees for, 85
Humus, decay of, 182, 183

effects of, 170, 171

with reference to soil moisture, 150,

170

Hurdles, wood for, 287, 288
Hydnum diversidens, 362
Hydrogen peroxide, 5
Hyksinus crenatus^ 341

fraxini, 341

oleiperda, 341

palliatus, 406

piniperda^ 405, 406, 421
Hylobius abietis (vide Pine Weevil),

181,307, 391,405,417,421
Hylurgus ( = Hylesinus) piniperda, 405,

406, 421

Hypsometers, 426, 427
Hysterium (= Lophodermium) pinastri,
56, 192, 403, 413

INCOME from normally stocked areas,

236, 262

Increment, average annual, of crops,
216-224, 226, 227

in cubic contents, 437-45 1

in girth, 157

in value, 165, 451, 452

on felled timber, 448-450

on invested capital, 452-454

on standing timber, 441-448

stimulation of, 163-166
Inland sand dunes, 129, 130
Interest yielded on planting, 239-244,

258
Intermittent fellings, 181, 290

JANKER, 311

Japanese Larch (vide Larch), notes on,

397, 398
Juglans (vide Walnut), notes on, 379,

380

KURILE Larch, 398, 399

LACKEY MOTH, 363
Land, drainage of, 64-66

rentals, 244-248, 253, 254, 260, 262
" Lands," size of, 284
Larch aphis, 397
blister ( = larch disease), 396
bug ( — larch aphis), 397
European, average annual increment,

222, 223, 396

European, height of, 91, 92, 161
European high forest over coppice,

212-214

European, natural regeneration in-
advisable, 193

European, partial clearance and
underplanting, 166, 167, 173,

174
European, planting estimates, 132,

136
European, prices and uses of timber,

330
European, returns from, 246-248, 260,

262, 396
European, rotation for, 222, 223, 241,

247, 396
European, seed of, 37, 39, 42, 45, 46,

392
European, soils for, 74, 78, 80, 84,

88, 392, 393
European, standards over coppice,

202, 203, 206, 207
European, sylvicultural notes on, 392-

397

European, thinning of, 161
European, timber of, 392
European, underplanting, finance of,

252 254
European, yield table, coppice with

standards, 226
European, yield table, high forest,

222, 223

Japanese, notes on, 397, 397
Japanese, seed of, 37, 39, 42, 45, 46,

397

Kurile, notes on, 398, 399

mining moth, 397

Siberian, notes on, 399

Western, notes on, 398
Large longicorn beetle, 371, 385

Pine beetle, 405, 406, 421
Larix (vide Larch), notes on, 392-399

496

INDEX

Late spring planting, 112

Laurel, 210

Layering or plashing, 201

Layers 52

Laying out rides or roads, 69

Leaf shedding disease, 56, 192, 403,

413

Leaves, retention of, 183
Light-demanding trees, 95, 188

demanding trees, thinning of, 147-

149, 152
Lime, 323

prices and uses of timber, 328

seed of, 42 357

sylvicultural notes on, 357, 358

timrer of, 357

(CaO), a poison to some trees, 83,

89
(CaO), in soil and tree growth, 83,

84

Limestone soils, trees for, 88
Linapopuli, 371, 385
tremulce, 371, 385
Lining out seedlings and transplants,

49
Liriodendron tulipifera (vide Tulip

Tree), 377, 378

Lombardy Poplar, notes on, 371
London Plane, notes on. 365
Long rotations, inadvisability of, 241-

243- 250

Lophodermium macrosporum, 420
nervisequum, 405, 406, 421
pinastri, 56, 403, 413
Lophvrus pint, 406

rufus, 406

Loss of plant food by tree growth, 80
Losses in respect of timber growing, 10
Lotting timber, 302, 304

MARKETING of mature timber, 290-304

of thinnings, 289, 290
Marking timber, 302
Maritime Pine (vide P. pinaster), notes

on, 409, 410
Marram grass, 129
Maw's formula, 446, 447
Measurement by board measure, 278-
282

by calliper measure, 277, 281, 282

by die square, 278, 280, 282

Measurement by quarter girth, 264-275,
279, 280, 282

by true contents. 276, 279, 282

of felled timber, 265-271

of sample plo s, 432-434

of sample trees, 429-432

of standing timber, 272, 273
Mechanical condition of soil and tree

growth, 79, 80
Melampsora, 371, 385

larici tremulce, 371

pinitorquua, 371, 405

populina, 371

Melampsorella cerastii, 416
Melolonthavulgaris{ = C >ckchafer), 341,

345- 355- 362. 376- 391 405
Method of pruning, 155, 156
Methods of mixing trees, 100-103
Mice, damage done by, 57
Mico-rhizas, 81

