PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

QUEENSLAND

FOR 1930.

VOL. XLII.

ISSUED 29th JANUARY, 1931,

Printed for the Society
by

FREDERICK PHILLIPS, Government Printer, Brisbane.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

a

OF

QUEENSLAND

FOR 1930.

VOL. XLII.

ISSUED 29th JANUARY. 1931.

Printed for the Society

by

FREDERICK PHILLIPS, Government Printer, Brisbane.

The Royal Society of Queensland.

=========

Patron :

HIS EXCELLENCY SIR JOHN GOODWIN, K.C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O., F.R.C.S.

OFFICERS, 1930-1931.

President :

J. B. HENDERSON, F.I.C.

Vice-Presidents :

Professor J. P. LOWSON, M.A,, M.D.
D. A. HERBERT, D.Sc.

Hon. Treasurer :

Hon. Secretary :

E. W. BICK.

F. A. PERKINS, B.Sc. Agr.

Hon. Librarians :

W. D. FRANCIS.
G. H. HARDY.

Hon. Editors :

H. A. LONGMAN, F.L.S., C.M.Z.S.
W. H, BRYAN, M.C., D.Sc.

Members of the Council :

R. W. CILENTO, M.D., B.S. T. G. H. JONES, D.Sc., A.AC.I. J. A. JUST,
M.I.M.E. H. C. RICHARDS, D.Sc. C. T. WHITE, F.L.S.

Trustees :

F. BENNETT, B.Sc. J. B. HENDERSON, F.I.C.
A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D.

Hon. Auditor :

Professor H. J. PRIESTLEY, M.A.

Bankers |

QUEENSLAND NATIONAL BANK.

CONTENTS.

VOLUME XLII.

No. 1.-

No.

No.

No.

Pages*

-Presidential Address : By Professor J. P. Lowson, M.A., M.D.

Issued 6th August, 1930 . . . . . . . . - . 1-18

2. — A Geological Reconnaissance of the Linville-Nanango

District : By E. C. Tommerup, B.Sc., A.A.C.I. Issued
6th August, 1930 . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-27

3. — The Development of the Esk Series between Esk and Lin-

ville : By Dorothy Hill, B.Sc. Issued 30th July, 1930 . . 28-48

4. — Essential* Oils from the Queensland Flora, Part I. — Bceckea

virgata : By T. G. H. Jones , D Sc., and M. White. M.Sc.

Tabled before the Royal Society of Queensland, 28th

April, 1930 . . . . . . 49-51

No. 5.. — The Physiographical Significance and Non-migration of
Divides : By E. 0. Marks, B.E., M.D. Issued 6th August,

1930 52-61

6. — Ch2etognatha from the Society Islands : By B. B. Grey, F.L.S.

Issued 6th August, 1930 . . . . . . . . . . 62-67

7. — -Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora, Part II. — Agonis
abnormis : By T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., and M. White, M.Sc.

Tabled before the Royal Society of Queensland, 26th May,

1930 . . 68-70

8. — The Genus Oxyscelio Kieffer, its Synonymy and Species, with

a Description of One New Genus (Hymenoptera :
Proctotrypoidea) : By Alan P. Dodd. Issued 1st

September, 1930 . . . . . . . . . . . . 71-81

9. — Two Interesting Queensland Eucalypts :• By W. F. Blakely

(Botanic Gardens, Sydney) and C. T. White (Government
Botanist, Brisbane). Plate 1. Read before the Royal
Society of Queensland, 28th July, 1930 . . . . , 4 82-85

No. 10. — The Consideration of certain Factors as Potentialities in
Mosquito Control in Australia : By R. Hamlyn-Harris,

D.Sc. Plates I. and II. Issued 13th November, 1930

Abstract of Proceedings
List of Library Exchanges
List of Members

No.

No.

No.

No.

. . 86-105

. - vi-xxiii,
xxiv-xxvi.
xxvii-xxxi.

Vol. XLII., No. 1.

Proceedings of the Royal Society of
Queensland.

Presidential Address.

By Professor J. P. Lowson, M.A., M.D.

( Delivered before the Royal Society of Queensland, 31st March, 1930.)

The report which has been submitted to you shows that the work
of the Royal Society during the past year has been both considerable
in quantity and varied in interest. The fourteen papers published
cover a wide field, including work done in physics, chemistry, geology,
botany, and zoology both theoretical and applied. The recently issued
volume is, I think, a worthy record. of the Society’s work.

There is one matter not included in the report which I should like
to mention. I refer to the very valuable and now completed work
which has been done in the arrangement and’ cataloguing of the Society ’s
library. I think the thanks of the Society are due to the librarian,
Mr. Francis, and also to Mr. Hardy, for this work. «

I should also like to add my thanks to those of the Society to
Dr. Duhig for his generous donation to the library.

RECENT PSYCHOLOGY.

Following the example of my predecessor, Professor Parnell, who
gave us last year so excellent a resume of recent progress in physical
science, I wish to put before you in this address a few of the ideas which
have become centres of interest in psychology in the course of the last
twenty years. This is not altogether an easy task. Psychology is the
youngest of the sciences, and has but just entered on what promises
to be a period of rapid and successful growth. There is at present, as
always at such times, much divergence of opinion as to what must be
regarded as established matter of fact, what should be held in suspense
as matter of possibility or probability only, and what should be rejected
in the meantime as mere speculation. Some results of psychoanalytical
research, for example, which are of great interest and importance and
cannot be omitted, are still regarded as matter of controversy by a
number of psychologists. On this head I can only say that while, on
the one hand, my account will contain no specially original features —
that is, no doctrines peculiar to myself — on the other hand, I shall

9

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

make no statement with which my own experience does not lead me to
agree. I am aware also that part of what I have to say is not likely
to make pleasant hearing. It is scarcely possible to discuss develop-
mental psychology without risking unwitting offence to some one. But
we have to recognise, in psychology as in biology generally, that Nature
is independent of our human prepossessions, and that, if we wish to
deal with her successfully, we must take her in the first instance as
she is.

There are two topics in psychology to which I wish specially to
direct your attention. The first is the fact of the continuous persistence
of the past into the present in our mental life, the fact that a man’s
mental present, his actual present ways of thinking, feeling, and acting,
are not only based upon but bound up with and to a very large extent
determined by his w7hole mental past, by all that he has thought, felt,
and done, and by all that has been done to him from birth onwards.
The second topic to which I wish to direct your attention is the manner
in which certain peculiarities of human sexual development interact
with this persistence of the past, so as to produce important practical
results.

When wTe consider our conscious experience, as it immediately
presents itself to us, perhaps the most striking feature about it is its
kaleidoscopic change: change seems to be the condition of its very
existence, for without change attention and consciousness itself quickly
lapse. Moment succeeds moment, event succeeds event, thought succeeds,
thought, and feeling follows feeling. Our mental lives have been
described as consisting of an innumerable succession of states of
consciousness, as they have been called, no one of which is ever exactly
Mike those that precede or those that follow it, no one of which is ever
exactly repeated. This is so obvious that the term “stream of conscious-
ness” has long been current in psychological language to express what
seems at first sight an ever-changing flow.

When the matter is considered more closely, however, we come to
see that the word “stream” with its suggestion of a procession, each
feature of which appears for a moment only to vanish and leave no
trace, is more misleading than helpful as a description of our mental
life. A close study of any particular conscious stream reveals always
a very large number of constantly repeated features, ways of thinking,
for instance, methods of action, peculiarities of feeling, traits of character,
and the like. Of much that goes on in consciousness the old French
tag turns out to be an exact description: “Plus cela change, plus c’est
la meme chose.” The content may change but the form and purport
remain the same. In order to explain these constant features we are
obliged to assume the existence of some kind of unconscious organisa-
tion underlying the stream of conscious change, persisting and develop-
ing beneath it, and determining in large measure the forms which its.
activity takes. We may identify this organisation with brain organisa-
tion, if we choose, neglecting the fact that for the moment brain
physiology can give no account of it ; or we may stick to observed fact,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

3

and leave that question open for the present. In any case we should
have to assume the existence of such a developing organisation under-
lying consciousness if we had never seen a brain at all. In the end
we find it best to abandon the metaphor of a stream altogether, and
introduce the concept of an organic mental structure which persists
and grows in interaction with the external world, somewhat as the
seedling persists and grows into the fully developed tree. We come
to regard consciousness itself as the expression of activity in this
organisation in interaction with the outer world from moment to
moment : we note that consciousness is mainly confined to those mental
activities which are in direct relation with the outer w7orld. On the
one hand we explain changes in consciousness in terms of the flux of
external events and the varying needs of the mental organism; on the
other hand, we explain the perpetual repetition which characterises
conscious activity, the perpetual reapplication of the same ways of
perceiving, thinking, feeling, and acting to differing material, by means
of the persistence of the mental organisation itself and the continuity
of its development. It is this latter side of the situation which I propose
to discuss.

That some such persistent organisation must exist is easy to show.
Everyone knows that even from the point of view of consciousness the
past does not disappear completely. We know that we can reproduce
in conscious memory a great deal which we have thought and felt and
done in the past. This fact obviously implies that our experiences
have left some sort of traces behind them, which can in some degree be
re-excited so that the past lives again. It implies, in short, the existence
of a more or less permanent structure of memory traces which has been
woven out of our past experience, and makes possible the repetition of
the past in the present.

But the persistence of the past and its repetition in the present in
mental life are by no means confined to conscious memory. On the
contrary, while conscious memory with its definite time reference is a
highly specialised mental function, the repetition of the past in the
present is a constant feature of mental organisation and mental function
in general.

This fact is most obvious in relation to our intellectual development
and the development of our knowledge generally. In that connection
it is wrell recognised in introspective and experimental psychology. The
psychology of perception, for instance, is one long exemplification of
this fact, since the possibility of the simplest as well as the most
complicated act of perception depends essentially upon a condensation
of the past in the present through which the present acquires meaning
for us in the light of the past. This condensation has nothing to do
with conscious memory. It is immediate and irreflective. In most cases
we have to consider its results to become aware that it occurs. As, for
example, we glance round the room in which we are, it is by no means
the room as it immediately affects our senses which we see. It is on

4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

the contrary a beautifully organised, or, as we say, integrated condensa-
tion of a vast amount of past experience of light and colour, touch and
pressure, space, movement, and every other experienced possibility of
sensation in such a situation as the present one. The room as we see
it is in the main an imaginative product, but it certainly does not look
like that to us. That is because, as we look at it, we actually see the
past in the present. The pattern of stimulation which affects our
senses fuses indistinguishably with perceptual patterns which come
into action from within. This is of course more obvious, though not a
whit more true, when the objects of which we are aware are removed
from influence on our senses. No one of us in this room but is aware,
without so much as once deliberately thinking of it (preconsciously
aware, as we say), of the building in which he is, of the park outside,
of George street, Brisbane, Australia, the whole planet, and the universe
of space, so far as they are known to him as wholes. The world picture,
in short, which every man carries in his head, is clearly not an affair
of immediate sensation but of the imagination which the senses have
trained. It sums his past experience in that respect from infancy
upwards. It is the past experienced in the present.

I stress these facts in the first instance because it is not adequately
recognised what a remarkable magic lantern the human mind is. The
screen of consciousness on which our external experience itself appears
is lit up from within as well as from without. The pictures which appear
on it are thrown mainly from within, usually in response, it is true,
to what is thrown from without. Normally, however, what is thrown
from within in response to what is thrown from without harmonises
so beautifully that we are incapable of distinguishing the inner from
the outer light, and can only distinguish by inference between the
present and the past components of the total picture. But in nervous
breakdown, for example, where the two pictures usually clash in some
respect or other, still more in insanity, where they clash irreconcilably
and the inner pictures begin to get the better of the outer, the true
nature of the normal situation itself begins to become apparent. Let
me continue for a moment with the same image, crude though I admit
it to be : it is somewhat as though what we perceive or what we think
in consciousness were a consequence of a play of light, streaming towards
an exterior screen through a vast succession of lantern slides. It is as
if from an integration of all the slides through which the light travels
in response to what is given from without through the senses that the
ultimate pictures result. We have also reason to think that, while these
pictures may go on enriching and complicating as fresh experience
comes in, yet within them something of the simpler outlines of the
earlier pictures of the same series will always tend to persist. The
past is never completely obliterated and the present perpetually repeats
the past.

If what I have said will suffice for perception and thought, it must
suffice for action also. What is true of perception and thought is
naturally true of action, of what we have learned to do as of what we

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

5

have learned to perceive or think. The same considerations apply in the
one case as in the other and the past persists and repeats itself in action
as it does in thought.

But at this point a question arises. If the image just used is not
wholly wrong, if perception, thought, and action are partly the conse-
quences of an energy streaming from within, it seems natural that this
energy should flow mainly into paths already organised out of past
experience ; but what is the nature of the energy itself .? To this
question we can reply in the first instance, that whatever the intimate
nature of this energy may be, observation shows that in consciousness
it is correlated with, or represented by, what we call interest, that so
far as mental life is concerned interest and energy are equivalent terms,
and that interest in turn stands in the closest relations with the life of
feeling and desire as distinguished — so far as it can be — from the life
of thought and deliberate action.

An important advance in recent psychology has been the recognition
of the dominant part played by feeling and desire in every mental
activity without exception. Psychology, deriving, as it did, from
philosophy, was for a long time chiefly occupied with the intellectual
processes, which are in any case the most obvious feature of our mental
life. As soon, however, as the science came into contact with problems
of actual life, medical problems particularly, as it happened, it became
evident that it is from feeling and desire that the energy derives on
which thought and action are run, and the study of feeling and desire
began to assume something like its rightful position in psychology as
a whole. We now recognise that the capacity of any idea to exert any
influence whatever on thought or action depends on the energy which
it is capable of letting loose in the shape of feeling and desire, and
further, that the kind of thought or action which follows will depend
on the nature of the feelings or desires which have been excited, since
it is their satisfaction which thought and action will aim at. We find
that we cannot answer the question of why a man thinks and acts as
he does until we have investigated how he feels about what he thinks
and does; and this in turn resolves itself into a question of what the
desires are which furnish the motive power to his thought and action,
and how they came into being.

This last question brings me back to my principal theme. While
the persistence of the past and its repetition in the present are easily
recognised in relation to our intellectual and practical activities, they
are not so readily recognised in relation to our feelings and desires, that
is, in relation to our emotional life and its development. A further step
forward in psychology has been the recognition that our emotional
present develops out of and repeats our emotional past just as present
intellectual and practical capacities develop out of and repeat past ones.
Just as little in the emotional as in the intellectual sphere do new feelings
or new ways of feeling come into being out of nothing and without
relation to the past.

6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

This principle, once recognised, again appears natural enough.
Paced with a momentary situation how are we to react emotionally if
not as we have already reacted to similar situations in the past. No
doubt if we can discriminate consciously in what appear to us to be
essential respects between the present and past situations of the same
kind our emotional response will differ accordingly, but this is, actually,
far from easy in very many cases. In the first place, we respond
emotionally at once before we have time to think — more correctly, we
have to respond emotionally before we can think — and, in the second
place, in nine cases out of ten we are unable to tell to what similarities
our immediate emotional response is due. A high degree of emotional
discrimination is, actually, a rare quality among human beings. This
fact is most easily recognised, perhaps, in reference to our social
responses. When, for example, we meet a new acquaintance, we like
him, or dislike him, or experience a mixture of these feelings, as a rule
immediately. But, in the first place, it is the exception for us to be
able to say what exactly are the traits which have called out our immediate
liking or the reverse; in the second place, suppose we can do so, it is
very difficult as a rule to identify the previous experiences which have
determined our feeling for these traits; and, finally, the first occasion
on which our response to them was determined, wffiich is actually the
most important of all, is usually quite beyond the reach of conscious
recollection. In most cases, in fact, we do not reflect much on the matter
at all. We accept and follow our likes and dislikes as something natural
to ourselves and not in need of explanation. Nevertheless they are
invariably determined by the past, which they repeat.

This principle is of very great importance in our emotional life,
and perhaps I can best make it clear by means of a simple example.
Two of the fundamental social feelings are liking and dislike, love and
hate. These are emotional capacities of which we all possess a share, but
we must all have met persons who show an unusually marked disposition
towards hate, either open or veiled in its expression, and been struck
at times by the irrationality of their feeling since it plainly bears
little or no relation to the real qualities of its objects. We may be
tempted to explain this irrationality by reference to the inborn disposition
of the persons concerned, and to suppose that hatred is natural to them.
But investigation of such cases shows as a rule that their disposition
to hatred is not inborn but acquired, that its irrationality in the present
results from the fact that its real determinants are in the past,
and that at its commencement it was justified. I select a simple
illustration of this sort.

Consider the emotional development of a boy who has been led from
infancy to hate his parents. A certain amount of such hatred (at least
for one parent) is normal in infancy, as I shall later point out, but its
persistence in force implies usually qualities in the parents — unkindness,
injustice, oppression, and the like — which have themselves called it out.
Now a boy’s parents are in infancy the concrete embodiments of superior

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

7

.strength and authority; it is from their images that these ideas are
abstracted first of all. This is, of course, specially true of a boy’s father.
We have, then, an association of these ideas with the images of the
parents, an association formed in the earliest years and backed by strong
feeling. Such a primary association, we find, tends to persist uncon-
sciously throughout the whole life. We find that the boy’s hatred will
tend, of itself and without his conscious co-operation, to flow out subse-
quently to all other persons perceived as superior in strength or authority,
and hence perceived at the outset, usually unconsciously, as reincarna-
tions of his parents. He will grow up with a disposition towards hate
and instinctive hostility, tending to involve all such persons, and perhaps
with a morbid and misleading sensitiveness to the slightest suggestion
or fancied suggestion of injustice or oppression. It is obvious that he
is not likely to get on well with teachers, or employers, or authority in
any form, and, since dislike and hostility on our part beget like feelings
towards us in those for whom we feel them, the response he calls out
Is only too likely to justify his feeling from his point of view. Thus,
from the point of view of its objects, his hate will be like a tree, the
later hatreds branching out from the original hate, to which in most
instances they will owe the greater part of their strength. Again, the
better stuff he is made of, the more energy and spirit he has, the more
plainly will his hostility appear, and he may get a reputation as a contu-
macious subject or a socially impossible person which may do him great
harm.

This is a much simplified instance but we may safely generalise
from it. There is no reasonable doubt that all sorts of disadvantageous
peculiarities of character and feeling are acquired in this manner, as
well as all sorts of advantageous qualities. We get the impression from
our experience that our unconscious emotional and impulsive develop-
ment is somewhat like a tree which branches out as we grow from infancy
into manhood. In the tree the final form may be very different from
that of the seedling from which it sprang; nevertheless every branch
has sprung from a pre-existent branch, that from another, and so back
to the original main stems ; and every leaf which it turns to the air and
light still draws nourishment from fibres that run from origin to origin
down through the stem into the roots below. Within this arrangement
the whole history of the tree is contained. So the developed mind of
a man may be very different from that of the child he once was, but
the channels through which there come unconsciously into his conscious
life the energies which vivify it go back and back within the unconscious
organisation of the mind, concentrating and simplifying as they go,
till they reach the main sources of emotion and desire in his forgotten
childhood. Within this emotional organisation his whole emotional
history is contained.

The social importance of what I have said is evident. The facts
of emotional development open up the possibility of a form of culture
hitherto neglected. The cultivation of the intellect and the cultivation
of practical capacities are ideas with which we are familiar, even if

8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

our methods are somewhat rough and ready ; we are also familiar with
the notion of moral education ; but this last has usually taken the form
of enforcing the acceptance of certain ideas and certain forms of conduct,
sometimes by means of fear alone, almost always without regard to the
nature of the motives which actually induce the child to accept them.
Moral education has too often crippled rather than furthered emotional
growth. We now recognise that a child’s emotional inheritance cannot
be expected to unfold and develop normally in unsuitable conditions any
more than a plant will develop normally in the absence of sunlight, air,
and suitable soil.

The facts of emotional development to which I have briefly referred
were originally brought into sharp relief in the course of psychoanalytic
work. There is nothing, however, in what I have described so far, which
could not be observed or inferred apart from the method of Freudian
analysis. If psychoanalysis has made an indispensable contribution here,
it is in pointing out that the principle of repetition applies in a thorough-
going manner to emotional development in general, and in insisting,
consequently, on the decisive importance for future development of
feeling aroused or inhibited in infancy and early childhood.

Up to this point I may hope that what I have said has not met
with any strong emotional objection on the part of my audience. That
is to say, you may agree or disagree, but it is unlikely that anything I
have said has aroused definite repugnance, in the shape of anger, or
disgust, or fear. But I have now to introduce and illustrate the specific
contributions of psychoanalysis to my subject, and these, in the first
place, go considerably beyond the findings of introspective and
behaviouristic psychology, and, in the second place, they are not in line
with common prepossessions on the subject of human nature.

In the illustration which I have used of a boy’s developing disposi-
tion towards hatred, it is specially noteworthy that the secondary hatreds
do not depend on a conscious recollection of the primary one. T'he boy
does not say to himself, “This man reminds me of my father because
he is in authority over me, therefore I hate him.” If he did, it would
tend rather to enable him to get control of his disposition to hate, since
the sensible course would be to discount the resemblance and judge the-
person concerned on his own merits. But, as a rule, the case is quite
otherwise. The feeling of hostility rises in him immediately and as
it were instinctively, without any conscious reference to its original
cause : it derives in fact from the past, but it appears in consciousness
in apparent relation solely to the present. Thus the persistence and
activity of feelings so derived has nothing to do with conscious recollec-
tion of their origin. Now in this connection a Viennese physician, Josef
Brener, discovered nearly fifty years ago a fact of great importance.
Everyone knows that events in consciousness, which were accompanied
by intense interest and strong feeling, are vividly impressed on conscious
memory and may remain unforgotten over the whole life. Breuer’s
observations showed that an apparent reversal of this principle is also
possible so far as conscious memory is concerned. He showed that

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

9

experiences charged with strong feeling and vividly impressed may
nevertheless be actively and completely excluded or “repressed” from
conscious memory, so that the person concerned is quite unaware that
the experiences in question ever occurred. This happens if the
experiences in question either are or become too painful to be tolerated
in consciousness. He showed further — and this is the important point—
that such inhibited or repressed memories are not deprived of influence
on the subsequent life of the individual ; on the contrary, they may
persist the more potently, although unconsciously, by reason of their
exclusion from conscious control. Everything then goes on as if they
were unconsciously remembered in their original form, unmodified by
reflection. They retain their hold on the feelings of the individual and
influence his subsequent emotional life in defiance of his reason, from
the influence of which they are withdrawn. Breuer’s original observa-
tions were later confirmed by Freud working in conjunction with him,
and they have since been confirmed by numerous workers, so that they
are now accepted by all competent persons.

The simplest instances which one can give of this peculiar mental
situation are the morbid ideas and feelings, familiar since the war,
which torment sufferers from shell-shock. Shell-shock, in its proper
meaning, is a form of emotional shock. The sufferer remembers nothing
of the ideas and emotions with which the explosion of the shell filled
him. Yet these persist unconsciously, and the fact that they do so is
evidenced by the uncontrollable re-arousal of the feelings in question
in defiance of reason, and by the reappearance in consciousness of
similar but now quite irrational ideas, whenever the circumstances of
the man’s present life are capable of forming an association with them
and instigating their explosion. Thus in addition to the organised
unconscious repetition of the past in the present, in so far as it is taken
up into and made use of in connection with present interests, we have
a form of disorganised (or dissociated) unconscious repetition in which
the past persists unaltered and influences feeling and activity in defiance
of reason and the present. This is far commoner than at first we might
suppose.

It was this observation which, in the hands of Freud, led to the
gradual development of the psychoanalytic method of mental explora-
tion, and finally to the illumination of some of the most obscure features
of our emotional development and of our mental structure generally.

