--_ OME OF — TMC BOOKS OF O! ru i-n m D a O m a PKE-HISTOBIC TIMES AS ILLUSTRATED BY ANCIENT REMAINS, AND THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF MODERN SAVAGES BY THE ET. HON. SIR JOHN LUBBOCK, BART., M. P. 1'. C. K.. 1,1,. I *., I1 . K. S. PRINCIPAL OF THE LONDON WORKING MEN'S COLLEGE ; PRESIDENT OF THE LONDON CHAMBER OF COMMERCE ; AND CHAIRMAN OF THE LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL FIFTH EDITION NEW YORK D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 1892 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. TN this Work I present to the public some essays on Pre-historic Archaeology, part of which have appeared in the Natural History Beview, viz. that on — The Danish Shell- mounds, in October, 1861. The Swiss Lake-dwellings, in January, 1862. The Flint Implements of the Drift, in July, 1862. North American Archaeology, in January, 1863. Cave-men, in July, 1864. Messrs. "Williams and Norgate suggested to me to republish these articles in a separate form ; and I was further encouraged to do so by the fact that most of them had re-appeared, either in France or America. The conductors of the Annales des Sciences Naturelles did me the honour to translate those on the Danish Shell -mounds and the Swiss Lake - dwellings. The latter also appeared in Silliman's Journal ; and the article on American Archaeology, with the exception of VI PREFACE. the last paragraph, was reprinted in the Smithsonian Eeport for 1862.* At first I only contemplated reprinting the papers as they stood ; but having, at the request of the managers, delivered at the Eoyal Institution a short course of lectures on the Antiquity of Man, it was thought desirable to introduce the substance of these, so as to give the work a more complete character. My object has been to elucidate, as far as possible, the principles of pre-historic archeology, laying spe- cial stress upon the indications which it affords of the condition of man in primeval times. The tumuli, or burial-mounds, the peat-bogs of this and other coun- tries, the Kjb'kkenmoddings or shell-mounds of Den- mark, the Lake-habitations of Switzerland, the bone- caves and the river-drift gravels, are here our principal sources of information. In order to qualify myself, as far as possible, for the task which I have undertaken, I have visited, not only our three great museums in London, Dublin, and Edinburgh, but also many on the Continent, as, for instance, those at Copenhagen, Stockholm, Lund, Flensburg, Aarhuus, Lausanne, Basle, Berne, Zurich, * The article on Cave-men was also translated in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Fifth Ser. vol. ii., and that on North American Archaeology in the Revue Archeologique for 1865. PREFACE. Vll Yverdon, Paris, Abbeville, etc., besides many private collections of great interest, of which I may particu- larly specify those of M. Boucher de Perthes, Messrs. Christy, Evans, Bateman, Forel, Schwab, Troyon, Gillie'ron, Uhlmann, Desor, and, lastly, the one recently made by MM. Christy and Lartet in the bone-caves of the Dordogne. Sometimes alone, and sometimes in company with Messrs. Prestwich and Evans, I have made numerous visits to the Yalley of the Somme, and have examined almost every gravel-pit and section from Amiens down to the sea. In 1861, with Mr. Busk, and again in 1863, I went to Denmark, in order to have the advantage of seeing the Kjb'kkenmoddings themselves. Under the guidance of Professor Steenstrup, I visited several of the most celebrated shell-mounds, particu- larly those at Havelse, Bilidt, Meilgaard, and Fanne- rup. I also made myself familiar with so much of the Danish language as was necessary to enable me to read the various reports drawn up by the Kjokkenmodding Committee, consisting of Professors Steenstrup, Wor- saae, and Forchhammer. Last year I went to the north of Scotland, to examine some similar shell- mounds discovered by Dr. Gordon, of Birnie, on the shores of the Moray Firth, which appear, however, X PREFACE. and for much valuable assistance in other ways. My thanks are due to Professor Steenstrup for many of the figures by which the "Work is illustrated. Others, through the kindness of Sir W. E. Wilde, Mr. Franks, and Dr. Thurnam, have been placed at my disposal by the Society of Antiquaries and the Eoyal Irish Academy. To Professor Steenstrup, Dr. Keller, M. Morlot, and Professor Eiitimeyer, I am indebted for much information on the subject of their respective investigations. Finally, Mr. Busk, Mr. Evans, and Professor Tyndall, have had the great kindness to read many of my proofs, and to them I am indebted for various valuable suggestions. CHISELHURST, February, 1805. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION, TN preparing a New Edition of PEE-HISTOEIC TIMES, I have endeavoured, as far as possible, to avoid unduly increasing the size of the book ; and although the present "Work will be found to contain a great number of new facts, some of the chapters being indeed almost re-written, still it is only increased in size to the extent of one hundred pages. Nearly half of these are occupied by the addition of more than seventy new figures, which will tend to diminish, rather than increase, the time occupied by its perusal. This course has compelled me to omit all reference to many researches of much merit and interest, while in other cases I have been obliged to treat the labour of years in a few short sentences. The true force of the evidence in support of archaeological conclusions is thus materially weakened, by being deprived of its cumulative character ; but I have endeavoured in many cases to meet this objection by the introduction of statistical tables. Xll PREFACE. Since the First Edition was published, I have visited the principal German and Italian museums, and have been in correspondence with the most active archaeo- logists both in Europe and also across the Atlantic. I cannot attempt here to express in any suitable manner my gratitude for the assistance which I have received. Every museum which I have visited has been thrown open to me with the greatest liberality, and every archaeologist whom I have consulted has given me the readiest and fullest information. No one can be more sensible than I am of the many shortcomings of this "Work. Those, however, who perceive them most clearly, will, I am sure, be disposed to judge them leniently, because they will best be able to appreciate the difficulty of keeping pace with a science which has so many and such enthusiastic votaries ; the results of whose earnest labour are to be found scattered through a number of periodicals, published in many different countries and in various tongues. ELMS, DOWN, KENT, March, 1869. CONTENTS, CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. PAGE Division of Pre-historic archaeology into four periods — First disco- very of metal — Allusions to bronze in ancient writers — Lucretius— Tiefenau — Find of iron objects at Nydam, in Slesvick — Owner's marks — Inscriptions at Nydam — Nature of archaeological evi- dence— Statistics — Pottery of the different ages — Bronze weapons not of Roman origin — Geographical distribution of bronze wea- pons— Summary of argument — Bronze weapons not Saxon - Hallstadt I CHAPTER II. ON THE USE OF BRONZE IN ANCIENT TIMES. Bronze celts — Bronze swords — Bronze spears — Bronze fish-hooks and sickles — Bronze knives — Bronze ornaments — The metal- lurgy of the Bronze Age — Gold ornaments — List of Bronze objects — Dress — Burial during the Bronze Age — Hut-urns- Pen-pits — Picts' houses — Beehive houses —The Burgh of Moussa -Staigue fort, Kerry ... 27 CHAPTER III. THE BRONZE AGE. Similarity of bronze implements in different countries — The Bronze Age and the Phoenicians — Ancient voyages — Himilco — Pytheas — Phoenician colonies and commerce — Copper — Tin — Traces of Baal worship in Northern Europe — Objections to the Phoenician theory ............ 