WESTERN AUSTRALIA

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This publication is under revision;
male reprinting may not be vossiblie ror
gome years. | :
‘: Althnouch written in 1922, the book is
Meeill of practical valuc; but statistics
me@uoucd in it. refer to the years prior to
Pe 1922 and certain pages rejuire alteration,
Deas forest manavement has been develored
' beyond the scope cf the examples given.
"The importance of forestry to this
' State is vécomine widely reccmnised. Hu-
rorean countries have troated their forests
)scientifically so that they will remain as
"a constant and permanent source of revenus.
"Moreover, forests scientifically worked
»)) provide a lasting industry which will
afford recular exploymert to numbers of
) our citizens, end the whole State, there~
W fore, is directly interested in the con=
“servation end economic management of our
Forest wealth. |
The workins of the forests by the Sar-
“milling Industry has always been a first
step in the development of any region in
‘the South i ¢st. “ith mills so located
"and now certrolicd that vhey will operate
© cortinuously in the forest, this savmill~
ins becomes a method of land settlement of
[prime importance in a yeung country. |
Strancely enouvh in ‘ester: Australia land
settlement is cenerally regarded as a pro=
| @ess of ringbarkin: the timber. crop to
@rov other iand crops. — cae
- £-There is a sreater demarid now for
‘inber than at any time in the past, and
». dit must be appreciated that Australia
* oan =roduce in the immeciate future not
more than two-thirds of her re juirenents.
The need for a visorous policy ef refores—
tation and afforestation is therefore ob-
vious. aie ' ;
| as oor, ema Eek aN
i : - GONSER TOR. OF FORESTS.

-

ist February, 1946, _ Kia ara

i:

3h

“

WESTERN

AUSTRALIA.

A PRIMER OF FORESTRY

With Illustrations
of

The Principal Forest Trees of
Western Australia.

Prepared under the supervision of

C E. LANE-POOLE, Conservator of Forests.

Issued by the Department of Education under the authority
of the Minister, the Hon. H. P. Colebatch, M.L.C.

PERTH :

BY AUTHORITY: FRED. WM. SIMPSON, GOVERNMENT PRINTER.

1922.
© 9833/22. .

CONTENTS.

: PAGE
ieremcer |... as HA oe ae CaN et: arte ae Bs a ae 5
Chapter 1.—The Meaning and Importance of Forestry sl ae ite 40 6

a IJ.—The Life-Story of a Tree sia ae See Le ak ons
a I1J.—The Forest... ey, sae ase Za. he ar x3 aod Li
a _ JV.—The Value of Forests nine ec = a bat eon =e 19

As V.—Forests and Climate ... 23
5s VI.—Undergrowth and Humus 25
i VII.—Fires and their Cost ... 26
WA Vill.—Sylviculture ... ee ey ve a ot oy Gat ae 29
mt JX.—Forest Management ... ae pt aoe Ht. aoe wate rhe 31
ng X.—Western Australian Trees ... A Sat a an de Mec 36
ifs XI.—Some Curious Forest Plants ae me as eek ae ee 94

Ss XJI.—Growing Trees from Seeds and Seedlings se ae a fat) LOO
' XIJII.— Birds and Forestry ... ‘ose ae a2 Me pe Me. pa 102
x XIV.—Insects and Forestry i Bey nies Mes uF ae an 104
Bs XV.—Animals of the Forest Rec ae Ae th ae wv BEG ON Ue 2

Appendix I.—Measuring Logs ... aes Sie Se oie Sie Jos tat sae lt
» II.—The Forest Service of W.A., and the Training of Foresters... Bye) og:

ON

A PRIMER OF FORESTRY.

PREFACE.

The importance of Forestry to the State is becoming widely recognised.
People are beginning to realise that our methods of dealing with our forests in
the past have been unscientific and wasteful, and that, if these methods are con-
tinued, in a few generations we shal! have no forests left. We are beginning to
understand that there is a science of Forestry, and that other countries are treat-
ing their forests scientifically, so that they will remain as a constant and _per-
amanent source of revenue which will not diminish as the years go by. Forests
scientifically worked will provide a lasting industry which will afford regular em-
ployment to numbers of our citizens. The whole State is therefore directly in-
terested in the conservation and economic management of our forest wealth.
There is a greater demand now for timber than there ever has been in the past,
so that the continuation of short-sighted and wasteful methods of utilsing our
forests would be disastrous.

Teachers in schools often find considerable difficulty in obtaining accurate
information about such a subject as Forestry. When dealing with the industries
of the country, in connection with geography lessons, or with the life-history of
trees, in connection with nature-study, they feel the need of reliable and up-to-
date books or pamphlets which are not unreasonably cumbersome and expensive.
It is largely with the aim of meeting such a want that the Conservator of Forests
has had this little Primer of Forestry drawn up. While it is primarily intended
for teachers, it will probably prove of interest to many of the general public.

The chapters on the birds and animals of the forests have been kindly sup-
plied by Mr. L. Glauert, Acting Keeper of Biology in the Perth Museum, and
the chapter on insects by the Government Entomologist, Mr. L. J. Newman, F.E.S.

CHAPTER I.

THE MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF FORESTRY.

Forestry is the science which deals with trees in masses or “forests.” It takes
cognizance of trees from the seed stage to maturity—a period which may cover
any time from 10 to 100 years or more, according to the class of tree under notice.
It has to do with trees during every period of their life, and explains and illus-
trates the conditions that are necessary for healthy tree-life, and also the cireum-
stances which tend to retard normal growth. It examines and weighs the different
factors that make up what is called “the life history of trees,’ and determines
the place of each in the general scheme. So far as all these matters are concerned |
forestry is a science, and the successful carrying out of its work necessitates the
calling in of some other sciences—such as botany, entomology, geology, ete. But
forestry implies a good deal more than has already been indicated. There is a
point at which forestry as a science and _ forestry as a policy meet, and at that
point the forester’s occupation merges into that of the merchant and the econo-
mist. The forester all throughout the time he is carefully tending the growing
trees has one prime object in front of him, and that is the production of as great
an amount as possible of good saleable timber from any given area, and the
removal of it in such a way that the productive power of the area shall not be
lessened. The whole science of forestry has for its objective the translation into
actual facts of a forest policy that has been mapped out by the forester as the
best for the community—not only for the community of to-day, but for the eom-
munity of the future. A forest is a source of wealth to the country possessing
it. If it be cut down recklessly and without thought of the morrow, the country
must suffer, but if it be administered under scientifically ordered methods, and in
accordance with a scientifically conceived policy, a forest may remain a source
of wealth to a country for all time.

Old English writers refer to the forester’s calling as an “art and mystery,”
which is just a quaint way of saving that its practice calls for skill and an inti-
mate knowledge of the habits of trees and of the conditions which are favourable
or unfavourable to their propagation and growth. ‘To-day forestry ranks as a
scienee, a term which in fact means very much the same as the “art and mystery”
of Norman and Tudor times. When England was dependent. wholly upon her
own forests for the timbers with which to build her ships, and, in great part, her
houses, her forests were under the care of men carefully trained for the work.
The protection of the forests against spoliation and destruction, the regulation
of cutting, and the replanting to make good wastage from all sources were among
the duties of those who practised the art of forestry. In modern times the forester
has to possess the same skill as did his predecessor of centuries ago, but new
conditions have arisen unknown to and undreamed of by the forester of the past.
The demand for timber is very much greater now than it has ever been in the
history of civilisation, and the forests of the world are daily growing less in
volume. The problems which the modern forester has to solve are how to pro-
duce a greater quantity of timber than was ever produced before, and how to
produce it from a smaller area of forests than existed in the past. His science
tells him how to do this, as will be explained later when we come to speak of “eulti-
vated” and ‘“uneultivated” forest.

The value of forests to a country should be realised clearly, for with such
realisation also will come the conviction that their protection is the duty of every
citizen. Of all the forms of natural wealth there is none so important, none so

7

essential to a country’s well-beimg as forests. A country may possess rich de-
posits of valuable metals and ores, but, when once these deposits have been ex-
liausted, they can never be replaced. With forests the case is quite different.
Provided they are not wantonly destroyed or recklessly used, the forests will con-
tinue to yield an annual crop of timber for all time and so remain forever a
source of wealth to the community possessing them. There is no material more
useful to man than timber, none that is more intimately connected with his well-
bemg. Without it life would be shorn of most of its joys and comforts; without
it man would never have emerged from barbarism; fire as a means of preparing
food and providing warmth would have been unknown, and travelling that in-
cluded the crossing of the wide rivers or of seas would have been impossible, and
man must for ever have remained a cave dweller.

But raw timber is by no means the only valuable product of the forest. There
are quite a number of others, some obtainable direct and others after the raw
material has been the object of certain processes. Timber itself may be converted
into other substances. Under the process known as “destructive distillation” from
wood there may be obtained pyroligneous acid, charcoal, gas and tar, and from
these again, by further processes, wood alcohol (valuable as a fuel and for many
other purposes) and quite a number of chemieals, all of them of commercial im-
portanee. The barks of certain of our trees are used by tanners for converting
skins into leather, and the marri (redgum) yields in large quantities a kino or
resin which is also of service in tanning. Again, from the leaves of almost every
tree in our forests an oil may be obtained. Some trees yield very little oil, others
a quantity large enough to form the basis of an industry. Eucalyptus oil, which
everyone knows, is distilled from the leaves of a member of the eucalypt family,
but this particular tree is not found mm Western Australia. Then, again, the
forests provide us with several gums and resins of value in certain trades—manna
gum and blackboy gum are instances. For many years a great part of the paper
used throughout the world has been made from wood. Hitherto the woods princi-
pally used for papermaking are the various softwoods found in Northern Europe,
Canada and the United States. But the forests from which these woods have
been drawn are daily becoming smaller, and it has been found necessary to dis-
cover whether hardwoods such as the eucalypts could not be used for the pur-
pose. Experiments have been made and are still being made in Perth and else-
where in Australia, and the results indicate that certain kinds of paper may be
made from these trees.. It will be seen, therefore, that, besides timber, forests
yield many other substances of use and value to man. Writing of the significance
of trees to mankind, an American author says, “Before the earth could be peopled
it was set thick with trees. Trees are the arms of Mother Earth, lifted up in
worship to the Maker; where they are beauty dwells; where they are not the land
is ugly, though it is rich, for its richness is but grassy flatness and its gaudy
raiment is but cheap imitation of forest finery.”

iv 2)

CHAPTER II.

MahDs IjUMaM SMO OP che MERI IIo,

It 1s necessary, before speaking about trees in the mass, 7.e., forests, to say
something of the individual tree. In most forests there are usually many different
varieties of trees. Indeed, in what may be termed virgin or uncultivated forests,

Jarrah Forest.

9

that is, forests that have had little or no assistaiice from man in the way of pro-
moting tree-growth, it is seldom that a forest consists wholly of one variety of
trees. There may be, and in most cases there actually is, one type of tree that
greatly outnumbers all the others; this type is said to form the dominant species,
and it is customary to use its name as generally descriptive of the whole forest.
_ For instance, we speak of jarrah forests, but in every jarrah forest other kinds of
trees are found, although the jarrah vastly outnumbers all these. In forests
planted by man very often only one class of tree is to be found, for such planta-
tions are usually made with the definite object of producing one class of timber
only.

All trees have some common features. All of them have roots, and a trunk
or trunks, and branches and leaves or substitutes for leaves.

A tree is a woody growth springing from the ground, with, as a rule, one
straight bole or trunk only. Jarrah, karri, and many other Western Australian
trees are examples in point. Others again have only a very short bole which
divides at or near the ground into several large branches, each having all the appear-
ance and functions of a trunk. York Gum is an example of ‘this class. Ther'e
are still others which send up a large number of boles direct from the roots, giving
the tree a shrubby appearance; such trees do not attain the size of the types
already mentioned. Many species of trees growing in the Hastern Goldfields and
the drier regicns of Australia adopt this habit of growth, and the mailee is the
typical example of this class. The three kinds named may be regarded as the
standard or general forms which trees take, but there are other forest growths
usually called “trees” which differ so very much in appearance from the standard
types that it seems searcely right to apply the terin “tree” to them. The “black-
boy,” the “grass tree,’ and Zamia palm are cases in point. From the point of view
of the botanist, however, these odd forest growths are very similar to trees, for
they have roots and boles and branches and parts which perform the same functions
as do the leaves in trees of the ordinary character.

A tree is made up of three parts. Firstly, the roots, which extend into the
eround to a depth and width of spread that depends very much on the kind 0°
tree, and also upon the kind of soil in which the tree is growing. The roots are
the great feeders of trees; they take up from the soil water and certain mineral
substances that are essential to tree life. Secondly, the bole or trunk or stem,
which supports the branches and crown and is the channel through which water
and food are supplied to these. Thirdly, the branches and crown, with their network
of foliage (leaves and buds). It is in the green portions of the foliage only that
all the food taken up by the tree from the soil and air is worked over and trans-
formed and made ready to assist in the growth of the whole tree. The crown of a
tree has quite as much to do with its growth and healthy life as the other parte.
Tf the crown be totally destroyed and not allowed to develop again, the tree will
die just as surely as if its roots had been destroyed. In the crown the most im-
portant processes in the reproduction of the tree and in the digestion of its food
take place. For the reason that it is possible to control its size and shape, the
crown is of much importance to those engaged in forestry work. When the forester
is growing a crop of trees he can by skilful attention to the crown produce the
class of tree that best suits the object he has in view.

The Food of a Tree.—A tree has two storehouses from which it gets its food
—the soil and the air. If the rootlets or root filaments—for many of them are no
thicker than a thread—be examined, it will be noticed that they are thickly covered
with minute hairs. These hairs have an important function, for it is they that
take up water from the ground. At the same time, they absorb various substances,
almost wholly mineral in character, which water holds in solution. These other
substances are the earthy constituents of the tree, and when timber is burnt we
have left them once more in the ashes. The water containing the mineral con-

ce into the stem and

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The leaves themselves take in from the atmosphere carbon dioxide gas, and
this gas dissolves in the water contained in the leaves. In the leaves, as well as in
some other parts of the tree, there is a green-coloured matter called chlorophyll,
which has the remarkable property of using the energy contained in sunlight to
cause the elements provided by water and carbon dioxide to become united into
complex carbon compounds, which form the greater portion of the actual food of
the tree. Chlorophyll is itself only found in the presence of hght, and an essential
element in its composition is iron. The composition of the raw material used in
the chemical laboratory of the plant is complex, but, in order that the plant may
continue to live, the following elements must all be absorbed in the form of some
soluble compound. The essential elements are:—

Hydrogen.

Oxygen.

Carbon.

Nitrogen.

Potassium.

Calcium.

Phosphorus.

Iron.
Carbon and oxygen make up carbonic acid gas which is absorbed through the
leaves, but all other elements must enter as soluble compounds through the minute
hairs on the tiny rootlets. Even the largest tree must depend for its food on these
fe hairs on its smallest rootlets. The large roots only seem to hold the tree up-
right, and to convey the food materials in solution from the root hairs to the por-
tion of the tree above the ground.

The inorganic chemical compounds which are absorbed by the plant are trans-
formed in the leaves into organic compounds, chief among which are ecarbo-
hydrates. This process is known as “photosynthesis,” a word which means build-
ing up through the action of light. The first stable carbohydrate formed is usually
some form of sugar. Photosynthesis only goes on in the presence of light, and
often in strong lhght the production of sugar proceeds at a faster rate than the
product can be removed from the leaf to other parts of the tree. The stoppage
of the life processes in this way is prevented by the fact that, when the concentra-
tion of sugar reaches a certain point, new activities of the protoplasm of the
living tree-cells are awakened and the formation of insoluble starch at the expense
of the sugar begins. As the starch is insoluble, the action of photosynthesis ean
continue unchecked seeing that the concentration of the sugar will not rise beyond
a critical point. Sugars as they arise are also continuously passing away from
the leaf to other parts of the tree. They have to be used up along with other
materials in the formation of new living substance, wood and other materials, as
well as to supply the chemical energy needed for vital processes. When the photo-
synthetic activity of the leaf ceases at night time, the starch formerly preduced in
the leaves is re-converted by special ferments into sugar, which thus continues to
replace that which is being still withdrawn from the leaves till all the starch may
be finally removed from them. This explains why it is that, towards the end of a
summer’s day, the leaves may be full of starch, but next morning they contain
little or none. In other words, the process of absorption of food by trees goes
-on continuously day and night.

Let us now turn to the mechanics of tree-food. The water from the roots, as
has been said, passes upwards into the leaves, in the outer laver of the wood. The
sugary sap already referred to travels from the leaves to the parts where it is
required in the inner layers of the bark. Hence, if a tree be “rine’barked”’ all
round the stem through the bark and the outer layers of the wood, it will be kilied,
as no water can then pass upwards, and it follows, of course, that no life-giving

12

food can pass downwards. ‘This, in a few words, explains the action of ring-
barking. The important part that leaves play in the life history of a tree is not
e 7 ognised, but, as a matter of fact, the leaves are as essential to its
health and progress as the roots.

Karri Log and fallers.

13

How a Tree Breathes.—Plants breathe, although not quite in the same way
as animals. Both inhale the air, keeping the oxygen and expelling the carbon
dioxide gas. The difference is that a tree has no lungs, but breaths over its whole
surface, leaves, branches, trunk and roots. Even though the roots are covered
with soil, they breathe the air which is present in the tiny air-spaces between the
soil particles. A plant will be just as surely drowned if its roots are kept under
water for long periods as a man will be if his head is kept under water for a
certain time. A few plants have special adaptations to enable them to grow in
swamps and wet places, but they are exceptional. This process, which is called
“respiration,” 1s the exact opposite of photosynthesis. The difference between the
two processes may be set out as follows:—

Photosyuthesis. Respiration.
1. Is a feeding process. 1. Is a breathing process.
2. Carbon dioxide gas is retained. 2. Oxygen is retained.
3. Oxygen is returned to the air. 3. Carbon dioxide gas is returned to
4, Purifies the air. the air.
5. Only takes place in green parts. 4. Fouls the air.
6. Only takes place in sunlight. 5. Takes place in all parts.

6. Goes on day and night.

These two processes—photosynthesis and respiration—go on together, but,
whereas respiration goes on always in all the livings parts of the tree, photosyn-
thesis only takes place in the green parts and in the day time. During the day
the photosynthesis is the more active process and more oxygen is returned to the
air than is retained. At mght respiration alone is going on. Trees therefore have
the effect, through the giving off of oxygen, of purifying the air in the day time
and of vitiating it at mght, but, upon the whole, the purifying action is much
greater than the other.

Transpiration.—lit has already been explained that the leaves of trees breathe
or respire. They have another function: they transpire; that is, certain matter
passes out through them into the atmosphere. We know already that trees suck
up water and certain other substances through their roots, but, under normal con-
ditions, the quantity taken up by the roots and sent up the trunk and through
every part of the tree is in excess of its requirements. A tree requires certain min-
eral substances for its nutrition, and, as these are present only in very small quan-
tity in the water, the roots have to suck up a large quantity of water in order to
get sufficient of these mineral substances for the use of the tree. The tree does not
need all the water its roots supply, and the excess is evaporated through all parts
of the tree above ground, but principally by the leaves. This process is called
“transpiration.” It can be readily perceived that a good deal of power must be
exerted to drive the water from the roots to all parts of great trees. What that
power is, is still a question for final decision. It is known, however, that the roots
exercise some kind of pumping function and that there is above ground a sucking
action due to transpiration from the leaves and other parts. These two forces,
the latter in particular, may be the main factors in producing a steady flow of
water from lowest root to topmost leaf.

The Growth of a Tree—tThe source of growth of a tree lies in the additions
to it made by the food which it has drawn from the ground and absorbed from the
atmosphere. But the food does not increase the bulk of the whole tree in the same
way. Exeept in the case of leaves, buds, fruit and twigs of less than a year’s age,
the digested food material is deposited in the form of a thin layer over the whole
tree between the wood and the bark. This layer is made up of wood cells, or wood
fibre. Year by year these successive layers of wood cells are deposited and the tree
increases in size. The new twigs grow in length by a kind of stretching, but only

14

during the first year. After that they grow by the same process as the trunk and
branches. It is obvious, therefore, that it is only by means of the youngest twigs
that a tree increases in height, and in the spread of its branches. After the first
year the length of young twigs is fixed; younger twigs stretch from new buds and
the older twigs continue to grow by the deposition of wood-cells as in the old parts
of the tree. Between the wood and the bark there is a very thin layer of living
cells called the cambium. This cambium is nourished by the food sap and grows
in thickness, its inner layers producing wood-substance and its outer layers pro-
ducing bark, and yet between the two there always remains a thin layer of cam-
bium. The production of cells inwards which turn into wood is greater than that
outwards of cells which turn into bark, and for this reason the layer of wood formed
annually is thicker than the layer of bark. In this way every year a new layer
of wood is added on the outside of the older wood, and a new layer of bark is added
on the inside of the older bark. The ovtecome of this latter process is that the bark,
as its older parts become stretched to breaking point, cracks or peels. It will be
noticed that the process of bark production is even more complicated than that of
wood. What is usually called bark is made up of two parts. All that is outside
of the latest formed layer is dead matter, because no water or food supply can get
to it from the interior of the tree. The purpose of this dead matter is to protect
the true bark and the wood from damage from the outside.

The Structure of Wood.—The structure of wood is the main element which
determines its class and its value. Trees differ from each other owing mainly to
the differences in the size, shape and form of the cells which make up the fibre of
wood. These differences give a particular character to each kind of wood, and are
also the means by which it may be readily and surely identified. The structure of
wood explains why some kinds are harder and stronger than others, why some are
eross-grained and some straight-grained, why some have a tendency to crack or
split, and why some wood, when eut, has a more or less beautiful pattern, and some
has seareely any pattern, or, indeed, none at all. Jarrah and banksia, for example,
when cut are quite different in appearance, and this is due entirely to the differ-
ence in the structure of their wood.

All wood is composed of very small tubes and cells. In the latest formed
wood the tubes act as pipes through which the water flows up the tree. In this
part the wood is usually soft and light in colour, and is known as the “sapwood.”
Inside the bark lies the sapwood, and, as has been said, it is usually light in colour.
This is particularly noticeable in almost all the eucalypts in the West Australian
bush, jarrah and karri being notable examples. It varies in width from half an
inch to several inches, according to the age of the tree and the species. Inside the
sapwood and continuing to the centre of the tree is what is known as the “heart-
wood.” The heartwood has practically no other function than that of mechanical
support. On the other hand, the sapwood is a living part of the tree, serving’
largely to store up the starch and other food and to conduct the unelaborated sap
from the roots up to the leaves. The extreme outer portion of the sapwood is the
cambium already referred to. | | |

On cutting across the trunk of a tree we may see the annual rings, but these
rings are not equally visible in every tree. In some kinds of trees they stand out
quite clearly and may be counted easily. In other kinds of trees they are very
difficult to detect, and in some they are non-existent. In most of the eucalypt trees
the rings are faint or non-existent. In jarrah, for instance, it is quite impossible
to detect them. .

In looking for the reason for this difference, we note that trees which come
from a country having a severe winter usually show far more distinct rings than
those which grow in countries which have a mild winter. Broad-leafed trees in cold
countries usually shed their leaves in winter and consequently photosynthesis can-

15

not go on; even evergreens, such as pines and firs, he dormant during the cold
weather. In such cases the annual ring is clearly defined. Other trees—and the
whole eucalypt family is included amongst them—are not entirely dormant through

the winter, but continue to grow throughout the year, although their rate of growth
in cool weather is certainly smaller than in warm weather. But this intermittent
erowth has the eftect of either partially preventing the formation of rings or caus-
ing more than one indistinet rmg to be formed in the same year.

Hauline Jarrah Loe.

ec

o

16

When the leaves sprout afresh in the spring on trees that have lain dormant
or shed their leaves in the winter, there is a great demand by the trees for water,
and the pipes and cells which are then formed have thin walls and large open-
ings. Later on, in summer, there is not so much want of water, and smaller
openings will do; at the same time the bark begins to press on the wood, so. that
the cell walls must be capable of resisting this pressure. Therefore in summer
the pipes have thick walls and small openings. In winter growth stops, as has
been said, and it begins again next spring with the pipes with large openings.
These being formed next to the thick-walled ones give the appearance of a ring
when the wood is cut across.

Running across the annual rings from the centre of the tree to the bark
there are some thin lines. These are called the medullary rays, and to them
mainly is due the figure possessed by many woods. In order to see these
medullary rays at their best, one has to cut the wood in a particular way, that
is, along a radius, or as the timber man says “on the quarter.” The breadth of
the rays varies in different species of trees, being difficult to see in euecalypts
and pines, but in some others, such as Casuarinas, Sheoaks and Banksias, standing
out quite clearly. These medullary rays consist chiefly of soft cells which
keep up a connection through the harder timber from the centre of the tree to
the bark. They, as well as some other parts, are used by the tree as storehouses
for any excess of starch that may be in the food, and, it is believed, are concerned |
in the series of changes whereby sapwood is ultimately converted into _heart-
wood.