Perhaps I should say a few words here on the present situation in
reference to Professor Freud’s work. All persons who have made use
of Freud’s technique (the value of which is not in dispute) have con-
firmed his findings so far as facts observed are concerned. The facts
observed are indisputable. Differences exist only as to the interpre-
tation which should be placed upon these facts. As to this, it must
be admitted that Freud’s interpretation has at first sight a disagreeable
character, while the views of opposing schools, like those of Jung and
Adler, appear much less repugnant. For this reason the latter views are
at first the more attractive. Considerations of this kind, however — of

10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

what is pleasant, what is not — should have nothing to do with a question
of fact. If we put such considerations aside, as we ought to do,
Freud’s interpretation seems to be that which most naturally and
easily fits the facts, while the views of Jung and Adler appear more
strained, containing, as they do, serious difficulties which have never been
smoothed out. This situation is not affected by the circumstance that
both Jung and Adler have made most valuable observations, which
everyone accepts, since these observations supplement without contradict-
ing the Freudian position. My own experience leads me to believe that
the general acceptance of Freud ’s main position by instructed opinion
is only a matter of time. It is therefore with his views that I am
concerned here, but in illustrating them I must confine myself to a
single central feature. In order to discuss this we must go back to
earliest infancy.

According to the findings of psychoanalysis, and for that matter
of common observation, the affections of a human being are in the first
instance, that is in earliest infancy, directed solely towards itself. The
distinction between self and the environment is not one which the infant
is at first capable of making, while all things are at first appreciated
simply in relation to their capacity to yield pleasure or pain in the
course of the satisfaction of the infant’s needs. Thus the earliest
stages of emotional development are thoroughly, though unconsciously,
self-centred. Following on this stage, however, as development proceeds,
the beginnings of altruistic feeling appear, and the infant becomes for
the first time capable of affection towards a fellow creature clearly
distinguished from himself. He, or she, becomes for the first time a
truly social creature. The capacity for such affection directed towards
others shows itself in the first instance, naturally enough and as everyone
knows, towards the persons already associated with the satisfaction of
previous and existing needs, that is, normally, towards mother, or nurse,
or both. Later the father normally comes to share in it.

Now, in ; the light of what I have already said, you will not be
surprised to hear that we regard this particular step in development and
the further emotional development which follows it as of very great
importance. It is the first appearance of altruistic or truly social
affection. Out of it will grow ail the later social affections of which the
child becomes capable; it will remain the prototype of these; and we
find, in fact, that the character and activity of these later affections
will be determined in large measure by the course which this earliest
development follows in interaction with external circumstances.

But the method of psychoanalysis has revealed a further most
important fact; The affection in question does not manifest itself merely
in the form of those feelings of admiration, friendliness, tenderness, trust,
and the like, which will be taken up into and characterise in various
degrees many later social relationships; it may include all these, but,
immature though it be, it resembles much more nearly the state of
feeling which we know in adolescence and later life as that of being

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

11

in love : that is to say, it resembles most closely those later affections
which are definitely sexual. In other words, our earliest infantile
attachments appear as the commencement and foundation not only of
truly social feeling in the wide sense but also of normal sexuality.
At their commencement these two streams of feeling are inextricably
intertwined and appear to spring from a common sexual root.

That such a connection should exist is not, perhaps, very surprising,
if we view it in the light of our racial history or our biological past.
It is no more remarkable that our social feelings should develop post-
natally in association with sexual feeling (in contradiction with the
demands of adult life) than it is that our circulatory system should
develop pre-natally out of a system of gill arches adapted to life in
water but hopelessly out of touch with the needs of life in air. Both
sets of processes are equally developmental, and in the one case as in
the other we are faced, no doubt, with a partial recapitulation of the
racial past.

On the other hand, that such a connection should exist and have
gone so long unperceived is very remarkable, but this is partly explained
by further circumstances likewise laid bare in the course of analytic
investigation. We find that sexual development in Europeans goes
forward not in one but in two stages. We have, first, the early infantile
stage, to a feature of which I have just referred. In this stage, in which
love is directed normally, as we have seen, mainly towards the parents,
feelings and impulses of an unmistakably sexual although immature
character first arise together with feelings of affection and tenderness.
This stage, we may note also, is more or less bisexual. Now in the nature
of the case the first-mentioned feelings, the sexual feelings in the narrow
sense of the term, can receive no very adequate satisfaction. Prom the
start they are doomed to relative disappointment. Not only is this the
case, but among Europeans at any rate (not apparently in all races) as
development, and especially ethical development, proceeds, all that is
overtly sexual during this stage undergoes repression and becomes uncon-
scious under the influence of feelings of shame, disgust, fear, and later
anger, which arise in that connection to that end. This process of
repression, which is usually complete about the age of five or six years,
is in part, no doubt, the effect of early education, since any overt mani-
festations of sexuality in infancy are usually discouraged ; but there is
reason to believe that it is in any case organically determined, sets in,
that is, in the course of development independently of education. It is
obvious, then, in the first place, that this first stage of sexual development
belongs to that part of our personal history, namely infancy, which is
always more or less lost to conscious memory ; and, in the second place,
that those feelings, ideas, and associated memories, which were plainly
sexual and have for that reason undergone repression, belong to those
portions of our early emotional history which as a rule we cannot
remember under ordinary circumstances. Hence it is impossible for
most of us to confirm directly from personal memory, apart from
psychoanalytic investigation, the existence of this early stage, while

12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

at the same time those feelings which serve the repression of it in onr
own minds tend to cause ns to overlook or misinterpret its
manifestations in onr children.

This first stage of sexnal development which undergoes repression
is normally followed, at least in Europeans, by a stage of sexnal latency,,
in which all the manifestations of direct sexuality are more or less
completely in abeyance. This stage of latency is a somewhat variable
feature; its degree and duration differ from one individual to another.
It is followed again by the second stage of active advance, with which
we are all acquainted, in which feelings and ideas, again of an unmis-
takable sexual quality, reappear in consciousness. These continue tO'
develop, slowly at first, later more rapidly, until adolescence is reached,
when, with the maturation of the genital glands, the full expansion of
the sexual instinct sets in, with the rapidity and force, and, one may
add, with the remarkable consequences in the intellectual and the ethical
sphere, familiar to all normal persons. Thus the early stages of our
sexual development are hidden from us, the later alone remaining
apparent in consciousness.

We have then at least two reasons to attach importance to this
particular feature of emotional development in infancy. Not only do the
feelings which are called out in the course of it exert an influence on the
whole of the individual’s subsequent social life: the whole of his
subsequent sexual life is likewise influenced.

Let me follow this development a little further. I have pointed out
that an infant’s first attachment is naturally to those who are already
associated with the satisfaction of its needs ; that is, usually, to its
mother or nurse. This first attachment is irrespective of the infant’s
sex. A little later, however, the actual sex of the child begins to express
itself, aided, no doubt, by the normal hetero-sexual preferences of the
parents themselves in reference to their children. We find then, sooner
or later, in the course of normal development, that the dominant feeling
is for the parent of the opposite sex. In the case of boys, of course, this;
involves no change. In the case of girls a change is involved. It is at
this point that the so-called (Edipus situation comes into being. Where
one parent is predominantly loved, it is only natural that some degree
of jealousy and consequent dislike should be felt for the other. For the
other parent, in so far as he, or she, receives affection and consideration
from the parent who is loved to the relative exclusion of the child itself
— again the normal situation — comes quite naturally to be regarded as
a rival whose disappearance is desired. It is in this way that the
(Edipus situation comes into being and persists, until the repressions,
which herald the arrival of the latent period, set in and become dominant.
From this point on, the directly sexual elements in the love of the
parents usually disappear from consciousness, while their sublimated
representatives, affection, tenderness, and respect, usually remain.

Thus, when the second period of sexual advance sets in, the parents

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

13

have vanished to all appearance from the field of sexual feeling. But
we have already seen that disappearance from consciousness under
repression is not equivalent to extinction. The original objects of
infantile sexual feeling with the experiences associated with them persist
under repression as unconscious images, after the manner of repressed
mental material generally, and still retain a weaker or a stronger hold
on the feelings of the individual. We find that the further development
partly consists in an unconscious transference of erotic feeling from the
image of the parent originally loved to persons (finally) outside the
limits of the family. It follows that the earliest attachments are to
persons associated in some way with the parents, though not necessarily
consciously associated, since apart from this, constituted as we are, such
transference could hardly take place. There must be some bridge over
which energy can flow from the one image to the other. Where such
transference is fairly direct, the trend of the earliest attachment often
makes itself unconsciously felt both in the characteristics of the persons
who exercise attraction and in the character of the attraction itself.
Such persons are often older than the boy or girl who is attracted by
them. That is common knowledge in the case of both sexes. Further,
in the case of boys, they are often loved as queens or goddesses, rather
than as mates in the true sense, and, making the necessary changes, the
same is often true of the early attachments of young girls. The
inhibition also, which lies on the physical side of the primary infantile
attraction, often extends to some extent to these new objects of love, so
that there may be something repellent, rather than attractive, in their
association with that side of sexual feeling. Later on this child-like
attitude is, or should be, replaced by one in which lovers meet on terms
of relative equality, while the two streams of directly sexual and of
sublimated feeling become once more confluent in the experience of
fully developed love.

There are two points, then, in all this, which need to be grasped.
The first is that the original infantile sexual attraction, unconscious
under repression, tends for that very reason to retain its force and to
exert an influence on the formation of all later attachments. The second
point is, that full sexual development consists in attaining freedom from
this compulsion and from the inhibitions which may result from it, in
respect of all those feelings which, in conjunction, make up adult love.

Where such freedom is not attained, a variety of consequences may
follow. For the sake of clearness as well as brevity, I will refer here
only to two possible situations of the many which may arise.

Take first the situation which arises in cases where the normal
process of development and detachment has failed to take place, and the
individual has remained, unknown to himself or herself, at the infantile
sexual level.

Assuming that the person concerned is otherwise normal the situation
is somewhat as follows. He, or she, has passed through the first or
infantile stage of sexual development. Repression has ensued and the

14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

recollection of this stage has been obliterated from conscious memory.
But a liberation of feeling from the now unconscious images of the
parents, as they were known or imagined to be in infancy, has failed to
take place. In the unconscious they are still loved or hated as they
formerly were. As physical and mental growth proceeds and the sources
of sexual feeling develop also, all direct sexual feeling tends to be sucked
under — so far as its application to real persons in the real world is
concerned — by the attraction exerted by these primary unconscious
images and to come under the inhibition beneath which they lie. It is
clear that such an unconscious fixation (as it is often termed) of the
love impulses to such a degree must have important results in conscious-
ness itself. These results will be both positive and negative: positive
in so far as feeling will tend to be determined towards the actual parent
concerned who is the living representative of the unconscious image;
negative, in so far as there will be a failure to show feeling where a
normal person would show it.

Let us take positively determined feeling first. Powerfully
inhibited as it is, this can usually only show itself in a more or less
desexualised or sublimated manner. There may be a more than ordinary
degree of tenderness, respect, and the like, for the parent involved,
combined too often with an abnormal degree of submission to the
parent’s authority, and dependence on the parent’s protection — for the
satisfaction of infantile love lies in being loved more than in loving.
The person concerned may be all too satisfied with life in the parental
home, and very unwilling to leave it and face life on his or her own
account. All this is often accepted as evidence of exceptional filial
feeling, and may even be considered praiseworthy by the thoughtless.
It is on the negative side, in the gap in conscious feeling, that the sexual
nature of the unconscious source of this attitude comes plainly to light.
The individual fails to fall normally in love in adolescence or early
maturity. Marriage is shunned, or entered upon from loveless motives,
often with much resulting unhappiness. Lastly, when sexual relations
in marriage are attempted, psychical impotence or frigidity, in the male
or female respectively, is found to result. It results because the sexual
act itself and the feelings normally associated with it, the most direct
possible manifestation of sexuality, cannot escape from the effects of
the inhibition which their close though unconscious association with the
image of the loved parent necessarily involves.

You will note that I have chosen an extreme example. Naturally,,
all degrees between such a complete unconscious fixation of the sexual
feelings and the normal situation of practical freedom are actually found
in practice. If, indeed, by the term “ normal situation” we meant
the average situation of human beings in general, we should have to
say that the normal situation lay somewhere in between these two
extremes — nearer health of course. For while complete impotence in
men is relatively rare, degrees of relative impotence are common ; and
frigidity in women is certainly much commoner, while marked degrees
of partial frigidity are commoner still. Both conditions are the cause

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

15

of a very great deal of married unhappiness. You must not suppose,
however, that either impotence or frigidity is determined solely in all
cases in the way just described. Other factors may condition it, but
the factor just mentioned is one of the most important and is sometimes
the sole cause.

Let me now briefly describe another possible, not uncommon, and
equally unfortunate result, in cases where a strong infantile fixation
exists, but the repression is not so strong as to inhibit physical sexuality
altogether.

It is, we must remember, to the image of the parent, as he or she
was known or perhaps imagined in infancy, not to the parent who exists
in real present life, sometimes a very disappointing person, that the
desires of the individual are unconsciously bound. For instance, the
unconscious image of the mother may be from the child’s point of
view the embodiment of all beauty, tenderness, and help. From this
there may arise in some persons an endless search for the “ ideal” mate
in real life, and it is in this way that what is sometimes called the ‘ 1 Don
Juanism” of the sexual life of some men takes origin, since Don Juan
is the classic literary example of the male type. These unhappy persons
pass from one love affair to another seeking satisfaction which per-
petually eludes them, and leaving unhappiness behind them, as each
new object of desire proves somehow inexplicably wanting. It is the
forgotten ideal of their infancy whom they unconsciously seek, and hence
they can never arrive.

By an error of judgment, not uncommon on this side of human
nature, such persons are often described, in literature for example, as
love heroes and the like. Their numerous love affairs are regarded as
evidence of their unusual capacity for this emotion. But the truth is
that they are cripples. Their love affairs are evidence of their weakness,
their inability to love, not of their strength.

Such reversals of judgment are not uncommon in analysis. Thus,
in the case, previously discussed, the filial feeling which is shown is often
regarded by its bearer and only too often by the parent in question as
a virtue, while from our point of view it is a weakness and a heavy
disadvantage.

I should like to conclude these illustrations with the briefest
reference to a peculiarity of male sexuality which is so common that it
is sometimes accepted as a normal feature. I refer to a positive dissocia-
tion in feeling between direct sexual attraction on the one hand, and
tenderness, esteem, sympathy, and the other components of fully deve-
loped love on the other, so that these two groups of feelings tend to be
mutually exclusive. In the extreme case, for instance, we get a man who
is attracted physically by women whom he cannot respect, while women
whom he can respect may call out affection and admiration but not
direct sexual feeling — a disastrous situation, minor degrees of which,
however, are common. While the infantile determinants of this situa-
tion are, as a matter of fact, somewhat complicated, it is not difficult to''

16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

see in a general way, in the light of what I have already said, how
naturally, though unfortunately, such a split in feeling tends to come
about.

In discussing our emotional development and a few of the practical
consequences of the course which it follows, the main stress in what I
have said has fallen on the sensual side of sexual feeling. The reason
for this is, that it is with failure to develop on this side of human feeling
and with its effects that practice makes us most familiar. I was desirous
also that this aspect of the matter, which is fundamental from a biological
standpoint, should be placed in a clear light. But I should be sorry if
I misled you into thinking that We regard the sublimated sexual feelings,
or any of our higher feelings, as in any way of less importance than the
directly sexual ones. That is not the case. It seems to me plain on the
surface of the social situation that these feelings are of the last
importance for the future of our civilisation and our culture. It should
not be necessary to say that the fact that some of the most important of
these feelings are unconsciously interlocked with directly sexual feeling
does not diminish by one iota their value to us and to the future of
mankind. That fact, on the contrary, affords a powerful motive for the
unbiassed psychological and physiological study of the sexual instincts.
I need not say, either, that we are quite unable to share any view,
however it may describe itself, which attributes a degraded character to
functions which are the foundation of life and love in human beings.

I should like to conclude this paper with two illustrations from life,
the first of which may serve to show us how powerful, the second how
lasting, our infantile affections and longings are, immature though they
be. The first illustration is taken from the life of Gustav Theodor
Feehner, the second from Leo Tolstoi.

Gustav Theodor Feehner,1 professor of physics at the university
of Leipzig, was a man of outstanding intellectual and emotional power.
Born in 1801, he passed his medical examinations at the age of twenty-
one. Poor as he wras, he decided, instead of practising, to devote himself
to physical science. Up to the age of thirty-eight, for seventeen years
therefore, his life was passed in unremitting and, unfortunately,
unremunerative intellectual toil. Plis publications during this period
were little short of monumental, and at the same time his scientific
work, consisting of experimental researches in his own and in allied
sciences, was excellent. Some of it is classical. At the age of thirty-
eight, as a consequence, it was thought, of continuous strain, overwork,
poverty, and an eye trouble brought on, or supposed to be brought on, by
his observations on visual after-images (a classic piece of investigation),
he suffered a terrific nervous breakdown which lasted three years and
cut him off entirely from active work. So inexplicable and so malignant
did his sufferings appear, that when after three years he began to get
well, both he and others regarded his recovery as a sort of divine

1 I abridge this account of Feehner from William James (A Pluralistic Universe,

, p. 145 et seq.), using James’s words as far as possible. Comments are, of course,
mine.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

17

miracle. It was, in fact, his religions and cosmological faiths which saved
him, and thenceforward one great aim with him was to work out and
communicate these faiths to the world.

What, then, were the faiths with which he emerged from this
experience? They were very remarkable ones.

"The original sin of our thinking, according to Fechner,” says
James,1 "is our inveterate habit of regarding the spiritual not as a rule
but as the exception in nature. Instead of believing our life to be fed
at the breasts of the greater life, our individuality to be sustained by
the greater individuality, which must necessarily have more conscious-
ness and more independence than all that it brings forth (note the
character of these metaphors), we habitually treat all that lies outside
us as so much slag and ashes of life only; or, if we believe in a divine
spirit, we fancy him on the one side as bodiless, and nature as soulless
on the other. The flowers wither at the breath of such a doctrine ; the
stars turn into stone ; our own body grows unworthy of our spirit ; the
book of nature turns into a volume on mechanics ; and God becomes a
thin nest of abstractions.” To Fechner this doctrine came to seem
incredible.

For Fechner nature and the whole universe became alive and
conscious of its life. The vaster orders of mind go with the vaster orders
of body. The whole earth is alive and conscious as a vast yet unitary
spirit. Just as in ourselves the eye sees and the ear hears, the eye knows
nothing of the ear nor the ear of the eye, yet our consciousness, which
includes them both, sees and hears at once through each of them, so the
earth. Her consciousness includes all our experiences, and not only
ours but those of every animal and plant that breathes her atmosphere.
And beyond the' earth comes the whole solar system, and so from
synthesis to synthesis and height to height until an absolutely universal
consciousness is reached, the consciousness of God.

I regret that I have no space in which to repeat some of the
arguments by which Fechner supports this conclusion. They are much
more interesting and remarkable than might be supposed. However, my
present interest is different.

"In his system,” says James, "the supreme God marks only a sort
of limit of enclosure of the worlds above man. ’ ’ ( One comes ultimately,

no doubt, to something which includes everything.) The object of
Fechner ’s passionate belief is the earth soul. The Earth is our special
human guardian angel ; we can pray to the Earth as men pray to their
saints. The thought of the perfections of her life moves him as nothing
else can. "Think of her beauty, sky-blue and sunlit over one half, the
other bathed in starry night, reflecting the heavens from all her waters,
myriads of lights and shadows in the folds of her mountains and wind-
ings of her valleys, she would be a spectacle of rainbow glory, could we
only see her as she is. Green would be her dominant colour, but the

1 A Pluralistic Universe, p. 150 et seq.

18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

blue atmosphere and the clouds would enfold her as a bride is enfolded
in her veil — a veil the vaporous and transparent folds of which the
Earth, through her ministers the winds, never tires of laying and folding
about herself anew. Yes! The Earth is our great common guardian
angel, who watches over all our interests combined.”

‘ ‘ On a certain spring morning, ’ ■ says Fechner, ‘ ‘ I went out to walk.
The fields were green, the birds sang, the dew glistened, the smoke was
rising, here and there a man appeared ; a light as of transfiguration lay
on all things. It was only a little bit of the Earth ; it was only one
moment of her existence ; and yet, as my look embraced her more and
more, it seemed to me not only so beautiful an idea, but so true and
clear a fact, that she is an angel — an angel so rich and fresh and flower-
like, and yet going her round in the skies so firmly and so at one with
herself, turning her whole living face to heaven and carrying me with
her into that heaven, that I asked myself how the opinions of men could
ever have spun themselves away from life so far as to deem the earth
only a dry clod. . . . But such an experience passes for fantastic.
The earth is a globular body, and what more she may be one can find in
mineralogical cabinets. ’ ’

I should be sorry to spoil with comment what I have just read. It
is not difficult to see who it is who has returned in the person of Cybele,
the Earth Goddess. The dear companion, the divine mother, is Fechner ’s
once more, and with this tremendous sublimation he passed out of suffer-
ing and misery into happiness and health. After that he could and did
work as hard as ever, but there were no more breakdowns.

My second citation is from the diary of Tolstoi in his old age. \ 1 1
go over, ’ ’ he writes in his private diary, ‘ ‘ all the people I have loved ;
not one is suitable to whom I can come close. If I could be little and
snuggle up to my mother, as I imagine her to myself ! Yes, yes ! Mother
whom I called to when I could not speak ; yes, she, my highest imagina-
tion of pure love, not cold divine love, but earthly, warm, motherly. It
is to that that my battered weary soul is drawn. You, mother, you caress
me. All this is senseless, but it is all true.” Tolstoi’s mother died when
he was two years old.

Vol. XLII., No. 2.

19

A Geological Reconnaissance of the Linville-
Nanango District.

By E. C. Tommerup, B.Sc., A.A.C.I.

One Geological Map.

( Communicated by Dr. W. H. Bryan to the Royal Society of
Queensland, 28th April, 1930.)

Contents.

I. Introduction.

II. The Brisbane Schists.

III. The Gympie Slates.

IV. The Esk Andesitic Stage.

Y. The Esk Shale Stage.

VI. The Igneous Bocks —

(A) Granodiorites.

(B) Porphyrites.

(C) Basalts.

VII. Summary and Conclusions.

Bibliography.

Map and Section.

I.— INTRODUCTION.

The following paper is an abridged* description of studies made on
the geology of a large area situated between Linville and Nanango,
Queensland. The information was gathered during numerous traverses
made by the writer when stationed in the district on forestry work.

Little geological work has been done in the district, but considerable
assistance can be derived from various reports on some scattered mining
ifshows” associated with the edges of the granitic intrusions. The
nearest systematic surveys south of the area are those carried out by
Reid,12 Reid and Morton,13 and Hill20 on the country between Esk and
Ipswich. It is probable that the Esk series of shales and conglomerates
form a continuous belt from Esk to Linville, and that the Esk andesitic
stage forms a practically continuous strip from east of Esk to beyond
Goomeri in the north.13 15

The writer has attempted to correlate and classify the various rock
formations of the district, but does not regard the classification as either

* A contour map of the area, together with a more complete account of the area
with details of actual outcrops, portion numbers, descriptions of rock specimens,
and other important though minor details, has been deposited in typescript form in
the library of the Society, and will, it is hoped, be found useful by future workers.

.20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

complete or final. He hopes, however, that this paper will serve as a
basis for further work, and that it will assist in the geological mapping
of Queensland.

II.— THE BRISBANE SCHISTS.

What are regarded as outcrops of the Brisbane Schists appear north
of the area at Wondai and Manumbar,15 and in the south near Crow’s
Nest,12 whilst east of the area Brisbane Schists form a huge belt.17 An
outcrop of typical light-brown hard schistose shales of this series occurs
along Rocky Creek where the Yarraman-Nanango road crosses it; they
strike N.N.W. and dip 80° E. In the creek bed jasper pebbles are found
some of which carry radiolarian casts. On Por. 292 Cooyar, serpentine
rock may be seen in an old shaft. Outcrops of typical and almost
vertical N.N.W". -striking schists are to be seen close to Yarraman town-
ship, on the Upper Yarraman road. A considerable extent of slates,
hard sandstones, and quartzites outcrop to the north and east of
Nanango, and these also appear to belong to this formation though
Rands1 regarded them as belonging to the Gympie Series.