Micro-organisms and tree growth, 81
Mistletoe, 371
Mixed coppice, 201

woods, merits and demerits of, 98-100

woods, thinning of, 151, 152
Mixtures, natural regeneration of, 186

of trees, 100-108

rules for, 108
Moisture, demands of trees as to, 74-76

in soil, 170, 179
Moor pan, 79
Mother trees, 181

gradual clearance of, 184-187, 190,

191

Mound planting (vide "tumping), 127
Mutual pruning effects, 93, 94
Myxoderma, 324

NATURAL REGENERATION, 176-196
Nectria cinnabar ma, 356, 358, 376

curcubitula, 420

ditissima, 341, 344, 355, 358, 362
Net expenses in forests, 236, 245, 258
Nitrogen, utilization of, and require-
ments, 8 1

Nordmann's silver fir, notes on, 417
Normal growing stock, coppice with

standards, 226

grow;ng stock, high forest, 216-224
Normally stocked areas, capital in-
vested in, 234-237

INDEX

497

Normally stocked areas, revenue from,

234-237, 262

Northern aspects, pay to plant. 12
Norway maple, natural regeneration,
192

prices and uses of timber, 327

rotation for, 376

seed of, 42, 45, 46, 375

soils for, 74. 76-78, 88. 89, 375

sylvicultural notes on, 375, 376

timber of. 375

Norway spruce, average annual in-
crement 2 1 8, 420

height of, 91, 92

natural regeneration of, 193-195

pirtial clearance of, 1 66, 174, 175

prices and uses of timber, 331

rotation for, 218, 419

returns from, 115, 218, 246-248, 262,
420

seed of, 39, 42, 45, 46, 418

soils for, 74-76, 79, 88, 89 418, 419

sylvicultural notes on, 418-421

thinning of, 160

timber of, 418

yield of, 218

Notching or slitting, 120-122
Number of trees from I Ib. of seed, 46

of trees per acre to plant, 123, 124
Nursery, advantages of home nursery,
32, 33

pests, 55-57

plants, weeding and transplanting, 49

seed beds, 36

site of, 33

size of, 34
"Nurses," 100, 101, 107, 108, 144, 346

OAK apple galls, 363
Oak average annual increment, 216,
362

bark, 307-311

boring bark beetle, 362

burrs, 323-325

coppice, 197, 201, 227

coppice, uses of, 288

height of 91, 92, 159

high forest over coppice, 214

Holm Oak, 363, 364

invested capital in normal areas, 237

marble galls, 363

Oak, natural regeneration of, 187, 191
partial clearance of, and underplant-

ing, 166, 167, 172. 173
planting estimates «or, 133, 134
prices and uses of timber, 324, 325
Red Oak, 363
returns from, 216, 246-248, 260, 262,

362

root seedling fungus, 56
rotation for, 246-248 262, 362
seed of, 38, 41-43, 45, 46, 359
soils for, 74, 77-79, 88, 359, 360
standards over coppice, 202 205, 207
sylvicultural notes on, 359-364
thinning of, 149, 159
timber of, 359
Turkey Oak, 363
underplanting finance of, 255-257
yield table, coppice with standards,

226
yield table, high forest, 216

Objections to statement of rate of com-
pound interest yielded, 243
to very close sowing, 138, 145

Orchestes fagii 344
querci, 362

Oregon Ash, 208, 341
Pine, 331
Pine (vide Douglas Fir), notes on,

389-391
Ornamental trees, nursery management

of, 130
Osiers, 202

Outgoings ("net minimum), 236, 245
Ozone, 5

PAN, 79. 127

Paper Birch, 347

Partial clearances, 163-175

advisability of, 250

tables for, 173-175
Patches, mixtures by, 102
Pea sticks, 228
Peat land, planting of, 127
Peaty soils, trees for, 88, 89
Pedunculate Oak, notes on, 359-363
Percentage increment on felled timber,
448, 449

increment on invested capital, 452,

454
increment on standing timber, 441,448

498

INDEX

Peridermium pini acicola, 404, 413

pini corticola, 404

ribicolum (/*. sir obi), 413
Persistency of side branches, 92-95
Pestakzzia Hartigii, 56, 344, 376, 391,