60 2531 xiv CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. THE USE OF STONE IN ANCIENT TIMES. PAGE The great abundance of stone implements — Stone implements used after the discovery of metal — Materials preferred — Jade — Flint — Grimes' Graves — Pressigny — The fracture of flint — Modern flakes — Manufacture offtakes in Mexico, and among the Esqui- maux— Ancient manufactories — Stone axes — Pierced hatchets- Scrapers — Shell-mound axes — Chisels— Awls — Spears — Daggers -Sling-stones — Arrow-heads — Saws — Bone implements — Awls -Harpoons — Flint finds ........ 79 CHAPTER V. MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS AND TUMULI. Tumuli — Menhirs — Stone circles — Mention of stone circles and tumuli in ancient history — Megalithic monuments not Druidical — Abury — Silbury Hill more ancient than the Roman road- Stonehenge — Carnac — Megalithicmonuments in India — Modern Indian dolmens — Modes of burial in tumuli — Use of tumuli as dwellings --Yurts and gammes — Hut -burial among modern savages — Picts' houses — The mound-builders — Long barrows — Objects buried with the dead not always intended for actual use -List of interments — Tabulated interments — Statistics — Models of implements sometimes buried — Barrows belong to very dif- ferent periods — Difficulty of determining the period to which a tumulus belongs — Danish tumulus in the Island of Moen— Description of a barrow at West Kennet — Pottery from the West Kennet tumulus — Breton tumuli — Sepulchral pottery- Rock sculptures — Bones of animals in tumuli — Sepulchral feasts -Sacrifices — Pre-historic races of men — Desirability of pre- serving megalithic monuments . . . . . . . 113 CHAPTER VI. THE ANCIENT LAKE-HABITATIONS OF SWITZERLAND. Lake-dwellings mentioned by Herodotus — Modern Lake-dwellings — Irish crannoges — Pile-dwellings in other parts of Europe— Lake-dwellings found in most of the Swiss lakes — Attempt to make a census — Construction of the platforms — Comparison of Lake-dwellings of different periods — Condition of the objects CONTENTS. XV PAGE found — Preparation of the piles — Number of the piles used- Description of the remains at Wauwyl — Weapons and imple- ments of the Lake-men — Implements of bone and wood — Pot- tery— Dress — The fauna of the Lake-dwellings — Comparison of bones belonging to wild and domesticated races — Oxen- Absence of extinct species — Aurochs — Elk — Ibex — General character of the fauna — Comparison of the different Lake villages — The flora — Grain — fruits — flax — Ancient agriculture — Scarcity of human remains — Objects of bronze — The worship of Lakes- Pottery of the Bronze Age — Inhabitants of the Lake villages- Character of the objects found in different Lake villages — Anti- quity of Lake villages . . . . . . . .181 CHAPTER VII. THE DANISH KJOKKENMODDINGS, OR SHELL-MOUNDS. Danish tumuli — Kjokkenmoddings, or shell-mounds — Description of the shell-mounds — Distribution of the shell-mounds — Shell- mounds in Scotland — Shell-mounds in other countries — Flora of the Danish shell-mounds — Fauna of the shell-mounds — Con- dition of the bones — Prevalence of certain bones — Habits of the mound-builders — Flint implements — Absence of polished flint implements — Food of the shell-mound builders — The Fuegians — The relation of the shell-mounds to the tumuli — The opinions of Messrs. Steenstrup and Worsaae — Antiquity of the shell- mounds 227 CHAPTER VIII. NORTH AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY. Bibliography — Classification of antiquities — Implements — The use of copper— Ancient copper-mines— Pottery — Ornaments — Forti- fications— Earthworks — Enclosures — Sacred enclosures — Earth- works of the Scioto Valley — Aztalan — Vitrified walls — Modern earthworks — Chunk yards — Sepulchral mounds-- So-called sacrificial mounds — Grave Creek mound — Temple mounds- Animal mounds — Rock carvings — Wampum- -The mound- builders — Evidence of ancient population — Traces of ancient agriculture — Antiquity of the remains — Condition of the bones —American forests — Indications of four periods — Man and the mastodon — Antiquity of man in America 253 CONTENTS. CHAPTER IX. QUATERNARY MAMMALIA. PAGE Succession of species— The cave-bear- -The cave-hyaena— The cave-lion — The mammoth — Existence of the African elephant in Europe— The quaternary species of rhinoceros — Rhinoceros Tichorhinus— The musk-ox— The hippopotamus— The Irish elk —Wild horses— The reindeer— The aurochs— The urus— Elk- Lemming-- Snowy owl --Mollusca— Links between existing species— Climate of the quaternary period— Probable fluctua- tions of climate . CHAPTER X. CAVE-MEN. Caves in the South of France— Belgian caves— Kent's Hole- Brixham cave — Sicilian caves — Gibraltar caves — Aurignac- Wokey Hole — Caves in the Dordogne — Fauna of the Dordogne caves — Absence of domestic animals — Flint implements — Rela- tive antiquity of the remains — Absence of polished implements — Bone implements — Representations of animals — Drawing of reindeer and mammoth — Sculpture — Habits of the cave-dwellers — Human remains — The Engis skull — The Neanderthal skull- Cave-men .... . 311 CHAPTER XL RIVER-DRIFT GRAVEL-BEDS. M. Boucher de Perthes — Mr. Prestwich and Mr. Evans — Mr. Frere's discovery in 1800 — Similar discoveries elsewhere — Similar dis- coveries in other countries — Antiquity as shown by physical geography — The questions at issue — Evidence derivable from the flints themselves — The forgeries— Character of the true drift implements — Drift implements never ground — Scarcity of human bones — Scarcity of men in ancient times — Proportion of men to other animals in the Hudson's Bay Territory — The mammoth and rhinoceros — Characteristics of the drift-beds — Physical geogra- phy of the Somme Valley — St. Acheul — Organic remains - Mineralogical constituents of the river-drift gravels — Objections to the proposed theory — Ice action — Fresh-water origin of the gravels — Inapplicability of cataclysms — Alteration of the river level — Gradual excavation of the valley — The lower level gravel- beds — Their fauna — The peat — Objects found in the peat- Relation of the loess to the gravel — Continual changes of river courses — Elevation of the land — Recapitulation . . .341 CONTENTS. xvii CHAPTER XII. ON THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. PAGE Historical evidence — Ethnological evidence — Evidence derivable from physical geography — The vegetation of Denmark — The cone of the Tiniere — The Valley of the Thiele — The formation of Egypt — The gradual elevation of the country, owing to the annual deposit of Nile mud — Mr. Horner's Egyptian researches —Age of the Mississippi delta — Lapse of time, as indicated by the change of climate — Sir J. W. Lubbock on the earth's axis- Effect of a change in the Gulf-Stream — Astronomical causes- Precession of the Equinoxes — M. Adhemar's argument — The cupola of ice at the South Pole — Objections to M. Adhemar's theory- — Probable effect of precession — The excentricity of the earth's orbit — Date suggested for the glacial epoch — Effect of rivers on the level of continents — The obliquity of the ecliptic— M. Adhemar on changes in the sea-level — Geological changes in the Quaternary period — Geological time — Reported evidence of man in the Pliocene period — Miocene man .... 383 CHAPTER XIII. MODERN SAVAGES. The untrustworthiness of tradition — Tendency to the marvellous -No evidence of degradation -- Progress among savages - Hottentots: dress; food; weapons; metallurgy; customs; cha- racter ; Bushmen — Veddahs — Andaman I slanders — Australians: houses ; food ; rock-engravings ; canoes ; implements ; clubs ; spears; throwing-sticks ; the boomerang; fire; clothes; orna- ments; tattooing; initiation ceremonies; games; superstition; modes of burial; language; marriage — Tasmanians — Fiji Is- landers: food; weapons; houses; temples; religion; canoes; pottery ; games ; agriculture ; women ; dress ; tattooing ; burial ; customs ; parricide ; horrible rites ; cannibalism ; character of the Fijians — Maories: food; dress; ornaments; tattooing; houses ; fortifications ; weapons ; canoes ; burial ; music ; cha- racter; religion; cannibalism — Tahiti: implements; fish-hooks; nets; baskets; mats; bark-cloth; dress; canoes; music; furni- ture ; weapons ; food ; fire ; cookery ; ava ; a chief's dinner ; solitary meals ; surgery ; modes of burial ; Oberea's morai ; government ; ideas of right and wrong ; the Arreoy society ; general character — The Tongans ...... 