I

Principles and Practices Involved
in the Breeding, Feeding, and
Management of Pure-Bred Draft
Horses in the United States

VALENTE ESTRADA VILLEGAS

Principles and Practices Involved
in the Breeding, Feeding, and Man¬
agement of Pure-Bred Draft Horses
in the United States

By

VALENTE ESTRADA VILLEGAS

)\

A Dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Iowa
State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

No. 8

Approved : H. H. Kildee, Head of Department
R. E. Buchanan, Graduate Dean

IRs^r

AMES, IOWA

NINETEEN TWENTY-THREE

THE POWERS PRESS
AMES. IOWA

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

To Professor A. B. Caine, the writer ex¬
presses his indebtedness for constructive criti¬
cisms and supervision of the work, while to
Dr. H. D. Bergman he is under obligation for
help given on the common and contagious dis¬
eases, and other troubles. The writer also
wishes to extend his gratitude to the host of
breeders whose kindly aid made the accom¬
plish of this dissertation possible.

CONTENTS

I. Introductory ....... 7

II. Object of the Work ...... 9

III. Sources of Materials . . . . . .10

IV. Past Work — General Statement . . . .11

V. Management of the Stallion . . . . .12

1. Selection . . . . . . .12

2. Unsoundness and diseases affecting selection . . 13

3. Other considerations affecting selection . . 17

4. Age to breed . . . . . .18

5. Procedure in breeding operations . . .19

6. Systems of feeding and watering, salting . . 22

7. Feeding . . . . . . .25

8. Housing and care . . . . .28

9. Exercise . . . . . . .29

10. Grooming . . . . . . .30

111. Extra care . . . . . . .31

122. Common and infectious diseases, and other

ailments . . . . . . .32

VI. Management of the Mare . . . . .38

1. Selection . . . . . . .38

2. Breeding and productive age . . . .39

3. Breeding season. Period of heat. Signs of heat.

Time to breed . . . . . .40

4. Spring foaling . . . . . .42

5. Fall foaling . . . . . .42

6. Other breeding considerations . . . .43

7. Artificial insemination . . . . .44

8. Feeding . . . . . . .47

9. Housing and care . . . . .51

10. Exercise . . . . . . .52

11. Signs of pregnancy . . . . .52

12. Gestation period . . . . . .56

13. Signs of parturitition . . . . .57

14. Management of normal parturition . . .58

15. The care of the puerperal mare . . . .60

16. Common and infectious diseases and other

ailments ....... 64

VII. Management of the Foal . . . . .68

1* Handling . . . . . • .68

2. Raising the orphan foal . . . . 83

3. Common and infectious diseases and other

ailments . . . • • • .86

VIII. Management of Weanlings . . • • .95

1. Weaning and management . . . .95

2. Common and infectious diseases, and other

ailments ....... 104

IX. Experimental Work of Colt Feeding . . . .108

X. Care of the Colt’s Feet ...... 113

6 PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

XI. Educating and Training the Colt .... 114
Results of Investigation ..... 126

I. Stud Farms Surveyed ...... 127

II. Management of the Stallion ..... 132

1. Selection ....... 132

2. Unsoundness, diseases, and other defects . . 137

3. Systems of breeding ..... 137

4. Stud fee. Breeding contracts .... 138

5. Breeding age. Services ..... 139

6. “Teasers” ....... 142

7. Indifferent breeders. Stimulants . . . 144

8. Feeding. Watering. Salting .... 144

9. Exercise and work ..... 153

10. Grooming. Clipping the baircoat. Shoeing . . 155

11. Vices . . . . . . .156

12. Accidents. Diseases or ailments . . . 157

III. Management of the Mare ..... 159

1. Selection ....... 159

2. Diseases, unsoundness, etc., as

disqualifying factors ..... 162

3. Breeding season ...... 162

4. Artificial insemination ..... 163

5. Breeding age ...... 163

6. Work ....... 165

7. Pasturage ....... 165

8. Feeding ....... 166

9. The foaling mare and the new-born. Abortion . 172

III. Management of the Foal . . . . .179

1. The suckling foal ...... 179

2. The orphan foal ...... 180

IV. Management of the Weanlings ..... 182

1. Weaning: age and method .... 182

2. Feeding and handling ..... 183

V. Common Diseases and Ailments ..... 195

VI. Veterinary Equipment. The “Medicine Chest” . . 199

VII. Stallion and Foaling Box Stall ..... 203

VIII. Summary ........ 204

IX. Bibliography . . . . . . .205

Vita ......... 210

Appendix I. . . . . . between pp. 211 and 212

Appendix II. ....... 211

I

INTRODUCTORY

The world’s horse population is 105,400,000, of which the United States
shares with 23,015,922, or 23%. 1 The United States is also credited with
having 25 horses per 100 population, outranking other countries in this
respect.1 To date census figures for 1920 give the horse and mule popula¬
tion of the United States to be 27,676,939.2

That the horse industry of the United States, particularly of the draft
type, is to remain the source of reliable, efficient, and economic power
for the major body of agricultural workers and transportation men, is
evident. A very plausible undertaking, the “National Survey of the
Economic Status of the Horse,” sponsored by the saddlery interests,3 has
been made, the results of which bear fruit in accord to the foregoing
assertion.

This survey, among other things, discloses the following:1

“(1) All data gathered and studied indicates that the tractor in its
present state of development is a means of supplementary or auxilliary
power rather than a substitute for the horse.

“(2) That the tractor to date has made no appreciable dent in the
number of horses on our farms. In at least 50% of the cases just as
many horses are kept as after its purchase.

“(3) Actually, horse displacement which can be credited to the tractor
is very, very small, and in no case are the horses displaced equal in
value to the tractor which displaced them.

“(4) That the horses remaining after the tractor has been purchased
perform on the average from 75% to 90% of all the work.”

The survey also points out that the increase in the number of horses
and mules has always about kept pace with the increase in population
and agricultural expansion, excepting only from 1900 to 1910.

Relative to the effect of the introduction of motor trucks on the farms,
the survey reveals the fact that in January, 1919, there were 184 times
as many horses and mules as there were of motor trucks, so that the
influence is very little. It is mentioned that only one farm in nearly
fifty has a truck.

As to the part played by draft horses in city haulage it is worthy
of note to consider the following findings:1

“For all hauls within a radius of 2 or 3 miles where a number of stops
are made from terminal to down town business houses — hauling in
many cases is superior and in all cases cheaper. Long delays at terminals
seem to be inevitable and when this delay amounts to 2 or 3 hours it is
quite obvious that the horse is much cheaper due to the small investment
idle. Added to this, it is possible to use horses in many alleys and such
places that would be almost inaccessible for a motor truck.

“A number of cartage concerns also handle contracting work, such
as excavating. In this field it was also clearly demonstrated that the
horse has his place. First, in getting into excavation the horse could
often get into places where a motor truck could not go. It also was un¬
necessary to build heavily planked roadways for the horse as are necessary
to give the truck traction. This also holds true on the dump.

“In ice companies, bakeries, creameries, etc., having short hauls and
regular stops or routes the horse has a distinct place. The truck could

8

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

not make any better time over a given route than a horse could. The
horse could carry just as big a load and the cost was much less.”

Back of the horse industry the country must look into the breeding
operations as the basis for the output of proper classes and number of
horses to keep pace with the requirement in the United States. The
breeding and raising of pure bred horses, which are primarily respon¬
sible for the production of good types, must receive due support and
attention. To date census figures show that there were in 1919, 1,594,141
colts (horses and mules) in the United States, indicating a decrease of
22% from that of 1909.2 This is discouraging, and following the sugges¬
tion of the Horse Association of America the number of foals per year
should at least be equal to the number of horses replaced on the farm
annually, which is 1,811,087 in 1920 2

According to the “National Survey of' the Economic Status of the
Horse,”1 there were but 115,000 pure-bred draft horses of the six leading
breeds, or 1-165 of the nineteen million horses on the farms and ranches
in the United States in 1912. No doubt the total decrease in the number
of foals during the ten-year period — from 1909 to 1919 — , and the dis¬
proportionate small number of pure-bred horses compared to the total
horse population on farms and ranches, is due to some extent to lack of
knowledge regarding the proper and established methods of breeding,
feeding, and management of breeding horses.

II

OBJECT OF THE WORK

It is the aim of this dissertation to elucidate the findings gained from
an investigation of the practices relative to the breeding, feeding, and
management of breeding pure-bred draft horses as are actually followed
and advocated by experienced and observant breeders of this class of
horses in the United States.

Ill

SOURCES OF MATERIALS

In undertaking the work the writer made extensive trips and visited
several leading breeding establishments of pure-bred draft horses of
different breeds in Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin in the summer of 1920.
Other data were secured through correspondence by means of question¬
naires sent to the principal draft horse breeding farms throughout the
United States and several experiment stations. And besides, interviews
were held with some breeders during the visits made to the county fair
at Janesville, Wisconsin, the interstate fairs at Sioux City, Iowa, and at
Kankakee, Illinois, the state fairs at Springfield, Illinois, and at Des
Moines, Iowa, and lastly at the Belgian Horse Show, Waterloo, Iowa,
all in the summer and fall of 1920.

IV

PAST WORK-GENERAL STATEMENT

A review of the literature written on the breeding, feeding, and man¬
agement of horses reveals the fact that only a very limited amount of
the work was undertaken under controlled experimental means, while
legions of books and articles were put forth by competent authorities,
whose wide and long experience unquestionably gives strength to their
assertions and recommendations.

V

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

1. Selection

In choosing the stallion to head the stud Gay4 indicates that he should
possess the proper type and conformation, and should be sound as well
as being strongest in such points in which the mares he is to be mated
with are defective. Masculinity is desired and of this Gay mentions
that the stallion must have “development of forehand, hardness of
feature, and boldness of demeanor ” which he points out as indicative
of the “impressive sire.” In referring to the same point, Johnstone8
considers it the most important to bear in mind when right conformation
and soundness go with it. Thus he alludes to a “high-headed, bold,
noble, masculine presence” as a criterion of promising prepotency. He
makes the statement that he has never known one to be a breeder with
the head and neck of a mare. Another athority, Carlson,6 writes that
“no horse has ever proved himself a great sire, if not a stallion of most
pronounced masculinity.” He characterizes masculinity by “the crest,
the massive jaw, the voice, the hard and fixed expression of the eye,
the muscular development of the jaw, neck and shoulder, and by his
action and every movement.” Carlson6 goes on to say that stallions of
inferior masculinity produce many colts of low vitality although mated
with vigorous mares. Pierrot,7 in speaking for the breeders of the
Perche, France, asserts that a good deal of character and reproductive
ability are sought in the stallion as shown by the head, neck, and eye. A
stallion with “well-crested, swan-curved neck, a clean throatlatch, a well-
poised head with small, fine ears — an intelligent head above all, with a
large prominent eye, full of brilliance and fire” is desired. Great empha¬
sis is given to the eye, of which Pierrot remarks that he has never seen
a reproductive stallion whose eyes are of the common type. According to
Gelder,8 the front outlook of a stallion should go with “a good crest, bold
masculine appearance, bright, full hazel eye, a broad, full forehead and a
strong, wide, well-muscled jaw.”

The stallion as a different animal, possessing characteristics essential
for a reproductive male, is described by Blum9 whose account on the
subject is quoted in toto, to-wit:

“The sex character of the stallion is one of his conspicuous features.
His head is somewhat stronger and larger than that of the mare, and
his neck much heavier and thicker, with some strength of arch. When
the stallion is in superior physical vigor and spirits, he tends to carry
head and neck high, and shows the self-assertion and dominant quality
of the masculine sex. He should show marked strength of character in
his head, for it expresses much, whether bold and toplofty, or meek and
droopy. Some stallions have heads of an effeminate appearance, or
resemble the gelding in sexless character. Such heads should be dis¬
criminated against by both judge and breeder. One could not expect the
best breeding results from a feminine appearing sire. The neck should
show some length, rather than be short and steer-like, and be well laid
with powerful, long muscles. A strong development of hair at the fore¬
top and top of the neck, is also a feature of the stallion, the hair tending
to be coarse rather than fine. The stallion should manifest in his head
and especially eyes, something of his character, not easy to define, yet
expressing personality, temperament, disposition, and sexual dominance.
The sex character of the stallion is also shown in his powerful develop¬
ment of bone and muscle, and in his sexual organs. Even when of the

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

13

same size as the mare, his bone tends to he heavier, his muscles more
prominent and his frame more powerful. The sexual organs should he
perfectly developed, and the judge should note that the scrotum consists
of a double sac and prominent enough to bear evidence of being on a
breeding animal. A stallion with a single testicle is known as a ridgling,
and is at least open to criticism in the show ring, though he may not be
a non-breeder.

“The general body conformation of the stallion should show closeness
of coupling and strength of back, but plenty of length of middle. Some
persons favor much compactness of body, but if properly coupled and
the back strongly sustained, then the body itself may have length to
advantage. The shoulders of the stallion are also usually somewhat heav¬
ier and more prominent than on a gelding or mare, giving a thickness
in front expressive of masculinity tand power.

“The size of the stallion usually exceeds that of the mare though not
to a notable extent in many cases. However, a draft stallion weighing
2,000 pounds, might be a satisfactory size, while the female of the breed
at 1,700 would meet all requirements. It is not unreasonable to expect
the male to weigh three or four hundred pounds more than the female.
Most men desire comparatively large, rather stretchy types of stallions,
and these weigh distinctly more than the low set, compact, chunky sort.
This type of stallion stands higher than the mares, and is larger and
coarser in every way.

“The constitutional vigor of the stallion should also receive considera¬
tion. This is shown in the strength and character of the head, but is
especially seen in the prominence of breast and the depth and fullness
of chest. The degree of width of chest will depend upon the type, the
draft stallion showing more than the lighter sort, but this should not be
extreme. It is important that the forerib be well arched, but even more
desirable that it be long, and so account for a strong heart girth and full
flank. Not only this, but a long forerib is sure to be associated with
general depth of body, feeding capacity and vitality. A horse with shallow
body and long legs cannot stand up under work, and does not show the
constitution that the deeper bodied, lower set one does. Constitutional
vigor in the male is regarded of prime importance, and judges should
give it due recognition.

“The temperament of the stallion will be shown in a degree, according
to his type, the heavy draft horse being somewhat quieter and more
phlegmatic than the lighter type. In general, however, when not over¬
worked, the stallion shows an animated, aggressive character, with evi¬
dence of much reserve nervous force. If overworked, he loses much of
his fire and ambition. In the city of Paris there are thousands of draft
stallions stolidly pulling away enormous loads, quiet and indifferent as
to what is going on about them, giving little evidence of the naturally
bold temperament of the sex. The stallions should be active and alert,
yet not nervous and irritable. His disposition is usually good, but he
will bear watching for he may be unnecessarily playful with either teeth
or feet.”

2. Unsoundness and Diseases Affecting Selection

The Wisconsin stallion law10 provides that any of the following diseases
shall disqualify the stallion from service: Cataract, amaurosis (glass
eye), periodic ophthalmia (moon blindness), laryngeal hemiplegia (roar¬
ing or whistling), pulmonary emphysema (heaves, broken wind), chorea
(St. Vitus dance, crampiness, shivering, stringhalt), bone spavin, ring¬
bone, side bone, navicular disease, bog spavin, curb (with curby con¬
formation of the hock), glanders, farcy, maladie due coit, urethral gleet,
mange and melanosis. The state of New York,11 however, disqualifies
the stallion from standing only when affected by any incurable or con-

14

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

tageous diseases, and may be passed even though afflicted with some
transmissible unsoundness provided that the unsoundnesses are men¬
tioned in the certificate. The law considers the following as transmis¬
sible: recurrent ophthalmia, cataract, amaurosis, laryngeal hemiplegia,
pulmonary emphysema, stringhalt, bone spavin, side bone, navicular
disease, curb (when associated with curby conformation of the hock).
Under this law it is further pointed out that stallions which shall have
reached their fifteenth year and found to be free from incurable, in¬
fectious and transmissible diseases, shall subsequently not he required
to pass the examination for diseases or unsoundness after the issuance
of the first certificate previous to this time. The Iowa12 law disqualifies
the stallion if affected with glanders, farcy, maladie due coit, coital ex¬
anthema, urethral gleet, mange, melanosis, blindness, cataract, and per¬
iodic opthalmia, while enrollment may be permitted if possessing any
of such unsoundnesses as amaurosis, laryngeal hemiplegia, pulmonary
emphysema, bog spavin, bone spavin, ringbone, side bone, navicular
disease, curb (with curby conformation of the hock), and chorea, pro¬
vided that the unsoundness is specified in the certificate and advertise¬
ment. The law states that if the condition of the unsoundness is such
that the stallion is unfit for breeding the same may be rejected for public
service. Somewhat similar to the New York law the stallion is also
given a permanent certificate, but in this case, the stallion must have
passed examination for three consecutive years and reached the age of
six years or over. The permanent certificate must, however, be returned
each year for renewal, together with an affidavit that the stallion is free
from contagious or communicable disease. Nebraska18 bars any stallion
from public service if suffering from urethral gleet, melanosis, periodic
opthalmia, laryngeal hemiplegia, dourine, glanders, farcy, or serious de¬
fects in general conformation, and certificates are not issued to such
stallions brought to the state if affected with urethral gleet, melanosis,
periodic ophthalmia, laryngeal hemiplegia, cataract, amaurosis, chorea,
stringhalt, bone spavin, bog spavin, ring bone, side bone, curb (with
curby conformation of hock), and contagious or infectious diseases, or
which is seriously defective in conformation or of vicious disposition.
Here again a permanent certificate is given at the second inspection, the
time of examination being made, first, between the age of two and three
years, and again between the age of five and six years. But the certificate
may be repealed if the stallion is found to have melanosis, periodic
ophthalmia, or any contagious or infectious diseases or for any other
cause. The California stallion law14 only specifies that licenses issued
to unsound stallions should bear the particular disease or unsoundness
with which it is afflicted. Such unsoundnesses and diseases as are in¬
cluded in the law, sufficient to cause the stallion unsound, are periodic
ophthalmia, cataract, laryngeal hemiplegia, pulmonary emphysema, chorea,
bone spavin, ringbone, sidebone, navicular disease, osteoporosis, curb
(when accompanied by faulty conformation of hock). Washington16 bars
any stallion affected with bone spavin, ringbone, sidebone, navicular
disease, bog spavin, curb (with curby formation of hock), glanders,
farcy, maladie du coit, urethral gleet, mange, melanosis. The state of
New Jersey16 makes the same provision, but adds that cataract, amaurosis,
periodic ophthalmia, laryngeal hemiplegia, pulmonary emphysema, chorea,
osteoprosis, canker of the foot, and laminitis as being also contagious
diseases and unsoundnesses. New Jersey and Utah17 laws are similar in
this respect excepting that in the latter osteoporosis, canker of the foot,
and laminitis are not included; furthermore, the Utah law discriminates
against enlarged sidebone and curby formation of hock in place of side¬
bone and curb with curby formation of hock.

Barring stallions which were unsound before the enactment of the law,
or such stallions as have become unsound after passing examination at

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

15

over six years of age, the Stallion Registration Board of Oregon18 is
authorized to reject the issuance of license certificates to stallions suffer¬
ing from cataract, amaurosis, periodic ophthalmia, laryngeal hemiplegia,
chorea, bone spavin, bog spavin, ringbone, sidebone, and curb (when ac¬
companied by curby formation of the hock). The Board is further em¬
powered to disqualify stallions that are unfit for breeding purposes to dis¬
qualify stallions that are unfit for breeding purposes arising from diseases
or deformities. In order that stallions be licensed to stand for public
service in the state of Colorado,19 the law provides that the stallion be
free from such diseases or unsoundnesses as roaring, ringbone, chorea,
bone spavin, bog spavin, specific ophthalmia, curb (when accompanied
with curby conformation), or any venereal or other contagious diseases.
Ridglings and deformed stallions are also barred. In the state of Okla¬
homa20 the stallioners are given the option to apply for license if they
are to take advantage of the lien, and certificate of soundness is issued
only when it is desired to advertise the stallion as being sound. The
stallion is certified to be sound when found free from moon blindness,
cataract, roaring or whistling, heaves or broken wind, St. Vitus' dance,
stringhalt, bone spavin, curb (with curby formation of hocks), glanders,
farcy, urethral gleet, mange, and retention of one or both testicles. The
law of Minnesota21 provides for the rejection of stallions applying for
license when affected with such transmissible diseases or unsoundnesses
as bone spavin, sidebone, ringbone, curb (when accompanied by curby
formation of the hock), glanders, farcy, maladie du coit, urethral gleet,
and mange. But in case that a stallion which has been previously regis¬
tered is found diseased the Stallion Registration Board is authorized to
issue license stating the nature of unsoundness. Under the same law is
provided the examination of stallions every four years until said individ¬
uals have reached the age of ten years when the same will be exempted
from further inspection. Montana28 rejects the enrollment of stallions
possessing diseases or unsoundnesses as cataract, amaurosis, laryngeal
heiniplegia, chorea, bone spavin, ringbone, sidebone, gladners, farcy, ma¬
ladie de coit, urethral gleet, mange, melanosis, and curb (when accom¬
panied by curby hock). In South Dakota22 such diseases or unsound¬
nesses as specific ophthalmia, including moon blindness, laryngeal hemi¬
plegia, bone spavin, ringbone, glanders, farcy, dourine, urethral gleet,
mange, bog spavin, or curb (when accompanied by faulty conformation)
are sufficient to disqualify a stallion so affected for breeding services.
The Indiana Stallion Enrollment Board28 provides for the rejection of
stallions affected with any incurable, infectious, or contagious diseases,
but transmissible unsoundnesses are passed which, however, should be indi¬
cated in the certificate of enrollment. Condition of soundness is required
in the first certificate and every two years until the stallion is ten years
old, at which time and afterwards further application for soundness is no
longer necessary. The following diseases and unsoundnesses are recog¬
nized as contagious, infectious, or transmissible: Recurrent ophthalmia,
cataract, glaucoma, amaurosis, laryngeal hemiplegia, pulmonary emphy¬
sema, chorea, stringhalt, glanders, maladie du coit, urethral gleet, mange,
bog spavin, bone spavin, curb, when associated with curby conformation
of the hocks, ringbone, sidebone, and navicular disease. One or more of
the following diseases and defects are deemed sufficient to bar a stallion
from registration in the state of Idaho:24 “Hemiplegia, roaring or whist¬
ling, chorea, stringhalt, bone spavin, bog spavin, ringbone, thoroughpin,
enlarged sidebones, urethral gleet, ophthalmia, cribbing and curb (when
accompanied by curby hock), or any marked, faulty or weak conformation,
which he is liable to transmit.” The state of Illinois26 issues license to
unsound stallions that may be affected with amaurosis, bog spavin, side¬
bone, navicular disease, curb, chorea, stringhalt or roaring, provided that
the unsoundness is indicated on the certificate. However, the stallion

16

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

may be disqualified if afflicted with any contagious or infectious diseases,
or suffering from periodic opthalmia, bone spavin, ringbone, curb (when
accompanied by curby conformation). Certificate of soundness is no
longer necessary in case of stallions 6 years old or over which have suc¬
cessfully passed examination for two successive years.28 Said stallion
is entitled to a permanent certificate of soundness. However, should this
stallion constract infectious, contagious, or communicable disease the De¬
partment of Agriculture shall have the right to cancel the permanent
certificate at any time. The North Dakota Stallion Registration Board27
rules that no stallion should stand for public service if affected by such
diseases and unsoundnesses as cataract, amaurosis, laryngeal hemiplegia,
stringhalt, glander, sidebone, farcy, maladie cu coit, urethral gleet, mange,
bone spavin, ringbone and curb (when accompanied by curby hock), and
in like manner the laws of Montana28 includes the same disqualifying
factors. Besides, in another clause, Montana statutes provide that “No
stallion shall stand for public service . . . which is deformed or so

badly diseased as to be . . . wholly unfit for breeding purposes
. . . ” The Pennsylvania20 laws provide for the licensing of stallions
as are qualified and approved by the veterinarian, said examiner to
certify on the soundness and conformation of the stallions, and to
specify such unsoundness and inferior conformation that may be found,
if any. In another section of the same law, it is stated that “Any stal¬
lion . . . the patronage of which, in the opinion of those charged

with the enforcement of this act, on account of unsoundness, inferior
type or conformation, may prove a detriment to the horse breeding in¬
terests of the state, shall be refused a license, and when license is so re¬
fused the said stallion . . . shall not stand for public service in this

state.”

The laws of the State of Michigan30 do not account for any unsound¬
nesses or diseases that may bar a stallion of the state for public service,
but in Sec. 7, the provisions read: “Every stallion brought into this
state from another state or from a foreign country to be offered for sale
or for public service shall, before any such sale or use is made, be ex¬
amined by the state veterinary board or its regularly appointed repre¬
sentative, and certified fby said board or its representative that said
stallion is free from hereditary, contagious or transmissible unsoundness
or disease and is of good conformation and breed type and suitable to
improve the horse stock of the state.”

Touching on the subject of unsoundness, Section 12 of the Kansas
stallion law31 reads: “It shall be optional with owners, keepers, or persons
in charge of stallions standing for public service whether or not said
stallions shall be examined for soundness, but no stallion shall be ad¬
vertised in any manner either directly or indirectly as a sound stallion
until a certificate of soundness has been issued for said stallion by the
Kansas State Live Stock Registry Board, and then said stallion may be
advertised as sound only during the life of the certificate of soundness.
This certificate of soundness shall become null and void and not in force
on December 31 of the year during which it is issued.” The state of
Missouri32 make similar provisions on unsoundness.

The Stud License Law of the state of Kentucky33 makes no provision
for any unsoundness or diseases that may disqualify the stallion for
public service.

Alexander34 holds that certain diseases are “heredity or transmissible
as a predisposition.” These include the following: “eye disease, such as
periodic ophthalmia or ‘moon blindness’, cataract, amaurosis or ‘glass
eye’, chorea or ‘St. Vitus’ dance’, constituting ‘crampiness’, or ‘shivering’,
‘stringhalt’, ‘heaves’ or ‘broken wind’, spavin, ringbone, sidebone, navicular
disease or ‘grogginess’, melanotic or pigment tumors, and peculiarities of
conformation rendering animals liable to disease or lameness such as

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

17

‘sickle’, curby-formed, ‘crooked’, ‘boggy’ or ‘sprung’ hocks, flat,
weak, unsound hoofs, weak, ill-formed knees, ‘washy’ coupling,
short upright pasterns, etc.” Alexander also gives a list of com¬
municable diseases which should be guarded against in breeding animals,
namely: glanders, farcy, ‘‘maladie du coit,” infectious abortion, mange,
leucorrhoea or “whites,” urethral gleet and simple pox.

According to Miles,35 “Bone spavin, curbs, ringbone, navicular disease,
and other similar affections of the bones and joints, are of frequent
occurence in the hereditary form.” Too, it is claimed that “in horses,
strain of the back-tendons, swelled legs, grease, and roaring, are often
hereditary; while a predisposition to rheumatism, malignant and non-
malignant tumors, chronic cough, ophthalmia and blindness, epilepsy, and
a great variety of nervous disorders, is inherited by them . . .” Miles

cites Finlay Dun who believes that “a disproportion in the width and
strength of the leg below the hock to the width and strength above the
hock, predisposes to spavin; a straight hock and a short os calcis, in¬
clining forward, gives a tendency to curbs; ‘round legs and small knees,
to which the tendons are tightly bound, are especially subject to strains’;
while a predisposition to navicular disease is found ‘in horses with
narrow chests, upright pasterns, and outturned toes’.” It is also brought
out by Miles, in the words of Dun, that “many farm horses, as well as
others without much breeding, are remarkable for consuming large
quantities of food, for soft and flabby muscular systems, and for round
limbs containing an unusual proportion of cellular tissue. These char¬
acters are notoriously hereditary . . . Such characters indicate pro¬
clivity to certain diseases, as swelled legs, weed and grease.” And again
Miles remarks that “If the leg below the hock is disproportionately long
and the os calcis is short (giving a narrow hock), a strain of the joint,
or some other form of the disease, is liable to result from ian amount
of work that would not be severe in a limb of proper proportions.”

Gay36 asserts that the ‘transmissibility of many of the so-called heredi¬
tary unsoundnesses has not been established; even roaring and moon
blindness in horses, the only two things for which stallions are dis¬
qualified in France, where the most comprehensive system of inspection
is, are now believed to be more frequently the result of preexisting in¬
fluenza in the one case, and of an enzootic infection in the other, than
of hereditary influences.”

Quoting Youatt,37 “there is abundant proof that blindness, roaring
broken wind, sidebones, spavins, ringbones, laminitis, and navicular
disease have been bequeathed to their offspring both by sire and dam.”

And Axe38 believes that spavins, curbs, ringbones, sidebones, roaring,
whistling, stringhalt, shivering, specific ophthalmia, and cataract are the
most harmful among the heriditary diseases and unsoundnesses of the
horse.

In this connection it may be well to consider such unsoundnesses as
are deemed sufficient to bar a mare from being bred to a Government
stallion by the Bureau of Animal Industry of the United States Govern¬
ment. According to Reese,39 these unsoundnesses include bone spavin,
ringbone, sidebone, heaves, stringhalt, roaring, periodic ophthalmia, and
blindness, partial and complete.

3. Other Considerations Affecting Selection

Carlson6 emphasizes the need of testing the stallion for its wind. He
says there is no disease of the horse that is more likely to become
hereditary than laryngeal hemiplegia. In discussing this subject, John¬
stone5 suggests that in testing the horse for this defect go and pass by as
if to punch him on the flank and if he grunts then it is an indication
of the animal being windbroken.

18

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

Johnstone5 also adds some important considerations in the selection
of the stallion. He brings out the matter of looking into the teeth, and
as has been referred to under the stallion laws, he likewise gives im¬
portance to examining the eyes and testicles. A full normal set of
testicles is required. With regard to testing the virility of the stallion
Carlson® advocates that the semen be examined under the microscope.
He also points out that the testicles should be well developed and even
in size. According to him, the smaller, shorter penis is to be preferred
inasmuch as more complete services are obtained thereby, the semen be¬
ing discharged into the uterus. Carlson further brings out that a stallion
with tallowy deposits around the generative organs is to be discriminated
against.

As has been referred to, vicious disposition is discriminated against by
the Nebraska Stallion Law. Carlson0 likewise rejects the dangerous
individual or even one that is difficult to handle.

The pedigree of the individual should be carefully examined, bearing
in mind the relative merits of the ancestry and above all the authenticity
of the records.

Under the caption rejects, outside of actual unsoundnesses, Johnstone5
may be quoted: “Avoid long couplings, light ribs, weak loins, light flanks,
narrowness of conformation, calf-knees, sickle hocks, straight pasterns,
and small, steep, flat, shelly or low heeled or mulelike feet. Very light
bone also should be left for some one else, also crooked top lines, low
backs, dropping rumps, ewe and short straight necks, sour or ‘fiddle’
heads, sow ears, dish faces and small piggy eyes . . . The legs should
be smooth and clean from the knees and hocks down to the coronet and
so to the hoof which should be of fine texture without ridges, cracks
or breaks.”

4. Age to Breed

Carlson0 prefers that the colt be started to serve at three years of age,
and says that if he is to be used as a two-year old no more than 8 or 10
mares for the year should be covered, with an interval of five days be¬
tween services. With regard to the two-year-old, Johnstone5 gives similar
opinion, but adds that he should be vigorous and well developed. He
restricts the three-year-old to 25 to 30 mares, and the four-year-old to 40
to 50 mares. The mature horse is limited to two services daily and in
exceptional cases may be allowed to serve three times in a day. An
average of three covers, according to Johnstone, suffices to beget a foal,
and assuming that a stallion settles one-half of the mares, therefore, the
three-year-old will on the whole render 45 services during the breeding
season of fifteen weeks, or three services to the week. According to the
same inference, the four-year-old will make 75 covers, but since his season
may be extended to 115 days, his services will be called for at 3 times
every two days. Dimon40 says that if the two-year-old is at all to be used
the services should be light, the three-year-old to be limited to 15
or 20 services, and the four-year-old to 30. According to Berg¬
man,41 the two-year-old may be allowed 15 mares, the three-year-old
50, and the aged sire as many as 80 to 120 mares during the breeding
season of four months. Curryer42 mentions that from one to three
covers for the first week <and four or five times the next comprise a good
schedule in starting a stud horse for the season. Then once a day, but
never more than two times, may be permitted. Two services a day, how¬
ever, should be indulged in only occasionally. While the same authority
also indicates that with stallions that were idle during the winter the stud
work may be so regulated that an individual is allowed only two services
a week throughout the season. Axe38 is of the opinion that stallions
should be started in the stud as a three-vear -old, ibut remarks that the

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

19

two-year-old may stand to the limit of 15 mares. He gives the following
average stallion allowances for individuals of different ages: The two-
year-old may serve 10 to 15 mares; the three-year-old, 25 to 30 mares;
the four-year-old, 45 to 60 mares; and the five-year-old or older, 70 to
100 mares. Axe38 cites a case of a Shire stallion, which, after having
completed a heavy stud work in Lancanshire, England, was allowed to
serve 19 mares in the south where it was then taken to. The mares
were served the same day the stallion arrived, of which 13 settled. It is
also remarked that some stallions were known to have covered from
200 to 260 mares in one season and still leave a proper proportion of
offspring. It is, however, emphasized that such action taken will eventu¬
ally lead to sterility or premature impotence. Wallace43 asserts that a
stallion is able to serve 80 mares during the season and get an average
of 40 to 50 foals, and adds that certain individuals may cover 100 and
some even 130. It is interesting to note that a horse with one testicle
down, according to the same authority, can get foals, while if the two
are both out no foals could be expected.

According to Allen,44 the stallion American Eclipse, which was a suc¬
cessful getter till the age of 32, began stud work late and light service
was allowed till he was fully matured. One extreme is here pointed out
by Walley,45 however, in that a few draft horses “are capable of ‘stinting’
successfully more than five mares in a single day.” He also remarks that
from an aged stallion a dwarf or puny offspring is to be expected. It is
interesting to note that Jackson, as quoted by Walley, places the allow¬
ance for a stallion in one season at only 25 mares inasmuch as he con¬
siders the stallion to make 100 services, or 4 covers to each mare.

In discussing the question of early service Gay4 maintains that the
two-year-old or three-year-old may be permitted to undertake stud work
on the ground that a knowledge of their ability as a sire is desired at an
early date. However, they may be allowed to serve only a few selected
mares, and only for a short period in order that their development may
not be hampered. Sanders46 mentions that the two-year-old should not
be allowed to serve at all, but, for the same reason as Gay4 presents, he
may be given a chance to serve a few choice mares in order to test his
ability as a foal-getter. It is also brought out that the three-year-old
should be limited to 15 or 20 services and the four-year-old, 20 or 30, while
in the case of a mature sire 100 mares are given as a safe allowance.
Sanders purports to restrict the young stallion to serve only a few mares
and to stand only for a few weeks, allowing two or three mares a week.
One service a day is advocated although twice a day may be permitted
rarely. However, should the stallion have had a long rest he may make
three covers a day for a few days, which should be followed by a rest. In
the Little Perche in France47 stallions destined for breeding purposes are
started on stud work at the age of two years and on until they are four
years old. At four they are sold in Paris or to foreign caterers. On the
other hand, in the Great Perche adult stallions are used for breeding
purposes. The breeders of the Percheron country are also opposed to
standing stallions below four years old.

5. Proceedure in Breeding Operations

Precautions which are necessary in breeding operations as well as
the proper procedure to be followed in handling the stallion and mares
on the occasion are given and described by Williams48 in the following
manner: “It is desirable, if not frequently essential to safety, that special
conveniences for restraint be provided for [‘trying’ or ‘teasing’]. They
should consist ordinarily of a strong, solid wall about three feet high and
ten to twelve feet in length with a rather broad and rounded top. The
chief object of the structure is the avoidance of kick wounds which may

20

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

be inflicted upon the stallion by the mare. To this end it should be
merely of sufficient height to guard against such an accident and suf¬
ficiently resistant that the mare cannot kick through it. The use of a
single pole to separate the stallion and the mare is insecure and hazard¬
ous as either may kick through beneath it and injure the other.

“It is also highly essential that the top of the structure be rounded,
smooth and free from projections. Either the mare or stallion may get
beyond the control of the groom and kick or leap upon the structure and,
unless properly built, serious injury is liable to occur. To this end the
wall should be low enough that, either animal, getting upon it by rearing
or kicking, may readily free itself without injury . . . Posts should

not extend above the top of the structure or, doing so, should continue
so high as to make injury in this manner impossible.

“When this preparatory period has been passed and copulation has
been decided upon, there arise fresh dangers to the stallion from kicks
by the mare while approaching her or in the act of mounting. Two
methods of avoiding accidents at this point are used; without and with
hobbles. In the first method, when both stallion and mare are well-broken
and controllable and competent grooms have each well in hand, the
stallion should be caused to approach the mare’s head and then allowed
to mount from the side instead of from the rear. If both are kept well
in hand, any attempt to kick on the part of the mare should be at once
counteracted by vigourously drawing her head toward the stallion, thus
turning her heels from him. After coition has been completed and the
stallion is dismounting the same rule should constantly be applied and
the mare brought at once to face the stallion in order to avoid kicks.

“Owners of valuable stallions generally prefer to obtain yet greater
security by the application of hobbles. Two forms are used of which
there are numerous varieties. By one plan, a hobble is buckled about
each hind pastern, a rope of sufficient length attached to each, and the
two free ends are carried forward between the forelegs and securely tied
to a strong collar or the end may be carried upwards on either side of
the necks and tied on the top sufficiently tight to prevent the mare from
kicking backward for any important distance. By the second plan, the
hobbles are attached to the hocks instead of the pasterns. In this case,
each hobble is doubled and one portion of each is attached above, the
other below the hock of each hind leg, and by ropes or straps are fixed
forward the same as in the preceding. The latter possesses some points
of superiority. The mare is not so liable to become entangled in the
ropes and injure herself and the stallion is probably also exposed to less
danger of getting his foot caught in the securing apparatus. Whatever
the form of breeding hobbles or other confining apparatus, they need
be secure and strong.

“If accidents are to be avoided, it is also highly important that the
mare is properly in estrum and that she is not frightened or angered.
Gentleness and patience in the handling of both stallion and mare and
postponing copulation until the proper moment are always essential
elements of safety in breeding. Some breeders place a twitch upon the
mare’s nose until the stallion has safely mounted her.”

Sanders40 advises the use of a structure for trying mares. This con¬
sists of a barrier made up of three posts set up parallel to and about four
feet away from a solid wall, on both sides of which are nailed oak or
other hardwood boards from the ground to a reasonable height. On the
top of this should be nailed a capping which would prevent injury. The
mare is led into the space inside and the stallion is allowed to tease the
mare by her left side, but the horse should be controlled by the bit, if re¬
quired, and not allowed to have his nose go farther back than the mare’s
flank. According to him some stallions would not take a liking for
certain mares, in which case another mare in heat may be led into the

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

21

teasing space and after the stallion’s sexual desire has been aroused he
could usually be made to cover the former mare.

When the mare is ready for the male, Sanders46 recommends that the
stallion be led up to about ten or fifteen feet on the left side of the mare
with his head about opposite the mare’s head. As soon as the stallion is
ready, he is then led to the mare but he must be kept from lifting his
fore-feet up from afar and instead the mount should be allowed on the
side of the mare. Rushing the stallion to the mare is objected to.
Sanders mentions that the greatest danger from kicks is on dismounting
so he advises the groom holding the mare’s bit to pull it by a sudden
jerk with his left hand towards him during the time that the stallion is
coming off.

For uncontrollable, headstrong stallions a special bridle is advocated.
Relative to procuring the most effective type and the manner of using it,
Sanders46 writes: “The one that I have found most effectual is made
by taking an ordinary ‘snaffle’ bit, with rings of moderate size, and with
the head piece made in the usual way; get a blacksmith to attach a well-
polished, round iron bar to the right-hand ring, by means of a small
link connecting the bar and the ring; to the other end of the bar
attach the usual sliding rein used on stallion bridles. Put
the bridle on the horse in the usual way, and then, with the right hand
on the bar and the left on the bridle-ring next to you, press the bar back
and the ring forward until the bar will pass through the ring in the left
hand. This bar should be made just as long as it can be to admit of its
being passed into the other ring in this manner, and the bit and rings
should be so adapted to the size of the mouth and underjaw that, when
a little pressure is brought to bear upon the rein attached to the end of
the lever formed by this iron bar, the rings of the bit will be brought
within an inch of touching each other. The leverage given by this ap¬
pliance, when well fitted, will enable any one to hold the most unruly
and headstrong horse in check . . . When the bar is not needed the

rein to which it is (attached may be passed over the head and down
through the ring on the near side, instead of under the jaw.”

Johnstone5 desires a special breeding plant which he prefers should be
a shed with a firm surface. It should be away from public sight and
dwellings. On one side of this the teasing stall is to be constructed,
with the wall of the shed or fence on the offside. The stall should be
about the width of the standing stall ini the stable, and for the poles set
two pieces about eight feet apart parallel to the wall. To these posts,
3 feet and 8 inches from the ground should be bolted a six-inch pole of
tough wood, whose bark should be removed and the corners and edges
smoothed. It is further advocated that a small enclosure be provided
nearby for the foal. So a small but strong pen is to be constructed
right in front of the teasing stall. Having led the mare into the stall
the stallion is gotten from the barn and directed at right angles to the
mare. It is not desired that the stallion be allowed to rear or fuss when
approaching the mare nor is it good that the stallion teases the mare
for an undue length of time.

To insure safety on the part of the stallion, Johnstone5 wants the mare
hobbled even though she is an individual of good disposition. Some pre¬
cautions should be borne in mind; the hobbles should be fairly tight.
And in leading the stallion to the mare the groom should bring him by
the mare’s side and not by the rear. Also, the stallion should not be
brought within kicking range of the mare.

According to Johnstone,5 it is best to break the stallion so that he
may be led and controlled only with a cotton rope halter.

To break a stallion for the stud service, Carlson6 advises that he should
right from the first mare be trained to serve in the proper manner. A
quiet mare is necessary and, besides, two men on each side of her. The

22

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

stallion should be taught to come by the left side of the mare and to
avoid kicks he should be taught to place his shoulder against the mare’s
flanks. He should learn to mount on the groom’s command. When he
is mounting the two men detailed by the mare’s sides should hold him
in place until the service is through. This will teach the young sire a
good beginning which would obviate the behavior many stallions exhibit
by coming off readily and often causing the throwing of the semen on
the outside.

Carlson6 finds the breeding chute a fitting structure in a horse breed¬
ing establishment. Among the advantages which he claims the
chute has over the ordinary way of breeding mares are: It is considered
beneficial to undersize mares in that they are relieved of the heavy
strain resulting from the excessive weight of mature stallions. It fur¬
nishes means of protecting the man handling the mare from young or
badly broken males during copulation. The chute also minimizes the
danger of the stallion getting kicked. Should the mare be rather low
Carlson suggests that a board be placed on the ground to raise her up.
In this connection it is hinted that by placing the mare a little higher
than the stallion better services are obtained. The chute, according to
Carlson’s illustration, faces a wall, so that a mare placed in it may be
tied close to the wall and high up on a ring purposely bolted to the wall.
Carlson dislikes holding the mare during service, whether in the chute
or in the open. Instead he insists that she should be tied securely.

It is also considered by Curryer4* a safer way to lead the stallion to¬
ward the side of the mare, even as far as the shoulder, as the approach
is made for service. He desires that the man holding the mare should
hold the mare’s head up at the time the stallion mounts up for the
reason that she will in such a position be less liable to kick. While in
dismounting it is also suggested that the heads of the two be pulled to¬
wards each other to prevent again any possibility of their kicking one
another.

6. Systems of Feeding and Watering. Salting

Smith,49 in his discussion of the method of feeding, writes: “If a horse
be fed first with hay, followed by oats, the presence of the oats causes
the hay to pass out more rapidly than it would have done had it been
given alone. When given in this order, according to Ellenberger, a por¬
tion of the oats may pass into the bowel by the lesser curvature with¬
out entering either the left sac or fundus of the stomach. When oats
followed by hay are given, the oats commence to pass out first, but the
presence of the hay hurries the rate of progress, and the oats pass more
quickly into the intestines than they otherwise would have done.

“According to Ellenberger, when foods are given in succession the
lease albuminous should be given first. This appears distinctly to reverse
the English practice of giving oats first and hay afterwards, but per¬
haps only apparently so, for experiment shows that the longer digestion
is prolonged, the more oats and the less hay pass out, so that some hay
(under ordinary circumstances a moderate quantity) is always left in
the stomach until the commencement of the next meal. The presence of
this hay from the previous feed may prevent the corn of the succeeding
meal from passing out too early. According to Ellenberger, in order that
horses may obtain the fullest possible nutriment from their oats, hay
should be given first and then water; this carries some of the hay into
the bowel and after a time the oats are to be given. The remaining hay
now passes into the bowel, and the oats remain in the stomach. This
does not accord with English views of watering and feeding fast-working
horses, views which have stood the test of prolonged practical experience.”

Smith49 says that the effect of watering after feeding is to disturb the

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

23

regular strata of food arrangement in the stomach, half of which perhaps
may be carried away because the water drunk passes directly through the
stomach without stopping in the cecum. So he states: “Hence . . .

the golden rule of experience that horses should be watered first and fed
afterwards.” In this connection, Smith brings out the effect of watering
on digestion by saying: “ . . . during the earlier hours of digestion

the horses receiving water digested hay better than those kept without it,
but there is no difference after the ninth or tenth hour succeeding feed¬
ing.”

Woll5" says in regard to feeding: “It is generally considered necessary
to feed the horse three times a day, although the noon meal is sometimes
omitted without apparently impairing the working capacity of the horse.
The heaviest meal, so far as hay is concerned is given at night, the morn¬
ing meal being next in amount, and the noon meal smallest, as he has
then less time to eat; at least one-half hour is allowed after the morn¬
ing and noon meals. The daily gain feed is given about one-third each
meal. Whatever system is followed, it is important to adopt a regular
routine of feeding so that the horse may get his feed when he expects
it and in the manner to which he is accustomed.”

Woll60 cites Colin to have demonstrated “that the stomach of the horse
will fill and empty itself two or three times during a meal; the portion
of the feed first eaten will remain only a short time in the stomach
subject to the action of the gastric juice, being pushed into the intestines
by the feed that follows. It has also been shown if a horse is fed grain
and then watered much of the grain will be carried along into the in¬
testines and will, therefore, not be fully digested; hence it would seem
that the logical order of feeding is hay and then grain; but horses are
most anxious to get their grain and will be nervous and excited if it is
withheld until the end of the meal. Farmers generally, therefore, feed
their horses grain first and put hay before them to be eaten after the
grain.”

Fitzwygram51 is here quoted to say the following on the subject: “Ex¬
perience has showm that it is sufficient to feed the horse three times a
day. Less frequent feeding is decidedly objectionable. The corn should
be divided into three portions and the hay into two. If a horse is used
in the morning the portion of the hay should be omitted at the early
feed and reserved for midday and evening. If he is required to work in
the afternoon he should get his hay in the morning and evening. Cart
horses, whose work is always slow should be fed with hay three times a
day.” Fitzwygram goes on to indicate that “Horses should not be fed,
when heated, immediately after work. If the horse is exhausted a
bucket of warm gruel should be given at once; but the corn should be
withheld until the animal is cool and has been dressed.” It is pointed
out that at the close of the stable hour the feeding should best be made.

On the system of watering Fitzwygram61 states that “It is a cardinal
rule in stable management that horses should be watered before being
fed. The contrary practice is exceedingly likely to cause colic, otherwise
called gripes.” Further on he says that “If the horse is thoroughly
tired and fagged the water should be made slightly tepid, or a bucket
of warm gruel may be given instead.”

According to Gardenier, Gill, and Gilbert,62 “Hay and straw are digest¬
ed and pass out of the stomach more rapidly than oats or other grain. If
oats are fed first, and are followed by hay, the hay soon passing onward
into the intestines will carry along with it oats that are not yet prepared
for intestinal digestion thus causing a loss of food. Another reason for
feeding hay first (more particularly if the horse is very hungry or tired
from overwork) is that it takes time to masticate the hay and the horse
cannot bolt it down as it would grains.” The same writers state that
“An error that produces many disorders of the digestive system is to

24

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

feed too soon after a hard day’s work. A very small quantity of ^ liay
may be given but grain should not be fed within less than an hour.”

Referring to the system of watering, these same authorities write:
“ . . . the horse should be watered at least three times a day when

idle and oftener when at work. Remember always to water be¬
fore feeding.” The manner of watering the heated horse is explained
by them in the following way: “It does not matter how much heated the
horse may be, it is always better to give him a half dozen swallows of
water. If this water is given just before being put in the stable, the
animal should be immediately supplied with a few pounds of hay, and
should not be fed grain until the animal has rested about an hour. The
danger is not in the ‘first swallow’ but is always due to the large quantity
which the animal will take when warm if allowed to drink without re¬
straint.”

Henry and Morrison63 points out that “Tangl of Budapest, whose in¬
vestigations -concerning the time of watering horses are the most complete
of any recorded, found that horses may be watered before, after, or dur¬
ing meals without interfering with the digestion or the absorption of
the food they eat.” They go on to say that all methods are equally good,
tho circumstances may favor one over the other. A horse long deprived
of water, or having undergone severe exertion, should be watered before
getting his feed. An animal accustomed to a certain order of watering
should not be changed to another order, for such change dimishes the
appetite. Horses drink the greatest amount of water when it is given
after they have been fed, and the least when it is supplied before they are
fed. In some cases watering before feeding somewhat decreased the
appetite.” And again they cite Tangl to show “that the only important
point in this whole matter . . . is to 'adopt a reasonable, convenienl

system of watering, and then rigidly adhere to it.” The same authors
make the statement that “It is dangerous to allow a horse to gorge him¬
self with water when very warm, but a moderate drink taken slowly will
refresh without harm resulting.”

Another authority, Paige,64 gives his view on the system of watering
as follows: “Either water one-half hour before feeding or one hour after.
If a large quantity of cold water is given just before eating, it predisposed
to attacks of indigestion. The effect of the cold water in contact with
the mucous membrane is to cause contraction of the blood vessels. This
forces the blood away from the stomach and intestines. If, now, food is
taken in, it cannot be digested, owing to absence of blood about the
secreting glands. When cold water is taken a half hour before feeding
the circulation of blood in the stomach and intestines becomes established,
so that upon the arrival of the food the glands are in condition to per¬
form their function. When a horse is fed, and watered directly after¬
ward, the passage of the water through the stomach carried undigested
food into the intestines, beyond the reach of the stomach and intestinal
juices The irritation of the undigested food into the intestines may
cause colic. When heated, small quantities of water may be allowed, but
giving large amounts should be avoided.”

Sanborn,66 in his trials on the effect of time of watering on feeding,
summarizes his results as follows:

“I. Horses watered before feeding grain retained their weight better
than when watering after feeding grain.

“II. Horses watered before feeding had the better appetite or ate
the most.

“III. Horses watered after feeding grain, in ratio to the food eaten,
seemed to digest it as well as those watered before feeding. In a prior
trial there was a small apparent advantage in favor of feeding after
watering, on digestion.

“IV. It seems advisable to water both before and after feeding.”

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

25

But Sanborn is of the opinion that the trials cannot be final for “They
fail to conclusively show that grain, thought it be wasted out of the
stomach by watering after feeding, is less digestible than it otherwise
would have been.” And he says that it may be doubted whether grain
is washed out of the stomach of a horse on a full stomach of hay, by
watering after feeding.”

“Salt,” according to Woll,60 “improves the appetite of the animals and
increases the flow of digestive juices; it promotes and regulates digestion
and should, therefore, be furnished in ample amounts.” Bull56 says: “If
a mature animal is deprived of even common salt, it becomes weak,
languid, and finally dies.” Babcock57 found that lack of salt in the
ration of animals finally led to “a condition of low vitality in which a
sudden and complete breakdown occurred,” the animals rapidly recover¬
ing when the salt was afterwards supplied. The effects were noticed in
the “loss of appetite, a generally haggard appearance, lusterless eyes, a
rough coat, and a very rapid decline in both live weight and yield of
milk.” But too much ingestion of salt should be avoided for according
to Sherman,58 “Large amounts increase the quantity of protein catabolized,
and through over stimulating the digestive tract, may also interfere with
the absorption and utilization of the food.”

The requirements for salt and manner of supplying this mineral to
horses is described by Gay4 thus: “Salt is required in small quantities,
frequently, and regularly. The irregular allowance of too much salt with
its consequent drinking of an excess of water does not meet the require¬
ments in this respect. If given frequently or provided for the horse to
help himself, only limited amounts will be taken. A satisfactory method
of furnishing salt is to season the grain feed. A lump of rock salt in the
feed box does fairly well, although the quality of the salt is not good.
One of the best patented devices is a container for a cylindrical cake of
high grade salt, so arranged that the cake rotates as the horse licks the
bottom of it. This insures the salt being used off evenly, the cylinder
lasting until it is but a thin disc. The container screws into the wall of
the stall at a convenient height. Loose salt should not be made too easy
of access.”

Roberts59 found that a horse could consume as much as two ounces of
salt daily. This result is based on four horses fed on dry feed which ate
as much as 28 pounds of salt in 56 days.

7. Feeding

Whether it be during the breeding season or not, Johnstone5 believes
that oats and bran mixture containing one-fifth of bran, is a most suit¬
able grain ration. However, he alludes to other materials as also ac¬
ceptable as long as the right quality and sufficient amounts are given.
Corn is pointed out as a good concentrate for a working stud horse but
such feed or any other given to a working stallion should not be changed.
It is desired that most of the hay be fed at night, thus, if 17 or 18 pounds
of hay form the daily allowance of roughage, 5 or 6 pounds are to be
fed in the morning, none at noon and the major part at night. If the
hay is not all eaten reduce the amount. He gives a rule as a basis to
determine the amount to be fed daily: One pound of each of grain and
hay is stipulated to every hundred pounds of the horse’s weight. In¬
dividuality differs with different horses so that one may require a
certain amount different from another. However, by noticing the con¬
dition of the horse it is not difficult to arrive at the proper amount
required by certain individuals. As indicated by him, enough should
always be fed, and the horse should be hungry and in good condition by
the next feeding. More grain is of course necessary when the stallion

26

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

is being worked than when he is idle. Johnstone recommends feeding
three times a day.

Johnstone5 dislikes giving a mash of boiled barley every Wednesday
and Saturday night. Likewise such practices as giving green grass to
stallions during the breeding season, and the mixing of cut hay with the
grain feed are objected to. But with greedy feeders he points out the
desirability of mixing cut hay (in half or three-quarter inch lengths)
with the grain feed to prevent the stallion from bolting. However, here
again it is forewarned that the mixture be not made into mash, or else
the hay will turn soft and cause the stallion to bolt the whole mass.

According to Carlson,6 the best grain feed for the stallion is oats. Bar¬
ley comes next but it should be crushed. It is advocated to add bran to
either oats or barley if alfalfa or clover is not given as the roughage
portion of the ration. Corn is condemned as a feed. During the breeding
season Carlson gives an allowance of not more than three-quarters of a
pound to every hundred pounds of the horse’s weight per day. Of the
roughage, clover and alfalfa are ranked first, while clover mixed with
timothy comes second. Timothy and good wild hay are rated the same.
Clover or alfalfa, however, should be restricted to not more than one
pound for every 100 pounds live weight per day. But no badly cured or
musty hay should be fed.

From Carlson’s investigations,6 it is brought out that in the five states
in which a survey was made regarding the feeds given to the stallions
and percentage of foals begotten, the highest percentage of foals is shown
in the grass-and-alfalfa fed stallions of the western states which are
pastured on grass during the summer and fed on alfalfa during the
winter season. The percentage is 82. The opposite extreme is found in
corn-fed individuals with a percentage of foals as low down as 40. Where
oats and bran are used the percentage is 61, and even where the use of
oats alone is resorted to the percentage is also higher by 6% over that
of corn-fed stallions. In another survey presented, it is revealed that
in the corn states the highest percentage foal crop is represented by Ne¬
braska’s 49% and the lowest by Missouri’s 41%. While North Dakota
has 56% and Canada 71% as the minimum and maximum percentages
of foal crop of the oat district. In the grazing states, Colorado bears the
lowest figure of 67% and Idaho 73%.

According to Warren,60 the stallion should be given a liberal supply of
oats and bran, in a mixture of 2 parts oats and 1 part of bran. This
should be fed twice a day and when in season he should get daily boiled
barley with a little flaxseed cooked with it, which should be mixed with
bran and fed hot at night. For roughage timothy and grass are indicat¬
ed, and besides a few ears of -corn may be given at times. Warren says
in this connection: “Avoid feeding hay in the morning and giving large
quantities of water, for by observation you will soon learn that no horse
serves well when his belly is distended with hay and water.”

Kennedy61 recommends also oats and bran as the grain portion of the
stallion’s ration during the breeding season, while for roughage, a mix¬
ture of timothy and clover hay is mentioned. Roots or cut grass, if
obtainable, should be included in the ration. He gives the amount of
grain to be fed at one and one-fourth pounds for every 100 pounds live
weight, and a similar amount of hay. During the off-season, Kennedy
advocates the handling of the stallion similar to that of a gelding. He
should be given his daily job six times a week land three heavy feeds
during the work day. Light feed is given during his rest on Sundays.
The feed should be less than what is given during the breeding season
so that three-quarters of a pound of oats for every 100 pounds live weight
would be reasonable unless the stallion is performing heavy work.

Curryer42 gives oats, corn, bran, and a little oat meal, whether separate
or in a mixture, as good grain ration constituents for the stallion. For

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

27

roughage, from 12 to 16 pounds of hay may be given to the largest stallion
every 24 hours. This amount should be reduced for smaller individuals.
According to him, an excessive amount of hay is conducive to dullness,
and besides renders the stallion short-winded and uncomfortable during
service. It is important that the stallion be allowed access to salt and
ashes, or salt alone. Curryer desires that watering be before feeding, or
at other times but not within two hours after feeding grain.

Sanborn’s62 system of providing grain feed for the stallion consists of
giving oats twice a day and wheat bran once, while he advises such
occasional and gradual change from oats to corn, which, he says, main¬
tains the appetite.

During the off-season in winter, Stericker62 advises feeding the stallion
a fair allowance of grain together with some bran. The roughage por¬
tion consists of cut hay or oat sheaves. But the horse is not allowed to
become too fleshy by giving him daily exercises. A few weeks before
the breeding season starts the grain allowance, principally oats, is in¬
creased, so that when the stallion is active in his stud work he is at the
same time fleshing up. During the season he is given all he will eat,
not crowding him, however, and besides the concentrate allowance some
green feed is provided for once or twice daily. In case that no succulence
is available, hay is given morning and night. One of the daily meals is
usually dampened with water.

The method followed by W. M. Fields and Bros.62 in feeding the stallion
during the off-season includes the use of clean, bright hay as roughage,
and for concentrates, oats with bran or shorts are recommended. Once
or twice a week some vegetables are given, and whenever costiveness is
noticed, as indicated by the hard feces, half a pint of steeped flaxseed is
mixed with the oat feed. During the breeding period the feed allowance
is greater and in addition half a pint to a pint of hempseed and raw
eggs are mixed with the ration and given three times a week. The use
of fresh grass is considered beneficial.

During the summer time Dimon40 recommends good, clean oats, clean
hay and a good quantity of green grass, without resorting to drugs, eggs
or condiments. Pasturing him in the morning while the dew is still on is
considered beneficial to the stallion, especially to his feet. In the winter
very little grain is to be fed and this consists of bran, oats and other
light food. Whether with or without grain, carrot is pointed out as a
good adjunct for winter feeding. A good ration may be in the form of
oat straw together with carrots and a few oats. Corn stalks, grass,
potatoes, carrots, turnips, and apples are listed as appropriate feeds if
fed in small quantities in order to maintain appetite and keep the
bowels loose. Mineral salt should always be accessible and dry wood
ashes is almost always necessary.

When out of season, Sanders46 mentions oats as better food for the
stallion than corn. But corn is recommended for part of the time should
the stallion come down in flesh, or in case the work is heavy. When he
is to be idled such as during stormy days he should not be given any
grain at all. It is indicated that giving him access to grass during late
fall is most desirable. But good hay must be relied upon in most cases.
Corn-fodder, if available, is preferred. In order to prevent or remedy
costiveness, the occasional use of bran mash is advocated. To sum up,
Sanders points out that the adoption of coarse and bulky food for stal¬
lions must be increased in proportion to the extent of confinement, for
he says, “there is nothing that will so soon destroy the health and vigor
of the horse, and especially of his genital organs, as close confinement
and high fever.”

In view of the fact that some stallions are “hard” keepers and some
“easy,” on account also of the exercise they get, McCampbell63 states that
it is impossible to formulate any specific directions regarding the total

28

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

amount of feed required by them. Nevertheless, it is pointed out that
keeping the stallion in good flesh is satisfactory, avoiding the “hog fat"
condition. Most horsemen, he says, are in favor of letting the horse be
gaining a bit during the breeding season and not come down in flesh. No
more should be fed than what will be cleaned promptly, whether he is fed
three or four times a day. He gives several combinations of feed which
prove satisfactory in practice, thus:

1. Oats; timothy or prairie hay.

2. Oats, 4; corn, 6; and, bran 3 parts by weight; timothy or prairie hay.

3. Oats, 4; corn, 6; linseed meal, 1 part; timothy or prairie hay.

4. Corn, 7; bran, 3; linseed meal, 1 part; timothy or prairie hay.

5. Corn; alfalfa hay one-third and prairie hay two-thirds.

8. Housing and Care

According to Henry and Morrison,53 the stallion’s stall should be near
those occupied by other horses because a horse enjoys companionship.
Kennedy60 is likewise of the opinion that the stallion’s stall should not
be isolated lest the stallion may become vicious and develop the habits
of masturbating and cribbing. He recommends the construction of a
special stallion barn, if there are a number of them kept on the farm,
while if only one is to be housed the stall should be located in the
regular horse barn. He further says that the stallion should be kept in
a roomy box stall, not less than fourteen by fourteen feet, of solid con¬
struction and with smooth walls. Adjoining the box stall should be a
large paddock where the stallion may exercise. It should be roomy and
fenced high and strong enough. It is brought out that some favor the
use of a small feed-box for grain with a slatted hay-rack high up, all in
one corner, while in some barns, the use of a smooth manger across the
corner of the stall is preferred. The latter eliminates the presence of
sharp edges. No opening in front of the manger should be provided for
because the stallion is liable to hurt himself in getting his head out
through it. The walls should slope about a foot from the bottom as this
will prevent the stallion from rubbing his tail.

Gay4 recommends also the use of a boxstall opening into a paddock,
and with the doors fastened at the back for keeping the stallion. The
fences surrounding the paddock or pasture should be at least four and
one-half feet high and strong. The material and construction should be
such that horses will not be cut or injured. He considers rails and posts
as perhaps the most satisfactory to be had. Four rails are indicated as
necessary on the fence. If barbed wire is to be employed only one strand
is required, which should occupy the top of the fence and should be kept
tight.

According to Dimon,40 the stallion boxstall may be 14 by 14, or 15 by
15, or 16 by 16 feet, but it should not be less than 12 by 14 feet. There
must be one door four feet wide and eight feet high, and to be thorough¬
ly riveted and made double so as to be strong. This should hang on
three hinges. Also one window big enough to admit sufficient light
should be provided for, but the location and construction must be such
that drafts are absent. From the floor to a height of four or five feet
the entire inside of the stall, save the door, should be wainscoted with
one and one-half or two-inch plank. The feed-box needs to be broad so
as to prevent bolting the feed. The paddock should be 50 by 100 or 40 by
60 feet and not too large. The fence should at least be seven feet high.
The boards should be nailed on the inside of the stringers and posts and
no space should be left underneath where the stallion may slip his feet
through.

Sanders46 desires a box stall not less than 12 by 18 feet with a box
snugly placed in the corner for the grain, but a hay rack or manger is

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

29

considered out of place. All the sides, including the doors, should be
lined with stout boards placed about a foot from the wall at the bottom
and sloping upward towards the wall at a height of three and a half
feet. This arrangement, as in Dimon’s and Kennedy’s, prevents the rub¬
bing of the horse’s tail.

9. Exercise

Johnstone5 considers normal and vigorous health as being possible only
when the stallion is worked and well-fed. He prescribes a full day’s
work for every stallion as a five-year-old up until he is twelve years of
age or even older. In starting the stallion to work Johnstone writes:
“Break him like any other horse, preferably as a two-year-old, and make
him do light, but not real work at that age. At three make him do what
other colts of his age are required to do. If an unbroken stallion of work¬
able age is purchased, let the breaking be the first thing undertaken
with him. It will not generally prove a hard job, for a stallion is seldom
afraid. Gradually toughen him into doing his full day’s work as one of
a team. It is preferable to hitch an entire horse with a mare, but if it
comes handier to work him with a gelding there is no reason why he
should not be matched in that way ... If the horse is inclined to
nip at and bother his mate, tie a staff of the proper length according to
the job on hand from the inner ring of his bit to the shank ring of a
halter on the head of the other horse in the pair, or to the upper ring
on the harness. Use good stout harness and never forget that there is
a stallion in the team. Do not let him yell and squeal and generally
make a nuisance of himself.” Johnstone cites such vices as masturbation,
cribbing, and lip-slapping as the result of close confinement, and further¬
more he says, the legs may often go wrong and so the temper due to the
same environment. He adds that exercising a stallion on a walk of eight
miles or so a day is a detestable job for the groom, and while driving
him is more agreeable, yet working him is undoubtedly to be preferred
because in both ways he is to be in harness anyway. It is recommended
that the stallion be made to trot also occasionally.

Carlson6 is likewise of the opinion that real draft harness work is the
only exercise for the stallion. He says, “the plow, harrow, disc, mower,
binder, or farm wagon upon the farm, or the dray or heavy transfer
wagon in town or city is an exercise that will fit a draft stallion for pro¬
ducing foals of the highest quality, and possessing a vitality which could
not be given them by a stallion not worked.” Even during the breeding
season putting the stallion in harness is beneficial. Carlson’s practice of
working him in the first half of the day and allowing him to do the
service at four o’clock in the afternoon of the same day has given the
best success. But only one service a day should be indulged in if he is
to be toned up with good harness work. It is further pointed out that
the slow and indifferent horse or the partially sterile individual may be
turned to virile and healthy sire if hard work is resorted to.

According to Kennedy,61 during the breeding season the stallion should
be given at least a five-mile walk every day. He may be hitched to a
cart or led with a saddle horse. In case of peddled stallions, however,
they will get sufficient exercise in a circuit of ten miles or so. Slow
individuals may be given more exercise. When out of season, however,
he advocates the adoption of like management as applied to geldings. This
consists of giving the stallions three fairly heavy feeds a day and
working them hard every week day. Sunday should be a rest day and
light feed should be provided for. Kennedy agrees with Johnstone in
breaking the young stallion to work but less work is to be given him
until he is mature.

“Halve the ration and double the exercise when the stallion is not

30

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

giving a vigorous, sure service,” is cited by Gay,4 who also advises that
in case the stallion is gaining over his normal weight the exercise
should first be increased and afterwards the ration must be reduced if
still further gains are being made. On the other hand, if he is decreas¬
ing the weight below normal and is receiving sufficient exercise the
proper course to follow is to increase the ration first and if this does not
suffice reduce the exercise.

Burkett64 desires a large box stall where the stallion may be free to
move, but besides the stallion should be taken out half an hour each day
for additional exercise. According to Henry and Morrison,62 ordinarily
a draft stallion should have a daily walk of five miles, but exercise
could be obtained in the form of work. It should be remembered though
that judgment be used in bringing soft stallions to hard work. Similarly,
Shamel65 expresses his opinion that real draft work is the most ideal
exercise for the draft stallion, and even during the breeding season he
should be worked. The least that could be done is to walk him three to
five miles every day. But during stormy, or very cold days, Starr66 believes
that exercise should rather be dispensed with, although in large box stalls
with ground floor the stallion will get sufficient of it. On the contrary,
Axe38 states that stallions are better in the open than in the average
stable no matter if it be in the cold days of winter. He directs that as
February comes the stallion should commence taking exercise with six
miles a day and later to be increased to ten miles.

10. Grooming

Paton and Orr67 state that the importance of grooming is due to the
fact that “it removes salts of the sweat, shed epithelium, and loose hairs
and dirt. It prevents the development of mange and of lice, and it acts
as a form of massage to the skin and subjacent muscles.” Fitzwygram51
advocates that every horse should be groomed at least twice a day. After
exercise he should not be allowed to cool down undried but grooming
should immediately be resorted to. Besides grooming the body of the
horse, Kennedy61 brings out the necessity of cleaning the sexual organs
of the stallion. One method by which this may be accomplished is to get
warm water and castile or ivory soap and the sheath and attachments
may be cleansed by these. The other consists in packing the sheath with
wet bran. The bran will carry a large part of the dirt and filth out.
According to Dimon,40 with an old and dull curry-comb, a root or broom
brush, a bristle brush and a flannel cloth, these should be all the tools
that are necessary to clean and polish the horse’s coat. These are to be
used every day and in the order mentioned. But Dadd68 indicates that
certain parts of the body should be spared from the curry-comb. These
include the inside of the thighs, flanks, chest, and face because the skin
in these parts are thinner and more sensitive.

According to Shaw,60 “A superficial rub with the body brush is of no
real use; the entire body requires to be thoroughly gone over with the
body brush if the coat is short, or with the dandy brush if it is long.
The curry-comb should not be applied to any part of the horse, its use
being to remove the scurf and dandruff from the body brush, the bristles
of which soon become clogged unless they are brought into contact witb
some rough, hard substance such as the ridges of the curry-comb, but the
latter are liable to injure the skin of a horse. After the brush is over
a linen cloth should be used for imparting the final polish, plenty of
time being devoted to the work. The face and ears should be lightly
gone over with a damp sponge and then thoroughly dried on a soft
towel, as also the parts on which no hair grows. If necessary, the mane
and tail should be combed, but too much of this sort of thing is apt to

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

31

bring out the hair, and therefore as a rule the dandy brush is sufficient
to do all that is required.”

Carter7" suggests a method of grooming which is considered more
effective, thus: “To produce the greatest effect with the least expenditure
of power and in the shortest time, the groom should aid his muscular
strength with his weight. He should stand well away from the horse and
lean his weight on the brush, which will thus do its work more effectually
than if operated by muscular strength alone. The working of the brush
should follow the natural direction of the hair. The curry-comb should
be used as little as possible, and principally to loosen accumulations of
mud.”

11. Extra Care

Roberts50 maintains that in order to obviate the effect of the weight of
the draft horse on his feet, it is necessary that he be shod — the shoe
binds and supports the quarters and protects the frog of the foot. Ac¬
cordingly, shoes wide of web and thick of substance are called for, the
wide web protecting the frog, and the thickness of the shoe acting to
prevent the spreading of the foot when sustaining heavy weight of the
drafter. It is preferred that the web be slightly drawn at the heel and
that the shoe be extended well back, for by this arrangement the frog
will be more safely guarded. The use of a bar shoe is needed only when
the foot is rather wide and weak at the heel, which is to be found but
rarely. Certain injunctions are to be set forth to the blacksmith: the
use of the buttress on the frog should seldom or never be resorted to;
the shoe should be fitted to the foot and not vice versa; the lightest
nails capable of holding the shoe in place for a reasonable length of time
should be used; and finally, do not rasp, polish or beautify the outside
of the hoof. It is only in smoothing the clinches of the nails that
light rasping or filing is to be allowed. Roberts hints that some horses
need not be shod but semi-monthly and others every twenty or thirty days.

Fitzwygram51 states that washing the skin of the horse does not give
the desired cleansing effect because the water penetrates with difficulty
through the hair forming a sort of thatch on the body. Besides, water
irritates the skin, inhibits the action of the oil glands thereby making
the hair coat look dry and harsh. It is therefore not advisable to wash
the horse unless it be for the purpose of removing mud on the body.
But the washing of the legs to remove the mud and dirt off finds favor.
This is done by washing the legs and then bandaging them with flannel
bands. The groom proceeds to clean the body and later when he is
through the legs will then be found dry. The brush is afterwards ap¬
plied to the legs to cleanse the skin which was not affected by the water.
He further recommends the sponging of the nostrils twice a day. The
wings of the nostrils are slowly distended and the wet sponge is carefully
introduced into the opening. Every morning and evening the dock
should be cleaned. And too, the sheath should receive occasional cleaning
to remove the sebaceous matter contained in it. According to Roberts,59
the legs should be washed and rubbed until they are dry during warm
weather.

Where parts of the body have been soiled with mud and the latter has
been allowed to dry, Barton71 advocates shampooing as a means of cleans¬
ing. The parts are shampooed using the dandy brush or a wisp of straw
and the curry-comb until the mud has been completely removed. He
says: “Plenty of elbow-grease and a wisp of straw will work wonders in
cleansing and drying a horse’s coat.” After the shampoo the coat is
thoroughly dried and then the soft brush, the chamois and the rubbers
are employed. The chamois is used to give lustre to the coat. To remove
the mud from the belly as may happen during rainy days, thawing

32 PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

periods, etc., Barton suggests using the sponge to remove the mud. The
mud or dirt on the legs, however, may be allowed to dry to be brushed
off the next morning. Horses that have been worked, according to the
same author, may on arrival to the barn be lightly sponged on such parts
which are sweating. These include the parts beneath the saddle, collar,
inside the thighs, forearms, etc. This is deemed a good practice, more
so if the parts sponged are to be thoroughly dried up afterwards.

12. Common and Infectious Diseases, and Other Ailments*

(Only such extracts of the following treatises on the common diseases
and other troubles of the stallion, as well as those of the foal, weanlings,
and mare, treated elsewhere, are presented as would interest the animal
husbandry student, while those that properly belong to the veterinarian’s
field have been excluded.)

Influenza of Horses — Influenza equorum

“Influenza is an acute febrile, contagious, infectious disease of horses,
which occurs frequently in stables in enzootic form. It is characterized
either by acute catarrh of the mucous membranes or by severe inflam¬
mation of the lung sand pleura. Accordingly two forms of the disease
may be distinguished, namely: the catarrhal influenza and the pectoral
influenza.

“ Occurrence . The disease occurs everywhere either periodically or in
a pronounced enzootic form, and in the latter case it spreads rapidly
among the horses of large territories. With the great varying character
of the disease, it sometimes causes only slight losses while at other
times a considerable percentage of the affected animals succumb to the
disease, principally as a result of the pleuro-pneumonia which develops
in its course. Owing to the latter condition the disease is of great
economic importance, but the owner also sustains considerable loss in
a milder outbreak as a result of incapacity of the horses for work.

“ Prevention . Healthy horses should be separated from affected ani¬
mals, as well as from attendants and utensils that come in contact with
diseased animals or with their secretions. It is advisable to place a
newly acquired horse for two weeks for observation, and it should be
placed among the other horses only after that period. This applies
particularly to regions in which the disease is prevalent.