Reproduction—Nature makes plentiful provision for the preservation of
tree growth. All trees when they come to maturity bear flowers, although some-
times these are not very conspicuous. ‘These flowers in due time develop into
fruit and seeds, which fall to the ground and give birth to new trees. Besides
reproduction by means of seeds, many trees are able to spring up again by means
of shoots from the stump after the tree has been cut down, or by suckers from the
roots. This power varies in the different species, and upon it depends the pro-
duction of coppice woods, about which something will be said when we come to
speak of forests.

CHAPTER III.

THE FOREST.

The forest 1s a community and has a character of its own, just as each tree
in it possesses its own individuality. It may be likened to a populous city.
very person in the city has many things in common with all the other individuals»
but he also has a character entirely his own. A forest holds many trees, per-
haps nearly all of the same kind, but none the less the forest itself has a
character that is not wholly shared by any other. A forest is more than a great
collection of trees, since it includes not only the trees, but the soil and the
undergrowth and natural features peculiar to itself. ‘The trees bear the same
relationship to each other as do the people in a town—they are mutually
dependent and at the same time in competition with one another. Forests are
primarily of two kinds, natural forests and planted forests. The one kind are
those with which Nature has endowed the country possessing it, and the second are
those which have been planted by man with the definite object of producing timber.
Natural forests are of two kinds, cultivated and uneultivated. An uncultivated
forest is one which has received no attention from man, except as a storehouse of
timber to be cut down and carried away; the cultivated natural forest 1s one in
which man has done something to repair the damage caused by the removal of tim-
ber or by fire or any other destructive agency. It will be shown later that a culti-
vated forest not only produces a very much larger crop of timber than an uneulti-
vated one, but is to a large degree protected against loss from fire and other agen-
cies disastrous to tree life.

The “cultivated” forest already referred to is the ideal of modern scientific
forestry. In France, Belgium, and Germany the whole of the forests are culti-
vated, and in other Kuropean countries the process of converting “wild” or ‘“un-
cultivated” forests to “cultivated” ones is proceeding apace. In Australia, with the
exception of certain plantations, mainly of exotic trees, the forests are still un-
cultivated, but in every State the process of conversion is being pushed on. The
effect of cultivation upon a natural forest is to increase very materially the amount
of timber which the forest can yield annually without in any way diminishing its
productive power. It has been stated by a high authority: on forestry that “four
year of ‘cultivated’ forest growth equals a century of virgin forest growth.” In
South Africa, where scientific forestry methods have been in operation for a leneth-
ened period, the results abundantly prove that care and attention bestowed on
forests reap a rich reward. The following paragraph on the subject is taken from
the writings of an eminent forester :—

“South Africa—Yields of ‘wild’ and ‘cultivated’ forests—In South Africa,
Euealypt plantations, Hogsback, ete., worked at a rotation of 12 to 18 years, yielded
600 cubic feet per acre per year; the Nilgiris maximum, we have seen, was 700
eubie feet. This is about the quantity of timber obtained when all the mature
material is worked, on an average acre of indiginous virgin forest at the Cape of
Good Hope (Amatolas). We do not know how long it has taken to produce the
stand of timber in the indigenous forest—not less than 100 years, perhaps 200.
If we take the mature timber as half the gross yield, and these special Eucalypt
yields as half average yields, that would show a yearly yield from the cultivated
as about one-quarter the “stand” of timber in the wild forest; or, in other words,
the cultivated forest makes in four years what the wild forest does in from 100 to
200 years!”

18

When a forest is composed wholly of one species of tree, it is said to be a
“oure” forest. If trees of several varieties grow within its borders it is called a
“mixed” forest. Both classes are found in Western Australia. There are great
stretches of forest in the South-West, where jarrah trees only are to be seen,
others containing nothing but karri. Tuart, too, is found in a “pure” state, and
so are some other trees. Outside these areas where ‘pure’? forests exist, are
regions of mixed forest, where one type of tree may be most plentiful, but
growing with it are others of different varieties. Trees, like man, have habits or
likings, and they grow best where the conditions are favourable for the indulgence

of these habits or likings. For instance, some trees are “light-demanders,”
that is, they need plenty of light if they are to become big and productive. The
eucalypts are of this class. If, in walking through a jarrah forest, one looks

around for young jarrah seedlings, it will be observed that they are found very
seldom inedeed under the shade of, or in close proximity to, grown jarrali trees. But
they will be observed in plenty in the clear spaces upon which the sun’s rays
directly fall between the trees. Others, again, will thrive under more or less
shade and attain their best when they receive this shade from trees of other species.
Many of the acacia family are of this type, and many of the tall shrubs of our karri
country provide good examples of “shade bearers.”

ay

CHAPTER IV.

THE VALUE OF FORESTS.

Direct Value.—Go back as far as you like in the history of the world and
you will find that the forests have always piayed a very important part in the
national welfare of every country. The forests yield a number of products which,
before the dawn of civilisation, were indispensable to the tribes that inhabited
them. The negro in the tropical jungle of Africa, prehistoric man in the oak and
beech forests of the old world, the aboriginal in the eucalypt forests of Australia,
ali lived on the products of the forests and on the game that they sheltered. As
man became civilised and began to outgrow his environment and to find a diffi-
eulty in supplying himself with the necessities of hfe, he was gradually forced
to supplement the natural products with food, raiment, ete., grown under cultiva-
tion. He no longer relied on barks of trees and skins of wild animals, but he
set to work to domesticate animals which yielded him meat and skins and wool;
he grew cereals for his bread, and flax and cotton for weaving into cloth to cover
his body.

The growth of civilisation, while causing a decrease in the use of some wild
vaw products, also resulted in an increase in the use of other products, the chief
one being timber. As civilisation developed, the use of timber increased until a
seareity of this essential commodity was felt in every land. The higher the
civilisation, the greater the industrial development, the greater the use of wood.
One of the most important uses to which wood has been put from the earliest of
times is fuel, and to-day, except in localities where coal is cheap, we see wood
fuel used. In Western Australia firewood still forms a very large part of the
output of our forests. Perth, for instance, consumes no less than 150,000 tons of
firewood a year, Greenbushes requires 15,120 tons a year for its tin mining
industry, but the largest amount of all is used by the mines of the Eastern Gold-
fields, which require between 500,000 and 600,000 tons a year for their boilers. In
1915-14 Western Australia produced about 450,000 tons of sawn wood. It will be
seen then that the gold mines actually used more wood than was sawn in all the
mills in the South-West. It must, of course, be said that the value of the sawn
wood is much greater than the value of the firewood. Fuel at the Kalgoorlie
mines is worth 15s. a ton, while a ton of sawn wood aboard a ship in Bunbury is
worth to-day at least £8. The importance of firewood supply both to the house-
holder and the factory or mine is often overlooked. Timber is the main preduct
and the humble firewood takes a second place, but without it there are many
industries that could not exist in Western Australia to-day. From a forestry
standpoint the importance of firewood is very great, as will be shown when we
come to deal with the cultural operations necessary to improve the Jarrah and
karri forests. Suffice it to say here that it is only when the forester has a fuel
market to absorb the abundance of overmature trees, which are inevitably in the
majority in a wild forest, and the crowns and branches, that he can hope to
convert those wild forests into cultivated or normal forests.

Timber.—“‘From the eradle to the coffin we are surrounded by wood,” or, as
Kvelyn wrote in 1664:—

‘“Since it is certain and demonstrable that all arts and artisans whatsoever must
fail and cease if there were no timber and wood in a nation (for he that shall take his
pen and begin to set down what art, mystery or trade belonging any way to human life,
could be maintained and exercised without wood, will quickly find that I speak no
paradox), I say when this shall be well considered, it will appear that we had better
be without gold than without timber.’’

20

Hirst the axe, maul and wedge, then the pit-saw, then the waterwheel and
vertical saw, then the steam engine vertical and circular saw, and finally the
band-saw. Thus grew and developed the machinery used to fashion trees into
timber. In Western Australia we have seen the evolution from pit-saw to band-
saw, and the expansion of the timber milling business from the early part of the.
19th century until to-day. The total amount of timber exported to date amounts
to 3,897,849 Icads valued at £15,693,989. This timber exploitation in Western
Australa consisted mainly of jarrah, until the opening of the Karridale mills
near the Leeuwin in 1879, and of the Torbay and Denmark mills some years later.
Those mills cut a great deal of karri. Again of late years there have been four
mills cutting karri. It is unfortunate that there is no record of the quantities of
karri cut from Karridale and Torbay and Denmark in the early days. From the
time from which data are available, the volume of sawn karri turned out by these
four mills has been over 1,000,000 cubic feet.

Minor Forest Produce.—The rapid development of the saw-milling business in
this State has operated adversely in the matter of minor forest produce. Forestry ©
has been sacrificed to the sawmiiler and the demands of an export trade. In older
lands, where the local demand for wood is so heavy that the utilisation of the
whole tree is the practice, the tree is felled level with the ground and the bark,
if it contains tannin, is removed and sold to the tanner. The small branches are
converted into faggots for hovsehold kindling, the larger branches are split into
fuel, and the big limbs into sleepers. Waste from the mill is converted by
destructive distillation into charcoal, acetic acid, wood alcohol, tars and other
valuable distillates. Some wocds, whose structure particularly fits them for the
purpose, are used for the manufacture of paper pulp, artificial silk, ete. In tan
barks Western Australia possesses the valuable mallet, which contains no less
than 45 per cent. of tannin, and of which since 1903 we have exported an amount
vaiued at £929,808. It has been a case of “killing the goose that laid the golden
egg,” and to-day we have very little mallet left. Then there are gums and resins.
The forests of the old world and the new yield us turpentine and varnish gums,
such as kauri from New Zealand, copal from West Africa, and gum arabic. Then
there are the oils, eucalyptus oil being one of those produced in largest quantity;
the drugs, e.g., quinine from South America, camphor from Formosa, kola from
West Africa; and foods, such as cocoa and the many nuts and fruits.

Indirect Value of the Forests—-Yorests, as well as having a direct value, have
an indirect value. In the first place, they have an influence on the climate of the
district or province in which they grow. Research work covering a long period
in France has shown that in the first place the temperature of the air is lower ina
fovest than in the surrounding country. The mean annual forest temperature is
lower and also the mean monthly forest temperatures are lower. The mean winter
forest temperatures do not show, however, svch a difference as do the average
summer temperatures. Taking the daily mean temperatures, we find on the hottest
day in the year a much lower mean temperature in the forest than outside, and a
lower maximum. This equalising of the temperature is a very valuable function
of the forest. Unfortunately no work has yet been done in Australia to find the
exact effect of forests on the temperature of the air. There is no reason to suppose
that the forests of eucalypts should differ fundamentally in their action in this
regard from the forests of the Old World. It is right, however, to point out that
there is a difference between the actions of different species. The action is more
marked, for instance, under broad-leafed deciduous (i.e., shedding their leaves
annually) trees than under pines, spruces and firs. Forests in the growing season
exert more influence than during the dead season, whether they are evergreen or
not. Until a thorough investigation into forest meteorology has been carried out
in Western Australia, we cannot say how great is the influence of our forests on

al

the temperature of the air. While the reason for the equalising effect of the for-
ests on the temperature has not been fully explained, it would seem to be due to
the blanketing effect of the branches and tips, which shelter the soil from the heat

of the sun. If temperatures are taken from the ground upwards to the crowns of
the trees, then the effect of the forest 1s more noticeable near the ground than in

Karri on Trucks réady for powellising.

22

the crown. ‘That this action of the forests is felt at distances from the forests is
another important point in the chain of evidence proving the indirect value of for-
ests, for it means that districts possessing a high percentage of forests have a
more equable climate than those possessing a low percentage or no forests at all.
A most interesting research was made in Europe to investigate this very matter.
A belt of country nght through Europe along the 46th parallel of latitude, from
La Rochelle in France to the mouth of the Volga in Russia, was examined, and it
was found that, wherever there were large areas of forest, the extremes of tem-
perature were not so marked, while over regions where the forests had been des-
troyed or where no forests existed, the extremes were very great. Work done in
India has shown the same results, only the actual figures were more remarkable.
In Assam, for instance, it was found that the mean temperature in July within
the forests was 36.5° centigrade, while in the country where the forests had been
destroyed, though the latter region is situated nearer the sea-board, it was 57.4°
centigrade.

23
CHAPTER V..

FORESTS AND CLIMATE.

Reference has already been made to certain aspects of the indirect value of
forests. But beyond these ways in which forests are indirectly of great moment,
there is one whose importance must be specially stressed. In every part of the
world where forests are great, there is a constant annual rainfall, sometimes spread
with fair evenness over the whole year, and sometimes occurring as seasonal rains.
Again, wherever forests are absent or tree-life sparse, comparatively little rain
falls. The presence of forests implies a sufficient rainfall; their absence often
means little or no rain and desert country. The world furnishes many examples
of this. There are no forests in Arabia, and the rainfall is of the scantiest. The
same may be said of North-Central Africa, where there stretches over vast arid
distances the Sahara Desert. Central Austraha has no great forests, and such
trees as there are are few in number and stunted in size, and the rainfall there is
very small. History tells us quite clearly that the destruction of forests alters the
climate of a country by reducing the rainfall to a point that makes the growing
of food-crops impossible. Time was when Mesopotamia was a well-wooded covntry
and when grains of various kinds were produced in abundance. Many centuries
ago its forests were almost wholly destroyed. The rainfall diminished to such a
degree that agriculture could not be é¢arried on except in the immediate neighbour-
hood of the two great rivers—the Euphrates and the Tigris—and such crops as were
erown owed their existence to irrigation. Sicily, at one time, was one of the
eranaries of ancient Rome—that is, it grew and sent to Rome large quantities of
wheat every year—but its forests were almost wholly cut down and it ceased to be
a great wheat-growing country. The island of Cyprus is another instance in proof
of the fact that the wholesale destruction of forests has a disastrous effect upon
a country’s productive power.

But forests are in other ways of inestimable value so far as moisture 1s con-
cerned. When rain, especially heavy rain, falls upon a hard, bare country, much
the greater portion of it immediately runs off into the streams and rivers and on
into lakes or into the sea. When the country, however, is forested, the case is
different. Much of the surplus water runs off of course, but a great deal is re-
tained by the forest. In every forest there is upon the ground an accumulation
of what is known as “humus,” made up of the leaves and twigs that have fallen
from the trees. This humus has to become thoroughly soaked before any water
begins to run off. Further, the ground within a forest is more porous than ground
that has no forest cover. The reason is obvious, for beneath the surface of the
forested ground are vast masses of roots, and these break up the sub-soil, per-
mitting the absorption of water. Experiments in various parts of the world have
proved beyond question that forests have a beneficial effect on streams and springs.
Rivers that are fed from forested watersheds have a more uniform discharge and
carry less debris than streams coming through an unforested watershed. It has
also been proved conclusively that extensive damage from floods occurs less fre-
quently in streams coming from forested watersheds than in streams rising in
poorly forested or treeless watersheds

In forested country, too, streams run throughout the year, because the forest
eradually gives off the water it holds, while in unforested regions, the water passes
quickly to the streams, and, in the absence of further rain, these dry up. Springs
also are favourably influenced by the presence of forests, as their flow is regulated
and made continuous by the water conserved by the forest and given off gradually.
Ringbarking large areas of tree-covered land has much the same effect on streams
and springs as does cutting down the trees, and more particularly is this the case
if fire sweeps through the ringbarked country and destroys the humus. When
the Mundaring Weir was formed, a considerable part of the water catchment area

24

was ringbarked, with the result that some small streams that used to carry water
all the year round now run only during a portion of the year. In some parts of
the world, and more especially in France, inquiries have been conducted into the
question whether forests influence the amount of the rainfall. The evidence adduced
by these French experiments showed that within a forest the rainfall is appreciably
greater than in outside bare country. More than a century ago in a forested region
in France vast forests were cut down for war purposes. The result was disastrous.
In the absence of the trees the heavy:rains, which fall at certain seasons, washed
away much of the soil on hill sides and caused floods in the rivers that did much
damage. The position was so serious that the inhabitants of the district petitioned
the Government to have the forests replanted, and this was done. New forests in
time occupied the place of the old ones, and the flooding and damage ceased.

Forests also influence the temperature of the soil at varying depths. Forest
soil is warmer in winter and cooler in summer than bare land. The effect of this
is that the degree of humidity within a forest is always greater than outside.

Growth of Forests as infiuenced by Soil and Climate—lt is the very general
rule that such crops as are grown by farmers give better results on good soil than
on poor soil. With the trees the rule is not quite so general. Some trees demand
a really good class of land to exhibit their best results: marri (redgum) may be
quoted as an instance. Others prefer a second or third class soil: banksia is an
example of this class. It may be stated here that the trees of which Western Aus-
tralia possesses the largest number and the trees upon which her reputation as a
producer of timber rests, grow upon soil that is unsuited for agricultural purposes.

Broadly speaking, jarrah is seen at its best on poor soil or in country that
is purely laterite or largely of ironstone gravel. Such soil is of no value for farm-
ing. To this fact and this fact alone the belt of jarrah forests owes its preserva-
tion. Even when land settlement policies have alienated areas of jarrah country
for agricultural purposes, these areas have sooner or later reverted to the Crown,
the settler having failed to effect the necessary improvements or to make a living.
In places in the jarrah belt and further south, where the Darling fault country
breaks up, dykes of diorite are met with, and the soil disintegrated from this rock
forms valuable agricultural land. Except in the valleys of the Capel and Black-
wood rivers, and around Bridgetown, the areas of diorite soil are very small indeed.
In the karri country the soil is of a better quality than in the jarrah belt, and
particularly is this the case when the karri and marri are found growing mixed.
The soil on which karri grows in a pure or almost pure state is disappointing agri-
culturally, it being of a light snuffy nature, easily washing away when cleared of
timber. The soil on which wandoo grows is, generally speaking, of poor quality.
It is, however, more valuable than jarrah land, and all the best of the forests have
been alienated in fee simple. Tuart is entirely confined to the limestone formation
along the coast. The rock lies very close to the surface, and is covered by a loose
sand. It has.a value for grazing purposes, but is poor agriculturally. The
savannah forest of the drier regions grows, generally speaking, on excellent heavy
soils, and is in consequence necessarily fast disappearing before the wheat farmer
in the assured rainfall belt. Further eastward and northward, where the rainfall
is too scanty for agriculture, the savannah forest is intact, except around all min-
ine centres, where it is being rapidly converted into firewood.

Rainfall, it goes without saying, influences forest growth very greatly, in fact,
in the case of many species, an ample rainfall spread with fair regularity over the
year is essential. But the eucalypt family in Western Australia have adapted
themselves to their environment, and are at their best where the rainfall is large
in the winter months and almost entirely absent in the summer. The eucalypts
possess marvellous powers of accommodating themselves to climatic conditions.
Many varieties of these trees have been planted abroad, as has already been stated,
and in most of their new homes they thrive remarkably well. In California, where

25

they have been introduced, it has been ascertained that they grow at a greater rate
than in their native land, and it is supposed that is because the rainfall in Cali-
iernia is fairly well spread over the year. Jarrah, karri, marri, blackbutt, yate,
tuart, and certain other varieties of eucalypts are found only in the South-West
part of Western Australia, that is, in the region where the rainfall is greatest.
Some other varieties—wandoo for instance—-are abundant in the South-West, but
they are also found in the districts to the eastward, where the rainfall is much
less. On the Hastern Goldfields, where the rainfall is very scanty, salmon gum and
=imlet grow to a considerable size, producing timber that is of great use in mining
and for other local purposes. Certain of the eucalypts have developed a marked
resistance to extremes of heat and cold. Baron von Mueller mentions that one
variety of eucalypt—the coolibah of tropical Western Australia, the Northern
Verritory, and Queensland—-withstands unseorched a frequent heat of 156° Fahr.
in Central Australia, nor is this tree affected by exceedingly severe trosts (18° F.).
oil and climate are among the determining factors in tree growth, but there are
some varieties of trees which flourish well under conditions that are widely diver-
gent from the normal.

CHAPTER VI.

UNDERGROWTH AND HUMUS.

Trees are not the only members of the vegetable world that grow in forests.
One cannot enter a forest without at once being attracted by the undergrowth,
consisting of shrubs and herbs of many kinds that are growing side by side with
the trees. Another thing that one notices is that the ground is covered with a soft
carpet of leaves and small branches that have dropped from the trees, and this
earpet, is thick or thin according to the class of trees in the forest. When this
decays, it forms the rich leaf-mould known as humus. It will be readily seen that
deciduous trees (those which shed their leaves annually) must form a thicker humus
than those trees that do not so lose their leaves every year. Both the undergrowth
and the humus are essential to the healthy life of a forest, and anything that des-
troys or reduces it below its natural quantity is an enemy of the forest. It is the
humus which provides much of the food of the trees. In the course of time, through
ithe action of the sun and rain and wind, it is gradually decomposed and mixed
with the upper layers of the soil and becomes available as plant food. The con-
tinual decomposition of humus forms several important products. In the first
place, the soil receives all the mineral matter contained in the humus; secondly,
large quantities of carbon dioxide are produced, which accelerates the decomposi-
tion of the mineral part of the soil rendering it soluble; finally the decomposing
numus renders many important substances such as potash, magnesia, and lime
soluble in water, so that they become available for the use of the tree. So it will
be seen that humus plays an important role in the healthy growth of a forest. Un-
_ dergrowth has also a special value. It sheds leaves, which add to the stock of debris
that falls from the trees, and when the undergrowth dies off, it decomposes, and
adds to the amount of food available for the production of essential nourishment
for the tree. When a fire passes through a forest, even when it may do apparently
ittle damage to the trees, it may destroy part or all of the humus, and thus indir-
ectly cause serious damage to forest. growth.

26

CHAPTER VII.

FIRES AND THEIR COST.

The forest, like every other natural object, has its enemies as well as its friends.
Among the latter may be mentioned birds and small marsupials who destroy in-|
sects that are injurious to trees, especially young trees. These friends of the trees
carry on their beneficent work all the year round, and without them great forests of
fine trees would be impossible. The only enemies of the forest that work contin-
uously during the year are harmful insects and fungoid growths of many kinds. —
Nature has provided means for keeping the noxious insects in check, and the skill
ot the forester combats successfully a great number of the diseases due to fungi.
But of all the destructive agencies that afflict forest-growth none is more serious,
none is accompanied by greater loss and damage, than fire. A fire through a
forest may undo years of hard work on the part of foresters. The seriousness of
such a disaster can only be estimated by those who have given close study to forest
questions. Let us see in what way fire inflicts untold harm on a forest. In the
first place it destroys the humus and undergrowth, and it has already been explained
how essential these are to healthy vigorous forest life. In the second place, the fire
damages the bark of trees that have passed the sapling stage, with the result that.
the trees are killed off, or, if they continue to live, they develop “greedy-growths”
(small branchlets on the trunk and limbs), and other defects which render them
- useless as producers of good timber, or they become stunted and deformed and of
no value except as firewood. There are hundreds of thousands of such deformed
and valueless trees in the forests of Western Australia; these, if fire had not in-
jured them, would have been of value and would have added to the State’s timber
production, whereas now it will cost money to remove them in order that others
may grow in their places. Another and particularly serious aspect of the destruc-
tive work of fire is the havoc caused among saplings and seedlings. Few saplings
escape damage when a fire sweeps through the bush, and far fewer still are the
seedlings that escape. The disastrous effects of the ravages of fire are apparent to
even the most casual observer in the bush. In every jarrah or karri forest will be
noticed great vacant spaces bare of large trees and seedlings, but showing evidences
of more or less recent visitations by fire. These vacant places tell with a plainness
that cannot be misunderstood that the young trees have been destroyed, and that
Nature’s efforts to keep the forests full of fine trees have been frustrated by fire.
Seme peop!e will tell you that a fire through a forest does good. That view is
utterly fallacious, for the exact contrary is the truth. It is true that after a fire
some rough feed suitable for grazing stock may spring up, but no one who has
given even a slight attention to the subject can maintain that this indifferent herb-
age has a value in the smallest degree approaching that of the trees destroyed or
rendered useless, nor can it be set against the diminution in the future productive
power. of the forest through the destruction of seedlings. In every country in the
world possessing valuable forests the fire menace is being earnestly combated.
Measures have been taken to prevent fires as far as possible, and to reduce the
extent of their ravages. :

Investigation not only in Western Australia, but in other parts of Australia
and in foreign countries, has proved, beyond a doubt, that the vast majority of
bush fires are preventable. They almost always arise from the careless use of fire.
A eamp fire is left alight when the campers leave, and the wind does the rest. Kvery
person in the bush hghting a fire should be careful to see that it is thoroughly

27

extinguished before he leaves it. Nobody who has been IN the bush should go
away without making sure that his fire is OUT. The forests of Western Aus-
' tralia are part of a great inheritance of natural resources; they belong to the
people, and anything that diminishes their value reduces the store of national
wealth. It is the duty of every citizen to protect the forests, and in so doing he
is protecting his own property. Under the “Forests Act, 1918,” regulations for
the prevention of fire have been made, and certain penalties prescribed. The
chiet of these regulations runs as follows:—

101. (1.) If any person—

(a) lights, kindles, or assists to light or kindle, or aids or abets another
person in lighting or kindling, any fire within the boundaries or within
twenty yards of any boundary of a State forest or timber reserve; or

(b) leaves, without taking due precaution against its spreading or causing
injury, a fire lighted or kindled by him as aforesaid, or in the light-
ing or kindling of which he has aided or abetted;

and in either case any forest produce is burnt or injured,.or is in danger of being
burnt or injured, such person shall be guilty of a forest offence, and lable, on convic-

tion, to imprisonment for not exceeding one year, or to a penalty not exceeding one
hundred pounds.