426 b XV111 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIV. MODERN SAVAGES — continued. PAGE Esquimaux: tents; houses; lamps; absence of cleanliness ; stores of food; cookery ; difficulty of obtaining water; fire; implements and weapons; modes of hunting and fishing; sledges; boats; scrapers ; clothes, ornaments, cheek-studs ; music ; drawings ; religion ; modes of burial ; things buried with the dead ; charac- ter— North American Indians: dress; ornaments; labrets ; the practice of head-moulding; religion; social position of women; character; cruelty; infanticide; implements; weapons; boats; fire ; dwellings ; agriculture ; maize ; rice ; animal food ; burial ; art— Paraguay Indians — Patagonians: stature; huts; dress; weapons; food; burial; religion — Fucgians: huts; implements; weapons; food; stature; habits; mode of fishing; cannibalism; absence of religion ; canoes ; dress ; fire ..... 492 CHAPTER XV. MODERN SAVAGES — concluded. Skilfulness of savages — Varieties of implements — Neatness in sew- ing— Art of drilling — Important works erected by savages- Differences in the Stone Age — Different lines of civilization- Differences of weapons — Isolation of savages — Geographical distribution of weapons, etc. — Differences between savages- Different uses for the dog — Different modes of obtaining fire- Different modes of burial — Descent of property — Differences in prevalent sounds — Differences in signs — Ideas of decency- Ideas of virtue — Deification of white men — Curious customs- Social position of women — Savages and children — Moral and intellectual inferiority of savages — Poverty of savage languages Deficiencies in numeration — Absence of religion — Rudiments of religion — Lowideas of the deity — Witchcraft — General wretched- ness of savages .......... 543 CHAPTER XVI. CONCLUDING REMARKS. The higher animals — The primitive condition of man — Diffusion of man — Early races of man — Natural selection applied to man -The influence of mind — Increase of happiness — Sufferings of savages — Superstitious terrors — Self-inflicted sufferings — The blessings of ci\ ili/ation — The diminution of suffering — The O diminution of sin — The advantages of science — The future . 583 APPENDIX ... ... . 603 INDEX .... .613 DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES. 1. Ancient Danish arrow-head, with owner's mark. Engelhardt, Denmark in the Early Iron Age, p. xiii, fig. 35. 2. Modern Esquimaux arrow-head, with owner's mark. In my collection, one-half natural size. 3. Owner's marks from various ancient Danish arrows. Denmark in the Early Iron Age, pp. i — xiii. 4. Copper (?) celt from Waterford — 6 inches long, 3^ wide at the broader end, and i% at the smaller, which is about i-i6th thick. Cat. of Royal Irish Academy, p. 363. 5. Winged celt, or Paalstave, from Ireland. Ibid. p. 373. 6. Socketed celt from Ireland, one-third of the actual size. Ibid. p. 385. 7-9. The three principal types of celts, and the manner in which they are supposed to have been handled. Ibid. p. 367. 10. Kalmuck Axe. Iron. In the collection of the late Dr. Klemm. 11. Copper (?) celt from Ireland, one-half of the actual size. Cat. of Royal Irish Academy, p. 363. 12. Half of a celt-mould from Ireland. It is of mica slate, 6^ inches long, 4 wide, and presents upon the surface the apertures by means of which it was adjusted by the other half. Ibid. p. 91. 13. Decorated celt from Ireland — 8^ inches long, 4 wide at the blade end, and half-an-inch thick. Ibid. p. 365. 14. Simple celt from Denmark, one-third of the actual size. Nordiske Oldsager i det Kong. Mus. i Kjobenhavn, No. 178. 15. Ornamental celt from Denmark, one-third of the actual size. Ibid. No. 179. 16. Socketed celt from Denmark, one-third of the actual size. Ibid. No. 195. 17. Bronze celt, Naples. In my collection, one-half nat. size. 1 8. „ „ Le Puy. „ „ two-thirds nat. size. 19. Stone Axe, Denmark. ,, „ „ ,, 20. Modern African Axe. „ „ one-sixth nat. size. 21. Iron sword from a cemetery at Brighthampton in Oxfordshire, one- eighth of the actual size. Archseologia, vol. xxxviii. pi. 2, fig. i. 22. Sword from Ireland — 23^ inches long, i$i wide in the centre of the blade, which is margined by a grooved feather edge. Cat. of Royal Irish Academy, p. 444. XX DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES. 23. Sword from Sweden, one-fourth of the actual size. Nilsson's Skandinaviska Nordens Ur-invanare, pi. I, fig. 7. 24. Sword from Switzerland, one-fifth of the actual size. In the museum of Col. Schwab, Mitt. Ant. Ges. in Zurich, Bd. xii. H. 3. 25. Sword from Concise on the Lake of Neufchatel, one-fourth of the actual size. In the Museum of Col. Schwab, Mitt. Ant. Ges. in Zurich, Bd. xiii. H. 3. 26. Sword from Scandinavia. Atlas for Nordisk Oldkyndighed, pi. 4, fig. 42. 27. Sword from Denmark, found in the Treenhoi tumulus. Afb. af. Danske Oldsager og Mindesmaeker, H. 5. 28. Sword from Denmark, one-sixth of the actual size. Nordiske Oldsager i det Kong. Mus. i Kjobenhavn, No. 121. 29. Sword from Denmark, one-sixth of the actual size. Ibid. No. 123. 30. Hilt of sword from Denmark, one-fourth of the actual size. Ibid. No. 128. 31. Hilt of sword from Denmark, one-fourth of the actual size. Ibid. No. 127. 32. Bronze dagger-blade from Ireland — 10^ inches long, by 2^ wide. The four rivets by which it was fastened to the handle are still in situ. Cat. of Royal Irish Academy, p. 448. 33. Bronze dagger from Ireland, two-thirds of the actual size. Ibid. p. 458. 34. Bronze dagger-blade from Ireland, one-third of the actual size. Ibid. p. 463. 35. Bronze spear-head from Ireland — \\% inches long, by \% broad. Ibid. p. 499. 36. Bronze spear-head from Ireland — 13% inches long, by 2% broad. Ibid. p. 496. 37. Bronze knife from Denmark, one-half of the actual size. Nordiske Oldsager i det Kong. Mus. i Kjobenhavn, No. 167. 38. Bronze knife from Denmark, one-third of the actual size. Ibid. No. 169. 39. Bronze knife from Denmark, one-third of the actual size. Ibid. No. 1 66. 40. 41. Bronze knives from the lake-village of Estavayer, on the lake of Neufchatel, one-half of the actual size. Keller, Mitth. der Antiq. Ges. in Zurich, Bd. xiii. Abth. 2, H. 3, pl- 5, figs- 19, 20. 42-45. Razor-knives from Denmark, one-half of the actual size. Nordiske Oldsager i det Kong. Mus. i Kjobenhavn, Nos. 173, 172, 171, 175- DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES. XXI 46. Small bronze knife in a leather case, from Denmark, two-thirds of the actual size. Ibid. No. 164. 47. Bronze knife, actual size, Denmark. Ibid. No. 170. 48. Bronze knife, found by Sir Gardner Wilkinson, at Thebes. Lee's Keller, p. 276. 49. Bronze bracelet from Cortaillod, on the Lake of Neufchatel, one- third of the actual size. Troyon's Habitations Lacustres, pi. n, fig. 28. 50. Bronze bracelet from Cortaillod, on the Lake of Neufchatel, one- third of the actual size. Ibid. pi. u, fig. 18. 5 1-54. Bronze hair-pins from the Swiss lakes, one-half of the actual size. Keller, /. c. Zweiter Bericht, pi. 3. 55. Bronze awl from the Swiss lakes, actual size. Ibid. pi. 3. 56-60. Various small objects of bronze from the Swiss lakes. Ibid. pi. 3. 61. Bronze celt, one-half nat. size. Showing the line of junction of the two halves of the mould in which it was cast. Found at Aylesford, Kent ; and presented to me by Sir G. W. Dasent. 62. Bronze brooch, Mecklenburg, three-tenths nat. size. Showing the manner in which it has been mended. Lisch. Alterthiimer, H. vii. pi. 4, fig. 2. 63. Bronze celt. Showing the air-vents bent over. 64. Gold torque, consisting of a simple flat strip or band of gold, loosely twisted, and having expanded extremities which loop into one another. It measures 5^ inches across, and was found near Clonmacnoise, in Ireland. Cat. of Royal Irish Academy, p. 74. 65. Gold fibula, one-half of the actual size. The hoop is very slender; the cups deep and conical. Ibid. p. 56. 66. Smooth, massive, cylindrical gold ring, with ornamented ends, one- half of the actual size. Ibid. p. 52. 