“If the disease has already appeared the affected animals should first
of all be separated, and their stalls, as well as the neighboring stalls,
should be thoroughly disinfected. As in the first place the immediate
neighboring animals are under suspicion of becoming affected, they, as
well as all animals showing an elevated temperature or catarrhal symp¬
toms, should be segregated in different isolated places. At the same time
the healthy animals which have no fever should be kept out of doors, as
far as place and weather conditions permit, or in places which are free
from infection. They should be divided in groups, and only animals
which are entirely free from fever should be used for work. The infected
stable should ibe thoroughly disinfected, and scrupulous cleanliness, as
well as free ventilation of the stable, should be carried out.

“As the development of the disease is favored by influences which
have a. weakening effect on the animals, the protection of the horses
from such influences, and especially from taking colds, should be given
due consideration.

“Animals which have passed through the disease may, in the majority

* Dr. H. D. Bergman of the Veterinary Division of the Iowa State College is authority
for suggesting all the common and communicable diseases, and other troubles treated in
this paper.

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

33

of cases, and usually in the catarrhal form of influenza, be considered
as recovered and free from the infection two weeks after the cessation
of the fever, and the disappearance of all the symptoms. Convalescent
patients from the pectoral form of influenza if the changes in the lungs
have not entirely disappeared, and especially if in the meanwhile relapses
have occurred, are for a much longer time capable of infecting other
animals.” Hutyra and Marek.72

Dourine

“Dourine is the name of a usually chronic, contagious, infectious
disease of breeding horses, which commences shortly after an infective
coitus and is at first characterized by a local inflammatory affection of
the external genital organs with which subsequently symptoms of paral¬
ysis become associated as a result of an infection of the peripheral
nerves and the intervertebral ganglia. It is caused by the Trypanosoma
equiperdum.

“ Occurrence . Dourine was fairly prevalent in Europe previous to the
middle of the last century, and caused heavy losses by its frequent
enzootic extension, especially in the horse breeding establishments. The
veterinary police measures subsequently adopted resulted in a rapid
diminution of the disease, so that at present it prevails only in some
southern and eastern states, whereas in other parts of the world it occurs
more frequently.

“In America the disease was recently encountered repeatedly in the
states of Illinois and Nebraska, and also in Chili; the principal focus of
infection, however, exists on the Indian reservation of South Dakota,

. . . The energetic measures appear to have been crowned with good

results, as since 1906 no other cases have been noted.

“ Prevention . Stallions and mares should be examined before coitus as
to their health, and horses with inflammatory changes on the genital
organs should be excluded from coitus on general principles. Besides
this it is advisable to wash the penis of the stallion after every covering
with a sponge dipped in clean water.

“The veterinary police measures depend on the principle that horses
affected with dourine should be excluded from breeding once and for all
Such measures appear to be justified in spite of the possibility of a com
plete recovery, by the frequent relapses and also by the fact that trypano¬
somes may be present for months in the genital organs of apparently
recovered animals. Accordingly affected stallions should be castrated,
while affected mares should receive a distinctive branding. The relative¬
ly late development of the symptoms characteristic of the disease, as
well as the possibility of a healthy stallion transmitting the disease from
an affected mare to a healthy animal, appear to justify an action re¬
quiring that healthy stallions which have covered mares affected with
dourine should be considered the same as those affected.” Hutyra and
Marek.72

Coital Exanthema

“Coital exanthema is a diesase . . . characterized by vesicular ex¬

anthema of the external genital organs. It is usually transmitted from
animal to animal during the act of coitus, and usually terminates in
complete recovery. The cause of the disease is at present unknown.

“. . . The disease occurs more frequently among cattle than in

horses . . . Considerable losses are sustained in extensive outbreaks
of the disease, because ... of the inability of draught animals to
work, and from the prevention of impregnation . . .” Hutyra and

Marek.72

34

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

Malignant Hyphomycosis of Horses. — Leeches
( Hyphomykosia restruens equi)

“In India as well as on the Sunda Islands a disease occurs among
horses which is known by the name ‘bursatte’ . . . According to

Lyford and Bitting this same disease occurs quite frequently in North
America among horses and mules where it is known as “leeches” while
in Europe only a single case has been observed by Drouin and Renon in
Afort.” Hutyra and Marek.72

Orchitis

“Inflammation of the testicles . . . arises from a great variety of

causes. In all animals, external wounds are liable to cause inflammations
of the gland especially when occurring during the active breeding season.
Scrotal wounds, especially those penetrating the peritoneal sac of the
testicle are very liable to terminate in an inflammation of the glandular
tissue.

“Contusions of the testicles without wounds of the skin are more or
less common . . . and may at all times lead to orchitis . . . Con¬
tusions of the testicles . . . and of a very dangerous character, also

occur occasionally from kicks by the mare at time of service.

“Orchitis . . . occur, in some cases, independent of any history of
traumatism, as an apparently idiopathic malady . . . It is not im¬
probable that such untraced cases are due to infection of some character
passing through the vas deferens into the testicle . . . This may be

favored by excessive coition or by any debilitating influences.

“In other cases, the disease is indirectly traceable to an infectious
malady ... we meet, not infrequently, with strangles abscesses in
the testicle or about it. In these, the ordinary symptoms of strangles
are usually present in other portions of the body, ... In the con¬
tagious cellulitis, or pink eye . . . orchitis is the rule. Orchitis

. . . has been recorded also as a result of glanders.

“From whatever cause orchitis may arise, it should always be treated
as a very serious disease, in so far as the reproductive powers of the
animal are concerned, and should be handled with the greatest possible
promptness and care. As with all diseases of the sexual organs, it is
especially true of those of the testicles that the fundamental principle in
their handling should be the removal, as far as possible, of all sexual
excitement. The animal may be exercised, and, possibly, benefited there¬
by, but it should be done in a manner to avoid any sexual stimulation.
In most stallions the application of the stud bridle is in itself a sexual
suggestion because the animal constantly associates it with service.

“So far as possible, a breeding male affected with disease of the genital
organs should be removed from sight or sound of any female of his kind,
especially from those which are in estrum. Every arousal of sexual
appetite intensifies any existing irritation or disease in the sexual organs
and successful handling of these accidents and diseases demands, first
of all, sexual quietude.

“Wounds to the scrotum of male breeding animals should have very
careful surgical attention. Strict antiseptic precautions should be taken
from the very outset and continued until all danger to the glands has
been safely passed.

“Contusions of the testicles should be avoided by the removal of the
causes.

Laminitis ( Founder )

“By this name we designate a peculiar inflammation of the pododerm
at the toe. It arises suddenly in well-nourished and apparently healthy

35

horses, following excessive work or long-continued rest in the stable, and
frequently leads to a decided change of form of the hoof.

“The disease is always accompanied with intense pain. It most often
affects both front feet, more rarely all four feet, or only one foot. In
the first case the two front feet are planted far in advance of the body,

and the hind feet well forward under the belly. When all four are

affected, traveling is exceedingly difficult, often impossible; in this case
there is nearly always a high fever over the entire body.

“The seat of the disease is in the fleshy leaves about the toe, more

rarely upon the sides, walls and quarters. Depending upon the intensity
of the inflammation, the fleshy leaves are more or less loosened from the
horny leaves, as a result of which there is a change of position of the os
pedis, with a simultaneous sinking of the coronet at the toe. This pro¬
duces a change of form of the hoof. The quarters become higher. Rings
form upon the wall, and their course is quite characteristic of the disease.
At the toe these rings are quite -close to one another, but as they pass
back towards the quarters they gradually separate from one another and
recede from the coronary band . . .

“A horse in such a condition -can be used, but the gait will be short and
stiff. The hoofs -are shuffled forward and set heels first to the ground,
a manner of traveling that rapidly wears away the branches of the shoe.

“In dressing a foundered hoof the outer circumference of the sole is
the guide. The thick projecting wall at the toe may be removed with the
rasp without injuring the foot. The sole should be spared, but the
quarters should be lowered to improve the setting of the foot to the
ground.

“The choice of the shoe will depend upon the shape and nature of the
sole. If this is still concave, an ordinary shoe may be used. If, however,
the sole is flat or dropped, it must be protected by an open shoe with a
broad web, or with a bar-shoe . . . which is of especial value when

the bearing edge of the wall is weak or broken away.

“As long as there is pain or pressure about the toe there should be
no toe-clip, but two side-clips. The wall between these clips should be
lowered a tenth to an eighth of an inch to prevent pressure of the shoe
upon the sensitive tissues of the toe . . . The nails should be as

small as possible and placed well back towards the quarters. No nail
should be driven in the wall at the toe when there is separation of sole
and wall at the toe (hollow wall, seedy-toe).

“The shoes of horses affected with founder often work forward as a
result of the animals traveling upon their heels. To prevent this evil,
clips may be raised at the ends of the branches of an open shoe, or one
clip in the middle of the bar, in case a bar-shoe is used . . .” Lung-

witz and Adams.73

False Copulation

“False copulation or entrance of the penis into the anus instead of the
vulva, is possible in almost any of our domestic animals ... It is
by no means rare and is highly dangerous. Its causes are various but it
is probably largely due to some resistance on the part of the mare as a
result of not being properly in estrum or otherwise becoming excited and
attempting to kick or move about.

“Coition is safe only when estrum is present in the proper degree. The
mare has ample power to close the vulva against the ready entrance of
the penis and thus cause it to glide upward and forwards against and into
the anus, whi-ch opening may be more readily forced.

“The accident is also invited in aged . . . mares with pendulous

abdomen in which the anus is retracted and, drawing the superior com¬
missure of the vulva with it, causes the vulvar opening to approach the

36

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

horizontal instead of the perpendicular and the penis to glide forward
and slightly upward over the oblique vulvar opening to strike against
the inferior surface of the tail and be deflected into the anus. It may be
purely accidental. Harms thinks it may result from smallness of the
female. All cases we have observed have been in mares of medium or
large size, whether viewed actually or comparatively as related to the
size of the stallion.

“In the mare the accident is preventable by ordinary precautions on
the part of the stallion groom, whose duty it is to see that the penis is
guided into the vulva or, at least, not permitted to enter the rectum. To
this end, it is best not to attempt service in -case of a mare not certainly
in proper estrum. It is a part of the business of the groom to see and to
know that the penis of the stallion is properly entering the vulva of the
mare. If the mare is kicking or otherwise violently resisting the stal¬
lion, he should be promptly withdrawn, since copulation under such
circumstances is unwarrantedly dangerous for both animals. Such violent
resistance of the mare is sometimes offered by the groom as an excuse
for his failure to see and know that the penis of the stallion was being
properly entered in the vulva, but it is not valid. The mare . . .

with retracted anus should be placed with her hind feet on a lower level
than her anterior members, leaving the ground upon which the male is
to stand at a higher level and thus bringing the vulvar opening more
nearly perpendicular.

“The prognosis of penial injuries to the rectum must be based largely
upon the position and extent of the injury. When the lacerations per¬
forate the peritoneum and cause escape of feces into the peritoneal cavity
the injury is essentially fatal . . . When the injury of the rectal

wall occurs behind the peritoneum or otherwise does not perforate it,
the prognosis is good if timely surgical aid is given, though after a long
period of time, serious or fatal results may follow the impaction of
feces in the sac formed in the pelvic connective tissue. The pressure of
the feces escaping from the rectum tends constantly to push the loose
connective tissue aside and, eventually, to form a large sac, which is
constantly filled with fecal masses.

“The handling in such cases consists of gently removing feces from
the sacculated wound cavity in the pelvic connective tissue and cautiously
flushing it out at least twice daily with a mild antiseptic solution. At
the same time the rectum should be manually emptied as far as the
attendant can reach and the feces thus prevented from dropping into the
sac. The patient should be kept at rest on a very scant, laxative diet
during the treatment, which should be continued until the rupture is
quite healed as it is highly important to guard against extensive saccula¬
tion in the part, which can only be done by avoiding the accumulation
of feces in it.

“In some instances the injuries to the rectum from the entrance into it
of the penis are comparatively trivial and consist merely of wounds of
the mucosa and somewhat of the muscular walls, with the passage of
bloody feces, some swelling about the anus and other slight symptoms of
injury, which readily pass away under repeated antiseptic anemata.”
Williams.48

Kicks on Penis

“Injuries to the penis of the male during copulation are by no means
rare. The penis of the stallion is most liable to injury from kicks by the
mare . . . These contusions of the penis during its great vascularity

in the breeding season are very difficult and refractory to handle. The
stallion needs be kept quiet, free from sexual excitement, the penis re¬
tained at rest within the sheath by means of a suspensorium and the re-

37

suiting local inflammation ameliorated by the application of cooling
astringents such as lead acetate, hamamelis, tannin, belladona, etc., com¬
bined in cases of necessity with antiseptics. Generally the patient may
have quiet walking exercise, a restricted laxative diet, saline laxatives
or in -case of serious disturbance, prompt cathartics of the hypodermic
alkaloid group." Williams.48

VI

MANAGEMENT OF THE BROOD MARE

1. Selection

According to Johnstone,5 the mare must possess distinct femininity
although loftiness of character is likewise to be insisted on. The mare
is a bit more rangy but this must not be sought for at the expense of a
strong back and deep flank. She must be roomy all the way through and
of good bone. If the stud horse is a 2000-pounder get mares weighing
1500 to 1600 pounds or upwards, and mares weighing 1000 pounds or less
should be mated with 1650-pound stallions.

Roberts4- describes the brood mare stating that she “should be of good
size, considered from the standpoint of . . . breed to which she be¬
longs and the size of the progeny desired. Her body conformation should
be rather open, or the reverse of a pony-build. She may be, and often is,
a shade too long in body and slightly too coarse. But these defects, if
they are defects, may be corrected in the offspring through the sire.
The eyes should be prominent, bright and well-set; the head, fine for the
breed; neck inclined to be, if anything, too thin, provided it be well set
on the shoulders. Short, thick-necked brood mares are too often dis¬
appointing. The shoulders should be rather thin, moderately oblique,
and withers high rather than low. The back (top line) may be a trifle
long if the bottom line is correspondingly long, though a short top line
coupled with a long bottom line is best. The hindquarters should be
broad and deep, neither steep nor flat, with hips thrown well forward.
The hips and short ribs should not approach each other too closely. A brood
mare that is a little open-ribbed is preferable to one that is too close-
ribbed. Such a structure usually accompanies a symmetrically set tail,
a broad pelvis, and well-developed mammary glands. Symmetrical, clean,
well-knit legs, a little short rather than a little too long, according to
breed, placed rather well under the body, instead of on the ‘corners’ of
the horse, should, if provided with good feet and nerve power, carry
the dam safely through ten to fifteen years of strenuous life, while im¬
parting to her offspring her own characteristics.”

Carlson6 interprets femininity by “mildness and softness” or by “re¬
finement of character.” This is shown by refined head, ear, jaw, and
neck. That femininity is a very important consideration in the selection
of brood mares is attested by Carlson’s observations among barren mares
that show masculine character. A bigger room is likewise sought for in
the brood mare as evidenced by longer loins and wider and deeper ribbing.

The ideal brood mare as a different individual from the stallion is
described by Gay* in the following manner: “Her manifestation of sex
character is found in a comparatively light forehand, a sweet, refined
head and neck, and a matronly appearance throughout. In order to sus¬
tain the growth of the foetus well, she should be deep-ribbed and roomy,
and somewhat more openly made, with more length, than is desirable in
the stallion. She should possess every indication of capacity and vigor.”

Hayes * says: “As a rule, the mare, as compared to the horse, has a
lighter neck, a broader pelvis, is higher behind and slacker in the loins than
he is. The fact of the spines of her withers being lower than those of the

horse is no doubt the cause of her being relatively higher over the croup
tiid.il ne is.

To provide for increased roominess in the body of the mare Stonhenge?5

MANAGEMENT OF THE BROOD MARE

39

desires that the tail be set rather low on wide hips. Thus, a level or
straight hip with high tail-setting are disfavored. He says: “The pelvis
should be v/ide and deep, that is to say, it should be large and roomy, and
there should also be a little more than the average length from the hip
to the shoulder, so as to give plenty of bed to the foal, as well as a good
depth of back ribs, which are necessary in order to support this in¬
creased length.”

According to Roudebush,70 a good brood mare ought to be intelligent,
docile, non-irritable, a good suckler, that she does not worry about her
foal, and her heart girth should be large.

It is interesting to note that broken-winded mares, according to Hunt,75
seldom would breed.

Other points being normal, the brood mare, according to Plumb,9
should be selected on the basis of sex character, conformation, constitu¬
tional vigor and temperament. Of these he writes: “The sex character
of the mare is seen in a smaller and more refined head than has the
stallion, and a more slender, less muscular neck. The beautiful, symmet¬
rical proportions of head; the mild, quiet, inquiring eyes; and the
delicate attentive ears, give strong evidence of feminine and maternal
qualities; if the stallion is bold and independent, the mare is both shy
and friendly. The udder of the mare is small, consisting of a double
gland and two teats. This is not conspicuous, excepting while nursing
the foal. It is desirable that the judge note the size of the udder and
teats. If nursing, the udders should be well extended between the thighs,
and carry two good sized teats.

“The conformation of the mare is narrower all through than in the
stallion. The shoulders are comparatively light, the withers narrow, the
breast and chest less thick than with the male, and the body long and deep.
At maturity, the belly of the mare often shows considerable roundness
and downward curve features associated with reproduction. While her
back should be well sustained, she should show a long line and great
capacity between the front and hind flanks. The limbs of the mare often
display delicacy of outline and refinement of bone.

‘The constitutional vigor of the mare as with the stallion, is shown in
the active, alert character of head and eye, in the depth and prominence
of breast, the width and strength of back, and the length, depth and
capacity of body. There are really no essential differences, excepting in
degree, in the various features which guide one in determining con¬
stitutional vigor, in either mare or stallion.

“The temperament of the mare is less active as a rule than in the
case of the stallion. She is not self-assertive, but not necessarily lacking
in interest in things about her. Her disposition may be quite variable,
though she is not likely to be as aggressive as the stallion. The tempera¬
ment in most cases is more notable from the standpoint of type than sexA

2. Breeding and Productive Age

Smith49 gives the period of puberty of the horse at one and one-half
years of age and Bergman41 puts it from one to 2 years. Bergman41 alsc
says that individuals are known to have foaled at 22 and 30 months oi
age. Murray77 places the breeding age at two years, saying that no harn:
would result provided that the mare is not worked while nursing the
foal. Wallace43 also vouches for the plan of breeding the 2-year-olds, and
maintains that the best Shire foals are produced from mares bred at such
an early age, which, however, are liberally fed and are early-maturing.

According to Sanders,40 if the 2-year-olds are to be bred at all, they
should not be bred the next year but again afterwards so as to foal at
5 years of age. Otherwise, he advocates to breed mares for the first
time as 3-year-olds and continuously on without intermission so long
as she is fertile. Kennedy01 and Dimon40 likewise give similar opinion,

40

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

and in addition Kennedy remarks that although it has not been fully
proven the breeding of young mares is supposed to render the mare a
more reliable breeder.

Hunt75 believes in breeding the mare for the first time when coming
4-year-old, while Allen44 and Dadd68 fix the breeding age at further ex¬
tremes. Allen44 places the breeding age at 5 or 6 years. To secure the
best breeding age, according to Dadd,08 is to allow strength and beauty
to become developed first, which comes at the age of 5 years. It is
claimed that when bred at this age the offspring obtained is likely to
be healthy and strong in constitution.

Walley45 is of the opinion that the breeding age is not a matter of any
specific period. Rather the mare may be bred as soon as she is well-
developed and has acquired sufficient vigor.

Carlson6 compiled figures relative to the prime breeding age of the
brood mare. Observations were carried for 29 years and the deductions
arrived at are as follows: 1. That the largest foal crop was obtained from
mares ranging from 7 to 11 years of age, with the 9-year-olds topping the
list. 2. That the 3 and 4-year-olds made low percentages, which was to
be accounted for troubles in dentition. The 5-year-olds also showed a
lower percentage than the more mature individuals. 3. That mares over
14 years of age are low producers and their breeding, as a general
proposition, does not pay. However, when these old mares have foals at
foot, or if any way breeding has not been interrupted during their life,
the breeding power is not altered. 4. That the 2-year-olds gave poor
showing, but Carlson explains this on the poor feeding and poor develop¬
ment of the fillies under observation.

Sanders46 gives the most fertile period of the mare at from 5 to 15
years of age. Crisp"8 states that mares have been known to produce foal
at 28, 32, and 38 years of age. Mention is also made of a Suffolk cart-
mare which foaled at the age of 39.

According to Law,4'1 difficult impregnation is often encountered with
young and idle mares, which he ascribes at times to undue sexual excite¬
ment so that there occurs a spasmodic and rigid closure of the neck of the
womb during the act of coition, or excessive expulsive contractions of
the womb and the vagina causing the evacuation of the semen before
impregnation takes place. Harper78 states that from his experience it
seems that about one filly in four will conceive as 2-year-olds.

According to Miles35 the employment of very young animals or those
whose constitution is affected by abuse or overwork leads to the inherit¬
ance of the system which predisposes to diseases that might develop from
slight causes. And it is further pointed out that such practice of early
mating may transmit the diminished fecundity of the young parents and
eventually gives rise to barrenness. The same principle applies in the
transmission of defective development of the young mother. Miles cited
that “precocious marriages are not only less fertile, but the children also
which are the result of them have an increased rate of mortality.”

On th other hand, delaying the breeding of females long after maturity,
according to Law,"1 will result to difficult impregnation for the first time.
Such a condition is frequently found in mares that have been worked for
a long time. It is interesting to note also, that in mares not bred after a
single conception marked diminution of the womb and passages result.
Smith 111 says that mares bred late in life are often found barren.

3. Breeding Season— Period of Heat— Signs of Heat— Time to Breed

Smith49 gives the breeding season of the mare from February to June
or July. According to Mumford79 the generative functions of the mare
are more active in the spring season. Bergman,41 too, states that the
breeding season lasts from spring till summer. Harper?8 believes that,
besides the fact that mares breed naturally in spring, their breeding

management of the brood mare

41

condition is also most readily noted at this season and too, they conceive
more easily at this time. According to Youatt,37 heat period usually
comes early in the spring. Curryer42 says: “Frequently, if the weather
in this north latitude is warm in March or April, mares are very sure to
come in heat; but our experience is that where one mare gets in foal, 3
or 4 will fail when bred before the middle of May or June.”

Mumford ‘ 0 states that in mares the ‘foal heat’ comes 7 to 9 days after
foaling and oestrum ordinarily occur while the mares are nursing, al¬
though some do not show this indication during the same period. It is
pointed out also that the tendency with some mares is to breed but once
in 2 years.

According to Carlson’s investigation, the period of heat comes every
21 days, although variations from this are to be found with certain
individuals. However, the mare that shows more or less constant ‘heat’
is an irregular breeder. The heat period lasts for 4 to 9 days, and ac¬
cording to his findings, in 85% of the animals under observation, the
duration of the heat period was from 5 to 7 days. Here again variations
were noted so that the duration of heat period in a few mares may ex¬
tend for only a few hours. Carlson advocates the breeding of the mares
two days after the start of the heat period because the discharge of the
ovum occurs after the heat period.

Bergman41 holds that the period of heat occurs every 21 days, each
period lasting from 2 to 4 days. He points out that better success is ob¬
tained by breeding the mare on the second heat period after foaling.

Marshall80 places the foal heat 11 days after parturition but in some it
occurs 17 days afterwards.

Wallace43 points out also that foal heat occurs 11 days after foaling
when, he says, the mare gets settled most readily. The heat period lasts
for 3 days. Later periods come every 3 weeks in spring and early sum¬
mer during which time each period extends for about a week. It is
brought out that mares coming in heat in 4 weeks instead of the usual
3 weeks do not ordinarily conceive. Wallace further says that mares that
are not bred at the first indication of heat are likely not to conceive until
after the foals are weaned, and even then they settle with difficulty. An
explanation offered to this behavior is the fact that mares in their second
season have a large flow of milk which to some degree affects the system
and so makes conception difficult.

Wallace43 maintains also in accord with Carlson, that mares bred when
going out of season are most likely to settle so he advocates the breeding
of the mare in a day or two after the first service in case that she has
been covered immediately after she comes in heat.

According to Axe,38 the period of heat lasts for 2 or 3 days at a time,
occurring every 15 or 21 days. He believes that mares will be more suc¬
cessfully bred if service is made 9 days after foaling.

Johnston5 likewise maintains that mares will generally conceive if
bred 9 days after parturition. He recommends the return of mares for
three trials, as follows: About the 18th, 25th, and 32nd day.

According to Curryer42 the best time to breed the mare is at the height
of the heat period.

Quoting Axe,38 the indications of heat period are as follows: “The

animal is usually irritable or sluggish and less able to sustain severe

exertion; the sensibility is increased, and the appetite is more or less in
abeyance or capricious, and thirst is often present; there is a tendency
to seek the company of other horses, especially males; attempts to pass
urine are frequent, and there are spasmodic ejections of a whitish fluid,
accompanied by movements of the vulva.”

Smith40 says: “The external signs of proestrum in all animals are a

swelling of the vulva, more or less pronounced, with a slight flow of

mucus, which may be blood-stained. There is excitement. The mare may

42

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

refuse to work, squeals and kicks when approached, elevates and pro¬
trudes the clitoris, and micturates frequently, the material being very
mucoid.”

Mumford79 characterizes oestrum by “great restlessness, constant move¬
ment and often great mental excitement . . . The genital organs be¬
come congested. The mammary glands in animals not suckling young in¬
creases in size. The external genitals, particularly the vulva, become
swollen and red, and mucous and bloody excretions flow from the gen¬
erative organs. In many animals, there are frequent attempts at urina¬
tion.”

4. Spring Foaling

Gay4 states that spring is the natural time for foaling and is the
customary period, especially in breeding studs. Such benefits as are
derived by the open-air surrounding and new grass are ascribed to the
desirability of spring foaling. And too, breeders of show horses who are
after the age limit prefer spring foaling.

With regard to spring foaling, Harper78 writes: “Mares breed naturally
in early spring. At this season their breeding condition is more readily
observed and they conceive more frequently than at any other time
during the year. [These have just been referred to above.]

“Thus, when convenient, the spring is the proper time to breed the
mare, being attended by many advantages. The foal comes at a time when
it is much more easily managed, the housing is simplified, since, if the
weather is warm, the mare and foal may be turned into a small paddock
or pasture. The grass the mare gets will serve to keep her in good
physical condition and will stimulate the milk flow. This also gives the
foal the range of the field and the much-needed exercise, without which
no foal can develop endurance. Soon the foal will learn to nibble the
grass, which will prove beneficial, since grass is a very good supplement
for milk for a nursing foal. If the foal is given a little grain at the same
time the dam receives her ration, he will thrive and develop in a manner
difficult to equal with a fall colt.”

Van Alstyne81 asserts that mares breed with difficulty at other seasons
than spring. According to him, the desirability of March foals is to be
accounted to the fact that “After the birth of the colt the mare has time
to recuperate before her services are needed. A little later she can take
her share of light work, and by the time the heavier work of the later
spring comes on, she can take her share. The colt will then be eating
solid food and it is important if the mare’s milk supply is not abundant.

“The colt is large enough by midsummer that the flies do not affect it
as they do a younger foal. It can be weaned in late July or August while
pasture is yet good, and the mare will have time to gain flesh before
winter.”

5. Fall Foaling

According to Gay,4 fall foaling should be a feasible system provided
good stables, feed and help are made available. It is especially desirable
where mares are being used for farm work besides for the production of
colts. It is pointed out that fall foaling enables the colts to acquire good
start so as to minimize the effects of adverse conditions of short pastures
and attacks of flies during midsummer. Gay says: “In fact, if one is
forced to choose between a spring foal, with no chance to properly favoi
the mare, and a fall colt which arrives and is suckled while the mare
is laid by, the latter would be more desirable.”

Harper78 has the following to say on fall foaling: “When the fall foals
are to be raised the mare should be bred so as to foal as soon as con¬
venient after the season’s work is done, providing the foal does not

MANAGEMENT OF THE BROOD MARE

43

come when the flies are so cruelly annoying. To encourage the mare
to breed, she should be fed an abundance of nutritious food which should
be of a laxative nature. She should be blanketed and regularly exercised
or moderately worked. Her physical condition can be much improved
by feeding a moderate amount of succulent food, the object being to
make the condition as spring-like as possible.

“If the foal comes in the winter it will need extra warm quarters and
extra attention. The dam will need milk-producing foods such as clover
or alfalfa hay, oats, bran, and a few carrots if possible . . . The win¬

ter colt has one advantage over the spring colt in that he is weaned in
the spring of the year and may be turned to pasture where he should
thrive, particularly if given a small allowance of grain.”

Van Alstyne81 advises that fall foaling should be so timed that it
comes between early September and November. In this way “The mare
will do much of the fall plowing, work on the drill, make a third horse
on the corn harvester, or help to haul silage corn if the road is hard
and level.”

Van Alstyne81 cites the case of the best fall colt he ever reared. This
colt was foaled on the last day of August. According to him, “By select¬
ing her work the mare put in full time through harvest. She helped
with the plowing, which that year was done early, and she had a chance
to lie idle for ten days after the colt was born, before sowing and silo
filling. After that she was free until winter. Then the colt was four
months old and eating like a horse. The mare made one of a necessary
team to be kept up and fed grain to draw out manure and do other
winter work. Very little more feed kept her with plenty of milk for the
colt. Separated from the colt the last of March she was in as good
condition for the spring’s work as her mate which had no colt.”

Van Alstyne81 is further quoted to say: “The second spring when my
fall colts are 18 months old they have been as large and well-developed
as the spring colt at two years. This means that at three and a half
years a fall colt will do as much work as a 4-year-old; thus subtracting
six months from the maintenance of the colt before he can earn his keep.
For this there are three reasons: the colts get a good start on grass
in the fall when the weather is warm and there are no flies; by winter
it is eating freely and with a little selected silage and roots in a com¬
fortable stall it is easily kept growing instead of being weaned when
flies are at their worst, and the best of the summer feed is gone and it
must subsist on dry food until spring; the fall colt soon gets grass after
weaning and never stops growing.

“Colts usually shed their incissor teeth about three months before the
end of their second, third, and fourth year. Fall colts therefore shed
their teeth when grass is abundant — an important reason for their
more rapid growth.

“It is of great benefit to the colt to be handled when young. The farm
is a very busy place after April 1st, and however good the intent, little
time can be given to such training after spring work sets in. In winter
there is time for this training without neglecting the putting in or
harvesting of the crops.”

Roberts59 in supporting the idea of fall foaling contends that with this
practice the colts will have all of its incissor milk teeth by the time
they are weaned in the middle of May or before so that on being turned
to pasture their growth will be rapid even without the use of con¬
centrates.

6. Other Breeding Considerations

Gelder8 states that a good breeding time is in the afternoon. It is also
pointed out that even slight cold or excitement nrght prove detrimental

44

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

to successful impregnation. It is desired that mares be driven or led
moderately when being brought for breeding and should not be ridden.
That excitement is harmful in breeding operations is attested as follows:
According to Carlson,6 in both instances where casting harness have
been used in throwing down the horses, the percentage of those that
conceived from capsule breeding was very much lower, in comparison
with the success obtained by simply applying the capsules in a standing
position. Another investigation carried out by him brings out that the
highest percentage of foals was produced by those led by the halter
whereas lower percentages were observed in mares that were ridden,
driven double to wagon and driven double to buggy.

Dadd68 says it is better to breed the mare when a whitish discharge is
seen from the vulva. At this time she often neighs and shows great
desire for the male. Dadd disfavors breeding early in the season for
the reason that by so doing the mare not only has to furnish nourish¬
ment for the suckling foal but also to the developing fetus, besides
herself.

The best mating is said to result from the use of a relatively old
horse with a young mare (Biddell, Douglas, Dykes, Fleming, Macneilage,
Murray, Trotter82), while Walley45 says that equality in size between the
male and female should be insisted upon in breeding operation, and he
further maintains that a small and young female bred to a dispropor-
tioned stallion might cause some trouble in parturition through certain
abnormalities in the development of the body. But a roomy and mature
mare can be mated with a stallion differing much in size and still good
results may be obtained. Allen44 believes that much of the success ob¬
taining among the Arabian and Eastern breeders is due to the fact that
mares larger than the stallion are used in breeding operations. John¬
stone5 recommends the mating of a ton stallion with mares weighing
1500 to 1600 pounds or upwards, and the 1650 pounder with mares weigh¬
ing 1000 pounds or less.

7. Artificial Insemination

That artificial insemination, whether it be by the syringe or by the
capsule method, can be undertaken successfully, is without question
(Johnstone6). Riley83 states that this practice has been followed by
stallion and jack owners for over 20 years. It is resorted to not only in
America, but also in France, Germany, Russia, the British Isles, India,
and other countries. (Axe.38)

In a comprehensive way Brown84 enumerates a number of advantages
accruing from an artificial insemination, as follows:

“First — Stallion owners are able to restrict the services of their animals
to one period a day, thus conserving the virility of the sire and contribut¬
ing to more vigorous offspring.

“Second — By effecting a division of the semen from 7 to 18 mares may
be easily bred from a single service.

•“Third — That a higher percentage of foals results for the reason that
insemination is certain and the stallioner soon learns to detect and re¬
ject mares showing evidence of confirmed sterility.

“Fourth — That impregnation is far more certain in case of atresia of
the cervix, a tortuous or elongated cervical canal, together with various
pathologic conditions of the vaginal tract and numerous other condtiions.

“Fifth — The opportunity for conveying contagious or infectious genital
diseases is greatly lessened and reduced to the minimum by the observ¬
ing operator.

“Sixth — That the opportunity for physical injuries to either stallion
or mare is practically nil by this method.

“Seventh — That the offspring are equal to and generally should be

MANAGEMENT OF THE BROOD MARE 45

superior to the natural product on account of the sire not being over¬
taxed.

“Eighth That the results obtained justify the stallioner reducing the
service fee if necessary, making it no excuse for any man to breed to a
scrub and putting the latter out of existence through competition alone.

“Ninth — That certain shy breeders may be bred successfully at the
termination of the oestral period and in the hands of several experienced
men impregnations have been accomplished by breeding at any period
without regard to oestrum.

“Tenth — That with proper care semen may be transported distances
and impregnations successfully made.

“Eleventh — That cheap females may be utilized as in the case of the
the burro which when crossed with a horse of proper type results in a
hinny that finds a ready market at a remunerative figure.”

According to Johnstone5 who originated the capsule means of artificial
insemination the two methods are equally good, although infection is
possible in the case of the syringe method when used with some diseased
mares. Strict cleanliness and sterilization should therefore be adhered
to when the syringe is used in order to safeguard clean mares. Besides
cleanliness, Riley83 gives cheapness as another advantage in favor of
the capsule method.

Carlson6 calls for a set of tools in carrying artificial insemination by
the capsule method, as follows: These are a pan for holding warm water,
a device for heating the water, thermometer, quart bowl, soap of good
quality, towels, creoline or other disinfectants, powdered slipper-elm
bark and semen extractor. It is desired that the pan be made of a non¬
corroding and rust proof metal such as zinc or galvanized iron. It should
be of a size sufficient for the extractor with its extended piston to lie
lengthwise in it, so accordingly it may be made 6 inches wide and 36
inches long. An oil stove may be used to heat the water, and for gaug¬
ing the temperature a dairy thermometer, which has the advantage of
floating is recommended. Riley83 recommends for heating the water a
container made of galvanized iron, 30 inches long, 5 inches wide and 6
inches deep.

For insemination by the capsule method, Johnstone5 has no need for
tools other than the capsules. Carrol and Frederick85 mention the same
tools in connection with the capsule method as indicated by Carlson.6

Cleanliness and sterilization of instruments should be closely followed,
but the use of disinfectants, or other agents in this connection should be
judiciously and carefully adhered to because, according to Riley,83 such
agents as direct sunlight, temperature (above 100° or below), soap,
vaseline, grease, oil, chemicals, urine, water, cold instruments, cold air,
and rubber are injurious to spermatozoa. In an experiment conducted
by Lewis86 the rubber bag and pig’s bladder proved most harmful to the
spermatozoa. Lewis also found that the sperm cells are very sensitive
to high temperatures and that low temperatures have less effect on their
vitality than any other conditions tested.

Before proceeding to the execution of breeding operations the mares
should first be examined (Carlson).6 Carlson6 points out that if the mare
is already fifteen years or more old and has no foal on foot, she may be
rejected for service. The discharge from the vulva is to be looked for
next. The sticking together of the hairs of the vulva would be a sign
of leucorrhea and mares so affected should not be bred. Mares that show
reddened mucous membrane as shown by the eyes, which normally is
pale pink, should likewise be refused for breeding. And too, it is
brought out that mares discharging liquid on the notsrils will not breed.

Mares which have been picked for the service are next lined together
at a reasonable distance apart, but not unduly far from each other
(Carlson).6 The condition of the cervix is next looked into, and should

46

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

the opening to the uterus be closed Carlson6 indicates the insertion of
one finger as sufficient, for the mistake of opening it with two or more
fingers may lead to too wide an opening, which is said to cause difficulties
among breeders. The matter of objecting to mares found with lacerated
cervix or with cervix of wide opening is brought out. Carroll and Fred¬
erick86 suggest the use of a speculum in examining the os uteri.

As to the means of collecting the semen Carroll and Frederick86 write:
“When all the mares have been examined, their external organs steril¬
ized, the utensils prepared . . . the stallion is led out and allowed

to cover some quiet mares in heat which the examination has shown to be
perfectly normal and clean in every way. As the stallion mounts, the
operator should approach the rear of the mare with the bowl and ex¬
tractor both filled with the 100° water. His arm should be previously
greased with the powdered slipper-elm bark or vaseline. As the stallion
begins to dismount empty the water from the bowl and catch any semen
which may follow the penis out. As soon as this is done or if none
comes out give the bowl to an assistant, immediately empty the ex¬
tractor of water, grasp its end between the thumb and first two fingers,
and gradually insert hand and all into the vagina, always keeping the
point of the extractor thus protected.

“If the semen has been discharged into the vagina the hand as it
enters will detect this, and it can be taken up by pulling out the piston
of the extractor. If no semen is encountered in the vagina it has been
discharged into the uterus. To collect it from here carefully insert the
point of the extractor (always preceded by the end of the forefinger)
into the uterus. When in the length of the finger, bend the flexible end
of the extractor downward by pressure from the forefinger above support¬
ed by the thumb underneath.

“Firm yet gentle pressure downward will cause a pocket to form in
the floor of the uterus into which the semen will naturally flow. With
the end still protected by the finger tip to prevent drawing in any of
the delicate membrane lining the uterus, fill the extractor by gently pull¬
ing out the piston. When the instrument is filled straighten its point,
draw it from the mare, take it at once to the operating room, and have
the assistant immerse it in the water at 100° F. His finger should be
kept over the end to protect the semen from water or air.”

It is indicated that the work should be carried in a place free from dust,
particularly if the semen is exposed. Also, the semen should be kept
in a dark place and not exposed to direct rays of sunlight.

Where a bulb is used to collect the semen, Riley83 advises, that in case
a large quantity of semen has been collected, the bulb may be un¬
screwed, corked and then placed in water heated to a temperature of
95° to 100° F.

As pointed out by Riley,83 the extractor filled with semen may im¬
mediately be applied to the mares awaiting insemination, if there are
only one or two of them. Otherwise, the use of the capsule is to be
resorted to. But with only one or two mares to be bred, besides the
one served by the stallion, the capsule may of course be used also in¬
stead of the extractor. Acocrding to Carlson,6 the capsule without its cap
is introduced into the vagina with the hand from which the semen is
scooped out, holding the fluid by means of the forefinger. This is then
inserted into the uterus. But Riley83 remarks that such a practice is
possible only when semen is to be found on the floor of the vagina.

Where a number of mares are to be bred, the semen in the extractor
or bulb kept in a heated water is poured in capsules which are one by
one introduced into the line of mares awaiting operation. According to
Carlson,6 the cap of the capsule is removed and this is then filled about
half full of semen by an assistant who holds the extractor in water. The
capsule is then capped, and holding it by the left hand it is immediately

MANAGEMENT OF THE BROOD MARE

47

inserted into the uterus of the mare ready for insemination. This is
repeated until all the mares have been treated.

To avoid danger from kicks, Carlson8 advises that the left foot of the
mare be held up while the operation goes on, while Riley83 suggests that
the mare be hobbled, adding that the tail be bandaged to eliminate at¬
tendant inconvenience when the hairs are in the way.

Lewis80 states that a vigorous stallion is capable of ejaculating as
much as from fifty to one hundred cubic centimeters of semen in one
service, containing from one hundred and fifty thousand to two hundred
and fifty thousand spermatozoa per cubic millimeter. There may be as
many as twenty -five billion of the sperm cells in the semen from one
service. These would give an idea of the potentiality a stallion has in
procreating its kind when artificial insemination is practiced. And ac¬
cording to Brown84 instead of the 50 or 60% of foals begotten by the
natural method of breeding the stallioner may raise this to 80-80% when
artificial insemination is adopted.

Lewis88 through his experiment, brings out interesting results as re¬
gards the number and vitality of the sperm cells in the course of natural
matings. A draft stallion was used and it was found that at the begin¬
ning of the experiment there were present in the semen 131,000 sperm
cells per cubic millimeter with vitality lasting over nine hours. At the
end of 9 days, allowing the stallion one service daily, the sperm cells per
cubic millimeter was found reduced to 5,800, the vitality lasting for only
three hours.

With regard to the practicability of transferring semen for long dis¬
tances, it is worthy of note that Johnstone8 succeeded in inseminating
a female burro, carrying the capsule filled with semen from a Shetland
pony from a distance of forty feet. The burro successfully produced a

hinny.

In concluding the subject of artificial insemination, the following
“don’ts” formulated by Riley83 will not be amiss:

“1. Don’t expect much, if any, success in artificial breeding unless
you practice care, cleanliness, and sanitation.

“2. Don’t allow direct sunlight, cold air, dust, dirt, or disinfectants
to come in contact with semen.

“3. Don’t allow water in which instruments or semen is placed to be¬
come warmer than 100 degrees or colder than 95 degrees.

“4. Don’t breed a stallion to a mare showing symptoms of disease.
If you breed her, use a capsule.

“5. Don’t breed mares that are very warm, tired, or excited, until
after they have been cooled off and rested.

“6. Don’t give mares violent exercise immediately after breeding.

“7. Don’t be disappointed if you meet with a few failures — they come
in nearly all lines of work.”

8. Feeding

Kennedy81 states that the brood mare during the breeding season does
not only have to do regular work, but besides she is putting herself
in condition for breeding, suckling her colt or developing a fetus. So
the carbohydrates needed for the work and protein and ash for other
demands just mentioned must be met with by a comparatively large
supply of these substances. It is advocated that the feed consist of
oats balanced with oil meal or bran, and sound clover or alfalfa hay for
roughage.

According to a table presented by Carlson8, range feeding proves to
be the best system in carrying through brood mares, as far as the per¬
centage of foals obtained is concerned. Feeding on grass during the
summer and alfalfa in winter shows up high, ranking second to range

48

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

feeding. The percentage of foals begotten through this method of feed¬
ing is even higher than other means in which some sort of grain or
grain combinations are used. Mares fed with o.ats and bran for con¬
centrate lead the grain-fed lots with the oat-fed individuals coming next.
While corn may be used when balanced with bran, clover, alfalfa, or othei
feed, yet, in comparison with lots in which oats take the place of corn,
the corn-fed animals show the lowest in percentage of foals produced.

Johnstone6 believes in providing the brood mares with grain during
the winter. Oats and bran is considered the best combination, about
one-fourth or one:third bran by weight. This should rather be fed dry.
Corn may also be used provided that it is used with clover hay. For
hay, clover or alfalfa hay mixed with an equal quantity of timothy or
prairie hay is recommended. But spoiled or dusty hay should be avoided.
Oat hay is also considered palatable and beneficial, while cured corn
fodder, if to be used, should have been procured from stalks cut when
quite green so as to make them more easily digestible and more nutriti¬
ous. During the cold season from the beginning of winter till the middle
of January, sorghum is said to give good results. At other times,
sorghum as well as millet and Hungarian hay are all condemned as horse
feed.

Other feeds such as carrots, sugar beets or rutabagas, according to
Johnstone,6 are excellent for brood mares in winter. As soon as the
mares get accustomed to these they may be given as much as about
seven or eight pounds per head daily. Silage is disliked as a feed and
if it is ever to be used the amount should be small and the quality good
for moldy silage, says Johnstone, will surely kill the horse.

Johnstone6 advises feeding the mare two or three times a day. This
does not only apply to grain feeding but also with respect to hay. It is
desired that enough hay be fed each time so that all is cleaned at each
feeding. The same combination of feeds as above mentioned should ap¬
ply equally well in feeding working mares.

On this subject Henry and Morrison63 writes: “Mares used for breed¬
ing purposes do well without grain when on nutritious pasture. With
insufficient pasture and in winter some grain should be given. The feed
should not be concentrated in character, but should have considerable
bulk or volume. The bowels should be kept active through a proper
combination of such feeds as bran, linseed meal, roots, etc.”

Stericker82 believes that pasture, if in sufficient quantity, should be
nutritious enough and plenty for brood mares, although it is advisable
to give them some grain by the time they are about to be bred, at which
period they must be gaining in flesh.

Gelder8 advises the feeding of the brood mare in the same manner as
that of the gelding during the first six months of pregnancy. Later she
may be fed nitrogenous and mineral feeds. A combination of crushed
oats and corn together with wheat bran for a concentrate is recommended,
and for roughage clover or mixed hay but not too much alfalfa, is to be
given. To keep the bowels loose a handful of oil meal once a day is
advocated. Precautions are to be remembered in the way of giving ice
cold water late in pregnancy, as well as the effect of costive feeds or
strong purgatives.

Carter87 dwells more at length on the care of brood mares in foal, say¬
ing that there is not any more important time in the raising of horses
than this phase of the work. Carter writes: “A mare should be pre¬
pared for breeding for it is not wise, I find, and sometimes impossible
to breed her when she is out of condition and her blood is heated. It
may be necessary to start preparing the mare for the stud two months
before the time she is to be bred. To obtain the desired condition, I
feed a cool laxative ration of bran and ground oats and some roots, pre¬
ferably raw carrots. Boiled oats have proven even better than ground

MANAGEMENT OF THE BROOD MARE

49

oats but it is not always possible to prepare them this way. I feed
equal parts of ground oats and bran or if the oats are boiled I use equal
parts before boiling ... I believe that ground oats are two or
three times as valuable for feeding as whole oats, for there is much less
waste and all the grain is digested, which is not the case when the whole
oats are fed. A pint of oil meal a day should be included in the mare’s-
ration to keep her blood cool. This ration is only necessary before she can
be turned out to pasture. Grass is the best food to put a mare in
condition and three weeks on grass should put her in excellent shape
to breed.”

Sellers’s87 dictum on the feeding of the brood mare is as follows: “Be¬
fore service, she should be well fed and regularly exercised for several
months. She should be healthy and vigorous. A few weeks before ser¬
vice, take the raw oats away from her. If on dry feed, give her scalded
bran, a few boiled oats, or carrots. If on grass, this alone will cool her
blood, and she will conceive much easier or sooner. After service,
comes a critical period in the life of the young foal. If the mare is al¬
lowed a full drink of cold, especially ice cold water, at this time, you will
not, at all likely, have a foal from that service. Always take the chill
off the drinking water for several days after service ... As soon as
she proves in foal, the regular allowance of grain can be resumed, and
the mare is all the better of being worked or exercised moderately
right along, until within a short time of her foaling.”

For the nursing mare Sanders46 states that wheat bran is a very valu¬
able feed when given in conjunction with more nutritious feeds. This
may be turned into slop and fed with ground oats or rye together with
cut hay or sheaf oats. Or, whatever grain feed is to be used Sanders
emphasized the importance of grinding it and feeding it wet, with cut
straw or hay. A good supply of fresh grass is claimed to furnish health¬
fulness and nutrition to the body.

Sanders46 makes the remarks that “it is the general opinion of those
who have given close attention that mares, when first turned to grass,
after having been kept stabled and on dry feed for a considerable period,
are not so likely to get in foal as those that have been on grass for
some time previous to service by the stallion; or as those that are not on
grass at all. The theory is that turning mares to grass produces, for a
time, a sort of general muscular relaxation, or softening, that is not
favorable to conception. That mares which had been kept stabled pre¬
vious to being sent to the stallion should be kept on dry food for at
least four weeks after the service. If the mare has been kept on grass
let her so remain for at least a month; if she has been kept stabled and
in idleness let her remain so a few weeks; if she has been worked con¬
tinue to work her moderately . . . These directions apply only to

such mares as have not proved hitherto barren. In case a mare has been
served repeatedly, and has failed to conceive, a radical change in food
and management may bring about the desired result.”

According to Roberts59 the ration for mares doing heavy work should
be rather wide, say one to seven, or one to eight. But as the time of
parturition comes near, when the work is accordingly lessened, the ra¬
tion should be made narrower, or one to six. In feeding nursing dams the
ration should be narrow, about one to five. It is indicated, however, that
the ratio should be made wider if the temperature in the stables is low.
The ratio recommended in this case may be one to seven or one to
eight. During any time, whether the mare is nursing or not, the mare
should be supplied with some succulent feeds, preferably carrots. Other
feeds such as matured apples, potatoes, and sound corn silage may be
used in limited amounts. For roughage, bright clover and timothy hay,
mixed, is recommended. Roberts59 prescribes a ration for a nursing
mare weighing 1100 pounds while the foal is still subsisting entirely on

50

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

her milk, thus: mixed hay — 15 pounds; wheat bran (or its equivalent) —
5 pounds; oats — 5 pounds; carrots — 8 pounds. It is pointed out that
the more the percentage of clover in the liay the better. And too, it
is suggested that cracked corn may be substituted for a portion of the
oat constitiuents. The carrots included in the ration are to stimulate milk
secretion and to help tone up the healthfulness of both dam and foal.

Dimon40 advocates the following practice in treating doubtful mares:
The mares are turned into grass for a few weeks without grain, after
which they are fed grain and worked lightly until the season comes
when they are bred. It is claimed that mares turned to grass after
breeding or those always having the run of grass would not so likely
conceive as those treated by the method just discussed.

Evidently the practice in the British Isles, as Murray77 asserts, is to
turn the mare and foal out in the pasture till weaning time, or at the
end of September or early in October. This is done soon after foaling.

Axe38 says that mares would subsist well and produce well-developed
foals when pastured on sufficient good grass. This, however, would not
be enough during unfavorable weather, or when pastures are otherwise
poor. In such cases, hay and oats are to be furnished, especially in the
morning. It is claimed that for pregnant mares oats and hay are con¬
sidered best feeds, while for farm in-foal mares that are worked mashed
or bruised oats or barley mixed with pulped roots and chopped hay or
straw dampened with linseed-cake water are indicated. Maize is dis¬
favored. But the mare is never to be allowed fat, instead she must be
maintained in a moderate condition, whether she is working or not.

For feeding the suckling mare Axe38 writes: “In the loose box, good
hay and a small allowance of crushed oats two or three times a day
should be given; and if grass is not available, and especially if the mare
does not furnish a sufficient supply of milk, mashes of boiled barley or
oats, to which coarse sugar or treacle has been added, may be allowed
frequently, and with great advantage. Crushed oats is especially to be
recommended for the mare when the foal is a few weeks old, as the foal
begins to nibble at and soon to eat them, and thus to prepare itself in
the best way for being weaned, while this addition to its food will greatly
tend to its robustness and development.”

In the Palo Alto Farm89 the suckling mares are run to grass and fed
hay for roughage, while for their grain feed they get, night and morning,
steamed or cooked food, either oats or barley. Carrots are also given.

Hughes90 gives a few combinations of grain for brood mares, as follows:

1. Corn, 4 parts; oats, 4 parts; bran, 2 parts.

2. Corn, 7 parts; bran, 2 parts; linseed oil meal, 1 part.

3. Corn, 8 parts; linseed oil meal, 1 part.

For roughage, good quality of clover or alfalfa, or timothy and clover
mixed are recommended.

For feeding suckling mares, Ogilvie91 recommends oats and bran in
equal bulk together with corn to the amount of about one-fourth the
bulk. This should be dampened before feeding. While in regard to
feeding mares that are not worked during the winter Ogilvie writes:
“Ensilage is too much of a laxative to be adopted as a daily ration for
mares with foal. Dry corn stalks will have the opposite effect on them.
Both conditions are equally injurious to the prospective mother. One
feed of corn stalks, and one of hay with access to a rack kept well filled
with fresh straw, with a few ears of corn daily, will prove an economical
as well as a safe way of feeding mares that are not in the harness during
the winter season.” On the other hand, if the mares are being worked
oats and corn together with wheat bran for grain and hay for roughage
are considered a satisfactory and safe ration.

Jordan92 states that a good pasture would be an efficient source of feed
for the nursing mare; however, should the grass be insufficient or other-

51

MANAGEMENT OF THE BROOD MARE

wise inferior supplementary feeds are indicated. These include among
the grains such feedstuffs as barley, oats, wheat, wheat bran, wheat
middlings, peas, and also a little of linseed meal. Soiling-crops especial¬
ly alfalfa, if available, are also recommended, and if the roughages fed
consist of legumes, green or dried, corn could be used to form the larger
percentage of the ration. Under average conditions, Jordan recommends
a grain mixture consisting of cracked corn 2 parts, wheat bran 7 parts,
and linseed meal 1 part. Another formula advocated includes ground
oats 4 parts, wheat middlings 5 parts, and linseed meal 1 part.

McCampbell6’ gives five feed mixtures for the working brood mares as
follows:

1. Corn, 8 parts; bran, 1 part; alfalfa hay.

2. Oats; alfalfa hay.

3. Oats, 4 parts; corn, 6 parts; bran, 4 parts; prairie or timothy hay.

4. Corn, 6 parts; bran, 3 parts; alfalfa hay, onejthird; prairie hay,
two-thirds.

5. Corn, 6 parts; bran, 3 parts; linseed meal, 1 part; prairie hay or
timothy hay.

9. Housing and Care

Carlson'’ recalls the practices of early settlers of this country by which
mares and horses were sheltered in cheaply constructed stables, where the
question of ventilation was not thought of on account of sufficient openings
being provided. Mares of those days are said to be more fecund, and such
consequential ailments as colds, coughs, and influenza were then unknown.
Williams48 claims even that pregnant animals are healthiest if grazed in
pastures under the most natural environment. In fact, he says, “rain,
snow, cold, or heat is not more prejudicial to the well-being of a pregnant
animal than to that of a non-pregnant one.” That this is possible is
substantiated by Smith.49 Smith49 discusses the behavior and adaptabil¬
ity of horses to external envioronment in the following mnaner: “The
young of the horse comes into the world prepared by its heat-regulating
mechanism to deal with the question of external temperature, and as
time goes on this is supplemented by an extra growth of hair for winter
use and a lighter covering for the summer. If no interference with the
coat be practiced it is undoubted that no extra covering of any kind is
required during the coldest weather, and even where the natural cover¬
ing is of the lightest . . . it is sufficient for the purpose. The thor¬

oughbred mares of this country once they go to the stud, live in the open
for the remainder of their lives, and never wear a blanket. And practic¬
al experience tells us that this may be gradually imposed on all horses
with impunity, even those which have been kept in hot stables.” This
method of handling has the added advantage in that “coughs, cold, and
inflammatory chest affections, usually attributed to cold, are practically
unknown among horses living in the open, even during the coldest
weather, and it is easy to show that these diseases are largely the result
of the artificial conditions under which working horses have to live.”
But Carlson6 advises that an open shed be constructed wherein the
mares may take refuge during stormy days. On the same ground, John¬
stone5 recommends the construction of a similar shed, which should not
only be airy but dark. Besides the protection it will give the horses
during stormy weather, it will also serve as a refuge to resort to in
summer time when flies are bothersome. Or else, if sheds are not to be
had on the pasture when flies are abundant it is advised to take the
mares during the daytime into the barn and turn them out to pasture
in the night. Carlson6 says that mares to be worked during winter
should be housed at night.

Roberts59 desires that the mare and foal be turned out in the field

52

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

or paddock a few hours each day in the winter whenever the weather
permits, and during summer they may be turned out at night after get¬
ting their grain ration in the stable.

According to Henry and Morrison511 the mares laid off from work should
be kept in roomy, well-lighted, well-ventilated boxstalls with wide door¬
way and plenty of bedding.

10. Exercise

Williams48 points out that pregnant females that are given freedom
and securing natural exercise get by without difficulty or danger. Second
to this, he considers it a good practice to work the pregnant mare reg¬
ularly, but the work must be gentle. Carter87 believes, too, in imposing
.labor on the mare which must be light for about the last month of
pregnancy, and holds that the mare must have complete rest seven days
before parturition. Sanders40 says that mares could be worked up safely
to the time of foaling, if proper care is maintained, but as parturition
comes near the pace should be slower and the weight lighter. Wallace43
likewise advises the working of mares, as for example, plowing, but she
should not be placed between the shafts, which might prove dangerous
as the belly increases in size during pregnancy. Henry and Morrison63
say that mares being worked are more certain in producing good foals
than the idle individuals. It is suggested that pregnant mares be worked
up to 3 days to a week before foaling, but the work should be lighter as
pregnancy advances. While working the five-year-old (or over) mares
is advised, yet in the case of the two-year-olds they should rather be
allowed to graze during the summer months (Biddell, Douglas, Dykes,
Fleming, Macneilage, Murray, Trotter).82 Axe38 believes in working
the mares up to three or four weeks before foaling. Gay4 speaks of
giving work to the mare, which should, however, be so regulated that the
mare is not tired, overheated, or otherwise injured. Precautionary
measures are advanced as foaling time comes near so that the mare is
not fretted by another horse or rough hand, nor should she be pulled
in a jerky or heavy manner. Also avoid extreme speed, rough saddle
handling and jumping. While work is advantageous to the mare yet,
as has been pointed out, to work her up to within a month of foaling
and the confining in a stall without exercise is considered almost as
bad as to work her hard at the end of two months’ rest after conception.
Johnstone5 is of the opinion that the mare be worked up to within ten
days of her foaling time but the work must be steady and the mare should
not be made to back a load.

11. Signs of Pregnancy

Under this caption it is important to include a detailed and lengthy
treatise presented by an obstetrist Williams.48 He entitles the subject “The
Diagnosis of Pregnancy,” under which the following paragraphs are
quoted:

“The diagnosis of pregnancy during its early stages is difficult, and
during the very earliest period is impossible. The symptoms of preg¬
nancy are divided into three principal groups, the subjective, or physio¬
logic signs; the objective signs; and the positive or direct signs, which
are observed by examination of the parts in a way to determine definite¬
ly the presence of the fetus of the fetal sac, or of some other structure
indicative of the presence of a fetus.

“When an animal has been regularly in estrum and after copulation
estrum does not occur, it is generally and properly accepted by the breed¬
er as conclusive evidence of conception. The cessation of estrum as a
sign of pregnancy is most reliable in those animals in which estrum
has been regular and normal.

MANAGEMENT OF THE BROOD MARE

53

“Estrum may occur regularly or irregularly in . . . mares which

are pregnant, most commonly in early pregnancy, but not rarely after
mid-term, so that the veterinarian must be constantly on his guard in
examining such animals and must rely upon other signs to arrive at a
safe conclusion.

“Estrum is frequently absent in non-pregnant female. The persistence
of corpus luteum, sometimes of a former pregnancy, may inhibit estrum
for months. It is only rarely, if ever, that estrum occurs when a large
corpus lutem exists.

“Pyrometra also prevents estrum. At times the presence of a very
small amount of pus in the uterine cavity may prevent estrum for months
or years. In such cases the yellow body sinks deeply into the center
of the ovary, the ovarian tissues draw over it, and it remains as a per¬
sistent structure, which by failing to atrophy prevents the occurrence of
estrum. The presence of a macerating or a dessiccating fetus in utero
ordinarily inhibits estrum for months or years.

“The Uterine Seal. In the non-pregnant animal there is a normal
secretion of lubricant mucus in small amounts. When estrum occurs,
the volume of mucus becomes enormously increased and it flows from the
vulva. When pregnancy occurs, the mucus of the vagina is decreased in
amount, ceases to be lubricant, and becomes adhesive. A new type of
secretion takes place in the cervical canal, having the character of a
tough gelatin rather than mucus. This fills all the depressions in the
very irregular cervical canal and becomes massed in a firm body from
one end of the cervical canal to the other, completely filling it and pro¬
jecting forward into the uterine cavity and backward into the vagina.
The uterine seal, which is highly adhesive, brings about a most thorough
and efficient sealing of the canal. As a general rule the seal can be
palpated at the external os uteri of the mare . . . with the finger

tip within thirty to sixty days after conception. The finger is to be
pressed carefully and gently against the external os uteri and then
cautiously withdrawn; if the seal is present it is readily revealed by its
adhesiveness.

“Very rarely this seal, or a substnace closely resembling it is found
in the cervical canal of the non-pregnant animal and may mislead the
observer. Sometimes when the animal is pregnant, the seal is partly
or wholly absent. Such is the case in purulent inflammation of the
cervical canal. In some animals which are to abort as a result of
cervicitis the seal is not formed, or the formation is very imperfect.
Consequently the presence of the typical seal not only gives evidence of
pregnancy, but adds to that a certain feeling of security, suggesting
that the animal not only is pregnant, but perhaps is safely pregnant
. . . it is one of the most valuable signs of pregnancy.

“ Palpitation of the Uterus per Rectum . This is one of the most valuable
means. After conception the uterus undergoes prompt and marked
changes in volume, form, consistence, and location.

“. . . In pregnancy the uterus is smooth and even in outline, firm,

tense and fluctuating ... In the mare owing to the crucial uterus,
the embryo may develop transversely in both horns, resulting in equal
volume. At the region of the internal os uteri the superior uterine wall
rises up suddenly like a terrace, instead of sloping forward gradually as
is observed in case of pus or lymph distending the organ. The firmness
of the uterine wall is in marked contrast also to the character of the
walls when the organ is distended with pus or lymph. In pregnancy the
uterus is distinctly firm. It exhibits to the touch a sense of vigor and
life. When lymph distends the uterus, the walls may be thin as in
pregnancy, but they are soft and placid and the horns are probably
equally filled. When the organ is distended with pus, the contents do
not move as freely as the fetal liquids. The uterine walls are soft and

54

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

flabby with a moderate amount of thickening, or they are tense and at
some place an abscess of the uterus may point, or the organ is very
dense, with thick, hard walls.

“As pregnancy advances, additional evidences appear. The organ be¬
comes very greatly enlarged, the walls are tense and the fetal fluids are
quite readily recognized as such . . . The fetus becomes increas¬
ingly easy of recognition as pregnancy advances. In some cases, how¬
ever, both fetus and uterus fall forward into the abdomen and may be
beyond the reach of the examiner. In such cases there is still good evi¬
dences of pregnancy. The vagina is drawn far forward, the cervix has
been dragged anterior to the pubis, and the posterior end of the uterus
constitutes a large, thick, firmly stretched band passing downward and
forward beyond the examiner’s reach. This of itself does not indicate
pregnancy with absolute certainty, because the same displacement of
the uterus might occur from the presence of large uterine tumors or
from other pathologic conditions which would cause an increased weight
of the organ, possibly dragging it downward and forward. In this
emergency, however, other signs appear to aid the examiner in makng
his diagnosis. As a general rule in such cases, the diagnosis can be
verified by abdominal ballotement, and also by palpation of the enormous¬
ly enlarged uterine arteries.

“ Palpation of the Fetus per Vaginum or per Rectum. When pregnancy
is well advanced, the fetus . . . may usually be felt upon rectal pal¬

pation, though not always in early pregnancy. Up to the fourth month,
the fetus ordinarily lies upon the floor of the uterus and cannot, without
undue violence, be palpated through its surrounding fluids. Even at the
fifth or sixth month, or later, the fetus may have dropped so far forward
and downward in the abdominal cavity that it cannot be palpated from
the rectum. Later, however, the fetus becomes so large that a portion of
it necessarily projects up near or into the pelvis, where it is readily felt.
Palpation of the fetus per vaginum has a very limited application. It
generally succeeds during the last months of pregnancy. At this time
in many cases, some portions of the fetal body, usually the head and the
two anterior feet, rest upon the vagina posterior to the os uteri esternum,
occasionally giving the inexperienced examiner the impression of extra-
uterine pregnancy.

“ Abdominal Ballotement. After the sixth month of pregnancy, the
buttocks or other portions of the fetus usually lie in close contact with
the abdominal floor of the lower right flank regions. If the hand is
placed firmly against the abdominal wall, a somewhat vigorous thrust
made upward, and then suddenly the force released, but the hand kepi
in contact with the abdominal wall, the adjacent portion of the fetus is
pushed away upwards in its fluids, floats for a moment, and then drops
back against the examiner’s hand with a recognized impact. This is a
good sign of pregnancy, but not always reliable. In many cases no por¬
tion of the fetus chances to lie in sufficiently close contact with the ab¬
dominal wall to render the test efficient. On the other hand a tumor or
a very large and heavy calculus might mislead the examiner when the
animal is really sterile.

“ Auscultation of the Fetal Heart. In the advanced stage of pregnancy
it is frequently possible, by careful auscultation of the abdominal walls
over the region of the fetus, to detect the beat of the fetal heart, which
is usually at least twice as rapid as the beat of the maternal heart.

“The abdominal ballotement and the ausculation of the fetal heart are
of minor value, because when these can be successfully applied the
other signs which have been enumerated above should already have
decided the question long before these signs, however good they may be,
can come into play.

“The physical diagnosis of pregnancy is not dependent upon any one

MANAGEMENT OF THE BROOD MARE

55

sign, but rather upon a summary of all signs, all of which are in close
accord and are available to the careful examiner. They should always
be considered individually, and later collectively.

"Other Signs of Minor Value. One of the commonest physical signs of
pregnancy is a change in the volume and form of the abdomen. During
the early months, the apparent increase in the volume of the abdomen
must be due to an increased volume of fat or of internal contents, since
the actual increase in the size of the gravid uterus is not sufficient to
bring about any visible changes. Later, this change in volume becomes
more marked and there ensues also some degree of change in form, which
helps to distinguish the enlargement of pregnancy from other abdominal
enlargement.

“The pregnant uterus, having a very high specific gravity, drops di¬
rectly upon the abdominal floor and bears it down, causing the abdomen
to enlarge chiefly in the lower part, while the upper portion apparently
sinks somewhat. It is not reliable, however, although important.

“The enlargement of the mammae normally begins quite early during
pregnancy in primipara; on animals which have produced young several
times the glands do not ordinarily show signs of enlargement until to¬
ward the close of gestation. The enlargement of 'the mammae is not,
however, a trustworthy sign of pregnancy. In some animals the glands
fail to enlarge to any appreciable degree and, after parturition, fail to
furnish milk for the nutrition of the young. This is especially observed
in old mares which have been bred for the first time.”

Harper,03 writing on this subject, says:

“The first sign of pregnancy upon which reliance is placed is the
cessation of the periods of heat. During this period the female persist¬
ently refuses the attention of the male.

“A second sign of pregnancy is the tendency of females to take on
fat, which is often very marked during the early stages of gestation.
Later, the abdomen enlarges, due to the developing fetus, and the preg¬
nant animal becomes very clumsy, and is often incapable of performing
certain movements.

“A third sign of pregnancy is the development of the milk-secreting
organs. In the case of young females with their first pregnancy this be¬
gins early in the period of gestation although among older animals it is
not so apparent until later in the period. The development of the mam¬
mae or milk organs is not a sure sign of pregnancy, as in some animals
the glands fail to enlarge, and after parturition fail to secrete milk. This
is particularly true of old mares which have been bred for the first time.

“A fourth and positive sign of pregnancy is the movements of the
living fetus. This is readily observed in mares where the strength and
size of the fetus are sufficient to bring about vigorous movements. Such
movements cannot be observed until rather late in the period of preg¬
nancy. While there is no safe or reliable method for inducing the move¬
ments, they frequently can be noted while the mother is drinking, par¬
ticularly in the morning.”

According to Carlson0 the most significant among the signs of preg¬
nancy is the cessation or non-recurrent heat periods. This, however,
is not to be relied upon at all times. As a rule, too, if the mare refuses
the stallion in 30 days after service, she is most likely in foal. There
are other signs that may indicate pregnancy. Mares that are naturally
vicious and excitable become gentle and docile if conception took place
after service. Fleshing, loss of energy, or indisposition for work are
also signs of pregnancy. Carlson considers the nature of the color of
the vulva and vagina as the most reliable sign. These organs are
normally pale rose or pink in color but with pregnant mares the color
gradually becomes darker until the third month when they turn bluish-
red. The fetus begins to move in about five and a half months after con-

56

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

ception and from the seventh month and on till foaling time the move¬
ment of the fetus may be discerned by pressing the hand into the abdo¬
men in front of the stifle and then removing it suddenly. Internal ex¬
amination is condemned.

Kennedy01 describes the changes occuring in a pregnant mare, thus:
“The first signs of pregnancy, and the one which is used in breeding
mares, is the absence of the usual heat period. When a mare becomes
pregnant, the usual periods of heat do not appear, and the mouth of the
womb becomes closed. As the pregnancy advances, the mare usually
becomes quieter, has a tendency to take on fat, is cross toward other
horses, has somewhat fuller flanks, and there is a general contraction
of the vulva. In the more advanced stages the belly becomes more
pendulous, the udder develops, and a jerking movement of the foetus is
often noticed, especially after the mare has taken a drink of cold water.”

12. Gestation Period

Williams48 writes on the gestation period of the mare as follows: “As
a general rule, the duration of pregnancy in the mare is about 12 lunar,
or a trifle over 11 calendar months, or about 330 to 340 days. Bonnet
gives HVz to 12 lunar months (322 to 336 days) as the normal. Detrichs,
among 500 observations, found that 80 per cent of mares foaled between
331 and 350 days. Count Lehndorff . . . gives a table of more than

8,300 records, in which the average duration of pregnancy was 11 months
and 3 days. Statistics show that, in various studs, the male foals were
carried from one-half to 6 or 8 days longer than the female. There are
great variations of opinion by different writers in reference to the normal
duration of pregnancy. Some consider normal a birth which occurs
at from 300 days, or 10 calendar months, to 365 or more days and some
even extend the limit to 394 or even to 420 days, as in a case given by
Baumeister and Rueff.

“Saint-Cyr concludes that the normal duration of gestation in the
mare is 340 to 350 days. Some may be born alive, and continue to live,
from the 300th day forward. It is not rare for foals to be borne up to
nearly 365 days. Rarely, normal gestation may be prolonged to 400
days, or even 13 months. In would seem, therefore, that there may be
a variation in the period of gestation in the mare of about 100 days, or
more than 3 months, and that we apparently have no means for deter¬
mining in advance at what time a mare will foal, except that, in a gen¬
eral way, we may expect the vast majority of births to take place be¬
tween 11 and IIV2 calendar months.

A client, engaged in breeding pedigreed French draft horses, found
that, in 55 mares, the average duration of pregnancy was 336 days.
Among the thirteen pregnancies in one year, the average was 333 days —
the longest 364 days, a mare foal, and the shortest 318 days, a horse foal.
The shortest duration recorded by him was 298 days, a mare foal.”

According to Henry and Morrison50 “The average period of gestation
for the mare is about 11 months, or 340 days, tho it may vary quite
widely. William Russel Allen of Allen farm, Pittsfield, Massachusetts,
from records of 1,071 foals produced by trotting mares during 15 years,
found the maximum gestation period 373, the minimum 319, and the
average 340. A wider range was observed by Tessier, who reports that
the shortest gestation period of 582 mares was 287, the longest 419, and
the average, 330 days.”

In an investigation carried on by Harper94 the gestation period of the
mare, basing the data from 82 parturitions, ranges from 316 to 361 days,
or an average of 333 days. The period varied from 317 to 361 days, or 335
days average, for male foals, and from 316 to 357 days, or 331 days
average, for females. Together with the above figures data were ob-

MANAGEMENT OF THE BROOD MARE

57

tained from observations on 171 other mares. It was found from these
that the period fluctuates from 314 to 364 days or an average of 335 days
— 317 to 364 days, or 336 days average, for males, and 314 to 361, or 335
days average, for females. Harper asserts that although the male foals
bear gestation figures a little longer than those of females yet this is
not always true. It is claimed that in some years the variation is re¬
versed. From the above figures the gestation period may be inferred
to be approaching 11 months or slightly short of 340 days.

13. Signs of Parturition

To get a full detailed understanding of the signs of parturition Will¬
iams’s48 account on the subject is set forth: “Preliminary to the comple¬
tion of pregnancy there appear certain signs which indicate, with more
or less certainty, the near approach of labor.

“One of the most conspicious of these is the increased functional
activity of the milk glands. In all domestic animals there is a tendency
for the glands to become gradually enlarged and tense as the period for
giving birth to young approaches. The date at which this enlargement
appears varies: It occurs earlier in primiparae than in those which have
previously given birth to young. Usually a few weeks before birth there
appears in the udder at first a water secretion, which may be passed
from the teat, but which bears only a faint resemblance to milk. Later
the secretion becomes more milk-like and assumes the characters of colos¬
trum. When parturition is near, the milk secretion may be so profuse,
especially in the mare, that it escapes from the teats in drops or in
streams. This sign may, however, be very miselading. Sometimes, on
the other hand, almost no milk is secreted prior to parturition and the
glands are only slightly enlarged. Such is especially the case in very
old mares which have been bred for the first time.

“Another symptom of approaching birth, which is important, is the
preparation which is taking place in the vagina and the vulva. The
vulvar lips become somewhat thickened and edematous and tend to stand
apart more loosely than ordinarily. From the vulva there generally ap¬
pears, a more or less abundant discharge of a thick, lubricant mucus.
Part of the mucus emanates from the glands in the vaginal mucosa, part
from the voluminous uterine seal, and part apparently from the exalted
secretion of the mucous glands in the cervix. If the lips of the vulva are
parted, there is observed an injection of the mucosa.

“As the time for birth draws near, certain psychic signs are observed.
The animal seems to be somewhat disturbed and anxious. She exhibits
some desire to withdraw from her usual associates. She moves slowly
and cautiously. There may be interruptions in feeding suggesting that
uterine contractions are taking place . . . Sometimes the advent of

the uterine contractions is suggested by the appearance of slight colic, ac¬
companied by occasional pawing or lying down. The mare may show
evidence of pain by whisking the tail. Finally the pregnant animal, if at
liberty, tends to withdraw from other animals of her own or other
species and seeks a quiet and secluded place, where she may bring forth
her young without disturbance or annoyance.”

According to Carlson,6 the approach of parturition is evinced in most
cases “by the enlargement of the vulva, the falling in of the muscles
about the croup (relaxation), and the filling of the udder and teats. A
day or two before parturition the teats show a waxy substance at their
ends, and frequently there is a flow of milk. At last the mare usually
becomes uneasy, stops feeding, and sometimes she will be down and
rise again for several times. In many mares this is not repeated, but
the mare remains down.”

Kennedy61 advises that the mare be watched even as early as the tenth

58

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

month of gestation period, because foaling time is uncertain in mares.
Some of the signs of the coming parturition, according to him, are: “The
udder becomes greatly distended some time before foaling, but the teats
very seldom fill out full and plump to the end more than a few days
before the foal is born. In most mares the vulva enlarges, and a redden¬
ing of the lining of the vagina is noticed immediately prior to parturi¬
tion. There is also a marked falling away and depression of the rump
muscles about a week before the time. About twenty-four hours before
foaling a clear wax forms on the end of the nipple. This wax is often
confused with that formed from the colostrum which escapes from the
udder so care is needed in distinguishing it. Immediately prior to time
of parturition, the mare will usually show some nervousness and if with
other stock, a desire to be left alone.”