III.— THE GYMPIE SERIES.

A number of patches of massive, jointed, hard, fine-grained, dark-
coloured, bluish grey to black metamorphosed slates of somewhat doubtful
age outcrop in various places in the district, frequently associated with
granite intrusions. Usually no dip or strike is discernible. Fine quartz
veins may be seen in this rock, which is regarded as belonging to the
Gympie Series on account of lithological similarity with outcrops in
other parts of the district3 18 which contain fossils.

A typical outcrop is seen close to Benarkin railway station. Further
•outcrops have been described by Ball3 11 21 from the neighbourhood of
T'aromeo. Mr. Ball’s work has been incorporated in the accompanying
map.

Several patches of these slaty rocks may be observed between Benarkin
and Yarraman Creek. They strike roughly N.W. and are practically
vertical. Their positions are given on the map.

IV.—1 THE ESK SERIES, ANDESITIC STAGE.

I have to report the find of the. Goomeri Volcanics farther to the
south than mapped by Mr. Reid in his report.15 Typical andesitic
agglomerates and intrusive andesites are to be seen near Marbletop
east of Nanango, and on adjacent lands. The following is Mr. A. K.
Denmead’s description of a microslide of a specimen taken from near
the boundary between R. 456 and the northern end of R. 299 Avoca : —
'“A fine-grained rock exhibiting a pronounced fluidal structure under
the microscope. The groundmass consists of rods and needles of plagio-
clase, epidote, magnetite, and chlorite in a more or less devitrified glass.
There are phenocrysts of plagioclase felspar, more or less decomposed,
and of hornblende partially or entirely converted to a mass of chlorite
and epidote. Name : andesite. ’ ’

GEOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE OF LINVILLE-NANANGO DISTRICT. 21

The whole of this area is made lip of intrusive andesites and masses
of andesitic agglomerates (or perhaps tuffs) which occur on top of the
Brisbane Range and in the beds of Burnettine Creek below. Probably
the western boundary of the series passes through Por. 279 Coolabunia,
and west of Paradise Creek in R. 299 Avoca (51v). It will be noticed
that an imaginary extension of this boundary line leads roughly along
the Blackbutt Range for about eight miles. There is thus the possibility
that this range is a fault scarp. There, is much evidence of faulting
showing in the railway cuttings between Benarkin and Linville.

The writer was able to follow the andesite series continuously south
from Goomeri to the head of the Brisbane River and beyond Mount
Stanley at least as far as the junction of Avoca Creek with the Brisbane
River. This series covers a wide area and consists of massive andesitic
agglomerates and intrusives with perhaps tuffs, &c. The agglomerate
is perhaps the most common type, and along the road from Goomeri to
Mount Stanley down the Brsbane River (west branch) it consists mainly
of angular fragments of andesitic rock embedded im a matrix of what
appears in the hand specimen to be lava and perhaps also consolidated
tuffaeeous material.

On the east branch of the Brisbane River a few miles below Mount
Gibbarnee, the agglomerate consists of pebbles from very small up to
boulder size embedded in a matrix of andesitic (?) lava. The pebbles,
are sometimes pinkish, due probably to oxidation, but many are of grey
andesite which exhibits phenocrvsts of plagioelase and pyroxene set
in a fine-grained groundmass. Occasional pebbles of milky quartz and
chert also occur. Along the west branch the series is seen forming cliffs
in several places, and disjointed and irregular bedding may be seen.
There does not seem to be any definite dip or strike, but joint planes are
numerous. Nevertheless one can sometimes make out a general N. and
S. trend and a general dip of 50-60° E.N.E, can be observed on T.R. 59v.

Rands1 and Jackson8 have visited Gooroomjam Creek,23 which rises
in the Brisbane Range near the eastern edge of the andesite belt. These
geologists studied the ore-bodies which exist there and described the
country rock as fine-grained diorite. Recently the area has been mapped
by McGrath and Jennings,24 and their reports indicate that generally
speaking the rock on the western side of Bunya Creek on R. 154 Gallan-
gowan is a porphyritic hornblende andesite, whilst that on the eastern
side, is a more typically textured andesite. This distinction also holds
for the northern end of R. 329 Avoca. Near the head-waters of Gooroom-
jam Creek there are granodioritic intrusions in massive diorites. In
short, this locality seems to have been a centre of disturbance, on the
edge of the andesitic belt.

V.— THE ESK SERIES, SHALE STAGE.

The next series of rocks to receive consideration comprises a number
of outcrops of shale and conglomerate situated as follows : —

(a) A large outcrop in the vicinity of Tarong. This series con-
sists of coarse, conglomerates and shales. The pebbles are made up of

22 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

rhyolite, chert, &.c. : some large (12 in. diam.), but usually about
3 in. diarn. and smaller. In some places a slight secondary pressure
or chemical metamorphism has produced a gritty textured quartzite.

(b) An outcrop of grey shale and conglomerate occurs on Por. 25
Cooyar, and dips 15° E.N.E.

(c) On T.R. 369 Cooyar, at the head of Oaky Creek, conglomerates
very similar to those seen near Tarong outcrop. They are definitely
overlaid by basalt on the eastern corner of the reserve. The Spring
Creek gorge near-by, which is a couple of hundred feet deep, is cut
entirely in basalt. The relationship of this conglomerate bed to the
granite was not determined, but the conglomerate is almost certainly
younger.

(d) A patch of conglomerate and shales occurs on Upper Yarraman
Creek, accompanied by a small seam of steam coal in Por. 84v. The
seam is said to be about 6 in. thick and is accompanied by fossils. An
analysis of a sample of this coal gave the following results : —

Per cent.

Moisture at 100° C.

... 5-1

Volatile matter

26-3

Fixed carbon

55-2

Ash (grey colour)

. . . . . 13-4

100-0

The conglomerates exposed in the gully consist of numerous pebbles of
typical Brsbane Schist, of typical black slates like those regarded as
Gympie Series, of sandstone, banded cherts, milky quartz, rhyolite, &c.,
set in a sandy or mudstone matrix. The conglomerate beds are mingled
with layers of grits, sandstones, and shales, and exhibit current bedding.
Much secondary red ferruginous staining has been produced by per-
colating waters. Mr. Ball21 has also examined this locality and he
quotes dips of 10 to 15° N.N.W. on Yarraman Creek.

(e) Very similar conglomerate beds are seen near Kooralgin; these
dip at 25° S.E. This outcrop is also overlaid by a large outcrop of basalt
in Por. 153 which appears to be intrusive in this locality.

(f) Mr. K. P. McGrath,24 has mapped an area of fossiliferous con-
glomeratic shales along Moonarumbi Creek in R. 245 Monsildale wrhich
are probably assignable to the Esk Series. Conglomerates are also to be
found farther south.25

(g) Jack2 mentions conglomerates below basalt on Por. 5v Burran-
dowan.

On lithological grounds the writer regards all these outcrops as
belonging to the Esk Shales (Ipswich basal conglomerate stage).20

Esk shales outcrop on the southerly slope of the Blackbutt Range
and are seen along the Linville-Benarkin railway and along the main
road.3 An examination of the railway cuttings revealed that there was
much evidence of faulting in this locality, the dips varying considerably
over short distances: 10° E. to 60° E. being approximate limits, with a

GEOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE OF LINVILLE-NANANGO DISTRICT. 23

general strike N.N.W. The beds are conglomeratic with pebbles of
chert, rhyolite, and what appear to be fragments of Brisbane Schist
and Gympie Slates, but no granitic or basic rocks. Fossiliferous beds
are present. Numerous interbedded dark greywackes occur, notably
between the 75-78 mile posts. Some are narrow bands, others thick,
the variation ranging from 10 to 150 ft. These greywackes can be
regarded as sandstones composed of quartz, felspar, rock fragments, and
other detritus from some weathered basic rock. Typical Esk shales and
conglomerates outcrop at several points along the Brisbane Valley
railway south of Linville.

A specimen of a basic rock from part of the ( ?) Esk Series, collected
near Burnt Hill Forestry Barracks (position marked on map with an
asterisk), was sectioned and described for me by Mr. Denmead as
follows : — ‘ 1 A clastic rock composed largely of fragments of andesite
and of some fine-grain sedimentary rock (slate or shale) ; partially
kaolinised felspar crystals are numerous. Very scarce angular quartz
fragments also occur. The few ferro-magnesian minerals are very
decomposed and are now represented by leaves and irregular masses
of chlorite which occur interstitially. A few iron-ore fragments are
present. The groundmass is not clearly defined. The rock is an
andesitic tuff.”

VI.— IGNEOUS ROCKS.

The igneous rocks of the area are rather complex and not easily
correlated. Three main types can be distinguished, and are indicated on
the map —

(a) A series of grey granodiorites which are younger than the
intruded Gympie Series but older than the overlying Esk
beds.

(b) A series of andesitic rocks which, to avoid confusion, are
termed porphyrites, though some outcrops are perhaps not
precisely true to label. These rocks are apparently closely
associated with the granodiorites.

(c) The basalts, which outcrop along the Cooyar Range and
elsewhere, and which are younger than the Esk Shale Series.

(A) The Granodiorites.

These rocks usually contain a sufficiency of quartz, though Mr. Ball3
quotes syenite from the foot of Mount Metier a and from other localities.
Associated with the granites, too, are small flows of trachytes and
rhyolites. The Taromeo, Nanango, and other areas have been mineralised
and several shafts have been operated in the past for ores of copper,
silver, gold, and other metals which are found in close proximity to the
granite outcrops.

Numerous outcrops of granodioritic rocks are found in the area,
and all those so far described* are marked in on the accompanying map.

* A fuller description of the outcrops will be found in the original typescript
of this paper deposited in the Society’s library.

24 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Those described from the Nanango Goldfield,1- 8 Taromeo district 3 11 2t
Gooroomjam Creek,8 24 Mount Monsildale,7 25 Jumna Creek,2 Kunioon,19
and Dattu Dattu,9 10 are taken from literature ; the remainder are
personal observations.

In several localities where the granites intrude the ( ?) Gympie
Series an interesting type of contact breccia is found in the granitic
aureole. Examples may be seen on the Gilla-Kooralgin road and old
Yarraman-Nanango stock route. The contact zones are marked by out-
crops of laminated sericitised rhyolites associated with peculiar volcanic
agglomerate consisting mainly of a dark felsite containing much quartz,
small phenocrysts of felspars, traces of mica and ferro-magnesian
minerals and xenoliths of other associated rocks. On Cooyar Creek in
Por. 42v fluxion structure is clearly seen in felsite associated with
altered andesites. The same phenomenon is described from other
localities.3 4 5 8 Evidently the punching magma distends and cuts the
country rock and produces a crush breccia which is then indurated and
a kind of volcanic agglomerate is formed, (c/. Tyrrell, ‘ Principles
of Petrology,” p. 20.)

(B) The Porphyrites.

In numerous places in the area the granodiorites apparently pass
continuously into porphyrites. These junctions, however, need special
investigation. Miss D. Hill (personal communication) has examined the
junction of the granite and the porphyrite at Cooyar Creek crossing,
and considers that the granite is intrusive into the porphyrite. The
porphyrite outcrop is fairly typical of those in the district, and consists
of phenocrysts of plagioclase undergoing saussuritization ; small pheno-
crysts of chloritised amphibole and small crystals of pyrite may also be
observed. Similar material outcrops in Por. 42 Cooyar and at Din Din
(C. and W.R. 54 Cooyar). At 83 J m. on the Linville-Benarkin railway
a basalt containing felspar, olivine, ilmenite, secondary quartz, epidote,
and pyrite may be seen associated with a granitic intrusion.

(C) The Basalts.

Ball3 describes a fayalite basalt from Mount Mellqra near Taromeo ;
he regards the mountain as the site of an extinct volcano, and notices
that “the lava flows have not passed over the Ipswich beds but abut
against their edges as against a cliff (but probably they are of later age
than the Ipswich).”

The Cooyar Range basalts (or andesites) are fairly typical in that
they weather to give a red loam soil, and also because they contain, in
some localities, numerous inclusions of foreign rocks, and when this
agglomerate weathers it exhibits a curious “puddingstone” appearance,
patchy white xenoliths standing out in contrast to the weathering matrix
proper, which is of a ferruginous red hue. This basalt extends all along
the Cooyar Range and for some miles on either side. It overlies the

GEOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE OF LIN VILLE-N AN AN GO DISTRICT. 25

conglomerate beds regarded as Esk Series and also overlies granite. It
peters ont towards Nanango. It is probably contemporaneous in age
with the Mount Mellera basalt, with the Tingoora and Boat Mountain
basalts,15 and with the Main Range basalts — that is, with the Upper
Tertiary basalts of Professor Richards.22 Specimens from cliff boulders
from R. 510 (lv) at the head of Cooyar Creek proved to be basaltic
glass or tachylite, associated with which is an ironstone rock of a slag-
like appearance. From the nature and position of this outcrop it seems
probable that the junction of the Great Dividing Range, Bunya Moun-
tains, and Cooyar Range is the seat of a Tertiary centre of vulcanieity.
(See Harker, “ Petrology for Students,” p. 207.)

The Bunya Mountains appear to be composed entirely of basalt.
Jack2 describes basalt from the mountains at the heads of the Boyne
River, Jumna and Ironpot Creeks. He mentions, too, that sedimentary
strata occur interbeclded with the basalt flows on the slopes leading up
from Jimbour to the Bunyas.

On part of S.F.R. 316 a somewhat curious agglomeratic rock exists ;
in the hand specimen fragments of chert, slate, &c., may be seen set in a
dark groundmass, and the rock is not unlike specimens from the Esk
andesitic stage. A sample of this rock selected from the western end
of Por. 53v was sectioned for me by Mr. A. K. Denmead, M.Sc., and his
report on it is very interesting : —

“A medium-grained rock of even texture with the following minerals
in order of abundance : —

1. Felspar usually much kaolinised, where recognisable belonging

to the plagioclase group. Occurs in sub-idiomorphic to
extremely irregular individuals. One or two individuals of
fresh potash felspar (microcline) occur in the section. The
felspar constitutes about one-third of the rock.

2. Augite in irregular individuals with a maximum length of

one millimetre, colourless to pale green — about one-tenth of
the rock.

3. Hornblende in small brown grains somewhat less abundant

than augite.

4. Quartz usually large angular grains 35-40 individuals in the

section (which is one inch square).

5. Chlorite occurs as interstitial material and as a decomposition

product of ferro-magnesian minerals (olivine?).

6. Biotite occurs sparingly.

7. Magnetite.

8. Ilmenite altering to —

9. Leucoxene.

10. Pyrite very sparingly.

11. 1 'n addition to the foregoing there are fragments of slate.

26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

“The rock has evidently been derived from a basic or intermediate
rock and fragments of quartz and slate have been added. It is not a tuff,
for there is no ashy material. It possibly could, however, have been
derived from a tuff by a process of natural elutriation.”

It will be noticed that this outcrop is bounded on the east by a
granite porphyrite complex, on the north and south by rhyolite, and
about a mile or so to the west by Brisbane Schists. One hesitates to offer
an explanation as to the relationships of this rock to the others in the
district ; suffice it to state that examples of it occur in numerous places
along the andesite-granite boundary from S.F.R. 316 to Yarraman
railway yard, where it shows jointing, probably due to faulting. It
should, perhaps, be considered as part of the porphyrites.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.

It is customary to give a set of conclusions at the close of a paper
such as this ; but the writer fears that the facts which he has to offer are
too incomplete to suggest any reliable hypotheses which would correlate
all the rocks of the district. Even the geological boundaries on the
accompanying map are largely interpolated. However, a brief discus-
sion of the rock sequence may prove useful to future workers.

The oldest rocks in South Queensland are the Brisbane Schists,
which form a practically continuous block to the east of a line joining
Pine Mountain to Kilkivan. An outcrop of this series occurs between
Yarraman and Wondai.

Between Yarraman and Esk there are several outcrops of slates
which probably belong to the Gympie Series ; whether they are deposited
in situ or are faulted into their present position is not clear.

The age and meaning of the porphyrite intrusions is not clear;
they seem to be older than the granodiorites, and might possibly be
related to the massive Esk andesitic stage farther east.

There is doubtless some significance in the fact that the Esk
conglomerate beds of the district contain numerous pebbles of milky
quartz, jaspers, Brisbane Schist, Gympie Slates, rhyolite, &e., but very
few, if any, basic pebbles, with the notable exception of some interbedded
greywackes. The conglomerates overlie the granitic intrusions but are
overlaid by the ( ?) Tertiary Cooyar Basalts.

It gives me pleasure to express my gratitude to Miss D. Hill, M.Sc.,
for references to literature and for helpful criticism ; to Dr. W. H. Bryan
for encouragement and advice ; to Mr. L. C. Ball, B.E., for kind permis-
sion to utilise his unpublished sketch-maps of the district ; to Mr. A. K.
Denmead, M.Sc., for very considerable petrographic and other assist-
ance ; to Mr. E. IT. F. Swain for his consent to use information from
forest surveys; to Mr. F. E. Connah, F.I.C., for the analysis of the coal
sample from Por. 84v; and to Mr. C. Yfoods and Mr. H. Everist for aid
in drafting the map and section.

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GEOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE OF LINVILLE-NANANGO DISTRICT. 27

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1. Queensland Geological Survey Pub.

No. 29, 1886

2. Queensland Geological Survey Pub.

No. 114, 1896

3. Queensland Geological Survey Pub.

No. 159, 1900

4.

Queensland

Government

Mining

J ournal,

1901, p. 466

5.

Queensland

Government

Mining

Journal,

1901, p. 468

6.

Queensland

Government

Mining

Journal,

1901, p. 469

'7.

Queensland

Government

Mining

Journal,

1901, p. 530

S. Queensland Geological Survey Pub.
169, 1901

9. Queensland Government Mining
Journal, 1903, p.,188

10. Queensland Government Mining

Journal, 1906, p. 467

11. Queensland Government Mining

Journal, 1912, p. Ill

12. Queensland Government Mining

Journal, Dec. 1922, p. 462

13. Queensland Government Mining

Journal, Jan. 1923, p. 7

14. Proceedings, Royal Society of

Queensland, 1924, p. 44

15. Queensland Government Mining

Journal, Mar. 1925, p. 87

16. Proceedings, Royal Society of

Queensland, 1924, p. 134

17. Proceedings, Royal Society of

Queensland, 1927, p. 71

18. Proceedings, Royal Society of

Queensland, Sept. 1926, p. xiv.

19. Queensland Government Mining

Journal, Mar. 1929, p. 101

20. Proceedings, Royal Society of

Queensland, 1929, p. 162

21. Unpublished sketch-maps to accom-

pany (3) above

22. Proceedings, Royal Society of

Queensland, 1916, p. 194

23. Quarterly Journal Geological Society,

1872, p. 300

24. Queensland Forest Service Files:

Reports on survey of S.F.R.
154 Gallangowan, 245 Monsil-
dale, and 329 Avoca

Rands: Report' on Nanango Goldfield.

Jack: Notes on Bunya Range.

Ball: Report on Taromeo District.

Jackson: Rising and North Star

Mines.

Jackson: Great Pyramid Mine.

Jackson : Milford Rocks Gold Area.

Jackson: Silver-lead at' Monsildale.

Jackson : Mines at the heads of the
Brisbane River.

Cameron : Dattu Dattu Mine.

Ball: Dattu Dattu Mine.

Ball: Mines near Taromeo.

Reid: Coal in West Moreton.

Reid and Moreton: Geology of Esk.

Richards and Bryan: Geology of
Silverwood.

Reid: Murgon-Goomeri District.

Richards and Bryan: Radiolaria in
Brisbane Schists.

Denmead: Brisbane Schists.

Richards and Bryan: Permo-Carb.
Fossils on Cressbrook Creek.

Denmead: Kaolin No. 14.

Hill: Esk Shale Series.

Ball.

Richards: Volcanics of South-eastern
Queensland.

Daintree.

Forest Assistants McGrath and
Jennings, 1929.

25. The plan of S.F.R. 343 Monsildale, 1915, Cg. 806, mentions “conglomerates
slate, granite ” in different places which are marked on map herewith.

28

Vol. XLIL, No. 3.

The Development of the Esk Series between
Esk and Linville.

With reference to the Possible Occurrence of Workable Coal.

By Dorothy Hill, M.Sc., Research Scholar, University of Queensland.

Two Geological Maps.

( Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 28th April, 1930.)

Table of Contents.

I. Introduction and Acknowledgments.

II. Previous Work.

III. Physiography.

IY. Tectonic Structure—

(A) Marginal Faulting,

(B) Central Folding and Faulting.

Y. The Upper Esk Series.

YI. The Lower Esk Series.

YU. Igneous Activity —

(A) The Andesitic Boulder Beds.

(B) The Acid Tuff Stage.

(C) The Brisbane Yalley Porphyrites.

(D) Miscellaneous Igneous Bocks.

YIII. Possible Presence of Coal Fields.

IX. Summary and Conclusion.

I.— INTRODUCTION AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

This work was carried out by the author while holding the Scholar-
ship for the Encouragement of Original Research of the University of
Queensland, field expenses being defrayed by a grant from the
Commonwealth Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, the
latter being made so that the possibilities of coal in the Brisbane Yalley
might be explored. The country dealt with extends from Kipper Creek
and Bellevue on the south to Avoca Yale and the heads of Sheep Station
Creek on the north. The average width is 20 miles, and the length
38 miles, making a total area of 760 square miles. Half of this area
(about 380 square miles) has been examined in some detail during the
ten weeks’ fieldwork, but the other half, on the east of the Brisbane
River, has only been touched upon, as may be judged from the few
geological data appearing on that half of the map.

The method of working was on horseback from private homes and
hotels, one eminently suitable for the district, which is closely settled;

DEVELOPMENT OF ESK SERIES BETWEEN ESK AND LINVILLE.

29

while for the outlying Happy Creek area a car camp was arranged, from
which the work was again done on horseback.

In investigating the possible occurrence of coalfields the following
method was adopted: — A study was made of the tectonic structures of
the area, of which previously little had been known ; and, concurrently
with this, the lithology of the different types of sediments was examined
with a view to determining the conditions of deposition of each. From
the knowledge thus gained, localities favourable for the occurrence of
coal were deduced. The localities thus determined were then examined
in as much detail as time permitted for traces of coal.

These investigations forced one to the conclusion that conditions are
distinctly unfavourable for the occurrence of a large field of coal, but it
is possible that small occurrences capable of allowing small collieries
to supply part of the needs of the Brisbane Valley, including those of
the railway line, may be found in some of the synclinal areas. But,
apart from this rather negative economic value of the investigations, it
is believed that the data collected during the course of the work have
more than justified the time and money spent in the field, for they form
a very important addition to the knowledge of the tectonic and volcanic
geology of our Triassic deposits.

The hospitality and cordiality of the people in the Brisbane Valley
made the work very pleasant. In particular I wish to thank Mr. and
Mrs. T. J. Coleman of Toogoolawah, Mr. and Mrs. B. G. White of
Moorabool, Mr. and Mrs. George Graham of Ettswold, Mrs. Moore and
Miss Moore of Colinton, Mrs. J. H. McConnel and Miss Ursula McConnel
of Cressbrook, Miss Gardner of Dingyarra, Mr. Marson and Mr. Launder
of Toogoolawah, and Mr. and Mrs. R. Whyte of Happy Creek. Their
generous hospitality and ready assistance made the fieldwork seem like
a pleasant holiday amongst friends ; and it was with regret that the last
field excursion was completed.

Mr. C. C. Morton, of the Geological Survey of Queensland, most
kindly made available to me his unpublished reconnaissance maps of
the area between Esk and Ottaba, and the Great Moreton Fault Area;
while the Rev. C. IT. Massey and Dr. Bryan have given me dip readings
along the main road from Esk to Benarkin. Dr. Bryan also read the
manuscript and suggested many improvements.