67. Gold fibula, one-third of the actual size. The external surfaces of the cups are decorated with circular indentations surrounding a central indented spost. There is also an elegant pattern where the handle joins the cups. It is 8fg inches long, and weighs 33 ounces, being the heaviest now known to exist. Ibid. p. 60. 67*. Iron ornament, Africa. 68. Inscribed celt, Museum Kircherianum, Rome, one-half of the actual size. Rossi Rap. Sugli. Stud, e Sulle Scop. Paleo. nel bacino delle, Campagna Romana. 69. Woollen cap, one-third of the actual size. Found with the bronze sword (fig. 27) in a Danish tumulus. Afb. af. Danske Oldsager og Mindesmaerker. Madsen, H. 5. XX11 DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES. 70. Another woollen cap, one-third of the actual size. Found with the preceding. 71. A small comb, one-third of the actual size. Found with the preceding. 72. A woollen cape, one-third of the actual size. Found with the pre- ceding. 73. A woollen shirt, one-third of the actual size. Found with the pre- ceding. 74. A woollen shawl, one-third of the actual size. Found with the preceding. 75. A pair of leggings, one-third of the actual size. Found with the preceding. 76. Hut urn. Albano. 77. Urn apparently representing a lake -dwelling. In the Munich collection. Lisch. Die Alterthiimer Unserer Heid. Vorzeit, H. x. T. 3. 78. Group of beehive houses, Scotland. Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot. vol. i. part xii. 79. The Burgh of Moussa. Shetlands. 80. Staigue Fort, in the county of Kerry. From a model in the collection of the Royal Irish Academy. 8 1. Flint core or nucleus, from which flakes have been struck, Jutland. One-half of the actual size. In my own collection. 82-84. Three views of a flint flake from the Kjokkenmodding at Fanne- rup, in Jutland, one-half of the actual size, a represents the bulb of percussion, which is also shown by the shading in fig. 84. In my own collection. 85. Arrow-shaped flake from Ireland. It is worked up at the butt end, as if intended for a handle. Catalogue of Royal Irish Academy, p. 72. 86-88. Flakes from a Danish shell-mound, actual size. In my own collection. 89. Minute flint flake from Denmark, actual size. In my own collection. 90. Sections of flakes, a is that of a simple triangular flake ; b is that of a large flat flake split off the angle from which the smaller flake a had been previously taken. Consequently the section is four- sided. 91. North American two-bladed knife, made of two flakes. Reliquiae Aquitanicas, p. 43, fig. 16. 92. Australians making flakes. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Repertory. May, 1866. 93. Australian flake, one-half actual size. In my own collection. DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES. XXlli 94. Flake from the Cape of Good Hope, actual size. In my own collection. 95. Head of New Caledonian javelin, one-half of actual size. In my own collection. 96. New Caledonian javelin, one-sixth actual size. In my own collection. 97. Stone celt or hatchet. Formed of felstone, 5 ^ inches long and 2 broad. Cat. of Royal Irish Academy, p, 41. 98. Stone celt or hatchet, actual size. Found in the river Shannon. One of the smallest yet found in Ireland. Ibid. p. 45. 99. Stone celt with a wooden handle, Monaghan, Ireland. Ibid. p. 46. IOQ. Stone celt with wooden handle, one-third actual size. Found at Concise. From Desor. 101,102. Danish axe, re-ground. One-half actual size. From my own collection. 103. Skin-scraper from Bourdeilles in the south of France, actual size. Found by me. 104. Ditto, under side. 105-107. Skin-scraper used by the modern Esquimaux of the Polar basin, within Behring's Straits, actual size. It was fastened into a handle of fossil ivory. In the Christy Museum. 108. Flint axe from the shell-mound at Meilgaard, in Jutland, actual size. Upper surface. In my own collection. 109. Ditto, under surface, no. Ditto, side view. in. Modern New Zealand adze, actual size. Upper surface. In the British Museum. 112. Ditto, under surface. 113. Ditto, side view. The New Zealand adze is partially polished; this is not the case with the Danish adze, because flint naturally breaks with a smooth surface. The projection in fig. no is acci- dental, and owing to some flaw in the flint. They generally have the under side flat, as in fig. 113. 114. Hollow chisel from Denmark. In my own collection. 115. Danish dagger. In my own collection. 116. Flint dagger, one-half of the actual size. This beautiful specimen was found in a large tumulus with a second imperfect dagger, a rude flint core, an imperfect crescent-shaped knife, one or two flakes, two amber beads, and some bits of pottery. Denmark. In my own collection. XXIV DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES. 117. Another form of flint dagger. Also from Denmark. In my own collection. 1 1 8. Oval tool-stone. Cat. of Royal Irish Academy, p. 94. 119. Triangular flint arrow-head, actual size. Ibid. p. 19. 120. Indented flint arrow-head, actual size. Ibid. p. 20. 121. Barbed flint arrow-head, actual size. Ibid. p. 22. 122. Leaf-shaped flint arrow-head, actual size. Showing the gradual passage into the spear-head. Ibid. p. 22. 123. French arrow-head, actual size. In my own collection. 124. North American arrow-head, actual size. In my own collection. 125. Fuegian arrow-head, actual size. From Nilsson's Stone Age. 126. Stone saw in wooden handle, Switzerland, one-half actual size. After Keller. 127. Bone pin or awl from Scotland, actual size. 128. Bone chisel, actual size. From Wangen, on the Lake of Constance. In my own collection. 129. Bone harpoon, actual size. Afb. af. Danske Olds. og. Mindesmaerker, 5 Heft. 130. Ancient bone harpoon, actual size. Dordogne. After Christy and Lartet. 131. Bone scraper, North America. Reliquiae Aquitanicae, part v. p. 43, fig. 26. 132. A tumulus of the Stone Age, at Roddinge in Denmark. It con- tains two chambers. Nordiske Oldsager i det Kong. Mus. i Kjobenhavn, pi. 4. 133. Ground plan of ditto. 134. Stone circle, Denmark. Ibid. pi. i. 135. Dolmen, Denmark. 136. Stone circle. Ibid. pi. 2. 137. Kit's Coty House, near Maidstone. After Cof. Forbes Leslie : Early Races of Scotland. 138. Carnac, Brittany. From a drawing by Sir J. D. Hooker, F.R.S. 139. 140. Indian Dolmens. After Captain Meadows Taylor. 141. Summer and winter dwellings in Kamschatka. Atlas to Cook's Voyage, pi. 77. 141*. Laplander's gamme or hut. 142. Kumbecephalic skull from Derbyshire. After Bateman: Ten Years' Diggings, p. 146. DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES. XXV 143. Ground plan of a sepulchral chamber in a large tumulus on the Island of Moen. Ann. for Nordiske Oldkyndighed, 1858, p. 204. 144. Brachycephalic skull from the same tumulus, one-quarter of the natural size. 145. Ditto, side view. I am indebted for these two drawings to the kindness of my friend Mr. Busk. 146. Interior of the sepulchral chamber in the long barrow near West Kennet. Archasologia, vol. xxxviii. p. 405. 147. 148. Flint scrapers from the above tumulus, two -thirds of the actual size. Ibid. 149. Flint flake from the same, two-thirds of the actual size. Ibid. 150. Flint implement from the same, two-thirds of the actual size. Ibid. 151. Fragment of pottery from the same, two-thirds of the actual size. Ibid. 152. Fragment of pottery from the same, actual size. Ibid. I53~I55- Fragments of pottery from the same, two-thirds of the actual size. Ibid. 1.56. Fragment of pottery, actual size. Ibid. 157. Urn from Flaxdale barrow. The original is 14 inches in height. Bateman's Ten Years' Diggings in Celtic and Saxon Grave- hills, p. 280. 158, 159. Two vases from Arbor Low, in Derbyshire. Ibid. p. 283. 160. Drinking cup from Green Low. Ibid. p. 286. 161. Sculptures on the Lower Rock at Auchnabreach, Argyllshire. After Sir J. Y. Simpson : Proc. Soc. Ant. Sc. vol. vi. p. 23. 162. Crannoge in Ardakillin Lough, near Stokestown, county of Ros- common. It is constructed of stones and oak piling. The top line shows the former highest water level ; the second, that of the ordinary winter flood ; the third, the summer level. 