14. Management of Normal Parturition

To gain full insight into the different steps involved in the management
of normal parturition as well as the different changes and problems con¬
fronting the attendant during the act, it is again deemed fitting to refer
to Williams’s48 lengthy presentation on the subject. Thus, he writes: “In
order to secure the required degree of cleanliness, [the mare] . . .

should receive prior to parturition, a thorough bath with soap and warm
water, to which is added a reliable antiseptic. The vagina and vulva
should be thoroughly douched with warm physiologic salt solution, to
which a mild antiseptic may be added. The tail, buttocks and udder
should be thoroughly disinfected prior to the birth of the young, and again
immediately after birth before the young is permitted to suck.

“Some writers claim that the mother should be able to get the fetus at
once, in order to release it from its membranes, but . . . it is doubt¬
ful that the . . . mare ever saves the life of her fetus by quickly
removing the fetal membranes from its nostrils so as to permit it to
breathe. Admittedly, it is important that the mother be allowed to
cleanse her fetus thoroughly by licking it as soon as she has recovered
from the exhaustion of labor. An attendant equipped with dry
towels may, however, rub a fetus dry. In tuberculosis, it is even better
that the dam shall not lick the fetus, lest she infect it, e. g., in the navel
stump. Shavings are the most nearly aseptic bedding available for
animals.

“Some animals . . . become very nervous or even frantic when re¬

moved from their •companions and placed in a strange stall. This should
be avoided.

“The best place in which a herbivorous animal may give birth to young
is the open field or pasture, if the weather will permit.

“The watch upon an animal should therefore be barely sufficient to
guard against any serious accident.

“It is a general rule . . . that a veterinarian never saves the life

of a foal in a case of dystocia, so abrupt is the labor in the mare and so
quickly does the foal perish because of the early separation between the
fetal and maternal placentae. Therefore it is highly important that the
owner or caretaker of breeding mares should be competent to give first
aid in cases of parturition, and it is a part of the duty of the veterinary
obstetrist to instruct the owners of such animals, so far as may be prac¬
ticable, in these matters.

“In some cases an extremity becomes pushed up against the roof of the
vagina and into the rectum, so that a portion of the fetus may begin to
protrude through the anus, still covered by the vaginal roof and rectal
floor. If the owner promptly pushes these parts back and directs them
properly in the genital passage, birth occurs safely, and perhaps a living
foal is produced, but a few minutes’ delay leads to the rupture of the

MANAGEMENT OF THE BROOD MARE

59

perineum and the virtual destruction of the value of the mare. In an¬
other case a fetus presents almost normally, but the nose or a foot be¬
comes impacted against or caught upon the pelvic girdle. If the owner
intelligently releases the part and gives it proper direction, the foal is
born alive without further difficulty, but if it is allowed to go without
this slight aid until a veterinarian arrives the deviation of the part has
become magnified, the life of the foal has been sacrificed, and that of the
mare more or less seriously endangered.

“In the mare the duration of labor is usually but a few minutes.

“When a fetus presents posteriorly . . . it is essential to hasten its

expulsion as soon as the body has advanced far enough into the canal
that the umbilic cord is engaged, and •compressed between the fetal body
and the pubic brim of the mother. In managing such a case, the advance¬
ment of the fetus should be very deliberate until the buttocks of the
young animal have appeared at the vulva and have passed through it,
thus dilating normally the entire length of the passage. Then, when the
critical moment has arrived, the fetus should be promptly and carefully
withdrawn in order that it may not be suffocated.

“When the fetal fluids are fetid, there is no longer reason for doubt
that the fetus is dead, though admittedly the line of demarcation between
a non-fetid and a fetid state of the fetal fluids is not always easily drawn.
Any active movements of the fetus establish clearly that it is living.

“When the fetus presents anteriorly, with the head protruded through
the vulva, and remains incarcerated for some time, the head becomes
engorged and swollen; the tongue swollen, blue-black and protruding from
the mouth; and the eyes glossy and insensible. However, the conclusion
is not to be hastily drawn that it is dead; on the other hand, it may he
very much alive, revive immediately, and begin to move as soon as it is
released from its perilous position. In fact such engorgement of the
head and cyanosis of the visible mucosa show that the fetus was alive
when the head appeared. Had it been dead at the beginning of labor, the
engorgement could not have occurred . . . however, it may generally

be considered that, if vigorous expulsive efforts have continued for two
or three hours, or if the fetus has been engaged in the pelvis even half
an hour, unless definite sign of life can be observed, the foal has already
perished.

“In case where a living fetus is expelled more or less enclosed in the
amnion in such a way as to interfere with respiration, the attendant
should remove the obstruction promptly.”

Johnstone6 advises that as soon as wax forms on the teats of the mare,
she should be closely watched. But the mare dislikes the presence of
persons during parturition so it is recommended that a peep-hole be pro¬
vided through which the groom could see the mare, without the latter
seeing the attendant. Normal presentation is manifested by the appear¬
ance, first by the forefeet and then the nose. Should the presentation
deviate from this send for a veterinarian immediately. Likewise in case
the mare is unable to deliver after a reasonable length of time, it is also
advisable to get the aid of the obstetrist. Otherwise, normal delivery
should be left alone.

In describing natural presentation and its management Carlson6 says
that “after two or three pains the water bags appear and usually burst,
followed by the forefeet of the foal, with the nose between the knees.
With such a presentation one can help the mare very much by taking a
foot in either hand and pulling as she labors. If your labor is in concert
with hers, you can do no harm by pulling with all your might. By this
help one can relieve a mare of her foal quickly, thereby saving her much
wasted energy. At such times one should work with clean hands to
avoid infection.

“When there is a twin birth the second foal usually comes with its

60

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

hind feet first. If the tail is turned upward toward the tail of the mare,
this presentation will be expelled as easily as an anterior one, since the
curvature of the body corresponds to the curvature of the genital passages
of the mare. In an anterior presentation the fa-ce and ears of the foals
should always be turned upwards for a like reason.” Carlson mentions
several causes of delayed presentation, among which are mal-presenta-
tion and such others as are due to small narrow pelvis, which may
result from fracture ,to tumors in the vagina or in the pelvis, to cal¬
culus in the bladder, or to impaction of the rectum with feces. It is
also pointed out that delayed parturition may result from inflammation
in which case the fetus and its membranes are firmly attached to the
uterus. When found to be so, however, the adhesions should be torn
and then the foal extracted.

Kennedy01 describes the normal presentation as well as abnormal forms,
for which he suggests corresponding aids that might be given whenever
necessary. As has been referred to the normal presentation is indicated
by the forefeet first, with the head between the fore limbs. In this form
the anterior portion acts in the manner of a wedge and serves to dilate
the passage. The foal may be born with hind feet first. The deviation
from normal delivery may assume the position in which the front feet
are held back. Kennedy recommends that the fetus be pushed back and
the limbs straightened out, should this abnormality present; however, in
case the mare is roomy and open delivery may succeed normally even
with the legs held up this way. Or it may occur that instead of the feet
coming first the rump may instead be protruded. It is claimed that the
colt could hardly be delivered in this way so again the body may be
pushed back and the parts rearranged so as to assume the normal posi¬
tion. Another abnormality may occur in which one of the legs, of either
the front or rear presentation, is held back. This needs similar course
of treatment by which the crooked leg may be brought to normal position,
although in this case it may at times be possible to deliver the fetus even
with one leg held back. If aid is to be given to the mare, Kennedy sug¬
gests that it be done as soon as it is known that there is abnormal par¬
turition, or as soon after the examination reveals that some assistance is
needed. If assistance is delayed the mare will be found weakened and
the fetus and other parts dry. If the fetus is to be pulled do it gently
and steadily downwards. The fetus may sometimes have to be dissected
to save the mare. Care should be taken so that inflammation is lessened
or else it may lead to blood poisoning.”

15. The Care of the Puerperal Mare

Williams18 discusses this phase of the brood mare’s life and says:
“After the completion of labor, the mother should not be annoyed by the
presence of other animals of her own or other species, or by the unneces¬
sary presence of persons. She should have clean and comfortable quar¬
ters, whether in the stable or in the field, and her body should be kept
as clean as circumstances permit. Any blood or discharges should be
washed off her tail anl thighs or other parts of her body which have be¬
come soiled. The afterbirth, if it has come away, should be removed
and destroyed, although as a general rule, no material harm comes to
the mother from eating it.

“An abundance of good drinking water and suitable food should be
allowed. For herbivorous animals which have given birth to young dur¬
ing the warm season of the year, grass constitutes the most favorable
diet. Mares which are used for work purposes should be rested for a few
days after parturition, as a safeguard against disease. As a general rule
the mare may safely return to work in the -course of three or four days,
if parturition has been easy and without accident, but the labor must
be of a gentle character.

MANAGEMENT OF THE BROOD MARE

61

“If the genital organs have suffered any material injury during the act
of birth, proper precaution should be taken against infection. For this
purpose physiologic salt solution should be used to flush out the vulva
and vagina.

“As a general rule, when evidences of abdominal pain follow shortly
after parturition, they suggest some pathologic condition, which may be
more or less important, such as the portion of the fetal membranes or
some genital displacement, such as a beginning inversion of the uterus.
Consequently, whenever such pains are observed following parturition a
careful manual exploration of the uterus should be made to determine
the causes, followed by the application of the necessary remedies.

“After the expulsion of the fetus and its membranes then follows im¬
mediately from the uterus a small volume of blood and placental debris
. . . Except for this very trivial discharge, which is designated lochia,

amounting ... to barely a few ounces, expelled within the first
two or three hours after parturition, there is physiologically no puerperal
genital discharge in domestic animals.

“The mother often resents the approach of other animals or of persons,
and is very liable to injure her young by treading upon them in an effort
to protect them. Such danger is often observed with nervous mares. It
it very common in the mare, and in many cases it is more or less dan¬
gerous to approach her when she is giving her first attention to a new¬
born foal. Not only may she trample the foal, but she may bite, strike,
or kick any person who approaches her.”

Relative to the same subject Kennedy61 writes: “The mare should now
be allowed to rest. The working of the mare after foaling should be
delayed as long as possible, preferably until after weaning. If kept up,
the mare should have plenty of nourishing, rather laxative food, except
for the first day or two, when she must be fed lightly. Medicines and
physics should be avoided, and if any serious condition arises a veterin¬
arian called. The place, however, for both mare and foal is out in a
good, rich pasture, unless the weather is extremely bad, and even then
they should be kept in just as little as possible. Scours and other di¬
gestive troubles are the chief dangers at this time, and they are seldom
contracted in the pasture.

“If it is necessary to work the mare she should at least be given a rest
of ten days to two weeks. When first started to work the mare should
be brought in so as to allow the colt to suck during the middle of the
forenoon and afternoon. After the colt becomes accustomed to doing
without the mare and her milk the period may be lengthened to the half
day periods if the days are not too long. If the mare is warm or is a
heavy milker, some of the fluid should be milked out, or scours and in¬
digestion will be produced in the colt. The colt should never be allowed
milk from hot mares. The mares should be allowed to cool to some ex¬
tent and part of the milk drawn before turning with the colt.”

Of this Johnstone5 says that “after foaling the mare may have her
ration gradually increased to its usual size. As a rule when the mare has
been worked regularly almost up to her parturition a holiday of two
weeks after it should see her in shape to go back to light work. About
the third day, or even on the second, if the weather is fine, give her a
chance to get out into some dry lot for exercise. At the end of two
weeks she should have been gradually gotten back onto her usual feed
and of course she should run out into the lot whenever she wants to.
When it comes time to put her back in the harness leave the foal in the
boxstall when she is taken out to work. He will fret at first but he will
soon get accustomed to doing without his mammy. At first work the
mare but half a day. She will be soft and worry greatly, probably heat¬
ing herself up quite badly. A good plan in such cases is, on coming in
at noon, to milk the mare almost dry and then put her in a stall in the
work stable to eat a little hay and cool off. After she has cooled off so

62

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

she may be watered she may be taken to the boxstall, turned in with the
foal and fed her grain. Beginning with half a day in this fashion, she
may be gradually toughened back into doing her full share of the regular
team work. Never let a foal suck milk from a warm mare. It sets up
indigestion and starts scours. Keep a bucket of water in the boxstall
so the foal may take a drink whenever he wants it.”

After foaling, Axe38 advises that the teats be first of all examined
for opening. He emphasizes the necessity of carefully selecting and
regulating the amount of the feed to be given during the first twenty-
four hours. Warm oatmeal or linseed gruel is recommended as the first
diet to be given, to be mixed with a pint of good ale in case of exhaus¬
tion resulting from prolonged parturition. Four to six ounces of whisky
may take the place of ale, should the latter fail in its action. Following
the above mixture a little scalded bran with crushed oats should be fed.
Afterwards the mare may be supplied with liberal quantities of rich
and nutritive diet, which should consist largely of green feeds. He rec¬
ommends also the cleaning of the udder and tail for the first few days
after foaling. The udder should be sponged and the tail washed and
cleaned. Both the mare and foal should be protected from cold and wet
environment, particularly from the harmful effects of the easterly and
northwesterly winds, during the first two days after foaling. They should
be turned out to grass as soon as the weather is favorable, and in doing
so for the first time the sun must be out, the ground dry and the wind
not too strong and blowing in a favorable direction. It is advocated to
give a couple of feeds of crushed oats daily to those mares which foal
as three-year-olds or to old ones having scant supply of milk, during two
or three weeks after they have been turned out or as long as the grass is
of insufficient growth.

It is brought out that both the mare and foal should be kept in the
boxstall during the first three or four days after foaling in the early
part of the season when the weather is rather cold. Turning them out
into a small, well-sheltered enclosure for a few hours in the midday
should be their first taste of outdoor life, and later on when the weather
permits they may stay outside for a longer time. They should always be
housed at night until the sun shines bright and the days grow longer.
Meanwhile artificial feeding should still be insisted upon.82

Wallace43 advocates that the puerperal mare be given frequent small
drinks of natural water into which a little oatmeal has been added. To¬
gether with this the mare should be fed succulent and digestible food.
He calls attention to the fact that the mare should be “clean” an hour
or two after parturition, and in case this fails and the afterbirth hangs
for 8 hours assistance should be rendered by which a well-washed hand
and arm which is moistened with carbolic oil or carbolic soap and
water is inserted and the afterbirth detached and removed before de¬
composition takes place. The so-called “Hanging cleansing” disease is
claimed to prove fatal if neglected and is contagious. In case this has
become established on a farm, Wallace recommends for its eradication
the temporary cessation of breeding operations, the disinfection of horses
and the liming of the pastures. It is claimed that such feeds as a mix¬
ture of steamed barley, Indian corn, a few beans and bran, or succulence,
as those available roots during the season, stimulates the flow of milk
before grass becomes available, which should, however, be given at a
temperature of not higher than 60° F. It is pointed out that some breed¬
ers resort to the practice of breeding half of the mares so as to foal in
November by means of which the pressure of work early in the spring
is much lessened because mares bred then could be so managed that milk
secretion could be induced to maintain sufficient supply for the foals by
feeding them roots or steamed feeds. The same authority is of the

MANAGEMENT OF THE BROOD MARE

63

opinion that nursing mares need not be put to work if it could be avoided
or else the condition may lead to scouring or rickets of the foals. Or, if
the mare has to be worked the work should be only for half a day each
time, and she should first have a month’s rest immediately after foaling.
When returning from work it should be borne in mind that the milk
which has collected in the udder during the work is poorer in fat than
the milk drawn at frequent intervals and besides such milk differs from
the natural kind in other respects and certain poisonous substances might
have developed, so it is advised that a little milk should first be drawn
before the foal is allowed to suck the mother.

Hunt75 states that after foaling the mare should be allowed to clean
the foal and then she may have warm gruel, or a stimulant if she is
worn out. A pint of strong ale, or Guinness’s porter is recommended
which can be handled by the inexperienced. Feeding during the first
twenty-four hours consists of gruel and a moderate amount of hay
Richer food may be given as soon as milk secretion is established.

Reynolds46 says: “If the mare has been pastured up to the time of
foaling, they [mare and foal] will be benefited by being turned to grass
during fine weather, in a week or so after birth; but they must be shel¬
tered from rain and cold, particularly at night, so long as the weather
continues unfavorable.

“At this early period the mare should never be permitted to graze
until she has had a small allowance of sweet hay, or some other nutrious
dry food, nor should she be subjected to work for at least three weeks
before parturition ... In the absence of a plentiful supply of grass,
boiled barley made into a sloppy mash, with the addition of some treacle
and a little salt, is a palatable nourishing diet, tending to increase the
lacteal secretion. Should the season not admit of mares being pastured,
barley mashes, pulped roots, scalded oats and hay of the best procurable
quality, should be liberally supplied. A plentiful allowance of water, or
for bad milking mares, nutritious gruel is necessary.

“Most mares, however, secrete a plentiful, and many a superabundant
supply of milk . . . The provision of rich but close herbage suffices

for their general requirements.

“In districts where the mare is not required to work until the foal is
weaned grass suffices for all her requirements.

“If at any time during the period of lactation the udder becomes in¬
flamed, hot or tense, the diet must be promptly reduced, the milk res¬
ervoir very frequently emptied, and warm fomentations adopted, to be
followed by very gentle friction with soap and water (greasy substances
ought not to be rubbed upon the glands or if used, the residuum should
be carefully removed by subsequent washing). If the foal is dead, or
can conveniently be weaned, a dose of physic may be administered to
the mare.”

According to Harper95 a beneficial, cooling and laxative feed which
may be given to the mare during the first few days after foaling is a hot
bran mash fed once a day. The mare may be placed to work at the end
of one week after parturition.

Timmis’s96 “prescription” for the brood mare after parturition con¬
sists in giving her crushed oats "with boiled oats at night for several
weeks after delivery. It is pointed out that only little amounts should
be furnished at a time but she may be fed as much as she will eat. Af¬
terwards uncrushed oats can be fed and linseed meal added to the feed.

Dimon40 writes on the care of the puerperal mare: “It is always well
to have on hand at such times, and to give the mare a wheat bran mash
mixed with warm water or a few quarts of warm oatmeal gruel. Give
no cold w'ater to drink for two days after foaling if in cool or cold

64 PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

weather but take the chill off by adding a little hot water or by the in¬
sertion of a hot iron into a pail of water.

“Care should also be used in feeding grain to the dam directly after
foaling, but in a few days she may be fed liberally commencing lightly
and increasing gradually — with a mixture of ground oats, cracked wheat,
and corn meal lightened up with bran. A good mixture may consist of
five bushels of oats to one of wheat, one of corn meal, and two of bran.
The foals will soon learn to eat with their mothers.

“If the weather is suitable the sooner the foal is turned into a warm,
dry, and sunny yard the better. The dam should not be allowed to stand
in a draught of air or remain out in damp or chilly weather.”

After foaling Henry and Morrison53 advise to give the mare “a drink
of water or better, of gruel made from half a pound of fine oatmeal in half
a bucket of lukewarm water. A light food of bran is good for the first
meal, and this may be followed by oats, or by equal parts by bulk of corn
and bran. After foaling the mare should be confined for a few days, her
ration being simple and not too abundant. With favorable conditions,
after 4 or 5 days she may be turned to pasture, and in about 2 weeks, or
even before, if work is urgent and the mare has fully recovered, she may
go back to light work, for a part of the day at least.”

16. Common and Infectious Diseases, and Other Ailments

Metritis

Acute Metritis. “Foremost among the puerperal infections, from the
standpoint of frequency and seriousness, stand the acute infections of the
uterus.

“The causes of acute metritis consist of any of those elements which
may favor the introduction into the uterine cavity, and the growth there,
of disease-producing bacteria.

“Standing at the head of causes of metritis, is the retention of the
fetal envelopes. Whenever the normal period at which these should
become separated and expelled has passed by, without such expulsion,
they immediately constitute a source of danger for the well-being of the
animal. They promptly cease to constitute a part of the living tissues,
the circulation of blood within them ceases, and they furnish a favorable
medium in which bacteria may multiply. In most cases the membranes
extend from the uterus out through the vagina and vulva, where they
become soiled with feces and other highly infected material, and con¬
stitute an open highway, along which the bacteria may rapidly travel as
well as multiply, until they reach the uterine cavity. The presence of
the membranes keeps open the cervix of the uterus, and prevents to a
large degree the normal involution of the organ. Added to this the in¬
terference with the retained membranes, with a view to their removal,
by laymen, empirics or other incompetent persons, serves to intensify
the danger of infection by wounding and abrading the organ.

“Another very fruitful cause of metritis is the introduction of infec¬
tion into the cavity of the organ, upon the hands, instruments or ap¬
paratus of the veterinary obstetrist during the overcoming of dystokia or
other manipulations of the organ.

“Wounds of the organ during manipulations of any kind greatly facili¬
tate the entrance into the tissues of any infection which may gain ad¬
mission to the uterine cavity.

“The presence of a dead fetus, which is undergoing putrid decomposition
in the uterus, inevitably causes a more or less serious metritis. In some
instances, where the death of the fetus is comparatively recent and the
putrid decomposition has not progressed far, the degree of metritis
may be comparatively unimportant or may even pass unnoticed. In other
cases, where the putrid fetus has remained in the uterus for a longer

MANAGEMENT OF THE BROOD MARE

65

period of time and the decomposition has become quite complete, the in¬
flammation of the organ is correspondingly great and serious. After a
long period of fetal decomposition, the uterine walls may finally assume
the character and functions of abscess walls.

“When the fetus dies in the uterus and does not become decomposed,
but undergoes mummification instead, it does not tend to induce inflam¬
mation of the organ.

“Tardy involution of the uterus constantly tends to invite infection.
When the uterus does not promptly close, and its walls fail to quickly
come in contact with each other, there is probably a similar tardiness in
the contraction of the vagina and vulva, so that the entire tract remains
somewhat freely open, inviting infection. The debility of the organ, of
which the tardy involution is but a symptom, decreases its power of re¬
sisting the infection. When the organ undergoes normal involution and
contracts vigorously, that vigor in itself acts largely to prevent or over¬
come infection.

“Exposure to cold or wet has also been claimed to act as a causative
agent in metritis. It no doubt occupies an important, though indirect
place. Any sudden chill, or disturbance of the body in general, weakens
and depresses the highly sensitive genital tract, and renders infection
far more probable than though the animal were kept under more favor¬
able conditions.

Chronic metritis. “Allied to acute metritis, and frequently following
it as a sequel, there occurs a chronic inflammation of the uterus, which
is characterized by suppuration of the uterine cavity, with more or less
accumulation of pus, constituting pyometra, or in case the cervical canal
of the uterus becomes completely occluded a large volume of pus may be
confined within the uterine cavity, to constitute abscess of the uterus.

“. . . It may appear at almost any period in the life of the animal,

and its relation to parturition is variable. It occurs almost always in
females which have previously bred, but the duration of time elapsing
between the last birth and the appearance of the disease is not constant.
In some cases, puometra or chronic metritis follows parturition after an
interval of a few weeks, or there may be a more or less definite acute
metritis, which partially recovers, to be continued somewhat indefinitely
as a chronic, purulent inflammation,

“Anything which may lead to an infection of the uterus, and permit
it to continue for a long period of time, suffices to establish the disease.
Anything, therefore, which would debilitate the organ or the general sys¬
tem, or which would favor or lead to the introduction of micro-organisms
into the uterus, would act as a cause of the malady. Prominent among
the recognizable causes of this malady are retained fetal membranes and
any of those causes which operate to bring about acute metritis . . .

“In many cases manipulations during dystokia appear to be the es¬
sential source of an infection, which, though not sufficiently virulent to
bring about an acute metritis, nevertheless induces a chronic suppura¬
tive disease of the organ.

“. . . This affection is by far most frequently seen in those mares

which have at some previous time been bred, and have been allowed to
go without further attempts at breeding. It is consequently more com¬
mon, according to our observations, in localities where few horses are
raised, than in those districts where most mares are regularly used for
breeding purposes.

“In addition to the general causes of chronic metritis . . . it is not

rare to observe chronic metritis in the mare, in cases, because of ap¬
parent sterility, the stallion groom has attempted to ‘open’ the uterus
with a view to inducing the mare to conceive. The groom has forced
his dirty hand through the cervix of the uterus in a rough manner,

66

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

wounding the organ more or less seriously and depositing in the lacera¬
tions or abrasions, abundant infection from his dirty hand.

“The mare should be kept directly under the supervision of the veter¬
inarian from the beginning of the treatment to its successful termina¬
tion, and the handling on no account be entrusted to an ordinary lay¬
man. The treatment should not be stopped or relaxed until the recovery is
complete. By following these lines of handling we have not met with
an unsuccessful case, while we do not recall an instance where the treat¬
ment has proven successful when the application of the remedies has
been entrusted to a layman.

“Upon the question of breeding after recovery we have no definite
data, but there is the danger that the oviducts may occasionally be¬
come occluded during the course of the disease and cause sterility.”
Williams.48

Constipation

“This is a symptom present in a variety of abdominal affections, and
varies in degree. The term is applied in a general sense to a condition
in which the faeces are abnormally retained in the intestines, or when
passed are less in amount and harder in consistence than normal.

“. . . It is well known that some horses have a tendency to this

variety of constipation. The faeces are dry and hard in consistency, and
passed in the form of small-sized balls as compared with normal ap¬
pearance. Atony of the muscular walls of the intestine is responsible
in some cases; in others, liver derangement is the cause, or the diet may
be too dry, and sufficient water is not allowed. Want of sufficient ex¬
ercise is another cause, also the condition is observed during the course
of febrile diseases. In some cases loss of condition is present, and the
horse has a capricious appetite. There seems little doubt but that this
topid condition of the bowels predisposes to intestinal disorders.

“The treatment indicated is to pay attention to the food, and allow
diet of a laxative character. Small doses of sulphate of magnesia or sul¬
phate of soda should be given in the food or drinking water, and if the
animal will take it, small amounts of raw linseed oil may be administered
in the food. Toni-cs, such as nux vomica, are required in some cases.
Repeated doses of purgatives are of no service, as when their action
ceases constipation again occurs. A combination of bicarbonate of soda,
common salt, and sulphate of soda, often proves useful. In such cases
the faeces are exceedingly foetid, and hyposulphite of soda, given at in¬
tervals will overcome this condition. Attention should be directed to
the teeth, as dental irregularities interfere with proper mastication, and
indigestion results, which tends to bring about constipation. A proper
supply of drinking water should be allowed.” Hoare.97

Lacerations of Vulva and Vagina

“The vagina, especially of the mare, is not infrequently locerated or
ruptured by the penis of the male. The size of the penis of the stallion
does not bear a constant ratio to the size of the body, but is comparative¬
ly excessive in coarsely bred animals with long legs and large heads.
Such stallions, copulating with small mares, constantly tend to produce
vaginal injuries. Sometimes it is merely a slight laceration in the mu¬
cous membrane, which may cause limited hemorrhage and some strain¬
ing; sometimes the lacerations in the mucosa and muscular walls are ex¬
tensive and induce marked symptoms of wound infection in the vagina
with tumefaction, discharge and straining; while, in other cases, the
vaginal walls are completely ruptured, with great danger of fatal peri¬
tonitis.

MANAGEMENT OF THE BROOD MARE

67

“When such injuries occur, there is observed an abnormal amount of
straining immediately after copulation, with, perhaps, some discharge
of blood from the vulva. Later, swelling of the vulva and a muco-purlent
discharge may occur.

“If the wound penetrates the peritoneal -cavity, septic peritonitis is
highly probable, with early collapse and death.

“Injuries to the mare from this cause should be obviated by means of
a roll or padded surcingle encircling the body and passing just in front of
the sheath in a manner to prevent the penis from entering the vagina
to its full length, the pad or roll being adjusted in size according to the
case. The diameter of the roll should always be ample, since little fear
need be entertained that the prevention of the entrance of the entire
length of the penis will unfavorably affect the results of copulation, as
general observations show the contrary. In constructing this roll or
pad an ordinary surcingle may be used and a tube made of sheeting
or other sufficiently strong material and this, open at each end, slipped
over the surcingle. Padding of cotton, oakum or other material is then
to be inserted into the tubular covering until it is tightly filled so that
it presents a diameter of 4 to 8 inches in that part of the surcingle to
come in contact with the abdominal floor, after which the open ends of
the tube are to be secured to the surcingle and closed by tying. When the
stallion is ready for service, the surcingle is passed around his body just
in front of the opening of the sheath and secured by buckling. In copu¬
lation, only that portion of the penis projecting beyond the roll can enter
the vagina.

“Lacerations of the vulvo-vaginal canal during copulation somewhat
rarely occur because of pathologic changes due to prior diseases, especial¬
ly to adhesive inflammations leading to important stricture or occlusion.

“Injuries to the bladder by the penis of the male have been recorded,
though very rarely ... In the mare, this accident would seem quite
as possible because of the very wide, valveless meatus, through which
several fingers may be passed, but the penis of the stallion is much
larger and the glands very broad.” Williams.48

VI

MANAGEMENT OF THE FOAL

1. Handling

As directed by Williams,48 “The first object . . . of a caretaker of

new-born animals is to see that they begin breathing promptly, that any
impediments to respiration are removed quickly, and that any other
means necessary for the prompt establishment of respiration are employed.

“It should immediately be seen that the nostrils of the fetus are free, so
that air may readily enter the lungs; if portions of the fetal membranes
cover the nose, they should be removed; if mucus has collected in the
nostrils, it should be taken away promptly ... In many cases per¬
haps, this mucus (clot of firm mucus which may be found lodged in the
larynx) could be dislodged by manipulating the tongue — by alternately
drawing it forward and allowing it to retract.

“It has been claimed that in some cases the fetus has been strangled
during birth owing to the inhalation of fluids because of interruption
of the umbilic circulation. This is rarely if ever, true, but if suspected
it may be advisable to drain out some of the fluid by suspending the
young animal for a few moments by the hind legs or by placing it in a
position with its head lowered. This is a good practice ... as the
lowering of the head stimulates the respiratory center in the brain. If,
however, the fetal circulation is good, any fetal fluids which may have
been inhaled are promptly absorbed and cease to have danger for the
young animal.

“In tardy birth, suspended animation may occur because of a too long
delayed respiration ... It seems to make little difference whether a
fetus be born where the temperature is at 0° or 90° to 100° F. It seems,
however, that the dashing of cold water upon the fetus or vigorous strok¬
ing of the chest will arouse the act of respiration in some cases. General¬
ly, the induction of respiration should be attributed to the reflex influence
of the venous blood upon the central nervous system. This reflex is best
aroused by suspending the new-born by its hind legs as mentioned in
the preceding paragraph.

“Artificial respiration may also be induced by the usual compression
and relaxation of the chest walls, or by inflating the lungs by forcing
air through the nostrils with a small bellows, should such an apparatus
be at hand. So long as the heart continues to beat, there is possibility of
inducing respiration, and efforts should consequently be continued, so
long as the cardiac action persists. As a general rule, respiration can
not be established at all unless it succeeds very promptly so that in
those cases where the animal does not breathe within two or three
minutes it will probably die in spite of the fact that the heart may con¬
tinue to act for ten or fifteen minutes.

“The umbilic cord must be divided and the previous relation between
the mother and young severed. This result in a wound which involves
the arteries, veins, and urachus, each of which communicates with in¬
ternal parts of the system of the young animal. Naturally, the umbilic
cord becomes ruptured in a variety of ways. In the foal the cord is so
long that it is usually not ruptured when the fetus is expelled, if the
mare is recumbent, but gives way only when she rises to her feet, and
even then in some cases not until she turns her head toward the fetus
in order to care for it, and in so doing pulls the cord in two near the
umbilicus. In other cases . . . the chorion becomes detached from

MANAGEMENT OF THE FOAL

69

the uterus almost immediately after the expulsion of the fetus and comes
away with cord still intact. It is then ruptured later by the struggles
of the fetus itself. The mare may step upon some portion of the mem¬
branes when the foal is attempting to get up, and the foal, in falling,
throws its weight upon the cord in such a way as to rupture it.

• • In examining the navel cord of the foal, one finds that im¬
mediately against the umbilicus there is a dense area extending for a
distance of about 1 V2 inches which changes somewhat abruptly at a
marked ring to the soft umbilic cord. This projection consists of a hair¬
less skin, wliich, in the healing of the navel, atrophies and disappears.
Just beyond this point, one or two inches from it in the foal, is the
weakest point in the cord, where it ruptures or is torn in two.

“The rupture of the umbilic cord stands a part as a universal physiolog¬
ic wound, which under favorable conditions pursue a course in healing
which fulfills the highest ideals of surgery. The processes involved in
the healing of the wound include prompt and efficient hemostasis,
thorough drainage, and the rapid aseptic desiccation of a large mass of
necrotic tissue, which hermetically seals the tissue of the young animal
against invasion by bacteria. In normal environment, these fundamental
processes of repair proceed perfectly and rapidly, far more safely than
the healing of accidental or surgical wound, in the hands of many sur¬
geons. The hemostasis is notable for its promptness and perfection in
detail. The umbilic arteries, usually ruptured by linear tension, at a
distance of about two inches outside the umbilicus . . . recoil elastic

cords, and their broken ends come to rest at or near the urachal end, or
fundus, of the urinary bladder . . . The ruptured ends are somewhat

fibrilated, their walls become greatly thickened as a consequence of the
recoil, and their lumen becomes virtually eliminated. The recoiling
artery drags the loose perivascular connective tissue with it, invaginat-
ing the fibrous mass to form an intricate entanglement which serves as
an impassable barrier to blood. A few drops of blood, and only a few,
escape from the broken ends of the arteries, to constitute a very limited
extravasate. The broken arteries then rest far afield from any threaten¬
ing infection . . . The fetal end of the urachus, flanked on the right

and the left by the umbilic arteries, retracts with them into the perito¬
neal cavity and comes to rest two or three inches above and behind the
umbilicus. The behaviour of the urachus is parallel to that of the arteries;
no urine escape from it physiologically. Pathologically, if the urethra is
not open, the pressure of urine within the bladder forces open the re
cently ruptured tube, and the urine escapes through the navel. This
is exceedingly rare . . . Not infrequently when the cord is ligated

and the urachus held in the decaying umbilic stump — less commonly
when the umbilic stump is let alone — the urachus reopens, similarly to
the secondary hemorrhage of infection.

“The umbilic vein, without material retractile power, remains in its
original position after its rupture. Immediately after its rupture, most
of the blood contained in it at the moment falls away exteriorly. Per¬
haps some of its blood — how much is unknown — is drawn into the auricle
and remains a part of the living blood mass. The absence of valves in
the vein permits an almost perfect drainage. As soon as the chief volume
of blood has escaped, the thin-walled vein collapses, retaining only a
very small amount of blood. If, however, the vein is ligated prior to the
escape of the blood, it becomes imprisoned, necrotic, and subject to the
same laws of decay as a hematom in a wound. After the vessel has
collapsed, its walls adhere, and it remains in the adult as a fibrous vestige
constituting a small ligament passing from the umbilicus to the liver.
This behavior of the umbilic stump is highly important in relation to
the well-being of the young, since through this portal serious infection
frequently occurs to constitute the disease known as navel infection, or
omphalo-phlebitis.

70

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

“The lymphoid Wharton jelly, which fills and rounds out the space
between the amniotic sheath of the umbilic cord and the vessels, is
determined feebly by a very loose, frail connective tissue. Following
physiologic rupture, the jelly quickly oozes away. There remains in
the umbilic stump the vein, the amniotic sheath, and any remnant of
Wharton jelly not yet escaped. The circulation in the stump ceases at
once; the lymph, serum, and other liquids in the necrotic stump ooze
away; the stump desiccates and hardens; and the body tissues beyond
are hermetically sealed. Beneath the desiccated stump, healing proceeds
rapidly and perfectly, and within a few days the necrotic mass drops
away, leaving an intact surface.

“Occasionally there are variations in promptness and exact position of
the rupture of the umbilic cord. Cases have been recorded where it has
given way immediately against the umbilicus, but these accidents are
very rare and apparently accompanied by little, if any danger. A com¬
moner deviation from the normal rupture of the cord is its giving wray at
a point too remote from the abdomen, so that in some cases we find the
navel stump of the foal . . . five or six inches in length. This leads

to two dangers. The extra length of the cord prevents the rapid escape
of the Whartonian jelly and the retraction of the umbilic arteries from
the exterior; infection and putrefaction occur in the cord, which may
lead to an inflammation of the veins, arteries or urachus, thereby imperil¬
ling greatly the life of the fetus. In other cases, when the cord is too
long, it may be trampled upon or become otherwise caught, and the
fetus, in struggling, may tear it away too close to the umbilicus, and
make a fresh wound, inviting infection.

“Two conflicting courses in the care of the navel stump are advised
by veterinary obstetrist, with and without ligation. I prefer either to
allow the cord to be ruptured naturally or to imitate and supplement
nature with antisepsis and artificial desiccation. If the cord has not
ruptured spontaneously, or if the stump is too long, it is to be ruptured
at the proper point by linear tension. The cord is grasped at the point
where it is desired to sever it, with the thumb and index of each hand
and, by drawing the hands apart, is torn asunder between them. If the
cord is too strong, one may facilitate the rupture with the thumb nail, or
by scraping the cord in two with a dull scalpel.

“After the cord has been divided, the Wharton jelly and all fluids
should be pressed out of the remaining stump as completely as possible,
by grasping it close against the umbilicus, between the thumb and finger,
and then drawing downward, forcing the fluids out from the broken end.
This operation is to be carried under strict antiseptic precautions, and
as soon as completed there should be applied a desiccating antiseptic
powrder, consisting of almost any reliable antiseptic of a character which
will not prove caustic to the surrounding parts. Such an antiseptic
powder may be composed of equal parts of alum, tannin, and oxide of
zinc, or of equal parts of tannin and iodoform. A variety of antiseptics
may be selected . . . The essential point is thorough antisepsis and

prompt desiccation of the stump. It is aimed simply to second the efforts
of nature to bring about aseptic desiccation of the stump. The applica¬
tion of the desiccant antiseptic powder is advised as soon as possible
after birth, to be repeated every hour or two until the desiccation of the
stump is complete.

“Many veterinary obstetrists advise that the cord be ligated then
divided beyond the ligature; others advise that two ligatures be applied
and the division be made between the two. Some suggest that the
ligated fetal stump should later be frequently washed with a liquid
antiseptic, and thus guarded against serious infection. It is evident that,
if antiseptic solutions are applied with sufficient frequency and thorough¬
ness, they may accomplish their purpose of preventing putrefaction of

MANAGEMENT OF THE FOAL

71

the cord, with its accompanying dangers. This is neither as efficacious
nor as convenient as the preceding plan. The presence of the ligature
tends to prevent the retraction of the stumps of the umbilic arteries, and
keeps them in a position where they are far more exposed to the possibil¬
ities of infection. Ligation is wholly superfluous as a protection against
hemorrhage. I have known of but one fatality from umbilic hemorrhage.
This occurred in a foal in which the cord was ligated and excised. One
must recognize clearly the far greater tendency toward hemorrhage from
an artery when it has been divided by cutting instead of by linear ten¬
sion, scraping or other kind of mutilation. If, in addition to this the
artery is not allowed to retract or its proper retraction is interfered
with, the tendency to bleeding is greatly increased.

‘‘Ligation of the umbilic cord by an ignorant layman or careless vet¬
erinarian is one of the most dangerous interferences with a wound known
to surgery . . . The Whartonian jelly is imprisoned by the ligature

within the almost impervious amniotic sheath of the cord. The ligature
also imprisons the blood in the umbilic veins. The imprisoned fluid
furnishes an excellent culture medium for decomposition bacteria; the
dirty hands of the operator, the dirty ligature, or the flies attracted by
the moist cord furnish the infection. The ligature may detain the ar¬
teries, veins, and urachus in the infected area, and eventually these may
be involved in a more or less extensive infection causing a series of
highly fatal maladies.

. . In the foal, with the long cord, the meddler may tie the un¬

broken cord, incarcerate and detain the urachus and umbilic arteries,
and imprison the Whartonian jelly and the blood within the umbilic
vein or elsewhere. Consequently umbilic infection is far more common
in foals than in other newborn animals.

“. . . The urthera, anus, and other external openings should be

observed, to see whether they are normal.

“. . . It should be learned whether the various excretions are taking

place normally. It must be learned that the intestinal contents are being
expelled normally. The chief concern is with the accumulated fetal
feces, or meconium, in the large intestines. Normally, much of this
should be expelled very shortly after birth and the evacuation repeated
at frequent intervals until all has escaped. In some cases this does not
occur . . . and symptoms of retention of the meconium follow. The
early discharge of the meconium is also important because in many cases
infection has existed in the uterine cavity, penetrated the amniotic cav¬
ity, been swallowed by the fetus, and stored up as a part of the meconium
as in a cesspool. After birth, the accumulated infection tends to be¬
come active and cause scours and other serious affections of the new¬
born. It is highly important that the caretaker should see that the
meconium is promptly expelled. If necessary, this should be favored by
means of enemas of warm water, warm normal salt solution, or soda
bicarbonate solution. The enemas should be continued until all hard pel¬
lets of meconium have come away and there follows instead a soft, pasty
mass. The enema is best given by means of a hospital irrigator with a
pure gum horse catheter attached. The catheter is gently insinuatel into
the bowel for a distance of eighteen to twenty-four inches, while the
nerna is flowing, and the enema continued and repeated until the object
has been accomplished.

“The question of food for the new-born animal should be considered
early. It has been believed and taught that a weak foal . . . unable

to get up, should be helped to its feet very promptly and assisted to the
teat, or that milk should be drawn and fed to it. Such a young animal is
sick and needs physic more than milk. A good rubbing, a comfortable
place, and enemas to unload its bowels are worth far more than food.
There should be no haste in getting the young to feeding. A pound of

72

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

milk two or three times a day to a foal ... is ample until the me¬
conium is all out of the alimentary canal and it is seen that the young
animal is really well and in fit condition to digest food.

“The young animal should not be allowed too much milk, since it will
frequently overfeed. This is especially true of the foal, which sometimes
shows an inordinate appetite and seems to consider it incumbent upon it
to take all the milk which the udder of the mother contains, thereby
seriously overfeeding, which may end in more or less severe indigestion.
It is conseqeuntly advisable, in many instances, to milk out a portion of
the milk for the first few days in order to prevent the overfeeding of the
foal.

“Some writers insist that it is highly essential for the young animal
to receive from the mother the first milk, or colostrum, because, they
say, this acts as a laxative and brings away the meconium which has
become accumulated in the intestinal tract. Clinically this theory is ap¬
parently not so important as some persons would have us believe . . .

In young animals which get all the colostrum, retention of the meconium
is just as common as in those which get none of the colostrum . . .
A good enema will clean out more meconium in fifteen minutes than
colostrum will in a week.

“The young animal should be placed and kept under comfortable and
favorable conditions, free from extremes of temperature. Although it
may withstand quite high and low temperatures without serious injury,
if the temperature be extremely low the extremeties of the new-born,
especially the ears and tail, very readily freeze, or its life may be quickly
imperiled under such extreme conditions. In very hot weather flies may
be exceedingly troublesome and annoying. They may carry putrid In¬
fection to the navel of the young animal, causing serious and fatal
diseases.

“Exercise is quite essential to the new-born animal as to the adult. But
the young of the larger herbivora is ready for considerable degree of
exercise within a few hours after birth, which should be promptly pro¬
vided in all cases. When the mare is allowed to run at pasture, the foal
has plenty of exercise. With work animals it is not injurious, but rather
beneficial, for the foal to follow the mother if she is engaged in slow,
light work.”

Kennedy01 writes in regard to the care of the foal as follows: “The
colt’s belly and cord should be cleaned immediately with some good dis
infectant. A good way of doing this is to cut the umbilical cord about
an inch and a half long, and completely immerse the same in an iodine
solution, also washing the immediately surrounding parts of the belly
with the solution. It is important that this gets on the inner parts, as
well as on the external surface of the cord. The cord should later be
treated with some drying powder. A suitable powder is made of two parts
each of tannic acid, boracic acid, end zinc oxide, with one part of iodo¬
form. Formerly it was thought well to tie the cord, but it was found that
this has a tendency to keep a jelly-like substance within the cord,
forming a good medium for the action of bacteria. The proper treatment
is to use some material that will tend to dry up the cord as quickly as
possible, and at the same time keep out bacteria. The whole process is to
prevent putrefactive germs from entering the raw navel, although it may
happen that the germs entering through the mouth may cause the same
effect. Scours is another disease that often comes from getting disease
germs into the system.

“Another trouble that often affects foals during the first 24 to 48 hours
is constipation. If the colt does not receive the first milk, known as
colostrum, which is nature’s laxative provided to start the passage of
the bowels, he may have serious difficulty. Many breeders do not no¬
tice that there is anything wrong with the colt until he begins to weaken

MANAGEMENT OF THE FOAL

73

and fails to take nourishment. When the trouble has progressed thus
far it is often hard to treat successfully. The simplest treatment, if the
colt fails to make the proper passage of the first excreta, which is dark
brown in color, is a solution of soapsuds injected into the rectum. This
treatment should not be given unless necessary, which will seldom be the
case when the mare’s milk is normal and the colt healthy.”

It is further pointed out that the best place for both the mare and
colt is in a rich good pasture where digestive troubles are seldom con¬
tracted. In starting the mare to work she should be brought in during
the middle of the forenoon and afternoon for the colt to suckle. As
soon as the colt is accustomed to be away from her mother and without
milk, the mare may be brought in at half day periods as long as the days
are not too long. With heavy milkers or if the mare is warm, part of
the milk may first be drawn or else scours and indigestion may result in
the digestive system of the colt. When the mare is warm she should be
cooled off before the colt is turned to her. Colts should never be nursed
from hot mares. It is also advised that colts should be taught to eat
early because in so doing they will hardly miss the dam at weaning time.

Carlson0 hints that the first three days following parturition is a try¬
ing time for the foal. He recommends that as soon as the foal has been
born the first thing to be done is to disinfect the navel with any of the
coal tar preparations in five per cent strength, or a 1-500 of one per cent
solution of corrosive sublimate may be used. Lysol, which is considered
good, may be used in a solution of one teaspoonful to one pint of water.
He dislikes the practice of tying or ligating the umbilicus for, he says,
it leads to the formation of pus which later has to be absorbed. It is
claimed that in nine cases out of ten the umbilicus will tear off naturally.
Where, however, it has to be cut this should be done six inches from the
body. Should there be excessive hemorrhage, the umbilicus may be
ligated with a disinfected cord and in a few hours this may be removed
followed by a thorough emptying and disinfection of the umbilicus. Dur¬
ing the early part of the season it is said that the danger from
infection is more than late in the spring and during the summer
months. Hence, the necessity of proper precautions to be taken during
such time.

As to the feeding of the new-born, Carlson6 emphasizes the need of
supplying colostrum the first time, whether the foal is to be naturally
or artificially fed, on account of the purgative effect which this first milk
gives to the system. Should the foal be weak to find its mother’s teats
it is advisable to milk the mare and the milk given to the foal when still
warm. This could be accomplished better, it is claimed, by means of a
dessert spoon. After doing this once or twice the foal is said to acquire
sufficient strength so as to look for the mother’s udder.

During the first twelve hours of the foal’s life the foal should have had
its bowels and kidneys working normally. Should these fail, which may
be seen in the foal standing with the back arched, the tail erect and
afterwards with the head and ears drooping, proper measures should be
adopted to render bowel movements normal. At first a little olive oil may
be injected into the rectum, which generally would start the evacuation
of feces. But in case this fails after several hours an ounce of castor oil
may be prescribed and the rectum irrigated with warm soap suds. Cas¬
tile soap is recommended.

For the well-being of the new born it is advised that the mare be fed
lightly until the foal is eight or ten days old. Then afterwards the feed
may be increased gradually and both mare and foal may then have access
to good grass. When three or four weeks old the foal may be started on
good clean oats, giving a little at first and later on gradually increased
so that the foal may eat at will until weaning time.

Cases are known of some mares giving no milk for the foal. Notwith-

74

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

standing, it is advised that the foal should be allowed to suckle regularly
every two hours or oftener and eventually in many cases the milk flows
before the third day passes. Meantime the foal should be fed cow’s milk
until enough milk may be gotten from the dam. The manner of prepar¬
ing and feeding the cow’s milk as indicated by Carlson should be: “Into
a pint jar which has previously been sterilized with boiling water pour
water to one-eighth full add one teaspoonful of granulated sugar, and fill
with new milk from a fresh cow if possible. This should be fed warm,
at the body temperature, and the pint will be sufficient quantity for one
feed, but it should be fed as often as every two hours ... A nipple
over the spout of a teapot is the best thing to use for feeding a hand-
raised foal.”

Dysentery in foals, Carlson6 believes, may be due to the mare eating
moldy hay or grain, or that the milk is too rich and too copious. In
the latter case, it is recommended that the milk be drawn out to a large
extent and the foal given a teaspoonful of lime water in a few teaspoon¬
fuls of milk every two or three hours. The grain feed of the mare should
also be reduced for a time. This has reference to non-infectious dysentery
only.

According to Harper,96 the foal should be fed oftener than three times
daily during the first few weeks of its life and so accordingly, it is advis¬
able to let him go with the dam in the field. Later he may be kept in the
barn and the dam brought in at intervals for the foal to suckle but not
when the mare is tired and warm. When the colt is two months old
supplements may be added to the mother’s milk. Such grains as oats,
shorts, peas, and perhaps some corn are advocated for growing colts,
while for roughage alfalfa, clover and mixed hays may be given. At
teething periods give steamed crushed oats or bran.

Diarrhoea is claimed to be due to an over supply of milk, according to
Harper.95 So in this case some of the dam’s milk should be drawn, but
it must be born in mind that the last milk is the richest in fat and there¬
fore the part causing the ailment. To check this disturbance parched
flour, rice meal gruel, boiled milk and whites of raw eggs are recommend¬
ed. On the other hand, if the food is -constipative, Harper prescribes the
use of castor oil and the injections of warm water with soap added to it
previously.

Burkett64 holds that the colt should not have access to a wet or damp
bed until about a month old. He is of the opinion that the colt should
be left in the barn from morning until noon in case the dam is worked
and that the dam should cool off before the foal suckles.

In a detailed way, Carter8? presents the care and feeding of the foal in
the following words: “When the colt comes don’t be anxious to have the
navel break. Sometimes it wouldn’t break for an hour but even if it
doesn’t do not attempt to cut, for you couldn’t cut in the right place
. . . When it breaks it will break where nature intended it to. A
navel that is cut will rot off to that point where it was intended to
break and it will take from ten to fourteen days longer to heal. As soon
as it breaks it should be dressed ... I have had good results by
dressing the navel in a solution made up of one tablespoon full of carbolic
crystals dissolved in a pint of warm water. I then apply powdered
boracic acid and every day thereafter until the surface of the navel is
entirely dried up. The navel should never be tied up. Don’t be alarmed
at bleeding . . . Some people use iodine for treating the navel . . .

and found that it is too severe. The irritation from iodine causes the colt
to gnaw and rub the navel which only makes it worse . . . Milk the

mare after the colt has nursed and if there is any milk the colt is getting
too much. Too much milk causes scours in colts. Colts should be kept
hungry. Heavy milkers should be given light feed for a few days and
should be milked to keep the colt hungry. Medicine on colts two days

MANAGEMENT OF THE FOAL

75

old is fatal. Clover and alfalfa hay are good for poor milkers. The
first four months of a colt’s life is the period it should be tended to
carefully. After two weeks of age colts seldom get too much milk. When
the colt is a month old ground oats and bran should be kept before the
colts all the time. Colts never eat too much. This feeding should be
continued until weaning time — 6 to 8 months of age.”

Rutherford08 directs that “As soon as the foals has emerged, free the
head from the envelopes, see that the air passages are clear of mucous
or other fluid, and lay the little animal on his right side. If the umbilical
cord or navel string is not ruptured at birth, it may be tied with a stout
cord a couple of inches from the navel and cut off below the ligature, and
to prevent blood poisoning, or the absorption of septic germs, it may be
dressed with a strong solution of carbolic acid, care being taken not to
injure the surrounding tissues, or it may be temporarily smeared with
carbolic oil.

“Gruel is advocated after parturition for the mare. Watch the foal
for symptoms of constipation, which will be manifested in the first place
by continued elevation of the tail accompanied by straining without

the passage of feces. This will be succeeded by dullness and then by

evidence of pain, the abdomen will become bloated; the little animal will
show great uneasiness and begin to perspire and the pulse and respira¬
tion will be accelerated. In the early stages, a few ounces of soapy
warm water or a little raw linseed oil introduced by a syringe into the

rectum will generally afford relief, but should acute pain and distress

make their appearance, the administration of two or three ounces of
castor or linseed oil with twenty or thirty drops of laudanum and half a
teaspoonful of turpentine well shaken up, will be in order; a small enema
should also be given from time to time, and the abdomen covered with
woolen cloth wrung out of hot water. These are much preferred to
physics.”

Wallace43 says in regard to the care of the foal: “After a prolonged
delivery the mouth of the exhausted foal should be cleared of slime, and
air blown down its throat, to aid the first inflation of the lungs. In
nature the tearing of the umbilical cord as the mare rises prevents after¬
bleeding, but, when aid is necessary it is usual to tie it in two places and
sever it wit ha knife between the knots rather than to attempt to imitate
nature by breaking it. If the mare be slow to lick the foal, it should be
rubbed dry to prevent it growing cold, and, if weak on its legs, it should
be supported and held in position to encourage it to suck as soon as
possible. If this is unsuccessful, half a teacupful of milk should be drawn
from the mare’s teats, warmed, by dipping into hot water and poured
into foal’s mouth by means of a tablespoon, as a new-born cannot long
survive without food. If everything has gone well and the foal is strong
and warm and only awkwad on its legs, some breeders think it best to
leave nature to its own course, and the foal by instinct soon finds its
way to the teats ... To see that the anus of the foal is not by
chance closed by an adventitious skin or membrane which requires to
be broken ... is all the further treatment necessary.”

Wallace goes on to say that, “A foal that gallops till it perspires copious¬
ly on being put out for an hour or two after it is, say, ten days old,
should not be allowed to lie on the cold ground or in a draught, else it
is liable to scour and swell at the joints and become worthless.

“An ancient practice in Norfolk after the foal is two weeks old, is to
feed it on skim milk, boiled linseed, and bran meal, getting gradually up
to 2 gallons of milk.”

Roberts59 asserts that two of the critical periods in the life of the foal
are during the time when the food is changed from the milk of the dam
to a partial or entire ration of solid food, and during the teething time
in which the temporary set is changed to permanent ones. He recoin-

76

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

mends the feeding of a narrow ration, say one to five or one to five and a
half, to colts up to the time they are ready for work. When the dam

becomes pregnant the foal should receive additional ration, besides

the mother’s milk. Watering should be given twice in winter and three
times in summer. It is claimed that during winter water which has been
heated to 98° F. is most acceptable.

Regarding the separation of the mother from the foal when she is to
be put to work, Roberts59 states that “At first she should not be separated
from her offspring but for a few minutes at a time; the time of each
successive separation may be increased until it will be safe to use the
mare for two or three hours at a time. The blood of the mare should
not be overheated, nor should the foal be allowed to nurse when the
mare is over-warm. A good plan is to allow the mare a liberal breath¬
ing spell at the far end of the field, with her head away from the barn,

a half-hour or so before she comes to the stable. If this does not result
in her cooling off, then it will be better to relieve the udder of some of
the milk before returning her to the stable and her foal.”

Sanders46 advises the use of boiled beans as grain feed for foals. Pre¬
cautionary measure is enjoined so that mares are first cooled off and the
udder washed with lukewarm water before the colt is permitted to
suckle. Should the foal become constipated the administration of a full
dose of castor oil together with frequent application of warm soap and
water enema are recommended. In some instances in which constipa¬
tion is expected by previous indications foals should have a dose of oil
shortly after birth. It is hinted that young foals often suffer from con¬
stipation as a result of feeding the dam on dry and indigestible foodstuff,
particularly during the later period of pregnancy, and indeed so, with
mares affected with dyspepsia at the end of gestation.

In a lengthy and comprehensive way, Dimon40 gives account of the
management of the foal: “When the foal is once firmly on his feet the
first thing to do is to get him to suck, as he requires nourishment at
once, and there is nothing equal to the first milk of the mother . . .

“It sometimes happens that the foal has not sufficient strength to
break the blanket in which he is enveloped; then, unless some one is at
hand to do so, the young thing will soon smother to death.

“When it is difficult to get the youngster to help itself, try to stream
some milk from the teat of the dam into its mouth, and rub some of
the milk on its nose. Continue this until it gets a taste of the milk, after
which it will be more eager to help itself.

“Close watch should be kept to see that there is an evacuation of the
bowels ... If the foal exhibits symptoms of distress or much un¬
easiness, and especially if the hind legs are drawn forward and the head
drooped and the little thing stumbles about the stall or paddock as if
trying to stand on its head, or turn a somersault, give it at once an in¬
jection of half a pint of blood warm water with just enough soap in it
to make it feel slippery to the touch. Glycerine may be added to the
water in proportion to one part glycerine to two parts water. This may
be administered by a common rubber bulb syringe suitable for family use,
or by any other style of syringe not too large.

“It may be necessary to follow up the injection for a day or two. A
dose of castor oil may be given if required; care should be taken not to
give more than is necessary lest purging may be induced.

“More can be done for the foal in the first six months of its life than
in any year thereafter, consequently the mare should be extra well fed
during the time of nursing the colt, and then, if she proves to be a poor
milker, as is many times the case, the foal should be fed in addition to
what it can get from its dam. It should be taught to drink sweet skim-
milk, which is very good for young foals. Do not feed whole, or new
milk as cream is unnatural to the foal; there is none in mare’s milk.

MANAGEMENT OF THE FOAL

77

“When the colt gets to be three months old he will eat considerable
food in addition to what he can get from the mare, and he should be
liberally supplied with oats in a separate feed trough where he can help
himself and where the mare cannot get to them to drive him away.

“When the mare is used on the farm or road in hot weather so as to
heat her blood, the foal should not be allowed to suck until she has
cooled off. Let him fill himself before the mare is put in the harness.
Colts injured by heated milk seldom recover from it for a year or two,
and sometimes never.”

According to Roudebush76 the colt should be allowed to nurse at will
until two weeks old; afterwards, three times a day until the age of four
weeks; and then gradually reduced so that at weaning time none is given
at all. He disfavors the practice of allowing foals to follow their mothers
in the field or on the road. Equal parts by weight of crushed oats and
corn with a little bran are advocated to feed the nursing mother. Good
suckling dams need but very little grain until the young is ten weeks
of age.

According to Axe,38 the meconium at times is retained in the body,
manifested by the foal which keeps raising the tail, the back being arched
and the position held is such as if to dung, and now and then straining
is noticed without any result. To remedy this condition an enema of
warm glycerine and water is indicated, which may be repeated, if neces¬
sary, two or three times daily. Or, failing on this a small dose of castor
oil in a little warm fresh milk should be given immediately. Should
constipation become habitual in the foal, it is advised to give an extra
supply of carrots or green food to the dam, and besides a couple of ounces
of sulphate of magnesia may be mixed with the food every day for three
times.

Henry and Morrison63 very comprehensively presents the procedure to
be followed in feeding the foal and are here quoted at length: “By placing
the feed box low, when 3 or 4 weeks old the foal will begin nibbling from
the mother’s supply and will soon acquire a taste for grain . . .

Crushed oats or oatmeal, with bran are excellent feeds, as is a mixture of
4 parts of crushed corn, 3 of bran, and 1 of linseed meal. Colts should be
given good clover, alfalfa, or other legume hay as soon as they will eat
it, and all the clean, pure water they want . . . Diarrhoea brought

on by overfeeding or exposure must be checked by giving parched flour,
rice meal gruel, or boiled milk; and constipation, the other common evil,
may be relieved by castor oil and injections of warm water, flaxseed tea,
sweet oil, etc., administered preferably with a fountain syringe having a
small hard rubber nozzle. Harm may be done by injecting a large quan¬
tity of strong soapy warm water with an ordinary ‘horse’ syringe. In
all cases of derangement the food for both dam and foal should at once
be lessened since nothing aids nature more at such times than reducing
the work of the digestive tract.

“When the mare is worked, the colt should be left in a cool, dark stall
during the day, where he will be safe and not bothered by flies, rather
than allowred to follow the dam about the field. The mare should be
brought to the barn to suckle the colt in the middle of the forenoon and
afternoon. The colt should not be allowed to drain the udder when burst¬
ing full of hot milk, as indigestion and scours are apt to follow. Allow
the mare to cool off, and perhaps draw some of the milk by hand before
turning her into the stall with the foal ... If the mare is worked
during the day it is well to turn both dam and foal into grass pasture at
night, and in addition feed a liberal allowance of grain.

“If flies torture the foal, it is better to keep the mare and foal in a
darkened stall during the day and turn to pasture only at night.

“The foal may be taught to drink cow’s milk by pouring it upon meal.
The young thing readily eats the moistened feed, and by tipping the pan

78

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

it soon learns to drink the milk. At the Iowa Station Wilson and uurtiss
successfully fed whole milk, and later separator skim milk to imported
Percheron, Shire, and French-Coach weaning fillies shortly after their
arrival from abroad and while out of condition . . . Grattan reports

favorably on the use of skim milk for foals, even when the milk is sour
or clabbered. MacNeilage objects to the use of cow’s milk for foals, claim¬
ing ‘no better means of manufacturing windsuckers was ever devised,
and it is rare that yearlings so brought out count for much as 2-year-olds
and 3-year-olds’ — a timely warning against the too free use of this food.”

For the care and management of the new born, Thomas and Shields80
write: “The first attention to the colt should be to the umbilical cord
(navel string) . . . The older horsemen and some younger ones, pre¬

fer to tie up the cord about a half inch from the body, and then cut it
off, just below where it has been tied. The younger horsemen and many
veterinarians advise against the tying up of the umbilical cord, since it
has been found in some cases to imprison the germs of navel disease
which have gained entrance to the navel before being disinfected.

“As soon as possible after the colt is born squeeze out the gelatinous
contents of the umbilical cord, tie it up if you will but in any event paint
it with an antiseptic solution, or, better still, dip it into such a solution.
Dr. A. S. Alexander prefers an antiseptic solution containing 2 drahms
of powdered corrosive sublimate to a pint of boiling water, to which
when cold has been added, 3 drahms of tincture of solution of chloride
of iron . . . Use this solution twice a day until the cord drops off.

Dr. W. A. Barber of Springfield, Ohio, uses ‘a solution of 9 parts of car¬
bolic acid, dissolved in 1 part of alcohol, with 25 parts of camphor added,
giving a clear oily solution that may be applied without fear of cauteriz¬
ing and many times more efficacious, I think, than corrosive sublimate.’

“Dr. R. R. Dykstra recommends: Tincture of iodine is first applied to
the cord and the area immediately surrounding it. After this apply a
drying powder every half hour for a period of three or four hours, or until
the cord is thoroughly dried up. This drying powder is composed of
equal parts of powdered gum camphor, starch and alum.

“After the navel is attended to the next thing ... is to inject
some warm water into the colt’s rectum so as to start the bowels working
regularly. Some men use an injection of one ounce of sweet oil in a
quart of warm water. Others use castile soap suds in warm water, but
this is not widely recommended as the soap is thought to be too irritat¬
ing. Users of soap suds injection claim it is not irritating, especially if
glycerine is added. Olive oil makes a satisfactory injection. In extreme
cases give an ounce of castor oil. A horseman writes ‘For enemas would
suggest the use of a few tablespoonfuls of liquid soap instead of castile
soap-suds. It is non-irritating, and being of an oily nature serves a
double purpose.’

“Dr. S. R. Howard says: ‘The best rectal injections, in my opinion, are
emulsion of slippery elm bark or warm cow’s milk. No harm can be
done by any amount used as they are natural in their action’.”

Thomas and Shields80 further point out that soon after the colt is
strong enough, and weather permitting, both dam and foal should be
turned in a paddock an hour or two, morning and afternoon. The time
is gradually increased until eventually the colt is out the whole day. But
at night they should be brought in. When warm weather is on both
mare and colt should be turned out in pasture.

It is claimed that the foal may be troubled with diarrhoea when the
mare comes in heat in 30 days, and although the former may resist the
effects of this ailment, nevertheless, under conditions in which diarrhoea
persists, Thomas and Shields80 recommend the removal of the mare
from pasture, keeping her in a cool and quiet place and subsisting her on

MANAGEMENT OF THE FOAL

79

hay or grass, without any grain at all, for 5 to 8 days, until the colt’s
system returns to normal.

When the middle of summer comes the colts are said to need ad¬
ditional feed. Thomas and Shields89 advocate the setting aside of feed¬
ing paddocks in pastures in which only the colts will have access to
troughs placed 2M> feet from the ground. The colts may receive one
feeding or two daily, according to the condition of the animals, but it is
pointed out that enough be supplied as the colts will clean up. Some
horsemen, it is said feed a concentrate mixture consisting of two bushels
of oats, one of wheat, one-half of cracked corn, fifty pounds of bran and
twenty pounds of oil meal (not oil cake but ground flaxseed meal).
They should be salted once or twice a week, or in lieu of this have access
to rock salt. In districts where the soil is deficient in lime a piece of
fresh-burned lime of about a hen’s egg in size should be placed in water
troughs once or twice a week.

According to Alexander,09 certain preparations are necessary if navel
and joint disease of foals is to be evaded. This “consists in removing
every particle of bedding, litter and dirt (from the maternity box stall).
Saturating the floor with a strong solution of disinfectant, such as four
ounces of sulphate of copper to one gallon of water, should be the next
step and the walls, ceiling and partitions are to be treated in the same
way. Then whitewash everything. In the fresh made lime wash mix a
quarter of a pound of chloride of lime to each pailful and if possible ap¬
ply by means of a spray pump which forces the wash into every nook
and cranny of the wood or stone work. Put in fresh bedding when the
above measures have been carried out. This is to be done each time the box
stall is to be used by a mare about to foal.” Alexander goes on to say
that two box stalls should be provided. These should be built apart
from each other and prepared in the same manner as indicated above.
As soon as the foal is born and the mare has “cleaned” and washed
both mare and foal should be moved to the second box stall and im¬
mediately the used one may be prepared for the next mare.

In regard to handling the new-born Alexander9? writes: “When the foal
comes, immediately wet its navel with a solution of half an ounce of cor¬
rosive sublimate in one pint of boiling water aciduated with one dram
of hydrochloric acid. When cool, color this solution with a couple of
drams of tincture of iron and label “poison.” After applying the medicine
to the navel, wash the foal’s belly with a 2 per cent solution of coal tar
disinfectant and use the same strength wash for the udder and genitals
of the mare before the foal is allowed to suck. Repeat the applications
of strong solution at least twice a day until the navel cord dries up,
drops off and there is no raw spot left. The applications to the udder
and genitals of the mare should be repeated twice daily until all dis¬
charge from the vagina subsides. The strong disinfectant solution ap¬
plied to the navel at birth destroys any germs present and the after
applications keep the part absolutely free from germs besides having
cauterizing and astringent effects which are highly beneficial. As it is
often necessary to tie the foal’s navel at birth always be careful to use
a cord that has been kept soaked in 5 per cent solution of coal tar dis¬
infectant, carbolic acid, or 1-2000 solution of corrosive sublimate solution
as above prescribed.” This treatment does not only prevent the occur¬
rence of navel disease but besides it prevents scours. Alexander" says
that “Where personal attention cannot be given several times a day the
work may be lessened by covering the navel with antiseptic cotton on
which has been freely sprinkled a mixture of one dram of iodoform and
seven drams of boracic acid. This should be used after wetting the
navel .with the strong corrosive sublimate solution and is to be held in
place by a wide bandage around the body. The dressing should be re¬
moved once daily until the navel has healed.”

80

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

Ogilvie01 discusses at length the method of feeding and handling foals,
thus: “I would not advise taking the foal away from its mother during
the working hours through the spring seeding time. They can do no
harm to crops by running with their mother in the field, while at work
during this period. The occasional nursing that can be given the foals
during the day, if following their mothers in the field, will be very help¬
ful in giving them a good start in life, and the foals may be depended on
to take better care of their mothers’ bags during the first month after
foaling, than the average farm hand will give them.

“When foals are four weeks old, you can begin to feed them with a
grain ration of bruised oats, with fresh wheat bran, moistened with cow’s
milk, even though you use skimmed milk. If you are unable to provide
milk, moisten their grain with water sweetened with . . . ‘black

strap’ molasses. A double handful of grain, mixed as above, will make
a good ration for each foal three times daily for the first month, you can
increase this 50%, and after the second month double it, and continue
this ration until weaning time.”

“Later in the season when foals by running with their dams might be
destructive to growing crops that are being cared for I would advise
keeping them in a small paddock, near barns, if you have one; if not,
keep them in a barn during the day allowing them to nurse just before
the mares leave the stable in the morning, after dinner, at noon time,
and not until after supper, in the evening. But not allowing the foal to
nurse immediately upon the arrival of its mother at the barn at noon,
and in the evening, it will give her time to cool off, and the foal will do
much better thereby, than if allowed to nurse its mother while she is
in a heated condition, for we all know the result of scalded milk given
to a nursing foal.

“If you have more than one foal, give them the freedom of a paddock,
or house them together in one box stall, or pen. The equine family
. . . will be more contented and thrive better if kept together, than if

tied in separate stalls. The exercise that they will receive by being kept
in paddocks, or loose boxes will in itself be beneficial to them.

“During the first winter, I would advise allowing foals to run together
in an enclosure that will give them shelter from the winter storms, and
at the same time plenty of exercise during the day. A feed of boiled
oats, and roots . . . with bran sufficient to absorb the liquid in the

boiled feed, will make a good feed for them, at least once a day. At
other feeding times continue the ration above prescribed, only in an in¬
creased quantity.”

In regard to the care and feeding of foals, Reese39 says that “It is
best to turn the mare and colt in a lot where they can exercise and yet
be quiet, but care should be taken at first to see that the foal is not
chilled by staying out too long in cool, disagreeable weather or by lying
on cold, damp ground. They should not be on grass if the mare has not
been on grass before.” It is also advised that in case the mare is being
worked, which should be in a little over a week if she has been worked
previously, “If the foal is left in the stall, the mare should be brought
to the stable, in the middle of the forenoon and afternoon in order that
the foal may get its food, but in no case should a foal suckle a mare that
is very warm, as digestive disorders are likely to follow. If possible, do
not use the mare for purposes which will keep her away from the barn
for a long time, as the foal will either go too long without nursing or
else will be worn out by following the mare. When left at the stable the
foal should be kept in a roomy clean box stall in company with another
one of about the same age if possible.” Later on, Reese continues, “At
about 2 months of age the foal will take dry feed, which should be sup¬
plied through the dam’s grain box. This makes it necessary to furnish
her with such feeds as ground oats, corn meal and bran. A little later

MANAGEMENT OF THE FOAL

81

on a ‘creep’ should be built in the stall or pasture, inside of which the
foal can be supplied with grain without having to share it with its
mother ... A handful of ground oats should be given at first, and
the quantity should be increased slowly as the foal grows. The maximum
amount should be about 1 pound a day till weaning time.”

McCampbell03 states that “If the mare is worked, the colt should be
left in a cool, dark stall during the day. For the first few weeks the
mare should be brought to the barn and the colt allowed to suckle in
the middle of the forenoon and the middle of the afternoon, as well as at
morning, noon and evening. The colt should be left with the mare at
night. Encourage the colt to eat as soon as possible, preferably crushed
oats with bran. If oats are not available, the following ration may be
substituted: crushed corn, four parts; bran, three parts; linseed meal,
one part; these proportions being by weight. Let the colt have alfalfa
or clover hay as soon as he will eat it. See that he has access to clean,
pure water at all times, if possible.” McCampbell also remarks that “If
the mare and the foal are running in the pasture, a ‘creep’ should be
made where the colt can have access to grain. To raise high-class horses
one must feed them liberally and keep them continually growing and
developing from the very first . . . The stunted colt never fully re¬

covers. The feed and the care a colt gets during the first year and a
half of its life determine largely what that colt will be at maturity.”

In an elaborate manner Johnstone5 presents the procedure by which
the management and feeding of the new-born may be carried out, and
writes: “During the closing period of its fetal existence there collects
in the intestines of the foal the fecal substance known as meconium.
This must be gotten rid of shortly after birth and usually is, the milk in
the mare’s udder at parturition, known as colostrum, having an aperient
action ... Its chief peculiarity physically is that its fat globules are
very large. Its aperient action is due, probably, to its long retention in
the udder and to the milk fermentive process which has been going on in
it for some little time prior to its withdrawal. The milk which is secret¬
ed within an hour after the withdrawal of the colostrum has no aperient
action to speak of, and hence it is believed that the action so necessary
to the foal is derived from some principal evolved during the retention
of the colostrum in the udder, which sets up a mild form of indigestion
and so induces the peristaltic action of the bowels which removes the
meconium.

“If the foal gets his first hold on the maternal dug within an hour
from birth, that will be all right. Usually the meconium will pass away
easily within five or six hours, but sometimes it will not. If it does not
come within twenty-four hours and the foal presents a droopy, listless
appearance, eye not bright, ears lopped over, then the first thing to be
done is to give him two ounces of castor oil. In five hours more relief
will usually have been gained and the appearance of the youngster will
change greatly for the better. Peristaltic action will be caused and the
fecal matter will be removed. At the time of administering the castor
oil give also an injection of water at blood heat and a little glycerine —
a teaspoonful of glycerine and enough of the warm water to make two
ounces — not more. Inject this gently into the rectum with a common
two-ounce hard rubber syringe and go slow. This will lubricate the pass¬
age and induce the foal to endeavor to pass the fecal matter. The me¬
conium is in such cases a yellowish, rather hard, waxy substance. If
given as directed the injection cannot do any harm and may be repeated
every hour.

“There is, of course, no digestive action in the new-born foal. The
entrance of something into the stomach is necessary to start the ma¬
chinery into motion. If this is not affected by the colostrum, there is
nothing so good as castor oil and the injection described. Never try to

82

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

fill the little foal up with copious douches of soapsuds or even plain warm
water. Only a very little is needful. To discover if peristaltic action
. . . is going on, hold the ear close to the left flank of the foal. If all

goes well the noise heard there will indicate that the small intestines
are in working order, which is the first object sought. The noise on the
right side will indicate what is going on in the larger intestines. If the
meconium is not passed in six hours after the adminitsration of the
castor oil, the dose should he repeated.”

To prevent the entrance of joint-ill organisms Johnstone3 recommends
the ligation of the navel or umbilical cord. “Being easily destroyed,
these germs are readily combated by the application of any good anti¬
septic, but corrosive sublimate is to be preferred, using a 1-500 solution
to swab the small portion of the cord left pendant from the body of the
foal immediately after ligation — which means tying a string around the
cord. Ligation should be as close to the body as possible, and the string
should be surgeon’s silk. The corrosive sublimate solution should be ap¬
plied twice daily to the pendulous portion of the cord until it drops off
. . . always clean out the stall after the mare has foaled and burn

the litter. The fluids incident to foaling seem to promote germ produc¬
tion in an amazing degree.

“Foals to develop to their best should have about all the grain they
will eat, and their dams should be well fed also. If the mares are worked
their feeding need not bother any one. Their foals should have oatmeal
and bran as already described to eat at will, only a little at a time, and
the supply renewed often so as to keep it always fresh and sweet . . .