(2.) A reward of not exceeding fifty ane may be paid by the Department to
any person, not being a forest officer, who shall give such information as may lead to
a conviction under this section.

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MO}toquag ‘S[[IpT 23819

‘SON 1e Surpuery Sor]

;

CHAPTER VIII.

SYLVICULTURE.

Sylviculture literally means the culture of forests. Although business man-
agement and the utilisation of timber occupy a great deal of the forester’s time,
his real work is growing trees. Sylviculture is the science of growing trees in such
a manner that they shali most econcmically realise the desires of the owner of the
forest land.

The owner may be a private individual or a Government, and it remains with
the owner to indicate to the forester the purposes which he desires the forest to
serve. The forester adopts these proposals as his “objects of management.”

The following list serves to show that the treatment of a forest must depend
largely on the “objects of management” which govern if. A forest may be man-
aged with the object of providing—

(1) the largest possible annual income; or

(2) the largest possible yield of timber each year; or

(3) a special class of forest-produce such as turpentine; or

(4) shelter for man and beast and beautifying the landscape; or

(5) protection against excessive floods, droughts, and extremes of tem-
perature.

As soon as the objects of management are fixed the forester must decide upon
the species of tree and the method of growing it-which will give the best results.
To decide upon the species of tree to be grown a close study of the “factors of
the locality” is necessary. The next consideration is the “method of regeneration”
to be adopted, and linked with it the ‘“‘sylvicultural system” under which the forest
is to be managed.

The factors of the Locality which influence trees are numerous, and interact
to such an extent that it is impossible in many cases to discover why one species
of tree should flourish in a certain position, and other specimens of the same species
show poor development on apparently similar soil in the same neighbourhood.

The factors in the locality may be divided into factors dependent on climate
and factors dependent on soil and subsoil.

The climate of a given locality depends on its geographical position, and it
is no use trying to introduce trees from Canada, Kngland, or Seandinavia into
Western Australia on a large scale. In order that trees may grow here with any
degree of success: they must be either indigenous or brought from some country,
such as certain land bordering the Mediterranean Sea, which has a similar climate
to Western Australia. Within Western Australia itself the main climatic factor
is rainfall. It is not sufficient to refer to the average rainfall; the minimum rain-
fall and its distribution throughout the year are of vital importance. Certain
parts of England have less rainfall than many parts of this country, but it is
evenly distributed over the twelve months of the year, whereas in Western Aus-
tralia trees have to withstand nearly six months’ drought each year.

Soil and Subsoil.—In countries where rainfall is distributed more or less evenly
throughout the year the soil is of greater importance than the subsoil, for the roots
of a tree flourish and continue to flourish in the top soil layers.

In southern Australia, however, most trees are forced to go to the subsoil for
the necessary moisture, especially during the summer months, and consequently
the subsoil is there of major importance.

30

In studying soil or subsoil in relation to tree growth, the degree of porosity
and its water-retaining capacity is of far greater importance than chemical com-
position. :

The chemical composition of soil and subsoil is of far less importance in for-
estry than in agriculture, for trees as a general rule take only about one-twelfth
of the mineral substance required for the successful growth of field crops. Trees
have their likes and dislikes, but few soils are so poor that they cannot support
a crop of some species or other of tree. For example, Pinus pinaster (Cluster
pine) will grow practically anywhere except on limestone, whereas Pinus halepensis
(Aleppo pine) flourishes on the poorest of limestone ridges.

The only sate method of assessing the quality of a locality is by a close study
of the trees which have previously grown on the same area and the conditions
under which they have developed.

The forester may decide that in order to fulfil his objects of management more
than one species of tree are necessary, in which case he has the alternative of grow-
ing the different species in “pure forest” on separate areas, or together in a “mixed
forest”? on the same area. In the case of a mixed forest the management is more
difficult and great care must be taken to see that one species does not outgrow and
suppress another. Certain species known as “ight demanders,” require full en-
joyment of direct sunlight. Other species, known as “shade bearers,” are content
with much less light, and will flourish under the shade east by a lght-demanding
species.

Method of Regeneration.—\f the forester has decided to continue growing a
species already established on the area, he will seek to establish the new crop by
some system. of ‘‘natural regeneration.” It is more economical and satisfactory
to start a fresh crop of trees with seed from “mother trees” already established on
the area than to employ “artificial regeneration.” If it is necessary to resort to
artificial regeneration, then the seed must be collected, and it may be sown directly
on to the area where it is desired to establish the new crop, or it may be sown in
a nursery and the young plants carefully tended until they become large enough
to plant out.

In this country the forester is often blamed for sowing or planting his trees
too close together, but in this he is simply following the example set by Nature.
In a virgin forest from which fires are excluded Nature fills up open spaces with
many thousands of seedlings to the acre; as they develop, the stronger suppress
the weaker, and this struggle goes on throughout the whole life of the forest. The
forester steps in and, working on the principles laid down by Nature, causes a
struggle between the individual trees in order that they may grow into fine straight
timber trees without side branches, but hastens their development by thinning out
the crop at intervals.

A “sylvicultural system” sets out the method by which the formation, regenera-
tion, tending and exploitation of the woods which compose a forest are effected.
Every forest requires individual treatment, so that the sylvicultural system only sets
out the general lines of working. The main consideration in the management of
any forest is to ensure that the sylvicultural system adopted will at least main-
tain the fertility of the soil on which the forest is growing. Herein les the great
distinction between forestry and the general practice of agriculture. Field crops
rob the soil of essential mineral salts and make the use of fertilisers and manures
necessary. Forest crops, if properly managed, increase the fertility of the soil by
returning to it rich organic matter in the form of humus.

all

CHAPTER IX.

FOREST MANAGEMENT.

It is seldom that a forester reaps the crop which he sows; consequently the
management of a forest must be very definitely laid down if the efforts of one
man are to be successfully carried on by his successor. It is equally important
that a people becoming possessed of a forest growing on a soil suitable only for
the growing of trees should not cut out that forest any faster than new trees can
erew up to take the place of the trees they are felling. This principle has not
yei received recognition in Western Australia, with the result that big mills have
been established and big towns have grown up around them. The timber was
wastefully cut with no thought of future requirements, with the result that
before the new crop was ready the old crop was exhausted, and the mills have had
to close. In many places in the South-Western Division of this State, the ruins
of townships can be seen where young trees are springing up among the charred
foundations of the mill buildings and houses.

The basis of forest management is forest mensuration. It is a simple matter
to measure logs lying on the ground, and the volume of timber growing on an
acre of forest land can always be determined by chopping down the trees. This
is seldom possible, but various systems have been devised whereby the volume of
a standing forest may be calculated by measuring up a small number of sample
trees which are felled for the purpose. Where forestry has been practised over
long periods, as in Germany, the forester is enabled by a series of measurements
to determine the volume of timber which a forest of a certain species growing
on certain class of country should yield at various ages. By tabulating and aver-
aging the results of many thousands of measurements he compiles “Yield Tables.”

By comparing the condition of a forest under iis charge with the particulars
concerning a “normal forest” of the same age which he finds in the yield tables,
he is able to judge the success or failure of the manner in which he has tended
the forest.

Yield tables also enable the forester to determine when his forest crop is
economically mature. He should know the revenue which each acre of his grow-
ing forest must be accumulating in order to be fully utilising the land which it
occupies. The yield table shows him the average annual increment in volume
which the forest is putting on at various ages, and when the value of this inere-
ment drops below the compound interest charges which the forest must bear, then
the trees should be felled in order to make way for a fresh crop.

The involved calculations by which the forester tests the financial soundness
of a forest crop as an investment comes within the study of ‘‘Forest Valuation.”
Detailed calculations of forest valuation are not possible in a young country such
as this, where very little is yet known about the rate of growth of our indigenous
species, but sufficient is known to prove that trees are the most valuable crop
that can be grown on certain classes of soil.

In order that the practice of forestry may be conducted on sound business
lines, there must be a regular “stock taking” of the land comprising a forest and
the trees growing upon it. Land surveys and timber surveys form a very essen-
part of forest management, and the first step towards organising sylvicultural
work and fire protection is to have a survey of the country made.

In order that forest management may serve to improve the condition of a
forest and cause it to yield the highest possible returns on the money invested,
there must be a continuity of policy regulating the management. The main object
of a “Working Plan” is to ensure continuity of working over long periods.

2

The first “Working Plans” which were laid down for continental forests set
out tne detailed management of the forests for very long periods, such as one
hundred years. But it was found that long before these plans expired conditions
altered so much that it was at times absolutely essential to alter portions of the
“Working Plan.”

Modern forest ‘W cuking Plans” lay down the eeneral lines of working for
the average time taken by the main species of tree to reach marketable size, and
they only set out in detail the work to be done during a short period, such as five
to ten years. At the end of the specified period, the plan is brought up to date,
and the detailed working laid down for another period.

A working plan report is a document embodying working plan proposals in
the following order :—

Chapter I.-—General introduction and he history of the ferest.

Chapter I1.—Present condition of the forest, giving particulars concerning
the species of trees and the volume of timber in the existing forest.

Chapter i]].—Future treatment of the forest, showing how it is proposed
to give effect to the objects of management.

Chapter 1V.—Utilisation of the present crop and particulars concerning the
method of disposing of it.

Chapter V.—Vlorest protection, setting cut the steps to be taken to protect
the forest from damage by fire, animals, insects, fungoid diseases, and
other harmful phenomena.

Chapter VI.—dAdministration, in which is set out the manner in which the
proposals which make up the Working Plan are to be carried out.

A Working Plan sets out all the operations necessary to make the forest fully
productive, and the Forests Act of Western Austratia, which became law in 1918
contains a wise provision whereby every Working Plan, after it has received the
approval of the Governor, can only be altered on the recommendation of the
Conservator of Forests.

A PRACTICAL EXAMPLE OF FOREST MANAGEMENT.

When a farmer desires to settle in a new country and buys bush land with
the object of converting it into a farm, he must do months and even years of hard
work hefore the first crops are reaped. He must start by clearing, burning, and
fencing. Stumps have to be grubbed and the soil broken with a plough. If his
efforts are to succeed he must not waste his time digging up a small tree here
and a sapling there, but he must settle down to regular work and clear the land
acre by acre, taking the large trees with the small.

A forester is a farmer of trees on a large scale, and his treatment of the
forest may be compared to regular working of a well managed farm.

Let us take an example and see in simplest terms how a forester would set
about converting a “wild” into a “cultivated” forest.

A forester is placed in charge of an area of fifty thousand acres covered
with a forest of jarrah.

A limited amount of money is provided each year and the forester is in-
structed to supply as much jarrah timber annually as the forest is capable of
yielding. There is only one stipulation which he must observe, and that is that
the amount of timber cut each year must not decrease in volume, although any
inerease in volume which will mean an inerease in revenue owing to improved
management will be welcomed.

The forest of 50,000 acres is a solid block of ironstone country which was
lightly evt over some years ago, but still carries a fair crop of marketable jarrah
distributed evenly over the whole area.

ip)
33

If the forester is to maintain a continuous supply of timber he must know
how many years it takes a jarrah tree to grow from seed to a mature tree large
enough for commercial purposes. He learns from measurements which have been
taken to ascertain the rate of growth of existing jarrah trees of various sizes, that
it will probably take one hundred years for a tree to grow to the required size.

Consequently, he divides his total area of 50,000 acres by 100 and finds that
he ean afford to cut the timber on 500 aeres each year. If he cuts 500 aeres
this year and makes provision for a new crop to take the place of the trees removed
and continues this procedure each year, by the time that the last 500 acres are to
be cut the first 500 acres which were cut will be carrying a crop of trees 99 years
old. The trees on this area will be 100 years old the following year and the forest
will then be ‘normal,’ for it will consist of 100 compartments each of 500 acres
in extent and each carrying trees. of one age. A regular series of compartments is
thus established in which there will always be one in process of regeneration, and
one in process of being cut out, and between the first and last 98 compartments
in order of age, from the one one year old to the one 100 years old. The “normal
forest” is the aim of: every forester, but although he seldom reaches his objective
the success of his efforts may be judged by the degree of normality of cultivated
forests under his control. In practice the forester is never allowed a full rotation
of 100 years to convert an abnormal into a normal forest, but for the sake of illus-
tration we will follow the probable procedure of the forester in charge of the 50,000
acres already referred to.

His first care would be to choose the 500 acres to be cut over during the com-
ine year. On this area all the sound trees will be sawn into timber; many faulty
trees will be suitable for firewood only. Before felling operations commence the
forester must mark certain trees which, although the trunks may be damaged, have
strong healthy tops, and these must be left standing as “mother trees.” One or
two mother trees to the acre will shed sufficient seed to establish a fresh crop on
the area.

When all the timber and other forest produce are cleared off the area the
remaining tops and debris must be roughly stacked and a strong’ fire run through
the compartment towards evening. Before the fire is started a firebreak must be
cleared around the outer boundary of the compartment to prevent the fire spread-
ing through the remainder of the forest.

The burning over of the area and the dropping of seed by the mother tree
will result in a crop of seedlings springing up in the compartment. As soon as
this new crop gives indication of being established by surviving one summer, the
mother trees which have served their purpose may then be ringbarked.

For the next ten years the forester will have no worry other than keeping
the fires out. A thinning may then be necessary, but this and subsequent thin-
nines must leave sufficient trees to maintain a continuous canopy of leaves over the
area during the whole life of the forest.

When the trees have finished their main height growth and are not likely to
develop side branches, a large number of trees may be taken out in the periodic
thinning to enable those remaining to grow to a larger size. Height must, how-
ever, be secured before diameter growth is encouraged. The value of the final
crop will depend on the length of clean timber free from knots in the trunk of
the trees.

Another very important matter which must be attended to as rapidly as funds
permit is the complete fire protection of the whole forest. Fires have effects other
than the more apparent scorching of the leaves and the burning of the butts of
the older trees. The running of a hot surface fire over the root system of trees,
which are often necessarily shallow rooted owing to impermeable layers of iron-
stone, must have an injurious effect on the finer absorptive roots. The burning of

oF

all leaf litter must also prevent any increase in soil fertility which would other-
wise result from the decomposition of humus. Such results of surface fires in the
jarrah bush which are not commonly recognised must have the effect of slowing up
the rate of growth of existing jarrah as well as preventing the development of
healthy young trees in any open spaces which may chance to exist.

There are very many operations connected with the management of even such
a simple forest which have not been mentioned, but the object of this chapter is
to point out that the forester is essentially a sylviculturalist who raises crops of
trees according to some recognised system with the object of maintaining a constant
supply of timber for all time.

Like a farmer who seeks to establish a farm in uncleared «Seu country, the
forester must be given time to convert the “wild” into the “cultivated” forest, and
criticism of his methods must be withheld until such time as he has had opportunity
to bring order out of chaos.

If the making of a farm takes a farmer many years of hard work and oft-
times bitter experience, how much longer must it take a forester whose crop may
take one hundred vears instead of one year to mature, but is correspondingly more
valuable at the end of that time?

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CHAPTER X.

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN TREES.

The forests of Australia contain a large number of different kinds of indig-
enous trees. By indigenous is meant trees that are native to the State. There are
alsc some exotic trees, that is, trees that belong to other countries and have been
brought here and planted. The principal exotic trees belong to the pine family,
but not many have so far been planted. It is hoped that in the time to come there
will be large plantations of pimes in Western Australia, as there is much local
demand for their wood. [xcept for two or three, all the indigenous trees of West-
ern Australia are peculiar to the State, not being found elsewhere in Australia.
The following list includes the principal trees of the State :—

Common Name and Scientific Name.

Jarrah (EHucalyptus marginata)

Karri (Hucalyplus diversicolor).

Tuart (Eucalyptus gomphocephala),

Wandoo (Hucalyptus redunca, var. elata).
Marri (Eucalyptus calophylla).

Blackbutt (Hucalyptus patens).

Yate (Hucalyptus cornuta).

Red Tingle Tingle (Eucalyptus Jacksoni).
Yellow Tingle Tingle (Hucalyptus Guilfoylec).
Crimson Flowering Gum (Hucalyptus ficrfolia).
W.A. Peppermint (Agonis flexuosa).

Cedar (Agonis juniperina).

Native Pear (Xylomelum occidentale).

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14. River Banksia (Banksia verticillata).
15. Sheoak ‘Casuarina Fraseriana).
16. Mallets, four species.

17. Salmon Gum (Eucalyptus salmonophloia).

18. Gimlet (ZLucalyptus salubris)

19 Morrell (Eucalyptus longicornis).

20. Goldfields Blackbutt (Hucalyptus le Souejit).
21. Grey Gum (Eucalyptus Griffithsit).

22. Redwood (Eucalyptus transcontinentalis).

23. Goldfields White Gum (Hucalyptus Flocktonie)

24. Goldfields Yellow Flowering Gum (Eucalyptus Stricklandi).
25. Goldfields Red Flowering Gum (HLucalyptus torquata)
26. York Gum (Kucalyptus foecunda var. loxophleba).
27. Kurrajong (Sterculia Gregoriz).

28. Goldfields Pine (Callitris glauca).

-29. Raspberry Jam (Acacia acuminata).

30. Sandalwood (Santalum cygnorum).

3L. Flooded Gum (KHucalyptus rudis).

32. Red Flowering Mallee (Hucalyptus pyriformis).

33. Bullich (Hucalyptus megacarpa).

34 Paperbark (Melaleuca raphiophylla).

35. Coastal Wattle (Acacia saligna, also Acacia cyclopis).
36. . Seaside Banksia (Banksia littorals). :
37. Narrow-leaved Banksia (Banksia attenuata).

38. Menzies Banksia (Banksia Menziesit).

39. Holly-leaved Banksia (Banksia ilicifolia).

40. Buil Banksia (Banksia grandis).

41. Toothed Banksia (Banksia dentata).

42. Christmas Bush (Nuytsia floribunda).

43. Karri Oak (Casuarina decussata).

44, Rottnest Cypress Pine.

This list only includes the commonly known species. There are many more
which have no common names as yet, and are only distinguished by botanists. The
botany of that large region known as the North-West has been very little studied,

of

‘and it is expected that many interesting new trees will be discovered there. The

South-West is the region in which are found the great forests upon which the
State’s reputation as a producer of the highest class of timber depends. The col-
oured map at the end of this booklet shows the areas occupied by the main tim-
bers. It must be understood, however, that in any area coloured as being occu-
pied. by a certain class, other trees of different classes are also found. Jarrah, for
instance, exists in abundance in the region coloured pink; it is there the dominant
tree, and for miles, with the exception of Marri, no other kind of tree is to be
found. But in other parts other trees occur, mostly in single specimens or in small
groups, and more especially is this the case towards the outer limits of the jarrah
area. And jarrah itself is not absolutely confined to the area marked as its own;
scattered spec_mens are found for long distances outside that area. The same is
true in a lesser degree of karri, wandoo, and some other eucalpyts. Tuart, on the
other hand, confines itself strictly to the region marked as its own—that is the long
narrow limestone ridge near the coast extending from the neighbourhood of Bus-
selton in the South, to about 30 miles north of Perth. Tuingle-tingle is very re-
stricted in its habitat, not being found outside an area of about 350 square miles
in extent, running from the Bow river on the East to the Deep river on the West
of Nornalup Inlet. Wandoo is found as a fringe all round the prime jarrah belt
and to the eastward of it in single trees or clumps. At Clackline on alienated land
there are considerable stretches of wandoo, sufficiently dense to deserve recogni-
tion aS a prime wandoo forest. Salmon gum and gimlet are spread over a wide
area, particularly in the Hastern Districts and on the goldfields, and she-oak is
confined to the jarrah belt and gives place to karri oak in the karri belt. It is not
usual in-Western Australia to apply the term “forest” to trees other than jarrah,
karri and tuart; the other eucalypts, as wel! as the casuarinas, acacias, banksia,
ete., not occurring in masses large enough and dense enough to render the term
applheable.

SHORT DESCRIPTIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL TREES OF WESTERN
AUSTRALIA AND THEIR USES.

Most of the trees in the Western Australian forests are distinctive; that is,
each has a character of its own, differentiating it in appearance from the others,
so that once anyone has seen it it is not difficult again to recognise and name it.
‘There are others which, in many respects so far as the uninitiated are concerned,
resemble each other and can only be readily identified after some practical bush
knowledge has been gained. Identification from the scientific point of view is
quite another affair. The scientist 1s not prepared to admit that, because trees
look very much alike, therefore they belong to the same family and are identical.
The botanist has methods of determining trees which leave no room for doubt.
The trunk of a tree to all outside appearance may be precisely similar to one
standing some yards off. Its branches may appear to be the same also, as well as
ihe bark, but any doubt on the question can be instantly set at rest by an exam-
ination of the flowers, fruit and leaves. It igs they that tell the true story of the
tree, and the story they tell is one that never goes astray. But it is not possible
without a considerable amount of scientfic trainmg to undertake, or to understand
for that matter, the botanical enquiries which are necessary. Most people in the
bush identify trees by an experience born of a longer or shorter period, and in the
vast majority of cases such people correctly name the trees. It would be beyond
the scope of this publication to deal with the question from the botanist’s point
of view. The most that can be done is by short descriptive matter and by illus-
trations.

38

The pictures of many of the principal trees included here will go a long way
towards their identification when taken in conjunction with the letterpress. But,
for the benefit of those who may desire more intimate knowledge, there are also
included drawings of the fruits and flower-buds of certain of the trees.

It should be added that identification by the bark only is not satisfactory.
It will be gathered from what has been said previously that only the imner layers
of the bark of a grown tree are alive. The outer layers are dead and the eracks
in the surface of the bark of old trees are caused by the expanding of wood inside.
In very old jarrah, for instance, the bark is deeply indented. In a younger speci-
ren of the same class it is not so deeply indented nor so rough, whereas in sap-
lings and very young trees the bark is quite smooth.

Sinee it is impossible to identify many of our EKuealypts without a knowledge
of their reproductive organs, the following notes contain brief descriptions of the
flowers and more particularly of the fruits of our commoner trees. Many of these
trees are very similar in general appearance, and even in their bark; but any
doubt as to their identity can generally be settled by examining the fruits or “nuts.”

The majority of our flowers consist of the following parts: The calyx, which
is the outer covering, usually green in colour, and which possesses lobes or sepals
which fold over and protect the more delicate portions when in the bud stage. The
corolla, which is usually brightly coloured, consisting of petals which serve to
attract insects by their bright colonr, and also to protect the innermost parts. The
corolla lies inside the calyx, and is larger when fully expanded. The stamens,
which are arranged inside the corolla, are ike small pins. They are arranged in
a. circle, and consist of two parts; the stalk or filament, which bears on its summit
the anther, which is the male portion of the flower. The anthers are covered with
pollen. The centre of the flower is occupied by the ovary, which bears a stalk or
style on its summit. On the top of the style is the stigma, which is generally
shaped like a pin-head, and is shghtly sticky. The ovary, style, and ‘eee col-
lectively form the gynoecium or female portion of the flower.

In the case of Euecalypts, however, the sepals and petals are missing, or rudi-
mentary. In a few species the sepals remain as small teeth, on the calyx, or floral
receptacle, and in all the species the petals have become united into the cap or
operculum, that little lid which fails off when the bud bursts into bloom. There-
_ fore the operculum performs the protective functions of the sepals of common
flowers. The stamens of the Eucalyptus are large and usually coloured, and be-
sides performing their usual functions also serve as petals, insomuch that they are
coloured and attractive. The fruit of the Eucalyptus consists of the enlarged
calyx, which encloses and is adherent to the capsule, and is hard and woody, as-
suming various forms. So diversified are these forms that they offer the best
means of identifying this large genus.