416, 420

Peziza Willkommii, 396
Philaphis, 345
Photna abietina, 416

pithya, 391
Phytophthora omnivera, 56, 344, 376,

396, 420

Picea (vide Spruce), notes on, 418-423
Pine bark blister (= Canker), 404

needle blister, 404
Pine saw-fly, 406

shoot tortrix, 406

shoot twig twister, 406

shoot twisting fungus, 404

weevil, 55, 290, 307, 391, 4°5, 4*7,

421
Pine weevil, influence of, on replanting,

in, 181

Pines, sylvicultural notes on, 400-413
Pinus (vide Pines), sylvicultural notes
on, 400-413

Banksiana, notes on, 410

Banksiana, soils for, 77, 89, 410

insignis, notes on, 410, 411

insignis, soils for, 77, 89, 410, 411

pinaster ( — Star Pine), notes on, 409,
410

pinaster, soils for, 77, 84, 89, 410
Pissodes notatus, 405, 413, 421
Pit timber, prices for, 332
Plane leaf fungus, 366

tree, prices and uses of timber, 329

tree, soils for, 365

tree, sylvicultural notes on, 365, 366
Planting clay soils, 127, 128

estimates, 131-136

exposed places, 128

financial considerations, 1 1 5

foul land, extra cost of, 169, 170

frost localities, 77, 89, 128

heather land, 127

in pits, 116, 117

iron, 121, 122

modus operandi, 125

ornamental trees, 130

peat land, 127

Planting sand dunes and shifting sand,
128, 129

season, 111-113

up coppice areas, 199, 200

with curved planting spade, 119

with planting spike, 118
Plashing ( = Layering), 201
Platanus (vide Plane), notes on, 365,

366

Ploughing land, before planting, 67, 68
Poisoning vermin, 57
Pollards, 324, 325
Polyporus, 341, 344, 350, 362, 376

(= Pomes') fomentanus, 362

( = Pomes') igniarius, 362, 385

sulphureus, 344, 362, 371, 385, 397

vaporarius, 421
Poor soils, trees for, 83
Poplar (Black), average annual incre-
ment, 369

height of, 91, 92

returns from, 115, 225, 369

rotation for, 369

soils for, 74, 79, 88, 367
Poplar nurses, 107, 108

seed of, 41, 367, 369, 370

sylvicultural notes on, 367-371

timber, 367, 369, 370

timber, non-inflammability of, 14, 15

prices and uses of, 329
Poplar (White), soils for, 74, 77, 79, 88,

89, 369, 370

Populus (vide Poplar), notes on, 367-371
Preparatory fellings, 182, 183, 190
Pressler's borer, 441, 442

formula, 443
Prices of cordwood, 333

faggots, 333

pit timber, 332

timber, 323-333

timber, probability of advances in, 13,

14

Private contract, sales by, 297
Privet, 210

Prolongation of rotation, 165
Pruning, 153-158

by natural agencies, 93, 94

effected in mixtures, loo, 101

green branches, 153-155

large branches, 156

nursery stock, 54

INDEX

499

Pruning standards over coppice, 207
Prunus avium (vide Cherry), notes on,

348

"Pumped" larch, 80
Purchased plants, receipt of, 126
Pure coppice, 201

woods, merits and demerits of, 98

woods, rules for, 109

QUALITY of increment, 451-454

bark, 309

of soils, 213
Quarter girth measurement, 264-275,

279. 280, 282
Quercus (vide Oak), notes on, 359-364

RABBIT fences, 58-64

specification for, 60
Rabbits, 341, 409
Rafting timber, 316
Railway carriage of timber, 317-323

sleepers, 332, 333
Rates for railway carriage of timber,

321, 322

"Raw" humus, 182
Red Cedar (vide Thuya gigantea), notes
on, 424, 425

deal, 330

Oak, 325

Poplar leaf beetle (Z. populi), 371,

385

rot, 362, 371, 385
rot root fungus, 391, 397> 404, 413,

416, 420

Regeneration felling, 183, 184, 190
Relative height growth, 91

humidity of woodland atmosphere, 3
Remarkable Pine (P. insignis), notes

on, 410, 411
Removal of mother trees, 184-187, 190,

191

Rental of sporting, 208
Rentals yielded by afforestation, 246-

248, 250, 260, 262

Reproductive power of trees, 197, 198
Reserves of food material, 164
Retention of leaves, 183
Retinia buoliana, 406
Revenue from normally stocked areas,