When the foal gets old enough he may eat grass if he wants it and his
grain as well, but the milk he sucks should always be the same. Hence
let the feeding of the' mare be uniform.”

With mares that are to be wrorked, Johnstone5 advocates to leave the
foal in the boxstall wThen the mother is to be taken out to work. At
first the colt will fret but soon afterwards he will get accustomed to
being alone. The plan suggested is to work the mare for half a day the
first time. It is claimed that she will worry greatly and be soft so that
she may become heated badly. It is recommended on coming to the barn
• at noon from work to milk the mare almost dry and then to put her in
the stall where she could have little hay and at the same time cool off.
After cooling off she is watered and then turned in with her foal in a
boxstall where she also gets her grain. The mare is gradually hardened
in her work until finally she is harnessed to do her regular job. John¬
stone directs not to let foal suckle from a warm mare as, he says, it
causes indigestion and scours. A bucket of water should be available in
the boxstall for the foal.

According to Gay4 the new-born is perhaps most commonly affected by
impaction of the meconium in the bowels. This excrement is, however,
naturally removed by the purgative properties of the colostrum, the first
milk suckled by the young. But if for some reason meconium has not
passed out within twenty-four hours, it is advised to resort to the ad¬
ministration of a tablespoon of castor oil and a warm water injection.
Navel infection is mentioned as another common cause of the death of
foals. To prevent the foal from this affliction, Gay recommends the re¬
moval of mares that are to foal from infected quarters to clean and non-
infected sites. It is also claimed to be a safer practice that the stump of
the cord be washed with a saturated solution of boracic acid and dusted
with boric acid powder. Gay is of the opinion not to cut or ligate the
umbilical cord but instead it should be allowed to break naturally.

Regarding some precautionary measures to be observed and the method
of handling the suckling colt, Gay4 writes: “The milk flow must be main¬
tained by succulent forage, the colt must be fed often, and the dam

MANAGEMENT OF THE FOAL 83

must at no time be in such a condition as to render the milk injurious to
the foal.

“Most breeders advise leaving the colt in the stable while the dam is
at work, but others allow the colt to follow the dam to the field. The
objection to the former method is that unless the mare is returned at
least once during each half day the colt becomes very hungry and when
the mare comes to him sweating he gorges himself on the milk with
which the udder is distended. This milk is often rendered injurious by
the heated condition of the mare, and it thus becomes a cause of serious
digestive disorder, especially when so much is taken. It is a good thing
to encourage the colt, as it grows older, to take a few oats, preferably
crushed, from its mother’s allowance, or a creep may be especially con¬
structed for the foal to feed in. If two mares and foals are allowed to¬
gether, the youngsters will form an attachment for each other which
will prove of great service in reconciling them to the weaning process.”

2. Raising the Orphan Foal

Alexander,100 in presenting a system by which orphan foals may be
raised, writes: “Choose the milk of a cow that has recently calved, pre¬
ferably one which gives milk low in butter fat, for mare’s milk while
rich in sugar, is poor in fat. Sweeten the milk with molasses or sugar
and dilute with warm water. Give a little of this modified milk, from a
scalded vessel, at short intervals. Add an ounce of lime water to each
pint of the prepared milk and allow half a cupful once an hour at first.

“As the foal grows, gradually increase the amount of milk fed and
lengthen the intervals between meals. In a few days food may be given
six times a day and, later, four times daily. The foal will soon learn to
drink from a pail, if allowed to suck the attendant’s fingers at first.
Keep the milk utensils scrupulously clean.

“Until the bowels move freely, give rectal injections night and morn¬
ing. If the foal scours at any time give the treatment ... on dia¬
rrhoea, and stop feeding milk for two or three meals, allowing sweetened
warm wrater and lime water instead. Let the foal eat oatmeal as soon as
it cares to do so and gradually increase the amount and add wheat bran.
In five or six weeks some sweet, skim milk may be given and the amount
gradually increased daily until, in three months or so, it may be given
freely three times a day in place of new milk. The foal at this age will
be eating freely of grass, grain, and bran.

“Supply pure water as soon as the foal cares to drink. Let the foal
run out in a lot or grass paddock for exercise. Accustom it to be handled
daily. Feed small quantities of nutritious food often, keeping all food
vessels clean, and the foal should thrive and develop well . . . Prac¬
tically half of the full weight of a horse is gained during the first 12
months of its life. If stunted during this period the colt never develops
properly; it therefore pays to feed generously.”

Johnstone’s5 desideratum in regard to orphan foal management fol¬
lows: “In rearing a very young orphan foal get the milk of as fresh a
cow as possible and the poorer in butter fat the better. Do not use
Jersey milk for this purpose. Take a dessert spoonful of the best white
granulated sugar and add enough warm water to dissolve it. Then add
three tablespoonfuls of lime water and enough new milk to make a pint.
A costless apparatus for feeding the foal is thus contrived: Get an old
teapot and scald it thoroughly. Over the spout tie securely the thumb
of an old kid glove, and with a darning needle pierce holes in the kid.
Warm the milk to blood heat, pour a part of it into the teapot, and when
it flows through the spout into the glove thumb, an excellent imitation of
the maternal teat will be formed, which the foal will suck promptly. Let
him have half a teacupful every hour at first. It is a bothersome chore,
but it must be done. If scours supervene, give a dose of two ounces of

84

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

castor oil and discontinue the milk for a couple of feeds, giving the
sugar and limewater as before but substituting plain water for the milk,
or feed nothing at all. Foals reared by hand will scour more or less, but
the castor oil will generally fix them up all right.

“As the foal grows older day by day the quantity of milk fed may be
increased and the number of feeds decreased until according to his thrift
he may be fed first six times a day and then four times. If he is
carried along nicely he may at the end of three weeks be fed the milk and
limewater or milk alone from a bucket, eliminating the sugar, but he
should never be given all the milk he will drink at that age. Watch close¬
ly for signs of scouring, which are a sure sign of indigestion, and cut
down on the quantity of milk fed for a day. Give castor oil as before
only in three or four-ounce doses. Always have fresh water so the foal
may drink if he is thirsty.

“A foal should begin to nibble at grain when he is around a month
old, sometimes earlier. His first food should be oatmeal. He should be
allowed such trifling quantity of this as he will eat. It will only be a
very little at first. When he is six weeks old a little bran may be added.
At two months old some sweet skim milk may be substituted for part of
the new milk and so on until when he is three months old the orphan
foal may have about all the sweet skim milk he wants three times a day.
He will then be eating plenty of grain and grass and he should have hay
if he wants it. Let him have grass as soon as he will eat it. Never
feed sour milk or sweet milk from unclean vessels. Keep him in a lot
near the house and give him company if it is only a runty calf. Pet him
and coddle him all of the time that can be spared and in general treat
him as every orphan should be treated — with loving kindness and care.
Never confine him closely in a stall. Let him run. The rearing of a
motherless foal is mostly in the man or woman who essays the job.”

Wilcox101 makes the following remarks regarding the raising of foals
by hand: “Colts to be raised by hand should receive fresh, warm cow’s
milk with a tablespoonful of sugar to each quart of milk. This ad¬
dition of sugar is desirable on acount of the fact that mare’s milk con¬
tains more sugar than cow’s milk and less fat. For this reason it is
not best to use milk which contains more than four per cent of fat.
Colts may be given a pound or less of suitable cow’s milk five to ten
times daily. Fresh separator milk may be substituted as with calves and
some grain may be fed. Colts may be taught to drink in the same man¬
ner as calves within two months. Some feeders recommend the addition
of one fresh egg stirred into the milk daily for the first few weeks. If
the colts are to obtain their greatest development they should be fed
grain as soon as they will eat it. For this purpose oats and bran are
the best. Corn is not desirable for young colts since it does not contain
sufficient protein.”

Axe38 says: “The most suitable milk for this purpose [for orphan foal
raising] will be obtained from a heifer a week after calving, or if the foal
has not sucked its dam it would be an advantage to procure a supply for
the first 36 hours from a cow just calved, in order to awaken the bowels
and provoke discharge of their contents.

“At first the proportion of water to cow’s milk should be one part of
the former to two of the latter, but as time goes on one part to three
will be found more to the purpose, and later water may be excluded al¬
together.

“To maintain natural temperature (100° F) it should be drawn from a
cow into a vessel previously warmed, and afterwards diluted with water
raised to 100° F. At first half a pint should be given every half hour,
and gradually increased as time goes on, while the intervals between
meals may be extended accordingly.”

Sanders’s40 dictum in the raising of the orphan foal also supports the

MANAGEMENT OF THE FOAL

85

use of cow’s milk. But this, he says, should be sweetened for the first
time in order that it would approximately correspond to the mare’s
milk in composition: “A half pint is quite suffiicent for a colt two or
three days old; but the ration should be repeated often — not less than
six times a day. As the colt grows older the amount should be increased
and grass, with oats, should be added as soon as the colt is old enough
to eat. After the colt is two months old skimmed milk should be sub¬
stituted for fresh -cow’s milk. Should there be any trouble from con¬
stipation it will be well to add one pint of oil-meal per day to the ration;
in fact, I would recommend the use of oil-meal in all cases. If oil-meal
is not obtainable flaxseed may be used. A half-pint of flaxseed boiled
with two quarts of bran will make two good feeds for a colt, and this
ration may profitably be alternated with the other foods. Indeed, it will
be well in all cases where, from lack of an abundance of milk of the dam,
or from scanty nutrition of any kind, the foal is low in flesh, to early
supply the deficiency with a good allowance of cow’s milk in addition to
what it gets from the dam ... A quart of milk morning and eve¬
ning, in addition to the grain ration, will be sufficient, and if it be
sweetened a little at first the colt will take to it all the more readily.”

According to Harper,95 “Cow’s milk, if modified with at least one-fourth
its volume of water, together with some sugar, makes a fair substitute for
mare’s milk, but should be given at about the same temperature as mare’s
milk. Gruels made by boiling beans or peas, and removing the skins by
pressing the pulp through a sieve, or oil-meal and shorts made into a
jelly by boiling are excellent for the motherless colt.”

Hughes00 likewise considers milk which is low in butterfat and ob¬
tained from a fresh cow as being fitted to feed the orphan foal. His
method of feeding follows: “To a dessert spoonful of granulated sugar
should be added enough water to dissolve it. To this three tablespoonsful
of lime water and enough fresh milk to make a pint should be added. A
small amount, one-half pint, should be given each hour. In a short time
the amount should be increased and feed should be given every two hours,
more being given gradually and the time between feeding lengthened.”

Kennedy61 gives a lengthy discussion on the raising of the orphan foal,
and writes: “Cow’s milk is the best substitute for that of the mare, al¬
though the latter has more sugar and less fat than the former . . .

Milk low in butterfat is best for this purpose. One pint of cow’s milk
diluted with one-fourth pint of lime water, and to which a teaspoonful
of sugar is added, approximately approaches the consistency of mare’s
milk. Lime water helps to prevent the milk from forming into hard
curds. A nursing bottle with a rubber nipple is about the best means
of giving the milk, but some prefer to use the spout of a teapot, with the
finger of a kid glove on the end of the spout, with a hole punched in the
same so that the milk can flow through it. The instruments should be
thoroughly cleaned and sterilized with boiling water each time before
they are used, and the milk should be warmed to a temperature of about
100° F. before feeding. At first the colt should be fed every hour, giving
it about one-half pint at each feeding. It is advisable at the start to
feed the colt two or three times at night, but after a short time, he will
be able to consume enough milk to carry him through the night. As the
colt grows older, the quantity of milk should be gradually increased and
the number of feeds decreased, until he is about a month old, when, if he
is doing nicely, he may be fed only four or five times a day and the
sugar and lime water omitted. He should also be taught to drink out of a
pail by this time, and the feed gradually increased, although great care
must be taken that too much milk is not given, as the result will be
scours. Many orphan foals are fed more milk than they need rather
than not enough. The orphan foal should be taught to eat grain as early
as possible. If a little is added to the bucket with the milk, the colt will

86

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

soon be munching at it when the milk is gone, and in this way will soon
be eating grain. Unless the foal is early started on grain, he will gen¬
erally become pot-bellied, and after such an appearance is acquired, it
takes considerable time, good feed and care to overcome it.”

3. Common and Infectious Diseases, and Other Axlments
Purulent Infection of the Navel

“Purulent infection of the navel is greatly favored by many of the cir¬
cumstances attending the birth of the young animal. When it is born in
a stable or barnyard, or in surroundings where filth and dirt are abun¬
dant and omnipresent, there is constant exposure to infection of the new-
made wound. Whenever the animal lies down, especially in sternal re¬
cumbency, the new-made wound comes in direct contact with infected
bedding, decomposing feces or urine, or with other filth which may
chance to exist at such a point.

. . The herbivorous mother habitually cleanses the broken cord

by licking, and thereby withdraws from it a large part of the Whartonian
gelatine, thus favoring the early desiccation of the stump. It appears that
in spite of the fact that the mouth usually abounds in pathogenic bacteria,
the process of licking the navel is, according to clinical observations, com¬
paratively safe and tends to protect the navel against infection. We
observe infection of the navel most frequently in the foal, whose mother
pays less attention to the naval than do other domestic animals.

“Purulent infection of the navel very frequently arises, also, as an in¬
direct result of ligating the umbilical cord. The danger from ligating the
cord consists usually of two principal elements — the infection of the
wound by careless ligation, and the providing of a breeding ground for
bacteria by the inclusion of the Whartonian gelatine.”

“From a surgical standpoint, nothing can well be more dangerous to
the new-born than the careless or filthy ligation of the umbilic cord by a
layman or a veterinarian with dirty, infected hands and an unclean
ligature . . .

“. . . If the cord is tightly ligated, the gelatine is firmly enclosed, and

its fluid portions cannot escape readily and permit proper desiccation of
the stump. Even if the ligature has been applied under other antiseptic
precautions, but retains the Whartonian gelatine, the procedure is at
once in conflict with surgical practice, because this substance constitutes
an excellent medium for the growth of pathogenic bacteria . . . The

danger from infection is further emphasized if the ligature is placed at a
point too distant from the umbilicus, thus increasing the amount of tissue
in the cord which must undergo desiccation or putrefaction. The greater
the amount of moist-tissue, the mare probable is putrefaction, and the
less likely is desiccation to occur.

Ligation possesses yet another danger, in the possible incarceration of
the two umbilic arteries and the urachus. If the ligature is applied very
tightly before the cord is severed, the retraction of the arteries and
urachus into the abdominal cavity may be prevented. Being retained in
the navel, the open ends of the arteries and urachus are freely exposed,
and rendered more subject to infection during putrefaction of the tissues.

“. . . When a ligature is applied to a dormant or dead tissue like
the umbilic stump . . . the stump goes on to putrefaction or desicca¬

tion, as circumstances may favor. The application of a ligature about a
mass of dead tissue cannot prevent infection of the necrotic mass on
either side of the ligature, but may greatly favor putrefaction by confin¬
ing fluids within the parts. When such bacterial infection and decom¬
position occur in the necrotic tissues of the cord, the more or less dor-

MANAGEMENT OF THE FOAL

87

mant vessels incarcerated in the decomposing tissues are seriously ex¬
posed to bacterial invasion.

“It is thus a common clinical observation that purulent infection of the
navel is greatly favored by the process of ligation, and the more improper¬
ly ligated the greater the danger. Admittedly a navel cord may he safely
ligated. If the cord is divided at the proper point, the Whartonian gela¬
tine thoroughly pressed out and the stump ligated under perfect aseptic
precautions, followed by the application of an aseptic covering, and its
retention in position and in an aseptic state (a very difficult task with
domestic animals), the operation is safe.

“Another method by which infection apparently takes place is through
the medium of flies, which are attracted to the cord while it is yet moist
after birth. These filth carriers, having previously been in contact with
infected wounds or putrid organic matter, carry the infection to the
navel. Foals born during fly time very frequently suffer from navel in¬
fection.

“ Handling . . We provide the breeder with a desiccating antiseptic

powder for application to the navel cord as soon as the foal or other
young animal is born. This powder may be variously compounded, but
should consist of reliable antiseptics having a distinct desiccating power.
We would suggest, for such a powder, equal parts of iodoform, tannin,
oxide of zinc and starch, all finely powdered and mixed. The oxide of
zinc might be displaced by calomel, or the latter might be added to the
compound suggested. Quite as good, or perhaps even superior is a powder
consisting of equal parts of desiccated alum, gum camphor and starch
finely powdered and thoroughly mixed. The latter mixture is especially
efficient in keeping flies away from the moist cord.

“For the application of such a powder, the owner or veterinarian should
first thoroughly cleanse and disinfect his hands. If the navel has be¬
come soiled, it also should be cleansed and disinfected. The navel cord
should not be tied. We have already stated our objections to ligating
the cord. If it is unruptured, the caretaker, after disinfecting his hands
should pull, tear or scrape the cord in two, under antiseptic precautions,
at a distance of about two or three inches from the navel, after which,
with the thumb and finger, he should press out from the stump the
Whartonian gelatine and fluids. After this has been well done, the
powder should be dusted over the stump of the navel very freely and
repeatedly, until the remnant of the cord has become completely desiccat¬
ed and the navel hermetically sealed.

“If the application is repeated three or four times at intervals of one-
half hour, the stump of the cord is well mummified within two to four
hours and the danger from infection is eliminated. The horse-breeder
should be impressed with the fact that the efficacy of the remedy depends
wholly upon the early and thorough application, and that any delay or
carelessness is liable to vitiate the result.

“Antistreptococcic serum has been heralded as a valuable prophylactic
against this infection, but is wholly needless. Local cleanliness is ample,
and other means superfluous or worse. Few diseases of animals are
more subject to safe, convenient and economic prevention than navel
infection of the new-born. Its success calls for fidelity to cleanliness on
the part of the owner, preceeded by timely and intelligent advice by the
veterinarian.” Williams.48

Imperforate Anus

“In considering the development of the embryo, we have learned . . .

that at an early period in its history the posterior gut ends blindly, and
opposite to it upon the external surface, there appears a depression in

88

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

the ectoderm known as the proctodeal pit, which gradually becomes deep¬
er while the wall between it and the end of the gut becomes more and
more attenuated, until finally it disappears and the gut opens posteriorly
as the anus. In some cases the attenuation and disappearance of the
walls of the proctodeal pit fail to occur, and as a result the young animal
is born with an imperforate anus.

“In other cases, not only is there an arrest of the development in this
part, but the entire posterior gut, or any portion of it, may fail to form
or may become obliterated early, so that there is an absence of both the
anus and the rectum.

“The diagnosis of imperforate anus is comparatively simple, since it
depends upon the absence of that organ. Upon examination no posterior
opening of the gut is discoverable. If only the anus fails, the meconium
may be pushed back against the thin membrane, to form a tumor in the
anal region: while if the rectum itself is absent, no such tumor occurs.

“. . . If the rectum is absent, so that the accumulation of meconium

in the anal region does not occur, the animal should be destroyed as
valueless.

“In some instances in new-born females, there occurs an imperforate
anus, accompanied by an imperfect vulvoanal partition, and the feces
drop downward into the vulva through the defective partition, and escape
therefrom involuntarily . . . However, because of the difficulty of

bringing about the closure of an opening In this place, it would be better
as a rule to destroy the young animal, unless it is of unusual value for
work purposes. An animal with such a defect should not be used for
breeding.” Williams.48

Imperforate Vulva

“Imperforate vulva is fundamentally referable to the same causes as
we have already described as operating in imperforate anus. The vulva is
formed in the same manner as the anus, that is, it originates from the
lower portion of the proctodeal pit. The atresia or closure may not end
the vulva is completely closed, it prevents the discharge of urine through
with the vulva, but may include other parts of the urinogenital canal. If
the normal channel, and forces it to continue to pass through the urachus.

“The handling of imperforate vulva cannot as a rule be successful,
because it is difficult or impossible to discover the urethra and open it
in a manner which will prove effective. The animal may continue to
live indefinitely with an open urachus, but is of no value. When the
vulva is only partially closed, and there is room for urine to escape
readily, there is no occasion for surgical interference. As a general rule,
such partial atresia or absence of the vulva in reality depends upon an
asexual state, as is observed in freemartins, so that the animal is in¬
capable of breeding. Consequently, there is no object to be gained by any
surgical attempt at dilating the vulva.” Williams.48

Diarrhea

. . In the present section we propose to deal with what is prob¬

ably one of the commonest affections in foals from one to two weeks old.
In a breeding district the practitioner meets with a large number of
cases of what is popularly known as ‘scouring’ in foals, the leading symp¬
tom of which is the presence of diarrhea in various degrees of severity.
Mild cases readily yield to simple treatment, but when such are neglected
or irrationally treated, or occur in animals of a weak constitution, colicky
pains may be manifested, with marked depression, and death may result
from exhaustion.

“. . . Various causes have been suggested, such as defective sanitary

surroundings and alterations in the lacteal secretion of the dam, so that

MANAGEMENT OF THE FOAL

89

the milk is unfit for digestion, and sets up irritation of the intestinal
mucosa. But we know that the condition may arise in the absence of
such causes. Certain foods given to the dam may produce changes in the
milk, which cause diarrhea in the foal. One etiological factor we are fully
acquainted with — viz., the custom of separating the foal from the dam
for long intervals while the latter is kept at work. In such instances the
mare may return to the foal in a fatigued condition, the milk probably
long retained in the udder (unless the attendant has sufficient common
sense to draw it off) may undergo alterations, rendering it unfit for
digestion. Again, the foal being kept without nutriment for a long period,
generally ingests more milk than his stomach, weakened by the enforced
abstinence, is able to digest. Dyspepsia results, and the irritating pro¬
ducts formed induce diarrhea. Unhealthy foals in weak condition are
specially predisposed to diarrhea, and the latter may be associated with
joint-ill in some cases. When a foal has to be reared on cow’s milk, owing
to the death of its mother, diarrhea is not uncommon. In such instances
a little water and sugar should be added to the milk as a prophylactic
measure.

“. . . In mild cases the prominent symptom is the frequent passage

of liquid faeces of a yellowish-white appearance. If the cases be neglected,
or if the affection be severe from the outset, the faeces are very fetid, the
skin around the anus and posterior aspect of the thighs becoms soiled
and irritated, constitutional disturbance is present and in some instances
colicky pains appear. The animal loses condition rapidly, refuses to
suck the dam, exhaustion supervenes, and death takes place in a variable
period. Pneumonia is sometimes observed as a complication, but this is
probably due to careless drenching in many of the cases met with.

“. . . In mild cases subjected to early and rational treatment the

prognosis is favorable; but if neglected, or if the affection be severe from
the commencement, the mortality is high. In some country districts the
annual loss from this source is a very serious one to breeders of horses.
A number of the cases perish from inhalation pneumonia, owing to
careless administration of medicines.” Hoare.97

Umbilical Hemorrhage

“Umbilical hemorrhage in the new-born animal is very rare. We have
not had occasion to observe this accident in any case. Under normal
conditions, -when the umbilic arteries rupture they retract within the
abdominal cavity and in so doing withdraw with them, in an inverted
manner, the connective tissue surrounding them, and thus form a net¬
work of fibers, which serves to cause the blood to coagulate and make
hemorrhage extremely improbable. The retraction of the arteries also
causes a thickening of their walls, and a distinct decrease in their caliber,
thereby so narrowing the lumen that it is exceedingly difficult for blood
to escape from their divided ends. In addition to this, there is a general
physiologic law that the blood pressure is decreased whenever the blood
is no longer required by the tissues. Since the function of the umbilic
arteries has ceased, the blood pressure within then becomes suddenly
decreased.

“Fleming states that hemorrhage may take place from these arteries
in foal, because they are firmly attached to the umbilic ring. After re¬
peated autopsies, we have failed to find an instance where such was the
case, except the umbilic cord had been ligated, and the arteries thereby
held so firmly that they could not retract. In addition to this, when the
cord is ligated it is usually divided at an abnormal distance from the
umbilic ring, so that its retraction is difficult. In all foals which we
have examined, where the navel cord had been allowed to rupture normal¬
ly, the arteries had promptly retracted ... In the foal, the cord is

90

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

very long and does not spontaneously rupture so promptly. It consequent¬
ly affords an opportunity for mischief-making for attendants, who may so
fix the arteries with a ligature that they cannot retract.

“. . . Zundel claims that in some individuals a predisposition to um-

bilic hemorrhage exists. Fleming alludes to the possibility of hemorrhage
occurring from the umbilic cord when the animal is several days old. Per¬
haps in this case he is dealing with secondary hemorrhage due to an
infection of the artery, probably as a result of ligation of the cord without
proper antiseptic precautions. It is claimed also that hemorrhage may
be caused by the umbilic cord rupturing too close to the umbilic ring,
though why this should be so does not appear.

“Whatever the cause of umbilic hemorrhage, such cause needs be re¬
moved if possible, in order to control the escape of blood. If the cord is
too long, and perchance has been ligated, it should be divided at the
proper point by scraping or tearing. In the foal, the point for division
is about two to three inches from the umbilic ring. After the division
of the -cord, the Whartonian gelatine is to be pressed out, the arteries per¬
mitted to retract into the abdominal cavity, when hemorrhage must
necessarily cease. If for any reason the artery does not retract, it should
be separated from the surrounding tissues and carefully ligated under
antiseptic precautions. Should hemorrhage from the umbilic vein occur,
it is advisable to search for the vessel and place a ligature about it. The
ligation of the cord itself as advised by some, is not sufficient, because
the arteries or vein may not be included, as they may have broken at a
point higher than that at which the ligature is applied. In such cases
ligation would tend to favor, rather than prevent the hemorrhage, be¬
cause it would simply prevent the blood from escaping from the amniotic
covering of the cord, which has been converted into blood, causing the
ligature to be pushed off.

“In a general way we may best avoid umbilic hemorrhage by permit¬
ting the cord to rupture spontaneously, or by rupturing it at the proper
point by linear tension, laceration or ecrasement. We should avoid divid¬
ing the cord by cutting.” Williams.48

Rupture of Intestines

“In rare instances, rupture of the intestines may occur during par¬
turition, either because they are over-filled or weakened at the time, or
because an intentional loop becomes engaged between the pelvic inelt and
an unyielding portion of the fetus as it advances along the birth canal.
Fleming cites Schaack as having observed one instance of a rupture of the
intestine by its becoming compressed between the fetus and the pelvic
bones.

“The symptoms of such an injury, especially in the mare, would be
those common to rupture of the intestine, and would consist chiefly of
collapse, with very feeble or indistinguishable pulse, trembling and cold
sweats. It is well-nigh impossible to make a positive diagnosis of this
condition during the life of the animal, and it can merely be suspected
from the general symptoms. It is not possible to apply any effective
method of treatment.” Williams.48

Prolapse of the Intestine through the Ruptured Walls of the TJterus or

Vagina

“When a perforating wound or rupture of the walls of the uterus or
vagina occurs at any point, it is possible for a protrusion of the intes¬
tines to follow. This prolapse, however, does not ordinarily follow when
a wound is made through the walls of the vagina or uterus in the non-
pregnant animal. The prolapse is probable only in those cases where

MANAGEMENT OF THE FOAL

91

there is violent straining, as seen in parturition or immediately follow¬
ing it . . . In uterine or vaginal rupture in difficult parturition,

where the intra-abdominal pressure is enormously increased by the strain¬
ing, a portion of the intestine frequently passes into the uterus or vagina,
and finally behind the vulva.

“The indications usually are to at once destroy the patient, since the
prognosis must necessarily be extremely bad. The protrusion generally
occurs before the expulsion of the fetus, and it then becomes almost im¬
possible to extract the fetus without incidental injury to the intestine
and infection of the peritoneal cavity. If it be possible to return the
intestines with hope of saving the life of the patient, this should be done,
and measures taken to keep the intestines out of the way until the fetus
has passed beyond the point of injury. After the fetus has been re¬
moved, it may in some cases be possible to suture the wound in the
uterus or vagina in order to guard against further prolapse and decrease
the danger of infection.” Williams.48

Umbilic Hernia, Exomphalus, Omphalocele, Havel Hernia

“Umbilic hernia consists of the non-closure of the umbilic ring in
the abdominal floor, while the skin closes over the region in the normal
manner.

“During the earlier periods of fetal life, the abdominal cavity is com¬
paratively small, while the abdominal viscera are so voluminous that
there is not sufficient room within the cavity to accommodate them. They
consequently press, or grow outward through the wide umbilic ring into
the navel cord, so that, in fetuses of an early age, a large part of the
intestinal mass, omentum and liver, may lie outside the abdominal cavity,
lodged in the umbilic cord. As the fetus develops and approaches ma¬
turity, the abdominal cavity increases in size, while the umbilic ring
gradually contracts, until finally the opening becomes virtually occluded
and the margins of the ring adhere closely to the umbilic vessels. For
reasons unknown to us, the normal closure of the umbilic ring may not
occur and when the young animal is born there persists a variable sized
opening through the abdominal floor, usually elongated from before to
behind as an oval slit, wider at the anterior end. In some cases the
opening is almost circular in form. The diameter of the opening may
vary from so small a size as to be barely distinguishable, up to six or
eight inches. The resutling hernial sac corresponds in size.

“Some writers recognize a congenital and acquired umbilic hernia.
Only the congenital defect is of interest to us . . . We have observed

from time to time that umbilic herniae, which were comparatively in¬
conspicuous at the time of the birth of the young animal, later became
more conspicuous, and were increased in size to such a degree as to at¬
tract attention. When umbilic hernia exists at the time of the birth,
anything which may increase the ultra-abdominal pressure, such as
severe expulsive efforts due to the retention of the meconium, or to con¬
stipation of the bowels, may cause a marked increase in the size of the
hernial sac. The same increase in size may be caused by the allowance
of large quantities of bulky food.

“Fleming cites Zundel and others in support of his belief that environ¬
ment, and especially the character of food, tends to induce the disease.
He believes that the young of animals kept upon low and marshy pastures,
or subsisting upon soft, luxuriant herbage during a rainy season, are
especially subject to herniae.

“The majority of writers with whom we are in full accord, consider
the defect to be chiefly hereditary.

“Symptoms. There is present at the umbilicus, a tumor, which may
be either spherical or pyriform or may be more or less elongated from

92 PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

before to behind. The size of the hernial ring varies greatly according
. . . individual; ... in the foal 1 to 6 inches in diameter.

“In some cases the intestine occupying the hernial sac may contain
hard, firm masses of feces, which render the hernia hard and firm. Such
fecal matter is not readily pushed through the ring into the abdominal
cavity.

“The contents of the hernia may become incarcerated or strangulated,
and induce thereby symptoms differing very materially from those which
have already been described. If the hernial contents consist of intestines,
and strangulation occurs, the tumor at once becomes very tense and hard,
and is more or less enlarged as compared with its previous condition,
and the animal shows severe pain, expressed by violent colic. The
hernia may also be sensitive to the touch.

“When the hernial contents consist of omentum, and it becomes in¬
carcerated, the tumor becomes tense and indolent, cannot be reduced, and
induces no pain upon palpation.

“. . . The prognosis of umbilic hernia is favorable. Many cases

especially small herniae in foals, recover spontaneously, and the others
may be surgically overcome with comparative certainty and safety. If
left undisturbed, umbilic herniae rarely become incarcerated or other¬
wise interfere with the well-being of the animal. If the hernial ring is
small, when the animal develops and the intestines increase in size, they
cannot pass through the opening. If the hernial contents consist of
omentum, when the animal grows older, the omental expanse becomes
comparatively retracted and no longer reaches the open umbilic ring.
Although the ring may persist throughout the life of the animal, the
hernial sac no longer becomes filled and is not noticeable. The greatest
loss attributable to the defect, is the decreased value of pedigreed animals
for breeding purposes, because of the well-marked tendency to transmis¬
sion.” Williams.48

Persistent Urachus

Causes. “Somewhat rarely the urachus remains open after birth; how
rarely is not clear. We have not personally observed this condition. It
is probably very rare.

“A more common condition is the reopening of the urachus in cases
of umbilic infection owing to a destruction of the tissues which has oc¬
cluded the ruptured end of the canal at the time of birth. This con¬
dition we have observed only in the foal. Fleming asserts that persist¬
ent urachus is most frequently observed in the foal, because the vessel
is closely attached to the umbilic ring and does not become retracted.
However, so far as we have obesrved, the urachus retracts promptly
when the cord is ruptured, and does not protrude beyond the umbilicus
except in the cases where the cord has been ligated and then excised.

“Symptoms. The symptoms of perforate urachus may be divided into
two groups, according to causes.

“1. In cases where the urachus is for some reason abnormally open,
or has become in some way abnormally divided, or if the meatus urinarius
is constricted or absent, the young animal, in urinating, discharges a
large part or all of the urine through the navel. If the urethra is
closed, the entire amount must flow through the navel; while, if the
normal passage is open, a part of the urine may flow from each opening.

“2. When the urachus becomes secondarily re-opened, as a consequence
of umbilic infection, the discharge of urine through the navel is not very
great in amount, but dribbles away or flows in a very small stream dur¬
ing urination, and perhaps oozes somewhat continuously from the navel,
keeping the region soiled, moist and fetid. In some cases the navel is
inflamed, and may be swollen, or the patient may show well-defined

MANAGEMENT OF THE FOAL

93

symptoms of phy-septhaemia or inflammation of the umbilic vessels. In
these cases the foal or other young animal has remained apparently well
for some days after birth, and no discharge of urine from the navel has
been noted during this period. After infection of the umbilic takes
place, perhaps three to five days after birth, the dribbling of urine from
the navel appears. This condition is by no means a rare one in foals,
and in our observation has been most frequently seen when the cord has
been ligated and cut long, causing the stump to undergo putrid decomposi¬
tion and the urachus to re-open.” Williams.48

Scrotal Hernia ; Inguinal Hernia

‘‘Inguinal hernia is virtually a defect of the male, though very rarely
it exists in the female.

“. . . the glands are usually in the scrotum at the time of the birth

of the young animal. In some cases the inguinal ring in the fetus is
abnormally large, and the intra-abdominal pressure during early fetal
life may *cause portions of the viscera to be forced out through the ring,
and remaining there, prevent the latter from normally closing, or narrow¬
ing to such a degree as to prevent the escape of viscera from the abdom¬
inal cavity. In all domestic animals, the inguinal ring normally re¬
mains pervious throughout life, and consequently inguinal hernia does
not depend upon the normal existence of an opening, but merely upon its
abnormal size.

“In new-born foals, especially among the draft-breeds, scrotal hernia
is very common at birth, but is usually of a temporary character, and
spontaneously disappears. However, this does not always occur, and in
some instances the internal inguinal ring is excessively large, so that
portions of viscera protrude through it, which, by their weight, tend to
render the abnormal dilaton of the ring permanent and to cause the
hernia to persist throughout the life of the animal unless surgically
handled.

‘‘The size of the hernial ring shows every possible variation . . .

The contents of the hernial sac may consist of either intestine or omentum.

‘‘The symptoms of scrotal hernia in the new-born are usually very ap¬
parent, and consist essentially of an increased size of one or both halves
of the scrotum. Upon manipulation, it is usually found that the herniated
intestine or omentum can be readily returned into the abdominal cavity,
especially if the patient is placed upon its back. After the contents have
been returned, the enlarged ring can be discovered by digital exploration.

‘‘The course and termination of scrotal hernia vary ... In most
animals scrotal hernia tends to persist, and to increase rather than de¬
crease in size, as the patient grows older. In the foal, when the scrotal
hernia is small, it tends to disappear spontaneously with age. In pro¬
bably 90%, or even more, of foals born with scrotal hernia, the defect
becomes spontaneously remedied, so far that they may be safely castrated
by the open operation when one year old. The contents of scrotal hernia
very rarely, if ever, become adherent, except because of some ineffectual
surgical handling.

‘‘The defect is markedly hereditary, and its existence in the young
animal serves to render it of dimished value for breeding purposes. In
the foal it has yet another significance, from a clinical standpoint, in that,
even though the defect may be apparently overcome in a spontaneous
manner, it may yet lead to serious or fatal accident in later life. If such
an animal is castrated after apparent recovery, without unusual precau¬
tions having been taken, protrusion of the omentum, or still worse, of the
intestine, is liable to occur, and lead to serious or fatal results. If the
animal is retained for breeding purposes, it may, at any time after
reaching adult life, suddenly develop strangulated hernia, owing to some

94

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

accident or exertion which may cause a sudden increase of the intra¬
abdominal pressure, su-ch as jumping, rearing, or copulating with a
mare.” Williams.48

“Other defects that may occur in the new-born may be atresia of the
posterior nares, astresia of other body openings — such as imperforate
prepuce, opispadias, occlusion of the eyelids, occlusion of the auditory
canal, fissure of the palate, persistent foramen ovale, or cyanosis, tongue-
tie, hernia of the brain, odontomes, or rupture of the extensor pedis
tendons in the anterior limbs of the new-born.” Williams.48

Tetanus Neonatorum, Tetanus of the New-horn

“Tetanus of the new-born acquires special significance because of the
avenue of entrance of the tetanus bacilli. While tetanus may appear in
anw new-born animal from the same causes whi-ch induce it in the adult,
it is of special interest to us when occurring as a result of navel infection.
Owing to the method of infection, the malady acquires a distinctive name,
though differing in no essential respect from the ordinary disease, ex¬
cept perhaps that it is more virulent because the toxic substances enter
more freely and directly from the umbilic vein into the general circula¬
tion. In domestic animals, tetanus of the new-born is chiefly -confined to
the foal.

“The symptoms of tetanus of the new-born are identical with those
observed in the adult animal, except that in our observation the outset is
more sudden, the course more violent, and death more certain. We have
not observed a recovery, but in the few instances which we have seen
the course of the disease has been especially brief and stormy. As a
general rule the foal goes down and is unable to stand within 24 hours
after the first symptoms are noted.

“If the navel is examined in these cases, so far as we have observed,
there is found in each instance a well-marked purulent discharge emanat¬
ing from the navel vein.

“The disease is handled the same as other cases of tetanus, but so far
as we have observed, is hopeless from the outset.

“Tetanus of the new-born may be safely and readily prevented by the
same precautions — for ordinary purulent infection of the navel.” Will¬
iams.48

VIII

MANAGEMENT OF THE WEANLINGS

1. Weaning and Management

Johnstone5 advocates the weaning of colts at the age of five months.
The colts are separated from the dam once and for all, at which time
the dam is fed with a reduced grain ration and her milk is drawn off
three or four times the first day and less often as time advances until no
more milk could be extracted. The mare is worked as usual, or if she is
not worked the grain is eliminated altogether and instead hay only is
to be supplied her and when dry then light grain feeding is resumed
again. As to the management of the weanlings the same authority writes:
“Weanlings should have snug quarters during their first winter. Put them
preferably two in a boxstall and feed them good oats and bran — one-fifth
bran by weight — all they will clean up nicely and come hungry to their
next meal. Peed them the choicest hay on the place, always free from
dust and mold, and feed them often — a little at a time. No one can rear
young horses properly without grain — winter and summer they should
have good grain feeding . . . Keep their feet level and their toes

short.

“In pasture yearlings and two-year-olds should have grain according
to the growth of the grass and the season. Keep them growing and fat,
and always see well to their feet. Give them shelter into which they
may escape from the attacks of the awful flies . . . Do not close
young horses in a field with cattle, sheep and swine, if it can be avoided.
They do best by themselves or with cattle — always, poorly with with
sheep and pigs. House them early in winter and always keep them
growing and fat.

“Stallions will, of course, have to be taken up and kept by themselves
the summer after they are a year old. Many a foal has been got by a
yearling. Regarding the best time to castrate colts men always have
differed and always will. As a rule it is best to order their castration
when they are about a year old. If one is undeveloped about the head
and neck he may be allowed to run entire for six months or a year longer.

“Regarding the growth of horses, it may be said that roughly speaking
a colt which is properly reared will make rather more than half his
growth in his first year . . . The draft-bred that does not weigh 1200

lbs. or over the day he is twelve months old will have a slim chance to
fill a drafter’s bill. The best plan is to give them always what grain
they will clean up nicely and let it go at that. It is bad at any time to
let colts get thin. It is worst of all to let them lose the flesh that was
born on them. It is very nearly as bad to let them get thin after wean¬
ing. Loss sustained at such times will never be regained.”

According to Carlson,6 “Weaning the foal can be done with no loss of
growth. Simply dry the mare up by letting the foal suckle less often
all the time. I never milk a mare in weaning a foal. The mare will
cease to secrete milk after a time, if the foal be permitted to suck but
twice a day for a few days, then once only until the mare is sufficiently
dry to have the foal taken away from her. During the weaning process
the foal can be tied in a stall at the side of the mare at night. By this
way of weaning the foal is more contented, and does much better than
if taken away from the mare at once. After the weaning process has
passed, the foal should never want for either pure water or wholesome

96

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

food. No grain food alone will equal oats. If timothy or prairie hay is
used for roughage, bran can be added to the oats, about half of each by
measure. If alfalfa or good clover can be secured the bran will not be
needed.” The use of automatic feeder is advocated by Carlson on the
ground that with it the weanlings could have access to feeds at will and
yet not waste nor soil the feed. And too, the automatic feeder is claimed
to retard the act of feeding so that the feed is thereby more thoroughly
matsicated.

Kennedy01 advises weaning the colts as late as possible, which usually
is late in fall. He says that “After the colts are weaned from the dam,
it is difficult to keep them in good condition, and at such times special
care and feed should be given them. Feed is seldom made too liberal, as
this is the time to show the cold if exceptional growth is desired. Horse¬
men agree that if you stunt the colt you stunt the horse, and that if you
have stunted the yearling you seldom obtain a good mature horse. On the
other hand, a growthy yearling does not need the feed nor care afterwards
that the stunted one demands. In order to get this growth in the
winter, it is necessary that the colt be fed some grain in connecion with
hay and roughage. If timothy is fed as the roughage, the grain must be
of nitrogenous character, as oats and bran. If good alfalfa or clover hay
is accessible for the colt, this with oats will make a very desirable ration.
Young colts make larger growth than older horses in proportion to the
feed consumed and hence it is an economical proposition to put grain
into the young animal.

“In addition to good feed, the young colts must have plenty of exercise.
An open shed arrangement is excellent in most sections of the country for
this purpose. This shed may be constructed by putting the feeding
quarters inside and having them bedded so that the colts may have a
dry place to eat and sleep; but with access to a lot or pasture where
they may run at will. Colts handled in this way will have long hair,
but will develop a ruggedness that cannot be obtained with colts that
are raised with lack of exercise. Winter pasture should be used if avail¬
able but it should not be depended on for the entire ration if maximum
growth is desired.

“Castration is usually performed when the colt is one year old. If the
animal is undeveloped in the neck and fore-quarters, the castration is
sometimes deferred until the second year, but there is less danger of
losing a colt by castration when one year old than later. Unless colts
are castrated they usually have to be separated from other horses as
early as the second winter, as they become a great nuisance, although
they are not usually capable of getting colts until the second spring.

“The feed that the yearling should obtain will depend largely on his
future use. If maximum gain is to be desired, as in the case of pure bred
colts, they should receive some grain in connection with pasture. If the
animal is merely growing for market purposes and the pasture is good,
this should be sufficient. Under range conditions, nothing other than
grass will be supplied. In sections in which the grass is limited and
more grain is raised, the grain can be supplied to better advantage. If
the maximum gains are desired, the colt should be kept up in the day¬
time when the flies become bad, and fed some grain, and then turned
out at night.

“Plenty of bright legume hay, good water, shed for shelter, and as
much oats as can be spared is a program that makes for ideal winter
management of the yearling. If the animals come into the winter in good
•condition, very little grain is usually needed. A feed of grain once a
day will help materially in keeping the flesh on the colt, and therefore
make for larger gains. Under range conditions, the yearlings are usually
left to run with the bunch, but if maximum size is desired, it would be
more satisfactory to cut them from the bunch and winter on the better
pasture, or with hay. With pure-bred stock, when large size is desired, it

MANAGEMENT OF THE WEANLINGS

97

is essential that some grain be fed in connection with the hay. Oats are
very satisfactory for this, but if the hay is a legume, rolled barley will
prove quite satisfactory. The shed arrangement spoken of for wintering
the foal is even more essential for wintering older animals. It is not so
necessary that the older colts have as good shelter as the younger ones.
In the sections where the winters are warm and wet, protection should
be provided so that they can keep out of the rainy weather. In sections
where snows and storms are bad, protection is needed for like reason.
Under moderate conditions of winter, the horses will do very well if left
outside most of the time, with protection provided for extreme cases.
Colts wintered in this manner will not have the same sleekness as the
barn-fed colt but they will obtain a ruggedness of constitution that will
last much longer than a glossy coat.

“The essentials in growing the twos and threes are to provide feeds that
will continue the growth which was started in the foal and yearling.
Fine pasture in summer, with good hay in winter, together with pro¬
tection from storms makes for this growth. Colts that are twos and
threes will not need as much grain as the foal or yearling but will con¬
sume rougher feeds. These feeds, however, should be of nutritious
character, as legume or cereal hay ... If the twos or threes are
being developed for show purposes, they will need to be pushed along
with some grain in order to give them their maximum size and the most
satisfactory gains. For commercial purposes, however, very little grain
is needed, until they reach the age when they will start to work.”

Gay4 recommends that the weaning of the foal be undertaken at the
age of from four and one-half to six months; early, when the pasture
is poor or in case the mare or the foal are not in good condition, and late,
should the mare continue to furnish ample supply of milk and is not
worked. He says: “If the proper provision is made for the foal to take
more and more grain as he grows older, he will gradually reduce the
amount of milk taken from his dam, so that when the time for weaning
arrives very little if any setback or disturbance is caused either foal or
dam. If, however, the foal must learn to eat after being deprived of his
ordinary source of sustenance, he will require some time to accommodate
himself to the new regime, while the mare will demand especial care
on account of the removal of the colt before her milk supply has been to
any extent dimished. Furthermore, a little foal acquires a spirit of in¬
dependence as he becomes self-sustaining, and for that reason the ab¬
sence of the dam becomes a less disturbing factor to him, especially if
he has the company of another foal, than to the young thing which has
been entirely dependent upon its dam until she is suddenly taken away.
When once the dam and foal are separated it is better for both if the
separation is complete; if, after both have become reconciled to the part¬
ing, they are permitted to see, hear, or smell each other again, all that
has been gained up to this time is lost, and it will be necessary to begin
over. Especial care should be taken to see that the new quarters, where
the weanlings are confined, are so constructed and arranged as to make
it impossible for them to injure themselves, in case they make a demon¬
stration of their resentment at being so treated.”

Roudebush70 says that weaning should be done at from four to six
months of age. The procedure advocated consists of leaving the colt in
the usual stall while the dam is placed in a nearby inclosure.

Under the subject of feeding the yearling, Roudebush76 is quoted to
say: “If the roughage has been cut, shredded or whole corn fodder or
timothy hay, then equal parts by weight of crushed corn, oats and wheat
bran twice per day, is an ideal ration. From one to two quarts may be
given at a feeding ... If fed on timothy hay and whole corn, feed
a gill of oil meal once a day, and a little salt twice per week. If one has
clover or alfalfa hay, whole corn can be fed exclusively as the grain
ration. Oat straw and wheat bran make a good combination. Grass is

98

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

the natural food of the horse, and, if abundant, is sufficient without grain.

“The food the second and third winter should be the same as the first,
except that a larger quantity should be fed.”

Silage is considered excellent food if fed in small amounts and pro¬
vided that there are no molds. Its value is enhanced when no roots are
obtainable.

Rutherford08 presents his system on the management of the weanlings:
“As to age, no colt should, if at all possible, be permanently separated
from his dam until he is at least four months old, while another month,
or even two, by her side will make him a better horse and lessen con¬
siderably the risks of his first winter . . . the best diet is good

sound oats with a moderate admixture of bran twice a day, and a well
scalded, not too bulky, mash of the same materials, seasoned with a
tablespoonful of salt, and perhaps a handful of crushed oil cake for eve¬
ning meal.

“Weanlings are frequently troubled to a considerable extent with in¬
testinal worms of various kinds, especially if grazed in low lying pastures
in late summer or early fall. The old farmer’s remedy of wood ashes and
salt is not to be laughed at and if persevered with in small doses for
some time will often have the desired effect but for a more speedy effect
the following anthelmintic is recommended: Iron sulphate one drachm or
powdered areca nut 203 drachms twice a day in a little soft food for a
week to be followed by a drench composed of turpentine 1 oz., and raw
linseed oil from 10 oz. to a pint, according to the size and condition of
the patient.

“This mixture should be given on an empty stomach and all dry food
withheld until the bowels have responded to its action. In all cases of
intestinal worms, benefit is found from occasional injections of tepid water
strongly impregnated with soap, and for this purpose Gamgee’s enema
funnel will be found suitable.’’

Wallace43 is of the opinion that foals should be weaned when 5 or 6
months old, that is to say, if a spring-born foal, he should be weaned
in October. He recommends that they be placed under shelter at night
and during the second winter they should be turned out in fields pro¬
vided with natural or artificial shelter, and should be well fed. He writes:
“A sufficient allowance for a Shire or Clydesdale foal during the first
winter is 2 to 3 lbs. of crushed oats, to % lb. of bran, and % lb. of
finely ground linseed cake, given in two feeds in a day, with Y2 peck of
roots and chopped sanfoin, lucerns, or clover hay in England, or rye grass
hay in Scotland. As grass comes in spring, the dry food should be grad¬
ually reduced, and finally discontinued when good pasture is available.

“Colts born in November, when about 2 years old, should, if intended to
do a full complement of work in spring, receive during the winter a
mixture per week of (1) 3 stones of crushed oats and maize meal in
equal parts (2) 1 stone of crushed linseed or finely ground linseed cake
mixed with wheat or barley chaff (3) Y2 cwt. of chopped hay-clover,
lucerne, or sanfoin — or an equivalent in strong boned rye grass hay, with
(4) a foddering at night of oat or barley straw to pick over; also (5)
about 1 stone of roots in season — swedes, mangels, and carrots — or an
equivalent in steamed potatoes. Salt should be within reach of all young
stock, which must also be allowed plenty of exercise to develop muscle.”

Sanders46 directs that to wean the colt, he “should be tied in an ad¬
joining stall, with the partition so open that they are in plain view of
each other, and the food of the mare should be reduced to a very small
ration of dry oats and hay. When the udder becomes so full as to cause
her uneasiness a part oMhe milk should be drawn off, but she should not
be milked dry. This first milking may be done by the colt itself, but
afterwards it should be done by hand . . . the drying off will be
more speedily accomplished than when the colt is occasionally permitted

MANAGEMENT OF THE WEANLINGS

99

to suck. After the milk has entirely dried up the mare and her foal may
be saparated and she may safely be turned out to grass.

“Skimmed milk may still be given to the colt, especially if it is not in
good condition to enter the winter; but clean, sound oats, ground or un¬
ground, constitutes the best of all grain foods for the colt. I prefer to
have them ground; and as cold weather approaches about one-fourth in
weight of corn-meal may profitably be added, as it helps to lay on fat
and keeps up the animal heat. A little oil-meal — say a pint a day — may
also profitably be given with oats for some time after weaning. Don’t
be afraid of feeding too liberally . . . As soon as the mare and foal
can be separated the foal should have the run of a good pasture, as there
is no food better than grass, no medicine so good as exercise and no ex¬
ercise so profitable to young animals as that which may be taken just
when they feel like it.”

Reynolds46 places the weaning age at five or six months. He says that
“the separation of the foals from free-nourishing mares must be accom¬
plished by degrees. For some days prior to final removal of the foal the
intervals of allowing it to suck must be increased in length, and the
food allowance of the mare reduced in quantity and quality for a cor¬
responding time . . . the mare should be more severely worked. After

ultimate severance of the foal the glands must be periodically hand-
drawn, and a brisk purgative administered. Restricted diet, particularly
in regard to fluid and succulent provenders, should be enjoined until the
secretion of milk is completely suspended.”

According to Dimon,40 weaning should be done by tying the mare in an
odjoining stall separated also by an open division which would make it
possible for the foal and dam to see each other. The feeding of the mare
should be light and on dry feed, and when the bag is full, causing dis¬
comfort, the milk may partially be drawn off by the colt, at first, and later
on by hand, because then the milk is hot and unfit for the colt. Skim
milk may be given to the colt after weaning, especially to colts that are
out of condition. It is claimed that good oats are the best feed for colts,
while a little oil-meal, carrots, clean hay, and good clover are also recom¬
mended. During the fall when grass is disappearing, the colt should be
provided with laxative feeds, such as carrots or almost all of other root
crops. Sweet apples are held in high esteem if cheap and in big quan¬
tities. While variety in the feed is desirable it should consist principally
of crushed or ground oats, and some wheat is beneficial. Concerning the
feeding of corn products Dimon writes: “I like a little corn meal mixed
with ground oats and other feed for colts wintered in northern climates.
Some think that corn meal is too heating for young colts; so it is, fed
liberally and alone as a grain ration, but mixed as above, and fed in
winter in our northern states, it makes a pretty good overcoat to help
keep the youngster warm, and will keep them free from worms better
than any other food except linseed oil meal, which, by the way, is a
most excellent food for any and all stock, and especially so for young
animals; but it should be fed sparingly and mixed with other grains.”
Regarding other details of feeding the colts, Dimon further says: “In
the case of colts scant feeding is to be deplored, and worse yet, the ex¬
posure to severe cold and storms; while overfeeding the colt makes him
clumsy by having the nerves overloaded with fat. Digestion has often
been impaired by an over-loaded stomach; if this is done in the colt
there is little hope of having a healthy and long-lived horse.

“In caring for weanlings the first winter, give them plenty to eat of
clean, good, bright hay, and sweet rowen, if accessible, with grain rations
suitable to its size and needs. Do not overfeed with grain, and give an
occasional feed of roots, etc., and give plenty to drink. Skim milk is best,
but water will do, and give plenty of open air exercise and sunshine but
carefully avoid exposure to bleak winds and cold storms.”

100

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

Murray77 states that on weaning the foal, it “should be confined to a
loose box and open yard for the first week, until it has forgotten its
dam. It may then be allowed to roam over a pasture during the day, and
should, where practicable, be accompanied by others of its own age. A
piece of mixed seeds or old pasture, where the stronger growing grasses
are allowed to run to seed, should be especially prepared for the foals.
The young animals delight in nibbling off the ripe heads of the grasses.
Bare pastures are objectionable owing to the liability of the young
animals to pick up the embryonic germs of objectionable insect life.
. . . A mixture of oats, wheat, peas, and a little linseed should be
used . . . All the corn should be ground and mixed with a limited
quantity of hay or straw chaff, mixed together and well saturated with
boiling water. This should be allowed to remain for not less than
twelve hours before being fed.”

Biddell, Douglas, Dykes, Fleming, MacNeilage, Murray, and Trotter82
are authorities concerning the method of weaning and management of
the weanlings, as follows: “The foal is usually weaned at the age of five
or six months . . . Weaning foals should never be turned out on a

bare pasture, as they are liable to become affected by worms, which are
difficult to eradicate.

“As soon as the foal is weaned the mare may be gradually placed on
dry food and should have one or two doses of mild aperient medicine
with plenty of exercise . . . For the first day or two the milk should

be drawn twice daily; she should not be milked clean out, but a suffi¬
cient quantity taken to relieve her from any suffering or uneasiness. In
the course of a week or less the milk will dry up.

“When the foal is weaned it should be placed with others of its own
age . . . For the first day or two after weaning the foal may be con¬
fined to the yard; as soon as it gains the confidence of its companions
they may be allowed to run out in the pasture during the day.

“During the early years of the young animal’s life, and more particu¬
larly during the first winter, the food should be prepared. The fodder,
whether hay or straw, or a mixture of the two, must be cut into fine
chaff, and the corn of whatever kind, ground into meal, the meal and
chaff mixed together and well soaked with boiling water; the mass is
then covered with a pliable non-conducting material and allowed to re¬
main in this state for a period of at least twelve hours, when it will be
in a suitable condition to be fed. The albuminoid ration should not ex¬
ceed 1:4. Sweet well-matured oats, wheat, white peas, lentils or Indian
corn, and linseed should form the mixture in somewhat the following
proportions: to one of oats, add one-half of wheat, one-fourth of peas,
one-eighth of Indian corn, and one-sixteenth of linseed. These should be
mixed together in the grain and reduced to meal by being passed through
an ordinary grist mill . . . from 4 to 5 lbs. per day of mixed meals

will be sufficient.”

Regarding the management of the yearlings the same authors further
assert: “Altho it may be more costly we prefer a second class pasture
rather than a rich feeding one, provided in the former case a fair allow¬
ance of artificial food is given. Rich grazing pastures tend to the develop¬
ment of fat rather than to the growth of bone and muscle.

“The yearling geldings and fillies are usually grazed together. The
stallions are in a separate enclosure.”

And, as to the two-year-olds, “The same treatment as that recom¬
mended for the yearlings must be continued with these, until such a
time as a sufficient bit of grass is obtainable, and where the land is
hard-stocked or inferior in quality an allowance of artificial food should
still be continued. The great danger to guard against is superfluous fat
. ... At the age of 2 years both fillies and geldings should be bitted and
broken to the halter.”

MANAGEMENT OF THE WEANLINGS

101

Henry and Morrison53 assert that “at from 4 to 6 months of age, de¬
pending on conditions, the foal should be weaned. When the mare is
bred soon after foaling, or if for any other reason the dam and foal are
not doing well, it is best to wean comparatively early. On the other
hand, if the mother has a good milk flow, and her services are not
needed, the foal may well be allowed to suckle 6 months. If the foal has
been fed increasing quantities of grain as it developed, the weaning
process will not be difficult, for the quantity of milk consumed will have
been gradually decreased. Complete separation will then cause little, if
any, setback to either dam or foal. In parting the dam and foal, keep
them well separated, else all must be done over again ... At such
time the grain ration of the mare should be reduced till she is dried off.
When the udder becomes so full as to cause uneasiness, part, but not
all, of the milk should be drawn.”

As to feeding the foals after weaning, Henry and Morrison53 say that
“Nothing is superior to blue grass or other good pasture and oats. Among
the concentrates, wheat bran, cotton seed meal, linseed meal, buckwheat
middlings, wheat middlings, soybeans, cowpeas, and Canada field peas
are rich in nitrogenous matter . . . and in phosphorus . . . All
the legume hays — alfalfa, clover, cowpeas, etc. — are rich in lime . . .
When properly balanced by nitrogenous feeds, corn, barley, kafir, milo,
or emmer may be used as part of the ration. When fed large amounts of
alfalfa hay colts will relish a little timothy or prairie hay, straw, or corn
fodder occasionally. If maximum growth is desired it will be necessary
to feed some grain even on good pasture. The young horse which is
not developing the proper skeleton may be fed substances especially rich
in phosphorus and lime, such as 2 or 3 ounces daily of tankage containing
ground bone, or 1 ounce daily of ground bone, ground rock phosphate
(floats), or precipitated calcium phosphate.”

Alexander80 is hereby quoted on the feeding of colts: “We should ad¬
vise feeding a mixture of 60% ground oats, 15% corn meal, 10% bran,
and 15% cut alfalfa hay. Allow the colts to clean up all they want of
this mixture. At Wisconsin experiment station 11 draft colts were thus
fed and they consumed each 16.5 lb. of the mixture per day.

“Some feeders are feeding skim-milk to growing colts. Instead of
allowing the colts to drink the milk a good plan is to use the milk to
wet the feed at meal time. A quart twice a day is helpful, although
some feed a larger quantity. Care must be taken not to cause scouring,
or ‘pot belly.' In addition to oats, bran and hay, allow the colts carrots,
or even a little nicely made corn silage; but do not give silage and milk
together. Oat straw and bright com stover also are useful as part of
the roughage for growing colts.”

Jordan92 gives two grain mixtures which are considered less expensive
than oats alone yet of such a quality as to promote growth of young
colts. The first mixture is made up of oats 4 parts, peas 2 parts, while
the other combination consists of corn 2 parts, oats 4 parts, bran 3 parts,
oil meal 1 part.

According to McCampbell, the following rations have proved to lead
to good results:

“1. Corn or oats, 6 parts; bran, 2 parts; linseed meal, 1 part; free
access to alfalfa hay, together with some prairie hay, straw, or corn
fodder.

“2. Corn or oats, 6 parts; bran, 3 parts; free access to alfalfa hay,
together with some prairie hay, straw, or corn fodder.

“3. Corn or oats; alfalfa hay.”

Reese30 says that foals whose dams are being worked should be weaned
earlier than those whose mothers are idle. He brings out that while It
is the general practice to wean foals at the age of 5 or 6 months yet one
should bear in mind that it is more economical to feed them through

102

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

their dams. But if the mares are to be in foal immediately afterwards,
delay in allowing the foal to nurse over 6 months of age may prove in¬
jurious to the vitality of the mother. During the process of weaning,
Reese says: “The foal should not nurse more than once after it has been
taken away. The excess milk from the mare’s udder should be taken
from 3 to 5 times a day, but enough should be left so that her system will
start to absorb the milk, otherwise the drying-up process will be delayed
unnecessarily. Not withdrawing sufficient milk will cause the udder to
cake and spoil. Vaseline or lard rubbed on the udder will aid in keeping
it soft.”

As to the feeding and management of weanlings during the first win¬
ter, Reese30 is quoted, as follows: “Colts can be housed satisfactorily
either in the stable or in an open shed . . . The main requirements

(of the shed) are that the quarters be dry, sanitary, and provide fairly
warm protection from winds. Several foals may run together if the
weaker ones are not driven away from their feed by the stronger. The
quarters should be kept clean and well bedded and occasionally should be
disinfected. Lice are to be suspected wrhen the animals get to rubbing
and lose patches of hair. Thorough washing with the proper solutions
of coal-tar disinfectants will kill lice . . . The foals should be out
in the open every day that is not stormy; it is harmful, however, for
them to remain out in the cold rain. The foal should be taught to lead
and to stand tied during the first winter.

“Feeds that will promote growth should be supplied. Good, clean
clover hay is palatable and slightly laxative. Timothy hay commonly is
fed. Well-cured alfalfa hay free from dust is one of the best roughages
for growing, but because of its relatively high protein content it gen¬
erally is economical to supplement it with other roughage such as tim¬
othy, mixed hay, or corn fodder. Besides lending variety to the ration
such a method of feeding alfalfa would offset any liklihood of kidney or
bowel irregularities. Sheaf oats can be used to advantage to supplement
other roughage. The animals should not be allowed to gorge themselves
on dry feed. They should be given only what they will clean up readily,
but at the same time enough feed should be supplied. Oats, corn, and
peas, preferably fed ground, are suitable grains. Bran, oil meal, or
gluten feed will add protein and lend variety. Cottonseed meal should
not be fed to foals. Appropriate grain rations for the first winter are: 2
parts corn, 5 parts oats, 3 parts bran, and 1 part oil meal; or 4 parts
oats, 1 part corn, and 1 part bran.

“Silage should not be fed to foals to any considerable extent. Sliced
roots, such as carrots and sugar beets, are very palatable and have a
cooling effect on the digestive system. The quantity of feed generally
should be regulated by the appetite, although occasionally the appetite
may be too ravenous to be a good indication. The general condition of
the colt and the droppings should be observed daily. Usually not over 1
pound of grain per 100 pounds of live weight should be fed until the
animal is 2 years old. A liberal supply of salt and good water and plenty
of fresh air and exercise are essential for the proper development of
young horses. Idleness succeeding exercise will cause constipation. It
is often said that a horse is made during his first winter. Certainly this
is a critical time in the anmal’s life, and at no other age will proper feed
(and attention do as much to mgke of him a good horse. If stunted during
the first winter he will never gain proper size and shape.”

As the second summer is reached, according to Reese,39 “Foals should
be changed from dry feed to pasture gradually, and should not be
turned on pasture until the grass is old enough not to become washy.
Grass is an indispensable factor in the economical and proper physio¬
logical development of young horses . . . The feet of the young

animals should be noticed . . . and if the hoofs are too long or high

MANAGEMENT OP THE WEANLINGS

103

on one side they should be trimmed properly . . . Barbed wire should

not be used for fencing the pasture; smooth woven wire is best . . .

The animals should have plenty of fresh water and salt, and in hot
weather they require shade.”

Thomas and Shields80 desire that weaning be done when fall comes.
According to them, in the Savage farm and McKennan farm the colts
are removed from the dams and the latter milked dry daily, while others
let the colt suck twice daily for several days, and afterwards for some
time once a day until the mare becomes dry. McGraw is cited, whose
practice follows: “We wean a colt by taking it away from dam and milk
mare for four days, twice a day, then once a day till dried up. I use
equal parts spirits of camphor, tincture of belladona, and lard (no salt)
on mare’s bag.”

In feeding the colt after weaning, Thomas and Shields89 state that
“Oats is the usual food, together with timothy or prairie hay. Bran may
be mixed equally with the oats; although this will not be necessary if
clover or alfalfa is available. Some consider oats too hard for young
colts to masticate and give ground feed and clover hay.” Several horse¬
men are quoted whose recommendations along this subject are certainly
worthy of consideration. Thus Miller suggests “two quarts of rolled oats,
one quart bran, one pint cracked screened corn, and a handful of rolled
barley, to a feed, three times a day, with all the straight clover hay that
a colt will eat twice daily.” He makes the remark that if any of the
feeds be eliminated, clover should be excepted. Dodge says: “Feed the
colts all the good oats and timothy they will eat up clean, and see that
they get enough exercise to warrant such feeding.” According to White
a few carrots fed three times a week to the colts will drive the worms and
keep the bowels in normal condition. One horseman is quoted to say: “As
to feeding them, I give them clover hay, with a small allowance of corn,
and all the good oats they will clean up. I also like sowed cane, which
I think makes an excellent feed for young colts in winter.”

Carter87 places the weaning age at from 6 to 8 months. As to the feed¬
ing and management of the colts after weaning, he writes: “After wean¬
ing feed a liberal ration of ground oats, bran, a small amount of oil
meal, and roots, carrots preferred. ‘It is wise never to let the meat get off
a colt that its mother has put on.’ If allowed to be so the colt will be pot¬
bellied, stunted and will appear as a yearling at two years of age. The
second summer as a year old, no matter how good the pasture may be
the colts should have little ground oats until coming two. At two they
will get along on good pasture.”

Axe38 writes: “Foals are usually weaned about September or October,
when they are 5 or 6 months old. In all cases the foal should be well
‘done’ with corn, bran and chaff for 3 or 4 weeks before being weaned
. . . We think that gradual intermittent process of weaning is most

rational. To avoid painful distension of udder of mares weaning their
foals the quantity and milk-forming quality of the food should be reduced
and only a moderate measure of water allowed.”

Weld and Du Hays47 give the practice of weaning and feeding the colts
afterwards as followed by French breeders: “At 6 months the colt is
weaned. If it be a filly it remains in the canton where it was foaled, to
be put to breeding when it reaches the proper age. If it be a horse colt,
it is sold to the farmers of the raising districts.

“There is but little trouble taken in weaning the colts. This passage
from one period of life to another . . . takes place quite simply

. . . They wean themselves in the trip from their birthplace to their

new destination. The farmers in the neighborhood of Regmalard, who or¬
dinarily buy them very young, give a little cow’s milk on their arrival, to
strengthen them, and to serve as a transition, but even this method is
far from universal.

104

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

“The colts when they come upon the farms, are put five or six together,
pell-mell, into an indifferently ventilated stable, which receives its light
through a lattice door. Their nourishment consists of a very thin mush,
made of barley flour and bran, frequently renewed. The solid portion
of their food is composed of dry clover hay, with which their cribs are
regularly filled.

“Some farmers feed aftermath, which is sweeter; but as this is apt to
load the stomach, in order to render it more easily digested, it is mixed
with oat-straw.

“It is very rare that these colts, changed from one district to another,
often making long stages, and exposed to the inclemencies of the weather,
are not attacked with strangles. Many raisers at this period have the
pernicious habit of giving them some kind of grain, in order to warm
them up, and cause them to throw off the disease. But this food has the
fault of thickening the blood too much, and exposes them to numerous
ailments.

“The diet is continued until the spring, at which time the colts are
given green fodder in the stable. Later they are turned into the clover
fields after the first cut, or into the meadows after they are mowed.

“At 18 months they commence their apprenticeship; passing their necks
through the collar, they are harnessed to plows or wagons with horses
already broken, although of an age at which, in many countries, their
equals are as yet ignorant of all labor.”

2. Common and Infectious Diseases, and Other Ailments
Strangles — Adenitis equorum

“Strangles is an acute, contagious, infectious disease of horses, in the
course of which catarrhal symptoms of the upper air passages develop in
association with suppurative inflammations in the adjoining lymph
glands, and sometimes in a metastatic form in more distant lymph glands.
The streptococcus equi is considered at the present time as the cause of
the disease.

“. . . Strangles occurs almost annually in studs and sale depots,

when it usually affects practically all the young foals in a varying
degree. In later stages it is rarely observed, and almost exclusively in
horses which have not passed through the disease while young. It occurs
almost everywhere (Ireland and Argentine are supposed to be free from
the infection), and although its course is usually favorable, yet it may
cause considerable loss to the horse owner through frequent disturbances
in the development of the colts, and also by occasional deaths.

“Under natural conditions the infection occurs usually through the
nasal secretion or pus from affected animals entering, directly by trans¬
mission with contaminated substances (food, drinking water), the upper
air passages of a healthy horse . . . where it adheres to the mucous

membrane. It is also very possible that infection takes place through
the uninjured mucous membrane, where the bacteria very likely pene¬
trate the excretory ducts of the mucous glands. The disease which usually
attacks all the colts in a stable, could hardly be explained otherwise; on
the other hand the infection is favored by conditions of the mucous mem¬
branes in which there is a desquamation of the epithelium, or by deep
penetrating injuries.

“The disease occurs usually when affected or not entirely recovered
animals are introduced into the stable . . . scabs from an exanthema

of the skin of colts affected . . . may also disseminate the infection.

“The air evidently plays an important part in the transmission of
the infection, inasmuch as in the warm and moist stable air the virus
expelled during coughing and blowing may float for a considerable time

MANAGEMENT OF THE WEANLINGS

105

attached to the droplets, and later enter the upper air passages of healthy
animals. This form of transmission through the air is less dominant out
of doors, first on account of the smaller quantity of moisture, and second
on account of its more rapid movement, which results in the rapid dilu¬
tion of the expelled virus.

“Through contamination with nasal discharge and pus from the glands
the most varied objects may become carriers of the infection, such as
cribs, drinking utensils, the food, the drinking water, straw, walls, floor
of the stables, the grass in the pasture, further the hands and clothes
of the attendants. The fresher the secretion the greater its virulence;
drying, however, does not wholly destroy its infectiousness. The disease
usually occurs annually almost at the same time of the year in stables of
colts, if they have not in the meantime been cleansed and disinfected. It
usually appears in the spring, and it is not possible in all instances to
prove a fresh introduction from the outside. In such cases it must be
assumed that the virus remained in the stable after the disappearance
of the disease, and was there dormant for months until it again attacked
the susceptible individuals of the new generation of colts, and thereby
caused a new outbreak of the disease.

“The infection probably enters from the digestive tract and especially
through the intestinal mucous membranes in those cases in which it
affects primarily or exclusively, the lymph glands of the mesentery.
However, up to the present time it has not been possible to produce this
form of the disease by feeding infected food.

“In copulation an infected stallion may transmit the disease to mares,
and in such cases there appear symptoms of a vaginal catarrh, while the
lymph glands in the vicinity of the external genital organs and of the
rectum, as well as in exceptional cases also the udder, become affected
. . . Affected colts may infect their mothers during sucking and cause

an inflammation of the udder and the neighboring lymph vessels . . .

“There is another possibility . . . that . . . the streptococci of

strangles may live outside of the animal bodies as saprophytes, and under
favorable conditions may attack colts, especially when the animals are
weakened by outside influences. In this manner those cases can be ex¬
plained in which the disease appears in localities after years of absence,
without any demonstrable introduction.

“Solipeds are exclusively susceptible to the disease, and they become
infected at the age of one-half to 5 years, mostly, however, while they are
colts. In rare cases the disease may occur at the age of 1 to 2 months
and also in animals over 5 years of age. The greater susceptibility of
young animals is associated with the lesser resistance of their mucous
membranes. The greater resistance of older animals is, however, prob¬
ably the result of their having already passed through an attack of the
disease ... it usually attacks animals only once during their lives
. . . some horses may become affected repeatedly, but in such cases

the attacks are usually separated by intervals of several years, while
cases in which an animal becomes repeatedly infected in one year . . .

are exceptionally rare.

“Outside influences which reduce the natural resistance of the animals,
especially colds, favor the infection, by causing a catarrh of the mucous
membrane of the air passages, as a result of which the epithelia become
loosened, and thereby the bacteria colonize more readily in the profusely
accumulated secretion, from which they may penetrate the tissue of the
mucous membrane.

“Usually weakened and poorly nourished colts are particularly sus¬
ceptible to the disease. In this regard, stabling in poorly ventilated, ex¬
cessively warm stables, insufficient feeding, sudden changes of weather,
fatigue during transportation, also pre-existing illness have a modifying
effect on the individual susceptibility. The cases in older horses usually

106

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

have a direct connection with such factors. On the other hand the re¬
sistance is increased by work, acclimation to the changeable outside influ¬
ences and hardening. Other accessory conditions, such as temperament,
teething, etc., have no influence on the susceptibility.

“ Prevention . This consists in keeping healthy horses, and especially
colts, from affected animals, as well as from stables and stands occupied
by the latter. In this way it is frequently possible to protect animals
from infection through their early years and if they should later con¬
tract the disease it will run a milder course. The colts born upon certain
premises should be kept as much as possible separate from strange colts.
If the disease appears in spite of it, it may be checked by transporting
the healthy animals as early as possible to localities free of the disease;
in such instances the animals should be guarded especially against cold;
which would reduce their resistance. After the extinction of the disease
thorough disinfection of the stables and the stable utensils is very desir¬
able as otherwise it reappears annually in the infected establishments.
Repeated disinfections will prevent the reappearance of the disease still
more efficiently.” Hutyra and Marek.72

Parasites

Dr. H. D. Bergman* mentions “various bots infesting both the stomach
and intestines, common round worms and tape worms in the small in¬
testine, and the pin worms and the so-called palisade or red worms in¬
festing the large intestines.” Ringworms are also met with.

Among the skin parasites gnats, various flies, lice, mange, mites, ticks,
etc., are given.

Cryptorchidy

“Cryptorchidy also constitutes a uniform cause of sterility when both
testicles are retained within the abdominal cavity. We speak of abdom¬
inal and inguinal cryptorchidy but, ordinarily, only the former may exist
as a permanent condition, while the latter is a transitory state, in which
the gland is descending from the abdomen into the scrotum, which it
will eventually reach. It is only very rarely that inflammatory adhesions
or other conditions may permanently arrest a testicle in the inguinal
region during its descent.