It is very probable that the Eucalyptus once had large sepals and petals, like
those of its near relatives the tea-tree and bottle-brush, and that these parts have
been reduced as being unnecessary.

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C A Gardnet.

PLATE 1.—TREES OF THE SOUTH-WEST.

1. Jarrah (Huc. marginata). 6. Blackbutt (Huc. patens)

2. Karri (Huc. diversicolor). 7. Yate (Huc. cornuta).

3. Tuart (Huc. gomphocephala). 8. Red Tingle Tingle (Euc. Jackson).

4. Wandoo (Huc. redunca var. clata). 9. Yellow Tingle Tingle (Luc. Guwilfoylei).
5. Marri ‘Huc. calophylla). 10. Crimson Flowering Gum (Hue. ficifolia).

l6a.
16b.
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19.
20.
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C_A Gardner.

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PLATE 2.—TREES OF THE AGRICULTURAL DISTRICTS AND GOLDFIELDS.

Brown Mallet (Huc. occidentalis, var. astringens).
Blue Leaf Mallet (Huc. redunca, var. oxymitra).
Silver Mallet (Huc. falcata).

Swamp Mallet (Huc. spathulata).

Salmon Gum (Hue. salmonophloia).

Gimlet (Huc. salubris).

Morrell (Huc. longicornis).

Goldfields Blackbutt {Huc. le Souefiz.).

Grey Gum (fHuc. Griffithsir).

Redwood (Huc. transcontinentalis).

Goldfields White Gum (Huc. Flocktoniae).

Al

C.A Garaver. -

PLATE 3.—TREES oF THE AGRICULTURAL DISTRICTS AND GOLDFIELDS—continued
24.
25.
26.

Goldfields Yellow Flowering Gum (Luc. Stricklandi).
Goldfields Red Flowering Gum (Huc. torquata).
York Gum (Luc. foecunda, var. loxophieba).

42

1.—JARRAH (Eucalyptus marginata).

This is the principal timber tree of the State. Owing to its resemblance to
a Honduras timber, in the early days it was called mahogany, but about 1860, as
it was realised that this was a better timber and that it has so many fine qualities
as to deserve a name of its own, the tree was given its aboriginal name of Jarrah.

Attaining a height of from 100 to 120 feet, the tree has a bole of about half
this amount, and a diameter of six feet. The bark, which is furrowed and flaky,
but which ean be stripped off in long pieces, is rough, fibrous, and in colour dark
erey. The flowers are of a yellowish-white. In accordance with an identifyimg
characteristic of all Eucalyptus trees, when the flowers wither the calyx (2.e., the
basal portion, as opposed to the coloured portion, the filaments) remains and forms
the fruit. In the case of the Jarrah, the fruit or persistent calyx is half-inch in
diameter, and almost globular, but slightly flattened on the top with a broad rim
or ring. Inside this ring is the ovary, which opens when the seeds are ripe.

Weight per cubie foot (green)—68lbs.

At 12 per cent. moisture—ddlbs.

Transverse strength—15,000lbs. per square inch.
Tensile strength—15,500lbs. per square inch.

A hard wood, but easily worked, and therefore used for almost every purpose.
It is strong enough to be used for beams, and its colour and texture are such that
it is daily becoming more and more prominent as a cabinet wood. One of its
remarkable qualities is its durability when expesed to the worst conditions. The
timbering in the first houses built when the Colony was established is still sound
to-day, and the post-and-rail fences erected by the earliest settlers are still stand-
ing. Its extraordinary durability has, however, rather cheapened it in the eyes
of the outside world, where it has commanded a readier sale as a sleeper or
paving block wood than for purposes where most expensive wood is generally
used. It is to be regretted that the exploitation of the jarrah forests has been
conducted practically solely for the sleeper market. Since 1836, the export of
timber from the State amounted to 3,992,997 loads, valued at £16,199,342, the
bulk of which consisted of jarrah.

It is on Lloyd’s list of shipbuilding woods, and jarrah ships in the early days
pled between Western Australia, India, and other parts of the world. Its dura-
bility has made it renowned for bridge, wharf, and harbour work, while the
telegraph service of the State is dependent upon supplies of jarrah poles.

It is to be found seattered throughout the South-West over some 13,000,000
acres of country within the 25 to 45in. rainfall belt. The main belt of timber,
however, stretches from Chidlow in the North, along the Darling Range to the
extreme South of the State, in the neighbourhood of Albany. The total area of
prime jarrah forests is probably not more than 2,500,000 acres, and is all on this
laterite-capped range of hills.

It regenerates itself well, but the constant firmg of forests has resulted in

the destruction of the young growth in many parts of the forests. The recovery
in milling operations is from 35 to 45 per cent. of the round log.

Jarrah.

44

2.—KARRI (Huc. diversicolor).

The second most important tree of the State; it grows to a great height (trees i
of 280 feet having been measured), with a bole of 100 to 140 feet, and diameter
of 8 to 10 feet.

The bark is smooth, bluish-white in colour to start with, and yellow-white or
pink-white at the end of the season. It is not persistent like that of the Jarrah,
but peels off every year, leaving the fresh new bark underneath. The leaves are
a dark shining green in colour from three to six inches in length. The flowers are
of a yellowish white or cream colour, and not so large as those of the Jarrah. The
calyx or “knob” of the flower is somewhat egg-shaped, but tapers eradually into
the stalk. The fruits are of the same shape as the calyx, but larger, being about
Yin. diameter.at the top. This tree, however, can always be distinguished by its
bark, and locality which is given below.

Weight per cubic foot (green)—72lbs.

At 12 per cent. moisture—58lbs.

Transverse strength—17,300lbs. per square inch.
Tensile strength—18,750lbs. per square inch.

A hard, strong wood. It closely resembles jarrah timber, but the grain is
longer, and it is a much stronger wood. It is beyond doubt a splendid super-
structural timber, and is strongly to be recommended for heavy beams, roof pur-
poses, ete. It is not durable in the ground, and does not resist white ants.

Tt is on Lloyd’s list of shipbuilding timbers, and is suitable for all purposes
where large sections of great strength are necessary. It has\been found very satis-
factory for wooden pipes, and it makes a good wagon spoke, but its main use up
to now has been for railway wagon seantling, and telegraph arms. The English
Railway Companies and the London Post Office authorities are strong im their
praise of the timber for these purposes. It has suffered very much through its
being so easily confounded with jarrah. As in all young countries, timber in
Western Australia has in the past been valued according to its durability as a
fence post or sleeper, and karri, though immeasurably superior in other respects,
has been condemned owing to its failure when put to such uses. It is confined to
the wettest portion of the South-West of the State, and its Northern limit is Nan-
nup and the upper waters of the Donnelly, whence it spreads Southwards and
South-Eastwards to Denmark. There is then a gap in the belt, and it is to be met
with again near the Porongorup Range; another isolated patch occurs on the
extreme South-West near the Leeuwin; this was the place whence the first karri was
exported from the State, and is more commonly known under the name of Karri-
dale. In all it is doubtful whether more than 500,000 acres of prime karri forest
can be reserved. It regenerates itself well, and it forms the only forest of the
State that carries a dense undergrowth ‘of shade-bearing species. .

The saw-miller recovers from 28 to 35 per cent. of the round log.

ae er :

46

3.—TUART (Huc. gomphocephala).

A tree attaining a height up to 100 feet, with a bole 35 to 45 feet, and a dia-
meter seven to eight feet.

The bark is of a greyish-white colour and is smoothly crinkled. There are
only two trees with which it can be confused, these being the Flooded Gum (Hue.
rudis) and the coastal White Gum (Huc decipiens). The difference from the
former is that the bark of the Tuart is persistent, while that of the Flooded Gum
peels off from the topmost branches. The coastal White Gum has a rougher bark
which usually peels off from the upper branches, but is thicker than that of the
Tuart, and more flaky.

The fruits or “nuts” of the Tuart are very distinctive. They are bell-shaped,
over half an inch in length, and half an inch in diameter at the top, which is quite
flat. The stalk on which the fruits are arranged is broad and wedge-shaped.

Weight per cubic foot (green)—78lbs.

At 12 per cent. moisture—68lbs.

Transverse strength—17,900lbs. per square inch.
Tensile strength—16,500lbs. per square inch.

The timber is hard and dense with an interlocked grain; its colour is yellow.
It vies with wandoo in strength and toughness. The timber is used for wheel-
wright work, especially for the large naves required for the 9ft. wheels of the
timber whims. Its main use, along with wandoo, is for railway wagon and truck
construction. The Chief Mechanical Engineer.in Western Australia, Mr. E. S.
Hume, has reduced the maintenance of his trucks from £3 7s. 6d. to 10s. per year
per truck by substituting for steel tuart and wandoo in the under earriages. Like
that of wandoo, the cutting of tuart, except for departmental purposes, is for-
bidden, and its export prohibited.

It is confined to the limestone formation, and on this formation it stretches
in scattered lines from Lake Pinjar southward along the coast as far as Sabina
River, some three miles east of Busselton. Curiously enough it is not to be found
anywhere else in the State, although limestone oceurs all round the coast line. The
best tuart is to be found between Sabina River and Capel, and it is doubtful
whether it will be possible to reserve more than 5,000 acres of first-class tuart
country. Between Sabina River and Capel River the distance is about 12 miles.

47

Tuart.

48

4—WANDOO (Kuc. reduneca var. elata).

A tree attaining a height up to 100 feet, with a bole of 30 to 40 feet, and a
diameter of four feet. The bark has a yellowish-whitish, blotchy look, and is not
a clean white like the Karri, but always more or less speckled, though still smooth.
It is well-balanced, sturdy tree, and is at all times a bright object in the landscape.
Like that of the Karri, its bark is not persistent. The flowers are white, and small,
compared to most EKuecalypts, and the bud is long and tapermeg. The fruits are
about 14in. long, and narrow.

Weight per cubic foot (green)—79lbs.

At 12 per cent. moisture—7llbs.

Transverse streneth—16,100lbs. per square inch.
Tensile strength—16,100lbs. per square inel:.

This wood is hard, strong, and durable. It is used for bridge construction,
wharf planking, wheelwright’s and millwright’s work, knees of boats and ship-
building generally. It makes an exeellent trenail.* It is very satisfactory for all
turnery work, such as jute and cotton bobbins, telegraph insulator pins, ete. Its
main use, however, is for wagon scantling for the railway stock cf the Government
Railways of the State. It gives a lite of 25 years in under-carriages of trucks. The
top plank of these trucks 1s always made of wandoo, which stands the wear of the
unloading and loading better than steel; also, the stanchions of the trucks are of
wandoo. A remarkable quality which this timber possesses is that when used in
conjunction with steel there is no chemical action between. the wood and the metal.
Bolts have been taken from under-frames of trucks after 20 years’ use and been
found to be quite as clean as when put there, while the auger marks were still
visible in the holes. The value of this timber is so well recognised by the Govern-
ment of this State that permits for cutting it can only be obtained if the timber
is to be used by State Departments; in other words, the timber may not be exported.
(See Tuart.)

It is to be found growing in the South-West portion of the State on the edges
of the jarrah belt. It does not grow in close forests, but in open savannah forests.
and is to be found mixed with jarrah and marri. The soil is usually a clay subsoil,
though oceasionally it is to be met with on the sand-plain country.

The wandoo is often known as white gum. This name, however, is also applied
to other species; to avoid confusion it is better to use the name wandoo always.

* Wooden bolts used in ship-building.

49

Wandoo.

50)

5—MARRI (Mucalyptus calophylla).

A tree attaining a height of 90 to 100 feet, with a bole of 40 to 50 feet, and
diameter of six to seven feet.

The bark is persistent, and is of a hard, rough, and irregularly furrowed
or broken appearance, giving a rugged aspect to the tree, it is also very often
stained through the kino exuding from the tree running over it. The branches of
the Marri are widely spreading and drooping, and for this reason it 1s one of our.
best shade trees, and among the most beautiful of our forest trees. The leaves
of the Marri are broader than is usual with our timber Eucalypts, they are of a
deep shining green, and the veins which cross the leaf from the midrib to the margin
are straight and closely parallel. The flowers are large, and usually of a creamy-
white, though sometimes pink, and hang downwards. The fruit, which forms
after the flowers have withered, is frequently two inches in length and 1% inches
in diameter, and is roughly globular in shape, with a distinct neck at the top. The
ovary is sunk some distance below this neck, thus leaving a bowl-shaped cavity below
the rim. ‘The seeds are large and black.

Weight per cubic foot (green)—72lbs.

At 12 per cent. moisture—o6lbs.

Transverse strength—16,600lbs. per square inch.
Tensile streneth—20,200lbs. per square inch.

This tree yields a light-coloured strone wood. It is easily worked, and were
it not for the presence of gum veins would be among the most valuable timber in
Western Australia. Unfortunately, the gum or kino occurs in such quantities that
it is difficult to find a tree free enough from gum to make it profitable to saw it
up. It is used for all purposes where strength and elasticity are required. Timber
hewers always take out the hickory shafts from their carts and replace them by
marri shafts. Heavy poles used in the large whims which carry the great jarrah
and karri logs to the mills are of marri. In the whim itself the fetchels, which
are trusses to connect the pole with the axle bed, are also of marri. It makes a
good axe and tool handle, and there would seem to be a future fer it for all smaller
turnery work.

It oceurs throughout the jarrah belt, but like blackbutt 1s to be found gener-
ally on the better alluvial soils in the valleys between the laterite-capped ridges.
Marri soil is generally considered from an agricultural point of view a degree better
that jarrah soil, which from an agricultural standpoint is of little use. »

The marri is generally known as red gum. As this name is commonly applied
to a quite distinct species which grows in the Eastern States, it is better to use the
name marri and avoid confusion.

While the presence of gum reduces the value of this timber, the gum self
has a special value for tanning purposes. From the earliest days of the Colony
it has been used for tanning leather. Unfortunately, however, it imparts a red
colour to the leather which is not appreciated by buyers overseas. Investigations
have been carried out by the Forest Products Laboratory into the problem of the
utilisation of this forest product for commercial purposes. It has been found that
the tannin content is as high as 68 per cent.

In addition to the fact that the liquors obtained from the kino were a very
red colour, it was found very difficult to get the kino into solution. After a great
deal of research work on the part of the Leather Chemist attached to the labora-
tory, not only was the difficulty of getting the kino into solution overcome, but the
objectionable red colour was reduced considerably. Jt is expected that in the near
future commercial developments will take place in the direction of establishing
tannin extract works in the State.

Marri has an advantage over all other tannin-bearing trees in that the product
rich in tannin can be obtained without destroying the tree. The actual formation

o1

of the kino is a very interesting subject. It would seem that it grows after the
attacks of a large grub of the longicorn beetle family, and is probably due to
bacterial infection following the exposure by this grub of the tissues that he just
under the cambium layer of the tree.

If it is possible to prevent the inroads of the insect pest, then it is certain
that marri timber will become an exceedingly valuable product of the forests. On
the other hand, should this prove impossible, we have in the kino a valuable tanning
yaterial which may prove of greater worth than the timber.

Marri.

6.—BLACKBUTT (uc. patens).

A tree attaining a height up to 100 feet, with a bole of 40 to 50 feet, and up
to six feet in diameter. The bark is persistent, hard, fibrous, deeply fissured and
dark grey in colour. Considerable difficulty is experienced by most people in
distinguishing this tree in the forest from Jarrah. The two trees are certainly
very similar in general appearance. The bark of the Blackbutt is more deeply
fissured than the Jarrah, and has the appearance of having been combed. ‘The
ridges of these fissures are usually black, while the indentations are of a brownish
ervey. The leaves are smaller than the leaves of the Jarrah, and of a bluish-green.
In ease of doubt, it is advisable to refer to the fruits. These are somewhat smaller
than the Jarrah fruits, but the rim which forms the top margin of the fruit is
quite narrow, and the ovary is shghtly sunk and flatter.

Weight per cubic foot (green) —69|bs.
At 12 per cent. moisture—d4lbs.
Transverse strength—14,200lbs. per square inch.
Tensile strength—15,700ibs. per square inch.
About the same weight and strength as jarrah, but a pale yellow-coloured
wood. It is not plentiful, but is to be found in small patches in the gullies and

pockets of alluvial soils, between laterite crests of hills. It is useful for many pur-
poses and particularly for farm implements and railway truck building.

53

Blackbutt.

7.—YATE. (Huc. cornuta).

A tree attaining a height of 50 to 60 feet, with a bole of 25 to 35 feet, and
diameter of three feet.

The bark is persistent, dark, rough, and of dirty, untidy appearance on the
trunk; it peels off the branches, often hanging down in strips, leaving the branches
white hke those of the karri. This species is easy to recognise by its flowers.
These are united in dense clumps on short stalks. The buds are almost one inch
long and very narrow, and are pointed lke horns. The filaments (or coloured
part) are a vellowish-white colour, and the flowers when fully out resemble fluffy
balls of about two inches in diameter. The fruits are united (or apparently so)
in clusters of about eight, and have sharp points at their ends.

Weight per cubic foot (green)—79lbs.

At 12 per cent. moisture—71lbs.

Transverse streneth—16,700lbs. per square inch.
Tensile strength—24,200lbs. per square inch. |

This species yields a light-coloured timber of exceptional strength. It is pro-
bably the strongest timber in the world, and in one test for tensile strength the
breaking load was 1714 tons per square inch, 344 tons less than that usually
specified for wrought iron of ordinary quality. It is used for wheelwright work
generally, and is preferred where the strongest shafts for frames of carts are
required. It occurs at Busselton, Donnelly River coast, Lake Muir, and Mount
Barker district. That it is not used more generally is due to the fact that it is
found in open savannah forests at a distance from centres of population.

5

Yate.

8.—RED TINGLE TINGLE. (Huc. Jacksoni).

A tree which grows up to a height of about 180ft. and has a diameter of 10
to 13 feet. It occurs between the Bow, Frankland, and Deep Rivers, but does not
extend inland very far. It grows down to the water’s edge at Nornalup Estuary.
Elsewhere it is separated from the sea by sand plain formation. It is usaally
associated with yellow tingle tingle and marri. Owing to the isolated position of
the country in which tingle tingle grows, the timber has not yet been put to any use
except fence posts. It appears to have all the qualities necessary to make it good
structural timber. This magnificent timber is lighter in colour than jarrah, and very
tough. When dried it is much hghter in weight than either jarrah or karri, and
should be very valuable for cabinet-making.

Weight per cubic foot (green)—73lbs.
At 12 per cent. moisture—62lbs.

Transverse strength—14,780lbs. per square inch.
Tensile strength

15,680Ibs. per square inch.

The bark is persistent, grey-brown, with longitudinal fissures, and not unlike
jarrah bark in general appearance.

The leaves are of a bright green on both sides. The flowers are apparently
small. The fruits im general outline are somewhat like those of the jarrah,
spherical, but only a quarter of an inch in diameter.

Tdi
ol

Red Tingle Tingle.
(The tree on the extreme left is Karri

9—YELLOW TINGLE TINGLE (Euc. Guilfoylez).

A tree which grows to the height of about 100 feet and is three to four feet in
diameter. It grows in the same district as the red tingle tingle, but isolated speci-
mens may also be found near Denmark. It forms a lower storey under the red
tingle tingle. The timber has not been tested, but from an examination that has
been made it appears to be suitable for all purposes for which tuart 1s now used.

The bark is persistent, grey-brown, but more fibrous than that of red tingle
tingle. :

The tree resembles the jarrah in general appearance, but the bark is less rough.
The fruits are also smaller, and narrower, or more contracted at the top. They
are also more pear-shaped.

59

Yellow Tingle Tingle.

central treé is a Red Tingle Tingle; the smaller dark-stemmed trees are
Yellow Tingle Tingle.)

50

10.—CRIMSON FLOWERING GUM (uc. ficifolia).

A tree indigenous to Western Australia only. Found growing on a very re-
stricted area near the mouth of the Bow River in the extreme South-West. It is
a particularly handsome tree, and both in its native State and in the Eastern States
is very much used as an ornamental tree. It is one of the most showy of the
eucalypts, as the flowers are of gorgeous colour and stand out very prominently
above the dark green foliage. There is in King’s Park, Perth, an avenue of these
very handsome and attractive trees. It is closely related to, but quite distinct from,
Euc. calophylla, and does not attain the large proportions of that tree. It is very
difficult to distinguish it from the latter, the only sure way being an examination
of the seeds. The seed of Euc. ficifolia bears a wing, while marri seed has no wing.

61

‘ Crimson Flowering Gum.

J1—W.A. PEPPERMINT (Agonis flexuosa).

This tree attais a height of about 25 feet, and has rather a drooping habit-
As an ornamental and shade tree it has much to recommend it. The leaves are
long and narrow, and of a pale green, the flowers, which are white, being situated
in small clusters at the bases of the leaves. The leaves also have a characteristi¢
scent of peppermint.

-Z

quimstedde qT

.

Vv

M

64

12—CEDAR (Agonis juniperina).

A tree growing to a height of 50ft. with a diameter of 2ft. Gin. It is found
growing only in the karri country, alongside the running streams and rivers. It
is usually associated with river banksia and peppermint. The wood is light brown
or yellow in colour. It is very strong and most suitable for axe handles and other
uses where hickory or ash is generally used.

The bark is persistent, brown, fibrous, and spirally fissured.

May be distinguished from the W.A. Peppermint by its much smaller leaves
which are about 4% inch long, and by the flowers being in small dense clusters
near the ends of the branches.

‘1B pe?)

66

13._NATIVE PEAR (Xylomelum occidentale ) .

A small tree attaining a height of 20 to 25 feet, with a short bole, and a
diameter of about 12 inches. The bark is persistent, grey or almost black, and
lightly fissured.

The leaves of this tree are characteristic. They are about three inches long and
two inches wide, with rounded ends. All around the margins are a series of
prickly teeth, which gives the leaf a holly-like appearance. The flowers are large
and beautiful, and are arranged in spikes, which are clustered at the ends of the
branches. They are a light sulphur-yellow in colour and covered with a short,
silky wool. The fruits are distinctly pear-shaped, over three inches long, 184 inches
wide, and when ripe split open dewn one side. Hach fruit contaims two seeds,
which lie closely together, and are provided each with a long wing. There is also
a native pear of the sand-plains of the Avon district, which can easily be dis-
tinguished from this species by its long narrow leaves. The fruits are similar but
somewhat smaller. Its botanical name is Xylomelum angustifolium.

Weight per cubic foot (green)—d6lbs.
At 12 per cent. moisture—46lbs.
Transverse strength—7,669lbs. per square inch.
Tensile strength—7,000Ibs. per square inch.
A tree yielding a most ornamental and dark brown wood, with a beautiful
figure. It is hght, and makes up into very fine furniture wood; finished with a
wax surface it resembles moiré silk.

It is to be found growing all along the sand-plain country, between the Darling
Range and the sea coast. Like sheoak, it suffers very badly from fire, and it is
therefore very hard to get in sizes greater than 12 inches in diameter. It is 1m-
portant that thorough fire-protection measures be taken in order to prevent the
extinction of this beautiful furniture wood.

Native Pear.

68

14—RIVER BANKSIA (Banksia verticillata).

A tree attaining a height of 50 to 60 feet, with a bole of 15 to 20 feet, and a
diameter of 2 feet 6 inches. The bark is persistent, grey, and completely fissured
longitudinally; when cut it shows red. The flowers are a yellowish-brown, and
the leaves are arranged in whorls at intervals along the branches, and are usually
about three inches long.

Weight per cubie foot (green)—59lbs.

At 12 per cent. moisture—3dlbs.

Transverse strength—10,300lbs. per square inch.
Tensile strength—8,000lbs. per square inch.

This tree yields a hght-coloured timber with a particularly beautiful grain. |
The medullary rays are wide, so that when cut on the quarter it shows a beautiful
oak-like figure, and is much prized for furniture work. It is the lightest of all
timbers of the State. It occurs along the side of the larger rivers and streams
in-the South-West, and is rarely to be found growing far away from running
water.

ssa,

| meen |
S
a

r

15.—_SHE-OAK (Casuarina Fraseriana).

A tree attaining a height of 40 to 45 feet, with a bole 10 to 15 feet, and a
diameter of two feet six inches.

Weight per cubic foot (green)—60lbs.

OM: 12 per cent. moisture—d2lbs.
Transverse strength—12,000lbs. per square inch.
Tensile strength—9,000lbs. per square inch.

A sound wood with broad medullary rays, which show up ana make the
timber particularly beautiful when eut on the quarter. It takes a good polish
and stands up well, and therefore makes an excellent cabinet wood. It makes a
good ox yoke. It splits well, and was used almost exclusively in the early days
of the colony for roofing shingles. A shingle taken from one of the first-erected
houses in Perth (after 83 years’ use) was found to be in a splendid state of
preservation. Bush fires have played havoe with this species, and it will only be
by a sound system of fire control that the future supplies of this valuable timber
ean be assured. It grows scattered through the length and breadth of the jarrah
belt, but is not to be found in the drier regions.