II.— PREVIOUS WORK.

(A) Bibliography.

In published work on the Brisbane Valley, short references only
to the Mesozoic rocks may be found, since the chief object of the reports
has been to deal with mineral occurrences in the Palaeozoic rocks.

(1) 1885. C. Stutchbury: 15th Report, N.S.W.L.A. Papers, vol. 1,
p. 1185. This describes traverses made from Kilcoy down the valley
of the Stanley River, and from Kilcoy west to Colinton, from Colinton
through Balfour’s (Wallaby) and Jeromeo (Taromeo) Creeks to Bonera

30

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

(Boonara) and Bonbyjan. Unfortunately this report is not of much
assistance owing to the rather indefinite usage of the terms 1 1 porphyry ’ y
and “trap” and to the difficulty of placing exactly its localities. But
Stutchbury seems to have been the first to recognise the important
felspar porphyry series intruding the Mesozoic Coal Measures.

(2) 1892. R. L. Jack and R. Etheridge: G.S.Q.P. 63, “The
Geology and Palaeontology of Queensland and New Guinea.” In this
the only references to the area under discussion are to “Colinton” and
“Kilcoy Range above Cressbrook,” both as fossil plant localities.

(3) 1901. L. C. Ball’s Annual Report, A.R.G.S. for 1900 • G.S.Q.P.
159. The report has notes on a journey from Esk to Taromeo over the
Blackbutt Range, mentioning “trachyte (?) tuffs and (?) sheets” in
the Mesozoic Coal Measures on Wallaby Creek and on the climb up
the range.

(4) 1901. C. F. Y. Jackson: “Mines near Esk,” Q.G.M.J., pp. 466,
468, 469, and 530. This refers to Palaeozoic rocks only.

(5) 1903. W. E. Cameron: “The Dattu Dattu Mine,” Q.G.M.J.,
p. 188. This also refers to Palaeozoic rocks only.

(6) 1906. L. C. Ball: “The Upper Brisbane Valley,” Q.G.M.J.,
p. 470. This contains a short reference to coaly outcrops in the Trias-
Jura at the head of Wallaby Creek, and on the Esk-Nanango road.

(7) 1912. L. C. Ball: “Mines in the Parish of Taromeo,” Q.G.M.J.,
p. 111. Here Trias-Jura rocks are described lying unconformably on
Permo-Carboniferous sediments near Taromeo Station.

(8) 1912. E. O. Marks: “Prospects of Coal at Esk,” Q.G.M.J,
p. 322. Dr. Marks reports unfavourably on certain indications of coal
near Esk.

(9) 1912. E. O. Marks: “On the Geological Age of South-eastern
Queensland Volcanic Rocks,” P.R.S.Q:., p. 139. A Mesozoic age is
advocated for certain trachytes near Esk.

(10) 1916. H. C. Richards: “Volcanic Rocks of South-eastern
Queensland,” P.R.S.Q., vol. 27, No. 7. Places the trachytes above
(Marks, 1912 (9)) into the Tertiary.

(11) 1918. A. B. Walkom: “The Geology of the Lower Mesozoic
Rocks of Queensland,” Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. xliii. A short
reference is here made (p. 55) to the belt of rocks between Esk and
Cooyar Creek as Walloon.

(12) 1923. J. H. Reid and C. C. Morton: “The Geology of the
Country between Esk and Ipswich,” Q.G.M.J., p. 7. They define the
Esk Series from its occurrence south of Esk, as follows : —

f Esk Trachytes.

Esk Series = )> Esk Shales and Bellevue Conglomerates.

Andesitic Stage.

DEVELOPMENT OF ESK SERIES BETWEEN ESK AND LINVILLE. 31

(13) 1926. H. C. Richards: “ Volcanic Activity in Queensland, ’ ’
A.A.A.S., 1924, p. 285-287. Reid and Morton’s (12) placing of the
Esk Trachytes as Mesozoic is criticised.

(14) 1927. E. 0. Marks: “ Streams and Their Past,” The Queens-
land Naturalist, vol. vi., No. 2, pp. 28 and 29. Here the Brisbane River
and its tributaries are discussed with reference to geological structures
possibly determining their courses.

(15) 1930. Dorothy Hill: “The Stratigraphical Relationship of
the Shales about Esk to the Sediments of the Ipswich Basin,” P.R.S.Q.,
vol. xli., p. 162. The Esk Series is redefined for the area south of Esk, as
follows : —

f Esk Shales = Bellevue Conglomerates = Basal

1 ^ . J Ipswich Conglomerates.

Bsk series = ^ Acid Tuff Stage = Brisbane Tuff>

(^Andesitic Boulder Beds.

(B) Unpublished Work

In addition to the above, Mr. C. C. Morton did some preliminary
mapping in the area between Esk and Ottaba, and along the Great
Moreton Fault Area, and kindly made available to me his data. Rev.
C. H. Massey and Dr. W. H. Bryan have given me notes of outcrops
along the main road from Esk to Benarkin, and Mr. E. C. Tommerup
has prepared for publication a paper on the country at the heads of the
Brisbane River, to the north and north-west of Linville.

III.— PHYSIOGRAPHY.

^Physiographically the area shown on the map consists of a long
trough of Triassic sediments set in higher walls of Palaeozoic rocks.
In the western wall, head a number of streams which run to the centre
of the Mesozoic trough as the western tributaries of the Brisbane River,
which flows in a series of short meanders in a general south-easterly
direction about the axis of the trough. The general direction of these
tributaries is north-easterly, at right angles to the strike of both Palaeo-
zoic and Triassic deposits. Those streams heading in the eastern Palaeozoic
highlands have a general westerly course, and run into the, Stanley
River and the Brisbane River below its confluence with the Stanley,
which flows southerly close against the eastern faulted junction of
Triassic and Palaeozoic. While in the schists, however, the Stanley
follows a westerly course.

The general direction of the Brisbane River is a straight north-
westerly line with meanders of short radius to either side. From
Avoca Creek to south of Moorabool the position of the river has been
determined by the Colinton axis of disturbance,* and possibly also by
the Neara Creek Disturbance. The junction of the Upper and Lower
Esk Series closely follows the course of the river.

The northern part of the Eastern Border Fault is responsible for
the course of Sheep Station Creek.

* Marks, 1927: The Qld. Naturalist, vol. vi., No. 2, pp. 28, 29.

32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The divide between the Brisbane and the Stanley is formed by
the Toogoolawah mountains (Kilcoy Range) rising to over 2,000 ft. ;
i.e., it is higher than the highlands of the schist walls. This height of
Triassic sediments is due to their intense hardening by intrusions of
felspar-hornblende, porphyry, and granodiorite along a line of
disturbance. So sudden is the rise to the range from the surrounding
country that erosion at the heads of streams has cut high canyon
walls (e.g., Black Jack’s Creek), while one mile downstream the same
creek meanders about in its own alluvial plains. There are many
unscaleable cliffs on the eastern side of the range also. The streams
running into the Brisbane River have a general south-westerly course,
while those running into the Stanley flow easterly. This divide is much
closer to the Stanley than to the Brisbane, so that the former is confined
on both sides, and in its lower course has had to cut its way through
rhyolite and a large granodiorite intrusion, forming the well-known
Stanley Gorge. This is in strong contrast to the Brisbane River, which
has great wide alluvial flood-plains.

The important topographical units are thus three : —

(1) The bordering highlands of Palaeozoic rocks;

(2) The basin of Triassic rocks, with its unsymmetrically placed
backbone ;

(3) The Toogoolawah mountains (Brisbane-Stanley Divide).

When the streams head in the Palaeozoic rocks, their feeding gullies
are Y-shaped, steeply inclined, and of varying heights, while the tops of
the ridges on which they are cut are approximately equal in hgight
(which might perhaps be regarded as evidence of a pre-Mesozoic erosion
level) . The streams themselves in the schists have rocky banks, or narrow
flood-plains built up of angular pebbles ; but when they flow down on
to the Triassics they have wide alluvial flood-plains of black soil, in which
they are constantly changing their courses. The great flood-plain of
Cressbrook Creek is one of the most noticeable of the topographic
features. It is wider than that of the Brisbane River itself.

Thus the normal erosion of the Triassic rocks is a mature type ; but,
when they have been hardened by intrusion, youthful forms result (as
seen in the Toogoolawah mountains). A line of hills, the Moore-Harlin
ridges, runs N.W. to S.E. close to the western banks of the Brisbane
River, crossing the river and running east at Harlin as the Staghurst
Range to join the Toogoolawah mountains ; and this line shows topography
characteristic of steeply dipping differentially hardened basin sediments,
A similar line of ridges runs from Ivory’s Creek through Toogoolawah
and Ottaba.

A second type of highland in the Triassics is due to the differential
hardness of the unintruded sediments when trachytes are interbedded.
The latter weather into long ridges when the dip is pronounced, and
into flat-topped hills when the dip is negligible. Thus the rough country
forming the foothills to the Blackbutt Range and the high banks of the

DEVELOPMENT OF ESK SERIES BETWEEN ESK AND LINVILLE.

33

Brisbane River at Wheeler’s Crossing are due to trachytes interbedded
in sediments with rapidly changing dips, while the ranges about Coal
Creek settlement owe their altitude to the capping of gently dipping
Triassie trachyte.

The topography on the east of the river north and north-west of
the Staghurst Range is most striking but monotonous. It consists of
spherical, conical, or elliptical humps rising with arcuate (convex)
profiles out of U-shaped gullies. They reach no great height above these
gullies (80-100 ft.), but their convex profiles give them a forbidding
steepness. They form excellent grazing country. This is the Andesitic
Boulder Bed type of topography, and is persistent from Gregor’s Creek
to Monsildale Creek. Where it is hardened by intrusion, only the size
of the hump is exaggerated.

Tertiary intrusions into flattish Triassie trachytes account for the
great Mount Esk mass overlooking Esk from the east ; a Tertiary rhyolite
flow for the steep hill opposite Ottaba station; while a development of
fluidal rhyolite forms the divide between the Cressbrook and Buaraba
waters.

The Bundanba sandstone in the south weathers to characteristic
mild ‘* 1 Hawkesbury ’ ’ forms, due to the massive nature and gentle dips.
It is rich in springs.

The whole of the trough of Mesozoic sediments forms excellent well-
watered grazing and dairying country, while the value of the western
wall of Palaeozoic rocks lies mainly in its timber content. It is not well
watered, and is much rougher than the country in the trough, and
consequently is of much less value.

IV.— TECTONIC STRUCTURE.

The Esk Series (of Triassie age) between Esk and Linville has been
trough-faulted into Palaeozoic rocks along lines parallel to the geological
grain of South-eastern Queensland — i.e., north-west. The Esk Series in
the trough may be divided into two conformable units — the Upper Esk
Series,* including the northern represental ives of both Acid Tuff Stagef
.and Esk shales, and the Lower Esk Series ( Andesitic Stage or Andesitic
Boulder Beds). The distribution of the Upper and Lower Esk Series in
the trough is remarkable. The Lower Esk Series is entirely confined to
the north-eastern half of the trough, and the Upper Esk (with the excep-
tion of certain ( ?) faulted blocks in the Toogoolawah mountains) to the
south-western. The reason for this distribution is not yet understood.
Tilting of the Esk Series to the west before the trough-faulting seems
the most likely of the many explanations offering.

* The combination of the Esk shales and Acid Tuff Stage into the Upper
Esk Series is desirable in this paper because the work has not been detailed enough
to sort out the northern equivalents of these two stages; and for the sake of
uniformity the Andesitic Boulder Beds are here referred to as the Lower Esk Series.

i Proe. Boy. Soe. Qld., vol. xli., 1930, p. 169.

R.S.— C

34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The most striking tectonic features of the trough are three axes of
disturbance — the Ottaba axis, the Colinton axis, and the Toogoolawah
mountains disturbance. All three are represented by topographic high-
lands. The first two of these are Aery sharp, fractured anticlines
accompanied by intrusions along the line of disturbance, and the third
will probably prove to be similar. Between these axes and the margins
of the trough there are gentle synclinal structures. A development of
Bundanba sandstone overlies with apparent conformity the most
southerly development of the Upper Esk Series in this area, both being
involved in the Western Border faulting.

At present there is no evidence to show whether the trough-faulting
dropping down the Triassic sediments into the Palaeozoic rocks occurred
before, after, or contemporaneously with the folding and faulting within
the trough. The Ottaba anticlinal fracturing took place before the
extrusion of the Ottaba Tertiary rhyolite, and the marginal faulting
occurred before the extrusion of the Ettswold Tertiary rhyolites and
after the deposition of the Bundanba sandstone.

(A) Marginal Faulting.

(a) Western Border Fault* System and Associated Palaeozoic Bocks.

This system covers the number of intersecting faults forming the
western boundary of the Esk Series, with downthrow always towards
the east. At Pryde’s Pinch, Bundanba sandstones are downfaulted
against pyritised (?) Permo-Carboniferous cherts and tuffs; but on the
Kipper Divide the fault is overlapped by the Tertiary Ettswold rhyolite.
North of the outcrop of this overlapping rhyolite, at Cressbrook Creek,
the downthrow side of the fault (which there runs N.N.E.) is occupied
by vertical Upper Esk conglomerates and trachytes. These are faulted
against compact blue fossiliferous calcareous sediments and felspar
porphyries of undoubted Permo-Carboniferous age, which strike N.W.
and dip steeply (75°) to S.W. Locality A ( see Map) yields Monilopora ,
Trachypora , and Zaphrentis , and Locality B Monilopora, Mourlonia,
and Conularia, with B believed to be lower than A. The effects of this
fault are distinctly visible for half a mile, but then the dips rapidly
flatten to the normal horizontal position.

On the Esk-Biarra road the Upper Esk Series is downfaulted against
old Palaeozoic rocks probably equivalent to the Fernvale Series of the
Brisbane Schists, and a long ridge of hard compact Upper Esk con-
glomerate runs parallel to the fault from the road to Cressbrook Creek.
North of Cressbrook Creek, almost to Ivory’s Creek, the rectilinear
nature of the trough boundary is missing, and the alluvial plains of
Cressbrook Creek run up to pink (Eskdale) granite intruded by blue
diorites and a fine andesite, the junction being an irregularly rounded
one. Just south of Ivory ’s Creek, however, the vertical Upper Esk

* This and the other structural names introduced in this and the following
sections are now used for the first time, and have been chosen with regard to the
localities in which they are typically developed.

DEVELOPMENT OF ESK SERIES BETWEEN ESK AND LINVILLE.

35

conglomerates are again seen, and here they are downf anlted against
weathered andesites, blnish cherts, and ( ? ) rhyolites with a strike
E. of N., intruded by a grey biotitic granite and a blue diorite (fine-
grained), followed to the west by the red quartzites of the ( ?) Fern vale
Series. The fault runs N. by W. almost to Maronghi Creek, the vertical
conglomerates lying against the red ( ?) Fernvale quartzites. From near
Maronghi Creek a fault runs N.W. to the Ironside Creek dam, where a
fault coming in from the west steps out the western boundary of the
Triassics about 3 miles to the west. This east-west fault may be called
Ironside Fault, and appears to have some difference in downthrow from
the Maronghi Creek-Happy Creek fault, for trachytes are not visible in
the steeply tilted strata of the latter, while they are very obvious in the
moderately dipping strata of the former.

The Palaeozoic rocks west of Happy Creek and to the south of
Ironside Creek are a series of vesicular andesites, slates, bluish cherts,
and coarse grits, intruded by blue dioritic rocks, with an average strike
of N. 30° W., and steep dips in both directions. Small quantities of
gold are being obtained by washing from the various creeks on this
development of Palaeozoic rocks. The fault crossing the railway line
near Benarkin runs N.N.W. and separates vertical Upper Esk con-
glomerates from granite ; but on the Moore-Benarkin road the Palaeozoic
outcrops are obscured by a deep red laterite.

(b) The Great Moreton or Eastern Border Fault System.

The author has not touched upon this area in the field, except at
Kilcoy, and is therefore much indebted to Mr. Morton, who has kindly
given permission to use his unpublished mapping of the fault in this
map. The several members of the Brisbane Schist Formation against
which the Triassic rocks are downfaulted may be found in Mr. A. K.
Denmead’s “A Survey of the Brisbane Schist.”*

(B) Central Faulting and Folding.

(a) Bundanba Folding.

Little is known of this : wherever dips were taken along Redbank
Creek, the Bundanba sandstone appeared flat, except at its most easterly
. outcrop, where it was involved in the south-westerly dip of the Esk
Series of the type area, and had a dip of 5° S.W., and at its most
westerly outcrop where it was dipping slightly east due to the effects
of the Western Border Fault. From the mapping, one suspects it of
being a long monoclinal fold dipping S.W., tilted easterly just at its
western edge by the influence of the Western Border Fault.

(5) The Ottaha Axis of Anticlinal Fracturing and Intrusion.

This is a most important structural line. Its structural and
topographic effects are to be seen in the long line of ridges from Ivory’s
Creek south-easterly through Toogoolawah and Ottaba to the head of
Coal Creek. It may be continued to the south-east as the augite andesite

* Proc. Roy. 8oc. Qld. 1928, vol. xxxix., p. 71.

36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

intrusions which are partly responsible for the weather-resisting mass
of Mount Esk. North of Ivory’s Creek its effects have not been
distinguished from those of the western border faulting, and it may be
that a continuation caused the Stone House Disturbance. From Ivory’s
Creek to Toogoolawah it forms a belt over a mile in width of sharp
anticlinal uparching and fracture, the sediments being vertical or steeply
dipping. In one place only (Por. 136 par. Biarra) is the accompanying
intrusion visible. From Toogoolawah to Ottaba only the gently dipping
eastern limb of the anticline may be seen rising out of the Cressbrook
Creek flood-plains, but at Ottaba the area of disturbance broadens.
Here it is accompanied by igneous intrusion divisible into three groups :
(1) the eastern hornblende felspar porphyrite intrusions of Mount
Beppo, (2) the augite andesite intrusions of Ottaba, and (3) the augite
andesite intrusions of Por 28v par. Biarra, the last being overlaid
unconformably by a Tertiary rhyolite flow. The sudden intensity of
igneous effects at Ottaba has its analogue in the effects around Moorabool
of the Colinton line or axis of movement.

(c) The Stone House Disturbance.

It will be observed that there has been a sudden steepening of dips
to the north-east at the Stone House on Wallaby Creek, and again, north-
west of this, in the Linville-Benarkin railway line. It is probable that
these effects are due to the prolongation of the conjoined lines of disturb-
ance of the Ottaba axis of disturbance and the1 Maronghi-Happy Creek
fault.

( d ) The Coal Creek Syncline.

South of Mount Esk, the Esk sediments are disposed in a gentle
monocline dipping S.W. To the north of Mount Esk, however, a gentle
syncline is formed between the Ottaba fractured anticline and this
monocline. This structure may be termed the Coal Creek syncline, and
is well shown topographically, due to the hardness of the interbedded
trachytes. It is covered to the north by the alluvial plains of Cressbrook
Creek.

( e ) The Glen Harding Syncline , the Maronghi Centrally
Arched Syncline, and the W allaby Syncline.

North of Yimbun, synclines are again seen east of the Ottaba
fractured anticline, but here their eastern limb forms the western limb
of the Colinton fractured anticline. Between Ivory’s Creek and
Maronghi Creek the syncline is a simple one ; between Maronghi Creek
and Emu Creek it has a central anticline ; and north of Happy Creek
there is a long syncline running between the uparched strata of the
Stone House Disturbance and the Colinton anticline, to be called the
Wallaby syncline. These three synclines are obvious from the
topograpy, due to the differential hardness of beds of sandstone and
compact conglomerate as compared with shales and more loosely bedded
conglomerates.

(/) The Colinton Axis of Anticlinal Fracturing and Intrusion.

The strata affected by this N.W.-S.E. disturbance may be seen from
just east of Yimbun running north-west through Harlin, Colinton,

DEVELOPMENT OF ESK SERIES BETWEEN ESK AND LINVILLE.

37

Moore, and Linville to Avoca Creek. From Yimbun north-east to Por.
124v par. Neara, there is a three-mile-wide belt of what was once a
gentle monocline dipping 3° S.W. and exposing to the east the Andesitic
Boulder Beds. This has been cut through by at least two lines of sharp
anticlinal fracturing with the concomitant intrusion of many sheets of
coarse felspar-hornblende porphyry. These are concordant in the steeply
arched strata and slightly transgressive in those which are only gently
folded. The more westerly of these lines, seen in the Yimbun railway
cuttings, is the southern end of the Colinton axis, and the more easterly
may be called the Neara Creek fracture line. The Colinton line continues
north-west as a disturbed anticlinal belt about 1J mile wide, similar to
the Ottaba line. Core-like intrusions are seen (Section VII. C (&)) near
Nurinda station, at Colinton, and near Linville. Where the intrusions
are not obvious, much fracturing with steep dips to either side may be
seen across the belt, e.g. in the road between Harlin and Colinton, and
between Colinton and Moore. The road between Moore and Avoca Creek
seems from the constant steep N.E. dip to pass along the steep eastern
limb of the anticline. This is the case as seen in the railway cuttings
near Linville. It may reasonably be assumed to be the structure north
of Linville.

(g) The Neara Creek Fracture Line.

This is the more easterly of the two fracture lines mentioned in the
last paragraph. Its effects are seen in outcrops of vertical conglomerates
and shales baked by the contemporaneous intrusion of coarse sill-like
felspar porphyry in the ridges in Pors. 87, 88, 89 par. Neara, and north-
west along the river to Neara Creek. These effects die out rapidly east-
wards, and in Por. 124v par. Neara slight dips of 33° S.W. are noted
in the basal Gregor’s Creek syncline, in which are intruded sills of
felspar porphyry and augite andesite, the latter forming cliffs. The
Neara Creek fracture line appears to be prolonged to the south to Por.
117 par. Cressbrook, causing a local dip of 60° N.E. in the otherwise
gently dipping sediments.

North-west at Avoca Creek soft shales and conglomerates of the
Upper Esk Series dipping at 80° N.E. are seen on one side of the river,
whereas intensely hardened andesitic boulder beds outcrop on the other,
apparently dipping moderately N.E. Again, on the Arribaby Creek
road, one-quarter of a mile from the river, Upper Esk conglomerates
dipping 60° N.E. are separated from the Lower Esk andesitic boulder
beds by only about 50 yards of alluvium. Relations here may prove to
be the same as those in Pors. 87 and 124v par. Neara, but the possibility
of a fault along the river bed here must not be overlooked. The Neara
Creek Disturbance is also probably continuous to the south-east of
Moorabool.

(h) The Toogoolawah Mountains Disturbance.

At the heads of Scrub and Black Jack’s Creeks are seen hardened
Upper Esk sediments conformably overlying hardened andesitic boulder
beds, all being tilted at 80° to the north-east. Farther west, at the river,

38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

the dips were slight to the south-west. Consequently some faulting or
folding has occurred between these two places. The intrusions of horn-
blende felspar porphyry, seen in these Upper Esk sediments from the
heads of Scrub Creek south-east to Mount Goonnerringgiringi probably
accompanied this disturbance. At the “K.C.B. tree,7’ a noted survey
mark, a great intrusion of a fine granular rock occurs, forming the
Goonnerringgiringi cliffs, and south-easterly from Goonnerringgiringi
the important Mount Brisbane granodiorite outcrops.

Thus the evidence shows that disturbance on a large scale has
occurred in the Toogoolawah mountains, but the data are not sufficient
to define its nature. It is probably the most important of all the disturb-
ances affecting the Triassic sediments in the trough.

Y.— THE UPPER ESK SERIES.