“Typically, cryptorchidy, is an arrest in the development of the testicle,
the organ being small, flaccid and soft. Histologically it partakes of the
character of the fetal testicle and spermatozoa are formed by it. If such
a testicle descends and passes from the abdomen through the internal
inguinal ring, it tends to at once develop normally and become fertile.
However, it is essential that the gland itself shall descend. In some
cases, the epididymis descends into the scrotum, while the gland remains
in the abdomen, the testicle retaining its typical cryptorchid character
and remaining sterile. While the typical abdominal cryptorchid testicle
is regularly sterile, it nevertheless induces a sexual reflex, causing the
development of the ordinary male attributes, such as the characteristic
head, neck . . . and voice and usually a sexual desire of an intense

and more or less perverted character, in which vice assumes a prominent
role. If only one testicle is retained in the abdomen, the other being
normally located and developed or even having undergone compensatorial
hypertrophy, the animal may be fertile, that is, the normally developed
gland is capable of performing its function regardless of the presence of
the sterile gland within the abdomen. The perverted sexual desire, akin
to nymphomania of the female, persists so long as one testicle is in the
abdomen, even though one has descended into the scrotum, and functions.
The defect is of further interest to the breeder because of its pernicious
hereditary transmission from parent to offspring. The condition is be¬
yond practical remedy. While it is surgically possible to procure the

MANAGEMENT OF THE WEANLINGS

107

descent of the testicle into the scrotum and thereby cause the gland to so
develop that it will perform its normal function, this would not prevent
the transmission of the defect to the offspring.” Williams.48

Cracks

“Interruptions of continuity of the wall extending in the direction of
the horn-tubes are known as cracks or seams. They have according to
their location, degree, and extent, not only various names, but also a vary¬
ing significance.

“ Occurrence . On the inner side of front hoofs, especially of horses
that stand base-wide; on hind hoofs, usually at the toe.

“ Classification . According to location we distinguish toe cracks, side-
cracks, quarter-cracks, and bar cracks. Those cracks which affect only
the upper border of the hoof are called coronary cracks; those which are
limited to the lower border of the hoof are sometimes designated low
cracks (plantar cracks); while those which are continuous from one
border to the other are called complete cracks. If the crack passes
through the entire thickness of the wall to the sensitive tissues under¬
neath, it is called a deep or penetrating crack, in contradistinction to
the superficial crack . . .

“ Causes . There are many. Besides wounds of the coronet, everything
that impairs the elasticity of the horn, weakens the hoof, and causes an
overloading of one-half of the hoof. Furthermore, great dryness and ex¬
cessive work on hard streets.

“Prognosis. This will depend upon the age, kind, and location of the
crack. A low crack is without significance unless it is the remnant of
an old coronary crack which has grown down. Coronary cracks, on the
contrary, are more serious because of the lameness which often accom¬
panies them, and especially on account of the long duration of the heal¬
ing process.

“The borders of the crack never grow together, and healing can only
take place through healthy, unbroken horn growing down from the coron¬
ary band.” Lungwitz and Adams.73

XI

EXPERIMENTAL WORK ON COLT FEEDING

At the Iowa Station, Wilson and Curtiss102 conducted an experiment
on feeding weanling fillies in which a comparison of whole grain with
ground grain was the objective. Six imported fillies were used — two Per-
cherons, two English Shires, and two French Coachers. The feeding
period was 79 days. Two lots were provided for each consisting of one of
each of the breeds. The two lots received the same grain feed composed
of oats, shelled corn, barley, bran and linseed meal, but lot 1 got the
ground feed mixed with a small amount of moistened cut hay, while lot
2 received the unground grain preparation, dry and without hay. For
roughage both lots were fed the same quantity of hay and stover. Salt
was given at will. At the end of the experiment lot 1 gained 472 pounds
and lot 2 gained 431 pounds, or 41 pounds in favor of the ground-feed
lot. It is also claimed that the use of separator milk, which was used in
the preliminary feeding, is a highlv satisfactory feed for colt raising.

Another experiment similar to the above, or a continuation of the
same test, was undertaken by the same experimenters at the Iowa Sta¬
tion. The same animals were used and they were again divided into two
lots. But the experimental period was changed — two periods of 40 days
each with an intermediate period of 16 days were provided. Lot 1 re¬
ceived oats, corn, bran, linseed meal, and cut hay, the grain being ground
during the first period. To lot 2 the same feeds were fed but the grain
wras unground and the hay uncut. The lots were reversed during the
second period. The gains during the first period were — lot 1, 149 pounds,
and lot 2, 127 pounds, while during the second period lot 1 gained 108
pounds and lot 2, 57 pounds. The results therefore corroborate the find¬
ings obtained from the original.

It is pointed out that “An interesting feature brought out in these
two experiments is shown in the amount of feed required for a pound
of increase in weight at different stages in the colts’ development. From
April 1 to May 18, 1892, growth wras made by these colts at the rate of
1 pound for each 7% pounds of grain, while in February, 1893, the same
colts, stabled in the same stalls, and under substantially the same con¬
ditions, except as to temperature, required 11 pounds of grain for each
pound of increased weight. The amount of hay eaten was practically the
same this year as last. It is generally estimated that it costs more to
winter a weanling colt than a yearling, and under average Western farm
conditions this assumption is correct, but when this is the case it is prob¬
ably the result of the fact that the yearling colt is capable of making
better use of the rougher and cheaper feeds of the farm, and not to super¬
ior digestive and assimilative power in utilizing feed of the best quality.
The weanling colt requires palatable and nutritious feed of a high quality,
and is capable of rendering a good account for such a ration.”

At the Pennsylvania Station, Cochel and Severson103 conducted an ex¬
periment on the developing of draft colts. Ten grade Belgian and Per-
cheron colts and one pure-bred Percheron were used. The main object of
the experiment was to determine the cost of raising the colt from weaning
to two years of age, while other data such as feeds consumed and changes
of form were also considered. No regular treatment was pursued whether
in the feeding operations or in their handling. However, it is worthy of
note to bear in mind the different feeds used, namely: The first winter
the grain consisted of five parts shelled corn, 3 parts shelled oats, 2 parts
wheat bran and 1 part linseed meal. One group received silage and hay,
while another got only hay for roughage. The next summer the grain

EXPERIMENTAL WORK ON COLT FEEDING

109

feeds were for a time the same grain mixture referred to and at another
oats alone. For a short time the Allies got no grain while the stallions
got corn during the same period. Then corn and oats formed the grain
portion of the ration at the latter part of the summer feeding. Pasture,
silage, and hay made up the coarse feeds given. The third 'feeding period
in the coming winter Ands the colt getting mostly oats in the earlier part
of the period and then a grain mixture embracing 6 parts of shelled corn,
2 parts of shelled oats, 1 part of wheat bran and 1 part of linseed meal was
employed for the remainder of the test period. Hay was the only
roughage provided for. According to the experimenters, “No effort was
made to secure extreme weight, but the colts were kept in good growing
condition.” The feeding periods were 168 days the Arst winter, 196 days
during the next summer, and 196 days the second winter.

The results of the test follow:

“During the progress of the test each colt consumed 28.5 bushels of
corn, 52.2 bushels of oats, 1.6 tons bran, 1.2 tons of linseed meal and 3
tons hay and its equivalent in corn silage, together with less than an
acre of good pasture.

“. . . their increase in value during their development was sufficient

to pay for all feed and labor, leaving a net proAt of $45.66 on each in¬
dividual in addition to the value of the manure which is variously esti¬
mated from $25.00 to $50.00. The full value of these have not yet been
reached, hence there should be a further proAt as they develop, while
doing the work on the farms. This test demonstrates the possibility of
producing draft horses proAtably under conditions which were not ideal
and during a period when grain and forage crops were higher in value
than in any like period in Afty periods.

“. . . When the rate of gain as measured by the amount of fat de¬

posited on the body was at its maximum, the growth width of chest was
greater than the growth at depth. During the third period, however, the
change in the form of heart girth was very noticeable in depth, though
there was an actual decrease in the width as compared with the preced¬
ing period. This decrease in width was due entirely to the fact that the
colts were losing in condition, although they were growing as far as the
length of bones was concerned. During the last period when the colts
were approaching maturity, it will be noticed that the change in depth
of heart was very slight while there was a material increase in width,
especially in that portion above the median line.

“. . . it would seem that the rate of growth as measured by the in¬

crease in the length of bones is continuous from birth to maturity, but
that the increase in width of body may remain stationary while that in
depth increases. This is to a very large extent due to the amount of food
that the animal consumes over and above that required for maintenance
and growth which is represented by a deposit of fat over the outside of
the chest. There was apparently a greater increase in the depth of chest
than in the depth at the middle of the paunch, doubtless due to the colts
being ‘paunchy’ at the beginning of the feeding period.

“. . . that the height of withers was materially greater at weaning
time than that of the croup, while in their two-year-old form the differ¬
ence was very much less. Another interesting feature in regard to the
measurements is that the depth of the chest increased 32% during the
entire period, while the distance from the chest to the ground only in¬
creased 9.78%, showing that the foal is much more ‘leggy’ than the
mature horse. There was very little change, amounting to only 1.8% in
length of the cannon of the hind leg as indicated by the measurement
from the point of the hock to ground. There was a very material increase
in the length of shoulder and also in the length of back as measured from
the scapula to the hip. In all of the measurements, however, the increase
in width is proportionately greater than the increase in height, so that
the body may be said to change in both depth and width to a greater ex-

110

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

tent than in the length of the long bones of the skeleton. There is ap¬
parently a much greater increase in the circumference of the girth at
the heart than in either the circumference at the hind flank or in the
middle of the paunch.

“During the last period when the grain rations were increased very
materially in order to induce fattening, the most noticeable change was
in the width of the body throughout. There was practically no additional
growth in the depth of the chest or in the length of the cannon during
this period. The greatest change was in the rounding out and improve¬
ment, in the symmetry, form and general appearance of the animals
rather than any actual change in the form as indicated by the change in
skeleton.”

Snyder104 of the Nebraska Station (North Platte) conducted an experi¬
ment on the value of some forages for growing colts, with the main idea
of testing the utility of alfalfa pasture and alfalfa hay for the same pur¬
pose. Thirty colts were used and these were subjected to test from the
time they were just weaned up till maturity. They were divided into
three lots. Lot 1 received alfalfa hay in winter and alfalfa pasture in
summer, Lot 2 were given access to alfalfa hay in winter and prairie
pasture in summer, and Lot 3 got prairie hay and cane hay in winter and
prairie pasture in summer. For the first winter these colts received
grain (% corn and Vz oats), each receiving 4 pounds daily, but during
spring this amount was altered. The feeding of grain after the first
winter was rather irregular except Lot 3 which got 3 pounds of emmer
per head during the next winter. When being broken as two-year-olds the
colts received a little grain and at the age of three they were started
to work at which time grain was given to them. This grain, however,
was not included in the computation for their development on account of
the work which pays for their keep.

Snyder gives conclusions of the experiment and writes:

“(1) It was not profitable to pasture the alfalfa during the summer or
at least after the first summer.

“(2) It was profitable to feed alfalfa hay during the winter.

“(3) It might have been profitable to pasture the alfalfa during the
summer if the colts had been sold as yearlings or two-year-olds.

“(4) It may be profitable to pasture alfalfa with colts where there
is some special incentive for getting rapid gains or where the cost of
alfalfa pasture and of native grass patsure are about equal.

“(5) Alfalfa pasture put the colts in an excellent condition of flesh
and finish and produced no injurious effects.

“(6) The flesh put on these colts is in no sense ‘flabby’ or temporary;
it seems to be solid flesh that endures work.

“(7) Alfalfa hay produces more increase in weight on colts than
prairie hay and cane hay during the winter.

“(8) Colts make a greater gain during the first winter and during the
first summer after weaning than during any winter or summer following
and also make greater gains during the second winter and second sum¬
mer than during the third winter and third summer, when conditions
are similar to those in this experiment.

“(9) Colts put on pasture when thin in flesh make faster gains than
similar colts put on pasture when in good flesh.

“(10) The increase in weight on colts in this experiment cost less
during the first winter than during the second winter, and less during
the second winter than during the third.”

Feeding trials conducted by Fuller105 of Wisconsin Station on the feed¬
ing of 11 pure-bred draft foals resulted in development of as much as
1000 to 1200 pounds at the end of one year. The feeds consist of a mix¬
ture of 60 per cent ground oats, 15 per cent corn meal, 10 per cent bran,
and 15 per cent cut alfalfa, supplied in amounts as the foals would clean

EXPERIMENTAL WORK ON COLT FEEDING

111

up at a time. These foals ate an average of 16.5 pounds per day. The
feeding period varied from 140 to 223 days and the average gain was 2.1
pounds daily at an average cost of 18 cents for feed. $51.66 was the
estimated cost of feed for the first year. The method of feeding pursued,
while not applicable to raising inferior stock, still finds place in forcing
pure-bred colts or grades of superior make-up.

At the Kansas Station, McCampbell106 performed a feeding test on ten
pure-bred and ten grade colts and the objects in view were:

“1. Can good draft colts be grown without the use of oats?

“2. What does it cost to develop a draft horse under average Kansas
conditions?

“3. What type of colt usually develops into the largest horse?”

The colts were approximately eight months old and the total length
of time through which the experiment was carried was 720 days. One
lot was fed a grain ration of oats with alfalfa hay, straw, corn stover,
and pasture, while the other got a grain mixture composed of 75% of
corn, 25 per cent of bran, and 5 per cent of oil meal, together with alfalfa
hay, straw, corn stover and pasture. The same amount of grain and the
same kind and amount of roughage were provided for. It was intended
to induce maximum growth and the colts were in good condition but not
over-fat.

The results of the investigation as summarized by McCampbell follow:

“1. The colts receiving a grain ration of 70 per cent of corn, 25 per
cent of bran, and 5 per cent of oil meal made a daily growth of 1.023
pounds during the entire period of 720 days, while the colts receiving
oats made a daily growth of only 0.926 pounds.

“2. Each pound of growth during the entire period made by the colts
receiving corn, bran and oil meal cost $0.1504, while each pound made by
the colts receiving oats cost $0,186.

“3. The colt made more rapid growth during the first year after wean¬
ing than during the second year. The first year’s daily growth averaged
1.285 pounds and the second year’s daily growth 0.7 pounds.

”4. Although the total cost of feeds consumed during the first year
was greater than that during the second year, the growth was cheaper.
The average cost of each pound of growth during the first year was $0,142,
and during the second year $0,230.

“5. The average total cost of developing the grade colts from the time
they were approximately eight months old until they were ready to
work (two and one-half years) was $123.37. The cost of raising a draft
colt to the age of eight months is about $50, making the total cost (in¬
cluding the labor) until the colt is ready to work approximately $175,
under conditions and prices similar to those of 1913-1914.

”6. The colts showing considerable bone and stretch at weaning time
developed into the largest horses. The plump, mature looking weanlings
are still plump little horses.”

At the Illinois Station, Edmonds107 put under trial the raising of ten
pure-bred draft weanling fillies up to two years of age on alfalfa hay,
corn and oats. Oats and corn, in half and half proportions by weight,
form the grain mixture. Alfalfa was the only roughage fed, and during
the pasture season the fillies had access to blue grass mixed with a little
of timothy, orchard grass, medium red and white clover. The feeding
periods embraced two winters and one summer.

According to Edmonds, “The trial seemed to indicate that a liberal por¬
tion of well-cured legume hay should be the foundation for feeding young,
growing horses. Along with this roughage, enough grain should be fed
to produce the desired growth. In this experiment it seemed necessary,
unless the fillies received a setback in growth, to feed some grain through¬
out the pasture season.

“Alfalfa hay fed with corn and oats gave results of a character which

112

PUKE BRED DRAFT HORSES

indicates that there is little or no need of feeding purchased mill feeds to
growing horses when alfalfa can be grown on the farm. When alfalfa
hay is the roughage used, a considerable proportion of the grain ration
may safely be corn. In this experiment the proportion was one-half by
weight.

“The average total feed consumed per head during the experiment was
45.35 bushels of corn, 79.36 bushels of oats, 2.58 tons of alfalfa hay, and
four-fifths of an acre of good grass. The average total grain in weight
per individual was 690.5 pounds, and in height, 7.96 inches. The average
daily gain was IV3 pounds.

“During the first winter an average of 5.674 pounds of grain and 4.266
pounds of hay was required per pound of gain. The second winter feed¬
ing period required an average of 9.228 pounds of grain and 12.99 pounds
of hay per pound of gain.

“The average weight of the lot at twelve months was 1,112 pounds; at
twenty-four months, 1,548 pounds. The average weight of eight head, the
two youngest fillies being excluded, at corresponding ages, was 1,128
pounds and 1,578 pounds respectively. The growthiest filly weighed 1,260
pounds at twelve months and 1,775 pounds at twenty-four months.

“. . . The three sets of prices used in figuring the feed cost show

$86.88, $105.50, and $108.49, respectively, as the value of the feed con¬
sumed by the ten head.”

Harper,84 in his investigations on the raising of colts at Cornell Uni¬
versity, arrived at: That “it requires 4,746 pounds of grain and 6,804
pounds of hay to grow a colt up to spring when he is three years of age
and of an average weight of 1270 pounds. This is approximately 2 2-5
tons of grain and 3 2-5 tons of hay.” That “on general farms, where
there is much work for the horses during the rush seasons and scant
work at other times . . . that the work may be performed by brood

mares; that the mares may raise a colt in addition to the work per¬
formed; and that the colts produced under such conditions not only pro¬
vide a means for the disposal of extra farm produce, but in addition
yield a profit of approximately $50 a head, or 30 per cent on the invest¬
ment.” Harper goes on to say that “further, in this calculation, the colts
are at a disadvantage inasmuch as they are under age, the most profitable
market age being approximately five years.”

X

CARE OF THE COLT’S FEET

According to Kennedy,61 the fact that crooked leg or deformed foot may
result from neglect in trimming the hoof of the foot implies the necessity
of giving occasional attention in leveling the feet of the colt. To do
this, “take up the foot, and trim off the surplus horn with a pair of
hoof nippers, a heavy knife, or rasp. Round off the edges so that there
is less tendency for the hoof to break. Handle the colt gently at first,
and if he struggles to get his foot down, talk gently to him and pet him,
but do not release the foot. If he gets his foot away a few times he will
acquire the habit and will always make trouble in handling the feet,
either for shoeing or for trimming. A common method is to stand the
colt on the board floor and trim off the surplus horn with his foot on
the floor. One front foot is tied up to make him keep his other foot on
the floor. In working with the left hind foot tie up the left fore foot;
and with the right hind foot, the right fore foot. With this method the
horn is cut with a mallet and chisel. This is a quick and easy device
adapted to vicious horses, but the operator cannot do as good a piece of
work, and often has difficulty in telling exactly where to cut, since he
has to guess at the position of the sole.”

Carter’s87 advice in training the colt’s feet follows: “The care of and
training of the hoof should begin when the animal is still young. The
hoofs should be rasped frequently, keeping the foot level ... I keep
the heels down lower than the frog which will have a tendency to spread
the heel. I also keep the toes rasped back. By letting the toes grow
long they take all the substance away from the quarters, causing a long
mule foot. By so doing I get the desired round foot. The important
point to remember is to keep the foot level.”

Thomas and Shields80 say that, “If there is the slightest sign of curby
hocks, we cannot cut tne toes too snort, nor keep the heels too high, and
when there is a strong predisposition to this unsoundness, early shoeing
is strongly recommended, the shoe to be square toed and set back from
the toe, the heels of the shoe to be of a good length and a heel calk
turned up on them.”

Broadhead108 states that colts should not be let loose in the pasture
unless their feet have been pared and leveled, which he says, should be
done regularly every six months beginning at the time when the colt is
a year old.

XI

EDUCATING AND TRAINING THE COLT

Johnstone5 dwells at length on the education and breaking of the colt,
thus:

“Breaking a colt should begin when the youngster is a few days old.
Fit a little headstall to its head and leave a strap 6 or 8 inches long
hanging from it. Catch the foal by this strap often and get him thorough¬
ly accustomed to being handled, to close association with mankind, to
have his legs rubbed and his feet picked up. A foal is a friendly little
fellow as a rule and likes to play and be petted ... It is always
had to ‘baby’ a horse, but with a foal it is different. Familiarity with
mankind and the consequent fearlessness accruing are safe insurance
against trouble when it comes to breaking to harness. Early teach the
foal to lead. Have a fairly long lead-strap, get behind him and make
him go ahead. That is the right way. The wrong way is to get in front
of him and try to drag him along. Gentle persuasion with the whip may
be necessary, but if the foal has been gently handled he will not be
afraid and will quickly learn to go on about his business. Make him do
whatever you set out to teach him to do. Breaking colts or horses is
much like raising orphan colts — it is largely in the man. A horse, young
or old, is a stupid sort of a beast at the best and unless he is intelligently
raised is possessed by fear. Then under strange circumstances he will
do anything which he ought not to do; he gets rattled and then he does
not know what he is doing. On the other hand if he has confidence in
the man who has hold of him, his master’s voice will reassure him.

“There is a whole lot too much fuss, as a rule, made about breaking
young horses. If the breaking is made a gradual process it will come to
a head much as a matter of course. If they are allowed to run practically
wild until three or four years old and then suddenly caught up and the
effort made to force them to do something they know nothing about there
will be trouble and there always is.

“I figure that it is best to break colts and accustom them to the harness
at two years of age. First of all, on the farm, take a thick straight bit and
buckle it in the mouth with two short straps to the square irons in the
ends of the cheek pieces of the halter. Let them stand tied in the stall
and they will mouth and champ on the bit and so toughen the cheeks, or
parts of the lips which the bit contracts, in that process.

“Now get ready a leather surcingle with a loop strap on top and
buckles stitched half-way down each side. Buckle the surcingle around
the colt’s body and adjust a check rein moderately tight or if desired a
regular bitting harness may be used. This consists of a bridle and check-
rein, a surcingle and crupper and two side lines, running from the bit
to the buckles on each side of the surcingle. The bit in a bitting harness
usually is a thick snaffle with a line of little metal pendants called ‘keys’
hanging to the joint in the middle of it. The object of these keys is by
annoying the tongue to make the colt champ the bit and so toughen his
cheeks. After the colt has been allowed to go a while with his head
checked up, attach the side lines and buckle them moderately tight. Turn
him out thus rigged into the yard and let him go a few hours a day for
a week. Then substitute real reins for the sidelines and drive around
until he knows how to guide this way and that, to stop at the word
‘whoa,’ and to step up when directed. Break the colt to stand absolutely
still when being harnessed. That is a first essential. A horse that is
perpetually stepping around while being harnessed is but half broken.
. . . A gentleman’s horse is broken so that he stands until his owner

EDUCATING AND TRAINING THE COLT

115

adjusts his apron or robe, takes up his reins and gives the word to go on.
The time to teach the horse these pleasant ways is when he is first
broken. Likewise teach him to back pleasantly and always with a pull
of the reins. Do not try to teach the colt too much, but insist that he
stop as instantly as possible at the word ‘whoa,’ back when told to do so
and the pull on the reins shows what is wanted, and to get up promptly
when the word is given.

“After the colt has been driven around by the reins and has learned to
guide to the right and left, to turn around, ‘get up’ and ‘whoa/ hitch him
into a long-shafted breaking cart single, or double, with some steady¬
going horse, not necessarily an old one, but always reliable. It is a mis¬
take to hook a colt up the first time with some old plug that cannot get
out of his own way. He will never step fast enough for the young one
and the latter will fret and worry. There are easier and shorter ways to
break horses than this, but it pays to take him as described for the
reason that the process outlined if followed will develop a mouth not too
hard and not too soft . . . When he is young his brain is more
plastic and sensitive to impressions than when he grows older. Habits
he contracts at two years old will be retained through life.

“When colts have been well broken as two-year-olds they may be turned
out for the rest of the year. They will never forget their lesson.”

Gay recommends:4 “Little foals should be taught subordination at the
very start, and not allowed to become wilful or headstrong. An early
effort in this direction will not only simplify that culmination of their
education, too often most properly termed ‘breaking/ but it will insure
that end being more completely accomplished. On the other hand the
idea of fear must be kept as remote as possible, as the timid horse is
usually the one which has some terrifying experiences to remember. Even
before the time for haltering arrives, the youngsters may be taught to
stand over, have their feet raised, and in a general way to respond to the
master mind.

“. . . When halters are to be placed on the colts in order that they
may become accustomed to them, one of the light web variety is prefer¬
able to the heavier strap halter commonly used, and care should be taken
not to pull heavily on the nose band at any time. Many deformed face
lines have been caused by this means. It is not necessary to drag a colt
by the halter in order to suggest to him that his business is to follow. As
a matter of fact, the reverse effect is usual, and the harder a colt is
pulled, the harder he pulls back. If on Ihe contrary, he is coaxed along
some accustomed route, as to the water trough and back, he will soon
catch on and follow promptly whenever the halter is taken in hand.

“The first time the colt is tied up by the head, see to it that the halter
will hold him in case he pulls. If it does and he fails in the first few
attempts, a string will probably serve as well as a chain to keep him in
his place thereafter, while if he succeeds in freeing himself at the first
few attempts he will never cease trying to repeat what he has once ac¬
complished.

“. . . The first step toward getting a colt going successfully in har¬

ness is to properly bit and mouth him. In the old countries a common
practice is to back the colt into a slip stall and hold him there by cross¬
ties snapped in the bit rings. He thus works against the iron, first bear¬
ing, then yielding, until he becomes accustomed to its presence and the
pressure exerted by it. The dumb jockey or more simple bitting ring,
commonly used here, serves much the same purpose, but no mechanical
device is as effective as the pressure of the hand on the rein; better
mouths are made in this way. One of the most effective ways of develop¬
ing a good mouth in a colt and of teaching him to flex his neck is by
riding him as soon as he is old enough to be ‘backed.’

“While teaching the horse subordination by leading him to under¬
estimate certain of his powers, it is also essential that he be made to

116

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

believe that there is no limit to certain others. In the breaking process
the kick-strap should not be left off until the habit has been acquired,
nor should any pains be spared to prevent an initial performance at
either rearing, backing, wheeling, or running. On the other hand, it is
just as important not to overload a pair of draft colts, with a view of
creating in them the notion that they can pull anything with two ends
loose . . . Thus by exaggerating our equine servant’s notion of those

of his powers which are most useful to us, and at the same time deceiving
him as to those attributes which, if realized, might impair his usefulness,
we promote his serviceability.”

Thomas and Shields89 advise that the colt be placed in a boxstall and
haltered. The use of a strong five-ring leather halter is advocated. To
break the -colt to stand tied, one horseman is quoted, as follows: “Take a
five-eighths inch rope around the colt’s girth, slip the plain end through
the nose, and draw the rope tight around the girth, pass the loose end
of the rope between the colt’s legs and up through the halter ring. Tie
end of rope to a ring in the stall and leave colt stand for an hour or so
each day. This will break the colt to stand hitched, which is an impor¬
tant part of its education.” Other horsemen, the authors say, object to
the practice of tying the colts in the stall except only after they are
thoroughly halter broken.

With regard to mannering the colt, Whiteley89 writes: “We commence
mannering the colts almost as soon as they are foaled, and soon accustom
them to being handled. Our colts are haltered when they are two or
three weeks old. We use an ordinary halter, and get a piece of half-inch
hemp rope, about two and a half feet long, thoroughly wrapped at one
end, or near the end, and with a snap hook attached to the other end,
and snap the rope into the halter, letting the colt carry or drag it so as to
become accustomed to carrying something, and in a way, to be guided
by it.”

Heather89 is also of the opinion to put a halter on the colt, which is
allowed to drag. He objects, however, to the use of ropes around the girth
and hindquarter on account of injuries that might result. For further
means of gentling the colt, he recommends putting a quiet man who is
fond of salts who may play with the latter.

According to McCarr89 the colt is halter-broken “by putting a piece
of three-eighths inch bell cord around it, the same as a breeching, and
then a short piece or run over the back, directly over the flanks, connect¬
ing both sides, to keep it from falling down over the heels; then the two
long pieces are run through the halter ring. The colt breaker takes the
halter shank in one hand, and the two ends of the cord in the other, then
gently pulls on the halter shank and gives the cord a sharp jerk. The
colt will generally make a jump forward and in some cases attempt to
kick, but it takes, as a rule, only one lesson for the colt to grasp the idea
that with a pull of the halter shank it will also receive a jerk on the cord,
so that after a few lessons it will obey and lead on the first pull of the
shank.” Alley89 is claimed to practice the same method modified in such
a way, however, that the pull exerted on the halter rope and to the rope
going around the colt is made equal. He points out the desirable affect of
a steady pull, which would result in always making the colt step forward
on account of the pressure behind.

McDonald’s89 method is described in the following way: “He uses the
ordinary bitting rig, consisting of a surcingle, back band (with a ring on
either side), crupper attachment, plain, open bridle without check, and
a soft leather bit with a leather guard at either side of the mouth. The
colt is led out into the yard or paddock and a short strap attached
to the bit on one side and tied through one ring on the back band,
tight enough to draw the colt’s head around to one side. The colt is then
turned loose and allowed to wander where it will. As the head is turned

EDUCATING AND TRAINING THE COLT

117

to one side, the colt will continue to go in a circle and cannot run. After
a few minutes the strap is changed to the other side, and in a very few
lessons the -colt is perfectly bridle-wise. An important advantage of this
method is that you can go up to the colt at any time, for it is impossible
for the colt to get away from you and the colt will learn the purpose of
the bit without inflicting any damage whatever.”

Biddell, Douglas, Dykes, Fleming, Macneilage, Murray, and Trotter82
advise that at the age of a week or ten days a slender leather head-stall
should be placed on the head of the foal, together iwith a short piece of
leather strap connected with it. Soon after training the colt to lead by
a plain halter, a leather head-stall is fitted on the head to which a bit
is attached. “Then the colt is turned loose in the yard for several hours;
this should be repeated for several days before any further steps are
taken. At this period we prefer a round piece of hard wood of consider¬
able circumference to the iron bit. When the colt has become sufficiently
accustomed to the bit it is well to back him into a stall and have him
secured on each side by a strong pillar rein. By repeating the lesson
several times he becomes accustomed to and learns to be controlled by
the bit. Having been thoroughly mouthed he is next driven in reins and
thoroughly accustomed to answer the bit and should be further trained
to answer to his name.”

The handling of the foal, according to Dimon40 should commence from
birth. Dimon emphasizes the necessity of educating and training the
colt and not to “break” him. According to him, “The first lesson to teach
a young colt is that you do not wish to hurt him. The next that you are
a stronger party and can master him. He will soon learn these two les¬
sons and then you can go up to him anywhere, and when once you have
your hand on him you can easily hold him and he will not struggle to
get away from you.

“The next two lessons are to halter and lead him and teach him to
stand tied by the halter. You may then, by kindness, teach him to follow
you around and come at your call, by always awarding him for so doing
with a sweet apple, a handful of oats, or anything else as such young¬
sters are known to like. Then teach him at an early age to be handled
all over, including the taking up of his feet, and to be curried and brushed.
When he finds that you do not hurt him he will like these lessons and
will always remember them.

“Next, accustom him to stand with a bag or blanket thrown over him.
When you have taught him all of these, he is ready, as soon as old enough,
to be bridled and bitted. In bitting, put a bitting rig or single harness
on him with an open bridle; check him up rather loosely at first and
turn into a small paddock or yard. Do not compel your colt to wear the
bitting gear too long at one time, as by so doing it has a tendency to
sour his disposition. Keep him in the gear long enough each time to
give him to understand that he cannot get clear of it and that he must
give up to it; and do not take it off while he is struggling to free himself
from it, but let him fight it out and get quiet first. Always take it off
when quiet, otherwise he may think the removal has been caused by his
exertions to get rid of it.

“When he has become somewhat accustomed to the bit and has given,
up fighting it, start him up a little; always use the same expression, as
‘go on,’ ‘get up,’ or whatever term you choose to use for starting him.
Practice in this way for a little while until he learns to start and stop at
the proper command. Then take a buggy whip, crack it or touch him
lightly on the rump, when starting him up. Teach him the word ‘whoa’
and ‘back’; when he thoroughly understands all of this and the use of
the whip, put the lines on him, running them back through the shaft
tugs instead of the terret rings, to prevent his turning around, and thus
teach him all about driving, starting, stopping, and turning.

118

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

“Make all these lessons short, and by frequent repetitions impress each
point upon his mind. Be kind and considerate at all times, remembering
that he is always willing to do what is required of him if he understands
you. Do not scold or swear at him. After each short lesson, give an
apple or lump of sugar, or some delicacy of which he may be fond, as a
reward for good behaviour; it is surprising how soon he will learn to
appreciate such awards or favors. Be sure you bit him thoroughly and
practice this for some time before attempting to drive in harness on the
road. If the colt has always been petted and treated kindly, as he should
be, and has no fear of man, there will be but little trouble.”

Roberts69 gives some general pointers as to the manner in which a
trainer should act in the handling of the foal: “The foal should be petted,
but kindness and firmness should be used in handling it . . . It is a

mistake to attempt to educate . . . foals above their capacity . . .

While the foal is yet with its dam, it should be taught to lead and to al¬
low its feet to be handled. The paramount object . . . is to teach it

prompt obdience and to inspire it with courage and confidence . . .

It should not be allowed to get its legs entangled in stable floors, bridges
or fences, and it should never be purposely frightened. The colt and the
filly, as well as mature animals, discern quickly a timid, hesitating, or
incompetent attendant or driver . . . Teach the foal but little; but

what little education it does receive should be so thorough that it will
be retained through life. Young colts are nervous; endeavor to strengthen
their nerves by implanting confidence, which tends to allay nervousness.”

Hopkins109 describes, in a lengthy and comprehensive manner, a method
of training the colt: To educate the foal to lead “A light, well-fitted halter
should be placed on the foal just before weaning time to accustom him
to it before he is taught to lead from it. Attach a small rope, about five
feet long, to the halter, then take a rope about twelve feet long and make
a large loop in one end that will fit over the buttocks at the base of
the hams. With a rope in each hand, give the halter rope a gentle pull
and command ‘come.’ If he pulls back give the buttock rope a gentle
pull; when the pressure is felt he will naturally step forward. After a
few steps, place the hand on the nose band of the halter and command
‘whoa’ ... To teach him to back place the hand on the nose band
of the halter and the other hand against the breast and command ‘back.’
If he refuses, apply pressure on both nose and breast, and he will quickly
learn to obey.

“The training of the foal to stand tied should come next. Place a
rope, with a ring in one end, around the loins, forming a slip noose, with
a ring on the under side of the body. Pass the rope between his forelegs
and tie so that the pressure on the loins will be felt if he pulls on the
halter. Care should be taken not to have too much pressure on the halter
as colts often injure their heads or necks by pulling.

“When tied the colt should be handled from both sides; gentle by pat¬
ting and rubbing the hands about the head, neck, back, and legs. If he
shows a tendency to kick, use a stick four or five feet long. He should
be allowed to examine and smell this stick before his body and legs are
rubbed. Continue with the stick until he will stand quietly while being
rubbed. The second day tie an old coat or rag on the end of the stick
and repeat the first day’s lesson. Accustom him to strange noises, unusual
sights and fur coats and robes until he stands without fear.

“At this time the feet should be handled, trimmed and kept level . .

“The foal should be driven with lines at an early age. To do this*
place a surcingle with line rings well down on the colt. Hitch the lines
on either side of the halter and pass them through line rings on the
surcingle, keeping them well down on the quarters. Standing on the
near side well up to the shoulder, with the right line drawn around the
quarters and the left line shortened, command him, ‘get up.’ If he does

EDUCATING AND TRAINING THE COLT

119

not start, tighten the right line to bring pressure on his buttocks. This
will have the same effect as the rope did when teaching to lead, and he
will start readily. 'Circle right and left as well as straight away. Use
the command, ‘whoa,’ and stop him with a hint from the lines and not a
hard pull or jerk. Stop and start him often to give him confidence.

“After he is handy to drive teach him to back from the lines. Drive
him ahead a few steps, with the command ‘whoa,’ give a steady pull and
command ‘back.’ Keep straight behind him and have him step backward
a few steps, then drive ahead a short distance. Change direction often
and he will soon back without the pull from reins.

“The colt should be bitted at about two years of age. A good mouth
is very important to any horse ... A bitting harness or dumb jockey
is used at first to allow the colt to do much of this work himself while
running in the paddock.

“. . . The bit should be well up in the mouth, but not tight. The

check and side reins should be very loose for the first few lessons. Then
his head should be gradually drawn up and the side lines shortened until
he has his head well up and straight.

“As soon as he is well bitted and accustomed to the harness, remove
the side lines and substitute the driving reins. Attach them to the bit
and pass through rings well down on either side of the surcingle. This
will keep the reins down on the quarters and prevent the colt from turn¬
ing the trainer, avoiding mishaps. Some trainers leave the ‘near’ or left
rein out of the ring, making it easier to control the colt in case he at¬
tempts to run or lunge. He should be guided from left to right, should
start at command ‘get up,’ stop at ‘whoa,’ and back straight without be¬
ing pulled back by the reins. Drive him about, and up to strange objects
and in strange places. Pass other horses with him and have him stand
while others drive by

“A complete set of harness should be used several times before he is
hitched. Attach a piece of rope to each trace, and, with the reins in
one hand and the rope in the other, have him pull you by his collar. If
he objects to the pull, start it gradually while he is moving. Pole and
gentle the colt well before hitching, as many kicking and runaway
horses are made the first time they are hitched to the cart or wagon.”

A long presentation of handling and training the foal is subsequently
set forth, as Harper110 directs and advises: As to the age at which to
begin to train the foal, Harper says that “If he is thrifty and strong, the
very first day of his life is none too soon to begin training,” because “he
has fewer ideas of his own and fewer fixed habits.” He goes on to say
that “The earlier in life the training begins the easier the task, and the
longer it is postponed the greater are the chances of a hard struggle.
We can show, rather than force, him to do that which he does not under¬
stand. While it is true, no doubt, that at this early age the animal’s
power of memorizing is undeveloped, it must be remembered that the
horse learns by association of ideas only and beginning at so early an
age has many advantages aside from training the memory.

“Perhaps the most important advantage gained by early training is
that the youngster becomes acquainted with his master at a time when
man is the animals physical superior. This is significant. As has been
stated, the horse obeys commands because he feels obliged to do so, and
not because he likes to accomplish a task. It is, therefore, of advantage
to fix the idea in the foal’s mind that he is our mental and physical in¬
ferior and must obey. The earlier he comes into possession of this idea
the better horse he will make. On the other hand, horses which have
roughed it from birth to maturity having come to know their strength and
having their instinct of independence strongly developed, are propor¬
tionately more difficult to teach to obey.”

To catch the foal, Harper points out that “It is of much importance the

120

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

first time the foal is caught that he be held in such a manner as not to
cause him fright,” and the proper way is to “gently place one arm under
the neck and the other under the hams. If he attempts to go forward,
apply pressure at the neck, or if he attempts to go backward, apply
pressure at the hams. If it is desired to have him step forward, re¬
lieve the pressure at the neck and apply it at the hams, or if it is desired
to have him step backward, relieve the pressure at the hams and apply
it at the neck. If caught in this manner, he will soon become quiet, then
he should be handled all over the body and legs. Extra care should be
taken when handling the ears, the back of the forelegs, the flanks, and
the front of the hind legs, as these parts are extremely sensitive to the
touch. This requires only a few minutes and the foal, in all probability,
will come to meet you the next time you enter the stall instead of fleeing
from you, as he will if you attempt to catch him by the neck or even if
you pay no attention to him the first time you enter the stall. If the
animals are to reach their greatest usefulness this natural timidity must
be overcome and confidence in man established. This can be accom¬
plished by kind, firm treatment. The occasional use of some relished
morsel, such as a lump of sugar, will be of material benefit in overcom¬
ing timidity and in establishing confidence.

“No sudden movements should be made in approaching the foal, as
these will make him start and jump away. In this way, he will soon
learn that he can escape being caught. To avoid this we should always
go about the young animal in a very quiet manner. Never make a quick
movement in catching him, as this will serve to frighten him and make
him more difficult to catch the next time. Never attempt to catch him
unless sure of success, for if he succeeds in getting away, it is not at all
likely that he will forget it soon.

“Children and thoughtless persons often try to make the youngster
show off by doing something to frighten him, as tlirorwing sticks, ‘shooing,’
running at him and the like. This should never be done. Such actions
serve to make the animal more difficult to catch and handle, and in fact
may so frighten a highly nervous cne as to cause him to injure himself
in an attempt to get away. If it is desired to see the foal in action, lead
the mare away and the youngster will follow, when his action may be
noted.

“. . . After catching the foal and handling him as suggested, it is

important that we secure his complete confidence before he is set free.
If for some reason the youngster should make his escape after being
caught and held fast, but before his confidence is secured, he will be very
difficult to catch the next time. In view of this fact much care must be
taken to dispel all fear. Loving kindness is an important factor in secur¬
ing his confidence. Feeding sweets from the palm of the hand, such as
a little granulated sugar pressed between his lips, will aid materially in
securing the youngster’s confidence. Sugar, being sweeter than the
dam’s milk, seems to give him the idea that we are his friend, and in¬
stead of fleeing as we enter the stall he will come to meet us, placing
as much confidence in us as in his mother. The importance of securing
the colt’s confidence at this early age is very significant, as he is likely
to retain the pleasant recollection throughout life.

“. . . In handling the foal we should go about the work coolly and
with confidence. We should be careful to avoid confusing or exciting
him. It must be remembered that there is little connection between the
two sides of the animal’s brain, and he may be perfectly familiar with us
from one side and yet become greatly excited if caught from the other
side. To avoid this confusion, handle the foal from both sides. He
should become familiar with strange objects from every quarter.

“In training the youngster it is important that the first lesson be of
such a nature that they can be understood very easily, and even more easily

EDUCATING AND TRAINING THE COLT

121

accomplished. The foal, of course, must understand what is wanted before
he can be expected to accomplish the task. When he fully understands
can be expected to accomplish the task. When he fully understands
what is expected of him, he will do it with surprising rapidity. Confusion
resulting from not understanding what is wanted often so excites or
frightens the animal that he is likely to do anything, even to fatally in¬
juring himself by running to telephone poles, gate posts, buildings and
the like. Since it is not possible to teach an excited or frightened
animal, we must first of all make it clear to him what he is expected to do.

• • In handling the foal, the first few lessons should not exceed

fifteen minutes in length, as this is sufficient time to impress an idea
on his mind. These early lessons should be exceedingly simple, so as
to avoid confusion. Take up one thing at a time, and be sure the
colt fully understands what is wanted and how to do it before
passing to another. As advancement is made, teach the lessons
in the most useful order and always repeat each in the order taught.
Soon the foal can be relied upon to go through the list in order given
without a break. On the other hand, if the work is given in a haphazard
manner, then all is uncertain as to just what the animal can be depended
upon to accomplish. If the work is continued too long and the colt
fatigued whether mentally or physically, his power of memorizing is
weakened, and if the work is complicated, he may become confused. To
avoid this make the work short and simple, particularly in the beginning.

“Teach the young animal only such lessons as will be useful to him
later in life. As stated, he should be taught to be handled from both
sides at every angle; teach him the use of the halter so that he will fol¬
low wherever you wish him to go; the meaning of . . . ‘whoa’ . . .

‘get up’ . . . and . . . ‘back’ ... In addition, familiarize the

youngster with objects that are likely to cause him fright, show him
that such objects will not hurt him, and that he can trust himself to
your care with perfect assurance that he will be protected from all harm.

“The best time to teach the foal the use of the halter is when he is
about ten days or two weeks old. This is a very important matter, as it
is the first time the youngster has been in any part of the harness, and
he should be given to understand from the very beginning that such
will not hurt him and that he must obey the signals given by means of
the halter. Many animals which have been very teachable up to this
time are often spoiled by improper methods of training to lead . . .

In this way the foundation is laid for a confirmed halter-puller . . .

This comes about because we are not mindful of the natural tendency of
the horse to move backward when pressure is applied at the front and
to move forward when the rear end is touched. Without thinking, the
halter is placed on his head and we begin to pull on the strap, and true
to his instincts the foal goes backward . . . It is not necessary to
drag the foal by the halter in order to suggest to him that his business
is to follow . . .

“. . . For the foal a web halter is preferable to a leather one, as it

is much lighter and softer and not so likely to injure or frighten him.
Never use a rope halter on the young foal. An old halter that has been
in constant use is better, all things considered, than one that has been
hanging up or even a new one that smells of a lot of things that are
strange to the animal. It is very important to have the halter fit the
head perfectly. Because the foal’s head grows so rapidly, colt halters
are, as a rule, made too large for the very young animal in order that
they may fit later on. The head-stall, brow-band, throat-latch and nose¬
band should be taken up until they fit, otherwise the pressure will not be
applied properly, the check-straps may be pulled around against the
animal’s eyes, the chin-band slip over the nose and the like, all of which
must be avoided. It often happens that in taking up the halter, long

122

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

straps are left hanging about the head to annoy the foal. These should
be fastened up in some way. It is often rather difficult to adjust the
halter to a nervous foal’s head, but to be successful one must have patience.
Do not be in a hurry, but let the youngster get acquainted with every¬
thing as you proceed. With the halter properly adjusted, coax the young¬
ster along behind his mother or some accustomed route, as to the water
trough and back. If one has sweets available, such as sugar, and permits
the youngster to taste of them occasionally, he will soon follow promptly.
If he resents, however, other means must be tried. Do not stand in front
and try to pull his head off, for he will only roll his eyes, shake his head
and move back; and, above all, do not give up. We must now take advan¬
tage of the animal’s natural instinct and apply pressure at the rear end
as we wish him to move forward.

“. . . Secure a small rope or sash-cord, about ten feet long, tie a loop
or fasten a ring in one end, gently place the rope over the foal’s back just
in front of the hips, with the loop or ring on the under side of the body,
bo that when the free end of the rope is run through the loop the rope can
be closely drawn around the loins and flanks; pass the rope along under
the body between the fore-legs, and then up through the ring on the hal¬
ter or under the jaw strap . . .

“Take the halter strap in one hand, the loin-hitch rope in the other,
and stand in front and a little to one side of the foal. Pull gently on the
halter-strap, and as he begins to shake his head give the loin-rope a sharp
pull and he will immediately move forward. In fact, he is likely to move
forward so rapidly that he will run into you if you stand squarely in
front of him. Do not be in a hurry, but give the animal time to get used
to the lesson.. If he is excited, give him sweets or caress him until he
quiets before attempting to give the loin-rope a second pull. When his
confidence has been restored, try again, using the loin-rope again if need
be. Soon he will follow wherever you lead. All of this requires only five
to fifteen minutes, whereas by the old method — pulling on the halter
alone — we have little or no assurance when the foal will follow.

“As soon as the foal fully understands the use of the halter and will
follow wherever we lead, he should be taught to back. Do not attempt to
teach him to back the same day he is taught to lead, but put it over until
the next day . . . All that is required is pressure in front. Take the

halter strap in one hand so as to guide the foal in a straight line or in
any desired direction, extend the fingers of the other hand between the
points of the shoulder and press gently against the animal, and he will
step back . . . Reward him for his action, and repeat until he will
move backward by applying the pressure at the halter alone. Never force
the animal by jerking on the halter strap; simply apply pressure in the
sensitive chest cavity with the ends of the fingers. In fifteen minutes’
time, in addition to leading wherever desired, the foal should be willing
to back any distance or in any direction.

“By the third day after haltering, if all has gone well and the colt will
lead and back, he should be driven in lines. To do this most successfully,
a surcingle, properly adjusted, is required. The surcingle must be pro¬
vided with a loop on each side, placed well below the center of the body,
the lines passed through the loops and fastened to the ring on either side
of the halter. Never use a bit in the mouth of a very young animal. Now
the lines will pass the hind quarters low and thus prevent the foal from
turning with his head towards us, which he will do occasionally if the
surcingle is not used. It is very important to keep the reins low in turn¬
ing to make the guiding process easy. At first walk close to the animal
so as to encourage him to go forward by occasionally touching the rump
with one hand, while the guiding is done with the other. As soon as he
becomes accustomed to being driven, he may be touched up with the lines,

EDUCATING AND TRAINING THE COLT

123

guided to the right and left, but should be stopped often to assure him
that he is doing well.

• . For best results, these terms, ‘whoa,’ ‘get up,’ and ‘back’,
should be taught one each day, beginning the next day after the foal has
been driven with the lines. After driving for a short time, or until the
excitement has worn off, give the command ‘whoa,’ following immediately
with a sudden and positive pull on the lines ... Do not speak loud,
but rely more on the pressure applied with the lines. The foal should be
rewarded. After waiting a short time, start by applying pressure on the
rump, and after going until all is right, repeat the command and the pull
as before. As soon as he shows indication of stopping at the command,
do not pull on the lines. When he stops at the command alone, reward him.

“The next day, after driving for a short time and stopping at the com¬
mand ‘whoa,’ the foal should be taught the meaning of the term ‘get up,’
To do this, start the animal by the comamnd ‘get up,’ followed immedi¬
ately by a rather sharp tap upon the rump. Tap the animal according
to what he will stand and not so as to frighten him. As soon as he is
going normally, stop by the command ‘whoa’ and caress him. Repeat
the process until he will start at the command alone.

“The following day teach the foal the meaning of the term ‘back.’ This
should first be done in the way suggested; that is, by holding the halter in
one hand and applying the pressure between the shoulder points with the
other, at the same time giving the command ‘back.’ Repeat until the
youngster will move back at the command alone. Now you are ready to
snap on the lines and teach him to back from behind. At first it may be
necessary to pull on the lines following the command. Repeat and reward
him until he will back at the command. By the third day the foal should
respond to all three commands.

“The time required to carry out the above suggestion is but fifteen
minutes for six consecutive days, or ninety minutes in all, during which
time the youngster has been taught to lead, to drive, to stop at the com¬
mand ‘whoa,’ to start at the command ‘get up,’ and to back on command.
While he is not yet three weeks of age yet he will obey commands better
than the average horse will ever obey them. The value of training begun
thus early cannot be overestimated. It fixes the idea of subordination in
the horse’s mind at a time in life when no subsequent treatment can
shake it, and even though the time consumed in such training is quite in¬
significant, it adds as nothing else can to the future usefulness of the ani¬
mal.”

Youatt37, in his method of breaking-in the colt, writes: “The process of
breaking-in should commence from the very period of weaning. The foal
should be daily handled, accustomed to the halter, led about, and even
tied up. The tractability, good temper, and value of the horse depends a
great deal more upon this than breeders are aware; this should be done
as much as possible by the man by whom they are fed, and whose man¬
agement of them should be always kind and gentle. There is no fault for
which a breeder should so invariably discharge his servant as cruelty, or
even harshness, towards the raising of stock; for the principle on which
their after usefulness is founded is attachment to and confidence in man,
and obedience, implicit obedience, resulting principally from these. With
the horse used for agricultural purposes, after the second winter, the work
of breaking-in may commence in good earnest. He may first be bitted,
and a bit -carefully selected that will not hurt his mouth, and much smaller
than those in common use; with this he may be suffered to amuse him¬
self, and to play, and to champ for an hour, on a few successive days.
Having become a little tractable, portions of the harness may be put upon
him, and, last of all, the blind winkers; and a few days after he may go into
the team. It would be better if there could be one before and one behind
him, besides the shaft horse. Let there be first the mere empty wagon.

124

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

Let nothing be done to him except that he may have an occasional pat or
kind word. The other horses will keep him moving and in his place, and
no great time will pass, sometimes not even the first day, before he will
begin to pull with the rest; then the load may be gradually increased.

“The agricultural horse is wanted to ride as well as to draw. Let this
first lesson be given when he is in the team. Let his feeder, if possible, be
first put upon him: he will be too much hampered by his harness, and by
the other horses, to make much resistance; and, in the majority of cases,
will quietly and at once submit. We need not repeat that no whip or spur
should be used in giving the first lessons in riding. When he begins a
little to understand his business, backing, the most difficult part of his
work, may be taught him: first, to back well without anything behind him;
then with a light cart, and afterwards with some serious load, and taking
the greatest care not to hurt his mouth. If the first lesson causes much
soreness of the gums, the colt will not readily submit to a second. If he
has been rendered tractable before by kind usage, time and patience will
do all that can be wished here . . . The colt having been thus par¬

tially broken-in, the necessity of implicit obedience may be taught him,
and that not by severity, but, by firmness and steadiness, the voice will
go a great way, but the whip or the spur is sometimes indispensable — not
so cruelly applied as to excite the animal to resistance, but to convince
him that we have the power to enforce submission . . . Correction

may or must be used to enforce implicit obedience after the education has
proceeded to a certain extent, but the early lessons should be inculcated
with kindness alone.”

Youatt37 describes a system of gentling the colt as set forth by Rarey, as
follows: “Mr. Rarey commences his acquaintance wTith the colt when at
pasture; and by the gentlest means, and almost without gesticulation, he
will entice or urge the colt to enter into the precincts of a barn, stable
or outhouse in the immediate neighborhood. The celt is very quietly sur¬
rounded, or an old horse is first led in. When the colt has entered he is left
alone with the operator, every one and everything having life being ex¬
cluded, so that the attention of the colt may be entirely absorbed in the
person of the man who has to train and subdue him. After a short pause,
the man advances very slowly, holding out either hand and speaking to
the colt with the gentlest tone of voice. Eventually the colt will also ap¬
proach, smell the hand, when occasion must be taken to stroke the nose,
then the front of the face, cheeks, and neck. So soon as the colt remains
perfectly passive and content with this treatment, then a leathern halter
is very gently passed up and onto his head. Rope halters, from their
coarseness, are highly objectionable . . . When the halter is secured,

a plain, smooth snaffle bridle, with a moderate-sized snaffle bit, is passed
into the mouth and fitted to the head. Should the colt resist the introduc¬
tion of the snaffle, then the left hand, having the iron bit in it, is placed
immediately behind the lower lip, and the finger and thumb feeling the
bars of the mouth within the lips, instantly induces the colt to move the
tongue and open the mouth. At that moment the snaffle is inserted within
the front teeth, and is drawn well into the mouth by the headstall in the
right hand. This must be effected without hurry or in any manner to
disturb the feelings of the animal. When the bridle is secured with the
reins in the left hand, the person proceeds with his training by handling,
with the utmost gentleness, the neck, shoulder, and near fore-leg. This
operation may require some time to effect by continued and oft-repeated
pattings and coaxings, since the nervousness and the perverseness of some
leads them to strike with the near hind-foot, and follow with rapidity the
hand of the operator. When the colt permits the handling of the leg and
fetlock, the front of the shank is taken in the palm of the hand, and the
foot raised from the ground. Sometimes a pressure of the back sinews
with the finger and thumb will conduce to lift the leg; at others, turning

EDUCATING AND TRAINING THE COLT

125

the colt’s head and neck well to the left will assist the movement. When
the foot has been once stirred, the operation must be repeated until the
colt will allow the foot to be bent near to the elbow joint, and to be retained
for a time in that position. The gentle feeling of the hand then proceeds
along the body near the hind quarter and leg. The hind-leg should be
lifted in the quietest manner and raised as high as possible. The tail is
then well handled, and the off-side of the colt finishes the process of han¬
dling or gentling.”

•See Appendix II.

RESULTS OF INVESTIGATION

In the survey made of the breeding, feeding, and management of pure¬
bred draft horses two systems of investigation were followed, viz: Firstly,
by personal inquiry while visiting several leading studs, and secondly,
through correspondence in which an expansive questionnaire* was sent
to each of a number of breeding establishments The amount of time avail¬
able and the big traveling expenses necessary were limiting factors which
made it possible for the writer to visit but twelve breeding establish¬
ments in Wisconsin, Illinois, and Iowa in the summer of 1920. In addition
to this, as has already been mentioned, personal interviews were also
held with a few breeders while visiting the county fairs at Janesville,
Wisconsin, the interstate fairs at Kankakee, Illinois, and at Sioux City,
Iowa, the State Fairs at Springfield, Ill., and at Des Moines, Iowa, and
the Belgian Horse Show at Waterloo, Iowa, during the same period.

A good deal of material in Chapter XIV of Sander and Dinsmore’s “A
History of the Percheron Horse” was incorporated in the results of the
investigation. This was done so in view of the fact that several breeders
treated in this chapter were also dealt with in the survey.

The subsequent discussion is the result of investigation based on data
furnished by breeders of Percheron, Belgian, Clydesdale, Shire, Suffolk,
and mixed-draft breeds of horses.

*See Appendix II.

I

1. STUD FARMS SURVEYED

Altogether, the number of breeding establishments contributing to this
survey, excluding those which have oft and again been cited from “A His¬
tory of the Percheron Horse,” totals forty-two. The owner of the farm,
the manager or breeder, as well as the location and the breeds raised, are
indicated under each of the studs investigated, as given herein below:

Chas. Brown and Sons

Owner — Chas. Brown and Sons.

Manager or Breeder — Chas. Brown and Sons.

Location — Marcus, Iowa.

Breed Raised — Percheron.

Cornell University

Owner — Cornell University.

Manager or Breeder — M. W. Harper (questionnaire answered by George
Haines).

Location — Ithaca, New York.

Breed Raised — Percheron.

Chestnut Farm

Owner — G. M. Oyster, Jr.

Manager or Breeder — J. F. Pallister.

Location — Walkersville, Maryland.

Breed raised — Percheron.

Gregory Farm

Owner — W. S. Corsa.

Manager or Breeder — W. S. Corsa.

Location — Whitehall, Illinois.

Breed Raised — Percheron.

Gossard Breeding Estates

Owner — H. W. Gossard.

Manager or Breeder — 0. E. Reed.

Location— Martinsville, Indiana, Preston, Kansas, Axial, Colorado.
Breed Raised — Percheron.

J. H. Serven and Son

Owner — J. H. Serven and Son.

Manager or Breeder — See Serven.

Location — Prairie City, Illinois.

Breed Raised — Percheron.

Lakewood Farm

Owner — J. B. McMillan.

Manager or Breeder — J. B. McMillan.

Location — Rock Rapids, Iowa.

Breed Raised— Percheron.

Leslie Farms

Owner — A. L. Robinson and Son.

Manager or Breeder — A. L. Robinson and Son.

128

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

Location — Pekin, Illinois.
Breed Raised — Percheron.

Maplegrove Farm

Owner — J. 0. Singmaster and Son.

Manager or Breeder — J. 0. Singmaster and Son.
Location — Keota, Iowa.

Breed Raised — Percheron.

Maple Lawn Farm

Owner — Clarence E. Peterson and Banks Peterson.
Manager or Breeder — Clarence E. Peterson.
Location — Peterson, Iowa.

Breed Raised — Percheron.

Oakxawn Farm

Owner — Dunhams.

Manager or Breeder — Rob’t Henderson.
Location — Wayne, Du Page County, Illinois.
Breed Raised — Percheron.

Pleasantview Farm

Owner — Casey Bros.

Manager or Breeder —

Location — Iowa City, Iowa.

Breed Raised — Percheron.

Pentoila Stock Farm

Owner — G. A. Dix.

Manager or Breeder — G. A. Dix.

Location — Delaware, Ohio.

Breed Raised — Percheron.

Rookwood Farm

Owner — C. F. Curtiss.

Manager or Breeder — C. F. Curtiss.

Location — Ames, Iowa.

Breed Raised — Percheron.

Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm

Owner — C. J. Raboin.

Manager or Breeder — C. J. Raboin.

Location — Ashkum, Illinois.

Breed Raised — Percheron.

Selma Farm

Owner — E. B. White.

Manager or Breeder — E. B. White.

Location — Leesburg, Virginia.

Breed Raised — Percheron.

Santa Anita Rancho

Owner — Anita M. Baldwin.

Manager or Breeder —

Location — Los Angeles Co., California.

Breed Raised — Percheron.

STUD FARMS SURVEYED

University of Wisconsin

Owner — State of Wisconsin.

Manager or Breeder — J. G. Fuller.

Location — Madison, Wisconsin.

Breed Raised — Percheron.

University of Missouri

Owner — State of Missouri.

Manager or Breeder — E. A. Trowbridge.
Location — Columbia, Missouri.

Breed Raised — Percheron.

Woodside Farm

Owner — W. H. Butler.

Manager or Breeder — D. P. Haxton.

Location — South Sandusky, Ohio.

Breed Raised — Percheron.

White Oak Stock Farm

Owner — D. Augstin.

Manager or Breeder — D. Augstin.

Location — McLean County, Illinois.

Breed Raised — Percheron.

University of Illinois

Owner — State of Illinois.

Manager or Breeder — J. L. Edmonds.

Location — Urbana, Illinois.

Breed Raised — Percheron.

Irvinedale Farm

Owner — Chas. Irvine.

Manager or Breed — Chas. Irvine.
Location — Ankeny, Iowa.

Breed Raised — Belgian.

Lefebure Sons’ Co.

Owner — Lefebure Sons’ Co.

Manager or Breeder — Lefebure Sons’ Co.
Location — Fairfax, Iowa.

Breed Raised — Belgian.

Longview Stock Farm

Owner — John M. Moon.

Manager or Breeder — John M. Moon.

Location — Correctionville, Iowa.

Breed Raised — Belgian.

Oakdale Farm

Owner — C. G. Good and Son.

Manager or Breeder — C. G. Good and Son.
Location — Ogden, Iowa.

Breed Raised — Belgian.

Ritchie Stock Farm

Owner — Robert Ritchie.

Manager or Breeder — Robert Ritchie.

130

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

Location — Stratford, Iowa.
Breed Raised — Belgian.

Top Notch Stock Farm

Owner — Dr. W. A. Hamilton.

Manager or Breeder — Dr. W. A. Hamilton.
Location — Paullina, Iowa.

Breed Raised — Belgian.

Arngibbon Farm

Owner — Mrs. James McLay.

Manager or Breeder — John McLay.

Location — Rock County, Wisconsin.

Breed Raised — Clydesdale.

Hayfield Farm

Owner — J. N. Conyngham.

Manager or Breeder — Jack Haxton.

Location — Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania.

Breed Raised — Clydesdale.

G. Andrews and Son

Owner — G. Andrews and Son.

Manager or Breeder — G. Andrews and Son.
Location — Furnas County, Nebraska.

Breed Raised — Clydesdale.

Longwood Farm

Owner — Ernest B. Dane.

Manager or Breeder — L. L. Sanborn.
Location — Center Harbor, New Hampshire.
Breed Raised — Clydesdale.

Hawthorn Farm

Owner — Samuel Insull.

Manager, Joseph Rouse; Breeder, John Wood.
Location — Libertyville, Illinois.

Breed Raised — Suffolk.

Thompsondale Farm

Owner — Fred E. Thompson.

Manager or Breeder — Fred E. Thompson.
Location — Thedford, Nebraska.

Breed Raised — Suffolk.

W ADDINGTON FARM

Owner — F. W. Ogleby.

Manager or Breeder — M. C. Hine.
Location — Wheeling, West Virginia.
Breed Raised — Suffolk.

Thomas Kiddoo Farm

Owner — Thomas Kiddoo.

Manager or Breeder — R. C. Kiddoo.

Location — West of Central Illinois.

Breed Raised — Shire.

STUD FARMS SURVEYED

131

Holbert Farms

Owner— Thos. R. and Fred B. Holbert.

Manager or Breeder Dr. J. S. Hunt (questionnaire answered by Thos.
R. Holbert).

Location — Greeley, Iowa.

Breed Raised— Belgians, Parcherons (few).

Iowa State College

Oowner — State of Iowa.

Manager or Breeder — J. G. Hanmer.

Location — Ames, Iowa.

Breed Raised — Percheron, Clydesdale, Belgian.

Michigan Agricultural College
Owner State of Michigan.

Manager or Breeder— R. S. Shaw (Dean), R. S. Hudson (Superintend¬
ent).

Location — East Lansing, Mi-chigan.

Breed Raised — Percheron, Clydesdale, Belgian.

Purdue University

Owner — State of Indiana.

Manager or Breeder — R. B. Cooley.

Location — Lafayette, Indiana.

Breed Raised —

Truman’s Stud Farm

Owner — J. H. Truman and Sons.

Manager — J. G. Truman.

Location — Bushnell, Illinois.

Breed Raised — Shire, Percheron.

University of Minnesota

Owner — State of Minnesota.

Manager or Breeder — W. H. Peters.

Location — St. Paul, Minnesota.

Breed Raised — Percheron, Clydesdale, Belgian.

Besides the above-mentioned studs, Secretary Stericker of the Suffolk
Breed Association and J. J. Hooper of the University of Kentucky, who
speaks for the breeding establishments of Central Kentucky, have also
furnished data.

II

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

1. Selection

To quote Cooley, the chief points looked for in the selection of a breed¬
ing stallion are “Pure-breeding of the right blood lines, size, character,
quality, strong, clean bone, good feet, good action.” Truman desires a
“good masculine head, plenty of size, good bone, good feet and well-sprung
pasterns, plenty of height and as close to the ground as possible.” The
“mare-looking head and neck, poor feet, straight pasterns, little, chunky-
built fellows,” and individuals that are too fine are objected to. Peters
places four principal points to be looked for in the stallion, viz: “Sound¬
ness, type, pedigree, sureness as a breeder,” while unsoundness, lack of
masculine appearance, lack of size or type” are matters that should be
discriminated against. Shaw and Hudson call for an individual “with
prominent breeding, size, quality,” as well as “masculine, sound, and of
good draft conformation,” and it is also brought out that if the stallion is
old enough his record should show that he is a proven sire. “Bad habits,
unsoundness, inferior breeding and conformation” are considered unde¬
sirable points with the stud header. Haxton mentions “type, soundness
and prepotency” as favorable qualifications, while “unsoundness, faulty
conformation and disposition” are disliked. According to Reed, “sound¬
ness, size with quality, type, and masculinity” are the important points
to be looked for in the stallion, whereas unsoundness, lack of size, bad
feet, side bones and deformed hocks are disfavored. McMillan empha¬
sizes on “size, character, quality, and soundness,” and, in a general way,
Fuller speaks of “draft conformation and breeding” as qualifications of
a stud horse. Fuller objects to poor feet and crooked hocks as well as un¬
soundnesses. White gives most weight to the feet and legs in the selec¬
tion of the stallion, and “any unsoundness and unevenness in gait” are
objected to. Edmonds points out “soundness, type, good action” as the
principal points to consider in the selection, while Henderson states that
“very good conformation, clean-cut head and neck, good feet and legs,”
and size, which is governed by the size of mares with which he is to be
mated, should form the chief guiding points in the process of choosing
the stud header. “Scale, quality, soundness, breed type, vigor, good con¬
formation” are the principal points to be considered, according to Trow¬
bridge, while Pallister speaks of “conformation, breed type, and sound¬
ness” under the same category. Hanmer takes in “breed type, constitution,
prepotency, soundness of legs and feet” as important qualifications of the
stud horse, and Servens says that he should be “sound,” and his size and
general make-up and breeding” must be approved. Kiddoo makes the
statement in regard to the selection of the stallion to “always look to
good, sound, clean-legged” horse of a “rugged constitution.” Peterson de¬
scribes the stud horse as one that is characterized by “good bone and feet,
sound in eyes, wind and limbs”; one that has “lots of weight, and some
quality, short back, but thick and deep.” The individual that is narrow
in the breast, of poor feet, bad eyes, long back, bad hocks, and lacking in
quality, is discriminated against. Dix states that he must be masculine,
sound, and must be set right on his legs, while Ritchie looks for a sire
“that has plenty of size and quality and lots of ‘pep,’ clean flat bone, good
feet, sound and good straight mover.” A stallion that shows with a “dead
head,” undersized, and of poor underpinning is rejected. Good gives
credit on masculinity, right conformation, and further states that as

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

133

much size and quality as could be procured should be emphasized in the
selection of the stallion. The Lefebures give close attention to soundness
of feet, legs and wind, and, too, to be sure that the individual is a breeder,
the use of a microscope in examining the semen is advocated. The An-
drews advise that both sire and dam for four generations back be exam¬
ined as to the relative merits of each in order that proper conclusion be
arrived at in the selection of the stud horse. According to Haxton, color
as well, besides breeding and conformation, should form primary consid¬
erations in selection, and Augustin mentions “soundness and conforma¬
tion” in this regard. The -characteristics of a breeding stallion, as set
forth by Sanborn, are indicated by good bone, which should be flat and
well-muscled, well-set pasterns, full of hoof-heads, broad breast, full eyes
and well-sprung ribs (of good feather in the Clydesdale). Hine says that
he should be of good disposition, possessing well-developed feet, good
quality, large flat bone, and of good conformation. Kindness of disposition,
soundness of eyes, good head, good bone, and good action, according to
Thompson, should be given especial consideration in the choosing of a
stud horse; whereas Holbert speaks of “individuality and breeding repu¬
tation,” besides the “final test” as indicated by the offspring begotten.
On this subject Stericker writes: “If for draft purposes, good size and
weight are primary considerations, also soundness and good appearance,
and good breeding.”

In the following paragraphs are quoted the different statements made
by various leading breeders of the Percheron horse in the United States
regarding the selection of the stud horse as given in Sanders and Dins-
more’s “A History of the Percheron Horse.”

Fletcher writes: “In my opinion, a typical Percheron stallion should
weigh between 1900 and 2100 pounds in good condition. His height will
range from 16% to 17% hands. In selecting a stallion I look for an in¬
telligent head, broad between the two eyes, and carrying well-set ears, a
well-cut neck, set on sloping shoulders, and a short back, with the tail
set neither too high nor too low. He should have a broad breast, with a
muscular forearm, broad quarters, a deep body with well-sprung ribs, legs
squarely set with clean bone, sloping pasterns not too long, and a wide,
deep foot. Avoid a stallion narrow between the eyes, ugly-headed, with
ears set too wide, narrow in front or behind, short-ribbed, or with a
crooked or puffy hind leg, a straight pastern, or a flat foot.”

Prichard gives his view as follows: “Forty-seven years of experience
and observation have convinced me that the most serviceable Percheron
stallion should stand from 16.2 to 17.1 hands high and weigh from 1800
to 2000 pounds in thrifty breeding condition. Some 200 or more fat
could be added to this weight, but it is to the injury of the stallion; it is
usually not real horse, it is worthless blubber.

“In looking over a stallion have him stand in the shade of a stable door.
Take him by the bit with the left hand, look in his mouth, look in his
eyes, look over his face; then drop your eyes down to his breast and
shoulders, then down to his knees, pasterns and feet. See that he stands
equarely on his feet. Then step to his left shoulder; chin him. Then step
back about ten feet and take in the topline and depth of body, especially
the flank. Step behind and observe the width of quarters, the fullness and
depth of the stifles. Step around to the right side and look him over just
as on the left. Examine his coronets; observe how he stands on his pas¬
terns, which should be fair in length and sloping. See that he has plenty
of bone of good quality below the knee and hock, and is sound. Then let
him walk out and return on the walk. Have him move at the trot, out and
back, and see that his action is straight.

“The stallion should be rugged and masculine, and not feminine, in ap¬
pearance. He should have a strong head, well poised on a good neck. His
breast should be full, wide, and deep. The body should measure well at
the heart, and be full and deep at the flank. The back should be strong

134

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

and short, well coupled with long hips of good width. He should stand on
good, big feet, and be of kind disposition.

“Before settling for the stallion see his certificate of registration and
try his wind. Buy of a responsible breeder or dealer, one who can and
will treat you right if anything goes wrong.”

According to White, “The main things to seek in the Percheron stallion
are bone of good quality and quantity, good feet and correctly set legs, es¬
pecially the pasterns, a good back, plenty of depth in hoof, a good middle,
and straight and free action at both walk and trot. Of course, the horse
should be sound and clean. He should show quality, but not be coachy.
The size of a draft horse’s head should be in proportion to his body and
show quality. The eyes should be prominent, and the horse should ap¬
pear always alert. I believe that alertness strongly indicates prepotency.
I have never seen a preponent sire that nearly always appeared dull and
sleepy. He should be of medium size, and I would suggest that he weigh
not more than 2100 pounds in show condition. I believe that the very
larges ones are seldom, if ever, satisfactory in the stud. The things to be
avoided are unsoundness, especially the kind that is generally considered
hereditary, any faulty conformation that is frequently found in the breed,
such as a droopy rump, crooked hocks, and the like. I prefer not to have
an off-colored horse, not that the color makes the horse, but it indicates
the possibility of the presence of some other blood than that of the breed,
and to that extent makes uncertain the type of colts which the stallion
will sire.”

De Lancey’s presentation follows: “In choosing a stallion one must re¬
member that the sire is half the stud, and that his selection is most im¬
portant. There are many experienced breeders who can tell at the first
glance a stallion that will be more than an average breeder. The same
stallion, on close inspection, may have faults, either in breeding or confor¬
mation, which would make him undesirable as a stud header. But if one
can get the strong ‘personality’ in a stallion which so attracts the man of
experience, and without the other faults, one is almost sure to be piloting
in safe waters for a sire.

“The general points to seek in the selection of a sire are much the same
as for mares. In addition, he should be stronger and more masculine in
appearance, especially in head and neck, as well as more upstanding.
The day of the blocky Percheron is past. A stallion to head a stud of reg¬
istered mares should stand not less than 17 hands high, and weigh no less
than 2100 pounds in sale condition.

“In the selection of both stallion and mares the breeding is very im¬
portant and should be carefully considered. The families of Percheron
which have made the greatest successes as sires and dams are well known,
and one should get as much of the blood of these strains as possible in the
foundation stock.”

Singmaster writes on the subject and says: “In my opinion, the char¬
acteristics of a Percheron stallion are these: a head of good length and
breadth, broad between the eyes, wide-open nostrils, eyes full and rather
outstanding, rather than deep set, or in any ways out of normal; a grace¬
fully curved and massive neck; broad and heavy shoulders; a deep-ribbed
body; a back well developed from the point of the shoulder and of grace¬
ful symmetry; medium closely ribbed at the point of the hip; the hind
quarters slightly narrower than the shoulders; a gently sloping and rather
long hip; the legs to match this body — a good, straight limb, a flat bone
of rather heavy type; long, springy pastetrn joints; good, dark-colored
hoofs of above medium size, and clean legs, both front and rear. He
should have a heavy tail, docked at nine inches for beauty of carriage,
and still long enough to brush away the flies. There are other points, but
these should assist the inexperienced purchaser in guarding his own inter¬
ests. The stallion’s weight in selling condition should be 2,100 pounds

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

135

and in breeding condition 1,950 pounds. I prefer the dark or steel gray
or black colors, without markings other than a star in the face. Plenty
of bone to support the body is essential, but abnormal bone is rather a
weakness that foretells an early breakdown or roughness of limb.”

Dunham’s methods and points of view of selection are explained in the
following words: ‘‘When a horse it brought out for my inspection I first
note his general conformation and size. A stallion to be successful in the
stud should have good feet and legs and stand well on them. Nothing is so
sure to be transmitted to the offspring as faults of conformation in the
bony structure, such as curby formation of the hind leg, lack of bone, or
crooked or badly placed hind legs. In order to suit me a stallion must
have some quality and must be a true mover. If he has a powerful fore¬
arm and shoulder^ he is almost sure to transmit these qualities to his off¬
spring and to beget colts of large size. For a sire do not buy too small
a horse, and do not buy one that is lacking in substance or that does not
stand well on his legs, feet and pasterns.”

In the words of McLaughlin, the selection of a Percheron must be gov¬
erned by the following desideratum: “Proper draft size is, of course, the
prime requisite for the Percheron stallion. Correct conformation and
alignment of the legs, big, broad joints, heavy bone with quality, pasterns
sloping at an angle of about 45 degrees, a short back and a long hip with
the tail set high, great depth through the chest, or heart as we usually
call it, great width of chest, with the front legs not set too far out, plenty
of middle, with great width to hips and stifles — these points, together
with a big, broad foot with a high heel and plenty of straight, clean, vig¬
orous action at both the walk and trot, are the most essential character¬
istics of a Percheron stallion. The things most to be avoided are improper
conformation and alignment of the legs. A perpendicular line projected
from the middle of the front toe should bisect equally the pastern joint
and the knee-joint. A line passed through the point of the stifle, the
point of the hocks and the point of the hind toe should bisect equally the
hock joint and the pastern joint.”