262
Rhododendron, 210

Rhytisma acerinum, 376

Rides and roads, laying out, 69

Ring-pored trees, 164

Roads, cost of, 313, 314

Robinia (vide Acacia), notes on, 334,

335

Rosellinia quercina, 56, 362
Rotation, length of, 241-243, 246-248,

250, 262

of cropping, no, in
prolongation of, 165
Rotations for coppice, 197, 198, 202,

212, 214

Rules for mixed woods, 108
pure woods, 109

SALE by auction, 295, 296

by private contract, 297

by tender, 295-297

conditions of, 298-301

of mature timber, 290-304

of thinnings, 289, 290

of timber, choice between standing

and felled, 291-293

Salix (vide Willow), notes on, 381-385
Salt spray and tree growth, 77
Sample plots, measurement of, 432-434

trees, measurement of, 429-432
Sand dunes, planting of, 128-130

trees for, 89
Sand grasses, 129
Sandy soils, 88, 89
Saplings, 203

Sapwood, of Douglas fir, 331
Satin moth (B. salicis"), 371, 385
Saw for timber, 306
Schlich's spade, 121
Schneider's formula, 444

correction for standing timber, 445
Sclerenchymci) 164
Scolytus destructor, 350
Scots elm (vide Wych Elm), notes on,

349, 350
Scots Pine, average annual increment,

219, 403

height of, 91, 92, 161
invested capital in normal areas, 234.

235i 237
natural regeneration of, 187, 192,

193, 196
planting estimates, 134, 135

500

INDEX

Scots Pine, prices and uses of timber, 330
returns trom, 219, 236, 246-248, 262,

403

rotation 'or. 219, 246-248, 403

seed of, 37, 39, 42, 45, 46, 400, 401

soils for, 74, 76-78, so, 88, 89, 401

sowing of direct, 137

sylvicultural notes on, 400-406

thinning of, 161

timber of, 401

underplanting of, 167, 174

yield table, 219
Sea Carex, 129
Sea coast, trees for, 89
Sea Lyme grass, 129
Season for, barking, 308

cutting underwood, 199

felling, 307

planting, 111-113

pruning, 156, 1 57
Seaside planting, 77
Seed bed in forest, 182, 183
Seed beds, 36

" can," 44

choice of, 37-39

"felling," 183, 184, 190

germination capacity, 42

home grown, 38, 39, 193, 194

marking board, 44

number of, per lb., 45

price per lb., 46

production, age at which, 184

quantity to sow in nurseries, 45

quantity to sow in forest, 139

storage of, 39, 40

sowing of, 40-44

years, 184. 191
Seedlings, cost of, 50, 51

treatment of, 47-49
Selection system, 23, 176-179
Septoria parasitica, 56, 420
Sessile Oak, notes on, 359-363
Shade-bearing conifers, natural regene-
ration of, 193-195

trees, 23-26, 95, 167, 187, 188

trees, rate of growth, 91, 92, 168

trees, thinning of, 147, 148, 152
Shallow soils, trees for, 78, 79
Shingles, 332
Short rotations, advisability of, 250

interest yielded by, 241-243

Side branches, effect of thinnings upon,

148, 149, 152
vigour of, 92-95

Silver fir, average annual increment,

218, 416
financial return of underplanting with,

252-254

height of, 91, 92, 160
leaf scurf, 416

natural regeneration of, 193-195
needle blight fungus, 416
(Nordmann's), notes on, 417
partial clearance of, 166, 174. 175
prices and uses of timber, 330
returns from, 115, 218, 246-248, 252-

254, 262, 416

rotation for, 2 1 8, 246-248, 415
seed of, 39-42, 45. 46> 4H
soils for, 74, 75, 78, 79, 88, 89, 414
sylvicultural notes on, 414-417
thinning of, 160
timber of, 414
yield table, 218