163. Section of the lake-dwelling at Niederwyl. From Lee's Keller, pi. 16, fig. 2. 164. Swiss axe of serpentine, actual size. From Wangen, on the Lake of Constance. In my own collection. 165. Spindle whorl, actual size. From Wangen, on the Lake ofConstance. In my own collection. 1 66. Piece of pottery, showing the impressions of the finger-tip, and the marks of the nail, actual size. Lake of Zurich. 168. Piece of tissue, actual size. From Robenhausen. In my own collection. 169. Portion of the vertebra of a cow. c xxvi DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES. 170. Corresponding portion of the vertebra of a bison. 171. Bronze pin, actual size. Found in a shell-mound near Elgin, and now in the museum at that place. 172. Flint awl from Denmark, actual size. After Worsaae. 173-175. Lance-heads (?) from Denmark, actual size. After Worsaae. 176. Rude flint axe from Denmark, actual size. After Worsaae. 177. Copper arrow or spear-head, Cincinnati, one-third actual size. Whittlesey: Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist. vol. i. pi. 16, fig. 6. 178. Copper lance-head, Ontarragon, one-third actual size. Ibid. fig. 4. 179. Molar tooth of E. antiquus, one-third actual size. After Lyell. 1 80. Molar tooth of the mammoth, one-third actual size. After Lyell. 1 8 1. Flat stone implement of uncertain use, actual size. La Madeleine. 182. Stone implement, resembling in some respects those characteristic of the drift gravels, actual size. From Moustier. In my own collection. 183. Ditto, seen from the side. 184. Ditto, seen from the other side. 185. A cylindrical piece of reindeer horn, on which are engraved two outlines of fishes, one on each side. La Madeleine, Dordogne. After Lartet and Christy. 1 86. Piece of the palm of a reindeer's antler, on which is engraved the head and neck of an ibex. Laugerie Basse, Dordogne. After Lartet and Christy. 187. Group of figures. Dordogne. After Lartet and Christy. 1 88. Group of reindeer. From a photograph presented to me by the Marquis de Vibraye. 189. Poniard of reindeer horn. From the cave at Laugerie Basse. 190. The Engis skull seen from above. Huxley's Man's Place in Nature, p. 126. 191. Ditto,, seen from the front. 192. The Neanderthal skull, seen from the side, one-half natural size. 193. Ditto, seen from the front, one-half natural size. 194. Ditto, seen from above, one-half natural size. Ibid. p. 139. The outlines from camera lucida drawings by Mr. Busk; the details from a cast and from Dr. Fiihlrott's photographs. a, glabella ; £, occipital protuberance ; d, lambdoidal suture. 195. Rude flint implement from the drift gravel at Hoxne, one-half actual size. After Frere: Archaeologia, 1800, pi. 15. 196. Ditto, side view. 197. Another specimen. After Frere. Ibid. 198. The same, side view. 199. 200. Stone implements, Madras. From specimens found and presented to me by Mr. Bruce Foot. DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES. XXVli 201. Section across the Valley of the Somme at Abbeville, after Prest- wich ; the proportion of the length is reduced to one-third. 202. Section of St. Acheul, near Amiens. 203. Section taken in a pit close to the Joinville station. b. Red angular gravel, containing a very large sandstone block. d. Grey subangular gravel. 204. Diagram to illustrate deposit of loess and gravel. a Loess corresponding to and contemporaneous with the gravel a. b' Loess „ „ „ „ b. c Loess „ „ „ „ c. 1. Level of valley at period a. 2. Level of valley at period b. 3. Level of valley at present. 205. Australian knife. Presented to me by A. W. Franks, Esq. 206. Australian club, one-fifth of the actual size. 207. Australian spear and spear-caster. After Eyre. 208. Australian boomerang, one-sixth of the actual size. 209. Tasmanian fire-sticks, one-third actual size. From specimens presented to me by Mr. Robinson. 210. New Zealand patoo-patoo, one-fourth of the actual size. In my own own collection. 211. Stone axe with wooden handle, one-fourth of the actual size. In my own collection. 212. South Sea axe of ceremony. In my own collection. 213. South Sea fish-hook, one-half of the actual size. In my own collection. 214. Esquimaux knife. From a specimen presented to me by Mr. Flower. 215. 216. Esquimaux knife. In my own collection. 217. Esquimaux arrow-head, actual size. Ibid. 218. Esquimaux spear-head, actual size. Ibid. 219. Esquimaux bone-harpoon, one-third of the actual size. Ibid. 220. Esquimaux cheek-stud of stone. Presented to me by Dr. Rae. 221-223. Drawings on Esquimaux bone implements. Presented to the Ashmolean Museum, by Captain Beechy, 1832. 224. Dacotah fire-drill-bow. From Schoolcraft's Indian tribes. 225. Iroquois fire-pump-drill. From the same. 226. Fuegian harpoon, one-half of the actual size. In my own collection. 227. 228. Ogham stones. Found in Kerry. Cat. of Royal Irish Academy, p. 135. DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. The three great tumuli at Upsala, popularly supposed to be those of Odin, Thoa, and Freya. (Frontispiece!] Diagram of Abury. (To face page 124.) P LATE I . (To face page 80. ) Fig. i. A flint axe from a tumulus, one-third of the actual size. 2. Another form of stone axe, with a hole for a handle, one-third of the actual size. 3. A flint saw, one-half of the actual size. 4. A flint dagger, one-sixth of the actual size. 5. A flint chisel, one-half of the actual size. 6. One of the "cores" from which the flint flakes are splintered, one-half of the actual size. 7. One of the flakes, one-half of the actual size. 8. 9. Rude axes from the Kjokkenmodding at Havelse, one-half of the actual size. 10. Flint axe from drift at Moulin Quignon, near Abbeville, one- half of the actual size. 11. Flint axe from Abbeville, showing that the part stained white is parallel to the present surfaces, and that the weathering has taken place since the flint was worked into its present shape; one-half of the actual size. 12. Sling-stone from the Kjokkenmodding at Havelse, one-half of the actual size. PLATE II. (To face page 333.) Sketch of mammoth, on a piece of ivory found at La Madeleine in the Dordogne. PLATE III. ( To face page 341.) A flint implement found near Abbeville, slightly reduced. In my own collection. The artist has been so careful to present a faithful image of this specimen, that he has even copied exactly my rough memorandum as to the place and date of its discovery. PRE-HISTOKIC TIMES. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. THE first appearance of man in Europe dates from a period so remote, that neither history, nor even tra- dition, can throw any light on his origin, or mode of life. Under these circumstances, some have supposed that the past is hidden from the present by a veil, which time will probably thicken, but never can remove. Thus our pre- historic antiquities have been valued as monuments of ancient skill and perseverance, not regarded as pages of ancient his- tory; recognized as interesting vignettes, not as historical pictures. Some writers have assured us that, in the words of Palgrave, " We must give it up, that speechless past ; whether fact or chronology, doctrine or mythology ; whether in Europe, Asia, Africa, or America ; at Thebes or Palenque, on Lycian shore or Salisbury Plain : lost is lost ; gone is gone for ever." Others have taken a more hopeful view, but in attempting to reconstruct the story of the past, they have too often allowed imagination to usurp the place of research, and have written in the spirit of the novelist, rather than in that of the philosopher. Of late years, however, a new branch of knowledge has arisen ; a new Science has, so to say, been born among us, which deals with times and events far more ancient than any which have yet fallen within the province of the archaeologist The geologist reckons not by days or by years ; the whole six B 2 DIVISION OF PRE-HISTORIC thousand years, which were until lately looked on as the sum of the world's existence, are to him but one unit of measure- ment in the long succession of past ages. Our knowledge of geology is, of course, very incomplete ; on some questions we shall no doubt see reason to change our opinion, but on the whole, the