The Upper Esk Series is a series of basin sediments and volcanic
rocKs which occupies that half of the Brisbane Valley Trough to the
south-west of the diagonally flowing Brisbane River, and which lies
between the Lower Esk Series or Andesitic Boulder Beds and the
Bundanba sandstone. It therefore includes the Esk shales and the Acid
Tuff Stage.* It has been sharply folded about two north-west axes of
anticlinal fracturing and tilted by the "Western Border Fault. These
movements, whose effects are the most spectacular attributes of the
Upper Esk Series, have been treated in Section IY. The series has been
intruded along the two lines of anticlinal fracturing by representatives
of the Brisbane Valley Porphyrite Series! with hardening and freshen-
ing of the sediments and volcanics along the central zone.

An outlier or fault block of Upper Esk Series occurs in the Toogoola-
wah mountains, running from the heads of Scrub and Black Jack’s
Creeks along the range south-east to Mount Goonnerringgiringi. It
consists of massive conglomerates, grits, and shales, usually intensely
hardened by the numerous intrusions of felspar hornblende porphyry,
dipping steeply (80° to 45°) N.E., and conformably underlaid to the
west by the Andesitic Boulder Beds.

The Upper Esk Series lies conformably on the Lower Esk Series of
andesitic boulder beds, as may be seen along the junction from Paddy
Gully to Near a Creek. The best locality for studying this conformity
is on Gregory Creek, where the rocks at the junction are baked hard
and massive (Por. 124v par. Neara). Here boulders consisting of the
porphyritic andesite of the true boulder beds are set in a matrix which
is clastic, instead of laval or tuffaceous as in the true andesitic boulder
beds. This denotes the beginning of the permanent change from the
conditions necessary for the formation of the peculiar andesitic boulder
beds, to the action of ordinary sedimentary processes ; and this point of

* See Footnote p. 33.
t See Section VII. (C).

DEVELOPMENT OF ESK SERIES BETWEEN ESK AND LINVILLE. 39

change is the point of division between the Upper and Lower Esk Series,
and the two are thus closely related. For both are the resnlt of inter-
acting volcanic and sedimentary processes, and while the Lower Esk
might be referred to as the Andesitic stage,* the Upper Esk Series might
be called the Trachytic stage. In the former volcanic activity was
predominant over sedimentation, bnt in the latter sedimentation was
predominant over volcanic activity, and almost to the same degree. In
the south, at Paddy Gully, the change from Lower to Upper Esk is seen
in trachyte flows and tuffs overlying the Andesitic Boulder Beds.

Relations between the Andesitic Boulder Beds and the Upper Esk
Series at Avoca and Arribaby Creeks suggest a faulted junction, perhaps
owing to lack of data, and more work may show relations like those of
the Neara Creek fracture line.f In the south-western part of the area,
the Upper Esk Series is overlaid by the massive current-bedded brown
siliceous Bundanba Sandstones. The junction on the west at Cressbrook
Creek shows angular conformity, but Messrs. Reid and Morton| consider
that on the east there is a slight angular unconformity. The Bundanba
Sandstone was deposited before the 'Western Border Faulting, and
probably also before the anticlinal fracturing and intrusion.

The volcanic rocks interbedded with the basin sediments of the
Upper Esk Series are biscuit-coloured trachytes and trachyte tuffs, with
an occasional andesite. They are to be seen best developed in the
north-west and south-east corners of the Upper Esk Series. In the south-
east corner three flows are to be seen in the Coal Creek syncline, their
tuffaceous representatives outcropping in the Paddy Gully monocline. In
the north-western corner many trachyte flows and a few andesites and
tuffs may be seen interbedded with the gently dipping massive con-
glomerates and grits on Wallaby Creek, and just to the north of the
Ironside Fault. Many smaller outcrops (to be seen on the map) occur
throughout the series. These localities are given in the section on
Igneous Activity.

The basin sediments found are dark-green conglomerates and grits,
olive-green shales, and some carbonaceous seams. The conglomerates
have pebbles of from 1 to 4 in. in diameter, set usually in a fairly coarse
matrix, which, like the grits, consists largely of fresh mineral fragments.
The shales are very fine, sometimes colour banded, and where readily
fissile usually rich in fossil plants of the typical Upper Esk facies. A
wonderful locality for fossil plants is the “Rock Pool” in Happy
Creek, just below the Ironside dam, and nearly all the genera and
species characteristic of the Upper Esk Series, with some undescribed
forms, occur here in abundance. Where freshened by intrusion, the
conglomerates show a composite blue colour on unweathered surfaces.
Whether the greenish colour of the unaltered sediments is primarily due
to climatological factors during deposition or to the type of rocks from
which the sediments were derived is a problem not yet investigated.

* Reid and Morton, 1923, p. 9.
t See Section IV. (B) (/).
t Loc. cit. p. 16.

40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The investigation of the lateral lithological variations in these
basin sediments was too detailed an undertaking for the present recon-
naissance. It is fortunate, for future studies, that igneous activity
recurred at short intervals during the Upper Esk sedimentation ; for by
tracing these fixed horizons continuously from east to west and from
south to north ( a matter of some difficulty and interest owing to the axes
of sharp folding and fracturing) the sedimentary variations may be
chronologically examined and locality-time-tables drawn up showing
the temporal and spatial distribution of the lithological types. From
these and from data such as current bedding, elongation of pebbles,
lateral variation in size, and in percentage of lithological types of
pebbles, it should be possible to determine the direction of currents in
the basin, the position of shore lines and feeding rivers, and perhaps
also movements affecting the basin during deposition.

The Paddy Gully section seems to be anomalous in the fineness of
the sediments and the thickness of the Upper Esk Series, for elsewhere
it is of much greater thickness and of much coarser grain. The
possibility of Bundanba overlap is regarded as worth investigation.

VI. — THE LOWER ESK SERIES.

The Lower Esk Series, Andesitic Stage or Andesitic Boulder Beds,
occupies that part of the Brisbane Valley Trough east of the Brisbane
River, and is known to continue north-west to Boonara, a distance of
over 100 miles. Why it outcrops no farther south than the Mount Bris-
bane area is not yet known. Its thickness has not been ascertained, but
must be calculable in thousands of feet.

Little is yet known of the movements affecting this series beyond
the facts (1) that it dips gently and conformably under the Upper
Esk Series to the south-west, (2) that it is sharply uptilted at its eastern
faulted junction with the Brisbane Schists, and (3) that some
disturbance in the Toogoolawah mountains accounts for an outlier of
steeply tilted Upper Esk Series, It is known to have been intruded
by the Brisbane Valley Porphyrites near Avoca Vale, on Gregor’s
Creek, and in the Toogoolawah mountains, and in these places the
matrix of the boulder beds is very hard and fresh.

Andesitic boulder beds make up by far the greatest bulk of the
Lower Esk Series, hence the retention of the name Andesitic Boulder
Beds to emphasize the peculiarity of the stage as compared with an
ordinary “ andesitic stage.” The boulders of the boulder beds are
always of porphyritic andesite; and the beds containing them may be
divided into types according to their matrix. The first type is one in
which the matrix is itself an andesitic iiow ; and the boulders included
are usually very large and round. The second type is one in which
the matrix is a tuff and the boulders here are of different sizes and
mostly very angular. In a third type the matrix is partly tuffaceous
and partly clastic ; and the fourth type is a true conglomerate, with its

DEVELOPMENT OF ESK SERIES BETWEEN ESK AND LINVILLE. 41

matrix consisting of clastic grains, its boulders rounded and not all of
porphyritic andesite. Such a conglomerate outcrops along the road to
Kilcoy at Por. 50v par. Kilcoy. Interbedded with the boulder beds
are seen andesitic tuffs (in one of which Nilssonia cf. princeps * has been
found), andesite flows, rhyolite flows, rhyolite tuffs, tuffaceous grits and
shales, the latter often containing plant remains. Thus the Andesitic
Boulder Beds were laid down under water, so that in between the
periods of volcanic activity short periods of ordinary sedimentary
deposition occurred.

Many things remain to be explained regarding this series, e.g. — (1)
How did such a tremendous extent of porphyritic andesite come to be
broken up into countless millions of boulders of all sizes and shapes and
deposited in various matrices in the Triassic Basin? (2) Why does
the series not appear south of Mount Brisbane? (3) Why does it not
appear on the western side of the trough? (4) What is the relation of
the chemical composition of the porphyritc andesite to the Brisbane
Valley Porphyrites, the Upper Esk Trachytes, the Permo-Carboniferous
volcanics, and the Tertiary volcanics? The study of the lateral litho-
logical variation of the Lower Esk Series would be no less interesting
than that of the Upper Esk Series.

VII. IGNEOUS ACTIVITY.

Igneous activity occurred in the down-faulted area four times since
the beginning of sedimentation in the basin. The earliest is the andesitic
activity to which the deposition of the Lower Esk Series is due ; the
second is the trachytic activity during the deposition of the Upper
Esk Series; the third is the intrusion of the Brisbane Valley Porphyrites
while the central folding and faulting was in progress ; ; and the fourth
the Tertiary rhyolitic activity. No chemical or microscopical examina-
tions of the rocks have been made during this work, so that the chemical
and mineralogical interrelations of the various phases cannot be properly
discussed; and, in the sections which follow, the conclusions drawn
have been based on macroscopic examinations of hand specimens only.
One fact is obvious, however, and it is that the parent magmas of the
Andesitic Stage, the Trachytic Stage, and the Brisbane Valley Por-
phyrites were of an intermediate type and it may reasonably be inferred
that they are closely related one to another. Indeed it may be that
the one parent magma was drawn on during all three periods of
.activity.

(A) Andesitic Boulder Beds.

The boulders of the Andesitic Boulder Beds have been derived from
a tremendous quantity of porphyritic andesite, the product of some
very extensive igneous activity, probably volcanic. The similarity of
type of these boulders over the whole of the area is remarkable and a
general description will cover them all : — Cream or sometimes flesh-
coloured felspars, usually lath-shaped and of varying sizes, with some-

* Verbal communication, W. H. Bryan.

42

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

times a few needle-shaped hornblendes fairly closely set as phenocrysts
in a very fine-grained or glassy matrix, the colour of which varies from
red through intermediate shades to bluey-grey or green. The boulders
vary in size from 2 in. in dimeter to as long as 4 ft. ; while the

commonest sizes are 4 in. and 1 ft.

& ®

Where the matrix of the boulders is a flow this flow is also a
porphyritic andesite, and its greenish matrix has phenocrysts of creamy
felspar which are rather stouter than those of the boulders, and tend
to be arranged with their longer axes parallel, giving a fluxion structure.
Where the matrix is tuffaceous it is generally very weathered, but well-
shaped felspars may usually be distinguished in it.

The author has not seen any interbedded andesite flows, but andesitic
tuffs are very common. In the Toogoolawah mountains, along MacphaiUs
branch of Black Jack’s Creek, two steeply dipping developments of
handed rhyolites are to be seen interbedded with the boulder beds.
Glassy phenocrysts of orthoclase may be distinguished in their grey,
waxy matrix. The lower rhyolite is accompanied by a tuff.

As to the age of this volcanic activity, it is later than the movement
folding the Permo-Carboniferous beds of Cressbrook Creek and earlier
than the Upper Esk Series (of Keuper* age), for it lies conformably
below the Upper Esk Series, and the latter is downfaulted against the
folded Cressbrook Creek Permo-Carboniferous.

(B) Acid Tuff Stage.

The volcanic rocks of this division consist of a number of trachyte
flows and tuffs with an occasional andesite interbedded with the basin
sediments of the Upper Esk Series. The flows are biscuit-coloured, due
to the limonitic nature of the fine, powdery, rather weathered matrix.
Set in this matrix are rather sparsely distributed phenocrysts of lath-
shaped or tabular creamy felspars and usually long limonitic patches
showing the position of phenocrysts of needle-shaped hornblende ; in
fresher rocks the unweathered hornblende needles may be seen, and the
matrix is then a light-brown colour. Nests of cal cite are occasionally seen.

This description applies to all three of the Coal Creek syneline
flows and to all those seen on Wallaby Creek and north of the Ironside
fault. It also applies to trachytes seen in the Ottaba ridge, to the flow
in Por. 42v par. Biarra, to that in Por. 64 par. Esk, to those in Por. 51
par. Esk, and to parts of the Esk trachyte.! Probable trachytes of a
grey colour are seen in Por. 139 par. Biarra, and in Por. 71a par.
Colinton.

* Proc. Roy. Soe. Qld. 1930, vol. xli., p. 186.

t This term, by reason of a controversy as to its age and origin ( see P.R.S.Q.
1930, vol. xli., p. 178), applies to the trachyte a mile west of Esk. Interbedded
acid tuffs of the Upper Esk Series are seen just to the west of the ‘‘Esk trachyte, ”
but their relation to the “Esk trachyte’’ is not known. If the “Esk trachyte”
should prove to be a flow, as seems likely, then the Esk shales as defined by the
author must be regarded as a subdivision of her Acid Tuff Stage, which would then
become synonymous with the ‘ ‘ Upper Esk Series. ’ ’

DEVELOPMENT OF ESIv SERIES BETWEEN ESK AND LINVILLE.

43

The tuffs associated with these trachytes are also biscuit-coloured,
usually fine in grain, but often consisting of fairly coarse angular
fragments in a finer matrix, e.g. those associated with the middle
trachyte of the Coal Creek syncline, the tuffs of Paddy Gully, those in
Por. 30 par. Esk, and those associated with trachytes in the Ottaba ridge.
Coarse acid tuffs are interbedded with the steeply dipping conglomerates
in the Yimbun railway cuttings, and in the gently dipping Upper Esk
or Neara Creek. Fine-grained tuffs are associated with a very weathered
trachyte flow on the northern boundary of Por. 18 par. Biarra. Trachyte
tuffs are not common in the Wallaby Creek beds.

Andesite flows in the Upper Esk Series are occasionally seen. They
usually show needle-shaped phenocrysts of a glassy felspar and horn-
blende in a fine grey-green matrix, e.g. Paddy Gully andesite, but
those on Wallaby Creek take on a different texture, glassy rounded
felspars in an iron-grey matrix. Cliffs of an (?) augite andesite con-
formable with the bedding of the Upper Esk shales are seen on Gregor’s
Creek (Por. 124v), but this development is possibly intrusive.

(C) The Brisbane Valley Porphyrites.

This is the name proposed for an important series of intrusive rocks
discovered piercing the Esk Series along lines of anticlinal fracturing in
the Brisbane Valley. The intrusions are all porphyritic in texture and
intermediate in chemical type, and have not been responsible for anj^
mineralisation of the injected sediments. They are all distinctly related
to one another, and the following general description covers any one of
them : — -Abundant large phenocrysts of felspar and hornblende set in a
fine-grained grey matrix. Nevertheless for purposes of more detailed
description they can be divided into several sub-classes, and these, with
the localities in which they are to be found and the nature of the
intrusion, are seen below : —

(a) The felspar and hornblende phenocrysts are present in about
equal proportions —

(i.) The rocks are truly porphyritic. This type is seen in the
Mount Beppo intrusions and in Pors. 81 and 82 par.
Cressbrook, Moreton (Toogoolawah mountains). These
intrusions are transgressive.

(ii.) The rocks are nearly equigranular, due to the very small
development of matrix. This type is seen in the slightly
transgressive intrusions of Moorabool and the Sugarloaf
paddock.

(ft) The felspar phenocrysts are very large, and very few and
small hornblendes are present —

(i.) The felspars are stout. These are seen in the slightly
transgressive sheets of Gregor’s Creek (pink felspar) and
the sills of the Yimbun railway cutting and Neara Creek.

44 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

(ii.). The felspars are tabular, twinned along the narrow axis.
These are seen in the core-like intrusion at Nurinda and
Colinton. Associated with it at Nurinda is a beautiful
green mottled rock, the spots consisting of radiating lath-
shaped crystals of felspar and hornblende.

(c) Large phenocrysts of hornblende are developed almost to
the exclusion of felspar phenocrysts. The hornblendes are
idiomorphic with beautifully developed faces, and all are
complete crystals, neither fractured nor corroded. This type
occurs in Por. 1 par. Biarra.

(d) Small idiomorphic hornblendes and large white felspars
form a spotted rock. No groundmass is present. This is the
intrusion which forms the Goonnerringgiringi cliffs.

(e) Instead of hornblende, the ferro-magnesian phenocrysts are
augite, and the felspars are small. These are the Ottaba
augite andesites described by Richards.*'

This Brisbane Valley Porphyrite series is quite new, and opens a very
interesting field of study to the petrologist. The Mount Brisbane grano-
diorite and related intrusions are in all probability part of it. The
Porphyrites were intruded before the extrusion of the Tertiary Ottaba
rhyolite, for the latter lies unconformably on Upper Esk sediments
intruded by the Ottaba augite andesites. A coarse-grained intrusion of
felspar and hornblende rock lies between the Upper Esk Series and the
Bundanba sandstones on Paddy Gully. If, as seems likely, this sill can
be shown to belong to the Brisbane Valley Porphyrites, the date of
intrusion of the latter could be fixed as post-Bundanba.

(D) Miscellaneous Igneous Rocks.

The Ottaba and Glen Rock Tertiary rhyolites have both been
described by Dr. Richards.f A third development of Tertiary rhyolite
is seen on the Kipper and Cressbrook and Buaraba divides, and is a
northern finger from the Buaraba rhyolites reported on by Mr. Reid.|
Heavy developments of rhyolites of unknown relations are seen in the
Stanley Gorge and east of the Brisbane River at Murrumba. A basalt
overlies the tilted Upper Esk Series at Biarra, and a fine-grained
andesite occurs in Por. 31v par. Biarra.

Brief Notes on the Occurrence of Igneous Bocks in the Palceozoics
along the Western Boundary of the Trough.

A considerable development of a light-coloured quartz porphyry
occurs associated with the fossiliferous beds of Permo-Carboniferous age
at Cressbrook Creek. Its relationships have not been ascertained.

Very compact andesitic and (?) spilitic rocks form a considerable

* Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld. 1916, vol. 27, p. 159.

t Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld. 1916, vol. 27, p. 139.

% Reid, 1923, Qld. Govt. Min. Jrnl. p. 463.

DEVELOPMENT OF ESK SERIES BETWEEN ESK AND LINVILLE.

45

part of the ( ?) Devonian basement in the upper part of the Cressbrook
Creek area. Weathered (?) Devonian andesites are seen in Por. 30v
par. Biarra.

A pink quartzitic granite is seen north of Sandy Gully school,
associated with a fine-grained andesite with small glassy phenocrysts of
felspar.

In Por 112 an augite diorite is intruded by a similar andesite, and
in Por. 114 the augite diorite intrudes a grey biotitic granite (like the
Eskdale granite). This grey granite intrudes in its turn the weathered
andesites interbedded with the Fernvale jaspers in Por. 114.

On Happy Creek (?) Devonian vesicular andesites occur, and this
series is intruded farther to the west by a fine andesite.

VIIL— POSSIBLE PRESENCE OF COALFIELDS.

Of the Mesozoic formations of the Brisbane Valley between Esk
and Linville, only the Upper Esk Series might be regarded as having
been deposited under conditions favourable to the formation of coal.
This important conclusion was reached for the following reasons : —

1. The Lower Esk Series is almost entirely volcanic.

2. The small area of Bunclanba sandstone is, as in the Ipswich

field, quite barren.

3. No equivalent of the Ipswich coal measures occurs here between

the Upper Esk Series (or Basal Ipswich conglomerate) and
the Bundanba sandstone.

The work done in the area shows that the chance of finding payable
coal is still further restricted by the following considerations : —

1. The closeness of the lines of sharp anticlinal fracturing and

intrusion leaves little space between for the extensive
occurrence of flat-lying seams.

2. The rapid fluctuation in the conditions governing sedimenta-

tion in the basin, as shown by the rapid alternation and
lateral change of coarse conglomerates, grits, and shales, has
precluded any continuously extensive coal horizons being
formed.

There is a possibility, however, that synclinal areas may have in
some places coincided with a part of the original basin where the
conditions of deposition were favourable to the formation of coal. If
such could be found, then there would be an opening for a small colliery
or collieries to supply the industries of the Brisbane Valley. A map
has been drawn up to show the probable extent of coal in those localities
where coal has been found to outcrop. The localities are numbered as
in the descriptions below.

46

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

(A.) The existence of coal in small quantities had been reported
from the following localities before the work was undertaken : —

(1) A carbonaceous seam just outside the town of Esk in a well
in For. 33 par. Esk had been reported on by Dr. E. 0.
Marls as not large enough to be remunerative to work.
It occurs in a gentle monocline, and the area is thus
structurally suitable; but judging from the outcrops this
monocline is not promising.

(2) In the same report Dr. Marks mentioned several small seams
outcropping at the junction of Coal Creek and the Brisbane
River. These he also considered economically unimportant.
The Coal Creek syncline, the structural unit to which I refer
these small seams, is structurally favourable but does not
appear to contain payable coal, since these indications are
the only ones noted from it. An analysis of this coal gives : —

Per cent.

Moisture . . . . . . 2-05

Volatile H.C. . . . . 23-10

Fixed C 61-10

Ash . . . . . . . . 13-30

(3) Dr. Marks also noted thin coaly bands in the railway cuttings
and the hills about Ottaba, but spoke of this area as being
so disturbed as scarcely to be desirable for prospecting. My
map shows that the Ottaba area lies on the Ottaba axis of
sharp anticlinal fracturing and intrusion, so that even large
deposits here would scarcely be payable.

Mr. Morton f had examined two occurrences of coal in
the Toogoolawah mountains.

(4) The first of these, found in one of the heads of Black Jack’s
Creek behind G-overnor’s Rock, was a 7-ft. seam of good
bright coal which was, however, standing vertically. Its
analysis was —

Per cent.

Moisture . . . . . . 8-9

Volatile H.C. .. .. 23-4

Fixed C. . . . . ..60*6

Ash 7-1

He reported unfavourably on this, as the area was obviously
one strongly affected by movement and intrusion, and very
mountainous.

(5) The second occurrence was at the head of Splitter’s Creek,
on the Stanley side of the divide. Here there were several
small seams, also vertically disposed. My work shows that
the Toogoolawah mountains may be regarded as a very

* Qld. Govt. Min. Jrnl. 1912, p. 322.
t Unpublished Keport to Geol. Survey of Queensland.

DEVELOPMENT OF ESK SERIES BETWEEN ESK AND LINVILLE.

47

unlikely area for the occurrence of payable coal. All the
strata are affected by a disturbance which is probably the
greatest of the Brisbane Valley, and which is accompanied
by much the largest intrusions.

(6) While on a coach journey from Esk to Nanango in 1901
Mr. Ball* noted several coaly outcrops on the road at the
foothills to the Blackbutt Benge as worth prospecting. I
found here a number of seams of bright coal dipping gently
to the east with a maximum thickness of about 20 in. But,
half a mile to the east, the Stone House Disturbance affects
the strata, and cuts out any possible extension of the coaly
seams farther to the east ; and I do not believe enough coal
could be mined to justify the opening of even a small colliery.
Nevertheless, this occurrence is the most promising I have
seen.

(B) The following occurrences are noted for the first time: —

(7) Two miles from Esk on the Esk-Murrumba road in Por. 56
par. Esk, three small bands of carbonaceous material are
seen. The structure is favourable, being a small syncline
auxiliary to the Coal Creek synciine, but the coal is not
there in sufficient quantities to warrant the establishment
of a mine.

(8) On ITappy Creek, about half a mile below the Ironside Dam
in Por. 132 par. Colinton, a 30-in. seam of bright coal out-
crops, accompanied by several smaller bands, interbedded
with conglomerates and extraordinarily fossiliferous shales.
The dip, however, was 50° N.E. This coal outcropped in
the strata uptilted by the Western Border Fault and the
prolongation of the Ottaba axis of anticlinal fracturing. It
was thought that the seams might be tapped in the gently
dipping synclines to the east, but the seams wTere found
not to be persistent along the line of strike.

(9) Thin coaly . bands, steeply tilted for the same reason as the
Happy Creek seams, were seen on the road half a mile
north-east of Happy Creek seams and in the gully to the
east of the road.