Simple coppice, 21, 197, 202

Sirex dromedarius, 385

Sitka Cypress (vide CupressusSitchensis},

notes on, 387, 388
Sitka Spruce, natural regeneration of,

193-195

returns from, 115, 225, 422
seed of, 38, 39, 42, 45, 46, 421
soils for, 74, 76, 78, 79, 88, 421, 422
sylvicultural notes on, 421-423
timber of, 421

Sleepers, railway, 332, 333

Slips or cuttings, 52, 53

Small black weevil (O. querci), 362
brown pine weevil (Pissodes notatus),

405, 413, 421
Poplar longicorn beetle, 371

Snowberry, 2IO

Soil covering of grass, 142, 171
moisture, 170-172
moisture, effects of woodlands on, 4
temperature within woodlands, 2

Sour soils, 84

owing to decay, 182

Sowing acorns, 137

acorns in coppice areas, 200
direct, crops of trees, 136-141

INDEX

501

Spanish Chestnut, average annual in-
crement, 374

coppice, 197, 201, 203, 227
coppice, uses of, 287
planting estimates, 132
prices an<i uses of timber, 326
returns from, 115
rotation for, 373
seed of, 39, 41-46, 372
soils for, 74, 78, 79, 83, 88, 89, 372
sowing of, in woods, 137
sylvicultural notes on, 372-374
timber of, 372
Sporting rent, 208
Spring frosts, 36, 37,68, 89, 128,142,

170

planting, 112
wood, 164, 170

Spruce (vide also Norway Spruce)
(vide also Sitka Spruce)
gall aphis, 421
leaf scurf, 420

natural regeneration of, 193-195
needle rust, 420
notes on, 418-423
partial clearance of, 166, 174, 175
planting estimates for, 136
"Square" planting, 123, 124
Squirrels, 406, 409

Stag-headed trees, produced by prun-
ing, 157, 158
Staking trees, 130
Standard (a), 283
Standards over coppice, felling and

removal, 285

financial aspect of, 257-261
land rentals for, 260
number of trees to plant, 203-207
pruning of, 153, 154
sale of, 285

suitable trees for, 22, 207, 208
tables for, 204-207
"Standils," 203

Standing timber, increment on, 441-448
lotting of, 303
sale of, 291-293
Star pine (vide P. pinaster), notes on,

409, 410

Stereum hirsutum^ 362
Stiff clay soils, 210
soils, trees for, 79, 80

Stimulation of increment, 163-166

of trees by pru> ing, 157
Stocking a nursery, 53, 54
Stool shoots, reproduction by, 198
Storage of seed, 39, 40
" Stores," 203
Storm-proof trees, 76
St Petersburg standard, 283
String, use of, when measuring, 267,

268

Strip system, 187
Suckers, 52

reproduction by, 198
Summer wood, 164, 170
Sycamore, natural regeneration of, 192

prices and uses of timber, 327

rotation for, 376

seed of, 42, 45, 46, 375

soils for, 74, 76-78, 88, 89, 375

sylvicultural notes on, 375, 376

timber of, 375
Symbiosis, 81

TABLE of invested capital in normal
areas, 237

Tables for partial clearances, 173-175
of thinnings, high forest, 159-162
of thinnings, high forest with coppice,

212, 213
of thinnings, standards over coppice,

204-207

of yield, coppice with standards, 226
of yield, high forest, 216-224

Tannin, 307

Tape, use of, when measuring, 267

Tarred felt (tree guards), 29, 200

Tellers, 203

Tender, sales by, 295-297

Thatcher's rods, 228

Thickly foliagtd trees, 95, 96

Thinly foliaged trees, 22, 25, 26, 28
treatment of, 166, 167

Thinning, 145-152
selection system, 179, 188, 189
tables for, 159-162, 204-207, 212, 213

Thinnings, sale of, 289, 290
value of, when small, 152
volume of, removed, 216-224