conclusions to which it points are as definite as those of zoology, chemistry, or any of the kindred sciences. Nor does there appear to be any reason why those methods of examination which have proved so successful in geology, should not also be used to throw light on the history of man in pre-historic times. Archaeology forms, in fact, the link between geology and history. It is true that in the case of other animals we can, from their bones and teeth, form a definite idea of their habits and mode of life, while in the present state of our knowledge the skeleton of a savage could not always be distinguished from that of a philosopher. But on the other hand, while other animals leave only teeth and bones behind them, the men of past ages are to be studied principally by their works ; houses for the living, tombs for the dead, fortifications for defence, temples for worship, imple- ments for use, and ornaments for decoration. From the careful study of the remains which have come down to us, it would appear that Pre-historic Archaeology may be divided into four great epochs. I. That of the Drift ; when man shared the possession of Europe with the Mammoth, the Cave bear, the Woolly-haired rhinoceros, and other extinct animals. This we may call the "Palaeolithic" period. II. The later or polished Stone Age; a period character- ized by beautiful weapons and instruments made of flint and other kinds of stone ; in which, however, we find no trace of the knowledge of any metal, excepting gold, which seems to have been sometimes used for ornaments. This we may call the " Neolithic" period. ARCHAEOLOGY INTO FOUR PERIODS. 3 III. The Bronze Age, in which Bronze was used for arms and cutting instruments of all kinds. IV. The Iron Age, in which that metal had superseded bronze for arms, axes, knives, etc. ; bronze, however, still being in common use for ornaments, and frequently also for the handles of swords and other arms, though never for the blades. Stone weapons, however, of many kinds were still in use during the Age of Bronze, and even during that of Iron, so that the mere presence of a few stone implements is not in itself sufficient evidence that any given " find " belongs to the Stone Age. In order to prevent misapprehension, it may also be well to state, at once, that, for the present, I only apply this classification to Europe, though, in all probability, it might be extended also to the neighbouring regions of Asia and Africa. As regards other civilized countries, China and Japan for instance, we, as yet, know but little of their pre- historic archaeology, though recent researches have gone far to prove that the use of iron was there also preceded by bronze, and bronze by stone. It is evident, also, that some nations, such as the Fuegians, Andamaners, etc., are even now, or were very lately, in an Age of Stone. It is probable that gold was the metal which first attracted the attention of man ; it is found in many rivers, and by its bright colour would certainly attract even the rudest savages, who are known to be very fond of personal deco- ration. Silver does not appear to have been discovered until long after gold, and was apparently preceded by both copper and tin; for it rarely, if ever,* occurs in tumuli of the Bronze Age ; but, however this may be, copper seems to have been the metal which first became of real importance to Man ; no doubt owing to the fact that its ores are abundant in many countries, and can be smelted without difficulty; and that, while iron is hardly ever found except in the form * Horse ferales, p. 60. B 2 4 FIRST DISCOVERY OF METAL. of ore, copper often occurs in a native condition, and can be beaten at once into shape. Thus, for instance, the North American Indians obtained pure copper from the mines near Lake Superior and elsewhere, and hammered it at once into axes, bracelets, and other objects. Tin also early attracted notice, probably on account of the great heaviness of its ores. When metals were very scarce, it would naturally sometimes happen that, in order to make up the necessary quantity, some tin would be added to copper, or vice versd. It would then be found that the properties of the alloy were quite different from those of either metal, and a very few experiments would determine the most advan- tageous proportion, which for axes and other cutting instru- ments is about nine parts of copper to one of tin. No implements or weapons of tin have yet been found, and those of copper are extremely rare, whence it has been in- ferred that the art of making bronze was known elsewhere before the use of either copper or tin was introduced into Europe. Many of the so-called " copper " axes, etc., contain a small proportion of tin ; and the few exceptions indicate probably a mere temporary want, rather than a total ignorance, of this metal. The ores of iron, though more abundant, are much less striking in appearance than those of copper. Moreover, though they are perhaps more easily reduced, the metal, when obtained, is much less tractable than bronze. This valuable alloy can very easily be cast, and, in fact, all the weapons and implements made of it in olden times were cast in moulds of sand or stone. The art of casting iron, on the other hand, was unknown until a comparatively late period. In the writings of the early poets, iron is frequently charac- terized by the epithet TroAi'/c/^ros, and its adjective, o-iSijptos, is used metaphorically to imply the greatest stubbornness. While, however, these facts tend very much to remove the ALLUSIONS TO BRONZE IN ANCIENT WRITERS. 5 d priori improbability that a compound and comparatively expensive material like bronze should have been in general use before such a common metal as iron, we must, of course, seek elsewhere for evidence that it was so. Hesiod, who is supposed to have written about 900 B.C., and who is the earliest European author whose works have come down to us, appears to have lived during the transition between the Bronze and Iron Ages. He distinctly states that iron was discovered later than copper and tin. Speaking of those who were ancient, even in his day, he says that they used bronze, and not iron. rots 8 rjv ^d\Kca /xev rev^ea. ^d\K€OL Se re o?KOt, ^aA/ from xa^KO bronze, means to work in metal. Moreover, the forms of early weapons indicate that those in iron were copied from bronze, not those in bronze from iron. Hesiod's poems, as well as those of Homer, show that nearly three thousand years ago the value of iron was known and appreciated. It is true that, as we read in Dr. Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Eoman Antiqui- ties, bronze " is represented in the Iliad and Odyssey as the common material of arms, instruments, and vessels of various sorts; the latter (iron) is mentioned much more rarely." While, however, the above statement is strictly correct, we must remember that among the Greeks the word iron (0-1877/00$) was used, even in the time of Homer, as synonymous with a sword, and that steel also appears to have been known to them under the name of aSapxs, and perhaps also of KUCU/OS, as early as the time of Hesiod. We may, therefore, consider that the Trojan war took place during the period of transition from the Bronze to the Iron Age. In the Pentateuch, excluding Deuteronomy, bronze, or, as it is unfortunately translated, brass, is mentioned thirty-eight times, and iron only four times. 6 EAELY HISTORY OF METALS. Lucretius distinctly mentions the three ages. He says, — Arma antiqua, manus, ungues, dentesque fuerunt Et lapides, et item sylvarum fragmina rami, Posterius ferri vis est, serisque reperta, Sed prior seris erat, quam ferri cognitus usus.