The bark is persistent, greyish, and deeply channelled longitudinally.

The fruits of the Sheoak are known as “Cones.” These, in the cease of Casuarina
Fraseriana are almost globular, about an inch in diameter, slightly flattened on top,
and the valves, or openings which let out the seeds are a light brown inside, and
open widely.

(Gl

ae.

Sed rad
Pak
i Me ae

She-oak.

~I
bo

TREES OF THE EASTERN DISTRICTS AND THE GOLDFIELDS.

The foregoing trees are found in the Southern and South-Western portions
of the State. Other trees, some of them closely related to those already mentioned,
are found on the Goldfields and in the Eastern Districts. The principal of these
are as follows:— |

16.—MALLETS.

Brown Mallet (Euc. occidentalis var. astringens); Blue Leaf Mallet (Hucaly»tus
sp. ind.); Silver Mallet (Hue. falcata); Swamp Mallet (Huc. spathulata).

These four mallets appear chiefly in the savannah country between York and
Mount Barker, in the South-Eastern District of the State. These trees grow to a
height of 50ft. with a diameter of two feet. The bark has been in the past the
subject of an extensive export trade, but lack of proper regulation has resulted in
its being depleted over very large areas. The bark contains from 36 per cent. to
47 per cent. tannin.

17--SALMON GUM (Euc. salmonophloia).

A tree ranging from 80 feet to 100 feet in height, with a bole of 40 to 50 feet,.
and about 244 to 3 feet in diameter.

Weight per cubic foot (green)—70lbs.

‘At 12 per cent. moisture—66lbs.

Transverse strength—17,900 lbs. per square inch.

Tensile strength—19,200lbs. per square inch. j

An exceedingly dense wood, the second strongest in Australia. It has up to
now been used for mining purposes only. It is questionable whether the goldfields
of Western Australia, which have up to date yielded £143,000,000 of gold, would
- have been developed had it not been for this tree and the Muiga (Acacia aneura
and stereophylla) and Gimlet (uc. salubris). The region in which it thrives has
an average rainfall of 12 inches. Its gleaming salmon-coloured bark makes it the
inost conspicuous tree of the savannah forest.

This tree is one of, the most easily recognised of our trees. The bark, which
is quite characteristic of the species, is shed every year during the summer months.
The leaves which are usually arranged in a flat crown at the summit of the tree
hang vertically and are particularly bright and shiny. The flowers are very small,
and of a yellowish-white colour, and much sought after by bees and other insects.
The fruits too are very small; they are cup-shaped or hemispherical, and only
slightly over 1/16th of an inch in diameter.

(iG

SE ger or isan ane an

BOP nso
Bcc ce

Salmon Gum.

18.—GIMLET (uc. salubris).

A small tree which at full age attains a height of 30 feet, or occasionally even
of 40 feet; the stem is tall in comparison with the few and scattered main branches
of the tree. Bark smooth, yellowish-green, shining, green inside. Branchlets some-
times with a white bloom. Leaves of thin consistence and scattered.

The name is derived from the highly fluted, or longitudinally twisted, char-
acter of the stem of the tree. This is very peculiar in appearance and is a unique
and special feature of the species. The wood is very hard and is extensively used
for building purposes in the districts in which it grows. It is also well adapted
for the making of tool handles.

This tree is usually associated with the Salmon Gum, and frequently the two
trees exclusively form extensive forests. Its range, however, is not as extensive
as that of the Salmon Gum. Its Western limit is Goomalling; it does not occur
south of Bruce Rock, and its northern limit is at present unknown, but is probably
in the vicinity of Dalwallinu. It extends to the east along the Transcontinental
Railway. The flowers are white and occur profusely. The fruits are larger than
those of the Salmon Gum, being 14 of an inch in diameter with broad points pro-
truding above the top when the fruit is ripe. These fruits are arranged in umbels
or clusters of usually seven.

Gimlet.

76

19.—MORRELL (Fue. longicornis).

This tree attains a height of 60 to 90 feet, with a bole of 30 to 40 feet, and
diameter up to four feet.

Tolbs.

Weight per cubic foot (green)
At 12 per cent. moisture—64lbs.
Transverse strength—16,S00Ibs. per square inch.
Tensile strength—18,000lbs. per square inch.

It is a strong, hard, dense wood, and has an interlocked grain. It is of a
dark-brown colour, and is used for wheelwright work, tool handles, ete. It is also
used for mining timber. It occurs in the dry country in the rainfall belt of about
10 to 20 inches, and is scattered throughout the length and breadth of country be-
tween Three Springs on the North, Katanning on the South, and Southern Cross’
on the East. It does not grow in dense forests, but occurs in savannah forest
tcrmation.

The bark is rough and somewhat like that of Yate, and is red inside. It also
peels off the branches and often for a distance down the trunk. This bark is fairly
distinctive, but in case of doubt it is advisable to refer to the fruits. These are
hemispherical, about 14 inch in diameter, flat or sunken at the top, with long awl-
lke points protruding from the opening. They have each a slender stalk of nearly
a 4 of an inch in length. The flowers are white.

4
Loe |

Morrell.

20.—GOLDFIELDS BLACKBUTT (Euc. Le Souefii).

A tree of 30 to 50 feet in height. The bark is of an orange-brown colour,
with a collar of flaky black dark at the base of the trunk two to six feet in height,
otherwise smooth. The branches are more spreading.than in the preceding species,
and the leaves of a grey-green colour. The timber is light brown and very dense,
but is useless for anything except firewood, as the trees of any size are nearly al-
ways eaten by white ants. |

This tree occurs to the south of Coolgardie, and is very common in the vicinity
of Widgiemooltha. The trunk is usually short and thick, and the line between the
two classes of bark very distinct. The flowers are yellow and about 44 inch across.
The fruits are well-shaped, a little over a 14 of an inch across, and about as long
and with about 10 to 12 prominent ribs running from the stalk to the flat top. The
buds are pointed, and are likewise ribbed.

Goldfields Blackbutt.

80

21—GREY GUM (Euc. Grifithsii).

Is quite unlike E. Le Souwefiz, having a dark grey flaky bark almost over the
whole trunk, and is seldom over 25ft. high. In general appearance it is intermedi-
ate between Fuc. Le Souefit and E. longicornis.

The leaves of this tree are a brighter green than those of Huc. Le Souefii, the
flowers are about the same size and yellowish, but the fruits are larger, bell-shaped,
and nearly °4 inch long with a flat top. There are no prominent ribs, and the
flower-buds are wide, and flat. The range is the same as that of the Goldfields

Blackbutt.

81

Grey (umn.

al

22—_REDWOOD (Eucalyptus transcontinentalis).

A tree not unlike the Salmon Gum, except that it is more slender, has a
silver-grey bark, yellow flowers, and the young branches and leaves are powdery
and a bluish-green colour. The timber is reddish-brown in colour. The fruits
are egg-cup-shaped, 34 of an inch long, narrowed towards the top, with long fine
points protruding from the orifice, and are covered with a grey powder. It is
a common tree south of Coolgardie.

Goldfields Redwood.

83

23.—GOLDFIELDS WHITE GUM (Eucalyptus Flocktoniae).

A tree resembling the “Wandoo” of the Darling Range, but smaller, more
slender, and with a much whiter bark. This tree grows in low-lying places in
forests of Salmon Gum. The fruits are inverted pear-shaped, and about the size
of a small pea, green and wrinkled. The flower-buds have a long narrow point,
and are nearly half an inch in length. The leaves are narrow, under three inches
long, and bright green. It is confined to the southern portions of the Hastern
Goldfields.

Goldfields Whitegum.

84

24.—GOLDFIELDS YELLOW FLOWERING GUM (uc. Stricklandt).

A tree of 20 to 30 feet, with a light brown bark covered with grey flakes
which peel off. The branches are very widely spreading or even drooping. The
young branches are covered with a white powder, and the leaves are large, thick,
and of a blue-green colour, usually above six inches long. The flowers are very
handsome, being of a bright yellow, and one and a-half inches across. The buds
are blunt, nearly half an inch long, and the freits are distinctly bell-shaped,
half an inch long, and as broad, clustered at the end of a broad flat stalk. The
tree occurs to the south of Coolgardie and near Norseman, and is found on
gravelly hills.

Goldfields Yellow Flowering Gum.

85

25.—GOLDFIELDS RED FLOWERING GUM (Luc. torquata).

A small stout tree of 20 to 30 feet, wich always occurs on rising ground in
gravelly soil. The bark is dark grey or black, rough and persistent throughout.
The flowers are of a bright coral pink or scarlet, or occasionally white, and when
fully out exceed an inch in diameter. It is one of the most beautiful of our trees,
and ranks with the red flowering gum of the South-West for scenic effect. It flowers
in December, and for that reason is also known as the Christmas tree. It is well
worthy of a place in our public gardens. The buds and fruits are very distinctive.
The buds have a broad base which is ribbed, and are contracted in to a narrow beak
of half an inch in length. The fruits are egg-shaped, with a frill-hke base. This
tree is confined to the goldfields. ;

‘

peti Goldfields Red Flowering Gum.
cal

S6

26—YORK GUM (Eucalyptus foecunda, var. loxophelba).

A tree which attains a height of 40 to 60 feet, and a length of bole of 10 to
15 feet, and a diameter of 18 to 24 inches. |
The bark ot this species is rough, varying from a light to a dark grey, and
persistent. Inside the bark is reddish. The branches are more spreading than is
the case with most trees; the leaves thick and shining, and the flowers small and
white. Flowers in the summer months.
Weight per cubie foot (green)—77lbs.
At 12 per cent. moisture—67lbs.
Transverse strength—14,500lbs. per square inch.
Tensile strength—13,000lbs. per square inch.

A dense hard, heavy wood, with very much interlocked grain. The wood is
by far the best nave, maul, and mallet wood in Australia, while it may be used
very successfully for felloes and other wheelwright and wagon-building purposes.
The wood is of a yellow-brown colour, and carries a beautiful figure. It grows in
open or savannah forests, and is to be found in the 20-inch rainfall belt. It is
most common about Bolgart, Toodyay, Northam, York, Narrogin to Broomehill.
Its presence is regarded by farmers as an indication of good agricultural soil for
wheat-growing and also good grazing country for sheep.

York Gum.

88

27.—ISURRAJONG (Sterculia Gregori).

A tree attaining 25ft. with a thick straight trunk and widely spreading dense
branches. The bark is rough and persistent, and of a light grey colour. The wood
is spongy, and may possess qualities which will make it useful for paper-making.
The cambium ring: yields a strong fibre. This is an excellent shade tree, being very
densely branched. ‘The leaves: are divided into finger-hke segments, and the flowers

are ereenish red, broadly bell-shaped. Occurs freely throughout the goldfields, par-
ticularly in the “mulga” area.

Kkurrajong.

89

28.—THE GOLDFIELDS PINE (Callitris glauca)

is the-largest of the pine shrubs of the goldfields. This tree attains 30ft. in height,
and has more or less spreading branches which give it a cedar-like appearance. The
leaves are of a bluish-green, the bark almost black and fibrous. This tree is very
much like its sister the Rottnest Pine (Callitris robusta), and cecurs on the mar-
gins of salt lakes in open country. It is particularly valuable as a fencing timber,
since it resists white ants.

i
:
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i
a:
:
i:
i
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i
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i

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Goldfields Pine.

90

29—_ RASPBERRY JAM (Acacia acuminata).

A small tree 15 to 25 feet high, with a short bole, and up to 12 inches in
diameter.
Weight per cubic foot (green)—73lbs.
At 12 per cent. moisture— 62lbs.
Transverse strength—15,300lbs. per square inch.
Tensile strength—12,000lbs. per square inch.

- A fairly heavy wood, possessing a remarkably strong scent, resembling that of
pressed raspberries. It is very durable indeed; fence posts 70 years in the ground
show no signs of decay. The grain, like its Victorian sister, the Blackwood, is very
beautiful, and it is therefore much prized for cabinet work. It is regarded by.
farmers as an indication of good wheat-growing and sheep-raising land, and is
beimg rapidly destroyed.

gl

«

erry Jam.

6

Rasp

30—SANDALWOOD (Santalum cygnorum).

A small tree attaining a height of 12 to 16 feet, with a diameter of six to eight
inches. Until some, few years ago it was used solely by the Chinese for ceremonial
purposes. It may be said that the development in Western Australia in the early
days was to a large extent dependent on the sandalwood trade. . Since 1845 there
have been exported 331,205 tons, valued at £5,061,661. The supply close to the
seaboard has long since been exhausted, and the source 1s now away back in the
goldfields district. It thrives in as low a rainfall as eight inches per annum. Lately
there has been a development in the distillation of sandalwood oil. The yield of
oil from the Western Australian wood is not so heavy as that obtained from San-
talum album, and the content in santol is lower. It is, however, used in Australia
for medical purposes, and found to be as efficacious.

Sandalwood is a fragrant wood, and this is one reason for the demand for it
by the Chinese. In addition to ceremonial purposes mentioned above, it is manu-
factured into boxes of various kinds, such as glove boxes, into ecard eases, fans,
napkin rings, children’s blocks, and many-other articles. The joss stick burnt in
Chinese temples 1s made from sandalwood dust mixed with a paste with some ad-
hesive substance, and rolled round a very thin piece of bamboo.

)

‘

Sandalwood.

94

CHAPTER XI.

SOME CURIOUS FOREST PLANTS.

The forested regions of Western Australia contain a number of strange growths
to which it is rather difficult to apply the term “tree,” if the word is to earry its
popular meaning. These growths sometimes have branches, but they are quite
unlike the branches of ordinary trees; their outer covering cannot correctly be
described as bark, and their trunks yield no timber. The most prominent, as well
as the most common, of these odd-looking members of the forest community are
the “blackboy” (Xanthorrhoea Preissii), the “grass-tree’ (Kingia Australis),
and the “Zamia” palm (Macrozamia Fraseri). It is certain, according to the
evidence adduced by botanists and geologists who have studied the subject, that
the three plants named flourished in Western Australia long before it contained
the eucalypt trees, as we know them now. How they managed to survive through
the long ages of forest development from lower to higher forms, and whether they
are precisely the same in size, formation, and qualities as they were in that far-
back past, are questions we cannot answer to-day with absolute certainty. All we
can assert with confidence is that the black-boy, the grass-tree, and the zamia grew
in Western Australia before the eucalypts had reached the stage at which we now
find them.

Blackboy.—This plant is a familiar object in the South-Western portions of
the State, and once seen is always remembered. The majority of those met with
in the bush average about seven to eight feet in height, but they may be met with
of all heights up to 15 feet. The bole or barrel may range in diameter from five or
six inches up to about a foot. The outside portion of the bole is composed of
layers of hardened masses of the persistent bases of old leaves. This outer layer
is heavily impregnated with a gum or resin which is highly inflammable; when fire
sweeps through the bush, the blackboy is readily attacked, with the result that the
trunks of these trees are always found in a blackened condition. The central core
is of fibrous material which is sometimes of a hardness that would almost permit
of its being termed ‘‘wood.” From this core under proper treatment sugar may
be obtained, as well as a number of chemicals of commercial value. The gum
or resin of blackboy is used for several trade purposes, but mainly in the manu-
facture of varnish. In some parts of South Australia blackboy grows freely, and
is there known as yacea or “grass-tree.” The South Australian variety is very
similar to that of Western Australia. 7

Grass-tree.—The grass-tree is not quite so common in the West Australian
forests as the blackboy, but it is quite as distinctive. Botanists class it as well
as the blackboy in the lily family. It is found only in Western Australia. In
appearance it is very like blackboy, but the properties of the two trees and their
commercial possibilities are quite dissimilar. The grass-tree may be readily dis-
tinguished from the blackboy by the flowering stalk. In the grass-tree the flowers
and seeds are borne on short stalks about a foot long, many of which stand out
from the centre of every plant like drum sticks. The blackboy, on the other hand,
has one long flowering stalk only, of quite a different type, arising from each mass
of leaves. Like the blackboy it is found scattered over a considerable portion of
the South-West, especially between the Darling Range and the sea, and in the karri
country. It reaches a height of from 6 to 25 feet, and the bole has an average

95

diameter of from 9 to 10 inches. The outer portion of the bole is made up of
hardened masses of leaf bases and the trunk is very often black like that of the
blackboy and from the same cause—fire. Between the outside layer of pressed
leaves and the core or pith is a layer of fibrous material running the whole length

Blackboy.

?

of the tree. This fibre is now used to a considerable extent in the manufacture of
brooms for street-sweeping, and of various classes of brushes of finer grade. The
core, on proper treatment, yields chemicals of commercial value, just as does that
of the blackboy.

96

Zamia.—The zamia palm commonly reaches a height of three feet, although
specimens up to 15 feet high are to be found in certain localities. It is not peculiar
to Western Australia, but is found also in slightly altered form in New South
Wales and Queensland. In Western Australia this forest growth sometimes attains

Grass Tree.

a weight of over a ton. When roughly trimmed these larger specimens have given
as much as 40 per cent. of starch, weighed when the plant is moist. This starch,
after undergoing certain processes of refining, is suitable for laundry work and

97

may be used ‘also as a food for livestock. In the early days of settlement zamia
meal was sometimes used as a substitute for tapioca. The plant also yields a
wool suitable for stuffing pillows, mattresses, and the like.

Zamia Palin.

Sandalwood.—The timber of this tree has been already described, and the uses
to which it is put in China have been mentioned. What we are now concerned
with is a peculiarity of its growth. The sandal tree is of the kind called
“parasitic” by botanists. It is never found in large masses, like most other trees,
but only singly or in small groups intermingled with other trees, generally
eucalypts, acacias, or oaks. It will not thrive unless in close proximity to these
trees, which are known as its “hosts.”’ The reason for this is that the roots of
the sandalwood become attached to the roots of other species by a peculiar type
of sucker, through which the sandalwood absorbs certain food materials from
the roots of the host plant.

98

Christmas Tree—This tree, which is known botanically as Nuytsia floribunda,
received its common name from the fact that it flowers about the Christmas season.
When in flower it is one of the most gorgeously dressed trees in the Western Aus-
tralian bush. When in fiower it 1s a mass of orange-coloured flowers in erect
clusters. The wood of the Christmas tree, which is of no value, is soft and spongy
and white in colour. The tree is usually found among the jarrah and banksias

Jarrah Regrowth.

oe

erowing on the flats lymg between the hills and the coast. It is a parasite, like
the sandalwood. This fact was established recently by Mr. D. A. Herbert, B.Sc.,
Government Botanist and Plant Pathologist, who, after careful investigation, found
that the Christmas Tree from its roots throws out shoots underground, which may
travel considerable distances before they meet the roots of a “host,” but having done
so, they attach themselves to the roots of this host and draw nourishment from them.
The curious thing about the parasitism of the Christmas Tree is its wide range of
hosts. Trees and shrubs of various species have been found bearing: the suckers of
the Christmas Tree, also grasses and even the common carrot.

Mistletoe.—The Mistletoe is a very common object in the forests of the world.
- It is found all over Europe, in Asia, including Japan, in America, and in Australia.
There are a great many groups or genera of Mistletoe and each genus has a scien-
tific name which distinguishes it from the others. The European genus species is
named Viscum, and the Australian genus Loranthus, of whieh there are a number
of species in the States of the Commonwealth. Mistletoe does not spring from the
eround hke most other plants. It has roots, however, which are embedded in the
bark or wood of trees, and from these trees the Mistletoe draws its nourishment.
Mistletoe is a parasitic growth and the tree on which it feeds is called its “host.”
Mistletoe is found attaching itself to many kinds of trees and does not seem to have
any marked preference for a particular kind. It may be said generally that it is
found much more frequently on rough-barked trees than on those with smooth barks.
The mistletoe is distributed by those birds that feed upon its berries, the hard seeds
‘pass through the birds’ alimentary canal and are deposited on the branches of other
trees: thus the Mistletoe gets distributed all over the forest. The seeds,
which germinate in Spring, first of all develop a kind of sucker from
whose centre a fine root appears, which pierces the tissues of the bark. This main
root penetrates to the wood of the branch or stem, which it is too delicate to enter.
It, however, holds its position and the end becomes covered when the branch or
stem forms new wood. As time passes the root seems to have gone deeper into the
wood, but in reality it is the growing thickness of the wood that gives the appear-
ance of penetration. In time the parasite becomes firmly attached to it “host,”
and secures the nourishment it requires. The effect of Mistletoe on forest trees
is to reduce their vitality and to decrease the production of flowers and fruit.
Mistletoe, however attractive it may be in itself, and however picturesque the ap-
pearance it imparts to woodland scenery, must be regarded as an enemy of the
forests.

100

CHAPTER XII.

GROWING TREES FROM SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS.

The practice of growing trees in school grounds is one that should be followed
at every school where the requisite facilities are present. The following instrue-
tional notes will be of service to teachers and pupils.

The chief advantages of raising trees from seed over obtaining them as small
plants from a distant nursery may be summarised as follows :—

(a) The cost is less.

(b) Varieties especially suited to the district may more easily be obtained.

(c) The trees, when ready for planting out, are acclimatised.

(d) The time which must elapse between removing a tree from the pot or
bed where it has been growing and planting it in its permanent place
is very much reduced, and the tree, consequently, suffers less check.

(e) It is possible to sow some seeds in the places where the trees are to re-
main, and so to avoid the necessity for transplanting.

(f) The most suitable weather for planting may be chosen.

(2) Greater interest is taken by the children in trees which they have raised
from seed.

(h) The educational value of the work is far greater, and the practice of
tree-raising and tree-planting is more likely to spread from the school
to the children’s homes.

These advantages are so great that any teacher desiring to improve his school
surroundings by tree-planting will be amply repaid if he adopts this method.

Care of the Young Trees.

With a little experience and reasonable care, trees can be raised successfully
at schools. The seeds should be sown thinly and not too deeply, in a box, or bed,
of light sandy loam. When the plants are a few inches high, they can be pricked
out, and replanted in pots or tins which are well drained. ‘There is a great ad-
vantage in thus having them ready for planting out in their permanent positions.

Transplanting. -

Acacias and Eucalypts—As soon as seedling acacias and eucalypts begin to
get their second pair of leaves, they should be removed from the seed bed, care
being taken not to break the roots, and transplanted singly into the tins or pots
which have been prepared for them. The tins or pots should be placed side by side
on a piece of very hard ground or asphalt over which a thin layer of gravel or
coarse sand has been spread, and shall be filled with a mixture of light soil and
leaf mould, if the latter is obtainable. A hole should be made with the finger or
a pointed stick in the centre of each tin, and the seedling should be held by one of
its leaves with the roots hanging down this hole. LIight, slightly damp soil should
then be sifted around and between the roots until the hole is full, and the soil
should be pressed very firmly down. A space of half an inci or more should be
left above-the soil for watering. The newly potted plants should be watered as
soon as possible and kept shaded from the sun fer a few days. Subsequent water-
ings should be given only when the surface of the soil in the tins begins to get dry,
but every watering should be a thorough one, the tins being filled to the top two
or three times, if necessary. Protection from frosts will be needed during the first
winter, but the plants should get as much sunshine as possible, once they have
recovered from the transplanting.

As soon as the plants have reached a height of three or four inches, they may
be planted out in their permanent places if the season is suitable. This may be
done by removing the tin, taking care not to break the ball of earth containing the

101

roots, and planting the little tree in the place prepared for it. .A thorough water-
ing’ should follow.

Although the holes which are to receive the trees may be deeply dug, the trees
should not be planted too deenly, especially in stiff clay soils.

Care should be taken to see that the holes do not hold free water during the
winter; good drainage is as necessary for the successful growth of trees as for that
of farm and garden crops. During the first year or two of the life of the tree,
the soil surrounding it should be kept loose by shallow digging, or hoeing; this
will facilitate the entrance of air and water, and will lessen the amount of evay ora-
tion of soil moisture during the dry weather.

In dry districts, when water is available, the water should not be applied too
close to the trunk of the tree. The feeding rocts are gradually extending over a
larger area, and this extension of the root system is encouraged if the water is
applied some feet away from the tree. A thorough watering occasionally is much
better than frequent light applications; in fact, very ight waterings do more harm
than good by making the capilliary connection between the subsoil water and the
surface of the soil. After every watering, as soon as the soil is dry enough, stir
it well with the hoe, and cover it with a grass or straw mulch.