Thuya gigantea, natural regeneration of,

193-195
prices and uses of timber, 332

502

INDEX

Thuya gig ante a, returns from, 115, 425
rotation for, 425
seed of, 38, 39. 42, 45, 46, 424
soils for, 74, 78, 79, 88, 89, 424, 425
sylvicultural notes on, 414, 425
timber of, 424
Thuya occidentalis, 424
Tilia (vide Lime), notes on, 357, 358
Timber bob, 311
felling, 304-307
lotting, 302-304
marking, 302
saw, 306
slides, 316
strap, 272
supply, consideration of the world's

supply, 14-17
Tinea laricella, 397

Icevigatella, 397
Tortrix buoliana, 406

viridana^ 362
Tracheids, 164

Trame tes pirn, 397, 404, 413, 416, 420
radiciperaa, 391, 397, 404, 413, 416,

420

Tramway in forests, 314-316
Transplanting large trees, 130

seedlings, 47, 48
Trees for coppice, 22, 26
high forest over coppice, 212
standards over coppice, 22, 207. 208
per acre to plant, 123, 124
"Triangle" planting, 123
Trichosphceria parasitica, 416
True contents measurement, 276, 279,

282
Tulip tree, 208

soils for, 84, 89, 377
sylvicultural notes on, 377, 378
"Tumping," 127
Turkey Oak, prices and uses of timber,

325

sylvicultural notes on, 363
Tushing wheels, 311
Two-storied high forest, 25, 26, 167,
174, 192, 340

ULMUS (vide Elm), notes on, 349-357
Underplanting, 166-169

effects of, 171, 172

financial aspect of, 252-257

Underplanting Oak woods, 150
Undersowing, 166
Underwood (vide Coppice)
Underwood, sale of, 284-286
Unemployed in reference to afforesta-
tion, 8, 9

Uneven-aged mixtures, 103
Urich's method of measuring, 432
Uses of coppice produce, 197, 287, 288

timber, 323-333
Utilisation of free nitrogen, 81

VALUE of coppice produce, 227-229
of final crops of timber, 216-224, 226
of thinnings, 216-224

Vancouver Douglas Fir (vide Douglas
Fir), notes on, 389-391

Veneers, 324, 328

Vermin, poisoning, 57

Volume of final crops of timber, 216-

224, 226
thinnings, 216-224

WALNUT, 323

prices and uses of timber, 328, 329

rotation for, 380

seed of, 39, 41, 379

sowing direct in words, 137

sylvicultural notes on, 379, 380

timber of, 379
Waste lands, acreage of, 1 1

general afforestation of, a failure, 1 1
Water catchment areas, 5

demands of trees as to, 74-76

in soil, effect of thinnings upon, 150,

170-172

Weeding nursery stock, 49
Weight of timber per foot, 318-322
Weise's method of measuring, 430-432
Western Larch (vide Larch), notes on,

398

Plane, notes on, 365, 366
Weymouth Pine, average annual incre-
ment, 220, 413
bark blister, 413
height of, 91, 92, 162
natural regeneration, 193-19$
prices and uses of timber, 331
returns from, 115, 220, 246-248, 262,

413

rotation for, 220, 246-248, 412

INDEX

503

Weymouth Pine, seed of, 39, 41, 42, 45,
46,411

soils for, 74, 78, 88, 411, 412

sylviculture! notes on, 411-413

thinning of, 162

timber of, 411

yield table for, 220
White Alder, notes on, 336, 337
White Ash, 208, 341

deal, 331

Poplar, notes on, 369, 370

rot, 362, 385

Spruce, notes on, 89, 423
Width of annual rings, 164, 165
Willow coppice, uses of, 288

prices and uses of timber, 328

propagation of, 381, 383

returns from, 225

rotation for, 385

soils for, 74, 383

sylvicultural notes on, 381-385

timber of, 381-383

Willow coppice, wood wasp, 385
Winter moth, 355, 358, 363
Wire netting, 29

tree guards, 200
Wireworm, 55, 405
Witches broom, 416
Wych Elm, sylvicultural notes on, 349,
350

Xyleborus (vide Bostrichus) dispar^
362

YELLOW Birch, 347

Pine, 331

wood wasp, 417
Yew, 86, 88, 210
Yield from coppice, 227-230
Yields from forest land, 215-230
Yield of bark, 309, 311

tables, coppice with standards, 226

tables, graphic representation of, 225

tables, high forest, 216-224

PRINTED BT

OLIVER AND BOYD,

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U.C. BERKELEY LIBRARIEJ