* Coming down to more modern times, Eccard-f- in 1750, and Goguet in 1758, J mention the three latter ages in plain terms ; § the same idea runs through Borlase's History of Cornwall, and Sir Richard Colt Hoare also alludes to " instru- ments of stone before the use of metals was known," and expresses the opinion that instruments of iron " denote a much later period" than those of bronze. To the Northern archaeologists, however, — especially to Mr. Thomsen, the founder of the Museum at Copenhagen, and to Professor Nilsson, — must be ascribed the merit of having raised these suggestions to the rank of a scientific classification. Copper is said to have been used in China as far back as the reign of Ki, 2000 B.C. ; and iron in that of Kung Kiu, about 1900 B.C., but this can scarcely perhaps be regarded as proved. Copper axes of very simple type have also been dis- covered in India, but we have no means of determining their date. It is probable, indeed, that iron was known in Egypt and Assyria before its introduction into Europe. The earliest evidence of iron in Assyria is an inscription of Tiglath-Pileser (1120 B.C.), who says : " In the desert of Mitani near Araziki, which is in front of the land of Hatti, I slew four mighty buffaloes with my great bow and iron arrows, and with my lance." As regards Egypt, there is a prayer in the Harris papyrus, written during the reign of Eameses III. (1300 B.C.), that the words of the King may be " firm as iron." In the * V. 1282. des Arts et des Sciences. See Ch. iv. f Eccard. De Origins etMoribus and the preface. Germanomm. § See Khind in Arch. Ins. Jour. V. I Goguet. De 1'Origine des Lois, xiii. EARLY HISTORY OF METALS. 7 same papyrus vessels of iron are mentioned, and the king is said to have made the wall of the temple of Horus like a " hill of iron." Objects of iron are also mentioned in the Karnac tribute. In the lists of Thothmes III. (1600 B.C.) iron comes third in the series of metals paid as tribute. These refer- ences, however, imply that the use of iron was already well known.* This renders less improbable the authenticity of the piece of iron said to have been found wedged in between two of the stones of the Great Pyramid.-)- Maspero, moreover, in 1882 found some pieces of iron in the Black Pyramid of Abousir (Vlth Dynasty) ;{ but no iron has been found in any of the tombs belonging to the earlier Egyptian dynasties, and the oldest weapon of iron of which the date can be certainly deter- mined is an Egyptian blade, found by Belzoni under one of the Sphinxes at Karnac, and supposed to date about 600 B.C. The date of the introduction of iron into the North of Europe cannot at present be satisfactorily ascertained ; nevertheless it is most likely that the use of this metal spread rapidly. Not only does it seem a priori probable that such an impor- tant discovery would have done so, but it is evident that the same commercial organization which had already carried the tin of Cornwall all over our continent, would equally facilitate the transmission of iron, as soon as that even more useful metal was discovered and rendered available. However this may be, the soldiers of Brennus were provided with iron swords, and when the armies of Eome brought the civilization of the South into contact with that of the North, they found the value of iron already well known to, and in general use among, their new enemies. Nor is there any reason to suppose that arms of bronze were also at that time still in use in the North, for, had this been so, they would certainly have been mentioned by the * I am indebted for these par- J Maspero. Guide du Musee de ticulars to Mr. Budge. Boulaq, p. 296. f Vyse. Pyramids of Gizeh, vi. p. 275. IRON IN ANCIENT EUROPE. Eoman writers ; whereas the description given by Tacitus of the Caledonian weapons shows that in his time the swords used in Scotland were made of iron. Moreover there are several cases in which large quantities of arms belonging to the Eoman period have been found together, and in which the arms and implements are all of iron. This argument is in its very nature cumulative, and cannot therefore be fully developed here, but out of many, I will mention a few cases in illustration. Some years ago, an old battle-field was discovered at Tiefenau, near Berne, and described by M. Jahn. On it were found a great number of objects made of iron ; such as fragments of chariots, bits for horses, wheels, pieces of coats of mail, and arms of various sorts, including no less than a hundred two-handed swords. All of these were made of iron, but with them were several fibulse of bronze, and some coins, of which about thirty were of bronze, struck at Marseilles, and presenting a head of Apollo on one side and a bull on the other ; both good specimens of Greek art. The rest were silver pieces, also struck at Marseilles. These coins, and the absence of any trace of Eoman influence, suffi- ciently indicate the antiquity of these interesting remains. A very similar collection of antiquities has been obtained from the ancient lake-village near La Tene, on the Lake of Neufchatel. This interesting locality will be referred to again in the chapter on Swiss lake -villages, and I will here only observe that 50 swords, 5 axes, 4 knives, and 23 lances have been discovered, but not a single weapon of bronze. Nine coins have been also found here, while not a single one has been met with in any of the Stone Age or Bronze Age villages. Yet the Gauls had a coinage of their own 300 years before Christ, and in our own country, as Mr. Evans* has well shown, about 150 years later. * The Coins of the Ancient Britons, 1864, by John Evans, Esq., F.R.S. IRON IN NORTHERN EUROPE. 9 Some very interesting "finds" of articles belonging to the Iron Age have been made in the peat bogs of Slesvick, and described by M. Engelhardt, Curator of the Museum at Flensborg. One of these, in the Moss of Nydam, comprises clothes, sandals, brooches, tweezers, beads, helmets, shields, shield bosses, breastplates, coats of mail, buckles, swordbelts, sword sheaths, 100 swords, 500 spears, 30 axes, 40 awls, 160 arrows, 80 knives, various articles of horse gear, wooden rakes, mallets, vessels, wheels, pottery, coins, etc. Without a single exception, all the weapons and cutting implements are made of iron, though bronze was freely used for brooches and other similar articles.* In the summer of 1862, M. Engelhardt found in the same field a ship, or rather a large flat-bottomed boat, seventy feet in length, three feet deep in the middle, and eight or nine feet wide. The sides are of oak boards, overlapping one another, and fastened together by iron bolts. On the inner side of each board are several projections, which are not made from separate pieces, but were left when the boards were cut out of the solid timber. Each of these projections has two small holes, through which ropes, made of the inner bark of trees, were passed, in order to fasten the sides of the boat to the ribs. The rowlocks are formed by a projecting horn of wood, under which is an orifice, so that a rope, fastened to the horn and passing through the orifice, leaves a space through which the oar played. There appear to have been about fifty pairs of oars, of which sixteen have already been discovered. The bottom of the boat was covered by matting. I visited the spot about a week after the boat had been discovered, but was unable to see much * See Lubbock in Nat. Hist. Eev. interesting spot with M. Engel- Oct. 1863, and Stephens in Gent. hardt in 1862. See also " Denmark Mag. Dec. 1863. On one of the in the Early Iron Age," by C. En- arrows were some Runic characters. gelhardt. 