Wattles—The wattle is one of the commonest objects in the Australian bush,
and more so perhaps in the Eastern States than in Western Australia. Everyone
knows it and everyone admires it, and its golden glory of bloom has led to its being
chosen as Australia’s national floral emblem. There are many wattles indigenous
or native to Western Australia, but most of them are only shrubs. There are a
few, however, which attain the size that entitles them to be called “trees.” Among
these are the Coastal Wattle (Acacia saligna), the Raspberry Jam (Acacia acumin-
ata), and the Manna Gum (Acacia microbotrya). There are other wattles now
growing freely in Western Australia, such as the Black or Green Wattle (4. de-
currens), the Golden Wattle (4A. pyenantha), the Silver Wattle (A. dealbata), and
the Cootamundra Wattle (4. Baileyana), but these have been introduced from the
Eastern States and cannot be included amongst our forest trees.

Wattles at their best do not grow to any great height, but their spreading
habits give them a handsome and graceful appearance and make them conspicuous
wherever they are found. More especially is this the case when they are covered
with a rich dress of bloom. They are very suitable as ornamental trees in avenues
and the like.

Wattles are not found in Western Australia outside the South-Western portion
of the State. The Badjong is a comparatively tall species, the stem sometimes
attaining a diameter of one foot or even more. This variety is generally found
lining the banks of rivers. The other kind (the Weeping Wattle) is also found in
similar situations, but it does quite well too on sandy soil. This variety has been
made use of in South Africa for the purpose of stopping the inroads of drift
sands, for which purpose it is admirabiy adapted.

But the wattles, beyond their handsome appearance, are also of great value
in industry. The barks of all wattles contain a certain percentage of a compound
ealled tannin, which is used in converting skins and hides into leather. Since the
earliest date of settlement in Western Australia the barks of native wattles have
been used for this purpose, but the barks of the native trees are not so rich in
tannin as those of the two mentioned above as having been imported from the
Eastern States—the Black Wattle and the Golden Wattle. The wattle is easy to
cultivate, and in some of the other States it is cultivated regularly as a crop for
the sake of its bark. The adoption of a similar practice here is very desirable,
for it would go some way to keep in the State the considerable sums of money
sent away every year to other countries for tanning material. It is easy to recog-
nise the wattle from the peculiar manner in which its leaves or leaf fronds are
arranged. The drawings on another page illustrate the two West Australian
varieties mentioned.

102

- CHAPTER XIII.

BIRDS AND FORESTRY.

Birds play a most important part in the economy of Nature and, as a conse-
quence, their activities often come in contact with the interests of man. <A few
species must, without a doubt, be classed as entirely harmful; many do a certain
amount of damage to trees and crops; but the majority are certainly the friends
of man, because of the enormous number of insects they devour throughout the year.

Many birds hve upon insects all the year round; some make insects and ver-
min their staple diet, whilst others feed regularly upon insects and seeds of various
kinds. Another small group feeds upon insects, and the honey from flowers and
fruit. It is probable that this group, comprising Honey Eaters, many Parrcts,
and their allies, feeds upon honey when that is available, turning to seale-insects,
which contain a large amount of “honey-dew,” and to fruit, when the natural food
is scarce.

The birds that enter into the province of the Forester are all land birds, most
of which belong to the Order Passeriformes or Perching Birds. The most useful
of this Order are Swallows, Fly Catchers, Caterpillar Eaters, Robins, Thick Heads
or Whistlers, Cuckoo-Shrikes, Butcher Birds, Warblers, Tits, Wrens, Wood-
Swallows, Tree Runners, Tree Creepers, Pardalotes, some kinds of Honey Eaters,
Squeakers, Magpies and Crows. }

The small order Coccyges, or Cuckoo, comitanne many very useful birds which
are entirely insectivorous and of great value, as they seem to prefer the woolly and
hairy caterpillars rejected by other birds as unpalatable.

Among the Coraciiformes, or Picarian Birds, are nocturnal Frogmouths or
Moreporks and the Nightjars, which feed largely upon insects caught on the wing
at night time. Other members of this order are the Kingfishers, Bee Haters, and
Swifts. |

Of our Strigiformes, or Owls, it may be said that,all of them eat insects as

well as small rodents and other vermin. Some marbled Owls shot in the Stirling
Ranges in October, 1920, had been living entirely upon grasshoppers and other
insects.
Several of the Accipitriformes, Eagles, ete., prefect an insect diet. One species
Cerchneis cenchroides, the Kestrel, is known in New South Wales as the Grass-
hopper Hawk, because of the large number of grasshoppers it consumes. The
Brown Hawk and the Black Shouldered Kite may also be considered to be insectiv-
orous members of the Order. -

A bird usually confines its attention to a well-defined hunting ground. Crows,
Magpies, Wood Swallows, Pipits, Ground Thrushes, and other ground birds gener-
ally comh for their food upon the ground itself or dig for it with their powerful
beaks, in this way accounting for many root boring pests as well as the pupe of
those numerous beetles, moths, and butterflies which pupate in the ground.

Many birds seem to be extremely fond of young locusts and grasshoppers,
catching them as they emerge from their underground hatching chamber.

The Tree Runners and the Tree Creepers examine the crevices in the bark of
the trunk for beetles and other insects; Tits, Wrens, and many others, clean the
lower foliage, whilst the Shrike Tits are busy on the topmost branches.

The Swallows, Martins, and Swifts, which always obtain their food on the wing,
are intimately connected with the trees which form the breeding places for many
minute insects, and likewise seem to have their definite beats. Some fly just above
the ground, others, like the Fairy Martin, reserve their attentions for the middle
regions, ail the Tree Martin and the House Swallow prefer to seek their food

fa

round about the tree tops. The area above the trees seems to be the special
reserve for the activities of the Switts.

The feathered friends of the Forester are many while his bird foes are few,
and even these latter should not be persecuted until it 1s absolutely certain that
their bad deeds do not carry with them some balancing compensations.

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104

CHAPTER XIV.

INSECTS AND FORESTRY. -

Keonomie Forestry Entomology is that phase of Entomology which relates to
the study of insects living in the Forests, and the encouragement ot the friendly
insects and the artificial control of injurious species.

Insects.

The word “Insect” is derived from the Latin Insecare, to cut or notch, and 1s
expressive of the characteristic parts or segments of which the body of an insect
is built up. Correctly speaking, the term is applied to those air breathing seg-
mented animals which, in the adult stage, have six legs and the body deeply incised
twice, so that it is divided into three parts or regions, namely, the head, thorax
and abdomen. <A true insect is therefore known as a Hexapode, Hex six, and pouws
a foot. :

Space will not permit of a description of the various organs which he hidden
within the horny bodied creatures we call insects, but mention must be made of
the types of mouths possessed by them. It is very essential that we shall be able
to determine the method of the feeding of an insect. The mouth parts are, in
general, of two types, namely, chewing and sucking :—

1. Mandibulata (Chewing).—Those plant or insect feeding insects which
chew or cut off their food, such as caterpillars, grubs, beetles, ete.
Amongst this group are many beneficial insects, which feed upon other
insects and are known as predaceous parasites. Hxamples—the larval
and adult stages of Ladybird, Ground and Tiger Beetles, ete.

2. Haustellata (Sucking).—Those insects which obtain their food by insert-
ine their tubular mouth parts into the sap cells of plants and suck out
the juices. Hxamples—Aphides, Seales, Bugs, ete. Amongst this group
there are also many beneficial parasites which suck out the body juices
of their victims. Hxamples—Predaceous Bugs, Syrphus Flies, Lace
Wing Flies, ete. ;

It is essential to have a knowledge of how an insect feeds before we can
suggest-a treatment. Biting or chewing insects are destroyed by the application
of poison to their food which is taken into the stomach and thus causes poisoning
and death. For this purpose, Arsenate of Lead, Paris Green and other poisons
are applied to the food of the Mandibvlata insects. For the Suctorial, these
poisons so applied would be useless, as the sucking insects would simply push
their sucking beak through the coating of poison on the leaf and imbibe the
healthy sap, and be not in the least affected by the presence of poison on the
foliage or bark. To destroy sap sucking insects we must, therefore, apply some
wash or spray that will either by its caustic action destroy by contact with
insects, or we must force by means of a pump, the liquid poison through the
breathing spiracles of the insect. It is, therefore, obvious that it is essential to
have at least a knowledge of how insects feed go that the right treatment may be
applied. Resin and Soda Wash, Kerosene Emulsion, Whale Oil, Soap, ete., are
contact washes. Tobacco Wash, Quassia Chips, ete., are contact poisons.
Arsenate of Lead, Paris Green, ete., are internal poisons.

The Breathing Spiracles—The breathing of insects is quite dissimilar to ours,
for the air enters the body through a number of small openings, varying in num-
ber and spoken of as spiracles, a couple of which are found on most segments of
the abdomen and upon the thorax. These may be observed on the sides of the
abdomen of any adult insect as small spots or holes, and similarly on the sides of
the bodies of grubs and eaterpillars, and on the posterior segment of maggots. The

105

air is taken in through these spiracles and carried through the body to all parts.
Breathing spiracles are never found on the head.

Skeleton.—An insect is interesting because of the fact that its skin is its
skeleton.. There is no bony framework upon which the muscles, tissues and organs
are hung as in the ease of the back-boned animals, but its place is supplied by this
horny skin, which is known as an “Exoskeleton,” or outside skeleton. There are
no bones whatever in an insect’s body.

Natural History—With few exceptions, all insects are produced from eggs.
Subsequent to the egg stage, all insects go through remarkable changes of form.
This change is known as a metamorphosis. Three distinct periods are to be recog-
nised, namely, larva, pupa, imago, or adult. The larva is the small organism that
issues from the egg or is born alive. It is during the larval stage that insects gener-
ally do the greatest damage. The pupa is the stage which follows the full grown
larva and is usually a resting period. During this stage we have the miracle of the
transformation of an ugly caterpillar into a beautiful butterfly, or a maggot into
a fly. Imago or adult—this stage follows the pupa and is the final. All insects
with wings are full grown.

There are, however, some groups of insects which do not have a complete meta-
morphosis. The egg is laid as in the first group, but, instead of a larva, we have
a nymph, which has a direct resemblance to its parent, with the exception of wings.
It goes through a series of moults, finally appearing with wings. This is known as
an incomplete metamorposis. Examples—Grasshoppers, bugs, ete.

Friendly Insects ——Before passing to the discussion of pests, which follows, it
is, I think, as well to draw attention to the number of insects which act towards
us in a beneficial manner by destroying destructive species. The number of insects
which, directly or indirectly, benefit us 1s very large, but their work is often un-
appreciated because unnoticed. There is no doubt that, without the natural enemies
of insects, man would be helpless in combating them, particularly over large areas
of forest where, owing to the great growth and density of the trees, artificial
measures would be very costly if at all practicable.

In conjunction with other insect destroying birds and animals, predaceous
and parasitic insects are man’s greatest ally. They work silently and without the
necessity of any attention on the part of man. It is, therefore, important that we
should study as much as possible the life histories, habits, and relationships of such
of these insects which occur in our country, in the hope that we may learn to appre-
ciate their value and be able to conserve these natural aids, and possibly artificially
foster, encourage, increase, and transport, or extend the distribution of the most
useful. A careful observer is soon able to separate the useful and injurious insects
from each other, by noting their feeding habits, ete.

Beneficial insects belong primarily to the orders :—

Hymenoptera (Bees and Wasps), ete.

Diptera (Tachnid and Syrphide flies), ete.
Coleoptera (Ladybird and other carnivorous beetles).
Neuroptera (Lace-winged flies, dragon flies, ete.).

There are a few others scattered amongst the remaining orders.

Speaking in common language insects are divided into four groups: Chewing,
Sucking, Injurious, and Beneficial.

Beneficial insects are again divided into two groups—Predaceous (those that
seize their victims and feed upon them) and Internal Parasites (those that lay their
ego's upon their host or into the body, the larval and sometimes pupal stage being
spent inside their victims).

Destructive Forest Insects—The animal pests of forest trees are mostly in-
eluded in the Hexapoda, or insects. The amount of loss caused by forest insects

106

annually is very considerable. Insects cause stunted growth and deformity and at
times kill trees-outright. Insects are the cause of damage to trees right from the
nursery to the cutting or felling, and after the logs the converted into the finished
product, or even after it is placed in the finished article or structure. Insect-
destroyed timber furnishes fuel for forest fires which not only destroy the dead
timber, but injure and make susceptible to further insect attack, much of the green
living timber. It is well known that owing to the inroads of boring insects into
timber, deterioration and decay are more rapid than would otherwise be possible.
In every forest there is an ever present but inconspicuous army of insects which
live upon the bark, wood, foliage, seeds, and roots of the trees.

Trees damaged by fire or scarred by falling limbs or trees of unhealthy growth
through unsuitability to soil, are usually the first to be attacked as they offer the
least resistance.

In the following notes only the brief outline of a few species of local destruc-
tive forest insects 1s given, all unnecessary or minute details being avoided. To
enumerate the various pests of the forest would require a huge volume.

Coleoptera Beetles—These are no doubt the greatest offenders in our forests,
and of these the most numerous are the weevils (Cwrculionidae), or commonly
known as the Snouted or Elephant Beetles.

The Long Horned Beetles (Longicornes) are also a large and destructive
group.

Some of the most dreaded of forest insects are contained in the Scolytidae.

Wood Borers.
The Bostrychidae, or Augur Beetles, are a well represented group.

The Buprestidae, commonly known as Jewel Beetles, are very destructive to
various timbers.

We will take these beetles in the order referred to.

Weevils (Curculionidae) can readily be distinguished from other beetles by
the head which terminates in a snout. Their mode of attack is as varied as the
eroup itself; some attack only dying or dead trees, while others take the living
plants. The larve burrow or tunnel the roots, trunk, twigs, or they may cause
galls or swellings to appear on the branches within which they live. The adult
beetles may be foliage, bark, bud, fruit nibblers, or feed upon stored foods. Some
adults have the power of flight, but many have lost that power.

One of the commonest examples of a weevil is one known as the Grain Weevil
(Calandra oryzae). This insect lives and breeds in cereals or grains. A typical
tree-destroying weevil and one having a wide range over Australia is (Orthorrhinus
cylindrirostris). The larvee of this beetle bore through the centre of the limbs and
pupate therein, causing, when numerous. the death of the tree. Not only forest
trees are attacked, but it has been found in our State attacking fruit and ornamen-
tal trees.

The Longicorns or Long-horned Beetles (Cerambycidae)—The most numerous
and characteristic are the members of the Genus (Phoracantha). The life histories
and general habits of all longicorn beetles are nearly identical. The perfect beetles
hide in the daytime under dead bark or resting on tree trunks. When captured
some of them produce a sharp rasping sound. They are nocturnal, that is, night
flymg, coming out from their hiding places just about dusk. They are powerful
fliers and often attracted to lights. The colour is usually shiny black or reddish
brown and often mottled or blotched with pale yellow. The general form of these
beetles is elongate, antenne long and stout. The eggs are laid upon the bark in
eracks or under loose bark. The little larve, so soon as they hatch, bore their way
through the bark where they remain feeding for some time upon the sap wood.

|

107

They make regular tunnels, which may run straight or twist and turn in all dir-
ections. Shortly before being full fed the larve cut shafts into the inner wood
and finally pupate therein. The full grown grubs may be anything up to two inches
long, according to the species, and are legless, having short strong jaws and small
round head.

(5) Macramycterus Schonherri (Hope), Root borer.

(6) Molochtus gagates (Pase.), Root borer
(7, 8) Strongylorrhinus ochraceus (Schl.', Gall formers

teneral

ypress pine borer,
(Fabr.),

eae

cylindrirostris

‘optocercus undulata (Hope), EKucalypt borer.
borer, very destructive.

) Diadoxus scalaris (C

\
vy

l
2
(3, 4) Orthorrhinus

(
(
(

y

The Buprestidae, or Jewel Beetles, are well known from their brilhant ¢olour-
ing and are commonly met with during Summer. They may frequently be captured
on native shrubs, being attracted thereto by the flowers. In size they range from
an eighth of an inch to three inches.. The body is elongate in form with short head,
large eyes, adbomen covered with long closely-fitting, highly-coloured wing covers.

on eucalypts.

9, 10) Bostrychosis jesuita (Fabr.), Universal borers, very destructive.
) , ay

108

The female lays her eggs in crevices in the bark. The larve are slender, flattened
white grubs with small black jaws and flat head. They feed upon the sapwood
until strong enough to bore into the solid timber, where they pupate. These beetles
cause the death of many trees young and old.

The Bostrychidae or Augur Beetles—These beetles are easily recognised by
their curious cowled or hooded thorax, which comes down over the head. The body
is long and adapted for burrowing. They are sometimes called Shot-hole Borers.
Both native and cultivated trees are attacked. An introduced species named Rhizo-
pertha dominica has obtained a footing in the State. It attacks stored foods, grain,
leather and timber.

Plant Eating Beetles (Chrysomelidae)—These foliage-destroying beetles have
a regular thickened, more or less oval or rounded form, some of them not unlike
Ladybirds, for which they are often mistaken. As a rule they rarely measure
more than 1in. in length. The prevailing colours are red, yellow, or brown. They
lay their spindle-shaped yellow eggs on the foliage or twigs of their food plant
and when full grown the grubs crawl down and pupate in the soil beneath.

The Lepidoptera: Moths—Amongst the moths several boring pests are to be
found. These belong mostly to the family Hepialidae. The larve of these wood-
boring moths are termed “bardies,” and are relished as food by the natives.

The Genus Hepialus.—These large moths are generally found clinging to the
tree trunks, where they are easily captured. In colour they vary from green,
vellow, pink, and silvering shades. The moth lays her eges upon the tree stem.
The newly hatched caterpillar bores into the centre of the branch and then makes a
vertical shaft which may be severa! feet long wherein it feeds and pupates. The
moth develops from the pupa in the summer and escapes from the pupal case,
which is frequently found projecting from the hole in the trunk or root after the
moth has emerged. The females of some species lay thousands of tiny eggs.

The Genus Cossidae or Goat Moths.—The caterpillars from these moths feed
im the stems of trees. The short, naked larve tunnel round the bark until nearly
full grown, when they bore into the wood and pupate in cocoons. The moths are
of a delicate slate colour and finely marbied with black lines.

The Genus (Pielus) contains some large brownish moths with very hairy legs.
(Pielus haylinatus) is one of our commonest species. It is of a general chocolate
brown’ tint with an irregular silvery white stripe and dark lines running through
the centre of the fore wings. The hind pair are generally brown with the basal
portion light pinkish shade. The caterpillars feed in the roots and trunks of sev-
eral species of Acacias. The empty pupal cases may be seen sticking out of the
roots or tree trunks.

Another group of moths which cause a lot of damage are the Cryptophaginae.
These slender caterpillars live in shallow chambers or short tunnels in the branches
of trees. They cover the entrance of their burrow with a sereen of loose silken
web interwoven with gnawed bark and droppings. Resting during the day, they
come out at night, and biting off some of the leaves drag them down into the
burrow. When full grown they pupate in their burrows. One of these moths
(Cryptophaga unipunctata) (Cherry borer), has taken a faney to cherry and plum
trees—the larva bores into the branch or trunk of the tree causing gumming and
often the death of hmbs. There are many other species of Lepidoptera whose
larvee feed upon the foliage, bark and seeds of forest trees, but space will not
permit their inclusion. 7

Orthoptera (Termitidae): White Ants—These insects are amongst the most
destructive of our forest pests, attacking almost all kinds of timber. They are not
ants, although commonly ealled such, having no relationship whatever with the
true ants. We have a great number of species, many of which have never yet been
deseribed or named. Were it possible to estimate the direct and indirect loss due

109

to the ravages of termites, or white ants, in Australia, it would probably be found
that these insects hold a place unrivalled by any in economic importance.

Broadly speaking the habits of all species are very similar. The popular
acquaintance with the termite or white ant is mainly derived from witnessing the
flights of the winged forms of this pest. They emerge from cracks in the ground
or from crevices in buildings, swarming out sometimes in enormous numbers. These
winged individuals are not the ones that do the damage, but are the colonising
forms. The real depredators are sott bodied, large headed, milky white insects,
which are found under cover in tree trunks, logs, stumps, walls, and floors of build-
ings, ete. These are the workers and soldiers.

The food of white ants is the finely divided material into which they bore and
from which they seem able to extract nourishment. White ants are somewhat can-
nibalistie and will devour their own. cast skins and dead. It is this habit that
largely aids in the poisoning of a nest. Those that die from the poison are eaten
by the remaining members of the nest and they in turn are poisoned. White ants
cannot endure bright light. In all their operations, therefore, they carefully con-
ceal themselves. In this way the damage which they may be doimg is often entirely
lidden until perhaps a tree is blown down, when their work of quiet destruction
is revealed. There are many other forest insect pests that cannot here be dealt
with.

PRINCIPAL MEASURES OF CONTROL.

The ordinary spraying and similar methods employed in dealing with fruit
and shade tree insects are, of course, not available for practical application in the
case of forest trees.

In all efforts to control an outbreak or prevent excessive loss from forest in-
sects it should be remembered that as a rule it is useless to attempt the complete
extermination of a given insect enemy of a forest tree or its product when once
widely established. Our efforts must be directed to reduce the conditions which
favour the undue increase of a pest, that may result from forest mismanagement
or neghgence. Under complete forest sanitation, we can in a large degree prevent
the favourable conditions for destructive insect propagation, and can aid in the
propagation of beneficial insects, animals, and birds.

Were it not for the natural checks and natural factors of control of some of
the more destructive insect enemies of forest trees and products, artificial control
in many instances would be impossible. The insects and birds which prey upon
destructive insects are also themselves subject to natural enemies and have there-
fore their limitations for good.

We can best assist our natural insect and bird friends in their efforts to main-
tain the balance of nature by our alliance with them, in adopting all measures which
will weaken the forces of insect depredation, below the power of making an ag-
eressive outbreak. This is largely accomplished by the destruction by cutting and
burning of insect infested trees. This must be done at the right season, and hence
it is necessary to know the life history of the pest before control measures can be
suggested. It is of no avail to burn a tree after the pest which caused its death
has issued. Trees planted or growing in unhealthy conditions will be more sub-
ject to insect invasion than trees which are planted in healthy localities. There-
fore, unhealthy trees are better destroyed and only trees planted that will tolerate
the conditions. As far as possible all forests should be kept in a healthy condition
by good drainage and the prevention of fires. Fires are largely avoided by the
creation of fire breaks. These are cleared narrow strips of country which divide
the forests into given areas and thus make it possible to confine a fire, should it
break out, to the one block. Trees damaged by fire or other artificial means are

LAL OW:

rendered suceptible to insect invasion. The destruction of trees by imseets and |
the allowing of some dead timber to remain either fallen to the ground or as dead
trees, adds fuel to the bush fire. The hotter the fire the more the damage to the

4

erowing timber. The destruction therefore of insect-invaded timber not only kills
the insects before they have emerged, but greatly aids in the prevention of fire,

TARE

and should fire occur, reduces its intensity. By the prevention of forest fires it is
not meant that debris in cut-over areas should not be burned. In fact, this waste
material acts as a good decoy for insects and if when well infested it is destroyed
by fire, much good will result. Fire must, however, be kept out of forest reserves
at all costs.

Small or occasional outbreaks of leaf, bud, bark eating insects can be con-
irolled by spraying their food with arsenate of lead or other approved poison. The
poison is taken into the stomach and causes ultimate death of the insect. Some
species of leaf or bud nibbling weevils have proved very hard to poison, necessi-
tating the use of arsenate of lead at the rate of 1lb. to six or eight gallons of water.

Seales, aphides, or other sap-sucking pests may be controlled by spray ing
their bodies with resin. and soda wash, tobacco wash, ete.

In conclusion, may I suggest that ev ery effort be made to increase public in-
terest, particularly that of the young growing generation, in the protection of
forests. Encourage a study of beneficial birds, animals, and insects, with a view to
their protection. Help them to distinguish their insect friends from their enemies.
Instil into their minds the necessity for the appreciation of our forest wealth, for
economic, health, scenic, and climatic reasons.

cal?
CHAPTER XV.

ANIMALS OF THE FOREST.

The animals, or more correctly mammals, of Western Australia play but an
inimportant part in the life of the trees of the forest, partly because most of them
are small, and partly because, under normal conditions, they are not numerous.
At the same time it should be noted that the mammal fauna of Western Australia
iicludes many plant feeders, among which are included all the larger forms, except
the dingo, which is carnivorous. The other flesh feeders are small, the native cat
or dasyure being the most important. Some species live almost entirely upon in-
sects and other vermin.

1. Chiroptera—Bats.

The bats of the South-West and Central Districts are all insectivorous and so
are of considerable value to the forester. They are crepuscular or nocturnal, and
in the warmer months may be seen in the dusk flitting through the air in search of
their prey.

In the North-West the Blocd-sucking Bat or False Vampire, a bat which feeds
upon the blood of small mammals, birds, and reptiles, is found in the more arid
parts.