Lee presents points to be considered and is hereby quoted to say: “The
selection of the stallion to use either on pure-bred or grade mares should
be studied carefully. One should exercise his very best judgment not only
as to the animal’s individuality and breeding, but as to what he will do
in the stud. One horse may be a good individual but be lacking in bone,
another in size, and so on.

“In all our experience we have found it easy to right a wrong early,
not waiting until we have one or two crops of colts, and then seeing
where our stallion is lacking. Some localities want a heavy, low-down
block; others want a tall, rangy, light-boned horse. My idea of -a good
Percheron stallion is one which at the age of three or four weighs about
a ton, is black or gray in colors, neither the low-down or the tall, rangy
kind, but one well-balanced all around. I want him wide between the eyes
and with a good, clear eye. I prefer hazel eyes as they seldom lose their
sight. See that his ears are well set, not pointed or drooping, but stand¬
ing up well in about the same distance apart at top and bottom. He
should show a clean-cut neck, nicely set on his shoulders, with his head
up to attract attention. I want always to see a wide breast and clean,
flat bone, not a meaty, large bone (it will always give trouble, both in
the stallion and his offspring). Well-set limbs are essential; see that he
is not buck- or calf-kneed, and that he is clean around his pastern joints.
Look for side-bones; they are considered by 75% of the farmers as a buy¬
er’s trick to buy horses cheap, but they have worked more harm to the
heavy horse for market than any other one thing in the past five years.
See that the horse has a good hoof, not the pancake kind, or the narrow,
contracted kind, but a well-shaped, solid hoof. If one follows this he will
find a good front end. Next have the stallion deep through the heart,

136

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

close-coupled, good of withers, strong in topline, well-sprung of rib and
with a place to carry some hay, not too sloping on the hips, with a well-
set hind leg, clean at the hock, no curbs, thoroughpins, bog or bone spav¬
ins, and clean about his pasterns. See that his legs are well set; no one
wants a cow-hocked or a crooked leg. Have the salesman move the horse
from you, first at a walk, then at a trot; watch closely and see that he
moves away, that he is not a paddler or a weaver.

“Often high-fed horses have had the shipping fever or distemper and
are left weak in the back or a little thick in the wind. My advice would
be not to buy either kind because he is cheap; in the long run he is high-
priced. Our old stud sire, Scipion, now in his eighteenth year, is as clean
as a ribbon all over and sound, except for being out a. little in the wind,
due to his age.”

Augstin’s thirty years’ experience in the breeding of Percheron horses
gives weight to his opinion regarding the selection of the stallion. Aug-
stin writes: “I believe more in Percheron bloodlines than many breed¬
ers do. If Percheron breeders generally would pay more attention to se¬
lecting animals of the right kind of breeding, progress would be made
more rapidly. Now that the war has cut off the importation of horses
from Europe and we are trying to produce the good kind here at home,
the cry has gone up from everywhere, ‘I am in need of a good sire.’
Breeders are just now coming to realize that constructive breeding of the
highest degree cannot take place without the right kind of bloodlines to
build upon. Why have purebreds and pedigrees, unless we give preference
to those families that have been producing the desirable kind? When I
first started in the business I bred my grade mares to the best sires avail¬
able at a cost of $25 or $30 for the service fee. My neighbors thought I
was crazy, but they soon saw the error of their ways.

“Frequently one hears it said ‘I want a stallion or a mare, but I will not
buy anything but a prize-winner.’ No greater mistake was ever made.
Of course, it is a fine advertisement to have a champion in the stud, but
not all champions produce champions, by a long way. Many outstanding
individuals come from the common ranks. Always select the very best
breeding stock available, but that does not mean that one should purchase
a prize-winner and turn down one that is not. Many show animals are
ruined as producers and many equally good individuals never see the tan-
bark. I have made a great many mistakes since I first began, but believe
that I have made fewer in selecting my breeding stock than in other
ways, because I have given bloodlines and individuality first importance
and price only second concern.”

In a brief manner Burdick says that “The essential features of a draft
stallion are good feet, strong, flat bone, and size well belanced with qual¬
ity. I would not select a horse with light bone, nor with poor feet, nor
with large size unless he had quality to go with it. Nor would I select a
horse with quality if he did not have size. I am speaking about ranch
conditions only.” Briefly also, Gammon writes: “Thirty years ago I be¬
gan the breeding of Percheron horses on the range in northern Wyoming.
I realized at that time that in order to be successful in this far-western
country the horses I raised must be of a good quality, excelling the pam¬
pered horses of the lower altitudes in breeding and size. My start in the
business consisted of a number of high-grade and pure-bred mares, of
good colors and size, picked to conform to my idea of what good dams
should be. I chose for the head of the band an imported stallion that
weighed 2,140 pounds, as good a horse as I could purchase at that time.
With this start I have been able to build up by the purchase of new blood,
always of the best, until I now have a band of Percherons that is the de¬
light of all who see them.”

137

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

2. Unsoundness, Diseases, and Other Defects

At the Gossard Breeding Estates, such defects as “curby hocks, spavins,
ringbone, bad low backs and short quarters” are brought out as sufficient
to bar a stud sire for breeding services. Hine mentions under this sub¬
ject, ‘‘stirility, unsoundness of limbs, and venereal diseases,” while Ster-
icker states that ‘‘windiness, side-bones, spavin, and ringbone” are con¬
demned in the breeding sire. Pallister makes this statement: ‘‘The only
unsoundness I ever have seen transmitted was bog or blood spavin.”
Hanmer takes in ‘‘bog or jack spavin, ophthalmia, small hoofheads and
small feet” as enough to bar a stud horse from standing for breeding pur¬
poses. According to Edmonds, special attention should particularly be
given to ‘‘sidebones, bone spavin, bog spavin, ringbone and bad eyes” in
excluding the breeding sire for breeding work and Truman believes that
“sidebones, ringbones, spavins and roaring” are enough to disqualify him.
The Lefebure Sons’ Co. points out “sidebones and defects of hock, wind,
eyes” as disqualifying factors, while Good condemns the presence of oph¬
thalmia, ringbone, sidebones, curby conformation of hocks, and small feet.
McMillan says that “ring-bone, spavin, curby hocks and bog spavin, bad
eyes, and, of course, bad defects in conformation” should bar the breeding
sire from services, while Henderson takes in under the same subject
“sidebones, ringbones, curb, bone spavin, bog spavin, thick wind, string-
halt.” Fuller reports on “large sidebones, ringbones, bone spavin, heaves,
blindness” as disqualifying defects of a breeding stallion, while Peterson
includes “sidebones, periodic ophthalmia, spavins, boggy hocks” under the
same head. Holbert bars the breeding stallion affected by any unsound¬
nesses or diseases unless these have been caused by some serious accident
and, similarly, Kiddo speaks of “anything transmissible” as being suffi¬
cient to disqualify a sire for stud work. According to Moon, “poor wind,
poor eyes, poor feet, poor action, and under size” should bar the stallion
for breeding purposes. Thompson says in regard to this: “Better get
them sound, healthy and without any glaring defects,” and, similarly,
Sanborn says “nothing but a perfectly sound, well-developed individual
would be considered.” At the Cornell University, the same rule holds true
by barring any unsoundnesses for breeding purposes.

3. Systems of Breeding

Of the breeding establishments surveyed, line breeding is reported to be
the exclusive system followed on the following farms: Gossard Breeding
Estates, Lakewood Farm, Selma Farm, Longview Stock Farm, Oakdale
Farm, Lefebure Sons’ Co., Ritchie Stock Farm, Arngibbon Farm, Long-
wood Farm, Waddington Farm, Thompsondale Farm, Truman’s Pioneer
Stud Farm, White Oak Stock Farm, Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm,
Holbert Farms, and at the Universities of Missouri, Minnesota, Cornell,
and Purdue. Among those that reported, the only farm where exclusive
inbreeding is pursued is at the Maple Lawn Farm, and at the University
of Wisconsin it is -claimed that “only a few cases of inbreeding are prac¬
ticed,” and, likewise, at Hayfield Farm inbreeding is said to be followed
whenever practicable. Both inbreeding and linebreeding are practiced at
wherever practicable. Both inbreeding and linebreeding are practiced at
the Woodside Farm, J. H. Serven & Son, Thos. Kiddoo Farm, and at the
Michigan agricultural college and the University of Illinois. In the latter
two, however, the animals are more line-bred. At the Pentolia Stock
Farm line breeding is followed while outcrossing is resorted to with in¬
dividuals, neither of which are closely bred. With the exception of one in¬
stance of inbreeding, the rule at the Iowa State College is to follow the
line-breeding system.

138

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

4. Stud Fee. Breeding Contracts

Those which reported a stud fee of $20.00 alone are the Arngib-
bon Farm, G. Andrews and Son, Hayfield Farm, the Michigan Agricul¬
tural College, the University of Wisconsin, and Thomas Kiddoo’s Farm. A
higher rate of $25.00 is charged by the Hawthorn Farm, Raboin Pioneer
Stud Farm, Gossard Breeding Estates, Lakewood Farm, White Oak Stock
Farm, Ritchie Stock Farm, Longwood Farm, and by the Universities of
Minnesota, Cornell, and Illinois. At the Longview Stock Farm the rate
is $30, while at the Woodside Farm, Selma Farm, and at the Iowa State
College it is $50. The Lefebure Sons’ Co. gives the rate at $100, the Maple-
grove Farm at $150, while both the Oakdale Farm (for Farceur) and
Irvinedale Farm, each collects for stud fee $200. The stud fees at the
Petoila Stock Farm are: one at $50; two at $25; four at $20; at the Maple
Lawn Farm: $20-35; at the Oaklawn Farm: $15-100; at the University
of Missouri: $15-25; at the J. H. Serven and Son: Jasmine, $100; others,
$15 and $20; and at the Holbert Farms: $15 on barn; $20 on road.

A review of the survey reveals a variety of contracts entered into by
both owners of the stallion and outside mares, such as are indicated in

the items shown opposite the farms

FARMS

Cornell University
Gossard Breeding Estates

J. H. Serven and Son
Lakewood Farm

Maplegrove Farm

Maple Lawn Farm
Oaklawn Farm

Pentoila Stock Farm

Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm
University of Wisconsin
University of Missouri

Woodside Farm

White Oak Stock Farm
University of Illinois
Irvinedale Farm
Lefebure Sons’ Co.

Oakdale Farm

Ritchie Stock Farm

listed below:

CONTRACT STATEMENTS

“Guarantee with foal.”

“$5 at service and balance, $20, when
mare is proven pregnant.”

“We guarantee a colt to be all right.”

“$5 when mares are bred; $10 when
she proves in foal and $10 when
colt is dropped.”

$50 down and $100 when foal is
dropped.

“In some cases we guarantee the foal
to stand and suck at so much; in
other cases to get the mare in foal.”

“Pay at time of service, but get a foal
for money.”

“Living colt for all horses except the
$50 horse, the same within county,
out of county or state $50, cash, but
guarantee to settle mare or money
returned.”

“For living colt” (verbal).

“No risks.”

“$15 to insure in foal — $25 living
foal.”

“Cash at service, return privilege if
mare proves not to be in foal.”

“To insure.”

“Cash when first bred.”

“Cash.”

“None.”

“$100 right away and then $100 more
at foaling time with live foal.”

“I try to make everyone satisfied.”

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

139

“Foal to stand and suck.”

“$10 down at time of service and $10
if mare proves in foal.”

“In foal.”

“With return privilege.”

“$10 at time of service — $10 cash at
time mare is first bred — one or two
free return privileges.”

“Must be tried regularly and colt is
good for fee.”

“Insures living colt.”

“. . . at $50 to insure the mare in
foal. Service fee is due when
mares are known to be in foal. If
mare is disposed of fees at once be¬
come due.”

Michigan Agricultural College “Insure for a living foal.”

5. Breeding Age. Services

Among the different breeding establishments studied, the Irvinedale
Farm, Gossard Breeding estates, Woodside Farm, Lakewood Farm,
Longwood Farm, J. H. Serven and Son, the Thomas Kiddoo Farm, Hay-
field Farm, G. Andrews and Son, Oakdale Farm, Arngibbon Farm, Oak-
lawn Farm, Selma Farm, the Universities of Wisconsin, Missouri, the
Michigan Agricultural College, and Iowa State College concur in starting
the prospective stud horse to serve mares as a two-year-old. At the Raboin
Pioneer Homestead Farm the young stallion is not allowed to cover a
mare until he is past two years of age, and so it is at the Truman’s
Pioneer Stud Farm and at the Maple Lawn Farm. Stericker advises simi¬
larly. The first cover to be allowed the stallion, between two and three
years of age, is advocated by the Lefebure Sons’ Co., White Oak Stock
Farm, Pentoila Stock Farm, and the University of Minnesota. At Purdue
University it is the practice to start breeding the stallion between two and
a half and three years of age, and at the Hawthorn Farm the breeder
states that it is unusual, although possible, to let the stallion cover for the
first time as a two-year-old, so that the colts are not generally bred until
they are three years years of age. At the Longview Stock Farm, Moon is
of the opinion that the stallion should be started to breed at the age of
two and a half years, and likewise at the Holbert Farms some are used
at the same age, although the rule is to wait until the beginner is three
years old. At the Santa Anita Rancho, and according to Hooper, the first
breeding age should not be started until the colts are three years old.

One question was asked as to the age of maturity of the stallion, and
again a variety of opinions are revealed. To begin with, at the Selma
Farm, the three-year-old, if well grown out, is considered as mature. Next,
at the Hayfield Farm, Maple Lawn Farm, and at the University of Wis¬
consin, at four years of age the stallions are considered to be mature.
While in twelve establishments — the Longview Stock Farm, the Thomas
Kiddoo Farm, Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm, Pentoila Stock Farm,
Santa Anita Rancho, Lakewood Farm, Waddington Farm, at Cornell Uni¬
versity, at the Universities of Minnesota and Missouri, at the Michigan
Agricultural College, and at the Iowa State College— all support the view
that the stallion is not mature until he is five years old. Hooper makes
the same statement. The Gossard Breeding Estates and Woodside Farm
place the mature age of the stallion when five to six years old, and, lastly,
in several farms the mature age is considered to be reached when six years

Arngibbon Farm
Mayfield Farm

G. Andrews and Son
Hawthorn Farm

Thompsondale Farm

Thomas Kiddoo’s Farm

Holbert Farms

140

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

of age, viz: in Purdue University, G. Andrews and Son, Trueman’s Pioneer
Stud Farm, and in J. H. Serven and Son.

It is interesting to note, also, the range of variability as regards the
“prime breeding age” of a stud horse according to breeders. Raboin, Trow¬
bridge, Hooper, Kiddoo, and Hanmer uphold that the stallion’s prime
breeding age is from 5 to 10 years, while Haxton, the Andrews, Hender¬
son, McMillan, and Shaw and Hudson maintain that it is at six years
that the stallion is in his prime procreative power. The following farms
reporting designate the stallion’s prime breeding age as are indicated:
The University of Minnesota, at 5 to 8 years; Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm,
at 7 to 10 years; the University of Wisconsin, at 4 years and over; Selma
Farm, at 5 to 6 years; White Oak Stock Farm, at 6 to 12 years; Pentoila
Stock Farm, at 6 to 15 years; Irvinedale Farm, at 5 to 12 years; Long¬
view Stock Farm, at 10 years; Maple Lawn Farm, at 4 to 17 years; Cor¬
nell University, at 5 years; Purdue University at 7 to 12 years; Lefebure
Sons’ Co., at 4 to 8 years; Holbert Farms, 6 and 7 years; J. H. Serven and
Son, 6 to 8 years; Waddington Farm, at 7 or 8 years; and according to
Stericker at from 5 to 9 or 10 years. Good of Oakdale Farm states that
the stallion is at all times of his breeding age in his prime provided that
he is well cared for and not overdone in his breeding services.

That the stud sire is never too old to breed is the assertion of several
breeders, namely: Cooley, Serven, the Lefebure Sons’ Co., Raboin, Dix,
Henderson, White and Truman. Others who reported are of the belief that
there are definite ages when the stallion is too old to breed, among whom
are: McMillan gives the limiting age of fertility for the stallion at 25
years; Trowbridge gives it at from 15 to 25 years; Hanmer states that he
is too old at 18 to 20 years of age; Hooper believes the limit to be at 15
years, although, he says, some individuals would still be breeding at 20
years; Peterson places the limiting age at 22 years; and according to G.
Andrews and Son, at 30 years of age the stallion is too old to breed. Moon
expresses the view that the stallion becomes too old to breed when he is
“too old to take on flesh,” and at the Irvinedale Farm it is the belief that
fertility persists as long as the stallion is active and could cover the mare.
According to Stericker some stallions are too old to breed at 20 years of
age, some still proving fertile after that age, while a number are done as
18-year-olds.

The importance of gaining insight into the allowances or number of
services deemed sufficient for the stallions to render at different ages, in
keeping with their health, vigor and procreative ability is evident. On
account of the variability and more or less complex nature of the subject
as a whole, a scheme to present part of this in the form of a table is be¬
lieved to be more satisfactory, thus:

At the Oaklawn Farm the three-year-old stallion is allowed one service
daily, the four-year-old one the first day and two each succeeding day, and
the five-year-old twice a day. Serven says two or three services a week
for the two-year-old is sufficient, while the three-year-old may be allowed
a service a day, to miss one or two days in a week, and the aged sire to be
limited to one service daily. According to White, the two-year-old begin¬
ner is to be limited to cover twelve mares, serving not more than twice
weekly, while at the age of three years or more the stallion may serve 75
mares. The Lefebure Sons’ Co. rules that the two-year old may start on
15 services for the season, and then twice as much each year until the ma¬
ture age. Ritchie allows the two-year old but six mares, while the aged
stallion might cover two mares a day and none on Sundays. At the Chest¬
nut Farms, Milord, the ten-year-old stallion, is allowed to cover 12 mares
weekly, and Rectorat, fourteen years of age, six mares a week.

The limitation of only one service for the day by the mature sire is the
practice enforced in such studs as the Lefebure Sons’ Co., Oakdale Farm,

141

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

Table I

Showing service allowances at different ages of the stallion:

Farms Services

Gossard Breeding Estates

2-Year-Old

3-Year-Old

4- Year -Old

5-Year-Old

12 (?)

35 (?)

60

• • • • — — • • • •

Lakewood Farm .

20

60

100

150

Maple Lawn Farm .

2 a week

4 or 5 a week

1 per day at
4^4 years

Pentoila Stock Farm . . . .

10-20

30-60

45-90

100-200

Raboin Pioneer Home¬
stead Farm . . .

Not over 25

Not over 50

Not over 75

Not over 150

University of Wisconsin.

10-15

40-60

80-100

University of Missouri..

1 or 2
per week

3 to 5
per week

1 per day

9 per week

Woodside Farm .

10

50

100-125

100-125

Irvinedale Farm .

20

40

40

(Shedding

teeth)

60-65

Longview Stock Farm . . .

12-15

20-30

40-50

60-80

Oakdale Farm .

15 or 16
mares (never
more than
twice a week)

40 mares

40-60 mares

60-90 mares

Arngibbon Farm .......

8 mares or
less

Hayfield Farm .

10 mares

20 mares

G. Andrews and Son ....

20

60

80

100

Hawthorn Farm .

10 mares

J. .

Thos. Kiddoo Farm .

10

50

75

Holbert Farms .

40-60 mares

60-80 mares

100 mares

Iowa State College .

12 mares

35-40 mares

1

75 mares ' 100 mares

Michigan Agricultural
College .

10

(maximum)

30

(maximum)

70 120

(maximum) i (maximum)

Truman’s Pioneer Stud
Farm .

10-15

25-50

50-70

50-100

University of Minnesota

15

30

60 100

According to Hooper ....

10

(if at all
used)

15-20

40-60 | .

1

According to Stericker..

10-12

mares

35-60

mares

60 to 100 mares

142

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

Waddington Farm, Longview Stock Farm, Maple Lawn Farm, Hawthorn
Farm, Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm, at the Kentucky farms, and at
Purdue University. The establishments that limit the services to two a
day for their mature stallion are the Selma Farm, Irvinedale Farm, Lake-
wood Farm, Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm, Gossard Breeding Estates,
Pentoila Stock Farm, White Oak Stock Farm, J. H. Serven and Son,
Ritchie Stock Farm, G. Andrews and Son, Maple Lawn Stock Farm, and
the Universities of Missouri, Minnesota, and Illinois. Followers of three-
services-a-day limitation are the Arngibbon Farm, Holbert Farms (if far
apart), Woodside Farm, Cornell University, the Michigan Agricultural
College, Iowa State College, and Stericker. In Hayfield Farm and at the
University of Wisconsin the mature stud horse is allowed to cover as
many as four times in a day, while Kiddoo says that as many as five serv¬
ices have been indulged in in his stud, and all mares served produced.
White prefers that the two services stipulated in one day be not closer
than four hours apart.

Some farms find that, as a general rule, one service is enough to settle
the mare, among which are: the Oakdale Farm, Lefebure Sons’ Go., the
Thos. Kiddoo Farm, and the Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm. “Two
services to settle” is the experience of the Arngibbon Farm, the Michigan
Agricultural College, Hawthorn Farm, Pentoila Stock Farm, Iowa State
College, and at the Hayfield Farm it is claimed that it is seldom that more
than two services are required to impregnate the mare. In some stud
farms the breeders find that the number of services necessary to effect
impregnation is from one to three. This is so at the Universities of Mis¬
souri and Minnesota, Longview Stock Farm, and Truman’s Pioneer Stud
Farm. At the Irvinedale Farm, it takes from two to three services to set¬
tle the mare, and at the Woodside Farm and the University of Wisconsin
from one to two services. J. H. Serven and Son reports on three services
to settle the mare.

Compiling the data on the percentage of successful impregnation with
mares that once accept the stallion, as well as those bred twice, thrice,
and four or more times, we find that the figures from different breeding
establishments are at variance. These are more clearly demonstrated in
the following table:

6. “Teasers”

The majority of farms reporting do not advise the use of teasers, but
several hold an important place for them. Those that are opposed to the
use of “teasers” are the Selma Farm, Oaklawn Farm, Pentoila Stock Farm,
Woodside Farm, Lefebure Sons’ Co., Longview Stock Farm, Ritchie
Stock Farm, Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm, Arngibbon Farm, Truman’s
Pioneer Stud Farm, Lakewood Farm, and the University of Wisconsin.
But Good says that it is absolutely necessary to employ a teaser, inasmuch
as teasing is just as much a task on the stallion as breeding. At the Haw¬
thorn Farm it is the practice to employ teasers only when the mares to
be bred are plenty, and at the Gossard Breeding Estates, while teasers are
not generally needed, they may be employed to help out nervous stallions.
So, too, Hanmer is of the opinion that teasers are needed in the case of a
nervous stud horse. Edmonds advocates also the employment of a teaser
when services on the part of the stud horse are heavy, and the same pro¬
cedure is followed at the Michigan Agricultural College. At the Maple
Lawn Farm it is only with the best stallions that teasers are used, in this
instance the point being to safeguard these valuable individuals from ac¬
cidents. J. H. Serven and Son favor the employment of teasers. It will
not be amiss to mention breeding establishments that employ the teaser,

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

143

namely: the Hayfield Farm, the University of Kentucky, Purdue Univer¬
sity, the White Oak Stock Farm, and the University of Minnesota.

Table II

Showing percentages of successful impregnation from different number
of services:

Farms

After 1
service

After 2
services

After 3
services

After 4
or more
services

Per cent

Per cent

Per cent

Per cent

Cornell University .

60

16

14

Chestnut Farms .

50

About 75

Maple Lawn Farm .

25

25

16

10

Pentoila Stock Farm...

80*

Raboin Pioneer Home¬
stead Farm .

25

20

10

5

Selma Farm .

33y4

45

60

65-70

University of Wisconsin.

Less than

50

25

25

Very few

University of Missouri..

30

20

10

Very few

Woodside Farm .

65

70

5

White Oak Stock Farm . .

50

33%

25

Doubtful

Lefebure Sons’ Co .

33

60

60

65

Longview Stock Farm . . .

50

66%

10

Scarcely any

G. Andrews and Son ....

40

60

75

80

Thos. Kiddoo Farm .

75

Practically all

Holbert Farms .

40-50

60-75

Iowa State College .

75

16

Very few

1 or 2%

Michigan Agricultural
College .

50

35

10

2

Purdue Universitv .

30-50

University of Minnesota.

60

80

85

According to Hooper....

60

65

70

♦With mares bred nine days after parturition.

144 PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

7. Indifferent Breeders. Stimulants

Going over the subject of indifferent breeders, that is to say, stallions
which fuss or exhibit inaptitude to cover mares readily during breeding
operations, we find that in a long list of farms — the Longview Stock Farm,
Lefebure Sons' Co., Oakdale Farm, Hayfield Farms, the Thos. Kiddoo
Farm, Woodside Farm, the Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm, Pentoila
Stock Farm, White Oak Stock Farm, Santa Anita Rancho, Oaklawn Farm,
Cornell University, and the University of Illinois — the indifferent breeder
is not to be found. Ritchie states that some stallions may turn indifferent
breeders when overbred, and at the Gossard Breeding Estates it is be¬
lieved that such disposition is rather the cause of bad handling. Holbert
mentions masturbation as one of the causes of the indifferent sire. Ac¬
cording to Peterson, “some mares have bad smell that some stallions do
not like; also, some mares are kickers, and some stallions are a little shy”;
all of which are considered the reasons that some breeders find difficulty
in making certain stallions cover the mare. Hooper is of the opinion
that the indifferent breeder is simply fanciful in traits, and Fuller recom¬
mends that stallions so addicted should be disposed of, because, in such
cases, they are likely to be uncertain breeders.

With sixteen breeders responding to the question on the use of stimu¬
lants to induce copulation, all have answered negatively. But Hanmer
mentions yohimbine as an effective agent for this purpose.

8. Feeding. Watering. Salting

Answering the question, “In what condition of flesh is the stallion main¬
tained? During the breeding season . . . During the non-breeding sea¬
son ...” the replies may be subdivided into two principal headings.
There are those that may go in one class characterizing the condition dur¬
ing both the breeding and non-breeding seasons as “good,” “good flesh,”
“fair flesh,” “just a healthy condition,” “not too fat,” “fairly good flesh,”
“’working,” “thrifty,” “fairly good, not fat,’” “medium flesh,” “moderate,”
“medium thrift,” represented by twenty-two farms, and then there is the
other set that stipulates varying conditions of the stallion differing from
the former class. Thus, at the Waddington Farm, the condition of the stal¬
lion is kept “vigorous” during the breeding season and “fair” during the
non-breeding time; at the Thompsondale Farm, the condition is kept
“gaining” during the breeding season and “not too fat” when out of sea¬
son; at the Pentoila Stock Farm, during the breeding season, the condi¬
tion is maintained “good,” and “thinner” in the non-breeding season; and
at Holbert Farms the stud horse is kept in “good flesh, not over-fat”
during the breeding season, while, during the non-breeding season, the
condition is kept in “good flesh,” allowing him lots of exercise. Truman
wants a “good, thriving condition” when the stallion is breeding and a
“show and sale -condition” when he is over the service period; at the Selma
Farm the stallion is kept “good” while breeding and about 100 pounds
lighter in out-of-season; at the Gossard Breeding Estates it is the practice
to keep the stallion in good working condition, to gain only as the breeding
period advances; and McMillan says: “I try to get horse thinned down
during winter and have him gaining during the breeding season.” At the
Iowa State College the condition is kept “200 pounds less than show con¬
dition” during both seasons.

As to the number of times the stallion should be fed daily, the survey
shows that the majority of farms, represented by twenty-six reporting es¬
tablishments — the Longview Stock Farm, White Oak Stock Farm, Pen¬
toila Stock Farm, Oaklawn Farm, Maple Lawn Farm, Arngibbon Farm,
Lakewood Farm, Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm, Iowa State College, J. H.
Serven and Son, Rookwood Farm, Holbert Farms, Selma Farm, Hayfield

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

145

Farm, Irvinedale Farm, Lefebure Sons’ Co., Ritchie Stock Farm, Oakdale
Farm, Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm, Thos. Kiddoo Farm, Woodside
Farm, Purdue University, Cornell University, University of Missouri, Uni¬
versity of Illinois, and Michigan Agricultural College — follow the feeding
of three times daily — in the morning, noon, and evening or night. At the
Wisconsin University the stallion is fed three times daily, but when the
breeding services are heavy, an additional feeding is given for the day.
At both the Thompsondale and Hawthorn Farms the feeding is made three
times daily during the breeding season and only twice when out of sea¬
son. It is the practice at the Gossard Breeding Estates to feed the stallion
three times daily during the breeding season and the same number when
out of season if the stallion is being worked. The University of Minnesota
reports that two feedings a day are all that the stallion receives, in the
morning and in the afternoon, while at the Chestnut Farms the feeding
is made at 8:00 a. m. and 4:30 p. m., and during the show season the same
amount of feeds are distributed in five feedings daily.

It is again the majority practice to water the horse before feeding, as
evidenced by the reports of twenty-one farms, viz: the Longview Stock
Farm, Chestnut Farms, the Thos. Kiddoo Farm, Rookwood Farm, Iowa
State College, Pentoila Stock Farm, Maple Lawn Farm, Arngibbon Farm,
Lakewood Farm, Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm, Raboin Pioneer Home¬
stead Farm, Lefebure Sons’ Co., Oakdale Farm, Hawthorn Farm, Wad-
dington Farm, Thompsondale Farm, Gossard Breeding Estates, Woodside
Farm, the Universities of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Missouri. Seven
farms — the Oaklawn Farm, Holbert Farms, White Oak Stock Farm, Ritchie
Stock Farm, Purdue University, the University of Illinois, and the Michi¬
gan Agricultural College — follow the system of watering both before and
after feeding. There is no one rule followed at the Hayfield Farm; it is
usually before, but sometimes after, feeding; and likewise at the J. H.
Serven and Son farm, there is no certain time of watering the horse. In
Cornell University the stallion is watered at 9 o’clock in the morning and
at 4 in the afternoon only. According to White, at the Selma Farm the
stallion is watered before feeding and also between feeding while he is in
the stable. In the paddock water is kept before him. Hooper, writing on
the practices to be found in Central Kentucky, says that horses there are
watered several times daily. Watering six times a day, at six, eight, and
eleven-thirty in the morning, at one and five-thirty in the afternoon, and
at eight in the evening, both before and after feeding — these constitute
the system of watering the stallion enforced at Irvinedale Farm.

Save one, the Top Notch Farm, of the thirty-five farms reporting, the
common table salt, either in loose or brick forms, is used in salting the
stallions. In the Top Notch Farm, instead of using the table salt, a hand¬
ful of Glauber’s salt is administered, but only whenever the stallion is
constipated. The manner of giving the salt falls under two heads: One
class of breeders advocates the system of giving the salt at will,
while the other gives it in limited quantities. Adherents of the “free sup¬
ply” system are the Ritchie Stock Farm, Pentoila Stock Farm, Lakewood
Farm, Gregory Farm, Oakdale Farm, Hawthorn Farm, Longview Stock
Farm, Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm, Thompsondale Farm, Waddington
Farm, Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm, Gossard Breeding Estates, Purdue
University, Cornell University, and also, according to Hooper, in the farms
at Central Kentucky the brick salt is kept in the stall or in the pasture
to which the stallion has access at all times. In Cornell University the
caked form of salt is used, which is supplied by means of a special device.
Others, supplying the salt in limited amounts, almost all give the salt by
mixing with the feed. This is true of the Arngibbon Farm, where a hand¬
ful of the salt is placed in the feed once a week; of the Maplegrove Farm,
in which a handful of salt is mixed with the feed every feeding; of the
University of Illinois, whose practice is to supply daily a level tablespoon-

146

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

ful of salt by mixing with the grain; and also in the case of Irvinedale
Farm, which follows a system of salting twice a week, giving a handful
each time in the feed. At Selma Farm, Woodside Farm, and Oaklawn
Farm, the salt is given also mixed with the feed. The salt is mixed with
the feed only in the case of' salting older animals at the Lefebure Sons’
Co. At the University of Minnesota the stallion is supplied with salt in
the feed box once a week. To salt the stallion, from the report of Michi¬
gan Agricultural College, the salt is sprinkled in the chop feed, and the
balance of the supply is kept in a salt box on the side of the stall. At the
Iowa State College the stallion gets one tablespoonful of powdered salt
twice a week. Assuming that those feeding the salt mixed in the feed
furnish the salt in loose form; therefore, the farms using the “loose,”
“coarse,” “powdered,” or “barreled” salt would include the Selma Farm,
Irvinedale Farm, Oaklawn Farm, Maplegrove Farm, in which the nature of
the salt used is not specifically indicated, besides ten others — the Arn-
gibbon Farm, Iowa State College, Chestnut Farms, Oaklawn Farm, Ma¬
plegrove Farm — which do not state specifically the character of the salt
given, besides eight others — Arngibbon Farm, University of Illinois,
Michigan Agricultural College, Maple Lawn Farm, University of Minne¬
sota, Gregory Farm, Ritchie Stock Farm, and Hawthorn Farm — in which
the “loose,” “coarse,” or “barreled stock” salt is used. At the Lefebure
Sons’ Co. the loose salt (presumed so because it is mixed with the feed,
although not specifically stated) is given only to the older horses, as
above mentioned, 'while for the younger horses the rock salt is given.
Those in which the “rock,” “block,” “brick,” or “caked” form of salt is
used exclusively are: the Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm, Longview Stock
Farm, Rookwood Farm, Thos. Kiddoo Farm, Thompsondale Farm, Wad-
dington Farm, Gossard Breeding Estates, Raboin Pioneer Homestead
Farm, Purdue University, Cornell University, and, according to Hooper,
at the Central Kentucky Farms. Stericker also advises the use of rock
salt.

Twenty-eight farms replying to the question, “Are any commercial
‘stock tonics’ fed to the stallions? If so, which ones?” answered no.
Among others who responded, Hooper says that in Central Kentucky
“some use, but not often”; Truman writes: “Unless the stallion is run
down in flesh give no tonic”; according to Thompson, feed oil meal and
bran instead of the so-called stock tonic; and at the Top Notch Stock
Farm the stallion is given three or four eggs daily, or one or two eggs every
feeding, which, presumably, is intended to give the same effect as is gen¬
erally expected from stock tonic.

The systems of feeding the stallion in the different establishments
studied differ in practically each individual case. The foodstuff used,
however, bears similarity in a number of instances. It would be most
logical, it is believed, to present this phase of the subject by citing in full
the feeds and methods of feeding followed in each establishment.

Cornell University: When the stallion is in “service-free” months the
ration consists of timothy hay, fed morning and afternoon at the rate of
six pounds each feeding, and whole oats, fed at the rate of two pounds
each time, morning, noon, and afternoon. Four pounds of bran mash are
supplied once a week in place of two pounds of whole oats. During the
breeding period the amount of whole oats given is doubled or trebled,
while from eight to nine pounds of chopped timothy hay are furnished in
the morning, and the same amount in the afternoon. The cut timothy hay
given during the breeding season is mixed with the grain portion of the
ration. Carrots are supplied occasionally.

Chestnut Farms: During the breeding months the stallion at this stud
gets six quarts of rolled oats in the morning, and next, in the afternoon,
the grain feed consists of rolled oats, bran, and chopped roughage. Mixed

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

147

hay in one-inch lengths is given in the morning and at night, at the rate
of twenty pounds per twenty-four hours. The same feeds are given during
the “rest” season. The grains are fed in a damp form. The use of mo¬
lasses is resorted to only with show horses, but never to breeding stud
horses, while the feeding of corn is considered a “bad policy unless they
(stallions) have green feed enough to offset the heat.” Small amounts of
any oil meal, it is claimed, are satisfactory for the stallion; and in regard
to feeding clover or alfalfa hay as part of the ration, this is “very good if
the ration is balanced.”

Gregory Farm: The feeds of Carnot, the Percheron stud-header, during
the breeding season and out of season are the same, but during the breed¬
ing period he is getting grass in the pasture, or cut grass when in the
stall, in place of carrots which are supplied to him in winter. Carnot is
given ten to twelve pounds of cut grass along the middle afternoon. For
his grain feed he gets one and one-half gallons of rolled oats, dry, at about
5:30 a. m. Then at noon the same amount of rolled oats, together with one
gallon of very finely chopped alfalfa hay, mixed together and dampened,
is given. In the evening, at 5:45 o’clock, the same feed as the noon meal
is supplied. When alfalfa hay is used no timothy is fed. If timothy is to
be given, it is fed after the stallion has come from the pasture, and in the
afternoon before grain feeding. Carnot is turned to pasture for from one
to one and one-half hours after eating the grain, to be brought in when
the flies begin to come. The timothy hay fed to him is about ten to twelve
pounds each time; that is, all he will clean at one feeding.

Gossard Breeding Estates: Timothy and prairie hay constitute the
kinds of roughage used for the stallion during the breeding season, fed at
the rate of twenty-six pounds a day. No mention is made of the grains
used. While during the non-breeding season the hay fed is not restricted
in amount, provided that only enough is given as the stallion is able to
eat clean. This is so as the amount of grain is cut down. The grains con¬
sist of oats or barley, bran and oil meal, supplied in amounts of twelve
pounds, ten pounds, and one-half pound per day, respectively. Oats and
barley are fed in rolled form, while some cut oat straw, Sudan hay or fine
cane, cut in half-inch lengths, are employed in mixing with the grain feed.
Enough of these cut roughages are added to the grain ration so as to
make one-half bushel of feeds. Before feeding, the grain roughage mix¬
ture is dampened with molasses, one quart of this diluted with eight
quarts of water being applied to the mixture at each feeding. Corn is
discriminated against because it “burns him (stallion) up.” When other
hays are available preference is given to them over alfalfa, which is
deemed “hard on the kidneys,” and over clover, also objected to on ac¬
count of its ill effect on the wind. Silage is said to be of great value in
winter.

J. H. Serven and iSon: Ear corn and whole oats are the grain feeds
given to the stallion during the breeding and non-breeding seasons in this
farm. The kinds of hay are not indicated. Although corn is fed, not too
much of this, however, is fed. The inclusion of alfalfa or clover hay as
part of the ration is considered good. The grains are fed dry and hay is
given uncut.

Lakewood Farm: The breeding season ration at this stud comprises
oats and bran, in ratio of half and half, fed three times daily, and timo¬
thy and clover hay or prairie hay supplied twice daily. The out-of-season
feeds, on the other hand, include a little corn and oats, and prairie hay,
the latter supplied as amounts as the stallion wants. The grains are given
in a dry form or may be dampened a little. Alfalfa hay and cottonseed
meal are objected to. Corn is deemed acceptable in winter months, but
not during the breeding season.

Maplegrove Farm: It is the practice at this farm to feed the stallion a

148

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

pail of feed mixture prepared at the farm each time, four times a day,
at six and eleven o’clock in the morning, and five-thirty and eight o’clock
in the evening. The preparation and contents of the mixture follow: One-
third of oats and two-thirds of cut hay are mixed together. To the amount
of this mixture to be fed to eighteen horses a gallon of molasses, diluted
in a pail of water, is added. The hay is cut in one-quarter-inch lengths by
means of a Smalley Force Feed No. 12 hay-cutter. One pail of the mixture
as has just been referred to, together with a handful of salt, is given each
horse each feeding.

Maple Lawn Farm: Oats and bran, mixed together, and bright wild hay
and timothy hay are mentioned as feeds given to the stallion during the
breeding season. These are fed three times a day. When out of season
mixed hay is fed three times a day, but oats and bran, in half-and-half
proportion, are fed only in the morning and night, at the rate of one gal-
ion and a half each feeding. The grain feed is wetted with diluted mo¬
lasses, one gallon of molasses to five gallons of water. Alfalfa or clover
hay is fed only very sparingly. As to feeding cotton-seed meal, Peterson
says: “I would consider it very poor practice in case of a breeding horse.”
He writes, too, in regard to corn feeding: “I would not feed corn in the
breeding season,” but ear corn is fed once in a while. The show horses,
in the fall, are given green corn at the rate of about ten pounds per head
(supposedly per day). To show horses special attention is given to feed¬
ing oats, which should be recleaned of all foul seed and dust.

Oaklawn Farm: The breeding season ration consists of six quarts of
oats fed three times a day and hay (kind not mentioned) in limited
amounts. Two times a week the stallion gets bran mash, with about half
an ounce of saltpeter. When the stallion is out of breeding work the
grain feed includes four quarts of oats supplied twice daily. Clover or
alfalfa hay is considered a very good adjunct to the stallion’s feeds.

Pentoila Stock Farm: At this farm the feeding practice is to give the
stallion, during the breeding season, all the mixed hay he will clean up,
and whole oats and bran for concentrate. The same feeds are given in the
non-breeding time, but the amount of grain should be less. Some green
corn is given in the fall, and clover or alfalfa hay is held in satisfactory
esteem.

Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm: When the stallion is active in serv¬
ice he is fed one and a half gallons of whole oats each feeding, and for
roughage good timothy hay, three times a day. These are supplemented
with liberal access to pasture. Oat straw, fed three times a day, is given
in the non-breeding season. No mention is made of the grain feeds during
this season. No objection is offered to feeding alfalfa and clover hay mix¬
ture, and corn to form part of the ration is considered satisfactory.

Selma Farm: The feed of the stallion during the breeding season con¬
sists of one and a half gallons of crushed oats each time, in the morning,
noon, and at night, with mixed hay for roughage. During and about a
month before the beginning of the breeding season timothy hay is sub¬
stituted for mixed hay. In winter bran in equal amounts as crushed oats
is given instead. The feed during the non-breeding season is reduced to
two-thirds in the case of grains and of hay; enough is supplied as the
stallion will eat up clean.

University of Wisconsin: At this institution the grain mixture given
to the stallion during the breeding season comprehends crushed oats and
wheat bran, in proportion of eighty and twenty parts, respectively. Eight
to ten pounds of the mixture are set aside to be divided equally in three
equal feeds. No mention is made of the roughage fed during the same
period. When the stallion is in out-of-service season only six to eight
pounds of the grain mixture referred to are given daily in three equal
feeds. The roughage feed at this time consists of fifteen to eighteen pounds
of mixed hay given three times a day. If corn is to be fed it should not

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

149

form more than twenty per cent of the ration. Alfalfa or clover hay is
considered a satisfactory roughage for the stallion. During the months of
June and July cut grass is given, and in August and later cut green corn
is continued to supply succulence.

University of Missouri: During the breeding season the stallion is
given twenty pounds of grain in a day, divided in three feedings. This
consists of two parts of corn, two parts of oats, and one part of bran. For
roughage mixed ciover and timothy hay are furnished with occasional
supply of alfalfa. When out of season the amount of grain fed is less, but
more clover is included in the ration than during the breeding period.

White Oak Stock Farm: The grain feeds consist of bran and oats and a
small amount of corn each feeding during the breeding season. The same
feeds are given during the non-breeding period excepting that the amount
is less.

University of Illinois: From fifteen to eighteen pounds of crushed oats
and twenty pounds of mixed hay — these make up the stallion’s ration
during the breeding season at this stud. Together with these bran mash
is supplied twice per week. The same feeds apply for feeding the stallion
when out of season, but less grain is fed. Carrots are fed whenever ob¬
tainable, and alfalfa or clover hay is given, but should not exceed one-half
of the roughage mixture.

Irvinedale Farm: The feeds of the stallion during the breeding season
consist of rolled oats, oil meal, and clover hay. The grain portion of the
ration consists of ten pounds of oats mixed with one pint of oil meal, the
mixture to be dampened with one gallon of water before being fed. Ten
pounds of hay are supplied each time after feeding the grain. During
the non-breeding period the same feeds are given, but the amount of the
concentrate is reduced to one-half, the amount of roughage, however, re¬
maining the same.

Lefebure Sons’ Co.: The grain mixture fed to the stallions in this farm
consists of one part of chopped clover, one part bran, and two part* rolled
oats. To this is added diluted molasses, about one-quarter pint of molasses
made into thinner solution with one quart of water for every horse each
feeding. About twelve quarts of this mash is given each feeding three
times a day. Timothy hay is supplied at will twice daily after the grain
feeding. Besides, about one tablespoonful common salt is given to each
horse each feeding. This method of feeding holds true both during and
out of breeding season, excepting that the grain mixture fed during the
non-breeding season is less, from six to eight quarts each time. Also, dur¬
ing the summer time the stallion is turned to pasture, where he may have
access to green grass early in the morning and sometimes throughout the
night when the weather is good.

Longview Stock Farm: According to Moon, the stud horse at this farm
gets eight quarts of oats and bran each feeding, worning, noon, and night,
during the breeding season. For roughage timothy and clover hay are
furnished, all the animals will clean up. When out of season only oats
for concentrate are given, and the same roughages are provided for. Corn,
if fed, is preferred on the ear. For oilage or succulence alfalfa is given.

Oakdale Farm: Good states that during the breeding season, Farceur,
the Belgian head sire, gets a grain mixture composed of four quarts of
oats and two quarts of bran each feeding, three times a day. Mixed hay
is supplied in amounts as the horse will clean up in thirty minutes each
time, three times a day also. The stallion has access to grass besides.
When over with breeding work the same procedure should rule, except¬
ing that the ration should be reduced to two-thirds. Corn is adjudged a
good concentrate if fed in little amounts during the winter season, and
alfalfa or clover hay is considered an acceptable feed if limited quanti¬
ties are used on account of laxativeness.

150

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

Ritchie Stock Farm: Ritchie has for his stallion’s ration oats, two
parts, bran, one part, to which one pint of oil meal is added, and hay —
timothy, clover, alfalfa, sweet clover — furnished ad libitum. The same
feeds are supplied both in the breeding and out-of-breeding periods. Be¬
side the grain mentioned above, a little corn is also added, and for rough-
age, straw and occasionally hay are employed. The grain feed may be
given dry or in mash form, and corn could either be on the ear or ground.
For dampening the grain feed half and half of water and molasses, mixed
together, is added to produce the mash. It is desired that only a limited
amount of alfalfa or clover hay be used. For soilage Ritchie uses cut
alfalfa, sweet clover, and green corn.

Top Notch Stock Farm: Whole oats, bran, and oil meal constitute the
concentrate components of the stallion’s ration. These are mixed in equal
parts during the breeding season. When out of season the amount of oats
in the mixture is increased to two-thirds, and the rest, oatmeal and bran,
in half-and-half portions. For roughage, timothy and clover hay are
given. At each feeding, three times a day, whether during the breeding
season or not, the stallion gets two-thirds of a pail of the grain mixture,
and the hay is supplied on the ground twice a day, first in the morning,
and next at night, after the grain feeding in both cases. Only enough of
the roughage is given as the stallion will clean up.

Arngibbon Farm: Two parts of oats, two parts of bran, and one part
of chopped hay — these form the grain mixture given to the stallion in this
breeding establishment. At noon this mixture is fed in a dampened form,
for which one cup of molasses, made thinner by the addition of an equal
amount of water, is used each feeding. Timothy hay is given, all the
horse will clean up in the morning and at night. During the breeding
period one pail of the concentrate is provided for each feeding, but on
“rest” days, when the stallion is over with the breeding work, the grain
feed is reduced to one-half Soilage crop in the form of cut timothy clover
and sometimes corn, may occasionally be fed to the stallion in the spring.

Hawthorn Farm: The system of feeding in this farm comprises: For
concentrates eighteen quarts of rolled oats are diveded into three feedings
in a day, and on Tuesday and Saturday nights one pail of bran mash
takes the place of the rolled oats. Five pounds of mixed hay (timothy and
clover) are supplied in the morning and next, at night, the amount is in¬
creased to fifteen pounds. This procedure applies to breeding season feed¬
ing practice. In the idle months, when the stud horse is out of breeding
service, only rolled oats are given, at the rate of five pounds each feeding,
morning and night, while the feeding of oue pail of bran mash is contin¬
ued, but only on Saturday nights. The same amount of mixed hay (five
pounds) is given in the morning feeding, and for the second feeding fif¬
teen to twenty pounds of the same material are used. A handful of Epsom
salt is placed once a month in the manger the year around. The hay is
fed on the ground. Once in a while soilage crop is furnished.

Thompsondale Farm: For roughage the stallion is fed small amounts
of wild hay (prairie) in the morning and also at night during the breeding
period. The feeds include mostly oats and some bran. When the breed¬
ing season is over prairie hay, together with a small amount of a mixed
prairie-timothy-clover hay forms the roughage portion of the ration. For
cencentrates corn, bran and oats, and, at times, a little oil meal, are fed.
The oats are fed whole or ground, and the corn may also be fed on the ear
or ground. Occasionally the grain feed is turned into mash, but no mo¬
lasses is given during the breeding season. A little green feed is advised
at any time, but silage is discriminated against. In feeding clover only
the clean material should be used, this to be mixed in small amounts
with other hays.

Waddington Farm: Hine states that the stallion in this stud farm “is
‘roughed,’ and has all the hay he will clean up with about two quarts

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

151

crushed oats twice daily,” during the breeding season. When through
with the stud service the hay is fed at will, twice during the day, timothy
in the morning and alfalfa in the afternoon. No grains are given in the
summer time, but as fall comes a little crushed oats is fed, mixed with a
handful of chopped hay. The hay is chopped in half-inch lengths. When
corn is fed it is supplied on the ear.

Iowa State College: The stud horse at this breeding establishment re¬
ceives during the breeding season a ration: Of grains, six quarts of oats
and two quarts of bran, each feeding, morning, noon, and night; and of
mixed hay, five pounds in the morning and fifteen pounds at night.
When out of season the same amount and kind of roughage are provided
for, but oats and bran are fed at five-quart and two-quart amounts, respec¬
tively, each feeding, three times a day. Rolled oats are used, but the hay
is fed uncut. Diluted molasses is used to dampen the grains before feed¬
ing. If well cured, clover or alfalfa hay is considered a satisfactory feed,
but cottonseed meal and corn are not wanted.

Michigan Agricultural College: The feeding practice at this institution
follows: The first feeding during the breeding season consists of ten
pounds of mixed hay, chopped and fed with four quarts of crushed oats;
secondly, five pounds of chopped mixed hay is fed with four quarts of
crushed oats; and for the third feeding ten pounds of alfalfa hay are
chopped, mixed with four quarts of crushed oats and dampened with mo¬
lasses water before being fed. When out of season only two quarts of
crushed oats are supplied in the morning, and in the night six pounds of
ear corn are provided for. Ten to fifteen pounds of sorghum, in bundles,
form the roughage feed, and ten pounds of alfalfa are given in the night
feeding. The roughage is furnished in half-inch lengths and mixed with
grain in ratio of half and half. Corn is considered a good portion of the
ration if fed in small amounts early in winter, but cottonseed meal is ob¬
jected to. Alfalfa or clover hay is held as splendid feed. During the win¬
ter a daily allowance of ten to fifteen pounds of silage is supplied to the
stallion, young and old. To dampen the chop mixture only enough of the
molasses solution is added as will moisten the feed. To dilute the mo¬
lasses two-thirds of water is used with one-third of molasses. About one
pint of molasses is necessary for each horse each feeding.

Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm: The feeds of the stallion at this estab¬
lishment consist of crushed oats and chopped alfalfa mixed with diluted
molasses. This mixture is fed three times a day. The same roughages are
fed in the non-breeding season, but more are provided for at this time.
No mention is made of the grains fed in the non-breeding period. The
alfalfa hay fed is cut in one-inch lengths. Only two feedings a day are
dampened with diluted molasses. During the summer time a little green
alfalfa is fed, but the amount is restricted to the breeding stallion.

University of Minnesota: During the breeding season the grain feeds
of the stallion consist of 85% of oats and 15% of bran, fed at the rate of
eight pounds each feeding twice a day, in the morning and afternoon.
Six pounds of clover and timothy hay are fed in the morning and ten
pounds in the afternoon. The same roughages are fed in the non-breeding
season, and for grain sometimes 20 to 50% of corn is used, together with
60% oats and 10 to 20% bran. No cut roughages are supplied and the oats
are given whole. Shelled corn is preferred. Clover or alfalfa hay is con¬
sidered a good feed if fed clean.

Central Kentucky Farms: Hooper, in speaking for the horse men of
Central Kentucky, states that breeders in this part of the country feed
the stallion during the breeding season oats and mixed hay, while in the
non-breeding season mixed grain and mixed hay are given. Hay is fed in
racks. Sometimes sheaf oats are cut and mixed with the grain. The oats
are fed in the “clipped” form or whole. Corn is fed moderately to idle

152

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

horses in winter, but cottonseed meal is not used because it is unpalatable.
Alfalfa or clover hay is considered a good feed except during the breeding
season. Molasses is sometimes fed in winter, while silage is usually not
used. The feeds are fed dry, but on Sundays it is the rule to give bran
mash.

According to Stericker, the stallion, during the breeding season, may be
fed a generous supply of oats and bran, together with cut hay, and grass
once a day is recommended if available. When the breeding season is
over the feed should be diminished in amount. Hay is fed in amounts as
the stallion will eat -clean. A little corn is believed to have its place in
stallion feeding, and clover or alfalfa hay is considered a very desirable
roughage.

In setting forth the views and recommendations disclosed by different
breeders on the feeding and management of the stallion, such as are
quoted in Sanders and Dinsmore’s “A History of the Percheron Horse,”
again it is seen befitting to discuss the details, as follows:

Fletcher writes: “A stallion should be housed in a large, roomy,_well-
ventilated box stall, and given plenty of exercise, either in a well-enclosed
yard or under saddle on the road every day. Plenty of fresh water, clean,
fresh hay, and sweet, clean oats and bran in sufficient quantities during
breeding season to keep the horse in good condition are essential in my
plan of breeding stallions. I avoid corn in any form as a feed, as well as
dirty or musty hay or oats. A moderate amount of green feed is benefi¬
cial. A good stallioner will not permit his charge to become too fat or too
thin, and will be sure that he does not lack exercise. A clean, well-cared-
for stable, with good ventilation, is necessary, and there should be suffi¬
cient grooming to keep his coat in a clean, healthy condition.”

Prichard states that “If it is possible to give a stallion work, break him
to harness and give him constant work about the farm out of season.
When the breeding season comes he will be in condition, and it will be
easy to give him daily exercise of from five to six miles. If you cannot
work the stallion, make a paddock, enclosing an area of ground with good
grass and plenty of wrater always at hand. Build a stall for shelter from
sun and storm, so that he can go in and out at will. Feed oats and a little
dry bran in every feed. If he does not eat oats readily, feed a little corn
and good timothy hay. Handled in this manner, the stallion should live
long and be useful as a sire.”

White, who has been cited oft and again in previous paragraphs, is
again referred to in the following discussion on the feeding and handling
of the stallion: “I do not believe that one can afford to work a high-class
stallion; the risk is too great. He should have a large box stall opening
fnto a paddock containing about an acre, and the door should be kept
open day and night, so that the stallion can go in and out at will. The
fence must be secure, but at the same time constructed so that the horse
can see through and ascertain what is going on. If possible, I like o
have a knoll in the paddock, from which the horse can get a good look
over a large part of the farm. He should be made happy and contented.
The stallion should be kept in the stall a month before the breeding season
begins, fed more heavily and given plenty of exercise, so that when the
season begins he will weigh about 150 less than in show condition and be
hard. I use only oats, bran and timothy hay for my stallions. Other feeds
may be as good, and they may be better, but I know from experience that
these are both good and safe.”

While the feeding of the stallion at the Maplegrove Farm has already
been discussed, nevertheless, some pointers may further be gained by in¬
cluding Singmaster’s presentation on the subject, including the handling
of the stallion, thus: “The breeding season in our latitude should not be
earlier than April 1. The stallion should be put on the road for exercise a

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

153

month earlier, so as to harden him for producing fertile semen. We
would not increase his feed of bright timothy hay and oats until he is put
to breeding; then increase the amount fed, and add small quantities of
clover hay or alfalfa and use bran mash as a bowel corrective. He should
have four to six miles of exercise daily, except Sunday, when he should
rest and not be used. If the stallion does not settle his mares by May 1,
put him to work, either to a wagon or at farm work, from two to four
hours a day. The stallioner should be a kind man, and yet have his stal¬
lion under complete control. Never strike your horse, but guide him, con¬
trol him. It is sometimes necessary to reduce your stallion to subjection,
but never when you are in a passion.”

Dunham is quoted to state “That the matured stallion, when in use dur¬
ing the breeding season, should have plenty of exercise and good feed. He
should, if possible, be kept gaining in weight during the season. I find
that the best way to take care of such a horse is to give him a yard to
run in, with plenty of oats, bran and good hay. I do not believe that he
needs artificial feeds or stimulants. It keeps him more tractable and surer
if he has plenty of exercise, or even work when not in stud service.”

In the practices advocated by McLaughlin for the handling and man¬
agement of the stud horse, he says: “A stallion should have at least five
miles of exercise every day. Out of the breeding season the best thing is
to work him moderately. He should have oats and corn enough to keep
him always in good condition. He should be given enough bran or clover
or alfalfa hay to keep his bowels in good shape.”

In the words of Lee, “He (the stallion) should have a good box stall, If
possible, twenty-five feet square, with a high ceiling and ample light. It
should be in a place where he can see what is going on around him, see
the other horses come and go and feel that he is not alone. A stallion
likes company. Give him from three to six miles every day to a cart or at
the side of another horse, and when the breeding season is over hitch him
with a steady horse and put him to work. In the beginning start at light
work, increasing it each time, from an empty wagon to a manure spreader
and hay hauling, and from that to any kind of work at which he can have
plenty of time, so as not to become over-heated or broken in constitution.
During the breeding season turn the stallion into a bluegrass or clover
pasture of two or more acres, or at least give him a paddock 200 feet
square, where he can have plenty of exercise and see everything that is
going on. Give him plenty of good alfalfa hay, or, perhaps, prairie hay, and
feed him equal parts by measure of bran and oats, together with a small
amount of corn chop. Wet this feed well. Some horses require a greater
amount of feed than others. In starting a new stallion in our barn he is
tried out in a very small amount of feed. This is increased little by little
until we have him eating what we think he should have. Our foreman
requires one thing of our feeders — the horse must be ready for every
meal.”

9 Exercise and Work

The nature of exercise given to the stallion in a number of farms dif¬
fers. To give this in a presentable manner the various farms are listed
below, opposite each of which the kind of exercise enforced is indicated:

FARMS KIND OF EXERCISE

Cornell University Hun in the paddock or driven.

Chestnut Farms “Led alongside of pony.”

Gregory Farm During the breeding season, beside

the exercise given on the pasture,

154

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

FARMS

Gossard Breeding Estates
J. H. Serven and Son

Lakewood Farm
Leslie Farm

Oaklawn Farm
Selma Farm

University of Missouri
Woodside Farm
University of Illinois

Lefebure Sons’ Co.

Longview Stock Farm
Hayfield Farm
Hawthorn Farm
Thompsondale Farm

Thos. Kiddoo Farm
Michigan Agricultural College

KIND OF EXERCISE

the stallion is also worked in the
harness, or led by hand, or ridden.
During the non-breeding season the
stallion is simply exercised in half¬
acre pasture.

If not worked, the stallion is walked
four miles daily.

“A paddock to run in all the time and
driven to a cart in breeding sea¬
son.”

Run of a paddock and led.

Run of a 32-feet square paddock, but
during the breeding season is hand
led.

Sometimes led two miles daily.

The main exercise consists of allow¬
ing the stallion a free use of a one-
and-a-half-acre paddock, but he is
sometimes ridden.

Ridden and running in the lot.

Run of a paddock and hand led.

Ridden on the road four to seven
miles per day.

Run in a paddock, 100x30 feet, or a
five-acre lot. If the stallion will not
exercise in the paddock he is led
or driven in the road.

Worked in the harness.

Led.

Led and worked in harness.

During the breeding season every day
the stallion is exercised at the end
of a rope on a side hill.

About four miles’ w^alk, and partly
in harness.

The stallion has constant access to
the paddock when not working in
harness.

According to Stericker Run of half-acre lot, but exercising

by hand is surer and better.

In thirteen farms — the Maple Lawn Farm, Arngibbon Farm, Raboin
Pioneer Homestead Farm, Iowa State College, Ritchie Stock Farm, Pen-
toila Stock Farm, Oakdale Farm, Holbert Farms, Waddington Farm, Top
Notch Stock Farm, Wisconsin University, Purdue University, and the
University of Minnesota — the stallion is allowed the run of a paddock or
pasture

In fifteen farms, according to the reports, the stallions are not worked,
among which are the Top Notch Stock Farm, Irvinedale Farm, Holbert
Farms, Iowa State College, Hawthorn Farm, Woodside Farm, Raboin
Pioneer Homestead Farm, Oakdale Farm, Thompsondale Farm, Oaklawn
Farm, Selma Farm, Lefebure Sons’ Co., Arngibbon Farm, University of
Minnesota, and Purdue University. Also, according to Hooper, in Central
Kentucky the practice is not to work the stallion. Good states that if the

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

155

stallion is to be worked he will be so heated that his efficiency to settle a
mare would be lessened. In some other farms the stallion is given some
work of one kind or another, thus: at the Maple Lawn Farm the stallion
is worked on general farm jobs when not in breeding season; at the Pen-
toila Stock Farm some of the young individuals are worked; the stallion
at Cornell University is worked hauling milk during the breed¬
ing season; at the Longview Stock Farm the work consists of field and
hauling jobs; at the Gossard Breeding Estates the stallion is employed
hauling feed, etc., to various depots; at the Michigan Agricultural College
he is always on the wagon doing farm work; as has been referred to
above, at the Gregory Farm the stallion is worked in harness or led by
hand or ridden during the breeding season; and at the Ritchie Stock Farm
some are given all kinds of work. At times at Hayfield Farm the stallion
is also worked. Trowbridge also advises working the stud horse, and Tru¬
man thinks a steady light work would be a good job for him. Stericker is
also of the opinion that the stallion is best worked like a gelding.

10. Grooming. Clipping the Hair Coat. Shoeing

Of the twenty-nine farms answering, two farms — the Raboin Pioneer
Homestead Farm and Waddington Farm — do not practice grooming the
stallion. To a limited extent, or as one of the breeders states, "not much,
only when he is ‘dolled up a little’”; four farms — the White Oak Stock
Farm, the Pentoila Stock Farm, Ritchie Stock Farm, and Wisconsin Uni¬
versity — enforce cleaning their stallions. At the Arngibbon Farm the
stud horse is cleaned but once a week, and at the Oaklawn Farm, Hay-
field Farm, and at the University of Missouri, he is groomed so as to keep
him fairly clean. The stallion is groomed daily at the Thompsondale
Farm, Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm, Lakewood Farm, and Cornell Uni¬
versity, but the reports do not state the number of times grooming is
done daily. At the Chestnut Farms he is groomed every day before and
after exercising. Three farms report of grooming their stallions only
during the breeding season, namely, the Selma Farm, Oakdale Farm, and
Michigan Agricultural College. At the Selma Farm the stallion is also
groomed one month before the breeding season, but not afterwards. The
majority of those which reported is classed within those that groomed
their stallions once every day. These inclube the Lefebure Sons’ Co., Iowa
State College, Thos. Kiddoo Farm, Hawthorn Farm, Minnesota University,
Illinois University, Irvinedale Farm, and Maple Lawn Farm, or eight
farms in all. Stericker also opines in like manner. Only two establish¬
ments — the Gossard Breeding Estates and Purdue University — indicate
grooming their stud horses twice a day.

Twenty-six breeding establishments respond opposedly to the question,
"Is it advisable to clip the stallion? If so, how often?” Because, accord¬
ing to Cooley, it is not necessary, provided that the animal has been well
kept during winter. Good also asserts that clipping the stallion’s hair is
not required if he is properly fed. But in the University of Missouri,
Trowbridge states that the hair of the stallion is occasionally clipped;
and at the Maple Lawn Farm, Peterson writes: "In the case of a horse
that grows a long coat of hair I surely would in the spring.”

"Is it advisable to keep the stallion shod? If so, how many times in a
year is shoeing done?” To this query three farms — the Thompsondale
Farm, J. H. Serven and Son, and Waddington Farm — answer "No,” while
Peterson says "If the horse has the right kind of feet he should not be
shod”; and Good explains that "If good feet are desired the stallion should
not be shod”. The major body of breeders favor the use of shoes at all
times or under some circumstances. Their remarks follow:

156

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

FARMS

Cornell University
Chestnut Farms
Lakewood Farm

Oaklawn Farm

Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm
Selma Farm

University of Wisconsin
University of Missouri
Woodside Farm

University of Illinois

Irvinedale Farm

Lefebure Sons’ Co.

Ritchie Stock Farm

Arngibbon Farm
Hayfield Farm
Hawthorn Farm

*

Thos. Kiddoo Farm
Holbert Farms

Iowa State College

Michigan Agricultural College
Purdue University
Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm

University of Minnesota

Central Kentucky Farms
According to Stericker

REMARKS

“As often as necessary.”

“Bar shoes reset every 60 days.”

Do not shoe unless feet are break¬
ing.

“Shoe during breeding season.”

The stallion is shod when to be
shown.

Shoeing the stallion depends on the
foot and as to whether or not he
is to be traveled. If he is to be
shod the shoes should be changed
every five to six weeks.

Not to be shod if kept on the farm.

Part of the time shoe in front.

The stallion is shod ten times in a
year.

“Plates in front, heel calks behind,
reset every six weeks.”

The stallion is shod six times a year
or every two months.

“No, unless on road for some time.”

Not to be shod excepting only when
to be shown.

“Always do — once every six weeks.”

“Depends on stallion.”

“Always shod. Never left over a
month. Just to keep feet looking
good.”

To be shod if doing road work.

“Should be kept barefoot unless
traveling during season.”

If not on the road it is considered
better without shoes; otherwise,
to be shod every six weeks.

“Depends entirely on condition of
his feet and how much he works.”

Shoe as often as necessary to keep
the feet in good shape.

“Better without shoes if you do not
intend to show him, and take him
on the hard roads.”

“Depending on condition and quality
of feet.”

“Shod regularly.”

Shoeing depends on the work re¬
quired, but usually should be shod
every six weeks.

11. Vices

Eleven breeding establishments— the Santa Anita Rancho, Woodside
Farm, Lefebure Sons’ Co., Iowa State College, J. H. Serven and Son, Wad-

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

157

dington Farm, Maple Lawn Farm, Selma Farm, Cornell University, the
University of Missouri, and the Gossard Breeding Estates — all answer
negatively that their stud horses have developed any vices. On the other
hand, a variety of vices are indicated by several stud farms. For instance,
at the Pentoila Stock Farm, stall kicking is mentioned, and at the Arn-
gibbon Farm, cribbing and windsucking. At the Michigan Agricultural
College, the stallion is claimed to rub the mane and tail, for which the
remedy advised is to apply kerosene and to change the feed. From Lake-
wood Farm comes the word that masturbation is a vice developed by the
stallion. To eliminate this, it is recommended to turn the stallion out with
the mares all the winter. Hooper claims that in Central Kentucky Farms
the breeders find biting people or blankets and kicking as vices developed
by the stud horse. In the words of Ritchie concerning the stallion’s vices,
the following is reproduced: “My horse, when I first got him, had never
been educated, and he wanted to breed a mare when he got ready whether
you are ready for him or not. But just get a good iwhip and go after him
and show him that you are boss.” According to Truman, “on account of
lack of exercise and being constantly confined, once in a while they de¬
velop cribbing,” to overcome this he says, “take out mangers, and don’t
let them have anywhere to bite with their teeth; there are several de¬
vices to stop cribbing if taken in time.” Good is here referred to, to say
that vices are usually caused by the man handling the young animal, but
in this connection he brings out that in twitching the mare to be put
ready for breeding operation the groom must release the twitch during
the act of copulation or else the mare will not do her part. Stericker
mentions self-abuse as a stallion’s vice for which he advocates the use
of the “shield” as a remedy. He further says “do not play with a stallion or
tease him; at first he will bite playfully, later he may do so viciously.” On
this Holbert writes: “None with our stallions — except one stallion nips
his chain or leader’s sleeve and is not a well-mannered server. Cannot be
remedied now as he is seven years old and has a mind of his own. Could
have been remedied when a colt.”

12. Accidents. Diseases or Ailments

Four farms surveyed find hardly any or no common accidents at all to
which the stallion may fall a victim, namely, the White Oak Stock Farm,
Holbert Farms, Oakdale Farm, Lefebure Sons’ Co., and Hawthorn Farm.
In this connection it may be said that at the Oakdale Farm mean mares
are hobbled, and the twitch is applied in all cases during the breeding
operation. That the most common accident to which the stud horse is
subject is to get kicked, is the unanimous reply of twelve breeding estab¬
lishments, viz: the Maple Lawn Farm, Selma Farm, University of Illinois,
Longview Stock Farm, Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm, Irvinedale Farm,
Iowa State College, Lakewood Farm, Gossard Breeding Estates, Arngibbon
Farm, Ritchie Stock Farm, and Wisconsin University. Stericker and
Hooper also make the same statement. At the Michigan Agricultural Col¬
lege it is claimed that the stallion occasionally may slip in the paddock or
may be kicked by cross mares during the breeding service. From the
Santa Anita Rancho comes the statement that common accidents of the
stallion are sprain of the shoulder, sprai nof the stifle, and kicks by unhob¬
bled mares, any of which may be met during the breeding operation. Like¬
wise, at the Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm experience teaches that the
stallion may ordinarily be kicked by the mare or sprained while doing
service.

The stallion is attacked by very few or no diseases or ailments as re¬
ported by the following farms: The Ritchie Stock Farm, Hawthorn Farm,
Michigan Agricultural College, White Oak Stock Farm, and Santa Anita
Rancho. While a number of establishments, eight of them, such as the

158

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

University of Missouri, Woodside Farm, Maple Lawn Farm, Truman’s
Pioneer Stud Farm, Irvinedale Farm, Lakewood Farm, and the Gossard
Breeding Estates, give colic as the common ailment of the stud horse.
According to Hooper, the same trouble, colic, is a common derangement
of the alimentary system of stallions in the farms of Central Kentucky.
At the Oaklawn Farm colic and lung fever are mentioned as common ail¬
ments; at the Pentoila Stock Farm, influenza; at the Longview Stock
Farm, colic and clogging of bdwels; at the Arngibbon Farm, distemper;
at the Wisconsin University, founder, over-heatedness, lameness, colic; at
the Oakdale Farm, distemper, so that, according to Good, the stallion, be¬
fore the breeding season, is treated rwith serum (procured from Dr. Meyer,
Wenona, Illinois) in order to prevent the occurrence of this malady; and
according to the Lefebure Sons’ Co., the stallion commonly gets the “ship¬
ping fever” when being sent out, to prevent which serum is also used be¬
fore the animal is shipped. Stericker is authority in saying that colic and
gastritis are common ailments of the stallion, which, however, are mostly
caused by injudicious feeding.

Edmonds, Ritchie, and Stericker are all of the opinion that a veterinarian
should always be summoned for any disturbance that might befall the
stud horse, and as Ritchie says, “Better not experiment with a good stal¬
lion unless one has had some experience.” But in four farms — the Oak-
lawn Farm, Longview Stock Farm, Pentoila Stock Farm, and Truman’s
Pioneer Stud Farm — colic is being remedied without the aid of a veteri¬
narian. At the Wisconsin University the veterinary surgeon is called for
all diseases except for the most common ones. Among other breeding es¬
tablishments in which some diseases are remedied without the assistance
of a qualified practitioner may be mentioned the Gossard Breeding Es¬
tates, in which only those calling for surgical operation are considered as
requiring the work of the veterinarian; the Arngibbon Farm, where the
practice is to take care of cuts, bruises, colic, and distemper without outside
consultation; at the Iowa State College, where it is considered safe to treat
influenza, grease, and cuts without the aid of the veterinarian; and the
Lefebure Sons’ Co., where the veterinarian service is considered a neces¬
sity only in treating cases of cholera, colic, or other of like severity. At
the latter stud those that are cured in the absence of the veterinarian are
cuts for which they use tincture of iodine; navel, for which also tincture
of iodine is employed; and distemper, which is cured with the application
of Spohn’s medicine. Spohn’s preparation is also used for worms at this
farm. At the Maplegrove Farm all diseases and accidents, save castra¬
tion, are handled without calling the certified practitioner, and at the Ir¬
vinedale Farm it is the absolute policy to remedy all diseases that may
occur among their stallions by themselves. Peterson remarks that “some
grooms are about as good as the average veterinarian and do a lot of home
doctoring.”

II

MANAGEMENT OF THE MARE

1. Selection

For breeding purposes Truman says that “plenty of length and width”
should be the principal points to be looked for in the selection of the mare;
while shortness and stubbiness of body form, straight joints and blem¬
ishes, should be guarded against. Shaw and Hudson describe desirable
brood mares as “tidy, short-backed animals, with plenty of quality,” and
of “known breeding from prolific strains,” discriminating against indi¬
viduals that are characterized by “coarseness, puffy legs,” and those “that
have failed to reproduce successfully.” Following the qualifications stipu¬
lated by Peters, the brood mare should possess “soundness, type, size, pedi¬
gree,” while Cooley calls for “bloodlines, quality, femininity, size good feet
and bone, action.” Stericker’s principal points include “good disposition
(as colt often gets that from mares), good legs and feet, short back and
intelligent head.” According to Thompson, the mares to compose the
breeding herd should be of “good disposition, easy feeders, ‘wide-barreled,
good feet and legs, good heads, broad-chested,” and Hine wants “correct
conformation, good bone, big and flat.” On this subject, Ritchie writes: “I
rwant a mare sound, good size, with clean, flat bone, good feet, lots of
quality and a good mover and lots of pep,” but, on the other hand, he
points out that “crooked legs, no quality, unsoundness, poor movers and
deadheads” should jeopardize the value of a mare for breeding purposes.
Mares should be “good, big, sound, and, if old, they should have been good
breeders” — these constitute the main points for which the Lefebure Sons’
Co. look. Moon looks for “bone size, style, action, good head and eyes, good
feet,” in the brood mare, and to simplify the matter Good advises that the
same points as are desired in the stallion should apply in the mare, the
only difference to be considered being in the femininity which the mare
should possess in lieu of the stallion’s masculinity. Considering Augstin’s
stipulations in the selection of the brood mare, the individual must pos¬
sess “soundness” and must be “roomy-built, of quiet disposition and
motherly looking.” At the Gossard Breeding Estates, the following points
are emphasized: “soundness, size with quality, good, strong back and
loins, and of feminine appearance.” Hains places “size, quality, action and
soundness” as the principal points to be looked for in the brood mare,
while Henderson favors “good, nice, roomy, good-boned, good-footed
mares.” According to Peterson, “mares that are sound, of good type, with
lots of size, wide and deep,” should be selected for breeding purposes. Be¬
sides soundness, says White, the mare should also be long, roomy, femi¬
nine, must possess good feet and legs, especially in the case of the hocks
and the pasterns, which should be sloping. “Good conformation, sound¬
ness and capacity,” briefly speaking, should, in all, describe the ideal
brood mare as promulgated at the Santa Anita Rancho. Again, soundness
is pointed out as a point to be insisted upon in the selection of the brood
mare, according to Edmonds, and, furthermore, she should also be of good
type and have the feminine look. Dix characterizes the brood mare as
one that is “large, roomy, sound, with good underpinning.” Raboin states
that similar qualifications should hold true for both the stallion and the
brood mare, excepting that in the latter the body should be more roomy.
According to Hooper, the matter of selecting the ideal brood mare should
be focused to her “kinship to great horses”; that she should be a descend¬
ant of a noted dam, and, no less, she should be of right conformation and

160

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

have size. Three cardinal points, “size, soundness and femininity” — these
are considered by McMillan as all-important matters to be borne in mind
in the selection of the brood mare. Fuller gives more weight on the
“breeding, size, soundness, temperament,” while Haxton prefers “type,
conformation, femininity, soundness, action” over other in choosing mares
to be used in the breeding herd. Haxton mentions unsoundness and mas¬
culinity as undesirable characteristics of the ideal brood mare. According
to Pallister, plenty of length, but closeness to the ground, should in gen¬
eral describe the kind of mare desirable in a breeding herd, while Serven
looks for individuals that are “sound” and have “type, size, and breeding,”
such mares as are characterized by small and crooked feet, crooked legs,
and poor heads being objected to. Kiddoo wants a mare that is sound and
large, together with quality and ruggedness in her make-up. Hanmer,
however, says that the “brood mare should be free from spavins, ringbone,
and ophthalmia,” and that the general conformation, as well as constitu¬
tion, should be good, besides being of agreeable disposition. The selection
of brood mares, according to Holbert, should be based on the best of breed¬
ing and good individuality; besides, they “must have size, good legs, good
bone, good backs and rumps and heads and necks.” The fact that certain
individuals have always produced good colts is, of course, another consid¬
eration of no less importance that is brought out by Holbert.