(10) On the road between Moore and Colinton a few thin coaly
seams are seen. But this is in a region intensely disturbed
by the strong Colinton axis of sharp anticlinal fracturing
and intrusion, and is consequently of no promise.

(11) Similar bands are seen on the road between Linville and
Avoca Creek, but these are of no promise for the same
reason as occurrence No. 10.

Geol. Sur. Qld. Pub. 159, - 16.

48 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

( C ) The following negative evidence is of value : —

No indications of coal were seen in the ridges and gullies of the
Glen Harding and Maronghi synclines, or in that part of the
Wallaby syncline south of the Moore-Benarkin road, during
traverses over these synclines. The Wallaby syncline north
of the Moore-Benarkin road has not been prospected.

IX.— summary and conclusion.

In the Brisbane Valley between Esk and Linville a series of
Triassic rocks is trough-faulted along the north-westerly grain of the
country into the Palaeozoic (including folded Permo-Carboniferous)
formations. These Triassic rocks, the Esk Series, are freshwater basin
deposits laid down by rapidly changing currents, with intensive con-
temporaneous volcanic activity. The Lower Esk Series is typified by
very intense andesitic activity, with the formation of a great thckness
of peculiar andesitic boulder beds, small sedimentary deposits being
formed during periods of temporary cessation of volcanic activity. The
strictly conformable Upper Esk Series, however, is typified by a thick
development of rapidly varying sedimentary deposits, with interbedded
flows and tuffs resultant from intermittent trachytic activity. Above
the Upper Esk Series, the Bundanba sandstones, now all eroded away
except from the southern part of the area west of Esk, were deposited
without angular unconformity. In addition to the trough-faulting, the
Esk Series has been strongly affected by sharp north-westerly directed
anticlinal fracturing, accompanied by the intrusion of an important
series of hypabyssal rocks, the Brisbane Valley Porphyrites, closely
related in miner alogical type to the flows and tuffs of the period of
sedimentation. The time relations of the trough-faulting and anticlinal
fracturing are unknown, but they both occurred before the extrusion of
the Tertiary rhyolites.

It is concluded that the conditions of deposition and the type of .
folding of the Esk Series do not promise well for the occurrence of
a large field of workable coal, but that the synclinal areas are worth
more detailed mapping in the chance of the discovery of a deposit large
enough to support a small colliery.

lion — Bellevue

IIS IlLDi 0 10

Vol. XLII., No. 4.

49

Essentia! Oils from the Queensland Flora,

Part I. — BTECKEA VIRGATA.

By T. G. H. Jones, D. Sc., and M. White, M.Sc.

(Tabled before the Royal Society of Queensland, 28th April, 1930.)

Bcechea virgata is a tall erect and closely branched shrub growing
along watercourses in the Brisbane area, being particularly abundant
and of vigorous growth on the banks of the Woogaroo Creek, Goodna.
Its botany is described in the Queensland Flora (Bailey).1

On crushing the leaves a strong odour of cineol is readily detected.
The yield of oil obtained on distillation was 1 per cent. Examination
of its chemical constituents showed that the oil consisted very largely
of d-a-pinene 50-60% cineol 30% together with aromadendrene, a
sesquiterpene alcohol, and a trace of a lower alcoholic body diagnosed
tentatively as pino-carveol.

In view of the large quantities of pinene and cineol present the
oil has some economic value.

EXPERIMENTAL.

353. lb. of leaves and terminal branches collected along Woogaroo
Creek, near Goodna, on the 21st August, 1929, and distilled on the 22nd,
gave 1,560 ccs. of oil, the greater part of the oil distilling over in a
couple of hours.

The following constants were determined: —

d

n

15’5

20

D

[«]

D

•9021
1-4742 •

.. +18

Acid number . . . . . . 1

Ester value . . . . . . nil

Acetyl value . . . . . . 17

No absorption in the usual reagents, except for cineol, could be detected.

1,000 ccs. of oil were fractionated under diminished pressure and
the following fractions collected : —

Fraction.

Ccs.

Temp. Range °C.

Pressure.

dl5-5-

n20

D.

Md.

1

317

0 - 55°C.

24 mms.

•8705

1-4679

+

36 0

2

242

55 - 65°0.

24 mms.

•8825

1 4670

4-

26-0

3

110

65 - 75°C.

24 mms.

•9200

1-4602

+

0-9

4

30

75 - 85°C.

24 mms.

•9305

1-4691

—

30

5

53

85 - 105°C.

24 mms.

•9500

1-4895

—

6-5

6

97

82 - 95°C.

8 mms.

•9337

1-4958

+

5-5

7

112

95 - 108°C.

8 mms.

•9512

1-5005

+

2-8

Total

961

Resinous loss

, 40 ccs.

r.s. — D

50

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Fractions 1 and 2 were repeatedly extracted with 50% resorcin
solution to extract cineol.

The residual oil after refraetionation possessed the following:
constants : —

d13.,

n20

D

•8641

1*4660

. . +43

b.p 155-156°C.

Identification with pinene was established by the usual oxidation to
pinonic acid, the semiearbazone of which melted at 204° C. No pinene
could be detected.

Fraction 3 consisted of relatively pure cineol. Independent
determination of this constituent on the original oil gave a value
approximating 30%.

Fractions 4, 5, and 6. — The noticeable increase in density in fraction
5, with a diminution in fraction 6, pointed to a constituent of somewhat
higher density in these fractions, with a higher boiling point than that
of cineol but lower than that of the sesquiterpene fraction 6, and there-
fore probably a terpene alcohol. They were accordingly refractionated as
far as possible, and the small amount of resulting oil combined with
phthalic anhydride by boiling with this reagent in benzene solution for
several hours. Decomposition of the acid phthalate gave an alcoholic
body with the following constants : —

d18.B *974

n20 . . . . . . . . 1-4965

D

■ M D - .. -23

b.p 220°C.

The constants appeared to agree only with those recorded for pino-carveol,
a somewhat rare alcohol occurring in Eucalyptus globulus.

Combustion Results —

Found C 79*1, H 10*8.

C10H16O0 (pino-carveol) requires C 78*9, H 10*5.

Confirmation of the identity of the alcohol with pino-carveol was
sought in attempts to prepare the phenyl urethane, but we were unable
to obtain sufficient of this derivative for complete purification, although
tne melting point (79°C_) approximated to that required for this
derivative 82 °C

This alcoholic body is only present in very small quantities in the
oil, the total amount obtainable from the 1,000 ccs. being only about
2 ccs. It would therefore probably escape detection in small amounts
of oil.

Fractions 6 and 7 were further refractionated and separated into
a sesquiterpene and sesquiterpene alcohol fraction.

ESSENTIAL OILS FROM THE QUEENSLAND FLORA.

51

The sesquiterpene, purified by repeated distillation c » vvi. socuum,
possessed the following constants : —

b.p 92-95°C. (7-8 mms.)

d15.5 -9181

n20 . . . . . . . . 1-4985

.. +11

The usual colour reaction with bromine vapour suggested the presence
of aromadendrene, the characteristic sesquiterpene of the Myrtacese.
The combustion results agreed with C15H?4.

Sesquiterpene Alcohol —

The final fraction, purified as far as possible by repeated distillation,
possessed the following constants : —

b.p 105-107 °C (4-5 mms.)

d15.5 -9656

n20 1-4992

[«l -6

Combustion Results. —

Found C 82-6%, H 11%.

C15H240 requires C 80-2%, H 10-9%.

Evidently a sesquiterpene alcohol was the preponderating constituent
of this fraction still in admixture with aromadendrene. Its small amount
precluded further examination.

Our thanks are due to the Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research for a grant which has defrayed the cost of collection of leaves,
to Mr. C. T. White for his usual botanical assistance, and to Miss IX
Hill, M.Sc., who assisted in the collection of leaves.

REFERENCE.

1. Queensland Flora, F. M. Bailey, 585 (5).

52

Vol. XLII., No. 5.

The Physiographical Significance and Non
migration of Divides.

By E. 0. Marks, B.E., M.D.

Two Maps.

( Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 26th May, 1930.)

In the theoretical consideration of stream development as described
in physiographical literature generally, and particularly by that giant
amongst physiographers, Professor W. M. Davis, the headward erosion
of streams or migration of divides, with the changes resulting therefrom,
have been given very great importance, and even a nomenclature
implying origin by this theoretical process of development.

Griffith Taylor and most other writers on Australian physiography
have given a corresponding importance to the process in the interpreta-
tion of our own river systems. It is to he noted that they have usually
given attention only to the river courses and none to the divides
separating their basins.

This paper is intended to draw attention to certain divides which
seem to the writer to indicate that the fundamental theory cannot be
entirely correct. An examination into the theory suggests, as do the
divides themselves, that “migration” can only be of very minor import-
ance except in very unusual circumstances in regions of great elevation,
and that it is quite incapable of the results usually claimed for it.

Professor Davis fully describes the theoretical migration of divides
resulting from the encroachment by headward erosion of one stream at
the expense of the drainage area of another less advantageously situated
for erosion. This would take place more quickly in soft rocks than in
hard, and lead to the development of valleys and streams in the softer
rocks and so to a rearrangement of the drainage in accordance with
geological structure.

It is not desired here to recapitulate the details of the supposed
stream development, with river captures and so on, and the nomen-
clature given, but it is necessary to emphasize the dependence of it all
on the occurrence, as a very active denudational principle, of this
encroachment by any stream possessing an erosional advantage over its
competitor on the other side of a divide. Without this headward
encroachment the whole scheme is void, and only in so far as this
encroachment takes place can the scheme be valid.

Structure and climate being equal on the two sides of a divide, if
one side has a bigger fall, steeper slopes, and therefore more active
streams than the other, denudation will be greater on that side, with a
consequence that headward erosion will take place, the drainage area
of the more active stream gaining at the expense of the less active one.
There is, of course, no question that this must take place to some extent ;
views such as one gets of the Toowoomba Range show it clearly, but the

PHYSIOGRAPHICAL SIGNIFICANCE AND NON-MIGRATION OF DIVIDES. 53

question raised here is as to whether the process does take place
sufficiently to alfect appreciably the general physiographical development.

According to the theory the migration of a divide must necessarily
be somewhat irregular, for it will depend on the relative slopes and stream
gradients of the two sides, on the resistance of the rocks, on climate,
vegetation, and probably other factors not so obvious. Since these
conditions cannot be equal throughout, one portion of a divide must
migrate more rapidly than another. If originally straight denudation
must make it crooked. It could only remain straight if the original
eleAration, slopes, stream gradients, rock structure, climate, &c., were
uniform throughout the whole length of the divide, which is practically
an impossible occurrence. Apart from developing the linear outcrop of
a resistant rock we may be quite certain that denudation could neither
make a crooked divide straight nor develop a straight or evenly curved
one. Only some geological structure could give rise to it, such as a
faulting, folding, or warping of the earth’s surface.

A straight divide must therefore be what Davis calls a ‘ ‘ consequent ’ ’
divide — i.e., a consequence of an original water parting. An irregular
divide might also be 4 ‘ consequent, ’ ’ the result of some original irregular
water parting, or it might result from subsequent denudation and be
what has been termed “subsequent.” It is to a consideration of some
approximately straight divides and their bearing on the theory of
migration that the writer would call attention.

To the north of Brisbane the D ’Aguilar and Blackall Ranges form,
with very minor local irregularities, one nearly straight divide, except
at the southern end, where it bends from a north-south to a south-
easterly direction. It separates the watersheds of the numerous short
streams which run easterly courses directly into the sea, having courses
up to 30 miles in length, from those of the streams which run westerly
into the Upper Mary and Brisbane Rivers, the water in these having up
to 180 miles to travel to reach the sea.

The geological structure is very varied, as is the elevation and
character. At the southern end the rocks consist of the partly metamor-
phosed sediments we call the Brisbane Schists, and one or two* small
cappings of basalt. The elevation rises to over 2,000 feet. There is a
gap near the head of the North Pine River where the elevation is down
to 1,000 feet, but it rises again to the north, where the divide is on the
tableland of Mount Mee at an elevation of 1,500 feet and composed of
more basic schists and some basalt. After some 10 miles on the tableland
the divide drops to about 500 feet for some 12 miles, separating here the
wide valley of the Stanley (Jensen’s Woodford peneplain) from the
lower' coastal country. The divide here is partly of deeply decomposed
granite but mainly of soft sandstone, and from it rises the trachyte plug
of Mount Beerwah to a height of 1,760 feet. North of Peachester, for
another 12 miles or so the divide is on the eastern edge of the basalt
capping which forms the Blackall Range tableland, about 1,500 feet high,
the western fall being into Obi Obi Creek and thence to the Mary River.

54 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The most interesting part of the divide for our present purpose is
the 12 miles or more at an elevation of only 500 feet, composed of soft
rocks, having a wide “peneplain” valley to1 the west of it and the low
coastal plain to the east, while to the north and south the divide is on
tablelands of harder rocks, with an elevation of about 1,500 feet. From
the divide itself rises the trachyte plug to 1,700 feet, and the other Glass
House Mountains rise in a similar way from the coastal plain, while to
the west of the Stanley is a flat-topped mountain, more or less a continua-
tion of the Blackall Range and 1,700 feet high. The Stanley itself near
its junction with the Brisbane has cut a gorge through Mount Brisbane,
the lower side of which is of much greater elevation than the low divide,
and the higher side, Mount Brisbane, is over 2,000 feet above the sea.

It seems, therefore, perfectly certain that extensive denudation has
taken place, while differential denudation would fully account for the
low elevation and the character of this portion of the divide. How much
has been removed it is impossible to say, but it cannot have been less
than 1,000 feet to bring it up to the present level of the tablelands to
the north, west, and south.

PHYSIOGRAPHICAL SIGNIFICANCE AND NON-MIGRATION OF DIVIDES. 55

Now let us look at tlie map to observe the extent of encroachment
by the very short streams running direct to the sea over soft sandstone
country, these having obviously an enormous advantage as compared
with the waters running into the Stanley with 180 miles to go, much of
it over hard rocks. We look in vain, for the divide is deviated only in
the most trivial manner, the deepest recess being less than 2 miles in
from the eastmost prominence, and the mean position not being shifted
westwards at all as compared with the higher divide to north and south.
Moreover, any suggestion that the straight divide might be of the nature
of a fault scarp is definitely precluded to the north by the geological
structure (the basalt not being faulted down), and to the south by the
occurrence of high ground to the east of the actual divide.

If we look at the map for signs of river capture as indicated by the
directional changes in the streams, attention is at once caught by the
uppermost portions of the Obi Obi and Stanley. Initially both these
streams, the one on top of the Blackall tableland and the other below it,
run parallel courses eastwards as if making straight for the sea, but when
within a mile of the divide change their courses to the north-west and
south-west. What the cause of this remarkable change in direction could
have been we need not speculate upon, but this is certain, that if a
sudden change of direction has any real value as an indication of river
capture, then the Obi Obi and Upper Stanley with long courses and
attacking from opposite directions have succeeded in capturing the head-
waters of two adjacent short streams wdiose present lower courses are
at a much lower elevation than either of the attacking streams. Which
is absurd.

A consideration thus of the D ’Aguilar-Blackall divide shows that
stream development has not taken place as it should have done, and
indeed must necessarily have done according to the widely accepted
theory.

Since straight or regularly curved divides must be original divides
and not “subsequent” we may inspect the map for other straight divides
and see what indication for or against migration these may give.

Taking first the Main Divide — Dividing Range is a misnomer —
wdiich separates the Pacific drainage from the western flowing rivers,
wre observe a regular nearly straight length of almost 300 miles separating
the Burdekin waters from the Thomson, Barcoo, and Flinders. This
divide traverses the tableland on which are the inland basins of Lakes
Buchanan and G-alilee, and these introduce a choice in their vicinity as
to wdiere the Main Divide is situated. Dr. Danes regarded them as
evidence that the divide is recent. There is certainly no suggestion of
irregular migration in this 300 miles which runs from the chief water-
parting centre of the North, whence the drainage runs by the Einasleigh,
Gilbert, and Flinders into the Gulf of Carpentaria, by the Thomson into
fhe inland system and by the Burdekin to the Pacific, to the similar
parting centre near Tambo whence water drains into the Barcoo of the

56 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

inland system, the "War r ego of the Darling-Murray system, the Nogoa of
the Fitzroy and the Belyando of the Burdekin system, the two latter
both entering the Pacific.

For about 150 miles from near Tambo the divide is irregular, but
the portion running nearly east and west for 150 miles from near
Mitchell to near Chinchilla is again regular and separates the Condamine
waters of the Darling-Murray system from the Dawson of the Fitzroy
system and the Auburn of the Burnett. It is to he noted that the latter
has not eroded back the divide in comparison with the Dawson, which
has a much longer course.

Near Chinchilla the direction of the divide changes and runs
nearly straight for 100 miles in a south-easterly direction, parting the
Condamine waters on the one side from those of the Boyne (Burnett)
and Upper Brisbane. Though these two have very different courses,,
and have both been competing against the Condamine waters on the
other side of the divide, there is no deviation to indicate that one has
gained more than the other, as it surely must have done according to the
theory. The divide remains straight, apparently in its original position.

In the region of Toowoomba the map is very suggestive of some
minor nibbling back of the divide by the heads of Lockyer Creek, of the
Brisbane River basin. Just here there is no range as one approaches the
divide from the west or Darling Downs side, and the Lockyer is draining
the scarp of a tableland some 1,500 feet above it. Even with this great
advantage the headward nibbling does not seem to be a matter of more
than 3 or 4 miles, and the wide Lockyer valley a few miles from the
escarpment has the characters of an old stream.

South from Toowoomba the Main Divide is a range of mountains as
approached from the west, nearly as steep though not so high as on the
eastern side. The divide varies in elevation from about 2,000 feet in
the gaps to 4,000 on the peaks, but shows no appreciable deviation to-
indicate headward encroachment by the varied streams draining its
lower eastern side, although the gorge cut by Reynolds Creek through
the trachyte mountain of Mount Edwards shows that denudation of at
least 2,000 feet has occurred.

Apart from the Main Divide there is one remarkably straight line
of water parting which immediately catches the attention on looking at
the map of Queensland. This runs for 250 miles from near the coast at
Mackay southwards to near Camboon, where it turns a little west of
south and continues straight for another 100 miles to join the Main
Divide. This long regular water parting separates the basin of the
Mackenzie-Dawson system from the streams on the east of it — namely,
the very short coastal streams in the Mackay-St. Lawrence region, the
lower part of its own combined stream the Fitzroy, the subsidiary basin
of the Don, and the Burnett waters. This long line is only crossed by
two streams, the Don crossing it from' east to west to join the Dawson,
and the main combined stream crossing it from west to east on its way
to the sea.

PHYSIOGRAPHICAL SIGNIFICANCE AND NON-MIGRATION OF DIVIDES. 57

This long straight divide, like the parallel courses of the Dawson
and Mackenzie, must have some, probably the same, tectonic origin. It
varies greatly in character and geological structure, and in the length
of the streams attacking it, but denudation has not caused any serious
deviation. One could hardly suppose that the Lower Fitzroy alone of
all the streams attacking it from the eastern side has succeeded in breach-
ing it and also in capturing the main stream, while the Don a tributary
of that main stream attacked and breached it from the west, capturing
some of the eastern waters, the while the rest of the divide has not been
deviated to any appreciable extent, even by the very short coastal
streams at the northern end.

The late Dr. Danes suggested that the compound systems of the
Burdekin and Fitzroy had formerly been inland basins which had found
egress to the sea by the present combined lower streams. Such an
explanation would fit well with the apparent non-migration of the divide
if the egress was found by overflow through a low or lowered part of
the divide rather than by the usual idea of river-capture by headward
encroachment, and similarly for the Don in the opposite direction.

A consideration thus of these Queensland divides, some at least of
which have been subjected to extensive denudation, does not seem to
show that headward encroachment, with resulting deviation, has taken
place to any significant extent, as it certainly should have done if the
physiographical theory is correct. Though formerly accepting it, the
writer has thus felt compelled to examine the theory for some flaw in
what had previously appeared sound reasoning. Whether the explana-
tion now offered is the true one is very questionable, for like the original
theory it is purely theoretical. What we must face is the cold fact that
migration has not taken place to any appreciable extent in just those
very circumstances where it would necessarily have done so had the
present widely accepted theory been substantially correct.

In his essay on the Geographical Cycle, W. M. Davis has a paragraph
on the development of graded valley sides, a grading which can only
take place after the stream itself has become graded. He says, “Maturity
is passed and old age entered upon when the hill-tops and hill-sides as
well as the valley floors are graded.” The grade of both stream and
valley will become flatter as denudation lowers the general level and so
alters the conditions. The grade of a valley side must depend on the
climatic conditions, the nature of the rock, and the elevation of the valley
side. Once graded, a flattening of the grade can only take place by a
reduction of the elevation. If the elevation persists then the grade must
also persist suitable to that elevation, so that the grade will not become
flatter, for instance, on the sides of a tableland until the level of the
tableland is lowered.

We must fully realise that, except for the trivial effect of river
meanders, denudation is entirely vertical. A waterfall is only cutting
down the bed of the stream; it is not cutting it back in any way, or
altering the drainage area ; it is merely lowering an already existing
valley.

58

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Davis's diagrams give the impression of a young stream cutting
back and gaining more ground as it entrenches itself, whereas the
position and drainage area must have been determined for it ah initio.
The water collected in the original depressions would carve down and
develop the valley. Since it is the water that is doing the carving, the
valley must be formed where the water happens to run, and the entrench-
ment of the valley can only follow up the already existing stream, for
elsewhere there is no water. It cannot pick out soft structures since the
lowering of the surface, no matter how soft, cannot get below the streams
into which it drains. As a stream only cuts down its bed, after the
manner of a saw in its groove, it has got to cut whatever rocks it meets
with in its groove.

The cutting is done by rain-water particularly when collected into
streams and (it must be repeated) is entirely vertical. The original
water parting, where there is no stream, must therefore be quite
unaffected except for the actual rain falling directly on it, until the
valley is opened out and the stream and valley sides graded right back
to the divide. Before that no migration from denudation is possible, as
the water on each side of the parting would merely flow each way
removing its own debris.

The actual head of a stream is only the end of its valley, the terminal
valley side, and it must be graded by the same controls as determine the
rest of the valley sides. If, for simplicity, we suppose a stream heading
in a plateau scarp, the terminal side having a grade of 1 in 10, each
100 feet vertically removed from the valley side would only shift the
divide 1,000 feet, and a removal of 500 feet would be necessary for a
migration of one mile. One in ten is not a steep valley side, and the
steeper the grade the less the shift. With a grade of 1 in 5, 1,000 feet
would have to be removed for a migration of one mile. Thus, while on
a steeper grade denudation is doubtless more rapid, a much greater
vertical depth of material has to be removed to achieve the same result,
neutralising the advantage to some extent. When further we remember
that the steeper the grade the more perfect the drainage, and therefore
the less chemical disintegration of the rock, the advantage of a steep
slope over a less steep one may be much less than would appear at first
sight.

Now it is only when the streams and valley sides are graded that
there can possibly be any headward encroachment whatsoever, for it is
only then that the denuding of the valley sides can start to cut back
the divide. This is the stage, according to Davis, when maturity has
been reached and old age is beginning. In the theory as propounded
by him, the rearrangement of drainage and formation of “ subsequent"
streams take place in the earlier stages, but it follows from the above
considerations that the encroaching stream must have at least attained
maturity. It follows also that the lateral shift resulting from denudation
of the valley sides — the migration of the divide — can only be very slight
except in regions of great elevation, and then only if the stream were
cutting back into the edge of a plateau. Even so, an enormous vertical

PHYSIOGRAPHICAL SIGNIFICANCE AND NON-MIGRATION OF DIVIDES. 59

depth of material would have to be removed from the valley sides to
achieve any migration of physiographical significance. Where
moderately steep slopes occur on both sides of the divide, the shifting
of the divide must be quite negligible, for both sides are acting, until
such time as the divide is lowered to become a plateau scarp, or in other
words until the basin of the weaker stream has become a fully developed
peneplain.