The Kimberley District possesses several species of the large Fruit-eating Bat
cr Flying Fox. These are fairly numerous in certain parts and will, no doubt,

prove a serious pest when attempts are made to grow tropical fruits on a large
seale.

2. Rodentia—Rats and Mice.

The various species of native rats and mice, which were never numerous, are
being rapidly exterminated by the Black Rat and the Domestic Mouse—creatures
which are a source of great loss to mankind and are among man’s most repulsive
and dangerous enemies. Relentness war should be waged upon these pests which,
because of their great fertility and remarkable power of adaptation may, if un-
checked, become a serious menace to the forester.

3. Carnivora—Dogs and Cats.

The only native animal that is exclusively carnivorous is the Dingo or Native
Log. This dog causes great loss to sheep farmers and breeders of stock, and
therefore is being hunted systematically in many parts of the State. On the other
hand, the dingo preys upon many of the plant-eating marsupials and there can be
little doubt that the recent unwelcome increase in numbers of the wallabies in some
parts of the South-West is due to the gradual disappearance of the dingo.

The wild form of the Domestic Cat, which until recently was protected as an
exterminator of rabbits, has done incalculable damage by killing many birds of

the bush, most of them insect-eaters, and steps should be taken to reduce its num-
bers in forest lands.

4. Diprotodont Marsupials—Kangaroos, Wallabies, ete.

This large group of Australian marsupials, distinguished by the presence of
two large incisor teeth in the lower jaw, consists almost entirely of vegetable feeders.
The kangaroos and larger wallabies are grazing animals and would therefore do

113.

little damage to young trees and saplings, but some smaller wallabies and rat kan-
garoos, such as the “Quokka,” the “Tammar,” or “Bounan,” and the “Boodie”
feed upon shoots and roots and so might, under certain conditions, damage vegeta-
tion of economic value. The damage done by these small wallabies in certain parts
of the South-West, where their natural enemy, the dingo, is becoming rare, has
already been referred to. It would seem that the growers of potatoes and vege-
tables are the chief sufferers, although fruit trees also are attacked in a dry season,
when the normal food supply is searee.

The common and the ring-tail opossum are arboreal forms, living mainly upon
young leaves and shoots, ‘but also including the flowers of eucalypts in their diet.
These animals if very abundant might become a menace to the forester, but any
harm they might do would be compensated by the insects they destroy and eat, for
they are not strict vegetarians.

The root-eating wombat was once rather commen near Eucla, his only home
in Western Australia in recent times, but is now considered to be extinct in this
Mi =
State.

5. Polyprotodont Marsupials—Bandicoots, Dalgytes, Native Cats, ete.

All the animals of this group possess three or more pairs of incisor teeth in the
lower jaw, the middle pair not being markedly larger than the others. The bandi-
coots, the dalgytes, the native cats, the pouched mice, and native squirrels are all
creatures whose food consists chiefly of insects, although the native cat is often
largely carnivorous. In spite of the birds they destroy at times, these animals
must all be regarded as friends of the forester, because of the war they wage upon
insects and other vermin.

Of special interest is the remarkable Numbat or Banded Anteater, a rather
rare and local animal, which is not nocturnal, like the rest of our marsupials, but
very active in day time when it searches for its favourite food, ants.

—— —_—_— —_———-

114

APPENDIX I.

MEASURING LOGS.

It is advisable that everyone who has anything to do with forests should know
how to ascertain the volume of a log, i.e., the number of cubic feet in it. The true
volume of a log is found by taking the girth or diameter in the middle, then calculating
the area of a section at that point, and then multiplying this sectional area by the
length of the log. The sectional area here referred to means the number of square feet
or inches in a section cut through the log. This may be found from this simple
formula :—

SSCMOGMe ete, == rn ox OF D8,

‘‘Girth’’ here means the measurement of the log round the middle of its
length. The volume is then ascertained from the following formula:—
Volume ==" eirth? x -0796) x ene th:
Thus, if a log has a girth in the middle of 9 feet and is 20ft. long, the volume
c—
9 x,9-x (0796 x 20) ==] W280 Reus feet.

If the diameter of the log in its middle has been measured by calipers, the
sectional area is found by the formula—

Sectional area — diameter* x .785.
and from that we get
Volumes — “diameter: * 3c 27s onnxe mlenothe

Thus, if a log has a diameter in the middle of 3 feet and a length of 20 feet,
its volume will be

x nih) oe AO)
eubie feet.

x

Vohines — ss
= jl

3
3

APPENDIX II.

THE FOREST SERVICE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

THE TRAINING OF FORESTERS.

Forestry is a science, and it is essential, therefore, that those whose duties lie
in the forests should possess the special knowledge which the efficient practice of
forestry demands.

The problems involved in the maintaining of a sufficient and continuous supply
of timber from a country’s forests are many, and a great number of them ean only be
fully solved by expert knowledge. Modern needs and modern conditions can no longer
be met by the old ‘‘rule of thumb’’ methods. The time is past when wastefulness in
converting great trees into marketable timber can be viewed with complacency. The
modern forester, if he is to give of his best to the service employing him, must bring
to his task a great deal of information that cannot be acquired by a more or less
lengthy acquaintance with the forests in or near which he may dwell. Such experience
has a value of its own, but it must be supplemented and systematised by a careful study
of organic detail and by the application of scientific principles. The modern forester,

115

in short, must be specially trained tor his work. A man with such a training and
animated by a desire to do his duty faithfully and well, will confer direct benefit upon
the country he serves; and, on the other hand, faithful performance of duty always
secures appreciation. Upon "forestry, as upon every other sphere of usefulness, Bacon’s
Golden Aphorism has a direct bearing—

‘*T hold every man a debtor to his profession, from the which as men of
course do seek to receive countenance and profit, so ought they of duty to en-
deavour themselves by way of amends to be a help and ornament thereunto. ’’

There are two divisions of officers in the Forest Service of Western Australia.
The first, or Professional] Division, is made up of men who have received training at a
University and have subsequently studied at and been awarded the diploma of a recog-
nised Forestry School. The second or General Division is, under the Regulations now
in force, composed of men who have served a prescribed apprenticeship, and have in the
course of their apprenticeship studied at the Forest Department’s School for a certain
fixed period during each year of their apprenticeship. This school, which is situated
near Wonnerup, is under the charge of a qualified officer of the First. Division.

Applicants for apprenticeship must be physically fit, not more than 15 years of
age, and must have passed, at least, the 7th Class in a State School. Apprentices serve
under indenture entered into between their parents and the Conservator of Forests, and
the period of service is four years. During the periods in each year not employed in
school work, apprentices will do duty in the field under the supervision of foresters and
assistant foresters. Those whose record during the term of apprenticeship has been
satisfactory and who pass the examination following the school courses, will be eligible
for permanent employment in the forests as suitable vacancies occur. The. following
is a resumé of the subjects that will be studied at the School during each of the years
of apprenticeship :—

Subjects for first year—

Elementary Mathematics.
Physiography and Geology.
Botany (elementary).
Entomology.

rm Wilo eH

The subjects to be studied during the second year are—

1. Soils.
2. Botany—Systematic and economic.
3. Surveying.

Aeon: 7alue.

Subjects for third year—
1. Svlviculture (ineluding nursery work).
2. Mensuration.
3. Valuation of Timber.
4. Protection of Forests.

Subjects for fourth year—

1. Forest Management and Working Plans.
2. Utilisation.

= Transport and Forest Engineering.

4. Forest Policy.

Ry Authority: FReD. Wm. SIMPSON, Government Frinter, Perth.

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SKETCH MAP
‘ SOUTH WEST PORTION
| WESTERN AUSTRALIA

'
Showing Approximate Position of

— REFERENCE.——

Jarrah, fucalyptus marginata.

Karri. Ss diversicolor. Wi

Juart. £. — gomphacephala. Raae Fore

Marri. ip calophyla. (/nterspersed among above three classes. \ KONOININ roel

Blackbutt E. patens-{ but nat so widely a6 Wares "| PrReber aa a

Wandoo. £. redunca. = ~

York Gum. E. loxophlebo. | snertbupuneete! eer

Maller £. occidentalis. pasting aber ieee <w ed F i
“Salmon Gum. E. salmonophioia. \ “ayn 20 ahey — Se f

7 F Mallet bark for Tannin,

Gimlet. E. salubris. Industeg f
: : Jam for fencing efe.

Jam. Acacia. acuminala.| Sandalwood for export

:
es
Sandalwood. Santalum cygnorum. NN
Tingle Tingle E. Jacksoni & Guilfoylei.
Prime Forest Regions.
3|— /imber Shipping Ports.
Railways in operation.

NOTE. A large part of the Eastern Goldfields is
wooded with Salmon Gum, Gimlet & other
£ucalypts which are used for Mining Timbers & Firewood

coMAnuarin ga
Cowaramup Pt

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Scale of Miles ——
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Forests Department, Bulletin No. 35.

ss

DEPAR
Ss tH
il =< Me

Western Australia.

Key to the Eucalypts

of Western Australia

Extract from Bulletin No. 34,

which includes descriptive and botanical
notes and illustrations of arborescent
species listed.

By

Bee. KESSELL, Ese. Conservator of Forests,
and C. A. GARDNER.

Issued under the authority of Hon. P. Collier, M.L.A., Minister
for Forests.

- PERTH :
BY AUTHORITY: FRED. WM. SIMPSON, GOVERNMENT PRINTER.

1924.
R 2348/24.

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Part I.

KEY TO THE EUCALYPTUS TREES, MALLEES AND
MARLOCKS, CONTAINING EVERY SPECIES OF THE
GENUS KNOWN TO OCCUR IN WESTERN AUS-
TRALIA. [JUNE, 1924].

This key is intended for the use of foresters and others who may wish to
determine species of this difficult genus without resorting to finer botanical dis-
tinctions. While a general knowledge of the macroscopic features of a plant
will, in most cases, serve to identify the more common species, certain finer differ-
ences of floral structure have been used—as necessary distinctions in certain cases—

but more often as check features.

This publication is composed of extracts from Bulletin No. 34, and has been
published for field use. Further particulars concerning species may be obtained
by reference to the full publication, which contains descriptive and botanical notes

concerning all Eucalyptus trees known to be indigenous to Western Australia.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GENUS EUCALYPTUS.

The Eucalyptus derives its name from two Greek words which may be trans-
lated as ‘“well-covered”—-a name applied to the little cap which protects the
unopened flower, and one which aptly describes what is perhaps the leading feature
of the genus. The most noticeable feature about a Euealyptus flower is the absence
of both sepals and petals, and the presence of the operculum or bud-eap which pro-
tects the stamens in the bud stage. The operculum usually falls off entirely as
the flower expands, but sometimes remains hinged on to the calyx after the flower
opens. These characteristics, together with the presence of the inferior ovary
and.the conspicuous stamens of indefinite number, serve to distinguish the genus
Eucalyptus from all other flowering plants. The Eucalypts are closely allied to
the genus Angophora, which is found only in the Eastern States, and in which
there are petals. which soon fall after expansion, and- small but distinct calyx-
teeth. The calyx of Eucalyptus, although generally without lobes or teeth at all,
has, in a few instances, small teeth, four in. number, which are situated at or near
the top of the calyx, and which appear to be the rudiments of sepals. The
operculum of Eucalyptus takes the place of petals as regards their protective
functions, but the filaments are the most conspicuous part of the flower, and, being
attractive, serve as petals in this respect. If, as is generally supposed, the
Angophoras are the ancestors of the Eucalypts, the operculum may have, at one
time, consisted of free petals. In some species of Eucalyptus the opereulum is
double—the outer one falling off before the inner.

The Eucalypts are all evergreen trees or shrubs, with the exception of one
tropical tree which is deciduous, and another from the same latitude which is
partially deciduous. Euealypts have simple leaves which usually have leaf
stalks. The leaves are generally of a lance or egg shape. The venation consists
of a midrib connected by fine secondary veins with a vein which runs close to
the margin of the leaf (intramarginal). With few exceptions, the bracts and
bracteoles so characteristic of other flowering shrubs and trees are absent from
Eucalyptus, and, when present, are either rudimentary or fall before the flower-
ing period. | | 3 |

Euealypts are divided, as regards their habit, into Trees, Shrubs, Mallees and
Marlocks. Trees are distinctive in habit, in that_they possess a well defined
trunk. Shrubs branch from the base, or close to the base. Mallees have a
bulbous root-stock, either subterranean or half above the soil, from which arise
stems (usually 4 to 8 in number), which are all of about the same height.
Typical Mallees have a large woody stock. Marlocks, which may be ealled
‘“sand-plain Mallees,’’ have a smaller reduced stock, or become true shrubs.
It is often difficult to differentiate between a Marlock and a shrub, as inter-
mediate forms occur, which may be one or the other. Trees and Mallees, on the
other hand, are quite distinctive forms of vegetation. For the sake of conveni-
ence, the Mallees, Marlocks and true shrubs, have been placed in the same
general key.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR USING THE KEY.

It is first necessary that field notes be taken concerning :—
Whether species is'a tree, or Mallee, ete.
(a) Texture of the bark.
(b) Character and colour of the bark.
(c) Colour of the timber (heartwood).
(d) Habitat.

Specimens of such leaves, fruits, and buds as may be available should then be
secured and studied in conjunction with the notes and diagrams contained in the
key, in the following order:— _

(e) Fruit (shape of the mature fruit).

(f) Valves of the mature fruit.

(g) Operculum, or bud-cap of the unopened bud.

(h) Leaves, their colour, and whether stalked, or without a leaf-stalk.

As each characteristic is located in the key, a number is built up, but care
must be taken to keep numbers in the correct order, and place an 0 in any position
when information is not available concerning any characteristic.

The number built up by the use of the whole, or part of the key is then
referred to the numbered list of species on pages 10 to 13 and the name read off.

The first four decimal places may serve to determine a species, in which
ease the other characteristics may be read off the key and used to check the correct-
ness of the diagnosis.

For example, let us take the Karri :—
Our note book gives the following information—
-1 Texture of bark—Smooth throughout.
-O1 Character and colour of bark—Thick, and smooth.
002 Colour of the heartwood—Red.
-0001 Habitat—South-West.

Thus, up to the present, we have number -1121.

If we now consult the list we find there are three species having this number;
and reference to the descriptive notes of each species will show that height, shape
of tree, and habitat preclude the possibility of it beimg any species other than
Karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor).

The other alternative is to continue the use of the key by referring the other
features in the order given, or selecting one feature which from the number quoted
in the key is different in each of the three species, as, for instance, the shape of the
fruit.

-A—KEY TO THE ARBORESCENT SPECIES (page 7).

‘ B—KEY TO THE MALLEES AND MARLOCKS (page 15).

==MAP (OF =
WESTERN AUSTRALIA.
: HABITATS :

Showing The approximate |
ranges GF various Species

=) SN ’
=e O.
SS > ;
<a iy Get Ly y |
; rial YD ! ° ~~ S a :
Ss, PMU Gey bs ea PE a EE EE Ty ERRNO TSS
| | | i ke | : eae oe ne AYA Peis ———— CEES . |

2 : i ==
= ete ee oS
| Q SS SSS SSS SS =
0 8 325 32 = = e-
| a SS SS eS ee Ze
| i j= SS = STS ==
| \ 0\E = 24 = SS SS Si
| —= Se S52 ai Tu i
Si i hit
| x i i | i
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| Halt
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er ee ee

a H

THE KEY.

A.—TREES.

Eucalypts from 10 feet in height upwards, with a simple or single stem or
trunk of 6 feet or more below the first branch.

A——TEXTURE OF THE BARK.
-1000 0000 Smooth barks throughout.
*.2000 0000 Base of the trunk with rough persistent bark, otherwise smooth,

“Blackbutts.” All Goldfields or Eastern districts species.

-3000 0000 Trunk with rough persistent bark, the branches smooth, or

i shghtly ribbony only. “Hlalf-barks,” e.g., Yate.

-4000 0000 All except the branchlets (or twigs), with rough bark, or with

totally rough bark, e.g., Jarrah and Marri.

-5000 0000 Lamellar baris, i.e., bark in thin layers on the trunk, of a papery
texture. A group which is confined in Western Austraha
to the Kimberley district.

B.-CHARACTER AND COLOUR OF THE BARK.
Thick barks (never under %4in. thick at breast height).
-0100 0000 Smooth, white, grey, or pinkish, clean and shedding annually.
--0200 0000 Persistent rough, (a) light zrey in colour, e.g. Tuart.
-0300 0000 Persistent rough, (b) dark grey to almost black.

Thin barks (never more than 14in. thick at breast height). .
-0400 0000 Smooth, (a) white, or light grey, or yellow-white.
-0500 0000 Smooth, (b) reddish or brown or orange-red.

N.B.—In the ease of trees classed under -2 and -5 (either “base of the trunk
with rough persistent bark” or “lamellar barks’), the character and colour of
the bark has reference to the bark of the upper portions and not the roughened
or fiaky base.

C.—TIMBER (colour of the heartwood).
9010 0000 Pale, i.e., white, yellow, light brown, or pinkish (e.g., Tuart).
-0020 0000 Red or reddish (e.g., Jarrah and Karri).
-0030 0000 -Brown to almost black (deeper than red, e.g., Coolibah).

D—HABITAT (see sketch map).

-0001 0000 South-West.
-0002 0000 Savannah forest of Southern interior (Eastern districts and
Goldfields).
-0003 0000 North-West.
-0004 0000 Kimberley, or Northern district.
The above are all field characters. The four places following the space refer
to botanical distinctions.

* The well known Blackbutt of the South-West (H. patens) does not belong
to the group of Eastern District trees known as Blackbutts.

PRUOTE VALVES.

22 290698

OPERCULA.

C.A.Gardner, Delf

ee ee ee ee ee

ES a eT, | _"

E.—FRUIT: Shape.
~ -0000 1000 Globular or spherical, or roughly so.
-0000 2000 Egg-shaped, tapering away from the stalk (ovoid).
-0000 3000 Bell-shaped (campanulate).
~-0000 4000 Long and narrow, or more or less cylindrical.
-0000 5000 Cup-shaped (hemispherical).
-0000 6000 Pear-shaped, but flattened at the end (obovoid-pyriform).

-0000 7006 Vase-shaped, i.e. globular, egg-shaped or narrow, with a distinct
, neck.

-0000 8000 Inverted-cone-shaped, top, or funnel-shaped.
-6000 9000 Four-sided (quadrangular). .

F.—FRUIT: Valves (which open in the mature fruit to emit the seeds).
-9000 0100 Valves enclosed (included within the fruit).

-0000 0200 Valves protruding from the opening, but more or less triangular
and short (deltoid).

-0000 0300 Valves protruding, narrow and awl-shaped.

-0000 0400 Valves slightly protruding, or slightly sunk, more or less flush
. with the top of the fruit.

G—OPERCULUM: The cap which protects the unopened flower.
-0000 0010 Hemispherical.
-0000 0020 Hemispherical with a short tip or beak.
-0000 0030 Hemispherical-comcal, scarcely one or the other.
-0000 0040 Egg-shaped, i.e., obtusely conical (blunt).
-0000 0050 Conical, very close to 3, but more acute.
-0000 0060 Narrow-conical, or long and tapering.
-0000 0070 Zong and narrow, with a blunt apex, or oblong.

-0000 0080 Much flattened or drawn out (spreading) at the base, some-
times long and tapering, but expanded at the base.

-0000 0090 Square, quadrangular or cross-shaped (cruciform).

H.—FOLIAGE: Lustre of the leaves.
Leaves petiolate (i.e. with a leaf stalk).
-0000 0001 Shining on both sides.
-0000 0002 Dull (not shining’), often bluish, on both sides.
-0000 0003 Dark green and shining above, paler underneath.

Leaves sessile (i.e. without a stalk to the leaf-blade):
-0000 0004 Shining, on both sides.
-0000 0005 Dull, or whitish, or bluish-green.

10

Key Number, Species, and Common Name. (Trees.)

1231
1561
4152
6142
1361
3491
5191
2123
5211
5241

5242 .

6143
oe ta.
7481
1251
5432
1251
2132
2152
4255
5211
5221
5241
5255
5432
Aw

Seeee &

E.
E,
. Foelscheana, F.v.M. Smooth-barked Bloodwood.

. diversicolor, F.v.M. Karri.

. megacarpa, F.v.M. Bullich.

. falcata, Turez. White Mallet.

. redunca, var. elata, Benth. Wandoo.

. accedens, W. V. Fitzg. Powder-bark Wandoo.
. falcata, Turez. White Mallet.

. erythrocorys, F.v.M.

Ph ]

. Lane-Pooler, Maiden. Powder Salmon Gum.

”?

. Drummond, Bentham.
cl
. diversicolor, F.v.M. Karri.

. salmonophloia, F.v.M. Salmon Gum.

Flocktoniae, Maiden. Merrit.

rostrata, Schlecht. River Gum (Red Gum of $.A.).
. pallidifolia, F.v.M. Micum.
. rostrata, Schlecht. River Gum.

latifolia, F.v.M.

”

. Mooreana (W.V.F.) Maiden. Mountain Gum (Kimberley).
. alba, Reinwardt. Ridge Gum.

”

9
Mooreana, (W.V.F.) Maiden.
palliidifolia, F.v.M. Micum.

”?

99

. Houseana, (W.V.F.) Maiden. Kimberley White Gum.
. redunca, var. elata, Benth. Wandoo.

. microtheca, F.v.M. Blackheart (N.W. form).
. pallidifolia, F.v.M. Micum.

colina, W. V. Fitzg.

”

. pallidifola, F.v.M. Micum.
. doratoxylon, F.v.M.

. eremophila, Maiden.

. eremophila, Maiden.

. corrugata, Luehm.

. annulata, Benth.

a eS eee ee

+-1412
+1412
-1424
-1424
1424
-1424
+-14x1
-14x2
t-14x3
1511
* x ED
*y.1512
*.1512
*.1512
*1512
-1512
*.1532
*.1532
-1532
*.1532
1x12
-2112
*. 9112
12D)
-2122
*.9199
-2412
+2412
-2442
-2412
-2419
-2499
.2499
-2512
-2512
2532
-2532
- 2532
2532
-3211
-3211
*.3912
-3212
-3212
-3213
-3213
-3224

5451
6141
4111
4131
4132
8251
x361
7131
9112
6461
3371
3371
3372
4462
6371
7122
2241
5241
5412
5451
Rs21
3422
4131
2362
7362
7481
3382
3429
4382
5211
5281
2152
6152
3361
5361
3472
4121
4131
4472
5241
5251
4131

8211

8281
6422
8422
2232

Soh Ss SSIs

my &

Bae &e& &

mo Sy oy fy

&

me &

E.

11

. conglobata, (R.Br.), Maiden.
. leptophylla, F.v.M. |
. papuana, F.v.M. Cabbage, or Desert Gum.

”

”
. confluens, (W.V.F.) Maiden.
. Lehmanni, Rein.
. sepulcralis, F.v.M. Weeping Gum.

eudesmioides, F.v.M.

. platypus, Hook Moort.
. astringens, Maiden. Brown Mallet.
. spathulata, Hooker. Swamp Mallet.

”

. Gardneri, Maiden. Blue Mallet.
. astringens, Maiden. Brown Mallet.
. caesia, Bentham. MRed-flowered tree.

salubris, F.v.M. Gimlet.

9

. campaspe, Spencer Moore. Silver-topped Gimlet.

diptera, Cecil Andrews. Bastard Gimlet.

. Cooperiana, F.v.M.
. Woodwardi, Maiden.

celastroides, Turez.
transcontinentalis, Maiden. Redwood.

>)

Flocktoniae, Maiden. Merrit (Blackbutt).

. Clelandi, Maiden. Blackbutt.

Woodwardi, Maiden. Blackbutt.
Clelandi, Maiden. Blackbutt.

. corrugata, Luehm.

Le Souefiit, Maiden. Blackbutt.

. intertexta, R. T. Baker.

”

. Sargenti, Maiden.

9

. Stricklandi, Maiden. Goldfields Yellow-flowering Gum.
. Dundasi, Maiden. Dundas Blackbutt.

9?

Stricklandi, Maiden. Goldfields Yellow-flowering Gum.
. rudis, Endl. Flooded Gum.

”

. celastroides, Turez.
. Griffithsii, Maiden. Grey Gum.

oP]

. striaticalyx, W. V. Fitzg. Cue “York Gum.”

”
pruinosa, Schauer. Apple Gum.

* 3939
3232
3232
-3311
-3311
-3311

*+.3311
3312
3322
-3322

* 3322
3322
-3322

+ +3322
3322

*. 3332
3332
- 3332

* 3339
A211
4211
4211
4211
4211

*. 4991

*.499)

* 4991

*. 499)
A994
4234
-4934
4311
4311
-4311
4311
-4311
-4311
-4311
-4311
-4321

*. 4391

*.4391
-4321
-4321
-4321
4321

4131
8211
8281
3361
Sel
4131
6361
4141
1351
1361
2341
2301
2361
2362
7362
4111
4182
5241
6111
1121
3411
4141
5241
5251
1251
1351
6251
6351
2235
2112
2132
4121
1132
sou:
2113
2133
6111
6411
7133
1141
1153
1163
2121

2131 |

7121
les

Ry coRcs Bee & Es BR &

BS Se

eS

12

. celastroides, Turez.
. Griffithsii, Maiden. Grey Gum.