From iSander and Dinsmore’s “A History of the Percheron Horse,”
Fletcher’s views, as well as others, are reiterated here, now on the selec¬
tion of the brood mare. In Fletcher’s own writing the following are
quoted: “In selecting a brood mare, I should choose one from a producing
family, weighing 1,700 to 2,100 pounds, and standing 16 to 17^4 hands
high. She should be sound and of feminine type. The mare should have a
fine head, with eyes well apart and well-set ears, not too heavy, a slim,
graceful neck, well set on sloping shoulders, a large, roomy barrel, a well-
sprung rib, a tail not too low, clean, sound, well-placed legs not inclined to
be meaty or to carry too much hair, sloping pasterns and deep, tough
hoof. The mare to be avoided is the one of masculine type or from a fam¬
ily of shy producers. They are rarely successful. A coarse, Roman head,
heavy, poorly set ears, a masculine neck, a tail set too low, a short rib, a
crooked, puffy hind leg, a straight pastern and a foot that is too narrow or
too flat are also very undesirable features.”

Prichard says: “Our experience has been that the full-made, wide, deep¬
bodied mare of medium height, standing on rather short legs, is the most
successful in the hands of the average breeder. Her weight in ordinary
working condition should be from 1,600 to 1,900 pounds. She should have
plenty of bone both fore and aft, specially below the knee and hock. We
like as much refinement about the head and neck as is consistent (with the
conformation. The mare should have a strong back, well coupled to broad
hips. Of course, she should stand on sound feet and limbs. Be sure that
she has a sweet disposition and is not nervous and fretful. The frothy-
dispositioned mare is a nuisance and should be avoided. Look your mare
over and find a stallion that can correct her faults. Keep her in harness,
if you can, working her up nearly to foaling time.”

White is here referred to once more in the selection of the mare, but in
a more descriptive manner. He writes: “I believe that the size in the colt
should be mainly derived from the mare. Therefore, I like a large, open,
roomy mare, but she must be feminine. While I do not want a long back,
at the same time I prefer it to a short, pony-built mare. She, like the stal¬
lion, must be sound and have good, true action. Mares, while pregnant,
can and should be worked when it is possible for the owner or his sons
to handle them or when a reliable man is to be secured When this is not
possible, it is best that the mare remain idle, but in this case she should
be out every day unless the weather is very bad and should be an-..ou me

MANAGEMENT OF THE MAKE

161

run of large pastures and not be confined to paddocks. A fair number of
mares can be allowed to run together, but I regard it desirable not to have
more than eight in one pasture.”

Singmaster’s recommendations in the selection of brood mares follow:
“Select the type of mare that suits you best We prefer the rather lengthy
mare of good reaching neck, with a sweet feminine head, a good pair of
shoulders, a deep body, closely ribbed to the point of the hip, a gently slop¬
ing hip, and flat-boned legs with springy pastern joints At the throat-
latch she should be much lighter and cleaner than the male The prominent
eye and the medium-sized hoof, dark colored and sloping, but not steep,
should be sought. Get your mares of similar conformation, so that, when
mated with a stallion of opposite good points, they will produce foals of
distinctive conformation or type that will build your reputation as a stu¬
dious breeder of all that is best in Percherons. Color in the mare is not so
essential as in the male. The mare should weigh from 1,750 to 1,900 pounds,
and be a square walker, with no wobbly joints. Percherons are of good
disposition, and it stands us in hand to have it so remain, but it requires
care in mating and care in handling the colt.”

According to Dunham, “Brood mares should be selected with due refer¬
ence to size and soundness. They should be of feminine type and of the
largest size to be found, short in the back, but long below, and of good sub¬
stance. Lightness of bone is apt to reappear in the colts.”

First of all, Corsa emphasizes soundness in the mare to be included in
the breeding herd, because, as he says, “Although the available stallion
may be a breeder and an impressive sire, sound and of correct pattern and
sufficient size, we cannot expect him to overcome a material unsoundness
in the mare.” Corsa goes on to say: “The size of a brood mare is also of
importance. We would not expect to raise real drafters from 1,400-pound
mares; the offspring at maturity are seldom more than chunks. On the
other hand, there is quite a temptation to use, and a very general demand
for, the one-ton mare. There are many such mares that are quick in their
movements and handy at work on the farm; they make good mothers and
regular breeders. They are the exception, however, among those of their
size. In general, I believe the experience of breeders of purebred livestock
will bear out the statement that the excessively large females are seldom
the best breeders.

“A mare weighing from 1,700 to 1,800 pounds in ordinarily good condi¬
tion is the draft mare that may be expected to give a good account of her¬
self both at work and in the stud. Get size in the effspring through the se¬
lection of the sire and through the kind, quality and quantity of feed given
the colts. Fortunately, it is among those under excessive weights that we
find the greater number of mares of acceptable brood type — sweetly femi¬
nine sorts which usually have necks long enough so that one may put his
arm around and love them.

“Avoid flat, shelly feet, straight pasterns, crooked hind legs, excessively
sloping rumps, low backs and straight shoulders, both in the mares and
in the stallion to which they are bred. The size of the bones may well be
considered, though too much stress frequently has been placed upon mare
size. It is the quality, however, which counts. We want a clean, flat, hard,
flinty bone, and enough of it to hold up the mare and carry her on any
work she may be called upon to do. It is desirable, also, that the front
legs should not cut under too much just below and back of the knee.

“Having found a mare that is sound and acceptable in size, type and
conformation, let us hope and pray that she has snap and courage to carry
on the work that comes with the heat of the day and to pass them on as
an heritage to her offspring. Such a mare not only moves more gaily, but is
likely to move more correctly than the dull-headed, wabbly legged mare.”

162 PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

2. Diseases, Unsoundness, etc., as Disqualifying Factors

Fuller states that blindness, heaves, or when the animal is windbroken,
and most physical unsoundnesses, will be sufficient to bar the mare from
breeding purposes. Hooper makes the assertion that “any serious unsound¬
ness is considered detrimental.” Edmonds believes that a knowledge of
the history of the disease or unsoundness should first be had before cer¬
tain defects or ailments could be adjudged as disqualifying factors of a
brood mare; for instance, Dix and Stericker hold that all hereditary un¬
soundness should constitute a hindrance in entering the mare into the
breeding stud. Generally speaking, such hereditary diseases as are affect¬
ing the bone, respiration, and eyesight should bar the mare from breeding
purposes: these comprehend the rules followed at the Santa Anita Rancho.
The following disqualifications of the mare are brought out by Holbert,
thus: “Side bones on a young mare, puffed hocks or thoroughpin, and
periodic ophthalmia.” Touching on the same subject, White says that all
unsoundness and diseases should be considered so, but emphasis is laid on
side bone, curbs, and bad wind. According to Peterson, mares that are
blind, or affected with any kind of spavins should not be included in the
stud, and Haines says: “Any very serious unsoundness which injured the
usefulness of the mare and which had occurred because of faulty confor¬
mation” should be sufficient to disqualify the brood mare. At the Gossard
Breeding Estates, “all hereditary diseases and deformities” are looked
upon as detrimental affections of the brood mare, while Haxton and Kiddoo
consider all diseases, unsoundness, and other defects as disqualifying
factors. “Poor feet and poor eyes,” according to Moon, should disqualify
the brood mare in the stud, but Shaw and Hudson bar only two main
points — “any genetal disorder and baggy hocks.” Peters makes the state¬
ment that diseases, unsoundness, and other defects that bar the mare
from breeding work depend upon the age of the animal in which these
have developed Seven breeding establishments — the Truman’s Pioneer
Stud Farm, Iowa State College, Lefebure Sons’ Co., Oakdale Farm, Uni¬
versity of Missouri, Oaklawn Farm, and Lakewood Farm — rule that the
same diseases, unsoundnesses, and other defects as would bar the stud
horse from breeding purposes should hold true in the case of brood mares.

3. Breeding Season

Six stud farms report on opening their breeding season during the
months of April, May, and June. These include the Selma Farm, Univer¬
sity of Illinois, Woodside Farm, Lakewood Farm, G. Andrews and Son, and
Michigan Agricultural College. The rest of the establishments responding
give their “open breeding season” at varying periods, thus: At the Uni¬
versity of Missouri, from March 1 to July 15; at the J. H. Serven and Son,
mostly in March, April, and May; at the Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm
from April to the middle of July; at the University of Minnesota, from
April to July; at Purdue University and Iowa State College, chiefly in
April, May, and June; at the Gossard Breeding Estate, from February 1 to
June 1; at Wisconsin University, from April to August; at the Pentoila
Stock Farm, from February to December, being heavy during the months
of April, May, and June; at the Thompsondale Farm, during the months
of April, May, June, July, and August; at the Waddington Farm, from
March to May; at the Chestnut Farms, from March to August; at Long-
wood Farm, from May 1 and on; at the Ritchie Stock Farm, from April to
October; at the Hayfield Farm, from February till July; at the Raboin
Pioneer Homestead Farm, from April 1 to late fall; at the Thos. Kiddoo
Farm, principally in May; at the Longview Stock Farm, only in the
month of June; and in the Central Kentucky Farms, during the spring¬
time; at the White Oak Stock Farm and Maplegrove Farm the breeding

MANAGEMENT OF THE MARE

163

season lasts throughout the entire year. At the Maple Lawn Farm the
mares are bred any time of the year, but in the case of outside mares the
breeding season lasts from April to July, and so as at Holbert Farms in
which their own mares are bred the year round, but only from May 1 to
August 1 with outside mares. Likewise in Cornell University the mares
are bred any time they come in heat, but Haines says, “Try to prevent as
much foaling when there is most work as possible.”

4. Artificial Insemination

Nineteen farms report that artificial insemination is not carried on or
practiced. Those farms are: the Wisconsin University, Chestnut Farms,
Thos. Kiddoo Farm, Selma Farm, Maple Lawn Farm, Oaklawn Farm, Cor¬
nell University, University of Missouri, White Oak Stock Farm, Pentoila
Stock Farm, Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm, Arngibbon Farm, Hayfield
Farm, Longview Stock Farm, Maplegrove Farm, Waddington Farm,
Thompsondale Farm, Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm, and the University of
Minnesota. Hooper states that in many studs in Central Kentucky this
method of breeding is practiced, both capsules and syringe being used.
According to McMillan, some work on this line has been performed in his
farm, but unfortunately no satisfactory results were attained. The im-
pregnator was the means of insemination employed. Butler reports that
the impregnator and capsule are used at the Woodside Farm in carrying
out artificial insemination, but this is resorted to only in cases of infec¬
tion, while at the Iowa State College the impregnator is used only to
treat doubtful mares. At the Santa Anita Rancho, artificial insemination
is practiced occasionally, using both the capsule and impregnator or
syringe, and, likewise, at the University of Illinois now and then this
method of reproduction is adopted, but in this stud only the capsules are
employed. At the Gossard Breeding Estates very little of this work is
done, as there is no necessity for it, and, too, at the Ritchie Stock Farm,
very few mares, from three to five, have been artificially bred by means
of the capsule so far. At the Hawthorn Farm once this method of breed¬
ing was undertaken for the sake of experiment, using the Kansas City
apparatus. Cooley states that at Purdue University artificial insemina¬
tion is employed, but not to any extent, and Holbert states that while it
is practiced at the Holbert Farms, yet it is not often necessary. Four
stud farms seem to practice artificial insemination as a regular procedure,
as follows: The Lefebure Sons’ Co., in which, it is claimed, from one to
eight mares are served at each operation. The capsule method is consid¬
ered better than the impregnator. In the Oakdale Farm, where the Kan¬
sas City impregnator is employed, as high as ten mares are subjected to
insemination each time. At the Michigan Agricultural College, in which
the Carbon semen extractor and capsules find us, no more than two mares
are treatd at each service. And at the J. H. Serven and Son the impreg¬
nator is employed, treating from two to six mares at a time.

5. Breeding Age

Evidently there are those which believe in starting the fillies for breed¬
ing purposes at the age of two years, those that would not breed them
until they are three years of age, and the third class of breeders that takes
option of breeding them either at the age of two or three years. Only one
farm, the Oaklawn Farm, reports breeding their mares for the first time
at fourteen months of age, the lowest figure shown among those report¬
ing. Followers of breeding the two-year-olds may be mentioned the follow¬
ing: the Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm, Iowa State College, Chestnut
Farms (if mare is large enough), Lakewood Farm, G. Andrews and Son,
Hayfield Farm, White Oak Stock Farm, Irvinedale Farm, and Cornell Uni-

164

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

versity — altogether, nine breeding establishments. Among those that re¬
ported, the majority of breeding establishments, numbering to a total of
fifteen stud farms, state that the breeding of their mares begins at three
years. These include Lefebure Sons’ Co., Woodside Farm, Rockwood
Farm, Holbert Farms, Wisconsin University, Santa Anita Rancho, Selma
Farm, Longview Stock Farm, Arngibbon Farm, Hawthorn Farm, Wad-
dington Farm, Thompsondale Farm, Michigan Agricultural College, Min¬
nesota University, and Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm. In the Central Ken¬
tucky Farms the fillies are started to breed also as three-year-olds. Six
farms — the Pentoila Stock Farm, University of Illinois, Maple Lawn
Farm, J. H. Serven and Son, University of Missouri, and Ritchie Stock
Farm — indicate that in their breeding practices the mares may be bred for
the first time at either two or three years of age. At Purdue University the
mares are seldom started to breeding service at two years of age, but,
rather, at three, and the same holds true at the Gossard Breeding Estates.
Stericker places the first breeding age at three years, but he says that
some may be bred as two-year-olds.

Varying statements are evinced by different breeders regarding the
“prime breeding age” of mares. To illustrate these the following men are
cited: McMillan believes that the mare is in her best procreative power
at the age of three years; Haines says at from five to eight years of age;
G. Andrews and Son, at from five to fourteen years; Raboin at from three
to fifteen years; Butler at eight years; Haxton, at six years; Fuller, at
sixteen years; Hooper, at from five to ten years; Moon, at eight years;
White, at from five to six years; Truman, at seven or eight years; Peter¬
son and Kiddoo, at five years; Shaw and Hudson, at from five to nine
years; Hanmer, at three to twelve years; Dix, at from eight to fourteen
years; Holbert, at ten years; Serven, at six, seven or eight years; Ster¬
icker, at from five to ten or twelve years; and Cooley, at from five to fif¬
teen years. At the University of Minnesota it is held that a mare is in
her ideal state of breeding ability at from five to twelve years of age; at
the Santa Anita Rancho, at from four to twelve years; at the Irvinedale
Farm, at from three to twelve years; and at the Waddington Farm, at
from four to twelve years, or even beyond the twelfth year if the mare is
a good breeder. At the Lefebure Sons Co., the mares are considered in
their best breeding condition up to the age of twenty years, or even up
till death, but aged mares are generally condemned. Good believes that
the mare is always in her prime for breeding purposes as long as she is
properly cared for, and, similarly, Pallister makes the statement that her
prime breeding period comes when she reaches “over three (years of
age) and as old as (her) condition permits.”

In fourteen breeding establishments — the Lefebure Sons’ Co., Raboin
Pioneer Homestead Farm, Woodside Farm, Irvinedale Farm, Pentoila
Stock Farm, Gossard Breeding Estates, Ritchie Stock Farm, Hayfield
Farm, Longview Stock Farm, Selma Farm, White Oak Stock Farm,
Thompsondale Farm, Cornell University, and Purdue University — it is
held that mares are never too old to breed so long as they will breed, set¬
tle, or produce a colt. Hooper gives the same view and Truman remarks
that she is seldom too old to be used for this purpose. At the Michigan
Agricultural College, however, the mare is considered too old for breeding
work when she ceases to produce good, strong offspring. Stericker, Peter¬
son, Hanmer and McMillan are of the opinion that the mare reaches her
normal breeding term at twenty years. Trowbridge states that the mare
gets too old to breed when from twelve to twenty-five years of age, and
Fuller places the age at from fifteen to twenty years. At Santa Anita
Rancho cases are cited in which prize winners are produced from twenty-
year-old mares; Kiddoo mentions mares twenty-tiwo years old that are
producing regularly; at the G. Andrews and Son, one foal was born from

MANAGEMENT OF THE MARE

165

a twenty-four-year-old mare; at the Oaklawn Farm, instances of mares
twenty-eight years old are known to have raised foals, and at the Oak¬
dale Farm a mare at the age of twenty-five years is also indicated as hav¬
ing delivered a colt.

6. Work

Excepting only in two farms, the Waddington Farm and Oaklawn Farm,
where mares are not worked, in others, including thirty-three establish¬
ments altogether, such as the Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm, Thompson-
dale Farm, Rookwood Farm, Chestnut Farms, Hayfield Farm, Cornell
University, Selma Farm, Santa Anita Rancho, Wisconsin University,
Woodside Farm, Thos. Kiddoo Farm, University of Illinois, Raboin Pio¬
neer Homestead Farm, Iowa State College, Holbert Farms, J. H. Serven
and Son, Pentoila Stock Farm, Maple Lawn Farm, Gossard Breeding Es¬
tates, Irvinedale Farm, White Oak Stock Farm, G. Andrews and Son,
Longview Stock Farm, Ritchie Stock Farm, Arngibbon Farm, Hawthorn
Farm, Purdue University, Michigan Agricultural College, University of
Minnesota, Lefebure Sons’ Co., Oakdale Farm, Lakewood Farm, and Uni¬
versity of Missouri, mares are worked, generally farm work. At Central
Kentucky Farms, says Hooper, mares are likewise worked. According to
Stericker, also, mares should be worked, but not too heavily, nor should
they be backed.

With regard to suckling mares, these are not worked at the Maple Lawn
Farm, and Santa Anita Rancho. At the Selma Farm, Chestnut Farms, J.
H. Serven and Son, Holbert Farms, and Hayfield Farm, the mares are, as
a general rule, not worked. Several farms report the working of suckling
mares, namely: the Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm, Thos. Kiddoo Farm,
Woodside Farm, Rookwood Farm. Longview Stock Farm, Lakewood Farm,
Pentoila Stock Farm, Ritchie Stock Farm, University of Missouri, Uni¬
versity of Minnesota, White Oak Stock Farm, G. Andrews and Son, and
Gossard Breeding Estates. At other farms, while suckling mares are also
worked, it is brought out that they should not be strained hard at all, but
rather a light work should be given. These farms include the University
of Illinois, Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm, Purdue University, Michi¬
gan Agricultural College, Cornell University, Thompsondale Farm, and
Wisconsin University.

7. Pasturage

Thirty-three farms reporting all unanimously indicate that mares are
turned out in the pasture during the “grass season,” provided that they
are not worked as some breeders point out. But during “fly time,” which,
according to White occurs from July 15 to September 15, several breeders
believe that mares should be sheltered during the day time, to be turned
out only at night. As Peterson remarks, the mares may have access to a
shed where they may shelter readily when flies are bothersome. Presum¬
ably, a shelter is located on the pasture and mares turned loose when they
are idle may come to the shed any time they please. At the Holbert Farms
working mares are also pastured, but only at night.

In response to the question asking the approximate area of paddock or
pasture necessary for the mare throughout the year, three farms — the
Santa Anita Rancho, Oaklawn Farm, and the Gossard Breeding Estates—
place it as of one acre; three others— the Maple Lawn Farm, Truman’s
Pioneer Stud Farm, Lakewood Farm, and Michigan Agricultural College
concur on allotting two acres; and two farms— the Raboin Pioneer Home¬
stead Farm and Selma Farm — advocate the apportionment of three acres.
The Chestnut Farms use the three-quarter-acre lots, and according to
Peters it should be one and a half to two acres of pasture for each mare
throughout the year, while Trowbridge favors the employment of two and

166

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

a half acres. At the Woodside Farm and at Iowa State College a four-acre
ground is favored, and at the Longview Stock Farm a still larger pasture
of five acres is allotted to each mare.

8. Feeding

Ritchie and Kiddoo describe the condition of their brood mares as “or¬
dinary,” rwhile at the Hawthorn Farm, Arngibbon Farm, Purdue Univer¬
sity, Lefebure Sons’ Co., Cornell University, Rookwood Farm, Santa Anita
Rancho, and Irvinedale Farm the mares are maintained in “premium” con¬
dition or “medium flesh.” Edmonds, Augustin, and Pallister mention that
brood mares should be kept in “moderate” condition. At the Waddington
Farm, Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm, and Woodside Farm “fair” con¬
dition or “fair flesh” of brood mares is favored. Fuller desires that they
should be kept from “fair to good” condition, while a number of studs —
the Gossard Breeding Estates, University of Minnesota, Holbert Farms,
Maple Lawn Farm, Hayfield Farm, Truman’s Pioneer Homestead Farm,
Pentoila Stock Farm, Selma Farm, and Lakewood Farm — keep their
brood mares in “good” condition or “good flesh.” At Central Kentucky
Farms mares are also maintained in “good” condition. The Andrews, Good,
and Stericker put the breeding condition of mares as “healthy” or “thrifty,”
but Good and Stericker point out the inadvisability of letting them go to
excessive fatness. Serven and Holbert also disfavor the overly fat brood
mares. At the Michigan Agricultural College the brood mare’s condition is
a little better than “good working flesh,” and according to Henderson,
their mares are “kept in a healthy condition, with lots of range.” In this
connection it may be said that Oaklawn Farm mares are not worked. At
the Longview Stock Farm, Iowa State College, Thompsondale Farm, and
the University of Missouri mares are so handled that they maintain
“working” condition. At the latter stud the condition of their mares is
thinner in winter time to be fattened some in summer.

At Cornell University working mares are given eight to nine pounds
of timothy hay in the morning and a like amount of the roughage in the
afternoon per head daily. The grain mixture consists of oats and hominy
in half-and-half combination. Of this five to six pounds are given each
feeding, morning, noon, and afternoon, and on Saturdays four pounds of
bran mash is substituted for the afternoon feeding. No grains are fed idle
mares on pasture. For feeding mares that are suckling foals a grain mix¬
ture composed of 30 per cent bran, 30 per cent oats, 30 per cent hominy
and 10 per cent oil meal is used. Three to six pounds of this are fed each
time in the morning, noon, and afternoon. For roughage timothy hay is
employed.

At the Chestnut Farms, working mares are fed hree times a day. Thus,
in the morning four quarts of oats and one quart of corn, four quarts of
oats at noon, and at night mixed bran, rolled oats and “chop” are supplied
to each mare during the day. No mention is made as to the kind and
amount of roughage given. Suckling mares are given alfalfa and clover
hay at the rate of fifteen pounds each feeding, one in the morning and
another in the afternoon. For grain feeds each mare gets a mixture of five
quarts of oats and four quarts of bran (dry) in the morning, and at night
bran, rolled oats, and “chop” are supplied in a damp form. Idle mares are
not grained at all, but when the weather is too “rough” and the grass is
short during the winter, eight ears of corn are given per head daily. Corn
and any oil containing feeds are discriminated against in feeding preg¬
nant mares.

At the Gregory Farm brood mares get no corn, but are fed from one to
one and a half gallons of rolled oats each, two times a day. No hay is pro¬
vided for, but, instead, their roughage allowance is made up of the grass
they get from the pasture, because those mares are turned out to grass

MANAGEMENT OF THE MARE

167

night and day, even in the winter season whenever it is possible to do so.
In winter grain feeds consist of one gallon of rolled oats and three or
four ears of corn per head for each feeding. They are fed twice daily.
During this season fodder for roughage is supplied at will.

At the Gossard Breeding Estates the system of feeding of brood mares
follows: Working mares are fed fourteen pounds of rolled oats or barley,
twelve pounds of brain and one pound of oil meal per head daily, divided
into three feedings, morning, noon and evening. As much hay as the
mares will clean up is supplied. Mares that are idle on the pasture get
cracked corn, rolled oats, and barley, in equal parts, four pounds in the
morning and the same amount in the afternoon. They get hay at will from
a rack. Mares suckling foals have available for them timothy and clover
hay placed in racks also. The grain feeds consist of one part of corn, three
parts of oats, two parts of barley, three parts of bran, and one part of
oil meal, all mixed together. Of this mixture, sixteen pounds is allotted
per head per day and given in two feedings, morning and afternoon. Mares
that are idle in winter get hay at will and for their concentrate a mix¬
ture of corn, oats and barley, in equal parts, is given, and twelve pounds
of the grain mixture is fed per head daily, morning and evening. Such
feeds as cottonseed meal and bad and moldy hay, and also too much corn
are disliked for feeding pregnant mares.

At the J. H. Serven and Son working mares are given hay of any kind,
but for grains corn and oats are used. These are fed three times a day.
Mares on pasture get other feeds than what they graze. Mares that
are nursing their foals and those being wintered through are given also
oats and corn, the same as are fed to working individuals, while for their
roughage they get hay of any kind, too, and besides, some corn fodder and
ensilage.

According to McMillan, working mares at the Lakewood Farm get three
feedings a day, corn being given twice daily and some oats, too, are fed.
The roughage feed consists of hay which is made accessible at all times.
Idle mares on pasture are grained in the morning and night, while mares
that are being wintered through and not working get all the roughage
they want and two grain feedings.

Feeding the brood mares at the Maplegrove Farm follows a simple pro¬
cedure: Pregnant mares are turned out to grass in summer and given
grain allowance of two feedings a day, morning and evening, at the rate
of one pail of a mixture of half oats and half bran per head each feeding.
When winter comes the same method of grain feeding is followed, but
for roughage hay is given at will. Non-pregnant mares subsist only
on grass and are not grained in summer, while in winter, although
they get all the hay they want, the amount of grain fed is reduced to
one-half.

The systems of feeding brood mares at the Maple Lawn Farm are as
follows: The working mares are fed one gallon of oats and one-half gallon
of corn morning, noon and afternoon, and hay of any kind is supplied in
the same hours and all that would be cleaned up. Idle mares on patsure
each get a gallon of oats in the morning and in the afternoon, and all the
hay they will clean up once a day, besides the grass on the pasture. Mares
suckling foals get all the hay they will clean up once a day, and a gallon
and a half of grain each feeding, one in the morning and another in the
afternoon. Once a day hay is fed to idle mares in winter, and for grain
one gallon of oats is fed in the morning, and the same amount in the after¬
noon. Dusty and moldy hay, and too much -corn, are chiefly disfavored in
feeding in-foal mares.

At the Oaklawn Farm mares that are not nursing foals get hay once
daily. As soon as cold weather comes about five ears of corn are supple¬
mented to the ordinary ration. It is to be understood, as has been pre-

168

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

viously referred to, that mares in this stud are not worked. Suckling
mothers get four quarts of oats and two of bran per head each feeding,
together with hay supplied at will, or pasture.

Dix says that mares at the Pentoila Stock Farm are fed three times a
day, morning, noon and night, when they are being worked, while idle
mares on pasture get but one morning feeding of grain per day. Mares
that are idling through the winter get but one grain feeding when on pas¬
ture and two when in the barn.

At the Rookwood Farm working mares get three feedings of corn at the
rate of ten ears per head each time, morning, noon and night, and for
roughage mixed clover and timothy hay are supplied at will. To idle
mares on pasture two grain feedings — in the morning and at night — are
provided for, at the rate of seven and a half ears of corn per head each
feeding. Grass forms the sole source of bulk. Mares that are nursing their
foals get a grain mixture of four quarts of oats and two of bran, of
which six quarts is fed per head at each feeding, three times a day. Mixed
hay is likewise supplied at will as in the case of working mares. During
the winter idle mares are fed on corn fodder, as much as three bundles
per head daily, in which an average of fifteen ears of corn are present.
This fodder is given once a day in the morning. In this farm no horses
are ever allowed to have access to silage.

At the Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm working mares are fed timothy
or clover hay for roughage and half and half of corn and oats, mixed, for
grain. Idle mares on pasture are grained morning and evening, and idle
mares in the winter season get their feeds the same hours. Moldy feeds
are looked upon with suspicion in feeding pregnant mares.

At the Santa Anita Rancho, working mares are usually fed three times
a day, idle mares on pasture once, usually in the morning, while idle
mares being wintered get very small grain allowance in the morning and
night feedings.

The feeding practices at the University of Wisconsin follow: Working
mares are grained with oats three times a day, five to seven pounds in
the morning, six to seven pounds at noon, and five to seven pounds in the
night time. For roughage legume hay is supplied twice, eight pounds in
the morning and the same quantity at night. Idle mares on pasture get
no other feed, except, perhaps, straw, than the grass available, but during
hot spells they are stabled in the daytime and given grain morning and
afternoon. During the winter season idle mares subsist on eight pounds
of mixed hay in the morning and the same amount of this hay is fed at
night. Four pounds of straw or second-quality hay is given for the noon
feeding. Oats alone supplied at the rate of five to seven pounds in the
morning and the same quantity in the night make up the grain allowance.
Suckling mares get a grain mixture of 80 per cent of oats and 20 per cent
of bran, fed eight pounds in the morning, six pounds at noon, and eight
pounds at night. Legume or mixed hay is given as roughage. Eight pounds
of this are fed in the morning, four pounds at noon and from eight to ten
pounds at night. In feeding pregnant mares care must be taken that the
feeds are not very low in protein content, moldy or spoiled.

Trowbridge states that the general method of feeding brood mares at
the University of Missouri is to feed (working mares three times a day,
and those that are idled through the winter two times a day, in the
morning and evening only. Idle mares on pasture get grain once a day in
the morning only. According to Butler, the mares at the Woodside Farm
are fed but hay and oats, whether they are working, suckling, or idle on
pastures. Nothing is mentioned regarding the kinds of feeds supplied in
winter. The working mares are fed three times a day and idle mares on
pasture receive two grain feedings a day. Idle mares in winter get only
two feedings also. No feeds at all are objected to in feeding pregnant
mares.

MANAGEMENT OP THE MARE

169

It is the practice at the University of Illinois to give working mares
three feedings. For roughage alfalfa makes one-half of the bulk and the
remainder may be oat straw, corn stover or timothy. Oats and bran are
fed in sufficient amounts as would keep the mares in moderate condition.
Suckling mares are given alfalfa hay, morning and night, and for grain
they receive oats, ear corn, and bran. Idle mares on pasture, if fed at all,
get two grain feedings a day, in the morning and at night, while mares
being idled in the winter get hay twice per day. Moldy feeds are re¬
jected for feeding in-foal mares.

During the summer time the mares at the Irvinedale Farm are fed
whole oats twice a day, as much as two and a half gallons each time. For
roughage, of course, they get grass on the pasture. When winter comes
twenty ears of corn are provided for daily, these being furnished twice a
day. Timothy and clover hay as roughage are supplied at will

In a general way, in the feeding practice at the Lefebure Sons’ Co., more
corn is given during the winter to brood mares and more oats in sum¬
mer. The standard feed consists of rolled oats mixed with chopped mixed
hay.

According to Moon, working brood mares at the Longview Stock Farm
are fed three times a day with four quarts of oats and two quarts of
corn each time, in the morning, noon and night feedings, and for rough-
age hay and straw are supplied in the morning, afternoon and night time.
Idle mares on pasture are given four quarts of corn and the same quan¬
tity of oats in the morning only, with roughage being supplied at will.
Mares that are nursing their foals get clover and timothy at will, and
alfalfa, the latter forming only half of the feed. The concentrate feeds
consist of six quarts of oats and trwo quarts of corn for each feeding,
given in the morning, noon, and at night. Hay and straw for coarse feeds
are supplied at will in the winter season to mares that are idle, and for
their grain feeds six quarts of oats and two quarts of corn are given at
each feeding, in the morning and at night time. Too much corn is con¬
sidered undesirable for pregnant mares.

The feeds given to brood mares at the Oakdale Farm are the same as the
stallions get, and during the winter recess they are run on pasture and
given a grain allowance of two gallons of oats each feeding per head three
times a day.

For working mares Ritchie uses oats, some corn and bran as grain
feeds, and straw, a little hay and corn fodder for roughage. These mares
are fed in the morning, noon and at night. Straw and corn fodder are
also employed in the feeding of idle mares on pasture, and for their con¬
centrates they get oats and corn, but not much of these. The allowance
for the suckling mare consists of oats, bran, oil meal and a little corn,
and timothy, straw, alfalfa and sweet clover for bulk, the latter being
supplied at will. Idle mares in the winter season are given straw, hay
and fodder, together with corn and oats for concentrates. The feeding of
too much corn or oil meal to pregnant mares is not favored.

The general feeding method followed at the Top Notch Stock Farm is
as follows: The brood mares are fed in the same way as the stallions, ex¬
cepting only that the amount is less. In winter they are kept in the barn
and are given practically the same feeds, although more bran. In winter
the mares also work less. During “fly time” the mares are turned out in
the pasture only at night.

At the Arngibbon Farm the mares being wintered get four quarts of
oats and a few ears of corn daily, and hay in the night feeding and sor¬
ghum in the morning for roughage. During the summer time the mares
are housed in the day time and turned in the pasture at night. They
get grain and sorghum in the morning and grain and hay at night. Suck¬
ling mares get more oats and are fed three times a day.

170

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

The feed allowance for brood mares at the Hawthorn Farm includes a
grain mixture of three parts of oats, three parts of barley and one part of
corn, all of which being crushed; and for roughage timothy, alfalfa or
clover hay is used. Suckling mares get the grain mixture, while mares
that are not nursing any foal and not worked subsist only on grass. Rye is
discriminated against in feeding in-foal mares.

At the Waddington Farm the following system of feeding is in vogue:
For grain feeds the working mares are fed four quarts of crushed oats
each time, in the morning, noon and evening, and besides three to four
ea*rs of corn are provided for daily. Mixed hay and alfalfa are used for
roughage. Idle mares that are wintered through get all the hay they will
clean up and three or four ears of corn at night. Neither grains nor
roughage are given idle mares on patsure or to mares suckling foals.

Holbert reports in the practices at the Holbert Farms of feeding the
brood mares, as follows: Idle mares are fed during winter on hay and
sorghum for roughage and corn and bran for concentrates. Carrots are
also provided for. Hay is supplied in the morning and at night, while
sorphum is given at will, at noon, afternoon and on the pasture at night.
Four ears of corn and three or four quarts of bran are fed in the morning
per head, and if the animals are thin the same amount is again furnished
at night. For summer feeding grass is all that idle mares get, but the
pasturage must be good, while mares with colts are fed once or twice
daily, depending on the kind of pasture growth, with corn and bran in
amounts as are indicated for idle mares in winter. Working mares get
hay in the morning and at night and sorghum at noon. These mares are
generally given four to five ears of corn, two to three quarts of oats, and
four to five quarts of bran each feeding per head three times a day, morn¬
ing, noon and night. Just a little less than the allowance for work mares
is fed to mares with foals during winter, but in addition the latter get
carrots. Mares that are fat and idle in winter subsist mostly on hay and
sorghum, which are supplied at will unless the animals are getting too
fat, and also a minimum of corn or oats and bran are fed to give variety
in the ration. Holbert considers all laxatives and feeds especially rich in
protein, such as linseed oil meal, etc., as undesirable for feeding preg¬
nant mares.

Working mares at the Iowa State College are fed three times a day,
morning, noon, and night, during which five quarts of whole oats and
two quarts of shelled corn are given per head at each feeding. Mixed hay
is fed only in the morning and at night, at the rate of six pounds and fif¬
teen pounds, respectively. Suckling mares are turned out in the pasture
at night, but in the daytime they are kept indoors and the same allow¬
ance of mixed hay which working mares get is provided for, fed also in
the morning and at night. For grains these mares get six quarts of oats
and two quarts of brain each feeding, morning, noon and night. Mares
that are idle through the winter are supplied with corn fodder twice a
day, in amounts as they will eat up clean, and for concentrate they get
twelve ears of corn per head at each feeding, also twice daily, the feeding
periods being in the morning and at night.

At the Michigan Agricultural College working mares are given crushed
oats in allowances of five quarts in the morning, the same at noon, and
one quart additional, or six quarts, at night. For roughage ten pounds of
clover hay is supplied in the morning, five pounds at noon and again ten
pounds at night. The last feeding of clover hay is given in the grass
paddock. Idle mares on pasture are given but one morning feeding, five
pounds of clover hay and five quarts of crushed oats per head daily.
Nursing dams are fed six pounds of crushed oats and bran each feeding,
morning and night, per head daily, and for roughage each gets ten
pounds of clover hay in the morning, and at night fifteen pounds. During

MANAGEMENT OF THE MARE

171

the winter season idle mares are fed three quarts of crushed oats in the
morning and six pounds of ear corn at night per head daily. Sorghum is
supplied at will and at night ten pounds of clover hay are provided for
each head. Neither silage nor too much corn is fed to pregnant mares.

At the Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm the feeds of the working mares
consist of crushed oats and corn, fed at the rate of fourteen pounds per
head each day, and for roughage cut alfalfa hay, sorphum, cane fodder
and timothy hay. These mares are fed three times a day. Mares that are
idle on the pasture each gets crushed oats and corn, about eight pounds a
day, divided into the morning and evening feedings. Alfalfa hay and
sorghum fodder are made available in racks. Mares the are suckling
foals are also fed twice a day. 'Each head gets fourteen pounds of crushed
oats mixed with cut alfalfa hay daily. When being wintered idle mares
subsist on crushed oats and a little corn fed twice daily, and on alfalfa
hay and sorghum fodder. Corn is not liked for feeding pregnant mares.

The grain mixture for working mares at the University of Minnesota
consists of thirty parts of corn, forty parts of oats, twenty parts of bran
and ten parts of linseed oil meal. For roughage timothy and clover hay
are fed. The feeding is made three times a day. Mares that are idle on
the pasture get only oats for grain once daily as a morning feed. A mix¬
ture of eighty parts of oats and twenty parts of bran forms the grain feed
of mares idling through the winter. This mixture is fed in the morning
and afternoon at the rate of five pounds per head each feeding. Roughage
consisting of timothy, clover or sometimes prairie hay is furnished, six
pounds in the morning and from twelve to fifteen pounds in the after¬
noon per head. Such roughages as are of poor quality and corn are not
looked with favor as feeds for pregnant mares.

The general practice of feeding brood mares at the Central Kentucky
Stud Farms, according to Hooper, consists of feeding the working mares
three times a day, while idle mares on pasture are grained but once, at
midday, provided that the pasture is good. Idle mares being wintered
receive corn stover, some clover hay and grass pasture, and besides, in
some cases, they are also fed grain. No other feeds than too much corn
are discriminated against in feeding pregnant mares.

Going into the practices described by a few of the leading Percheron
breeders in Sander and Dinsmore’s “A History of the Percheron Horse,”
on the feeding and management of brood mares, we find the following
quotations:

In Fletcher’s words, the “brood mares not in the harness should be
kept in pasture as much as possible at all seasons of the year. The ex¬
pectant mother should be given a well-ventilated, roomy boxstall and
permitted to run out as much as possible. Feed clean, fresh hay, ground
oats and bran, and such green feed as the season affords. Mares should
be kept in healthy condition, neither too fat nor too thin. As foaling time
approaches a night watch should be kept. During the period of suckling
the mare must be fed well on milk-producing feeds, such as dampened
ground oats or bran. Keep in the pasture as much as possible.”

Prichard’s views follow: “We prefer to keep our mares in harness al¬
most up to foaling time, working them carefully, slowly, and in modera¬
tion. The feed before foaling is on the laxative order— oats and bran, not
too much hay. We have fed our mares some silage for some time before
foaling and like it very much; about 12 pounds twice a day make a rea¬
sonable feed. The silage must be absolutely free from mold.”

The Robisons dwell comprehensively on the feeding and management
of brood mares as follows: “Producing matrons must not be allowed to
take on a load of fat. Thrifty, vigorous, muscular, big-boned mares are
easy feeders, and a kind-hearted attendant may get them so fat that they
will not breed regularly. It is best to have them come through the win-

172

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

ter in moderate flesh. Then during the spring on hluegrass pasture they
are fed corn generously, perhaps ten ears a day, so as to be gaining in
flesh at the time of breeding. By this plan they get in foal much more
promptly and surely. We never pasture timothy and clover in the spring,
for the mares do not breed so well on anything but hluegrass. Those that
have foals are left on the pasture all summer, and fed sufficient corn to
keep them in strong flesh, but not fat. Oats are not so good for this pur¬
pose, as they are apt to cause colic in horses getting early summer grass.
After August 1 we feed some oats. Mares that are not suckling foals are
given no grain when on pasture. They are, however, usually put in the
harness and worked through the season.

“After the foals are weaned in October, and the milk-flow is dried up,
the mares are turned on good pasture and fed five or six ears of corn and
three quarts of oats apiece twice a day for sixty days, to build up their
flesh in good shape for the winter. After that they get no grain until
spring. During the winter they run on hluegrass pasture and second-crop
timothy in the meadows, but are not allowed in stalk field. We are also
careful to keep them out of oats stubble fields late in the fall, for frosted
green oats cause abortion. Besides the grass from which they often paw
the snow, the mares have free access to stacks of timothy hay, with just
a sprlinkling of clover in it. Sometimes they are fed a little cane, but
never any corn fodder. Fodder with the ears on is a dangerous feed for
a band of mares, because at some time one of the mares is almost sure to
get too much corn and lose her foal as a result.

“The brood mares have no shelter in winter, other than the haystacks
for a windbreak. They will crowd in quite closely and quietly around the
stacks during a storm. When we have tried turning them to the sheds
they at once begin to fight for a monopoly of the shelter. In that case,
a big shed only protects the ‘boss’ mare anyway, and there is the danger
besides of injury from kicking. The mares that run out all the time do
not mind the cold. On some of the coldest nights they will be found far
out in the field, and when the snow is deep they are out early, pawing
away the snow to get at the grass beneath. The water tank for the mares
has a heater which is kept burning all winter, so that they cannot become
suddenly chilled by taking a big drink of icewater. We see to it that they
come up to drink twice a day. Drinking cold water is more likely to
cause a mare to lose her foal than exposure to a rain or snow storm, even
with extreme cold weather immediately afterward.”

9. The Foaling Mare and the New-Born

Abortion

The different systems of feeding in-foal mares a few days before and
after parturition, while tending to purport the same end, yet the details
hardly concur. Briefly stated, these may be given below:

NAME OF FARMS

Cornell University

Chestnut Farms

Gossard Breeding Estates

FEEDING SYSTEM BEFORE AND AFTER
FOALING

The grain feed is cut off just before
foaling and a hot bran mash is
given instead. After foaling she is
gradually put on ground feed.

If the mare has not been pastured
she is given very little hay and
light feeding of a grain mixture of
1 part of oats and 3 parts of bran.

“Feed a few good bran mashes and
let mare have plenty of exercise.”

MANAGEMENT OF THE MARE

173

J. H. Serven and Son

Leslie Farms

Maplegrove Farm

Maple Lawn Farm

Rookwood Farm

Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm

Santa Anita Rancho
University of Wisconsin

University of Missouri

Woodside Farm

White Oak Stock Farm
University of Illinois

Irvinedale Farm

“Feed the same kind of feed before
foaling as you are going to feed
after, but feed light after for a few
days.”

When about to foal, that is, 3 to 7
days before parturition, feed hay
only. Afterwards feed lightly on
oats and bran for 10 days. Subse¬
quently heavy feeding should be
instituted.

Before foaling the feeds consist of
bran and grass, a pail of bran mash
each feeding twice a day. Shortly
after delivery the mare gets two
bran mash feedings a day, and
afterwards she is fed oats and
bran, one-half pail of the mixture
being given the first time and the
amount is then increased gradually
on. The mare is kept indoors un¬
til the third day.

“The mares are fed very sparingly
before and after foaling of steamed
oats and bran.”

Ten days before foaling 6 quarts of a
mixture of 2 parts of bran and 4
parts of oats are given, together
with one-third pound of oilmeal
per head at each feeding. After
foaling the mare is not fed the
first day; afterwards she is given
full feed of oats and bran without
oilmeal.

“Bran is fed with oats if not on pas¬
ture.”

“Very light-laxative ration.”

The ration is not changed, but if the
mare is a heavy milker the feed is
reduced in quantity.

Light rations of bran and crushed
oats.

“Cut feed one-half three days before
and after foaling.”

“Cut feed about half.”

“We prefer to feed lightly on grains
a few days before and after foal¬
ing. Bowels should not be con¬
stipate din the least.”

In this stud the pregnant mare is
brought to the foaling boxstall 15
to 20 days before parturition. Dur¬
ing this period she is fed rolled oats
and clover hay, three times daily.
The ration amounts to 3 gallons of
oats and 30 pounds of clover hay.
After foaling she is given a like

174

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

amount of the same kinds of feeds
for ten days, after which the feed
is raised to 5 gallons a day per
head, feeding twice a day. Also,
just after foaling she gets luke¬
warm water and this is continued
for 3 or 4 days. Cold water should
never be given to mares just after
foaling. The mare is taken away
from the foaling boxstall to an¬
other barn 3 to 9 days after foaling.

“Less grain and mostly bran.”

“Oats and bran, 50-50, and a little
oil-meal.”

“No change at all unless the mare
shows a tendency to constipate;
then a bran mash is given.”

Three or four days before and a week
or so after feed light on sloppy
feed — little more bran than before.

“No corn within 2 months of foal¬
ing. No grain but bran and car¬
rots for 1 week before foaling. No
grain for a day after.”

The feeds are frequently reduced to
at least one-half the amount, and
only light feeds are given Bran,
oats and mixed hay compose the
ration.

Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm “Bran more or less for a few days

before due to foal.”

University of Minnesota All feeds are slightly reduced and

after foaling bran mash is given as
the first feed.

Central Kentucky Farms The mares are kept on pasture, and

if the grass is short some oats and
mixed hay are supplemented.

Holbert Farms “Cut down the feed — no rich feed, as

too much and too rich milk scours
colt.”

As to the care of the foaling mare, there are those which remark that a
constant watch is given to the foaling mare. This is true of such farms
as the Arngibbon Farm, Hawthorn Farm, Ritchie Stock Farm, Thomas
Kiddoo Farm, Iowa State College, Rookwood Farm, Longview Stock Farm,
Lefebure Sons’ Co., White Oak Stock Farm, Oakdale Farm, Selma Farm,
University of Missouri, University of Illinois, and Michigan Agricultural
College. According to Truman, it is the practice at the Truman’s Pioneer
Stud Farm to put a man in -charge in a day or two before foaling, keeping
his eye on the mare at all times. At the Wisconsin University, University
of Missouri, Purdue University, Waddington Farm, Central Kentucky
Farms, Woodside Farm, Cornell University, and Hayfield Farm help is
generally indicated in case it is imperative. From the Michigan Agricul¬
tural College comes the suggestion that mares be “watched sufficiently to
see that delivery is quickly made,” and at the Santa Anita Rancho it is
pointed out that no help should be given unless the difficulty could be
discerned by close observation. At the Gossard Breeding Estates it is

Longview Stock Farm
Ritchie Stock Farm

Waddington Farm

Iowa State College

Michigan Agricultural College

Purdue University

MANAGEMENT OF THE MARE

175

believed that the mare should rather be left alone if best results are ex¬
pected, provided that other conditions are normal; otherwise the watch¬
man may lend his aid whenever necessary. At the Minnesota University
no help is instituted unless the mare is exhibiting abnormal delivery,
while at the Lefebure Sons’ Co. it is indicated that foaling mares should
get the aid of caretakers if strained, which is, however, of seldom occur¬
rence, and Peterson claims that help should also be extended when the
mare gets cast in the stall, or if in any way she needs any. Henderson ad¬
vises to keep the mare warm and quiet while foaling. According to Serven,
it is the practice at the J. H. Serven and Son to help the mare deliver the
foal, while Holbert says: “Be with her and help deliver colt if necessary
and break sack over head, cut and disinfect navel when pulse stops.”

Fifteen farms answer negatively to the question, “If any drugs are ad¬
ministered before foaling, give the names,” and only the University of
Illinois reports that sometimes Epsom or Glauber’s salt is given to mares
before foaling.

Nine farms — the Waddington Farm, Thos. Kiddoo Farm, Woodside
Farm, Arngibbon Farm, Selma Farm, Maple Larwn Farm, Oakdale Farm,
Lefebure Sons’ Co., and Oaklawn Farm report that abortion does not occur
in their herds. While a number of farms give varying percentages of
abortion as well as various causes of the malady. These farms are indi¬
cated in the following:

FARMS

PERCENTAGE OF ABORTION AND CAUSES

Cornell University
Chestnut Farms

Very few.

In 1917 it is claimed that after re¬
turning from the International
there were 9 cases of abortion in 6
days. The cause was pink eye, dis¬
temper or the so-called stock yards
fever. Since then, however, no
more were lost, inasmuch as no
pregnant mares were afterwards
shipped out to Chicago. Influenza
vaccine is claimed to cause abor¬
tion.

Gossard Breeding Estates

2%; caused by rough usage, careless
teamsters, fighting mares in the
herd and feeds that are unfit for
pregnant mares, as has been re¬
ferred to already.

Santa Anita Rancho

Approximately 5%; caused by in¬
jury, badly cured feed or infection.

University of Wisconsin
University of Missouri
White Oak Stock Farm
University of Illinois
Longview Stock Farm
Ritchie Stock Farm
Hawthorn Farm
Holbert Farms

Some; cause unknown.
5%; by bad handling.
Caused by accidents.

2 cases in 10 years; cause unknown.

2%; caused by twin fecudation.
1%; unknown cause.

1 or 2 annually.

From 3 to 10%; caused by accidents,
or of unknown cause.

Iowa State College

One time 11 cases; due probably to
feeding of cane.

176

PUKE BRED DRAFT HORSES

FARMS

PERCENTAGE OF ABORTION AND CAUSES

Michigan Agricultural College
Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm

Not over 2%; usually caused by care¬
less driving when mare is working.

“Seldom one occurs.”

University of Minnesota About 20%; cause unknown.

Central Kentucky Farms 10%; contagious.

The care and handling of the foaling mare as set forth by some of the
leading Percheron breeders are reproduced in the following paragraphs
from quoted statements by Sander and Dinsmore in their “A History of
the Percheron Horse.”

Prichard’s views on this subject follows: “We prefer to keep our mares
in harness almost up to foaling time, working them carefully, slowly, and
in moderation. The feed before foaling is on the laxative order — oats and
bran, not too much hay. We have fed our mares some silage for some
time before foaling and like it very much; about twelve pounds twice a
day make a reasonable feed. The silage must be absolutely free from mold.

“When the mare foals, if we are present and the afterbirth is separated
from the navel, we disinfect the navel at once with a good disinfecting
powder and repeat the treatment until the cord is dried up. We give the
mare tepid water to drink, a little at a time for three or four hours until
her thirst is quenched. One should be sure that the foal sucks within a
reasonable time. Give it a chance to nurse without assistance if possible.
Do not be deceived by its nosing around the mare’s udder; be sure that
it is nursing. We always give a foal about an ounce of castor oil before it
sucks, if we see it in time. This assists in regulating the bowels. The foal
should be watched for the first three days quite closely to see that the
bowels are working properly. Make sure that the mare cleans in a couple
of hours after foaling. One can usually remove the after-birth by taking a
round stick and wrapping the point of the afterbirth around it and wind¬
ing it up and out of the mare slowly. Examine the after-birth carefully
to see that it is whole and complete. If fragments are left, infection will
follow and the mare may be lost. Feed her moderately for a couple of
weeks, until the foal is old enough to take the milk freely.”

According to White, “About one week before foaling the mare’s feed
should be oats and bran, largely bran, so that her bowels may be in good
condition. If one is sure that the foal will receive proper attention, espe¬
cially the navel, the mare may be put to work within two weeks after
foaling; otherwise, I prefer to have her remain idle until the navel has
healed. On my farm the mares carrying foals are not worked, but this is
because of my inability to secure reliable labor. When they are suckling I
feed my mares oats and bran and mixed hay, half timothy and half clover
or alfalfa. When flies are bad the mare and foal have a boxstall during
the day and are turned out at night.”

Singmaster makes recommendations on the feeding and handling of
the mare, both before and after foaling, thus: “Thirty days before the
foaling date the mare should be fed on bran mash and clean, sweet hay,
with a light ration of oats. Two days before foaling she should be placed
in a thoroughly cleansed and disinfected boxstall, not less than 12 by 12
feet. A thick bedding of clean, bright straw is to be placed for her. If
this is looked after one need use only a drying powder on the navel. It is
the filthy condition that is usually responsible for the deaths that an¬
nually occur from navel diseases.”

McLaughlin points out that “cleanliness and antiseptic conditions are
essential at foaling time. If the mare’s bowels are not sufficiently loose
from the feed and grass, Epsom salts should be given to make them so.
The mare should have a thoroughly clean box in which to foal. If the
season and conditions are right, the pasture is just as good or better.
The navel cord should be immediately treated with iodine or something

MANAGEMENT OF THE MARE

177

similar in order to prevent infection. Just so soon as the -colt can eat it
should be fed all that it can handle in addition to his mother’s milk. The
dam should be fed grain, in addition to the pasture, in order to increase
the flow of milk.”

Corsa writes extensively on the handling of the foaling mare and the
new-born: “If one wants to make some preparation for the early foals,
it is all very simple and inexpensive. A small building containing two
boxstalls, each 18 by 20 feet, separated by a space 6 feet wide, serves every
purpose. The south half end of the space may be enclosed to make a very
comfortable place for a man to wait for the expected newcomer. The
building should face south, and entirely across the front should run a
strip of 4 or 6-pane window sash, so that every bright hour may bathe the
stalls in sunshine. This simple structure should be placed a short dis¬
tance from other buildings and away from other horses. Adjoining it
should be provided a nice lot, where the mother and her baby may enjoy
themselves free from the danger and annoyance of other horses.

“But whenever and wherever the foal comes, when the mare lies down
it must be somebody’s business to be on the spot ready to help the mare
and take care of the foal. Inexperienced men, either through excitement
or through ignorance, too often unduly hasten the coming of the foal.
This is bad for the mare and often fatal for the foal. The rope is fre¬
quently called into use too soon, and more often is used too severely and
without judgment. Give the mare a little time; nature will assist power¬
fully if left to herself.

“The navel cord of the foal should be left untied. Paint at once with
iodine and completely cover with some drying powder. The powder
should be applied repeatedly until the cord has entirely dried up and
healed. In aggravated cases give the iodine treatment once or twice a day,
spraying the interior of the cord if the trouble is extreme, and apply the
powder three or four times a day. Beware of the little pus pockets. As a
further precaution against navel-ill, give the first bacterin treatment in 24
hours; repeat in six days and again when the foal is about a month old.
Fortunately for men remote from a veterinarian, this treatment does not
require professional services. Anyone with ordinary horse experience can
do the work.

“As soon as the foal is able to stand, it should be given an injection of
warm castor oil or warm, soapy water, preferably castor oil. This should
be repeated, if necessary, until the caretaker is satisfied that all the little
hard lumps have been expelled. Many foals are lost because the caretaker
is too quickly satisfied with the results of one injection.”

The method of feeding and handling the foaling mare, her previous and
after care, in the manner described by the Robinsons follow: “In the
spring the mares that are soon to foal are kept in pastures near the barn.
At night those that are soon to foal are put in a little pasture near the
house, and someone goes to look at them about four times during the
night, or even every hour in some cases. This attention is absolutely nec¬
essary, if one would avoid the frequent loss of foals and sometimes the
loss of a valuable mare. Whenever help is needed it is needed at once. If
the afterbirth does not all come away naturally within a day, the uterus is
flushed full of warm, antiseptic water and the membrane removed care¬
fully by hand. The mare is fed lightly at first after foaling. She is not
given much grain for the first two weeks. If she is fed heavily there is
too copious a flow of milk, and the foal is likely to develop digestive dis¬
orders, and may die. Mixed timothy and clover hay is about all that is
needed at first.”

The Hodgsons, in dwelling on the management of the foaling dam,
write: “Under conditions prevailing in our latitude, it is possible for our
mares to foal out on pasture after April 15, and they do foal on pasture in
the great majority of cases. A good bluegrass pasture, well exposed to

178

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

the sun, is the safest place we have found in which to have a mare drop
her offspring. We let the mare run out day and night, unless a bad storm
comes up, in which case we put her in a boxstall if she is near foaling. In
such case we take particular pains to see that the stall is thoroughly
cleaned and disinfected with one of the coaltar dips. We then put in
some clean straw and sprinkle more disinfectant over this. Our plan of
having the mares foal on pasture when it is possible, and to put them in
thoroughly cleaned, well-disinfected stalls in the few instances when it is
necessary to have them foal inside, has enabled us to reduce the loss
through navel-ill to a minimum.

“We keep careful records of the breeding date of our mares. We know
when they are about to foal, and from long experience we have learned to
tell quite accurately about when they are to drop foals. We make it a
rule to be with the mare when she foals, whether in the pasture or in the
barn, either night or day, for if a mare does not foal safely within thirty
minutes from the time she starts, intelligent help must be given.”

Ill MANAGEMENT OF THE FOAL

1. The Suckling Foal

At the Ritchie Stock Farm, Selma Farm, Cornell University, Hayfield
Farm, Holbert Farms, and White Oak Stock Farm the nursing foals get
grain as soon as they nibble on it. Other farms reporting differ in each
individual case as to the age when the suckling foals are fed grain. From
the Gossard Breeding Estates comes the statement that nursing colts are
fed on grain as early as 7 days old, while at the Waddington Farm it is
claimed that the first grain feed provided for their colts is given
a month before weaning time. According to Cooley the nursing
foals at the Purdue University get their first grain when only 2 to 3 weeks
old; at the Pentoila Stock Farm, when 4 to 6 weeks old; at the University
of Missouri, as 30-day-olds; at the Michigan Agricultural College, at the
age of 3 to 4 weeks; at the Minnesota University when 6 to 8 weeks old;
at the Maple Lawn Farm, as 3-weeks-old; at the Central Kentucky Farms,
Woodside Farm, and Lefebure Sons’ Co., when a month old; at the Santa
Anita Rancho, at the age of 2 to 4 months; at the Raboin Pioneer Home¬
stead Farm, Iowa State College, Rookwood Farm, and Maplegrove Farm,
when 2 months old; at the Wisconsin University and J. H. Serven & Son,
when 2 to 3 months of age; at the Lakewood Farm, as 3-month-olds; at the
Illinois University, when 3 to 4 months old; and at the Longview Stock
Farm, at the age of 3 to 6 months.

Eighteen breeding establishments report on feeding their suckling foals
all the grain they will eat. These include the Maplegrove Farm, Maple
Lawn Farm, Woodside Farm, Holbert Farms, Minnesota University, Pen¬
toila Stock Farm, University of Missouri, Michigan Agricultural College,
Waddington Farm, Lakewood Farm, White Oak Stock Farm, Cornell Uni¬
versity, Ritchie Stock Farm, Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm, Hawthorn
Farm, Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm, Illinois University, and Long¬
view Stock Farm. In a specific way, reports from the Hayfield Farm and
Iowa State College state that their nursing foals are fed all the grain they
will eat up two times daily, and likewise at the Chestnut Farms they get
all they will eat three times a day. At the Selma Farm nursing foals are
also fed grain three times daily. At the Santa Anita Rancho the practice
is to furnish grain only in the morning and at night. According to Hooper,
at the Central Kentucky Farms, nursing colts receive their grain feed in
creeps and sometimes on the pasture, but more frequently in the former.
They get one pint of grain at first. At times they may be fed in boxes in
the mother’s stalls. Foals at the Thos. Kiddoo Farm also feed in creeps.
At the Oakdale Farm the suckling foals get the same feed as the mare
three times a day all that they will clean up in an hour. Similarly, at the
Wisconsin University the suckling colts are fed the same time and as
often as the mother, and so, too, at the Arngibbon Farm they eat grain
with their dams. At the Gossard Breeding Estates the suckling colts are
fed also at the same time as their dams in the feed manger, but they are
separated by tying the mare. At Purdue University the nursing colts get
from one to three grain feedings a day.

At the Gossard Breeding Estates, Longview Stock Farm, Lakewood
Farm, Hawthorn Farm, Lefebure Sons’ Co., Michigan Agricultural Col¬
lege, Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm, Illinois University, and Hayfield Farm,
nine breeding establishments in all, the nursing colts are fed on oats as
the sole grain feed. At the Hawthorn Farm and Lefebure Sons’ Co., re¬
ports specify that the oats fed are rolled and at the Truman’s Pioneer
Stud Farm, Illinois University, and Hayfield Farm the oats are fed in a

180 PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

crushed form. Michigan Agricultural College mentions of Ceding the
oats whole. In ten farms— the Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm Maple-
grove Farm, Iowa State College, Purdue University, Pentoila Stock Farm,
Waddington Farm, Oaklawn Farm, Woodside Farm, Maple Lawn Farm,
and Santa Anita Rancho— oats and bran form the grain mixture given to
suckling colts. Others responding give other combinations of gram leeas.
Several of the farms reporting on the different proportions and nature of
components used in the grain combinations employed for feeding tne

suckling colts are:

farms

Cornell University

Chestnut Farms
J. H. Serven and Son

Maplegrove Farm

Maple Lawn Farm

Pentoila Stock Farm

Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm

Santa Anita Rancho

University of Wisconsin
White Oak Stock Farm
Ritchie Stock Farm
Waddington Farm

Thos. Kiddoo Farm
Holbert Farms
Iowa State College
Purdue University
University of Minnesota

GRAIN MIXTURE

3 parts ground oats, 3 parts hominy,
3 parts bran and 1 part oil meal.
After they get started eating also
whole oats.

Oats, ground barley and oil meal.

“All the oats they will eat and a lit¬
tle corn.”

Equal parts of oats and bran.

Oats and bran, half and half.

Oats two-thirds, bran one-third.

Oats and a little or Vz of bran.

Usually oats (rolled) and bran
(flake).

4 parts oats, 1 part bran, 1 part corn.

Bran, oats, alfalfa meal and corn.

Oats, bran and oil meal.

Equal parts of crushed oats and
bran.

Oats, a little corn and bran.

Bran, ground oats, oil meal.

2 parts of whole oats, 1 part of bran.

Oats and bran, half and half.

20 parts corn, 50 parts oats, 20 parts
bran, and 10 parts oil meal.

2. The Orphan Foal

Thirteen stud farms respond on the raising of orphan foals, giving a
brief account of the procedure. Among these are the following:

The Chestnut Farms recommend the use of cow’s milk diluted with
water, the whole sweetened with a little sugar. After three weeks of age
the foals may be allowed to get as much as they will consume. But it is
claimed that hand-raised orphans do not attain the same development as
those that get their mother’s milk.

At the Gregory Farm, the orphan foal is raised on cow’s milk and oat¬
meal at first, and later, when capable of eating grains, rolled oats are fed
two times a day, all that they will clean up, together with hay or pasture
for roughage.

At the Lakewood Farm, the orphan foal is fed on cow’s milk with su¬
gar, by means of the bottle. For his grain feed he gets bran, a little oil
meal and oats.

From the University of Wisconsin comes the “prescription” that to raise
the orphan foal the latter is placed in a foaling box stall, where he is
taught to drink out of a bucket just as a calf. He is fed five or six times

MANAGEMENT OP THE FOAL 181

in twenty-four hours, and if young, he is started on low-testing milk, lime
water and sugar.

The Lefebure Sons’ Co. claim that orphan foal handling does not lead
to much success unless th-e youngster is already a month old, and thence
he should be fed cow’s milk and oats, together with hay pasture for rough-
age.

McLay of the Arngibbon Farm states that orphan foal on this farm
gets cow’s milk three times a day, and oats, bran and hay.

Wood of the Hawthorn Farm gives account of the system of orphan foal
handling pursued in this stud: The foal is started on a teacupful of mo¬
lasses every feeding, together with cow’s milk; this at the rate of six
quarts a day three times a day. Three quarts of oats are supplied three
times a day after the milk has been fed, and mixed hay is given for bulk
twice a day.

At the Thompsondale Farm orphan foal management follows: Cow’s
milk diluted with 50% of water is taken. To this 5% of granulated sugar
is added and the solution is made blood warm. At the beginning this is
given every two hours and afterwards the intervals between feedings are
lengthened. As soon as the foals will “nose on” grains they are given oats
and bran.

Holbert describes the practice of feeding orphan foals at the Holbert
Farms, and says: Bran and oats and a little of oil meal are provided for
three times a day, besides cow’s milk, which is supplied twice or three
times daily.

At the Iowa State College orphan foals are started on cow’s milk with
a little sugar or molasses, the amount to be increased as the colt grows
older.

The Michigan Agricultural College directs that the orphan foal should
be taught to drink from basins five times daily at first, giving him cow’s
milk diluted with one-half of water and sweetened.

According to Truman, to bring up an orphan foal at the Truman’s Pio¬
neer Stud Farm, he is generally nursed by another mare, but in the event
that this is not possible, he is raised on bottle at first, and then, later,
taught to drink from the pail, giving him milk and oatmeal, and, later on,
crushed oats.

Peters sets forth the method employed in raising successfully a good,
healthy orphan colt at the University of Minnesota: For the first month’s
allowance cow’s milk with sugar and lime water was used. This was fed
during the first two weeks six times a day, and for the remainder of the
time the feeding was made four times a day. At the end of the month the
colt began drinking from the pail and the use of sugar and lime water
was discontinued then. At this time clear cow’s milk, together with
grain, formed the ration, and hay was afterwards furnished as soon as
the colt would eat it.

In the raising of orphan foals, Stericker’s recommendation is also
brought here. He advocates the feeding of cow’s milk, to which a little
sugar and boiled oil meal have been added. The feed is given a little at
a time.

From the Gossard Breeding Estates comes the word that “very seldom
one is raised unless you can place them onto another dam,” and Haxton
of Hayfield Farm says, “Try to get them foster mothers or bring them up
by hand.” Hooper, in speaking for the Central Kentucky Farms, states that
orphan foal management in, these studs rests on the use of cow’s milk.
The Oaklawn Farm makes the same report. At Cornell University modi¬
fied cow’s milk is employed, while Kiddoo mentions cow’s milk and grain
as the feeds used in raising their orphan foals.

IV

MANAGEMENT OF THE WEANLINGS

1. Weaning Age and Method

Twenty-one farms in all, the majority number of those that report on
the (weaning of the foal, favor the practice of separating the foal from the
mother as early as six months of age. Among these are the Waddington
Farm, Rookwood Farm, Iowa State College, Thos. Kiddoo Farm, Raboin
Pioneer Homestead Farm, Longview Stock Farm, White Oak Stock Farm,
Ritchie Stock Farm, Arngibbon Farm, Woodside Farm, Pentoila Stock
Farm, University of Illinois, Selma Farm, Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm,
Oakdale Farm, Lakewood Farm, Missouri University, Leslie Farms, Ma-
plegrove Farm, Gossard Breeding Estates, and Chestnut Farms. At the
Irvinedale Farm and the University of Minnesota, the colt is weaned
even as early as five months of age, while at Purdue University, Michigan
Agricultural College, and Top Notch Farm, these three establishments
are all of the opinion to take away the foals from their dams at from six
to eight months old. Both the Santa Anita Rancho and Gregory Farm
place the weaning age when 5 to 6 months. The earliest weaning age is
shown by Hayfield Farm’s report giving it as early as from 3 to 6 months.
At the Lefebure Sons’ Co., colts are weaned at from 4 to 5 months of age;
at the Cornell University, from 4 to 6 months; at the Wisconsin Univer¬
sity, from 4Mj to 6 months; at the Holbert Farms, at about 6 months, or
sometimes longer; at the J. H. Serven & Son, from 6 to 8 months; at the
Maple Lawn Farm, at 7 months; while Hooper speaks of the weaning
period in Central Kentucky Farms being carried on in the month of Sep¬
tember.

While the general procedure of weaning the foal is much the same in a
number of instances, the survey bears out that the details do not super¬
pose each other in the different farms responding. The systems in vogue
are exemplified in the discussion below:

Chestnut Farms. “Foal taken away and mother isolated for a short
time.”

J. H. Serven and Son. “Take colts away from mare one day on start,
then let suck, and make it a little longer each time until the mare is dry,
so not to spoil bag.”

Leslie Farms. When the foal is being weaned he is tied near the mother
at the boxstall and fed separately. He is not allowed to suckle and the
mare is milked by hand twice daily. By the time the mare is dry the
colt knows enough to stand tied, and when the mare is taken to water
the colt is led also by the side. In about a week after the mare is dry the
two are separated from each other.

Maple Lawn Stock Farm. “Gradually getting the foal accustomed to
be away from the mare.”

Pentoila Stock Farm. The mare is separated from the foal every 12
hours, continuing this for the first week, and then, afterwards, they never
see each other any longer.

Rookwood Farm. The dam is removed from the foal once and for all,
and twice or three times she is milked every other day.

Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm. “We run our weanlings in a large,
open shed, and keep them through the first winter this way.”

Santa Anita Rancho. “After becoming accustomed to grain ration,
colts are liberally fed in large paddock, quite away from hearing of
mares.”

MANAGEMENT OF THE WEANLINGS

183

University of Wisconsin. “Foal is separated from dam and kept inside
in a boxstall for three or four days, then turned out in a paddock.”

University of Missouri. “Take them away from mares. Keep mare’s
udder in good shape.”

Woodside Farm. “Remove the mare and milk the mare intermit¬
tently.”

University of Illinois. Foals are weaned when they are eating well.
The mares are fed lightly before and after wreaning. When the two are
separated they are removed in such a place so as to be out of sight and
hearing to each other.

Lefebure Sons’ Co. The foals, a couple of them together, are taken
away from their dams. The process is made gradual.

Longview Stock Farm. Foals that are being weaned are shut in pad-
docks, with oats, hay and water.

Ritchie Stock Farm. “I let them suck the mare once a day for a week.”

Waddington Farm. Simply separate them so that they cannot see nor
hear each other.”

Thos. Kiddoo Farm. “If they are eating, usually mares wean them
alone.”

Holbert Farms. “First half day away from mare, gradually longer —
feed mare no grain. Milk her as necessary until dry.”

Iowa State College. The mare is taken off altogether and the foals are
placed together in a roomy place. It is pointed out that to keep the mare
away from the hearing of the foal is the best practice.

Michigan Agricultural College. “Mares are moved to another barn,
where they do not see or hear colts, and mares always worked.”

Purdue University. The colt is taught to eat before he is weaned, and
then, when being separated, he is permitted to nurse the mare occasion¬
ally.

Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm. “Simply taken from the mares, foals
left in pasture and mares put in stalls.”

Central Kentucky Farms. Here the system is simple. The mares are
separated from their foals, but before the time comes the foals should have
previously been trained to eat grain. The same holds true of the systems
followed at the Lakewood Farm and Hayfield Farm.

At the Arngibbon Farm, Cornell University and University of Minne¬
sota the foals are simply taken away from the dams, and the same is true
at the Irvinedale Farm and Gossard Breeding Estates, but in the latter
two the dams are dried up.

2. Feeding and Handling

The systems of feeding the grains to the weanlings may be considered
under two captions, one in which the feeding is made at stated periods and
the other at will. The breeding establishmnets following the system of
keeping the grains in front of the colts at all times, or at will, are the
Lakewood Farm, Thos. Kiddoo Farm, Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm, Ir¬
vinedale Farm, University of Minnesota, Longview Stock Farm, and
Chestnut Farms. Of those adopting the method of feeding at stated
periods are the Waddington Farm, Michigan Agricultural College, Pen-
toila Stock Farm, Michigan Agricultural College, Pentoila Stock Farm, J.
H. Serven & Son, Santa Anita Rancho, and University of Missouri, six in
all, in which the grains are given twice daily; the Arngibbon Farm, Wis¬
consin University, University of Illinois, Selma Farm, Holbert Farms,
Rookwood Farm, Iowa State College, Cornell University, and Maple Lawn
Farm, or nine establishments, in which the feeding is made three times
daily; and at the Hayfield Farm and Ritchie Stock Farm twice daily. At
the Purdue University the weanlings get their grains also at regular
periods, two or three times daily.

Five breeding establishments report on feeding the weanlings oats, two
of which— the Lefebure Sons’ Co., and Irvinedale Farm — use the rolled

184

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

oats, the Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm employs the crushed form, while
two others — the Oakdale Farm and Longview Stock Farm — feed oats, but
no mention is made of the form in which the grains are prepared. Ster-
icker recommends crushed oats, while Hooper states that in Central
Kentucky Farms the weanlings get oats also.

Nine stud farms favor the use of oats and bran grain combination for
weanling feeding, but the proportions in which these components are
present vary. At the Pentoila Stock Farm, the grain mixture consists of
two-thirds of oats and one-third of bran, and at the Purdue University the
proportions are the same, but in this case the report emphasizes that the
figures are based on weight. At the Waddington Farm two quarts of
crushed oats are mixed with one quart of bran; at the Maple Lawn Farm,
the combination is made half of oats and half of bran; and at the Uni¬
versity of Illinois the mixture is made up of crushed oats, together with
20% bran. The weanlings at the Selma Farm get crushed oats and bran
combination, all they will clean up, three times a day; at the Arngibbon
Farm, they get three quarts of the same mixture per head each feeding
three times daily; and the same grain mixture is also furnished to wean¬
lings at the Hawthorn Farm. At the Iowa State College the weanlings
get all they will eat of a mixture of four parts of oats and two parts of
bran.

At the Leslie Farms the weanlings, during the summer, get oats about
what they will clean up two times a day, and grass. They consume at the
rate of two bushels for every six yearlings a day. When pasture is dry
bran is supplemented. The six yearlings then would eat as much as one
and one-half bushels of oats and one and one-half bushels of bran daily.

At the Maplegrove Farm, a grain mixture of one-half of oats and one-
half of bran is kept before the colts just after weaning until they are year¬
lings. When past a year the colts get three ears of corn in the morning
and the same amount in the afternoon, per head, and besides one-half of
a pail of grain mixture of oats and bran in fifty-fifty combination is fed
to each head each feeding.