1 had the pleasure of visiting this 10 IRON IN NORTHERN EUROPE. of it, as it had been taken to pieces, and the boards, etc., were covered over with straw and peat, that they might dry slowly. In this manner, M. Engelhardt hoped that they would perhaps, at least in part, retain their original shape. The freight of the boat consisted of iron axes, including a socketed celt with its handle, swords, lances, knives, brooches, whetstones, wooden vessels, and, oddly enough, two birch brooms, with many smaller articles. Only those, however, have yet been found which remained actually in the boat; and, as in sinking it turned partly over on its side, no doubt many more articles will reward further explorations. It is evident that this ancient boat was sunk on purpose, because there is a square hole about six inches in diameter hewn out of the bottom : and it is possible that these objects were sunk as offerings to the Lake, but, on the whole, it seems more probable that in some time of panic or danger the objects contained in it were thus hidden by their owner, who was never able to recover them. Even in recent times of disturbance, as, for instance, in the beginning of this century, and in 1848, many arms, ornaments, household utensils, etc., were so effectually hidden in the lakes and peat mosses, that they could never be found again. Much interest is added to this vessel and its contents, by the fact that we can fix almost their exact date. The boat lies, as I have already mentioned, within a few yards of the spot where the previous discoveries at Nydam were made, and as all the arms and ornaments exactly correspond, there can be little doubt that they belong to the same period. Now the previous collection included nearly fifty Eoman coins, ranging in date from A.D. 67 to A.D. 217, and we cannot therefore be far wrong in referring these remains to the third century. A very similar discovery has been made at Thorsbjerg in the same neighbourhood, but in this case, owing to some chemical difference in the peat, the iron has been almost IRON IN NORTHERN EUROPE. 11 entirely removed. It may naturally be asked why then this should be quoted as an instance of the Iron Age ? And the Fia. l. FIG. 2. FIG. 3. X \ M answer seems quite satisfactory. All the swords, lance- heads and axe-blades have disappeared, while the handles of bronze or wood are perfectly preserved, and as the orna- ments and other objects of bronze are well preserved, it is evident that the swords, etc., were not of that metal ; and it is therefore reasonable to conclude that they were of iron., more especially as the whole character of the objects resem- bles that of those found at Nydam, and the coins, which are about as numerous as those from the latter place, range from 60 A.D. to A.D. 197; so that these two great "finds" may be regarded as almost contemporaneous. Not only are the weapons in these finds all of iron, but their forms and the character of the ornamentation are very 12 IRON IN NORTHERN EUROPE. different from those of the Bronze Age ; resembling in some respects Roman arms, in others they are quite peculiar, and evidently representative of northern art. Many of the arrows had owner's marks on them (figs. 1 and 3) resembling those on the modern Esquimaux arrows (fig. 2). The Nydam swords also bear seven inscriptions ; three of them are illegible, the others are "ricus, riccim, cocillus, and umored." On the umbo of one of the shields is inscribed, in dotted Eoman letters, AEL. AELIANUS ; while another one has a short Runic* inscription, which Mr. Haigh reads as Aisc Ah (Aisc owns) ;•(• two figures resembling Runic letters are also inlaid with golden wire on one of the sword blades. One of the Thorsbjerg scabbards also has a Runic inscription of two lines, each containing ten letters. I particularly dwell on these cases, because no inscriptions or coins have yet been found which can be referred to the Bronze Age. For the same reason the abundance of silver is very signifi- cant; out of two hundred buckles and square silver girdle orna- ments, the greater number are of bronze plated with silver, and silver was also used to ornament shield rims, sandals, brooches, breast-plates, sword-hilts, sword-sheaths, girdles, harness, etc., as well as for clasps, pendants, boxes, and tweezers, while one helmet was formed entirely of this comparatively rare metal. The ornamentation also of the shields, etc., is of a character altogether unlike any that occurs in the Bronze Age. An assemblage of objects very similar to those of Nydam and Thorsbjerg has also been found in the "Virnose," or " Moss of the Temple." It comprises no less than 1500 lance-heads, 40 axes, and 30 swords, all of iron ; abundance of silver ; one Roman and three Runic inscriptions ; and a coin of Faustina Junior. Here, again, bronze weapons are entirely absent, though bronze was used for ornaments, etc. * See Appendix No. 1. t Archaeological Journal, 1863. EARLY USE OF BRONZE. 13 From these and similar discoveries, it appears evident that the use of bronze weapons had been discontinued in the North before, probably long before, the commencement of our era. Erom the ease with which bronze could be worked, this metal was still used for brooches and ornaments ; but in the manu- facture of swords, axes, and similar implements, it had been entirely superseded by iron. There are many cases on record of iron swords with bronze handles or scabbards, but scarcely an instance of the reverse. Conversely, as bronze weapons are entirely absent from the great "finds" of the Iron Age, so are iron weapons altogether wanting in those instances where, as for instance at Nidau, on the Lake of Bienne, and Estavayer, on that of Neufchatel, large quantities of bronze tools and weapons have been found together. To sum up this argument, though the discoveries of bronze and of iron weapons have been very numerous, yet there is hardly a single case in which swords, axes, daggers, or other weapons of these two different metals have been found together ; nor are bronze weapons found associated with in- scriptions, or with coins, pottery, or other relics of Eoman origin. So, also, though no doubt stone weapons were used during the Bronze Age, there are many cases in which large numbers of stone implements and weapons have been found without any of metal. In illustration of this argument, I must call attention to the following table. Objects found singly teach us compara- tively little, but when numbers occur together they become much more instructive. The first ten localities are some of the Swiss lake- villages, which will be described in Chapter VI. ; to which I have added the Nydam find just alluded to, and two of the great French bronze finds. Now from the ancient lake -village in the peat moss of 14 WEIGHT OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE. Moosseedorf we have a list comprising 75 flint nuclei, 25 arrow-heads, 12 spear-heads, 90 scrapers, 30 saws, 96 axes, 310 long flakes, and about 2000 small ones, 25 hammers, 45 grindstones, etc., 71 awls of bone, 12 pointed ribs, 160 bone chisels, 18 sharpened boar's teeth, 8 perforated boar's teeth, 2 perforated bear's teeth, 5 harpoons of horn, 8 chisels and 4 awls of horn, besides 30 axe-handles or sockets, with- out a trace of metal. The result, so far as six stations are concerned, is shown in the following table (p. 15). If, for instance, we commence with the remains discovered at Wangen, on the Lake of Constance, we have an even more remarkable case. M. Lohle has found there more than 1500 axes, 100 whetstones, 150 corn -crushers, and 2500 arrow- heads, flint flakes, chips, etc. ; altogether more than 4450 instruments of stone, besides about 350 of bone, making, with 100 earthenware spinning -weights, a grand total of nearly 5000 objects, and yet not a trace of metal. The number of corn-crushers and spindle-whorls is interesting, when we remember that Wangen alone, among these four localities, has supplied us with specimens of carbonized grain, and flax fabrics. Now let me ask the reader to compare with the four cases given in the table on p. 15 the list of remains from the Bronze Age settlements of Merges, ISTidau, Estavayer, Cor- taillod, and Corcelettes, and the two Bronze Age finds of Larnaud and Reallon. The manner in which the collections were made accounts, probably, for the absence of whetstones, and, perhaps, to a great extent, for that of the flint flakes, etc. On these points, therefore, I lay little stress ; but the total absence of stone axes at Merges, and their rarity at Nidau and Estavayer, is very remarkable. At the former M. Forel, after the most careful search, has found but one object of iron. The large number of corn-crushers and the presence of spinning-weights are also significant. STATISTICS. 15 •SNIOO o o o o o © © © © O5 © © CO © o -g TB1OT. 1 ^S* "*^ a* rH ' ^ *»« B9tjpung ' ' CO CO p.^ £ fl 6 1 Xt 0 T.T.I ^3 Uil (~) o 2 • co •* •<* CN rH m a CO f* coo crushers 9 *. ~ Many Corn- crushers S| : : 91 mv O O O O o o o o in CO rH CN .. *. ^. .. - (U a • • 0 OQ ; o H 02 •SAVOJ.IY in o co •