That these exceptional circumstances may sometimes occur there is
no doubt, but they must be very rare. It must be rare indeed for the
migration to be sufficient to tap a stream of any considerable magnitude.
One might as easily imagine a divide being lowered sufficiently for an
exceptionally high flood to go over it and thus start a new direction of
flow, but this would be river dumping rather than capture. The
conditions to make it possible would also be very rare.

The physiographical conception of a reversal of drainage in the
lower part of a stream resulting from its capture higher up is extremely
improbable, since the part immediately below the capture would become
a new divide, and the recession of it would be that of a valley side, not
of a stream, unless the floods in the lower part were sufficiently high to
flow back over the new-formed divide. When this improbability is added
to the improbability of river-capture at all, the theoretical development
of a reversed or “obsequent” stream is iust about impossible.

Those of us who have seen Mount Edwards gorge where a compara-
tively small stream has cut down through the trachyte mountain which
a small deviation would have avoided, and the similar behaviour of the
Stanley at Mount Brisbane where also a small deviation would have
avoided the obstruction, cannot fail to be impressed with the manner in
which these streams have had to stay “put,” and have not selected the
softer rocks in the vicinity. Now it would seem that we must also regard
the divides as more or less fixed, except in somewhat unusual circum-
stances, while even in those circumstances the migration must seldom be
of importance. If this conclusion is correct and we accept the general
fixity of divides, then all that part of physiographical theory which
depends on their migration must be discarded.

In concluding, the writer desires to state that since the paper is
concerned rather with general physiographical theory than with local
problems, and has considered the local features from an entirely different
viewpoint from previous writers, little reference to or criticism of
previous work has been made. There are points of agreement and
disagreement, but these have purposely not been mentioned, so as not to
cloud the main issue, which is threefold : —

1. That in studying physiographical developments the divides

must be considered equally with the stream courses.

2. That in the D ’Aguilar-Blackall divide nature has per-

formed for us an almost ideal experiment, with proper
controls, on the ability of denudation to cause a migration of

60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

the divide. In the experiment this action has been negligible.
It is only one clear experiment, but a consideration of other
divides confirms the finding that headward encroachment by
streams is a much less important principle than the accepted
theory would indicate.

3. That the general theory must in consequence be seriously
modified in so far as it depends on the migration of divides.

The writer further desires to express his thanks to Dr. W. H. Bryan
for suggestions and modifications in the composition of the paper.

LITERATURE OF QUEENSLAND PHYSIOGRAPHY WITH BEARING
ON REGIONS REFERRED TO IN TEXT.

Andrews, E. C. — Preliminary Notes on the Queensland Coast, with reference to the
Geography of the Queensland and New South Wales Plateau. Proc.
Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1902.

Andrews, E. C. — Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia in Late and Post-Tertiary
Time, with Applications to Biological Problems, Journal Royal S'oc.
N.S.W., 1910.

Andrews, E. C. — Plains and Peneplains of Australia. Commonwealth Year Book,
1912.

Bryan, W. H. — The Queensland Continental Shelf. Reports, Great Barrier Reef
Committee, vol. ii., 1928.

Danes, J. V. — On Some Problems of Queensland Hydrography, and A Tour Along the
Dividing Range from Aramac to Pentland. Qld. Geographical Journal,
1909-1910.

Danes, J. Y. — On the Physiography of North-eastern Australia. Proc. Royal
Bohemian Society of Sciences, 1911.

David, T. W. E. — Notes on some of the Chief Tectonic Lines of Australia. Jour. Roy.
Soc. N.S.W., 1911.

David, T. W. E. — Geology of the Commonwealth. Federal Handbook of Australia,
1914.

Jardine, F. — The Physiography of the Lower Fitzroy Basin. Qld. Geographical
Journal, 1923.

Jensen, H. I. — Geology of the Volcanic Area of East Moreton and Wide Bay
Districts, Queensland. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1906.

Marks, E. O. — Notes on Portion of the Burdekin Valley. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q., 1912.

Marks, E. O. — Presidential Address. Roy. Soc. Q., 1924.

Marks, E. O. — Presidential Address, Queensland Naturalists’ Club. Queensland
Naturalist, 1927.

Poole, W. — Physiography of North Queensland. Aust. Assn. Adv. Science, 1909.

Reid, J. H. — Coal Measures of Western Moreton District. Q. Govt. Mining Journal,
Dec. 1922.

Richards, H. C. — The Volcanic Rocks of South-eastern Queensland. Proc. Roy. Soc.
Qld. 1916.

Taylor, T. G. — The Physiography of Eastern Australia. Commonwealth Meteoro-
logical Bureau, Bulletin No. 8.

Wearne, R. A., and Woolnough, W. G. — Notes on the Physiography of West Moreton,
Queensland. Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1911.

The references to Professor W. M. Davis ’s works are from ‘ 1 Geographical

Essays” by William Morris Davis, edited by Douglas Wilton Johnston and published

by Ginn and Company.

PHYSIOGRAPHICAL SIGNIFICANCE AND NON-MIGRATION OF DIVIDES. 61

62

Vol. XLII., No. 6.

Chaetognatha from the Society Islands

By B. B. Grey, F.L.S.

(Twelve Text-figures.)

( Communicated by Mr. F. A. Perkins , B.Sc. Agr., to the Royal Society
of Queensland, 26th May , 1930.)

The Chsetognatha discussed in this paper were all taken in a surface
net in Papetoai Bay, Moorea Island.

The collection was made in sixteen hauls, irregularly spaced over
the period of twelve months, all made with the same net and steaming
over about the same course.

Ten species are represented, including one apparently new to science,
which are embraced by two genera, Sagitta and Pterosagitta.

Coincident Occurrence of Species of Cbletognatha in Papetoai Bay.

—

Oct.
22, 2.

CO

c>o

May

2L

m2

j Sept.
28, 29.

Oct. 1926.

1, 9, 11, 12, 13, 23.

S bipunctata

+

S. enflata

+ +

+ +

+

+

+ + + +

S. fridrici

+

+ +

+ +;

+ + + +

S. minima

+

+

S. neglecta

+

S. planctonis

+

S. regular is

• *

+

S. tenuis

••

+

S. Oceania, n.s.

+ «

+

+ + +

Pt. draco

+

+

Of the above species S. enflata Grassi alone varied from the type
description. Normally the lateral fins are separated from one another
by from 9% to 15% of the total body length. All the Moorea specimens
were examined while alive, and it was found that the anterior and
posterior fins were nearly always confluent, also the anterior fin occasion-
ally had a clear outer zone as well as a clear inner zone and anterior
portion, while in one case the anterior fin was entirely rayless. The
individuals were all very small for this species, but as all the other
characters agree with the published descriptions the establishing of a
new species did not seem justified, and it is likely that this newly noticed
character of the fins has not been observed before owing to damage to
these very frail structures.

CHiETOGNATIIA FROM THE SOCIETY ISLANDS.

63

Sagitta Oceania sp. nov.

A transparent, robust form, which keeps its shape well.

Length — 44- 8*3 mm.

Breadth — 5%-7% total length.

Tail — 29%-38% total length.

Anterior teeth — 5-8.

Posterior teeth — 15-20.

Jaws — 6-7. The tips of some are slightly hooked.

Anterior fin — 14%-22% total length. It is rayed obliquely
throughout and reaches the ventral ganglion.

Posterior fin — 25%-29% total length; rayed obliquely throughout;
almost reaches the seminal vesicle ; less than 50% in front of the tail
septum. The fins are separated from one another by from 3%-8% of
the total length of the animal.

The ovary reaches the region of the ventral ganglion when mature
and contains a single row of large and small ova.

The seminal receptacle is small and round.

The seminal vesicle is small but conspicuous ; almost reached by the
posterior fin, and widely separted from the tail fin.

Intestinal diver ticuke are present.

Two rows of sensory papillae bearing setae are present, extending
from the neck region to the tail. In young specimens the tips of the
setae comprising each tuft are joined together and the whole spirally
twisted to the shape of a candle flame (Pig. 2). In later life the tip of
the composite tuft gets broken and the released setae straightened them-
selves out.

S. Oceania is immediately distinguishable from all other species with
sensory papillae and setae by the absence of the collarette.

The new species was taken in five hauls in Papetoai Bay, Moorea.

Fertilisation of the Celetognatha.

In a paper on the spermatogenesis of Chaetognatha, Lee (1888)
described fertilisation in which the spermatozoides penetrated the septum
between the body and tail cavities and so reached the ovaries direct, and
Stevens (1903) observed a close fertilisation of 8. loipunctata. In Pig. 5,
which is a Camera lucida drawing of the region about the tail septum
of 8. Oceania, two bundles of spermatozoides can be seen in the inner
portion of the seminal receptacle which seems to support their observa-
tions. Unfortunately these were not seen until after the animal wab
dead, and so it was not possible to make further observations of the route
taken, but the presence of the bundles of spermatozoides in the seminal
receptacle of 8. Oceania, at any rate, may be due to .some accidental
fracture of the septum, such as might easily be caused by the presence

64

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

1

CH^ETOGNATHA FROM THE SOCIETY ISLANDS.

65

of some vigorous parasite, such as a nematode or trematode, as the
presence of seminal vesicles in all species, and of large and conspicuous
ones in many, would seem to point to a more ordinary functioning of the
male parts in the majority of cases.

The suggestion of a normal ejection of the male product is borne
out by observations made on living specimens of 8. enflata taken during
the month of October. During this month the male products were ripe.
The rounded sperm morulas gradually became elongated (Fig. 8) and
formed spindle-shaped bundles, some of which were ejected whole
through the seminal vesicle with the spermatozoides of which they were
composed vibrating rapidly, while others broke up in the tail itself
(Fig. 7). The bundles that were ejected into the water broke up during,
or immediately after, ejection and the individual spermatozoides wriggled
rapidly about.

The ova were apparently ripe at the same period, but no movement
was observed in the ovary.

Parasites.

During October several individuals of four species collected were
found to be parasitised by trematodes, nematodes, or eysticerci : —

—

Parasite.

Region Infected.

S. enflata 1

Trematode . .

Tail coelome

JS. enflata 2

Trematode . . . .

Ovary

JS. fridrici 1

Camallanus trispinosus . .

Intestine

S. fridrici 2

Cysticercus

Body coelome

S. Oceania

Trematode

Body muscles

JSagitta sp.

Trematode

; Tail coelome

The Distoma found in 8. enflata is apparently identical with that
figured by Scott (1896) .

The trematodes seem to be able to force their way out through the
body wall of the Sagittas without much difficulty, and to move about in
the muscles as they like. The nematodes are also extremely vigorous, and
the presence of either one or the other in the tail coelome probably
renders the male products useless, as the sperm morulse are broken up
by the constant movements of the parasite. As suggested above, the
former presence of a parasite that forced its way from the body cavity
to the tail cavity might account for the presence of the sperm bundles
in the region of the ovary as shown in Fig. 5, especially as the sperm
morulas are generally in active motion, passing in a continuous stream
up the outer wall of the tail coelome, and down again along the septum
separating the two portions of the tail cavity. Fig. 5 is of an individual
captured during October when several specimens were found to contain
parasites.

A Meal taken by S. enflata.

At 4 o ’clock a small individual of 8. enflata was seen to attack an
8. fridrici of about half its size. The victim was seized by the head,

R.S. — E

66

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

CHiETOGNATHA FROM THE SOCIETY ISLANDS.

67

quivered slightly, but made no attempt to escape. It was swallowed
straight down the intestine, and at 4.8 the head had reached the region
of the anus. A rotary motion now commenced in the intestine of the
eater, and at the same time the body of the eaten was moved up and
down in the intestine, and this crushing motion gradually broke up the
muscles until by 4.20 only the jaws, skin, and gut were intact, and the
rest of the body was quite fluid. All nourishment had apparently been
extracted by 4.40, when the remains were ejected through the anus, as a
small shapeless mass, with only the jaws to show what it had once been.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1888: Lee, A. B. — La spermatogenese chez les Chetognaths. La Cellule 4.

1896 : Scott, T. — Additions to the Fauna of the Firth of Forth. Ann. Bep. Fish.
Board Scot. 14.

1903: Stevens, N. M. — On the Ovogenesis and Spermatogenesis of S. Mpwictata .
Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Morph, 18.

1911: Michael, Ellis L. — Classification and Vertical Distribution of the Chastog-
natha of the San Diego Region. University of California publications in
Zoology, vol. viii., No. 3.

1911: Ritter-Zahony, Rudolph von. — Revision der Chatognathen. Deutsche Sud-
polar Expedition, xiii. Band. Zoologi© V. Band, Heft 1.

1918 : Oye, Paul van. — Examination of the Chaetognatha in the Java Seas. Contribu-
tions a la Faune des Indes Neerlandaises.

1919 : Michael, Ellis L. — Report on the Chaetognatha collected by the United States
Fisheries steamer “ Albatross” during the Philippine Expedition, 1907-
1910. Smithsonian Institution Bull. 100, vol. i., part 1.

1922: Grey, B. B. — Notes on Species of Sagitta collected during a voyage from
England to Australia. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland,
vol. xxxiv., p. 171.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.

(All from Camera lucida drawings.)

Fig. 1. — Sagitta Oceania sp. nov.

Fig. 2. — S. Oceania. Sensory papilla and setae bundle from immature specimen.

Fig. 3. — S. Oceania. Posterior teeth.

Fig. 4. — S. Oceania. Anterior teeth.

Fig. 5. — S. Oceania. Region of tail septum, ventral view.

Fig. 6. — S. Oceania. Head and neck, showing intestinal diverticulae.

Fig. 7. — S. enflata. Showing ejection of spermatozoides.

Fig. 8. — S. enflata. Showing changing sperm morulae.

Fig. 9. — S. enflata. Trematode in ovary.

Fig. 10. — S. frvdrici. Trematode in tail coelome.

Fig. 11.— S. ocean/ia. Trematode escaping through body wall, drawn by reflected and
transmitted light.

Fig. 12. — S. fridhrid. Cysticercus in body coelome.

AN., anus; B.W., body wall; F., fin.; INT., intestine; INT'. DIV., intestinal
diverticulum; OV., ovary; PAP., papilla; R.S., seminal receptacle; S.M., sperm
morula; SP., spermatozoides; T., tail; T.S., tail septum; V.G., ventral ganglion; V.R.,
vestibular ridge; V.S., seminal vesicle.

«8

Vol. XLII., No. 7.

Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora.

Part II.— AGON IS ABNORMIS.

By T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., and M. White, M.Sc.

(Tabled before the Royal Society of Queensland , 26th May , 1930.)

The genus Agonis belongs to the large family Myrtacese and consists
of about sixteen species, ten of which occur in Western Australia and
six in Queensland ; one of the Queensland species, namely Agonis
abnormis, stretching into northern New South Wales.

Agonis abnormis is a tall shrub or small tree common along river banks
in South-eastern Queensland from Stanthorpe to the Wide Bay district, in
the latter district being fairly common along Tinana Creek. It has a trunk
with the rough bark persistent at the base but shed in ribbons or flake-like
pieces about halfway up, leaving the upper bark quite smooth. The leaves
are narrowly lanceolate in shape, averaging about 1 to 12 inches in length ;
the flowers are white, the stamens 20 or more in number, the capsules
small and opening in 3 valves. The species was originally described as
Leptospermum abnorme by Mueller, but was later transferred to the genus
Agonis by White and Francis.1

Our supplies of leaves for the present investigation were obtained
from the banks of the Blunda Creek ; 400 lb. of leaves and terminal branches
collected on 8th August, 1929, and distilled on 9th August, yielded 1,180
ccs. of oil or -6%, while from 900 lb. of leaves collected on 9th December,
1929, 2,810 ccs. of oil were obtained.

Little essential difference was observed in the two samples of oil thus
obtained.

Examination of the oil as far as it has proceeded shows that it consists
of dextro a-pinene (30-40%), sesquiterpenes 60%, and the residue 5-10%
sesquiterpene alcohol.

The sesquiterpene fraction possesses physical constants and gives
colour reactions similar to those given by aromadendrene, the characteristic
sesquiterpene of the Myrtacese. Although several investigators have
examined this sesquiterpene — in particular that obtained from Eucalyptus
nova-anglica2 — very little can be definitely stated regarding it. Semmler3
considered that it consisted essentially of a mixture of two distinct
sesquiterpenes, but Briggs and Short express as the results of their investiga-
tion the opinion that essentially only one suoh body is present.

The essential oil from Agonis abnormis is remarkable in containing a
relatively large amount of this sesquiterpene, probably more so than any
other oil yet examined, and in view of the ready availability of this oil it
has appeared to us of interest to examine the sesquiterpene fraction in
detail. The main difficulty in connection with the chemistry of aroma-
dendrene seems to be that it cannot be definitely asserted that what is

ESSENTIAL OILS FROM THE QUEENSLAND FLORA.

69

usually described as aromadendrene in various essential oils is always the
same substance or mixture of substances, the similarity of physical constants
and colour reactions being not sufficiently diagnostic for the purpose.

Although our examination of the sesquiterpene fraction of Agonis
abnormis has not proceeded sufficiently far to enable us to give precise
information regarding its chemistry — the details of which are reserved for
a future communication — it is possible to state that at least two sesquiter-
penes and possibly three are present, their separation involving prolonged
and tedious fractionations.

EXPERIMENTAL.

The essential oil, pale yellow in colour and of pleasant odour, possessed
the following constants : —

d15.5 -9040

.. .. .. 1-4905

[a]

+ 9

Ester number
Acetyl value
Acid number

7-4

16

1-7

A combustion of the oil showed that it contained very little oxygen
and consisted essentially of hydrocarbons : only a trace was dissolved in
8% sodium hydroxide solution.

2,400 ccs. of the oil were distilled under diminished pressure and the
following fractions collected : —

Fraction.

Distillation Temp.

Volume.

dl5-5. i

nn°

t

md

1

0-75°C. (29 mms.)

525 ccs.

•8647

1-4636

+ 43

2

60-95°C. (5 mms.)

1,350 ccs.

•9091

1-4962

+ 2-5

3

95-105°C. (5 mms.)

268 ccs.

•9255

1-4998

- 1

4

105-1 10°C. (5 mms.)

165 ccs.

•9695

1-5002

- 10

Total

2,308 ccs.

-

Residue and loss 92 ccs.

Fraction 1 consisted almost exclusively of a-pinene. On further
fractionation and distillation, over sodium this substance was isolated in a
high degree of purity with the following constants : —

d15.5 . . . . . . -863

20 • • • • • • 1*4654

D

[a] + 47-6

D

b.p. . . . . . . 155°C.

Its identity was established by the usual oxidation to pinonic acid
and the preparation of the semicar bazone M.P. 207 °C. No /3-pinene could
be detected.

70

PROCEEDINGS OF TPIE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Fractions 2 and 3 were further fractionated and 1,300 ccs. of sesqui-
terpene obtained. The constants determined were as follows : —

d16.5 '9121

Md +2

n2o 1*4990

D

b.p. .. .. .. 78-86°C at 5 mms.

These are in fair agreement with those usually quoted for aroma-
dendrene, and the usual colour reaction with bromine vapour was also
shown. As indicated in the first part of the paper, the sesquiterpene fraction
is essentially a mixture of isomers, and, in view of the prolonged series of
operations necessary to separate the constituents in a state of approximate
purity, further details regarding the chemistry must be deferred for a subse-
quent publication.

Fraction 4 was found on further fractionation to consist of sesqui-
terpene alcohols in admixture with sesquiterpenes and probably also a
mixture of closely similar isomers difficult to separate.

We have also commenced investigations of the other Agonis species
of Southern Queensland.

Our thanks are due to Mr. C. T. White foi his usual botanical assistance,
and to the Commonwealth Science and Industry Research Fund, which
has defrayed the initial cost of the oil.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1. Botany Bulletin 22, Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane, p. 20.

2. Smith and Baker. A research on the Eucalypts. Briggs and Short, Journal
Chemical Society, 1928, p. 2524.

3. Atherischen Ole, 1905, 11, 530.

Vol. XLIL, No. 8.

71

The Genus Oxyscelio Kieffer, its Synonymy
and Species, with a description of one new
Genus (Hymenoptera: Proctotrypoidea).

By Alan P. Dodd.

{Tabled before the Royal Society of Queensland , 30th June , 1930.)

In the Australian Scelionid fauna there is a homogeneous group of
many species, whose generic position has given me considerable cause
for thought; several of the species have been described in Sceliomorpha
Ashmead, two in Dicroteleia , and various others in my collection remain
unnamed.

Sceliomorpha was based on a male of S. longicornis Ashmead from
Brazil; a second species, S. bisulca Ashmead, from the United States,
was doubtfully included (Bull. U. S. National Museum, vol. 45, 1893,
p. 239). In 1909 and 1910 Kielfer added six new species from Brazil
and Peru. Previously that author had described S. flavipes from
Australia as a doubtful member of the genus, but later (1916)
transferred it to his genus Psilanteris. Being in doubt .as to the
Australian species being congeneric with S. longicornis, I submitted
examples of S. rugulosa Dodd to Mr. A. B. Gahan of the U. S. National
Museum, who kindly compared them with the type of longicornis and
supplied me with the following notes: — “In my judgment S. rugulosa
and S. longicornis are not congeneric. In longicornis the pronotum is
quite different, being partly dorsal and carinately margined in front ;
the marginal vein is thickened to form a small rounded stigma ; the first
segment of the abdomen lacks entirely the deep fossae at base and is
without an enclosed area; and the entire body, including the eyes, is
covered with conspicuous long hairs.” A sketch by Mr. Gahan of the
thorax and wing venation represents an insect which is clearly not
congeneric with the Australian species.

Subsequently the late Professor C. P. Baker, of the Philippine
College of Agriculture, loaned me the eotypes of several Philippine
Scelionias, including Camptoteleia carinata Kieffer and Xenoteleia
flavipennis Kieffer, genotypes respectively. Examination of the former
insect at once proved its generic identity with the Australian species of
Sceliomorpha and Dicroteleia, while X. flavipennis possessed no
characters which, in my opinion, excluded it from Camptoteleia.

Having established the fact that Camptoteleia Kieffer and the
Australian species of Sceliomorpha and Dicroteleia were identical
generically, that many species of the genus occurred in the Philippines

72

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

and in Australia, and that a congeneric species, Sceliomorpha
ceylonensis Dodd, had been described from Ceylon, I made a careful
comparison of the descriptions of other Oriental genera and species
erected by Kieffer. This investigation has resulted in my offering the
following synonymy of several genera, or of certain authors’
interpretation of genera, in which Dicroteleia Kieffer, Camptoteleia
Kieffer, and Xenoteleia Kieffer are regarded as being identical with
Oxyscelio Kieffer : —

OXYSCELIO Kieffer.

Zeitschr. Hym. Dipt., vol. 7, 1907, p. 310; genotype 0. foveatus Kieffer
from Java.

Dicroteleia Kieffer, Notes Leyden Museum, vol. 30, 1908, p. 92 ;
genotype D. rugosa Kieffer from Java. Dodd, Proc. Royal Soc.
Qld., vol. 26, 1914, p. 105.

Camptoteleia Kieffer, Insecta, vol. 3, 1913, p. 387 ■ genotype C. carinata
Kieffer from the Philippines.

Xenoteleia Kieffer, Insecta, vol. 3, 1913, p. 390; genotype X. flavipennis
from the Philippines.

Sceliomorpha (not Ashmead) Kieffer, Berlin Ent. Zeit., vol. 51, 1907,
p. 296 ; Dodd, Trans. Royal Soc. South Aust., vol. 37, 1913, p. 139 ;
Archiv. fur Naturg. Berlin, vol. 79, 1913, p. 165; Proc. Royal Soc.
Qld., vol. 26, 1914, p. 103 ; Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1919, p. 349 ;
Proc. Royal Soc. Qld., vol. 38, 1927, p. 128.

Hoploteleia (not Ashmead) Dodd (part.), Trans. Royal Soc. South
Aust., vol. 37, 1913, p. 176.