”

. occidentalis, Endl. Swamp Yate.

9) ”

. foecunda, var. loxophleba, Benth.
. cornuta, Labill.

. foecunda, var. loxophleba, Benth.
. longicornis, F.v.M. Red Morrel.

9)

. oleosa, F.v.M. <A Morrel.
. longicornis, F.v.M. Red Morrel.

3?

. transcontinentalis, Maiden.

39 %”

. gracilis, F.v.M. Yorrel.

York Gum.

torquata, Luehm. Goldfields Red-flowering Gum.

Todtiana, F.v.M. Prickly-bark.
gomphocephala, A.D.C. Tuart.

. Mundijongensis, Maiden.
. rudis, Endl. Flooded Gum.

9

. pruinosa, Schau. Apple Gum.
. Spenceriana, Maiden. Grey Box.

”

. Todtiana, F.v.M. Prickly-bark.
. patens, Benth. Blackbutt (S.W.).

. Staeri, Maiden. Blackbutt of Albany.
. ficifolia, F.v.M. Red-flowering Gum.

99

99

; calophyjlla, R. Brown. Marri.

. marginata, Smith. Jarrah.

9

. melanoxylon, Maiden. Black Morrel.
. gracilis, F.v.M. Yorrel.

. decipiens, Endl. Coastal White Gum.

. Guilfoylet, Maiden. Yellow Tingle Tingle.

. Jacksom, Maiden. Red Tingle Tingle.

. haematoxylon, Maiden. Mountain Marri.

13

4323 1125 E. setosa, Schauer. Bloodwood.

-4323 1135 i

-4323 4131 H. terminalis, F.v.M. Ironbark.

4324 1112 EH. dichromophloia, F.v.M. —

-4324 1121 E. Cliftoniana, W. V. Fitzg. Desert Gum.

-4324 1125 E. setosa, Schauer. Bloodwood or Cabbage Gum.
-4324 1132 EH. dichromophloia, F.v.M.

-4324 1135

”

-4324 2133 E. ptychocarpa, F.v.M. Swamp Red Gum.
4324 3112 H. tetrodonta, F.v.M. Messmate.
-4324 3132 HE. Brachyandra, F.v.M. Deciduous Bloodwood.
-4324 3142
-4324 4121 EF
-4324 4131 FE. terminalis, F.v.M. Ironbark.
-4324 7112 E. dichromophloia, F.v.M.
-4324 7115 E. perfoliata, R. Br. Bloodwood.
-4324 7135 es
-4334 44x2 LE. lirata, (W.V.F.) Maiden.
-4334 5252 EH. microtheca, F.v.M. Coolibah.
-4334 6152 EH. melanophloia, F.v.M. Silver-leaved Ironbark.
-4334 6252 o
-4334 8432 H. argillacea, W. V. Fitzg.
—§:5424 4122 EH. miniata, A. Cunningham. Woollybutt.

9

. pyrophora, Benth. Bloodwood.

§-5424 7122 53

§-5434 2112 E. clavigera, A. Cunn. Cabbage Gum.
§-5434 2115 Bs

§-5434 4112 a

§-5434 4115 ‘

§:-5434 4x31 E. oligantha, Schauer.
§-54x4 7121 E. grandifolia, R. Brown.
*Xxx3 4112 FE. gamophylla, F.v.M. |

*xxx3 4115 %9

&

* These trees at times may be found in mallee. form.
{ Mallees occasionally found as trees (see Mallee Key.

x Eucalyptus spathulata may easily be distinguished from EH. astringens by
its small very narrow greyish shining leaves, and by its thinner smoother bark.

{ Fruits in dense clusters.

§ The colour of the bark mentioned for the trees indicated is that of the upper
portions of the trunk and branches. The lamellar lower portion is often multi-coloured,
or light grey to yellow brown showing inner bark of red or white.

-20

-30

40

0000

0000

0000

0000

LEAVES (see

-01 0000
02 0000
-03 0000
-04 0000
-05 0000
-06 0000
-07 0000

FRUIT: Shape.
-00 1000
-00 2000
00 3000
00 4000
00 5000
-00 6000
00 7000
09 8000
00 9000

FRUIT:

00 0100
-00 0200
-00 0300
-00 0400

B.—MALLEES, MARLOCKS, AND SHRUBS.
Mallees associated with trees in forest country, .or in Mallee-
thickets in reddish or grey clay loam.

Marlocks, or sand-plain Mallees, usually with small stocks (re-
duced) or without stocks (shrubs).

Shrubby forms (Mallee-like) found around granite rocks, or in
elevated situations. All except EH. doratoxylon and E.
megacarpa (Stirling Range mountain forms) with reddish-
green streaked thin barks.

Tropical species, occurring North of the opie of Capricorn.

diagrams on opposite page).

Leaves lance-shaped, straight, or curved.
Leaves pointed egg-shaped—ovate-lanceolate.
Leaves very narrow and long—linear.

Narrow-lance-shaped—broader than linear, but narrower than
lance-shaped.

Heart-shaped or circular, small.
Ovate, or egg-shaped, much larger than -05
Oblong, of the shape and size illustrated.

(Se diagrams, page 8.)
Globular or spherical, or roughly so.
Hge-shaped, tapering away from the stalk, i.e., with the broad
side next to the stalk (ovoid-truncate).
Bell-shaped’ (campanulate).
Long and narrow, or more or less ecylindroid.
Cup-shaped (hemispherical). |
Pear-shaped, but flattened at the end (obovoid-truncate).
Vase-shaped (globular, egg-shaped, etc., with a distinct neck).
Inverted cone-shaped, top or funnel-shaped (turbinate).

Four-angled (quadrangular).

Valves. (Se diagrams, page 8.)

Valves enclosed within the fruit.

Valves protruding beyond the opening, more or less short and
triangular (deltoid).

Valves protruding, awl-shaped.

Valves slightly protruding, or slightly sunk, more or less level
with the top of the fruit.

16

OPERCULUM, or bud-cap: Shape. (See diagrams, page 8.)
-00 0010 Hemispherical.
-00 0020 MHemispherical with a short tip or beak.
-00 0030 Hemispherical-conical.
-00 0040 LEgg-shaped, 2.e., obtusely conical.
-00 0050 Conical. Near hemispherical-conical, but more acute.
-00 0060 Tapering to a point (narrow conical).
-00 0070 Long with a blunt apex, or more or less oblong.
-00 0080 With a drawn-out, or dilated base, conical, tapering or flat.
-00 0090 Square, quadrangular, or cross-shaped.

Colour (LUSTRE) of the leaves.
. 00 0001 Shining.
-00 0002 Dull.

a bg

KEY NUMBER AND SPECIES (MALLEES, MARLOCKS, AND SHRUBS).

-11 1222 EH. Ewartiana, Maiden.

*.11 1341 E. oleosa, F.v.M.

> Sr et36l EF. oleosa, F.v.M.

*.11 1362 HE. eremophila, Maiden.
*.11 2341 LE. oleosa, F.v.M.

*.11 2361 E. oleosa, F.v.M.

-11 4131 EH. foecunda, Schau.

-11 4141 EF. foecunda, Schau.

-11 4151 £E. calycogona, Turez.

-11 4152 E. redunca, Schau.

ine4i/i ff. grossa, F.v.M.

-11 4422 E. Sheathiana, Maiden.

-11 4462 FH. redunca, Schau.
*.J1 5271 HE. annulata, Benth.
*-11 5451 HH. conglobata, (R. Br.) Maiden.

-11 6152 HE. redunca, Schau.

‘11 6231 EH. dumosa, A. Cunn.

‘11 6371 E. Stowardi, Maiden.

‘ll 6441 ZL. platypus, var. nutans, Benth.
*.11 6461 E. platypus, Hooker.

-11 6452 HE. redunca, Schau.

-11 6462 LH. redunca, Schauer.
*.11 7481 EH. Flocktoniae, Maiden.

‘11 8422 EH. Sheathiana, Maiden.

-l1 8461 E. erythronema, Turez.

-11 8481 E. erythronema, Turez.

‘11 9151 EH. Forrestiana, Diels.
t-14 2241 E. salubris, F.v.M.
(72 Sy 95
*.14 4111 E. gracilis, F.v.M.

‘14 4132 E. celastroides, Turez.
*.14 4362 £. eremophila, Maiden.
*.14 5431 E. diptera, Andrews.
*.14 6111 EL. gracilis, F.v.M.

-15 4152 HE. Kruseana, ¥.v.M.
*.15 6461 EH. platypus, Hooker.

-16 4171 £E. grossa, F.v.M.

-21 1111 E. buprestium, F.v.M.

-21 1212 E. Ebbanoensis, Maiden.
1-21 (1251 EH. decipiens, Endl.

er

18

-21 1282 H. Hbbanoensis, Maiden.

21 1351 E. decipiens, Endl.

-21 1361 E. falcata, Turez.

‘21 148x E. gomantha, Turez.

-21 2111 E. angulosa, Schau.

‘21 2131 #. decurva, V.v.M.

-21 2151 FE. angulosa, Schau.

-21 246x EF. macrandra, F.v.M.

-21 3261 E. occidentalis, Endl.

-21 3271 FE. occidentals, Endl,

-21 4121 E. Comitae-Vallis, Maiden. |
-21 4131 EE. foecunda, Schau. . ;
‘21 4141 E. foecunda, Schau. | |
21 4422 E. Sheathiana, Maiden. |
-21 4451 2. merassata, Labuill. 7
‘21 4461 E. incrassata, Lahbill. :
-21 4462 EH. Gardneri, Maiden. in
-21 5262 E. pyriformis, Turez. var. Kingsmilli, Maiden.
-21 5422 EH. pyriformis, Turez.

-21 543x E. micranthera, ¥.v.M.

-21 5452 EH. pyriformis, Turez.

‘21 6212 E. Ebbanoensis, Maiden.

-21 6251 #. decipiens, Endl.

-21 6282 E. Hbbanoensis, Maiden.

-21 6351 FH. decipiens, Endl.

-21 635x EH. angusta, Maiden.

-21 6371 EH. astringens, Maiden.

21 6462 E. Gardner, Maiden.

-21 7111 FE. angulosa, Schau.

-21 7151 E. angulosa, Schau.

Ale els oh astringens, Maiden.

-21 8422 KE. Sheathiana, Maiden.

-21 9112 E. eudesmioides, ¥.v.M.

-21 9191 E. tetraptera, Turez.

-21 x361 E. Lehmann, Preiss.

-22 1222. EH. Oldfieldu, F.v.M.

-23 1441 E. angustissima, F.v.M

-23 3372 EH. spathulata, Hook.

-23 xx5x EH. Jutson, Maiden.

‘24 1161 E. doratoxyion, V.v.M.

-24 1252 E. leptopoda, Benth.

-24 1411 E. pachyloma, Bentham.

1451
1452
3191
5191
6141
635x
6451
6452
6462
(asa
2112
5222
3412
5451
LED:
1161
1221
1222
2122
1161
5212
5442
XXDxX

" 3241
411

7241

* Mallees which sometimes have a tree form.

t Trees which sometimes have a Mallee form (see Arborescent Key).

& &

Sl

19

. uncinata, Turez.

33

erythrocorys, F.v.M

39

. leptophylla, F.v.M.

. angusta, Maiden.

uncimata, Turez.

)

zanthonema, Turez.

sepulcralis, F.v.M.

. tetragona, F.v.M.
. macrocarpa, Hooker.

. Preissiana, Schauer.

Kalganensis, Maiden.

. marginata, Sm.

49 ”
megacarpa, F.v.M.
Ewartiana, Maiden.
caesia, Bentham.

doratoxylon, F.v.M.

. erucis, Maiden.

Websteriana, Maiden

. orbifolia, F.v.M.
. Herbertiana, Maiden.
. odontocarpa, F.v.M.

. Herbertiana, Maiden

Albany Blackbutt
Apple Gum

Bastard Bloodwood
Blackbutt : Pah

- Albany
» Cleland’s
be Dundas ...

ee Goldfields

2. Le Souef’s
oe Coastal
Blackheart

Black Morrel Cae

2 (worrel)
Black Vate 5%. ae
Bloodwood

399

Blue Gum

Blue Mallet ...
Blue-leaved Mallet
Brown Mallet
Bullich

Cabbage Gum :
Cleland’s Bacon e
Coastal Blackbutt
Coastal White Gum
Coolibah Se
Coral-flowered Cates,

Desert Blackbutt
Desert Gum ..

Dundas Blackbutt Dundasi, Maiden
Flat-topped Yate _ occidentalis, Endl.
Flooded Gum . rudis, Endl.
Gimlet Se a salubris, F. v. M. :
» wsilver-topped campaspe, Spencer Moore
>» swam spathulata, Hooker
Goldfields Blackbutt—(See Blackbutt, Goldtields)
a4 Yellow-flowered Blackbutt E. Siricklandi, Maiden
a Gum ... KH. Stricklandi, Maiden
3 Red- flowered Gum E. torquata, Leuhm.
Grey Box EH. Spenceriana, Maiden ...
>» Gum E. Griffiths, Maiden
Illyarrie E. erythrocorys, F.v. M. ...
Ironbark ee AD E. terminalis, F. v. M.
a Isdell River EL. melanophloia, F. v. M.
i Silver-leaved E melanophloia, F. v. M.
Jarrah E. marginata, Smith
Karri es E. diwersicolor, F. v. M. ...
o Swamp E. megacarpa, F. v. M.
Kimberley Red Gum E ptychorarpa, F.v. M. . ‘
ss White Gum FE. Houseana, (W.V.F.), Mendent

Le Souef’s Blackbutt

index of Vernacular

20

Names.

by

. Clelandi,

. wmtertexta,
Cliftoniana, W. V. Fitzg. ae
. papuana, F. v. M. (an inland form) ...

Se Si Sols pisses SESE SSS ESSE SEES eae ay

. Staerr, Maiden

pruimosa, Schauer

. perfoliata, R. Brown ...

patens, Bentham
Staert, Maiden, Ms
Clelandi, Maiden
Dundasi, Maiden
Clelandi, Maiden
Dundasi, Maiden
Le Souefii, Maiden

. intertexta, R. T. Baker
. transcontinentalts, Maiden

Le Souefit, Maiden
Todtiana, KF. v. M.
microtheca, KF. v. M.
melanoxylon, Maiden ...
graciis, KF. v. M
gracilis, F. v. M. ies
Foelscheana, F. v. M.
latifolia, F. v. M. :
pyrophora, Bentham ...
megacarpa, F.v. M.

. Gardneri, Maiden

ardnert, Maiden
astringens, Maiden
megacarpa, EF. v. M.

papuand, F.v. M.
Maiden
Bey MM.
Endl.

FE. v. M.

Todtiana,
decipiens,
microtheca,

. torquata, Leuhmann ...

R. T. Baker

. Le Souzfii, Maiden

21

INDEX OF VERNACULAR NAMES—continued.

Mallet, Blue ...
» Brown
a Oe...
» Swamp
» White
Marri aie
Messmate
Micum
Mirret
Moich
~ Moort ee $54
» Round-leaved
Morrel, Black

a Red ..
Mountain Gum
poet et AULETT

Parker’s Gum

Poot

Bowder-bark

Powder-bark Wandoo.

Prickly-bark . sie

Red-flowering (ie as a
ss ‘f » Goldfields
= Gum Bat a4

5, Morrel’ ... aae
» Lingle Tingle .
Redwood Be Sa

Ribbon tree ...
Ridge Gum

River Gum ... :
Round-leaved Moort

Salmon Gum ,
oe White Gann

Silver-leaved Ironbark
,, topped Gimlet

Snap and Rattle

Stringybark ...
Swamp Gimlet
; ° Gam
3 Karri
» Mallet
; ao. . Mate
Tingle Tingle Red ...
» Yellow

Tuart (or Tooart)

Wandoo ee =
me Powder bark
G Salmon-bark
Weeping Gum .
White Gum (Kimberley
29 ”? (Wandoo)
ee (Coastal
» Mallet
Woolly butt

Yate ee
», flat-topped

» Black

» Swamp.. ae
Y cllow-flowered Blackbutt ie

Gum

Yellow Tingle Fingle.
York Gum i
Yorrell

. Gardneri, Maiden
. astringens, Maiden

astringens, Maiden

. spathulata, Hooker
falcata, Turcz. v. ecostata, Maiden

calophylla, R. Br.
tetrodonta, F.v.M. ...
pallidifolia, F.v.M. ...
celastroides, Turcz.
rudis, Endl.

platypus, Hooker
platypus, Hooker
melanoxylon, Maiden ...
longicornis, F. v. M
haematoxylon, Maiden
haematoxylon, Maiden

foecunda, Sch. v. eh uceurnee™ Benth .

longicornis, F.v.M. .

Lane-Poolet, Maiden ...
accedens, W. V. Fitzg.
Todiiana, F.v.M. ...

ficifolia, F. v. M.
torquata, Leuhm,
calophylla, R. Brown
ptychocarpa, F. v. M.
haematoxylon, Maiden
longicornis, F. v. M.
Jacksoni, Maiden
transcontinentalis, Maiden
celastroides, Turcz.
alba, Reinwardt
rostrata, Schlecht
platypus, Hooker

salmonophloia, F. v. M.
Lane-Poolei, Maiden
melanophloia, F. v. M.
campaspe, Sp. Moore
gracilis, F. v. M.

tetrodonta, F.v. M. .... Sie

spathulata, Hooker
rudis, Endl.
megacarpa, F. v. M.
spathulata, Hooker
occidentalis, Endl.

Jacksoni, Maiden
Guilfoylei, Maiden ...
gomphoecephala, A.D.C.

redunca, Schau. v. elata, Benth.

accedens, W. V. Fitzg.
Lane-Poolei, Maiden ...
sepulcralis, F. v. M.

Houseana (W.V.F.), Maiden — ..
redunca, Schau. var. elata, Bentham ...

decipiens, Endlicher ...

falcata, Turez. v. ecostata, Maiden

miniata, A. Cunningham

cornuta, Labill
occidentalis, Endl.
gracilis, F. v. M.
occidentalis, Endl.
Stricklandi, Maiden
Stricklandi, Maiden
Guilfoylei, Maiden

. foecunda, Schau. v. lovophleba, Benth,
. gracilis, F. v. M. eas

Alphabetical List of Western Australian EKuealyptus Trees.

Eucalyptus accedens, W. V. Fitzg.

alba, Reinwardt
argillacea, W. V. Fitzg.
astringens, Maiden ;
brachyandra, F. v. Mueller
caesia, Bentham e
calophylla, R. Brown
campaspe, Spencer le M.
Moore S
celastroides, Turezaninow ..
clavigera, Allan Cunningham
Clelandi Maiden
Cliftoniana, W. V. Fitzgerald
collina, W. V. Fitzg.
confluens, (W. V. Fitze.)
Maiden
Cooperiana, F. v. Mueller..
cornuta, Labill
corrugata, Luehmann
decipiens, Endlicher
dichromophloia, F. v. M. ...
diversicolor, F. v. Mueller...
Drummondu, Bentham
Dundasi, Maiden ...
erythrocorys, F. v. Mueller...
falcata, Turcz.; var.. ecos-
tata, Maiden’ 43
ficifolia, F. v. Mueller
Flocktoniae, Maiden
foecunda, Schau.; var. loxo-
phleba, Bentham 2
Foelscheana, F. v. Mueller...
gamophylla, F. v. Mueller...
Gardneri, Maiden
_gomphocephala, A. De Can-
dolle a id
gracilis, F. v. Mueller
a grandifolia, R. Brown
Griffiths, Maiden ...
Guilfoylei, Maiden...
haematoxylon, Maiden fi
Houseana (W. V. Mie )
Maiden
intertexta, R. T. Thalees
- Jacksoni, Maiden .

Eucalyptus Lane-Poolei, Maiden

Trees which occasionally take on a Mallee form—

. astringens; Maiden ...

celastroides, Turcz. ...
cornuta, Labill
decipiens, Endl..
diptera, C. Andrews
falcata, Turez.
Flocktoniae, Maiden

. Gardnerr, Maiden

E
E
E
E.
E
E

latifolia, F. v. Mueller
Le Souefit, Maiden 40h
lirata (W. V. Fitzg.), Maiden
longicornis, F. v. Mueller ...
margmata, Smith ... NS
megacarpa, F. v. Mueller...
melanophloia, F. v. Mueller
melanoxylon, Maiden
microtheca, BS veeNle
mimata, Allan Cunningham
Mooreana (W.V.F.), Maiden
Mundijongensis, Maiden ...
occidentalis, Endlicher
oleosa, WW. av. Meee
oligantha, Schauer
pallidifolia, F. v. M. iG
papuana, FE. v. Mueller ...
patens, Bentham ...
perfoliata, R. Brown
platypus, Hooker ...
pruinosa, Schauer
ptychocarpa, F. v. Mueller...
pyrophora, Bentham
redunca, Schau. ; var. elata,
Bentham
rostrata, Schlecht .
rudis, Kndlicher
salmonophloia, F. v. M.
salubris, F. v. Mueller’
Sargent, Maiden ...
sepulcralis, F. v. Mueller ..
setosa, Schauer
spathulata, Hooker
Spenceriana, Maiden
Staeri, Maiden, Ms :
striaticalyx, W. V. Fitagorales
Stricklandi, Maiden i
terminalis, F. v. M.
tetrodonta, F. v. M.
Todtiana, F. v. M.
torquata, Luehmann
transcontinentalis, Maiden
Woodwardi, Maiden

. gracilis, F. v. M.
. marginata, Smith
. megacarpa, F. v. M.

oleosa, F. v. M

. salubris, F. v. M.
. spathulata, Hooker

See also Mallees occurring as trees

Mallees, which sometimes have a tree form—

Midipepbpaciaeidaie te oh

23

Alphabetical List of Mallees and Marlocks.

. angulosa, Schauer ...

angusta, Maiden
angustissima, F. v. M.
annulata, Benth
buprestium, F. v. M.
calycogona, Turcz. ...
Comitae-Vallis, Maiden d
conglobata (Rk. Br), Maiden
crucis, Maiden eS oe
decurva, F.v.M. ...

diptera, Cecil Andrews
doratoxylon, EF. v. M.

dumosa, A. Cunn

Ebbanoensis, Maiden

eremophila, Maiden ‘
eremophila var. grandiflora, Maiden
erythronema, 'Turcz. :
erythronema, var. marginata, “Benth.
eudesmioides, F. v. M. ie "
Ewartiana, Maiden

falcata, Turcz.

foecunda, Schauer ...

Forrestiana, Diels ...

goniantha, 'Turcz.

grossa, F. v. M.

Herbertiana, Maiden

. incrassata, Labill

Jutsoni, Maiden
Kalganensis, Maiden

. Kruseana, F. v. M.

E. annulata, Bentham

E. conglobata (R. Br.), Maiden
EL. diptera, Cecil Andrews

E.
E
E
E

doratoxylon, F. v. M. (?) ...

. eremophila, Maiden
. eudesmioides, F. v. M. (?)
. falcata, Turcz.

By Authority :

eRe Ope aie BSS SSSShes

Lehmanmi, Preiss

. leptophylla, F. v. M.
. leptopoda, Benth.

macrandra, F. v. M.
macrocarpa, Hooker
micranthera, F. v. M. a
occidentalis, Endl. var. stenantha,
Diels ; sa
odontocarpa, F. v. M.
Oldfieldit, F. v. M.
oleosa, F. v. M. af
orbifola, FE. v. M. ...
pachyloma, Benth ... a
platypus, Hooker; var.
Benth. SG :
Preissiana, Schau. ...
pyriformis, Turez. *:..
pyriformis, var. minor, Maiden .
pyriformis, var. elongata, Maiden ...
pyriformis, var. Rameliana, Maiden
pyriformis, var. Kingsmilli, Maiden
redunca, Schauer.
redunca, var. melanophloia, Beate
redunca, var. oxymitra, Maiden
Sheathiana, Maiden
tetragona, F. v. M.

nutans,

. tetraptera, Turez.

uncinata, Turez.
Websteriana, Maiden
xanthonema, Turcz.

EH. Lehmann, Preiss. .
EL. leptophylla, F. v. M.
E.
E
E

oleosa, F. v. M.

. platypus, Hooker
. spathulata, Hooker

See also list of trees sometimes oc-

FRED, WM. SIMPSON,

curring as Mallees

Government Printer, Perth.

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A primer of forestry,