Several stud farms use other grain combinations for feeding the wean¬
lings: At the J. H. Serven and Son, the weanlings are fed on oats and
corn all they will clean up; at the Iowa State College, the grain mixture
consists of three quarts of oats and one quart of bran, to which a handful
of oilmeal is added; at the Michigan Agricultural College, the grain is
composed of three pounds of crushed oats and one or two ears of corn; at
the Ritchie Stock Farm, the mixture composed of two parts of oats, one
part of bran and a handful of oilmeal, with some molasses poured on the
mixture; the same grain feeds as when nursing is employed at the Uni¬
versity of Minnesota, viz.: corn, 20 parts; oats, 50 parts; bran, 20 parts;
oilmeal, 10 parts. Holbert Farms also uses corn, oats (ground), bran and
oilmeal, one-third of each by weight, in their grain mixture, besides mo¬
lasses which is added later; at the Wisconsin University, the mixture in¬
cludes four parts of oats, one part of bran, and one part of cracked corn,
to which cut clover or alfalfa hay is mixed; at the Gossard Breeding Es¬
tates, two parts of oats and one part of corn make up the grain mixture,
to be fed all they will clean up; Oaklawn Farm uses 2 parts of rolled oats,
1 part of bran, and 1 part of cottonseed; at the Cornell University each
weanling gets 2 pounds of a grain mixture composed of 3 parts ground
oats, 3 parts hominy, 3 parts bran, 1 part oil meal, twice a day, besides 2
pounds of whole oats once a day; and at the University of Missouri the
weanlings are fed twice a day with a grain mixture consisting of 2 parts
corn, 2 parts oats, and 1 part bran, the mixture being fed all they will
eat or as much as 5 to 8 pounds a day.

Reviewing replies on the age of separating colts from fillies to prevent
mating, the survey shows that the range of variability in the practices
pursued extends from the low figure reported by the Top Notch Farm,
where separation is made at 3 or 4 months of age, to Maple Lawn Farm’s

MANAGEMENT OF THE WEANLINGS

185

figure of 2 years or sooner. Stericker recommends that colts be taken
away from the company of fillies when rising two years of age. Accord¬
ing to Hooper, in Central Kentucky Farms the colts are separated from
fillies in late summer; at the Cornell University the time is placed at 6
months of age, and at the Hayfield Farm a little later or at the end of 6
months. Four farms — the Longwood Farm, Thompsondale Farm, Selma
Farm, and Chestnut Farms give the separation age just after weaning.
At the Woodside Farm they are separated in January following foaling
time and at the Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm in the same winter that
they are foaled in spring. According to Cooley colts should be removed
from the fillies when they reach the age of 8 to 10 months, while at the
Michigan Agricultural College they are placed in a separate enclosure at
the age of 10 months. The separation age at the Wisconsin University
and Maplegrove Farm is at 10 to 12 months, and at the Irvinedale Farm
in the latter part of March or fore part of April, when the weanlings are
11 months old. Before they get to be a year old colts and fillies are
separated at the Oaklawn Farm and Arngibbon Farm. However, the rule
is to separate the colts from the fillies when they become yearlings,
as evidenced by 21 farms, viz.: the Gregory Farm, Holbert Farms, J. H.
Serven and; Son, Thos. Kiddoo Farm, Leslie Farms, Iowa State College,
University of Missouri, Lefebure Sons’ Co., Lakewood Farm, University of
Minnesota, Pentoila Stock Farm, University of Illinois, Gossard Breeding
Estates, White Oak Stock Farm, Oakdale Farm, Hawthorn Farm, Long¬
view Stock Farm, G. Andrews & Son, Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm,
Ritchie Stock Farm, and Waddington Farm.

Whether the weanlings should be mixed with mature horses or given
separate lots, an overwhelming number of stud farms, 26 altogether, all
agree in their practice: that the mature horses should be separated from
the weanlings. The same practice is followed by Central Kentucky Farms.
At the Hawthorn Farm even the weanlings themselves are kept separate,
according to the different ages, and at the Michigan Agricultural College
the 1 and 2-year-olds are placed together. Only at the Oakdale Farm
and Maple Lawn Farm are the weanlings mixed with the mature horses,
but at the latter stud they are kept separate at feeding time.

That foals should be trained to lead from birth is the advice of the Le¬
febure Sons’ Co., and, similarly, Good says this may be done when foals
are only a couple of days old. Hooper reports that in Central Kentucky
Farms training the foals to lead starts when they are only from 3 weeks
to 3 months of age. Hanmer advocates the starting date when 4 weeks
old. At the Chestnut Farms they are taught to lead at 2 months of age,
at the Arngibbon Farm at 2 or 3 months, at the Top Notch Farm and
Woodside Farm, at 3 or 4 months, at the Hawthorn Farm at 5 months,
at the Oaklawn Farm and Holbert Farms around 6 months, and at the
Irvinedale Farm at 12 to 15 months. It is during the first winter that
foals are started to lead in the University of Minnesota and Maple Lawn
Farm, while at the University of Missouri training is made while nurs¬
ing. Just before the colts are weaned they are taught to lead at the Wad¬
dington Farm, but at the Hayfield Farm and Rookwood Farm this is done
soon after weaning. The University of Illinois and Raboin Pioneer
Homestead Farm follow the system of training foals to lead before wean¬
ing age, while the majority of those reporting — the Selma Farm, Long-
wood Farm, Wisconsin University, Michigan Agricultural College, G. An¬
drews & Son, and Longview Sto-ck Farm — are inclined to institute the
training at weaning time. Stericker believes in the same way. Cornell
University starts their foals to lead as soon as possible before reaching a
year old. The training age at the Maplegrove Farm, Lakewood Farm,
and Pentoila Stock Farm comes when they are a-year-olds. At the Gos¬
sard Breeding Estates they make it a point to begin to lead their foals as
soon as they are strong enough to be haltered. At the Ritchie Stock Farm,
Gregory Farm, Leslie Farms, and Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm colts are

186

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

not trained unless they are to be taken to show, and at the latter stud
they are also subjected to the same ordeal if to be fitted for sale.

As to other training given to foals other than to lead, the Lefebures and
Thompson emphasizes the necessity of teaching them to mind the groom
at all times when being handled. Stericker brings out that foals should
also be taught to stand tied, and Sanborn points to the importance of
handling their feet. At the Michigan Agricultural College foals are also
accustomed to have their feet handled, and, besides, they are taught to
come to the door of the boxstall to be bridled. Good says that colts should
also be taught to lead at the walk and trot, and, furthermore, they should
be trained to stand. Henderson insists on a like procedure, and adds that
colts should also be taught kindness. Besides leading the foal Raboin
states that the groom should also be able “to handle their feet while
trimming and paring same.” At the Chestnut Farms other training which
foals get include the holding of the head to stand, walk, and trot, all to
be executed properly. According to Kiddoo, the foal should also be accus¬
tomed to grooming. Holbert says that foals need no other training unless
they are to be shown, and in this regard foals at the Rookwood Farm are
taught to pose if they are to be taken to show.

Seven stud farms — the Thompsondale Farm, Hayfield Farm, Raboin
Pioneer Homestead Farm, Oakdale Farm, Truman’s Pioneer Homestead
Farm, Pentoila Stock Farm, and Ritchie Stock Farm — start their fillies in
harness as 2-year-olds and the same is true of fillies in the Central Ken¬
tucky Farms. Edmonds, Serven and Trowbridge believe that this should
not be done until they are past 2 years old. White mentions that fillies
at the Selma Farm are not put to harness until they are 2% years of age
and at Purdue University at the age of 2Vz to 3 years. At Cornell Uni¬
versity and Lefebure Sons’ Co., fillies are harnessed for the first time at

2 to 3 years old. Stericker puts it at the same period. The greater num¬
ber of breeding establishments, among those reporting, bear out that at

3 years should be the age at which to commence the fillies on the harness.
This report comes from the Arngibbon Farm, Iowa State College, Thos.
Kiddoo Farm, Holbert Farms, Rookwood Farm, Longview Stock Farm,
G. Andrews & Son, Lakewood Farm, Santa Anita Rancho, Gossard Breed¬
ing Estates, White Oak Stock Farm, Oaklawn Farm, Maple Lawn Farm,
Irvinedale Farm, Woodside Farm, University of Minnesota, University of
Wisconsin, 18 stud farms in all. Pallister believes in extending the period
of harnessing the filly until she is 3 to 4 years old.

The clipping of a colt’s coat is nowhere practiced among the 28 stud
farms answering, and Hooper states that it is also not done at the Cen¬
tral Kentucky Farms. But at the Maple Lawn Farm the hair of show
colts is clipped once in summer.

The trimming of a colt’s feet is not a regular routine, but rather an occa¬
sional job which is attended whenever the condition of the hoof demands
it. This is the answer obtained from several stud farms, including the
Hayfield Farm, J. H. Serven & Son, Purdue University, University of Wis¬
consin, White Oak Stock Farm, Thompsondale Farm, University of Mis¬
souri, Truman’s Pioneer Farm, Cornell University, Ritchie Stock Farm,
Waddington Farm, and Maple Lawn Farm. At the Pentoila Stock Farm
and Central Kentucky Farms colt’s hoofs are also trimmed. At the Hol¬
bert Farms and Rookwood Farm, however, this practice is not followed,
Holbert stating that plenty of exercise wears them dorwn. Other farms
specify the intervals at which the hoofs of their colts are trimmed, and, in
some cases, the time at which hoof trimming commences is also men¬
tioned. These are indicated below:

farms

BEGINNING AND INTERVALS OF HOOF

TRIMMING

Chestnut Farms
Gossard Breeding Estates

Every 30 days.

3 or 4 times a year.

MANAGEMENT OF THE WEANLINGS

187

Lakewood Farm
Maplegrove Farm
Oaklawn Farm

Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm
Selma Farm
Santa Anita Rancho
Woodside Farm
University of Illinois
Irvinedale Farm

Lefebure Sons’ Co.

Longview Stock Farm
Oakdale Farm
Arngibbon Farm

Hawthorn Farm
Iowa State College
Michigan Agricultural College
University of Minnesota
According to Stericker

Twice a year.

Begins when a year old.

Begins when about 3 months old.
Monthly.

Monthly if needed.

Every 4 to 6 weeks.

Monthly.

Every 6 or 8 weeks.

Begins when 2 months old and then
every 2 months.

Begins when 6 months old and then
every 2 months.

Every 2 to 4 months.

Begins when 2 months of age.

Once in summer and once or twice in
winter.

Every two months.

Once a month.

Twice a year.

Every two months.

Begins at weaning time and then
every 30 to 60 days thereafter.

To cite again from Sander & Dinsmore’s quotations in their “A History
of the Percheron Horse,” the practices advocated or followed by a number
of leading breeders with regard to handling the sucklings and weanlings
are hereon presented in the following paragraphs:

On this subject Fletcher writes: “The stallion colts should be thor¬
oughly halter-broken at or before iweaning time. After taking the colt
from its mother, he should be placed in roomy, well-ventilated pens or
boxstalls that adjoin clean, well-drained yards or pastures, where he may
have plenty of exercise. These yards or pastures should be fenced, either
with boards or closely woven heavy wire of such weight as to discourage
any disposition to get out They should be located also on dry, well-
drained ground. The stable should be kept clean. The colt must have
sufficient feed to keep him in a healthy and growing condition, but not
too fat. It is a mistake to permit colts to go back after weaning time
through lack of feed. A colt stunted at this time will never recover his
lost ground.

“I believe a ration of ground oats and bran, with plenty of sweet hay,
the best for colts. After the first winter place them in a well-fenced pas¬
ture, with ample shed protection from bad weather. Do not locate this
pasture adjacent to one in which mares are kept. Have plenty of fresh
water always accessible and feed enough grain to keep the youngsters in
a healthy, growing condition.

“I should handle my colts in this manner, with proper winter protec¬
tion, until they are 2*4 years old, and then place them in roomy boxstalls
and feed them for market. Stallion colts kept in confinement and highly
fed easily become blemished. Through lack of exercise they do not develop
proper bone and muscle, and rarely reach their full size. They are also
inclined to bad dispositions.”

Prichard discusses this phase of horse management rather at length,
and says: “It goes without saying that a stallion foal should get a good
start in life while by the side of his mother. He should know how to eat
grain before weaning time, so that when weaned he will hardly miss his
mother’s milk. After weaning he should have a grass lot with feed and
water always before him and should be halter-broken and stabled at
night. Have oats, corn, bran and good hay, clover or some alfalfa, always
available. We aim to have grain before our weanlings so that they can
get it as they want it.

188

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

“When spring comes our yearling stallions are placed in a pasture by
themselves. They are fed grain three times a day and have good water
always available. If the grass is not plentiful enough, we give hay or
silage to supplement it. In other words, we give them plenty to eat and
the freedom of the pasture for exercise. When winter comes again the
yearlings are run in a 20-acre bluegrass pasture and fed sorghum, silage,
hay and grain in a roomy barn where they go in and out at will. The next
spring they are coming 2-year-olds. In March and April they are kept
off the pasture and yarded about the barn. When grass is good in May
they are turned on the pasture and grained three times daily. We had
twelve 2-year-olds running together last season. They get exercise, sun¬
shine and shade as they want it, and they grow and grow . . . Last
summer was dry and hot and the late pastures were bare, but we planted
some sweet corn which ripened early enough to cut. With that and our
silage the colts managed to squeeze through and those who see them seem
to think they look very well. At one time our 2-year-olds and yearlings
were running on sweet clover up to their knees, and liked it immensely.
We sowed sweet clover in oats last spring and it looks like a success.

“Our 2-year-olds have not been housed in a closed barn since the first
winter, and then only at night. A variety of feeds is essential — oats, corn,
bran, silage, timothy hay, sorghum, siweet clover, bluegrass, and alfalfa.”

In the opinion of White, “The stallions and fillies should be separated
when not more than 7 months old. This is before there is a possibility of
any of the fillies coming in heat and causing the stallions to fret and
worry. If a stallion is never allowed to get near enough to a mare in heat
to smell her, he will run in a pasture with a number of others nearly as
contented as the same number of geldings. These stallions should have
abundance of range.” He goes on to say, “I prefer a field about twice as
large as would be necessary to furnish them sufficient pasture, and I put
in the pasture a like number of cattle. When running in large pasture
the colts are able to take abundant exercise and will consume large
amounts of oats and bran, of which they should be given all they will
clean up nicely.

“For pasture I prefer bluegrass on limestone land, with running water
at hand. My colts run together in such a pasture until they are about 27
months old. The flies then compel me to stable .them during the day. I
find that when they are separated during the day they get more rough
when turned together at night than when allowed to remain together all
the time.

“When it is not practicable for small breeders to make ample arrange¬
ments for raising their colts, I would advise selling the stallion foals at
weaning time. I should like to see some man in every breeding commun¬
ity engaged solely in the purchase and development of these youngsters.”

“The feeding and care of the foals after weaning,” according to De-
Lancey, “is almost as important as the selection of the sire and dams.
The foals should be weaned at 5 months old, having had oats for four
months prior to weaning time. After weaning they should have the run
of a grass paddock, when flies are not bad, and be fed liberally on grain.
We have never been in favor of over-feeding either stallions or colts, but
there is little danger in giving too much grain the first year. After that
feed them liberally, but not all that they will eat. Many good colts have
been ruined by over-feeding. It is advisable to let from two to six stal¬
lions run together until 2V2 years old; then separate them.

“It is next to impossible to overfeed a colt running on grass. The feed
given them then will give best results, but when they are taken up greater
care should be used in selection of feeds. And always give plenty of ex¬
ercise. The word exercise should be strong in the mind of every breeder
of Percherons. Without it one grows a small-boned, soft-muscled, blem¬
ished colt.”

MANAGEMENT OP THE WEANLINGS

189

In the words of Dunham, “For proper development it is necessary that
the young stallions have pasture and space to run in. They should be well
fed and kept in growing condition. The great fault of our American
breeders is that they keep their stallion foals too much in the barn, where
they cannot possibly develop the bone and substance which is necessary to
make them first-class horses. Colts should run at large as much as possi¬
ble; the exercise, the grass and the extra feed they get make them grow
into desirable horses. The importance of exercise and grass cannot be
dwelt upon too much. It is lack of these which prevents so many of our
American-bred colts from developing into the kind of horse which they
should be.”

McLaughlin is here cited to say: “In developing the colts I would ad¬
vise feed, more feed, and still more feed, with oats, if possible; oats are
the great developer of hard, clean, flinty bone. If oats are not available,
feed corn, and plenty of it. For the first two years of its life a colt can¬
not be fed too much grain, as this induces early maturity, great size and
heavy bone.

“During the fall and winter after weaning the colt should be fed all the
grain he will eat, with enough succulent feed, such as bran, and clover or
alfalfa hay, to keep his bowels in good condition. When the colt is
turned out to pasture in the spring he should still be fed grain in order
to make him grow properly. I always prefer a hill pasture for yearlings,
as it induces great muscular development. The winter that the colts are
rising twos they should run in a paddock or field together, and should be
fed all the grain they will eat. The spring and summer when they are 2-
year-olds they should still run together in pasture, with plenty of grain;
the exercise that they take playing with each other adds greatly to their
development.

“The fall that they are 2-year-olds, when it becomes necessary to sep¬
arate them, they should be placed in boxes with paddocks, if possible, and
fed all they will eat. A few carrots do them a great deal of good at this
time.”

Corsa presents the system of colt management to be found at the Greg¬
ory Farm, thus: “Foals are inquisitive youngsters, and when only a few
days old, will begin nibbling around the box. From the time they are 2
weeks old, they should have their daily chance at the ‘wee bite,’ and as
they get older do not make the bites too ‘wee.’ Crushed oats and bran
make excellent feed. There may be a better combination, but we need
not worry about that. About this time the foal on most farms is having its
troubles. Often the mare and foal have to fight it out with too many
others of the same kind or with mixed lots of horses. The ideal arrange¬
ment is for the mare and her foal, with no other horses, to be placed in a
grass lot that has not been pastured by horses for at least a year. The
nearer this condition can be obtained the better the foal thrives and the
freer it is from infection and trouble.

“The next critical period for the foal is at weaning time. Then the
ravages of distemper are most threatening, and an unchecked outbreak is
always frightful and frequently fatal. However, with the colt long since
a good feeder and carrying considerable immunity from previous bacteria
or serum treatments, it only remains to reinforce the immunity against
distemper by vaccinating a week before weaning and by following with
the same treatment a week after weaning. The colt, with his companions,
is now headed for winter quarters. Before going, however, there is an¬
other good foot trimming and leveling, and, if it has not been done pre¬
viously, he is neck-branded. The brand, usually a herd number, is made
a part of the owner’s records.

“Just a last word about the little fellows as they are taken from their
mothers and put in their winter home. This has been freshly prepared for
them, thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. Throughout the winter it

190

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

should be regularly cleaned and occasionally disinfected. Arrange the
quarters, if possible, so that the colts may go in or out at will, except in
stormy weather, when a gate may be used to keep them within shelter,
where they will be out of drafts, but supplied with an abundance of fresh
air. If the gate to the shelter opens out on several acres of grassland,
where the colts may play tag and nibble a little lunch between their two
regular daily feeds of grain, there will be some very happy and probably
very profitable colts. And profitable colts are the controlling and com¬
pelling argument in favor of the use of draft mares on the farm.”

The Robisons give a lengthy account of the feeding and management of
colts in vogue at the Leslie Farms, as follows: “The earliest foals are
taught to eat at 4 weeks old by putting a little bran, whole oats, shelled
corn and alfalfa-molasses meal in a little feedbox just out of reach of the
mares. In the pasture a feed trough is kept in a pen, with a creep pro¬
vided, so that foals can go in, but the mares cannot. After the first foals
learn to eat, they are fed twice a day in this trough, and the later foals
learn to eat by imitation. Sometimes they begin at 2 weeks old. They
are given all the grain they will eat twice a day, and, after they get well
accustomed to eating, the feed is mainly oats. There is no danger of
overloading them with fat or injuring the joints when they are running
out day and night and get plenty of exercise.

“All the foals that are as much as 4 months old are weaned about Octo¬
ber 1. To do this each mare is tied at the feed trough in a long shed and
her foal is haltered and tied alongside with a rope it cannot break. Of
course, it pulls and tugs at it for a while, but no damage is done. The
mare is right there and the youngster soon settles down to good behavior.
As the foals are all thoroughly accustomed to dry feed, they do not miss
the milk much, but go right on eating and growing. The mares are fed
timothy hay alone and milked dry twice a day for a few days. It helps if
one greases the udders with warm lard. After the milk is dried up the
mares are turned out on pasture and fed grain in preparation for winter.
The weanlings are given the open shed for shelter and run on pasture for
>sixty days, with grain. They are likely to get wormy at this time and
rock salt is a useful preventive.

“Beginning in December the colts are put in boxstalls, two or three to¬
gether, at night, and turped out to pasture in the daytime. They are fed
oats, bran, shelled corn, chopped cane, oil meal and alfalfa hay, all they
will eat. The colts grow faster and develop a greater feeding capacity on
alfalfa hay than they used to have when we fed mixed timothy and clover.
Their grain is principally oats. The first winter is a critical time with a
colt. If fed so as to grow well up to the age of 12 months, the colt may be
kept going easily enough on good pasture in summer and rich hay in win¬
ter, supplemented with enough grain to maintain a good degree of flesh,
so that there is no lack of nourishment at any time in the year.”

“When the foal is 30 days old,” says Lee, “put some oats where it can
nibble at them; increase the amount as it cleans them up, until oats may
be left in the box for the foal to eat any time.” And further on, he writes:
“As time goes on and the baby is left at the stable, try turning it out in a
small pasture with a few calves or foals where it can eat grass and get
plenty of exercise. When the foal is 2 months old it will not be necessary
to let it nurse between regular meal times, but you will have a better colt
if you do. After the foals are 6 months old and weaned, turn them on
alfalfa pasture, if possible, and feed them grain twice each day. When
the pasture is killed by frost or is too closely cropped, take them to their
winter quarters, preferably a place where they can have plenty of exer¬
cise all day and a shed to shelter them from storms at night. Do not start
to put them in the closed barn or shed; let them run in and out at any
time; have plenty of clean alfalfa where they can run to it, and feed grain
twice a day.

MANAGEMENT OF THE WEANLINGS

191

“One reason, that the colts in this country do not mature so quickly as
imported stock is that we are too stingy with our feed. However, most of
the imported stallions have their growth at 2V2 years, while our stallions
will continue to grow until 5 years of age. We always feed plenty of oats
and very little corn to growing colts. Oats make bone and keep them
growing, while corn makes fat, and, in time, will burn out their stomachs.

“We let our colts run together until the December or January before they
will be 2 years of age, and then put them in boxstalls and give plenty of
clean straw, alfalfa, oats, bran and some chop feed wet, three times a day.
The barn man should take them out of their stalls every morning and
clean them well, even their hoofs. Arrange so that they have a paddock
to run in at least every other day.

Teach the colt to stand when out of the stall, and teach him to move.
Let the barn man start with him, and follow, not with a whip, but with a
cornshuck to make a shuffling noise, something new to the colt. After a
few times he will be moving like a coacher when he hears the shuffling
of the shuck, and will never know how he learned it. Whips in the show
ring have lost more blue ribbons for horses than they ever won.”

From Augstin’s experience the following remarks are presented: “Since
we began treating our foals at birth with antitoxin streptococci and having
them come when the mares can get on the grass, we have had practically
no deaths. We give them an injection of this antitoxin when they are a
few hours old and then again in about a week. Altogether too many breed¬
ers make the mistake of having their foals come too early in the spring.
They are inclined to be constipated because their mothers have been on
dry feed so long. There is also much more danger of other complications
setting in when the dam and youngster must be in a stall for some time
without exercise.

“I am sure, from my own experience, that a far larger percentage of the
foals born during the latter part of April and May live than of those that
come in February and March.”

As to the management of foals Augstin goes on to discuss: “Just so
soon as the foal shows sign of wanting to nibble grain I tie the mare up
and give it a box to itself. It gets all the oats and bran it will eat from
that time on. We sprinkle a little shelled corn on the oats and bran. Our
foals seem to like a little corn particularly well. To this we add a little
alfalfa meal in the winter, but not in the summer, as the molasses is
likely to sour to some extent, and sweet feeds draw flies around the feed
box. A foal always does better if fed in a clean box. Good alfalfa and
clover hay are the best roughages. We use these feeds for all our ani¬
mals, even our mature show horses. We never use black strap molasses,
as it always causes more or less digestive troubles. It is not any trouble
to get a horse fat if it is healthy and has plenty of clean feeds, with good
water to drink.

“For best results one should keep the idle mares that are nursing foals
in the barn in the daytime during the hot weather and turn them out at
night on good pasture. Generally speaking, we never let our foals go hun¬
gry from the time they will eat until they are well along toward maturity.
We push our stallion colts harder than we do the fillies in order to make
them salable sooner. One cannot feed a colt too much of the right kind of
feed, if he gives it plenty of exercise. We feed all our weanlings all they
will eat, but keep them out of doors in large paddocks and pastures every
day, unless it is storming badly. Open sheds or large boxstalls, with doors
•pening into a large lot, are most suitable for developing colts of this
age. In fact, we handle all our stallion colts in this way until the winter
before they are 3 years old. Of course, if we have a colt which we wish
to fit for the show, we keep him by himself. In the main we run out stal¬
lion colts together, even though we intend to show them. It is useless to

192

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

expect that one can put on as much flesh that way, but he can unques¬
tionably grow a more rugged and sturdy colt.

“Every man who raises colts in this way knows that he has more or
less trouble with sore heels. The fact that such colts take an abundance
of exercise, which gives them a strong appetite to consume more feed than
they otherwise would, clearly overshadows such an annoyance as sore
heels. We even run our 2-year-olds, weighing 1,700 to 1,800 pounds to¬
gether, but they do not look their best in the showing. I know, however,
that they are worth more to the man who buys them than if they were
kept up in boxstalls all the time. By raising my colts in this way I have
very little difficulty with filled hocks. It is more economical to develop
them by such a method, because it requires less labor.

“Farmers are comparatively busy most of the year and have not the
time, and in many cases la-ck the help to give their stallion colts the exer¬
cise they need if they are kept shut in a barn. Every farmer can provide
his colts a good grass paddock, however, and let them do their own exer¬
cising while he does something else. Here is where the French breeders
have the advantage of us. They have unusually fine pastures, and, further¬
more, every effort is made to improve them, because the French breeders
fully realize the importance of developing draft colts out of doors. My
long experience has taught me the importance of liberal feeding, but there
must be an abundance of outdoor exercise, preferably in good pasture.”

For a detailed and comprehensive treatise on the management of foals
and yearlings, the following paragraphs are given in the words of the
Hodgsons: “After the foals are dropped, they run with their mothers in
pasture night and day until hot weather and flies begin to cause trouble.
They are started on grain feed when they are about 4 weeks of age. As
soon as the mares begin to bunch up in the pasture and fight flies, rwe
adopt the plan of housing the mares and foals in a cool, partially dark¬
ened barn, during the daytime. They are put in about 7 o’clock in the
morning and left in until 4 or 5 o’clock in the evening. Each mare is tied
in a roomy double stall, which has two feed boxes and a manger for hay.
The mares are fed grain twice a day, and as soon as the foals have learned
to eat they are given some grain in a separate feed box beside their dams.
The youngsters are not tied up, but run loose in the barn, which has a
wide central alleyway where they are at liberty.

“For roughage we place mixed clover and timothy hay in the mangers
for the mares and foals. We also place some bright alfalfa hay in a sep¬
arate place where the foals have access to it. Both mares and foals have
or are allowed all the hay they will eat, but when they are on good pasture
they do not utilize very large amounts. Our grain ration is the same for
the mares and foals, and consists of bran and oats mixed in the propor¬
tion of two bushels of oats to one of bran. This is mixed and fed dry. The
mares are allowed a moderate ration of this — about a half pound per one
hundred pounds live weight. A mare weighing 1,600 pounds will receive
about eight pounds of the grain ration per day. This is divided into two
feeds, morning and evening. The foals are allowed all of this grain mixed
that they will eat up at two feeds per day, although we take the precaution
to see that they are not given enough to cause them to leave any grain on
their feed boxes from one feed to the next.

“Both the mares and foals are turned out about 4:30 or 5 o’clock in the
evening, and run on bluegrass pasture all night, being taken in again in
the morning. This general policy is continued throughout the entire sum¬
mer. The barn doors are closed in the daytime, and the barn is partially
darkened, so that the flies cause little trouble.

“We do not work mares that are nursing foals, as we usually have
enough dry mares or young horses to do our farm work. We believe that
we get better results with the foals by not requiring the mares that are
nursing them to do anything while they are raising their offspring. Our

MANAGEMENT OF THE WEANLINGS

193

policy of giving some grain to the mares while they are nursing foals
may be objected to by some, but we have found that it increases the milk
flow and contributes materially to the rapid development of the young¬
sters.

“We make it a rule to rwean the foals about November 1. They have
been haltered some time before this, but are not tied up until we are ready
to wean them. We place a strong leather halter on each one, but also
take the precaution to run a rope through the halter rings and tie it
around the neck, fastening it to the manger, so that there is no possibility
of a colt’s breaking loose when first tied, thereby acquiring bad habits. The
mares are turned out in pasture, but are brought back the following day
and the foals are allowed to strip them out once. After this the mares
are turned back in a separate pasture, and do not see their young again
for some weeks. The foals are kept tied up for two or three days, until
they have become accustomed to the halters and have forgotten in some
degree about their mothers. We then begin turning them out during the
daytime, keeping them tied up at night. We take the time at this period
in their growth to halter-break them thoroughly. From this time until
the following May they are turned out regularly on bluegrass pasture
every day and are kept in at night. The only exception to this is in case
of a cold, 'wet storm during the winter. They are kept in out of the storm.

“From the time the foals are weaned until the following spring we give
them alfalfa hay for roughage, and for grain allow each about three ears of
corn per day, and, in addition to this, all of the oats and bran mixture they
will eat. This system is followed until the pasture grass is very good the
following spring, usually about the 10th or 15th of May. From this time
until the hot weather and flies begin to bother the colts they are allowed
to run out on pasture, both night and day. The stallions are separated
from the fillies about this time, and the yearling stallions are kept in the
barn during the day. We have a half-basement barn which is fairly cool
during the summer, and turn the yearling stallions into it during the day.
This is partially darkened and some burlap strips hanging down to protect
the colts from the flies. Our yearling stallions receive the oats and bran
mixture, fed three times a day throughout the entire summer and fall.
They are given about all they will clean up. In addition to this, they
have access to mixed clover and timothy hay, and alfalfa when we have it.
This is given to them in the mangers during the day in the barn. At
night they run out on bluegrass pasture.

“We usually have from six to twelve yearling stallions that are han¬
dled in this way. They are all allowed to run together. It occasionally
happens that one will get his heels tramped on by some of the others, but
by watching closely and by taking such a colt out immediately we have
little trouble. It is, of course, necessary to use some carbolic salve, or
something of the kind, on the injured part until it heals up, but as soon as
this is done, the colt is turned out again with the rest of the bunch. We
have not had much difficulty on this score.

“The yearling fillies are usually turned with the 2-year-old fillies into
a separate pasture, where they run out both night and day throughout the
entire summer. We do not feed any hay to the fillies, but give them a
moderate ration of the oats and bran mixture- This is given twice a day.
Their allowance probably amounts to half a pound per 100 pounds of live
weight per day.

“In November or December we begin tying up the yearling stallions at
night, but allow them to run out during the day. From this time until the
following spring, or until they are sold, these stallions coming 2 years
old receive about five ears of corn each per day, and, in addition, all of
the oats and bran mixture that they will clean up. They are fed three
times per day. For hay, we continue twith the mixed clover and timothy,
although we would feed alfalfa if we had enough of it to supply all of our

194

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

horses. So far we have not had enough, and so have retained it for the
younger colts.

“The fillies coming 2 years old are tied up, when we have room. If we
do not have enough room, they are allowed to run loose in the shed,
where they are protected from the cold storms, and where they may take
refuge during the night, but they are out every day during the winter on
pasture.

“By following these general methods we have made excellent gains on
our foals and yearlings. We have found it very advantageous to keep the
mares and foals in and protected from the hot weather and the flies, as our
own experience and our observation of operations on other farms have
satisfied us that extreme heat and flies materially retard the development
of foals. We have been able to secure quite satisfactory growth in bone
and muscle. Ouri colts have matured into rugged, heavy-boned, massive
draft horses, standing frob 16*4 to 17 hands in height by the time they
are 24 months of age. The weight varies with individual colts, but they
are deep-bodied, well-proportioned, and with size and weight enough to
balance their height and general developments. We believe our policies
of feeding and management of yearlings and weanlings are justified by the
results. We seldom have had any 2-year-olds left unsold. If we do carry
over a colt, it is usually one that we want to develop or use in our o<wn
stud. We have realized substantial prices for the colts of our own breed¬
ing and raising by the time they were from 20 to 24 months of age.”

V

COMMON DISEASES AND AILMENTS

As to the common diseases and ailments attacking mares and colts, and
preventive measures and remedies thereof, these are indicated following
the stud farms mentioned below:

Cornell University — 1. Navel infection. The navel is disinfected and
the stalls cleaned. Veterinary aid is advocated. 2. Diarrhoea. “Don’t
overfeed and have mare cool when brought in.” Castor oil is recom¬
mended.

Gossard Breeding Estates — 1. Colic. As a preventive the animals
should be carefully fed, while for remedy Gile’s medicine and new warm
milk are prescribed. 2. Diarrhoea or scours. Careful feeding of healthy
animals is emphasized in order to evade the malady, and for remedies va¬
rious means are employed.

Lakewood Farm. 1. Navel infection. To prevent the occurrence of this
thorough disinfection is enforced during foaling time. 2. Scours. The
patient is given good physic by using castor oil to be followed by raw eggs.

3. Constipation. Castor oil is also employed and also warm soap-sud in¬
jections.

Santa Anita Rancho — 1. Ordinary colds. The animals should be shel¬
tered from cold rain and wind. During the attack the patient should
have good care and simple aids. 2. Influenza; and 3. Strangles, for both
of which the veterinarian should be consulted.

University of Illinois — 1. Influenza. Preventive. Horsemen are
warned not to mix horses of the home herd with strange ones. 2. Colic.
Proper feeding is a precautionary measure to be followed in order to
evade this. 3. Diarrhoea. The mares should be fed on dry feed not
laxative in nature.

Lefebure Sons’ Co — 1. Navel disease. Iodine is used for this. 2. Dis¬
temper. For this Spohn’s cure is applied.

Iowa State College — 1. Distemper. For prevention keep healthy ones
separate from infected individuals. The remedy adopted is to open ab¬
scesses, if any, and to keep the animal from exposure in bad weather. 2.
Colic. Plenty of exercise and laxative feed will act as preventives. For
cure, sweet spirits of nitre and ginger are used. 3. Joint evil. Preven¬
tion — cleanliness and vaccine. For remedy the veterinarian is consulted.

4. Navel infection. The same preventive as of joint ill. Remedy: Cau¬
terize end with tincture of iodine or phenol. 5. Diarrhoea (attacking
foals, 3 or 4 months of age). Remedy: Take mare off pasture and put
on dry feed. Then the colt is doctored.

Michigan Agricultural College — 1. Navel disease. Chloroform and
turpentine are recommended to close the navel. Streptococcus vaccine is
employed.

Augstin states that by adopting a system of vaccination a most efficient
measure of preventing the occurrence of diseases among mares and colts
is obtained. Ritchie mentions distemper as the common disease affecting
his mares and colts, which is, however, avoided by vaccination, and in
the event of its introduction, the Spohn’s distemper cure finds use. At the
Minnesota University it is claimed that abortion and navel ill cause the
greatest trouble, while Dix says it is influenza that is observed commonly
attacking mares and colts at the Pentolia Stock Farm. For influenza the
serum treatment is mentioned as the means of preventive. Holbert men¬
tions colic, scours and injuries (caused by accidents) as the common
troubles at the Holbert Farms. According to Truman, mares are not at¬
tacked by any common disease, but a number of joint ill cases of foals

196

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

have resulted in serious and fatal termination. At the Central Kentucky
Farms, according to Hooper, mares commonly suffer from vaginal dis¬
eases.

Those reporting on the disease or ailments of colts alone are: The Haw¬
thorn Farm mentions distemper as the usual scourge of the stud, but now
it is extinct since the adoption of antitoxin application, which is done by
veterinarians. At the Arngibbon Farm the navel disease is a bugaboo
from which no case has as yet been saved, and a so-called “kidney trouble”
is also a common ailment for which physics are recommended. Good re¬
ports on colic and distemper as the common maladies occuring at the Oak¬
dale Farm, while Henderson mentions distemper alone. Stericker con¬
siders joint or navel disease as a common disease of foals. He prescribes
the use of either iodine or corrosive sublimate to be applied to the cord
until leaking stops.

To secure information on the practices of different studs with regard
to the preventive measures and remedies, or other similar steps taken in
connection with such ailments as joint or navel ill, influenza, strangles,
colic and diorrhoea, or the opinion of the breeders on the same, a question
on the subject was included. Such stud farms as have more fully re¬
sponded have been selected and their answers given herein below:

Cornell University

PREVENTIVE REMEDY

“Disinfect navel and Consult veterinarian
have clean stall”

Consult veterinarian
Consult veterinarian
Take care not to over- Consult veterinarian
feed

Chestnut Farms

“Clean stables. Bed¬
ding d i s i nf e c t e d.

Clean stalls daily.”

“Never mind the tem¬
perature. Use stimu¬
lants. Keep the horse
eating. No aconite.”

“Blister the throat.

Keep eating by use
of stimulants”

“2 oz. of pure castor oil
generally cures this.
If foal gets weak mix
2 eggs with pint of
mare’ s milk and
drench”

Gossard Breeding Estates

Cleanliness at foaling Jointine (best remedy
time and also treat- used)

ment of mare pre¬
vious to foaling

Disinfection of cars and Various

proper care in han¬
dling newly bought

horses Plenty of pine tar

Disinfection of cars and smeared on tongue
proper care in hand¬
ling newly bought

1. Joint or navel ill

2. Influenza

3. Strangles

1. Joint or navel ill

2. Influenza

3. Strangles

4. Diarrhoea (in young
foals)

AILMENT AND DISEASE

1. Joint or navel ill

2. Influenza

3. Strangles

4. Colic

MANAGEMENT OF THE WEANLINGS

197

AILMENT AND DISEASE PREVENTIVE

4. Colic horses

5. Diarrhoea in young Careful feeding
foals

Maple Lawn Farm

1. Joint or navel ill

2. Influenza
5. Diarrhoea

Santa Anita Rancho

REMEDY

Giles and new milk
Mix flour with hot
water and give as
gruel

Iodine and healing pow¬
der

Spohn's remedy
Whites of egg or boiled
milk

1. Joint or navel ill

2. Influenza

3. Strangles

4. Colic

“Immediate disinfection
of umbilicus at birth
and continued appli¬
cations till healed.”
“Bacterin, etc., admin¬
istered by qualified
V. S., together with
such other simple
aids and care as may
be indicated”

“Mixed infection bac¬
terin and good nurs¬
ing”

“Some convenient, relia¬
ble antiseptic, such as
P. D.'s colic mixture,
which may be given
without drenching,
with a 2-oz. dosage
syringe”

6. Diarrhoea (in foal- “First reduce feed. Give

ing) dose of castor oil (2

to 4 oz.) in emulsion
with equal parts hot
water beaten to
creamy consistency,
with syringe — fol¬
lowed in severe cases
with one teaspoonful
of: Bismuth subni¬
trate, 1 oz.; Salol, 1
oz.; soda bicarbonate,
3 oz. Mix. Dose: 1
teaspoonful, 3 or 4
times daily, if indi¬
cated

Addenda: At this rancho the following is also indicated: “Give enema
to all new-born foals as a routine treatment — (say bland oil and warm
water, equal parts — 4 to 6 oz.) and repeat, if necessary, to remove all the
meconium and save many foals.”

University of Wisconsin

1. Joint or navel ill “Clean stall, apply an- None

tiseptic on navel”

198

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

AILMENT AND DISEASE

2. Influenza

3. Strangles

4. Colic

6. Diarrhoea (in young
foals)

1. Joint or navel ill

3. Strangles
5. Diarrhoea (in young
foals)

PREVENTIVE

“Isolate sick ones. In¬
ject influenza vac¬
cine”

Inject vaccine
“Regular feeding, avoid
mouldy feeding”

“Be sure that the mare
has cleaned properly
after foaling”

Longview Stock Farm,
Almost hopeless

REMEDY

Where there is fever in¬
ject influenza vaccine,
give plenty of fresh
air, do not work and
water often. The
consumption of water
is high

“Give castor oil, eggs,
or flour, etc. Cut the
mother's ration i n
two if she is a heavy
milker.”

Mustard and plaster
Raw egg and black
pepper

1. Joint or navel

2. Influenza

3. Strangles

Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm

“Thorough disinfecting
stalls and bedding,
mare’s tail, etc.”

Our veterinary attends
the cases

4. Colic

5. Diarrhoea (in young
foals)

“We use Truman’s En¬
glish colic cure; it
never fails”

“Give a little wheat
flour”

VI

VETERINARY EQUIPMENT

The “Medicine Chest”

An effort to delve into the veterinary “holdings” of different studs have
been made. These are shown in the subsequent tabulations:

Table III

Showing Veterinary Apparatuses Owned at Different Stud Farms

FARM

Gossard Breeding Estates
J. H. Serven & Son

Lakewood Farm

Maple Lawn Farm

Oaklawn Farm

Pentoila Stock Farm
Santa Anita Rancho

University of Wisconsin

Woodside Farm

University of Illinois

Lefebure Sons’ Co.
Oakdale Farm

Ritchie Stock Farm
Longwood Farm

VETERINARY APPARATUSES

Forceps (for extracting teeth), floats,
dose syringe, hypodermic outfit.

“All kinds, but the most important is
a syringe . . . and a foot

knife . . .”

Dose syringe, injection syringe, syr¬
inge for washing out, lances, nee¬
dles, operating knives and all shoe¬
ing tools.

Stomach pump, rectal syringes, hy¬
podermic syringes, mouth gags,
drenching bottles.

Sling, tooth forceps, hoof clippers,
veterinary knife.

Dose and hypoderic syringes.

Operating table; slings; sets of den¬
tal instruments; infection pump;
fountain syringes; dosage syringes;
emasculator; set of surgical instru¬
ments.

Slings, casting harness, set of veteri¬
nary instruments and horseshoe¬
ing outfit.

Syringe, extractor, hypodermic,
slings, set of surgical lances, spec¬
ulum.

Knife, shears, needles, probe, etc., all
for minor surgical work; pump,
can and pure rubber hose for irri¬
gation; tank for heating water;
milk fever outfit; full set of horse-
shoer’s tools; twitch; graduated
glass; dose syringe; bottle for
drenching.

Thermometer, syringe, microscope.

Dose syringe, fever thermometer,
pump, blankets, bandages, iron,
and practically all other veteri¬
nary instruments.

Syringe and vaccinating outfit.

Sling, medicine gun, thermometer,
douch bag, tubing, dental tools —

200

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

FARM

Thos. Kiddoo Farm
Holbert Farms

Iowa State College

VETERINARY APPARATUS

all used only at the direction of vet¬
erinarian.

Thermometer, syringe, balling gun.

Buggy pump with rubber hose for in¬
jections; large rubber hose and
stick for giving balls; hypoder¬
mic syringe; dose syringes; micro¬
scope for testing stallion’s semen;
impregnators; thermometers; sur¬
gical knives, etc.

Impregnator, syringes, thermometer,
scissors.

Table IV

Shouting the Kinds of Drugs and Disinfectants Kept in the Farms

FARM

Cornell University

Gossard Breeding Estates
J. H. Serven & Son

Lakewood Farm

Maplegrove Farm

Maple Lawn Farm

Oaklawn Farm

Pentoila Stock Farm

Raboin Pioneer Homestead Farm
Selma Farm

DRUGS AND DISINFECTANTS

Iodine (for sores and callouses);
alum, tannin, etc. (for foal’s na¬
vel), oils (for physic).

Giles’ formula for colic.

“All kinds, but the most important
is a good colic medicine and raw
oil (linseed) for colic and impac¬
tion.’’

Colic medicine, fever medicines, blis¬
ters, iodine, sulphur, blue vitriol,
iodine (for all open sores and light
blister), coal tar dip (for ordinary
disinfecting).

Creso dip solution used in breeding
operation; sweet spirits of nitre,
for colic and fever ; aconite, for
fever; Spohn’s, for distemper;
vaccines, for distemper, pink eye,
shipping fever, and for blood condi¬
tioning.

Ward’s disinfectants, for general use;
Spohn’s distemper remedy, for
coughs and colds; Groul’s remedy,
for shipping fever, etc.; sulphur
and alum, for sore heels, etc.; oil
of sassafras, for bruises and gen¬
eral liniment; extract of witch
hazel, for bruises and general lini¬
ment.

Sulphur, Epsom salts, fever medi¬
cine, colic medicine, saltpeter, raw
linseed oil, blue vitriol, carbolic
acid, iodine, vaseline.

Tincture of iodine, colic remedy, dis¬
infectant.

Colic medicine and disinfectant.

Iodine, bichloride, salts, oil.

Creso dip or other similar product
for general disinfection. Iodine
solution or tincture — for nail
punotures, foul wounds, etc. Nitrate

VETERINARY EQUIPMENT

201

FARM

Santa Anita Rancho

University of Wisconsin

Woodside Farms

White Oak Stock Farm
University of Illinois

Irvinedale Farm

Lefebure Sons’ Co.
Oakdale Farm

Ritchie Stock Farm

DRUGS AND DISINFECTANTS

of potash, diuretic and alterative;
raw linseed, castor and other oils —
purgatives, etc. Sulphate of soda
(Glauber’s salts), laxative and al¬
terative.

P. D. Colic mixture.

Hyposulphite of soda — intestinal an¬
tiseptic and anti-ferment. Iodine of
potash — diuretic, alterative and
absorbent.

Saloli bismuth subnitrate and bicar¬
bonate of soda — for diarrhoea in
foals.

Argyrol solution — inflamed eyes.
Boric acid, zinc oxide (powdered)
and tannin — antiseptic dusting
powder.

AceLt^'o^lead { s°lution"

— cooling astringent lotion for
bruises and superficial wounds
and abrasins, etc.

Coal tar disinfectant, raw linseed
oil, turpentine, hoof packing, flax¬
seed, flower of sulphur, charcoal,
castor oil, salt petre, ether, canna¬
bis, indica, aromatic spirits of am¬
monia, sweet spirits nitre,, etc.

Iodine, nux vomica, colic remedy,
turpentine, sulphur, spirits of
nitre, creolin.

Gile’s remedy; vaccine; disinfectant.

Tincture of iodine and iodine salve,
for wounds, enlargements, navels,
etc.; white lotion, for astringent;
Glauber’s salt; laudanum and
ether, for colic; turpentine; bi¬
chloride of mercury, for disinfec¬
tant.

Abbot’s pyrobacteria (for naval ill);
Bowman’s naval ill remedy;
Spohn’s distemper cure; disinfec¬
tant.

Tincture of iodine, creso dip, white¬
wash, Spahn’s distemper compound.

Physic ball and Epsom salts for pur¬
gative; Sloan’s cure for colic and
indigestion; spirits of nitre and
salt petre (diuretic) for individ¬
uals that are droopy and out of
condition; carbolic acid and lime,
considered best of dips on account
of lack of odor; acetanilide and qui¬
nine for fever; and potassium
iodide for navel ill.

Barrel dip; iodine; Spohn’s distem¬
per cure; liniments, colic remedy;
medicated alcohol; barb-wire medi¬
cine; healing powders; salves, etc.

202

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

FARM

DRUGS AND DISINFECTANTS

Arngibbon Farm
Longwood Farm

Hawthorn Farm
Tbompsondale Farm

Thos. Kiddoo Farm

Iowa State College

Coal tar preparation, creosote.

Iodine,, creoline, sulpho-napthol. B-X,
and besides other drugs which are,
however, used only at the direc¬
tion of the veterinarian.

Colic medicine, fever drugs, salves
(for bruises), creolin.

Spohn’s distemper compound for all
coughs and colds; Kreso dip No. 1,
and lime for disinfecting; lysol for
washing wounds of navel ill, etc.;
absorbine for all muscular and
tendon lameness, also to reduce
soreness in shoulders, etc.; carona
wool-fat for cuts and “hairing”
over; Bickmore gall cure.

Note: “Very few drugs used — we
feed considerable bran and gener¬
ally find our horses phyisally fit.”

Ordinary dip, for disinfecting; lime,
as a germicide; iodine, for bumps,
bruises, etc.; sulphur, for cuts and
skin eruptions.

Therapogen — for general disinfec¬
tion; castor oil and Epsom salts, as
cathartics; Saltpetre as diuretic;
sulphur for general use; sweet
spirits of nitre for colic; tincture
of iodine for wounds, etc.; Spohn’s
distemper cure; Blackhawk dip
and lime, for disinfecting; and su¬
gar of lead for healing wounds.

VII

STALLION AND FOALING BOX STALL

For the size and construction of the stallion box stall see Appendix I.

Different dimensions of the foaling box stalls have been reported by the
sixteen stud farms responding. At the Waddington Farm the size is 10
by 10 feet; at the Raboin Pioneer Homestead Stud Farm, 12 by 12 feet; and
at the Longwood Farm, 12 by 14 feet. Four farms — the Thompsondale
Farm, University of Missouri, Holbert Farms, and the Ritchie Stock Farm
— give the size as 12 by 16 feet. At both the Woodside Farm and Univer¬
sity of Minnesota the dimensions are 14 by 14 feet. The foaling boxstall
at the Pentoila Stock Farm, Maple Lawn Farm and Selma Farm, three
farms in all, occupies as large a space as 14 by 16 feet. A larger one is to
be found in three other farms — th Lakewood Farm, Truman’s Pioneer
Stud Farm, and University of Illinois — the size being 16 by 16 feet, while
at the Longview Stock Farm the most spacious maternity boxstall, 18 by
20 feet, is reported.

VIII

SUMMARY

To summarize, the writer finds but a few words to say: That while a
few common practices may be the rule in all farms surveyed, yet it is safe
to say that, in general, the breeding, feeding and management of pure¬
bred draft horses in the leading stud farms in the United States follow no
one “prescription,” so to speak, whether it be in the systems of breeding
employed, on the care and handling of the stallion, of the brood mare, of
foals and of weanlings, whether it be on the handling of diseases or other
afflictions, on the provision for drugs, disinfectants and veterinary appar¬
atuses, or on the material and plans of construction of boxstalls and
barns. An attempt to reduce the findings to a point-to-point brief is not
countenanced or else, practically a repetition of the same discussion may
have to be dwelt upon.

IX

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208

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

78Harper, M. W. Principles of horse breeding. New York State Depart¬
ment of Agriculture Bulletin 76: 14-19. 1915.

7eMumford, F. B. The breeding of animals. 310 pp. New York, 1918.

80Marshall, Fran-cis H. A. The physiology of reproduction. 704 pp. Lon¬
don, 1910.

81Van Alstyne, Edward. Fall versus spring colts. New York State De¬
partment of Agriculture Bulletin 76: 155-160. 1915.

82Biddell, Herman, Douglas, C. I., Dykes, Thomas, Fleming, George, Mac-
neilage, Archibald, Murray, Gilbert, and Trotter, W. R. Heavy horses.
Breeds and management. (Live stock handbooks No. 3. Edited by
James Sinclair.) 219 pp. London, 1898.

83Riley, Dr. E. H. Artificial insemination. Montana Agricultural Experi¬
ment Station Circular 63. 1917.

84Brown, Dr. F. F. Artificial insemination and its relation to the veteri¬
narian. American Veterinary Review 44:2: 237-241. 1913.

86W. B. Carroll, and Frederick, H. J. Capsule method of breeding mares,
Utah Agricultural Experiment Station Circular: 20. 1916.

86Lewis, Prof. L. L. Artificial insemination. American Veterinary Re¬
view 41: 3: 279-281. 1912.

87Carter, William. Care of brood mare and colts. The Field Illustrated
and System on the Farm. 31: 1921.

88Sellers, G. L. Care and management of the brood mare and her foal.
The Annual Report of the Secretary for Agriculture, Province of Nova
Scotia, for the year 1911: 71-74.

"Thomas, Arthur C., and Shields, Wm. H. (from information furnished
by the leading trainers and drivers of the day). Care and training of
trotters and pacers. Vol. I of “The Horseman Library.” Chicago,
Ill., 1915.

"Gardner, Frank D. Live stock and dairy farming. 196 pp. Philadel¬
phia and Chicago, 1918.

91Ogilvie, R. B. Developing draft foals and care of brood mares. The
principles and practice of horse breeding. (By A. S. Alexander.)
Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 127: 113 to 116.
1905.

"Jordan, Whitman Howard. The feeding of animals. 473 pp. New
York, 1917.

"Harper, Merritt W. Breeding of farm animals. 335 pp. New York and
London, 1916.

94Harper, W. H. Raising colts. Cornell University Agricultural Experi¬
ment Station Bulletin 403. 1921.

"Harper, M. W. Feeding the brood mare. Cyclopedia of American Agri¬
culture: 3. (By L. H. Bailey.)

96Timmis, Reginal S. Modern horse management. 233 pp. New
York.

97Hoare, E. Wallis (edited by). A system of veterinary medicine by va¬
rious writers. Vol. II. 1623 pp. Chicago, 1915.

"Rutherford, Dr. J. G. The care of young foals. The annual report of
the Secretary for Agriculture, Province of Nova Scotia, for the year
1911: 64: 68.

"Alexander, A. S. The principles and practice of horse breeding. Wis.
Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 127. 1905.

100Alexander, Dr. A. S. The care of the new-born foal. Wisconsin Agri¬
cultural Extension Circular 61: 7-8. 1916.

101Wilcox, E. V. Farm animals. 357 pp. New York, 1910.

102Wilson, J., and Curtiss, C. F. Feeding colts. Iowa Station Bulletin 18:

103Cochel, W. A., and Severson, B. O. Developing draft colts. Report of
470-477. 1892. Cited in Experiment Station Record 4: 424.

the Pennsylvania State College. July 1, 1911, to June 30, 1912.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

209

104 Snyder, W. P., and Burnett, E. A. Forage rations for growing horses.
Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 130. 1912.

105Russell, H. L. Report of the Director. Wisconsin Agricultural Experi¬
ment Station Bulletin No. 240. 1914.

106McCampbell, C. W. Growing draft colts. Kansas Agricultural Experi¬
ment Station Circular No. 57. 1916.

107Edmonds, J. L. Feeding pure-bred draft fillies. Illinois Agricultural
Experiment Station Bulletin No. 192. 1916.

108Brodhead, Dr. C. W. The horse’s feet and their care. New York State
Department of Agriculture Bulletin 76: 167-182. 1915.

10eHopkins, H. E. Training the colt. New York State Department of Ag¬
riculture Bulletin 76: 161-166. 1915.

110Harper, Merritt W. The training and breaking of horses. 387 pp. New
York, 1918.

VITA

Valente E. Villegas was born in Los Banos, Laguna, P. I., May
21, 1893. He attended the Manila High School preparatory to his
entrance to the College of Agriculture, University of the Philip¬
pines, in June, 1908. He was granted the degree of B. Agr. in
April, 1913. Soon after graduation he entered service in the Bu¬
reau of Agriculture ; was assistant agricultural inspector, July 1
to July 9, 1913 ; agricultural assistant, July 9, 1913, to August 16,
1917 ; and agricultural inspector, August 16 to December 4, 1917.
During his connection with the Bureau of Agriculture he was
delegated to San Francisco, California, U. S. A., as one of the
Philippine agricultural representatives in the Panama-Pacific In¬
ternational Exposition in 1915. On December 6, 1917, he was ap¬
pointed instructor in animal husbandry, and later, on May 4, 1918,
instructor in agronomy in the University of the Philippines. On
July 8, 1919, he was granted scholarship to study abroad by the
University of the Philippines, and began his advanced studies in
animal husbandry at the Iowa State College in September, 1919.

APPENDIX I, SHOWING SIZE AND DETAILED

FARMS

Chas. Brown & Sons-

Cornell University

Chestnut Farms

SIZE OF BOX STALL

Width

12'

14'

Gregory Farms

J. H. Serven & Son-

Gossard Breeding Estates-

Lakewood Farm

Leslie Farms

Maplegrove Farm

Maple Lawn Farm

Oaklawn Farm

Pleasantview Farm

Pentoila Stock Farm-

Rookwood Farm

Raboin Pioneer Homest’d Farm

Selma Farm

University of Wisconsin-

Length

14'

30’

Carnot’s

17'

12'

19'

14'

16'

14'

16’

9' 1"

16'

15'

12'

11'

13'

12'

ir

14'

1G'

14'

12'

16’

17'

MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION

Partition

Hardwood
and iron

3"xl2"

Hardwood

Planks

Wood

12’

13%'

16'

18'

12'

14'

University of Illinois.

University of Missouri-

Woodside Farm

Irvindale Farm

Lefebure Sons’ Co.

Longview Stock Farm_

Oakdale Farm

Ritchie Stock Farm* - -

Arngibbon F arm — — — - -

Long wood Farm

Hawthorn Farm -

Thompsondale Farm

W addington F arm

16'

16'

I

12'

Wood

Oak

Hard

Lumber

Heavy

Oak

Sides

Wood

Hardwood
and iron

Concrete

4'

"x 10"

Planks
with iron
rods

Wood

Wood

Oak

~Wood

and

iron

Hard

Lumber

Heavy

Oak

Hardwood

Wood

Floor

Dirt

Clay

Dirt or
clay

Earth
or clay

Dirt

Door

Wood

Manger

Hayrack

Woo.

Wood

2"x6"

Lumber

Wood

Hay feed
in manger

Wood

Dirt

2"x4"

Dirt

Gravel %
Clay %

Dirt

Dirt clay
Dirt

Dirt
Dirt
or clay

Dirt

Planks &
1 ' pipe

Plank

14'

14'

14'

Alfred de Bree Eyck’s

12' 16'

9' 8"

14' 9”

9' 4"

17

16'

18'

Farceur’s
16’ 20'

14'

16'

19’

12'

9'

12*

12*

12"

10

Thos. Kiddoo Farm-

12'

Holbert Farms

8'

12'

20’

14'

16'

15'

12'

16'

Wood

Maple

Wood and
wire

Board and
iron rod

Plank

Board

and

cement

2x4

native

Wood

2"

plank

Wood

Pine

planks

Wood

and

wire

Board

and

iron rod

Plank

and

rods

Board

and

cement

Board

Wood

2x4

sheathed
2 sides

Hollow tile
3 ft.
high

Oak

Plank

2"

plank

Clay

Planks
with iron
rods

Wood

Wood

Sliding

Wood

Hard

Lumber

2”xi2"

and

S"xl4"

Lumber

2"xl2"

None

Wood

Wood

Cement

bottom

Wood

Oak

Wood

Heavy

Oak

Wood

Concrete

Dutch
door and oak
slats

Wood

Clay

Dirt

Dirt

Dirt

Dirt

Dirt

Dirt

Corked

brick

Sand and
Clay
mixed

Wood

Dirt

Maple

Wood

and

wire

Board

and

iron rod
Planks
and
rods

Board

2x4

native

Wood

Batten

Wood

Oak

Oak

Plank

Clay around
plank, center
over cesspool ;

two barns
with cement
Boors drained
in center of
each

Hard

lumber

Wood

Wood

Pine plank
oak capped

None

Wood

Iron

Wood

Oak

Wood

Hard

Lumber

None

Wood

Pine plank
oak capped

Wood

Iron

Wood

Board

Plank

Board

Wood

Iron

Wood

Wood

DOOR

Location

Beside
manger
Center
of stall
[ 5 doors
outside]

1 door to
alley
1 door to
paddock

Corner

Corner

Side

Corner

Corner

Behind

horse

Inside

and

outside

Maple and
iron pipes

Front side

1 Width

3' 10"

3’

4'

4'

4'

4%'

4'

4' 1"

6'

4’ 4"

4' 2"

4'

8' 6"

6'

4'

4'

4'

4'

Height

10'

7'

7'

Board

Plank

Wood

Iron

Upper

corner

Wood

oak

Oak

Grate Gate
and

board doors

Corner

7'

6'

8'

6' 6"
7'

7' 4”

5' 8"

7.6’

6.25'

V

To

ceiling

JO'

Corner

Corner

3' 9"

3' 2” 1<*'

1 door for 2 stalls

4.6'

4'

Center of
stall from
walk and
paddock

Close

to

Corner

North

Outside

and

Inside

V

6'

4'

6'

4'

6'10"

8'

8'-9'

CONSTRUCTION OF STALLION BOX STALL

WINDOWS

MANGER

HAYRACK

MANGER WINDOW

Number

Width

Height

Height of
bottom
from floor

Distance

apart

Location

Height of
top

from floor

Location

Height of
bottom
from floor

Width

Length

Location

of

Salt Box

24"

48"

2

2'

3'

4.6'

2'

At

alley

At side
of manger

5

22"

36"

8.5'

7'

Full
length
across stall

4'

Hayrack use for
manger

None

None

None

-

1

1'

2'

Just

under

beam

Next to
alley

3'

1

3.5'

2'

4'

4.6'

Corner

of

manger

1

20"

24"

6'

46"

20"

26"

29"

6'

Corner

3'

Corner

To the
floor

None

32.7"

60"

43.3"

18.5"

19.7"

1

36"

[3 glass]

12"

f Panes]

Front

Front

24"

10.2"

1

24"

32"

4.5'

3.6'

3.6'

Wall

1

41"

21.6"

5.25'

Middle
of side
[Width]

3.9'

Corner

On

ground

2 in one

20"

30"

One Corner

4'

18"

i

1

2.6'

3'

6.5'

Either
across
side or
end

3.6'

j

8"

12"

Usually
small
iron box

6'

Corner

side

Varied

Use manger for hay
and grain

« {

IIoubo alxc

»'

alley

\

alley \

V ■

1

3'

3'

6'

On feed¬
ing alley

3.5'

Corner
of stall

4'

None

\ None

\ Corner

23"

4' 2"

1

2 panes

4' 4"

65"

Middle
of side
next to
door

Corner

i' ii"

2' 10"

2

14"

18"

6'

6'

Corner

4'

Same

as

manger

On floor

In manger

1

24"

32"

Corner

Hay fed on
grounds

2

2'

2'

6'

8'

Corner

3.5'

Manger used as
hayrack

| Corner

1

2' 6"

2' 7"

6'

Corner

3'

Corner

4' 6"

2

24"

30"

4' with
bars
across

Upper
corner not
above
grain box

6'

Open at top

Small cor- ■

ner parti- H

tioned off ■

from grain H

box H

The door is open at all times, allowing the horse to exercise
in paddock

Left of
door
entering

4'

Right of
door in
back
corner

4.6'

In manger j|

2

2'

2.6'

7.6'

6'

Corner

1

2%'-3'

li/2'-8'

3y2'-6'

Opposite

door

2' 9"-3' 6"

Same as manger

None

2

2' 9"

1' 10"

6' 8"

Corner

3' 4"

Corner

Resting
on floor

3'

4.5'

4'

Front

corner

3.5'

Corner

i'

Side wall

2

Four glass sheet

Left-hand
corner of
stall

Corner right
hand. One
rack for
two stalls

Rest
on floor

None

None

Left-hand

corner

1

2'

V

6'

Protected
with bars

Front of
stall next
to alley

3'

APPENDIX II

HORSE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT

Name of the farm _

Owner of the farm _

Manager of the farm or breeder _

Location of the farm _

Breed raised _

General Questionnaire

1. What is the size of the farm? _

2. How long has the farm been engaged in horse breeding?

3. What are the names of the principal horses? (If any prizes were
won, mention the kind, place and the year when such premiums were
obtained. With undefeated or regular winners give the outstanding
premiums or those won recently.)

4. How many colts are foaled yearly? (Average) _

5. How many horses are sold yearly? (Average) _

6. What system of breeding is practiced? (Is it inbreeding in which the
sister and brother, the son and his dam, or the daughter and her sire
are mated together; or, is it the line-breeding in which individuals of
distant relationship are mated together?)

7. Is artificial insemination practiced on the farm? If so, how many
mares are treated at the same time?

8. What instruments are used in artificial insemination?

9. Describe briefly how artificial insemination is practiced.

10. What is the average death rate among the horses on the farm?

212

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

11. How many barns are on the farm for horses only? -

12. Give the number, approximate size and the capacity of each paddock

or pasture for horses.

For the stallions.

NUMBER

SIZE OF EACH

CAPACITY OF EACH

For the mares _

For the colts and fillies

13. What other structures are on the farm for horses? (Give a diagram
of any special structure, if possible.)

Diagram

14 Describe the standard horse barn on the farm.

Location -

Type basement, one-story or shed, or two-story or loft)

Approximate dimensions: Length _ Width-

Height of ceiling -

Number of box stalls _

Alley: Width - Height (from floor to ceiling

Material of construction of floor _

Doors (on each end): Width _ Height _

Material of construction (in a general way) _

Ground floor sketch of barn, if possible

15. Describe the standard box stall.

Stallion box stall: Width - Length _

Material of construction of partitions _

Of sides - Of floor _

Of door - Of manger _

Of hayrack _

Door: Location -

Width - Height _

Windows: Number _ Width _ _ _ Height

Height of bottom from floor _

Distance apart _

HORSE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT 213

Manger: Location _

Height of top from floor _

Salt box, if any: Location _

Manger window, if any: Width _ _ Length . .

Foaling box stall: Width _ Length... .

Height (from floor to ceiling) _

Material of construction: Of sides _

Of floor - Of hayrack _ _

Of manger _ _ _ _ Of door _ _

Door: Location _

Width - Height _

Windows: Number _ Width _ Height _

Height of bottom from floor _

Distance apart _

Manger Location _

Height of top from floor _

Hayrack: Location _

Height of bottom from floor _

Salt box: Location _

Manger window, if any: Width _ Length _

16. What veretlnary apparatus are kept on the farm for emergsncy
and ordinary purposes and give the use of each one?

NAME USEFULNESS

17. What drugs and disinfectants are kept on the farm for ordinary or
emergency purposes? Give the usefulness of each one, especially the
drugs.

NAME

USEFULNESS

214 PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION

1 .What is the stud fee? _

2. On what contracts does the farm enter into in breeding outside mares?

3. During what month of the year is the breeding season on the farm?

4. In what condition of flesh is the stallion maintained??

During the breeding season _

During the non-breeding season _

5. What are the principal points looked for in selecting a breeding stal¬
lion?

6. What principal points are discriminated against in selecting a breed¬
ing stallion?

7. What unsoundnesses, diseases and other defects are deemed suffi
cient to bar a stallion from breeding purposes?

8. When are the stud colts separated from the fillies to prevent mating?

9. When is training to lead begun?

10. What other training is given to the stud foals?

11. Describe briefly the different kinds of training if any of the proced¬
ures followed are an improvement over the ordinary methods?

12. At what age is the stallion allowed to breed for the first time?

13. At what age is the stallion considered mature? _

14. What is the number of services allowed the stallion each year at dif¬
ferent ages until and including the age of maturity?

AGE

NUMBER OF SERVICES

HORSE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT

215

16. What is the maximum number of services allowed a mature stallion
throughout the year

16. What is the limitation regarding the number of services in a day?

17. At what age is the stallion considered in his prime for breeding pur¬
poses?

18. When is the stallion considered too old to breed? _

19. Is any difficulty found in making the stallion cover the mare? If so,
what is the probable cause and how is it remedied?

20. Is any stimulant used to induce the stallion to mate? If so, what
specific one?

21. Is it advisable to employ a “teaser”? _

22. How many services are generally needed before the mare settles?

23. About what percentage of the mares bred settle after one service?

_ After three services? _ After four services or

more? _

24. Is any “wash” used for the sheath and penis of the stallion at each
breeding operation? If so, what specific one and when is it applied,
before or after each service?

26. Is the stallion exercised? If so, what is the nature of the exercise?

26. Is the stallion worked? If so, what is the nature of the work?

27. How many times and at what time of the day is the stallion fed?

28. When is water given — before or after feeding? -

29. What rations and about what amount of each constituent are given to
the stallion at each feeding?

During the Breeding Season
Roughages

AMOUNT FED IN

KIND

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

_

NIGHT, IF ANY

_ _ _

_ _

(If any roughages are given at will, indicate so, or if given in a mix¬
ture, give the proportion of each constituent and the amount given of the
mixture at each feeding.)

216

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

Grains

AMOUNT FED IN

KIND

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NIGHT, IF ANY

(If the different kinds of grains are given in a mixture, give the propor¬
tion of each constituent part and the amount of the mixture given at each
feeding.)

During the Non-Breeding Season
Roughages

AMOUNT FED IN

KIND

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NIGHT, IF ANY

(If any roughages are given at will, indicate so, or if given in a mixture,
give the proportion of each constituent and the amount given of the mix¬
ture at each feeding.)

Grains

AMOUNT FED IN

KIND

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NIGHT, IF ANY

(If the different kinds of grains are given in a mixture, give the propor¬
tion of each constituent part and the amount of the mixture given at each
feeding.)

30. How are the roughages furnished — cut or not? If cut, what is the ap¬
proximate length of the cut material?

31. If cut roughages are given, are they mixed with the grain part of the
ration and in what proportion?

33. If corn is fed, in what form or preparation is it given

34. If molasses is fed, in what form and how much of it is given at each

feeding? _

35. Are the grains fed in a dry or mash form? _

36. Is any kind of salt given to the stallion? If so, what kind, how much
and in what manner is it furnished?

37. Is any silage or green cut forage furnished to the stallion at any time

HORSE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT 217

of the year? If so, which ones, how much and when are these fed?

38. What is your opinion regarding the feeding of alfalfa or clover hay to
the stallion as part of the ration?

39. What is your opinion regarding the feeding of cotton-seed meal to the
stallion as part of the ration?

40. What is your opinion in regard to feeding corn to the stallion as part
of the ration?

41. Are any commercial “stock tonics” fed to the stallion? If so, which
ones?

42. Does the stallion receive any grooming? If so, how often?

43. Is it advisable to keep the stallion shod? If so, how many times in a
year is shoeing done?

44. Is it advisable to keep the stallion shod? If so, how many times in
a year is shoeing done?

44. Is it advisable to clip the hair of the stallion? If so, how often?

45. What are the common accidents to which the stallion is subject?

46. What are the common diseases or ailments generally attacking the
stallion?

47. What diseases or ailments of the stallion may be treated without the
aid of the veterinarian with safety?

48. Have any vices been developed by the stallion? If so, which ones and
how have those been remedied?

MANAGEMENT OF MARES AND COLTS

1. In what condition of flesh are the brood mares kept? - -

2. What are the principal points looked for in selecting brood mares ?__

3. What principal points are discriminated against in selecting the brood

mares? -

218

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

4. What diseases, unsoundnesses and other defects are considered suffi¬
cient to bar the mare from breeding purposes?

5. At what age does breeding begin with the fillies? -

6. At what age are mares considered in their prime for breeding pur¬
poses? —

7. When are mares considered too old to breed? -

8. Are mares worked? If so, what is the nature of the work? -

9. Are mares suckling foals worked? If so, what is the nature of the

work? _

10. Are mares suckling foals kept in the barn or run in the pasture dur¬
ing the "grass season”? _

11. At what age are fillies first trained to lead? -

12. At what age are fillies started in harness? -

13. What is the approximate area of the paddock or pasture sufficient for

the mare throughout the year? _

14. How many times and at what time of the day are working mares fed?

15. How many times and at which feeding (morning, noon or night) are

idle mares on pasture given grain?

16. How many times and at what time of the day are idle mares fed dur¬
ing the winter?

17. What rations and about what amount of each constituent are given to
the mares at feeding time?

Working Mares
Roughages

AMOUNT FED IN

KIND

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NIGHT, IF ANY

(If the roughages are given at will, indicate so, or if given in a mixture,
give the proportion of each constituent and the amount of the mixture at
each meal.)

HORSE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT

219

Grains

AMOUNT FED IN

KIND

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NIGHT, IF ANY

(If the different kinds of grains are given in a mixture, give the pro¬
portion of each grain constituent and the amount of mixture fed each
time.)

Idle Maees on Pasture
Roughages

AMOUNT FED IN

KIND

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NIGHT, IF ANY

(If the roughages are given at will, indicate so, or if given in a mixture,
give the proportion of each constituent and the amount of the mixture
given at each feeding.)

Grains

AMOUNT FED IN

KIND

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NIGHT, IF ANY

(If the different kinds of grains are given in a mixture, give the propor¬
tion of the grain constituents and the amount of the mixture fed each
time.)

Mares Suckling Foals
Roughages

AMOUNT FED IN

KIND

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NIGHT, IF ANY

(If the ]
ture, give 1
mixture at

^oughages are
the proportior
each feeding

given at will, indicate so,

1 of each constituent and the
)

Grams

AMOUNT FED IN

or if given in a mix-
amount given of the

KIND

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NIGHT, IF ANY

—

(If the different kinds of grains are given in a mixture, give the pro¬
portions of the grain constituents and the amount of the mixture fed each
time.)

Idle Mares in Winter
Roughages

AMOUNT FED IN

KIND

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NIGHT, IF ANY

220

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

Grains

KIND

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NIGHT, IF ANT

(If the different kinds of grains are given in a mixture give the pro¬
portion of each grain constituent and the amount of mixture fed at each
time.)

18. Describe briefly the methods of feeding a few days before and after
foaling.

19. What particular feeds are discriminated against in feeding pregnant
mares?

20. If any drugs are administered before foaling, give the name.

21. State briefly the aid or attention given to the mare while foaling.

22. What is the percentage of abortion cases on the farm and what is the
common cause?

23. At what age are suckling foals started to feed on grains? _

24. Are the grains fed to the suckling foals given at will? _

25. If the grains given to the suckling foals are given at stated periods,

how often and at what time of the day? -

26. What different kinds of grains and how much of each are given to
suckling foals at each feeding?

27. If the grains are fed in a mixture, in what proportion are the grains
present and what amount of the mixture is fed each time?

28. At what age are foals weaned? _

29. Describe briefly the method of weaning?

30. Are weanlings given grain at will? If not, how many times daily?

31. What grains and how much of each are given to weanlings at each
feeding

32. If the grains are fed in a mixture, in what proportion are the grains
present and what amount of the mixture is fed to weanlings each time?

33. Are weanlings left with the mature horses, or given seperate lots?

HORE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT 221

34. If clipping the colt’s hair is practiced, when is it begun and how often
is it done?

35. Are colt’s feet trimmed? If so, how often is it done?

36. In case of orphan foals, describe briefly the procedure in raising them.

37. What common disease or ailments attack mares and foals? Mention
the degree of severity of the disease or ailments and the preventative
and curative measure employed in your farm.

DISEASE OR AILMENTS PREVENTATIVE MEASURES REMEDIES

38. What are the preventative and remedial measures for the following
ailments as employed on your farm?

PREVENTATIVE

AILMENTS MEASURES REMEDIES

1. Joints or naval ill - . -

2. Influenza (or pink¬
eye, catarrhal or
shipping fever)

3. Strangles (or dis¬
temper)

4. Colic

222

PURE BRED DRAFT HORSES

5. Diarrhoea (in young
foals

L6Je?4

♦

)

Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process.
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide
Treatment Date: Nov. 2012

PreservationTechnologies

A WORLD LEADER IN COLLECTIONS PRESERVATION

1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive
Cranberry Township, PA 16066
(724) 779-21 1 1

N.