Psilanteris Kieffer (part.), Broteria, vol. 14, 1916, p. 177.

Scelio (not Latreille) Girault, private publication, Brisbane, 1926.

DISCUSSION OF THE GENERIC CHARACTERS.

Examination of many Australian species has thrown considerable
light on the variability of certain characters that might be regarded of
value for generic distinctions, and has made possible an understanding
of the limits of the genus. As previously stated, the identity of
Camptoteleia, Xenoteleia, and the Australian species described in
Sceliomorpha and Dicroteleia has been established from a study of type
or cotype material. On the other hand, the genotypes of Oxyscelio and
Dicroteleia have not been seen by me, and, as the proposed sinking of the
several genera may be open to question, an attempt is made to justify
the suggested changes.

A comparison of Kieffer ’s descriptions of Oxyscelio foveatusy
Dicroteleia rugosa, and Camptoteleia carinata, genotypes respectively,
reveal many striking resemblances but few differences that would
warrant separation. In each case, either ir the generic diagnosis or in

THE GENUS OXYSCELIO KIEFFER.

73

the description of the species, Kieffer stresses the fact that the sub-
marginal vein is far removed from the costa, the marginal vein is
punctate or square, and the postmarginal vein is absent. This
combination of venational characters, particularly that of the
remoteness of the submarginal vein from the costa, is, in my opinion, an
outstanding feature of the segregate. The stigmal vein may branch off
a little before the submarginal vein joins the costa, as in Camptoteleia
hifurcata K. and Dicroteleia rugosa K., or from the punctiform or square
marginal vein.

It will be observed that in the above three genotypes Kieffer
mentions the presence of a median carina on the mesoscutum, a
character on which he places considerable generic value. Among an
extensive collection of Australian Scelionidae I have met this character
in two genera, viz., Hoploteleia Ash. and the segregate under discussion,
but it may or may not be present in species closely related and clearly
congeneric. For example, Sceliomorpha rugulosa Dodd can be dis-
tinguished with difficulty from a species which appears to be S. flavipes
Kieffer except that the median carina occurs in the former but not in
the latter. Again, Kieffer himself states that the carina is not present
in Camptoteleia spinosiceps in contradistinction to the various other
species that he described in that genus. So much importance did that
worker place on the character that he transferred the species originally
designated Hoploteleia carinata Kieffer (1913) to Camptoteleia as
C. perplexa Kieffer (1926), the specific name being preoccupied by
C. carinata Kieffer (1913) ; I have examined a cotype of this species
which possesses a long postmarginal vein and is truly a species of
Hoploteleia, its correct name being H. serena Dodd (1919), the name
carinata being preoccupied by Hoploteleia carinata Cameron =
Apegusoneura carinata Cam. (1912). Here it may be remarked that
the Australian Hoploteleia elevata Dodd bears the median carina on the
mesoscutum.

Another character of the segregate is to be found in th£ metanotum
which bears a prominent plate, usually transverse but subject to some
modification. Of Oxyscelio foveatus, Kieffer states, “metanotum longi-
tudinally striate, nearly square, narrower and one-third shorter than the
scutellum, covering but not projecting beyond the median segment.”'
This is not the usual form of the metanotum in the Australian species
but occurs in Dicroteleia solitaria Dodd. Kieffer describes this sclerite
in Camptoteleia carinata as “with two small pointed teeth nearly
contiguous at the base”; my notes on a cotype of carinata read
“metanotal plate hollowed out, the posterior margin depressed, the
lateral margins prominent, the posterior-lateral angles raised and
prominent.” The excavated type of the plate with the raised lateral
margins and prominent, although usually rounded, posterior-lateral
angles is dominant in the Australian forms. In his 1926 description of
Dicroteleia rugosa, Kieffer does not mention the metanotum, but in the
generic diagnosis states “metanotum unarmed, forming a narrow cross-
stripe.” Of Xenoteleia flavipennis, Kieffer merely mentions that the

74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

metanotum is transversely foveate, whereas my notes made from a, cotype
state that the metanotal plate is transverse, its posterior-lateral angles
rounded.

The propodeal characters are rather different than in most
Scelionid genera. The propodeum is short medially, long laterally, and
there are long true lateral carinas some distance from the median line.
The posterior margin is broadly and rather deeply concave almost to
the base of the sclerite, but the concavity ends at the junction of the
lateral carinas where the margin is rather strongly angled and blunt
projections extend slightly into the depressions on either side of the
raised area at the base of the abdomen.

The abdomen varies considerably in length. In its stoutest form it
is no longer than the head and thorax united and hardly twice as long as
its greatest width, as in Sceliomorpha rugulosa Dodd. At the other
extreme it is much longer than the head and thorax united and three to
four times as long as its greatest width, as in Oxyscelio foveatus K.,
Dicroteleia rugosa K., D. solitaria Dodd, and Xenoteleia flavipennis
Kieffer. The base is broad and not much narrower than the greatest
width of the abdomen ; segments 2 and 3 are almost subequal in length,
each somewhat longer than 1 and 4. On the basal segment there is a
broad raised median area bounded laterally by a carina or strong stria ;
on either side of this area the surface is depressed and may form a deep
fossa against the anterior margin; the raised area is usually flat, but
may form a hump or blunt prominence as in Dicroteleia solitaria and
Xenoteleia flavipennis (Kieffer erroneously states that there is no basal
prominence in this species) ; this form of the basal segment is found in
Psilanteris atriclava Kieffer and the new genus herein described as
Bracalba.

THE SPECIES OF OXYSCELIO .

It would seem necessary to give a list of the species that appear
to belong in » Oxyscelio in accordance with the views expressed in this
paper; the species appear in alphabetical order.

1. 0. acutiventris Kieffer. Philippine Islands.

Trichoteleia acutiventris Kieffer, Broteria, vol. 14, 1916, p. 176.
Dicroteleia acutiventris Kieffer, Das Tierreich, 1926,
p. 388.

2. 0. atricoxa Dodd. New South Wales,

Sceliomorpha atricoxa Dodd, Proc. Royal Soc. Qld., vol. 26, 1914,
p. 104.

3. 0. bifurcatus Kieffer. Philippine Islands.

Camptoteleia bifurcata Kieffer, Broteria, vol. 14, 1916, p. 172.

4. 0. brevinervis Kieffer. Philippine Islands.

Camptoteleia brevinervis Kieffer, Broteria, vol. 14, 1916, p. 175.

5. 0. carinatus Kieffer. Philippine Islands.

Camptoteleia carinata Kieffer, Insecta, vol. 3, 1913, p. 387.

THE GENUS OXYSCELIO KIEF PER.

75

6. 0. ceylonensis Dodd. Ceylon.

Sceliomorpha ceylonensis Dodd, Trans. Ent. Soc. London, J 919,
p. 349.

7. 0. concoloripes Dodd. New South. Wales.

Sceliomorpha concoloripes Dodd, Proc. Royal Soc. Qld., vol. 26,
1914, p. 104.

8. 0. consobrinus Kieffer. Philippine Islands.

Camptoteleia consobrina Kieffer, Broteria, vol. 14, 1916, p. '173.

9. 0. crassicornis Kieffer. Philippine Islands.

Camptoteleia crassicornis Kieffer, Broteria, vol. 14, 1916, p. 174.

10. 0. cupularis Kieffer. Philippine Islands.

Camptoteleia cupularis Kieffer, Philippine Jour. Sci., vol. 9, 1914,
p. 298.

11. 0. dorsalis Kieffer. Philippine Islands.

Camptoteleia dorsalis Kieffer, Broteria, vol. 14, 1916, p. 173.

12. 0. excavatus Kieffer. Philippine Islands.

Camptoteleia excavata Kieffer, Insecta, vol. 3, 1913, p. 388.

13. 0. flavipennis Kieffer. Philippine Islands.

Xenoteleia flavipennis Kieffer, Insecta, vol. 3, 1913, p. 390.

14. 0. flavipes Kieffer. Queensland.

Sceliomorpha flavipes Kieffer, Berlin Ent. Zeit., vol. 51, 1907,
p. 296. Psilanteris flavipes Kieffer, Broteria, vol. 14, 1916,
p. 177.

15. 0. foveatus Kieffer. Java.

Zeit. Hym. Dipt., vol. 7, 1907, p. 310.

16. 0. frontalis Kieffer. Philippine Islands.

Camptoteleia frontalis Kieffer, Broteria, vol. 14, 1916, p. 175.

17. 0. glob ris cut ellum Dodd. Queensland.

Dicroteleia glabriscut ellum Dodd, Proc. Royal Soc. Qld., vol. 26,
1914, p. 106.

18. 0. grandis Dodd. Queensland.

H oploteleia grandis Dodd, Trans. Royal Soc. South Aust., vol. 37,
1913, p. 176.

19. 0. hyalinipennis Dodd. Queensland.

Sceliomorpha hyalinipennis Dodd, Archiv. Naturg. Berlin, vol. 79,

1913, p. 165.

20. 0. hiefferi nom. nov. Philippine Islands.

Camptoteleia flavipennis Kieffer, Philippine Jour. Sci., vol. 9,

1914, p. 297.

76 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

21. 0. magniclavus Dodd. New South Wales.

Sceliomorpka magniclava Dodd, Proc. Royal Soc. Qld., yoI. 26,
1914, p. 103.

22. 0. magnus Kieffer. Philippine Islands.

Camptoteleia magna Kieffer, Philippine Jour. Sci., yoI. 9, 1914y
p. 296.

23. 0. marginalis Kieffer. Philippine Islands.

Camptoteleia marginalis Kieffer, Broteria, vol. 14, 1916, p. 172.

24. 0. mirellus Dodd. South-west Australia.

Sceliomorpka mirella Dodd, Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1919,
p. 349.

25. 0. montanus Dodd. Queensland.

Sceliomorpka montana Dodd, Archiv. Naturg. Berlin, vol. 79,,

1913, p. 165.

26. 0. nigriclavus Dodd. New South Wales.

Sceliomorpka nigriclava Dodd, Proc. Royal Soc. Qld., vol. 26,

1914, p. 104.

27. 0. nigricoxa Dodd. Queensland.

Sceliomorpka nigricoxa Dodd, Archiv. Naturg. Berlin, vol. 79,
1913, p. 165.

28. 0. rugosus Kieffer. Java.

Dicroteleia rugosa Kieffer, Notes Leyden Museum, vol. 30, 1908,
p. 92.

29. 0. rugulosus Dodd. Queensland.

Sceliomorpka rugulosa Dodd, Trans. Royal Soc. South Aust.,.
vol. 37, 1913, p. 139.

30. 0. skakespearei Girault. Queensland.

Scelio skakespearei Girault, Brisbane, private publication, 1926.

31. 0. solitarius Dodd. Queensland.

Dicroteleia solitaria Dodd, Proc. Royal Soc. Qld., vol. 26, 1914,
p. 105.

32. 0. spinosiceps Kieffer. Philippine Islands.

Psilanteris spinosiceps Kieffer, Broteria, vol. 14, 1916, p, 178.
Camptoteleia spinosiceps Kieffer, Das Tierreich, 1926,
p. 386.

It will be observed that the genus is confined to the Indo-Malayan
and Australian regions. Being well represented by species in the
Philippine Islands and Australia, Oxyscelio is probably a dominant
group throughout the Papuan and East Indian islands. The following
four American species, which possess a long postmarginal vein, are
excluded and their generic position is uncertain.

THE GENUS OXYSCELTO KIEFFER.

77

Oxyscelio connect ens Kieffer, Ann. Soc. Ent. France, yoL 78, 1910,

p. 313.

Oxyscelio trisnlcatus Kieffer; Chromoteleia trisulcata Kieffer, Berlin
Ent. Ziet., vol. 51, 1907, p. 265.

Dicroteleia foveatifrons Kieffer ; Prosanteris foveatifrons Kieffer, Ann.
Soc. Sci. Brussels, vol. 32, 1908, p. 136.

Dicroteleia carinata Ashmead ; Macroteleia carinata Ash., Jour. Linn.
Soc. London, vol. 25, 1894, p. 222; Dicroteleia carinata (Ash.)
Kieffer, Das Tierreich, 1926, p. 390.

THE GENERIC RELATIONS OF OXYSCELIO Kieffer.
Oxyscelio contains medium-sized to rather large Scelionids of rather
stout form and coarse sculpture. In general appearance the species
resemble those of Scelio Latreille and Hoploteleia Ashmead. The
relationship with Scelio is mainly superficial, and the two genera may
be distinguished by the following characters: —

Male antennae 10-jointed ; propodeum without true lateral carinae ;
segment 1 of abdomen without a raised median area, segment 2
transversely depressed at base ; forewings with the basal portion
distinctly paler and with a more or less distinct stigmal spot . . Scelio.

Male antennae 12- jointed ; propodeum with true lateral carinae ; segment
1 of abdomen with a raised median area, segment 2 not depressed at
base ; forewings uniformly stained, not distinctly paler at base,
without a stigmal spot . . . . ’ . . . . . . . . . . Oxyscelio.

The resemblance to Hoploteleia is pronounced, but there are several
distinguishing features, viz.

Postmarginal vein long ; lateral carinae of propodeum short ; posterior

margin of propodeum uniformly gently concave . . . . . . Hoploteleia.

Postmarginal vein absent ; lateral carinae of propodeum long ; posterior
margin of propodeum deeply concave medially, then with a blunt
projection at the junction of the lateral carinae . . . . . . Oxyscelio.

As more than one species of Oxyscelio, namely 0. flavipes K. and
0. spinosiceps K., have been placed by Kieffer in Psilanteris Kieffer, a
discussion of that genus seems appropriate. Psilanteris was erected in
1916 with Anteris bicolor Kieffer (1908) as the genotype. Kieffer ’s
description of bicolor, which states that the metanotum bears a spine or
tooth, that the sub-marginal vein is not remote from the costa, and that
segment 3 of the abdomen is as long as 1 and 2 united, represents an
insect which is clearly not congeneric with the species of Oxyscelio.
But Psilanteris atriclava Kieffer (1916) from the Philippines does not
possess these characters • from an examination of a female cotype of
this species I have made the following notes: — ‘‘Resembles a small
species of Camptoteleia, but the head is much wider than the thorax;
the sculpture of the head, scutum, and scutellum is coriaceous and
without punctures ; the metanotum is transverse, strongly foveate
medially but without a produced plate; the propodeum is short, the

78

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

lateral carinas- wide out from the median line, the posterior margin
uniformly gently concave ; venation as in Camptoteleia, the submarginal
vein remote from the costa, the marginal vein punctiform, the post-
marginal not developed ; abdomen as in Camptoteleia , segment 2 a little
longer than 1 or 3, 1 with a slightly differentiated broad, flat median
area.” The wide head, sculpture of head and thorax, and shape of the
posterior margin of the propodeum exclude this species from Oxyscelio
and its generic position, as well as that of P. atriceps Kieffer (1913)
which from the description appears closely related, is obscure.

Probably the new genus Bracalba, described herewith, exhibits’,
closer affinities with Oxyscelio than any known genus. In both are
found the raised median area on segment 1 of the abdomen, the deep
median concavity and lateral projections of the posterior margin of the
propodeum, and the venational character of the submarginal vein being
distant from the costa. The distinguishing features may be summarised
as follows: —

Postmarginal vein absent ; eyes bare ; female antennae with a stout
compact club, the sixth antennal joint much smaller than the
seventh ; metanotal plate usually excavated, its lateral margins
not strongly oblique

Postmarginal vein long ; eyes hairy ; female antennae with the club
hardly differentiated, the sixth antennal joint not smaller than
the seventh ; metanotal plate very large, not excavated, its
lateral margins oblique . .

BRACALBA New Genus.

Chromoteleia (not Ashmead) Dodd, Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1919,
p. 329.

Female: Male. — Medium-sized, stout-bodied, coarsely sculptured
Scelionids with the habitus of Lloploteleia and Oxyscelio. Head from
dorsal aspect transverse, no wider than the thorax, the vertex moderately
long and sloping to the posterior border which is not margined ; from
lateral aspect the vertex is somewhat convex, the frons strongly convex
lower frons with a rather narrow median depression which is not
margined; cheeks narrow dorsally, rather broad ventrally; eyes wide-
apart, large, with noticeable fine pubescence ; ocelli large, wide apart,
the lateral pair against the eyes. Antennae 12-jointed; in the female
with a loose 7- jointed club which is scarcely wider than and hardly
differentiated from the funicle, the first funicle joint long; in the male
the flagellar joint except the first sub-quadrate. Thorax stout ; pronotum
visible laterally, its anterior angles sub-truncate; scutum large, shortly
precipitous against the anterior margin which is very broadly rounded ;
parapsidal furrows complete, foveate ; scutellum large, strongly foveate
against its margins, the posterior margin rimmed and broadly semi-
circular; metanotum armed with a broad, coarsely sculptured lamella,
tv/o-thirds as long as the scutellum, projecting over the propodeum and
extreme base of abdomen, its lateral margins oblique, its posterior margin.

Oxyscelio ..

Bracalba*.

THE GENUS OXYSCELIO KIEFFER.

79

either gently convex or concave ; propodeum short medially, long
laterally, the posterior margin medially deeply concave to its base, and
on either side with a blunt tooth-like projection which juts slightly
into the basal depressions of the abdomen ; lateral earime of propodeum
complete. Forewungs long and broad ; submarginal vein well-distant
from the costa which it joins in a puncti'form or square marginal vein,
the stigmal vein very long and oblique, the postmarginal long, gradually
vanishing into the costa distally but fully twice as long as the stigmal
vein; basal, median, and a long radial vein indicated by brown lines..
Legs normal, slender. Abdomen a little longer than the head and
thorax united; broadly sessile at base; truncate or almost pointed at
apex; segments 2 and 3 slightly longer than 1 or 4: segment 1 at base
on either side deeply depressed, so that medially there is a broad,
elevated flat or humped area which in the female projects forward
slightly into the concavity of the propodeum (this raised area is not
bounded laterally by definite stria; or carinae as in most of the species
of Oxyscelio) .

Type. — Bracalba laminata described herewith.

A genus related to Hoplotelem and Oxyscelio, the characters
separating it from the latter having already been discussed ; from
Hoploteleia it differs in the form of the metanotum, propodeum, and
base of the abdomen. Three species are known, two of which are
described herewith.

BRACALBA LAMINATA New Species.

Female— Length, 4-25 mm. Black; legs, including the coxae, bright
reddish yellow; antenna? black, the scape reddish yellow; tegulae dusky.

Head wholly strongly eonfluently punctate including the frontal
depression, and with a pubescence of long fine pale hairs. Antennal
scape moderately short and stout, twice as long as funicle 1 ; pedicel
twice as long as its greatest width ; funicle 1 elongate, two-thirds longer
than the pedicel, 2 scarcely one-half as long as 1, 3 somewhat shorter
than 2, quadrate ; next six joints as long as wide, scarcely widened,
gradually tapering to apex, the apical joint one-half longer than wide.
Thorax one-fourth longer than its greatest width ; pronotum and scutum
strongly eonfluently or sub-confluentlv punctate and with fine pale
pubescence ; scutellum with large punctures which are not confluent ;
metanotal lamina strongly reticulate-rugose, without carinae or striae,
its posterior margin gently concave medially; projections on either side
of median cavity of the propodeum in the form of stout rounded teeth,
the margin deeply concave between the projections and the posterior-
lateral angles, the lateral earinae reaching the margin at the base of
these concavities. Forewings extending to posterior margin of fourth
abdominal segment ; lightly stained with brown ; venation fuscous.
Abdomen one-fifth longer than the head and thorax united, a little more
than twice as long as its greatest width; segments 1 and 4 sub-equal,

80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

2 and 3 a little longer, 5 four-fifths as long as 4, 6 three-fifths as long as
■5, its dorsal surface excavated apically so that the apical dorsal margin
is deeply concave ; median area on segment 1 somewhat rounded and
projecting forward a little; segment 1 confluently punctate and longi-
tudinally striate, the striae stronger and more regular medially; 2-6
rather strongly confluently punctate with an irregular longitudinal
arrangement but without defined striae; abdomen with a short,
inconspicuous pubescence which is longer laterally and on the two apical
segments,

Male. — Length, 4 mm. Differs from the female as follows: —
Coxae dusky black; frontal depression deeper; scutellum confluently
punctate ; abdomen with seven visible segments, broadly truncate or
faintly concave at apex, the apical segment short, broad, and transverse ;
median area of segment 1 not rounded and not projecting forward.
Antennae black, the scape red at extreme base; scape rather short and
stout ; pedicel short, slightly longer than its greatest width ; funicle

1 twice as long as the pedicel, fully twice as long as its greatest width ;

2 a little longer than wide; 3-9 quadrate; apical joint one-half longer
than the penultimate.

Habitat. — Queensland; Gogango, 40 miles west of Rockhampton,
one female, one male, in March, A. P. Dodd.

Holotype and Allotype in the Queensland Museum (Hy. 4477).

BRAG ALBA NIGRESGENS Dodd.

Chromoteleia nigrescens Dodd, Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1919, p. 329.

Prom the original description it is evident that this species, erected
on a male frcm South-west Australia, is closely related to both laminata
and cuneata. No comparison with the other species could be made as
the holotype of nigrescens is in the British Museum.

BRAG ALBA GUNEATA New Species.

Female. — Length, 3*40 mm. Black; legs bright reddish yellow, the
coxae dark at base, the tarsi duskj^ • antennae black, the first three or four
joints bright reddish yellow ; tegulae dusky yellowish.

Head strongly confluently punctate and with pale pubescence, the
frontal depression smooth medially. Antennal scape over twice as long
as funicle 1 which is a little longer than the pedicel, the latter twice as
long as its greatest width; funicle 2 as wide as long, 3 a little wider
than long; next six joints a little yet distinctly wider than long, the
apical joint not much longer than its greatest width. Thorax one-fifth
longer than its greatest width ; pronotum, scutum, and scutellum
strongly confluently punctate and with fine pubescence ; metanotal
lamina strongly reticulate-punctate and wfith several obscure irregular
longitudinal striae, of which the median one projects a little at the
posterior margin; posterior projections of propodeum less tooth-like

THE GENUS OXYSCELIO KIEFFER.

81

than in laminata and broader at apex, the posterior margin not deeply
concave between the projections and the posterior-lateral angles, the
lateral carinae reaching the margin at the apex of the projections.
Forewings extending to posterior margin of fifth abdominal segment ;
lightly stained with brown; venation thick, fuscous. Abdomen one-
fifth longer than the head and thorax united, somewhat more than
twice as long as its greatest width ; relative length of segments about as
in laminata; segment 6 not excavated, its apical margin rounded and a
little depressed ; median area on segment 1 very broad, scarcely
rounded; sculpture as in laminata except that the punctuation on
segments 2-6 has a more pronounced tendency toward longitudinal
arrangement and there are numerous irregular strias.

Male. — Unknown.

Habitat. — South Queensland ; Chinchilla, three females in February
and March, A. P. Dodd.

Holotype in the Queensland Museum ( Hy . 4478) ; Paratypes in the
author’s collection.

Closely related to the genotype but differing in antennal and
propodeal characters.

R.s. — F

82

Vol. XLII., No. 9.

Two Interesting Queensland Eucalypts.

By W. F. Blakely (Botanic Gardens, Sydney) and C. T. White
(Government Botanist, Brisbane).

Plate I.

{Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 28th July, 1930.)

Eucalyptus Curtisii n. sp.

Frutex vel arbor parva 3-7 m. alta; cortice lasvi griseo. Folia
juvenilia vel primaria oblonga vel anguste lanceolata, opposita vel
alterna, breviter petiolata, superne obscure viridia, interne pallida,
2*5-7 cm. longa, 0*4-1 cm. lata, venis lateralibus e costa media angulo
50° -60° emergentibns. Inflorescentiae axillares vel paniculas corymbosas
terminates dispositae, umbellis 3-6 floris ; peduncnlis compressis vel
anguste alatis. Flores pedicellati, gemmae 1 cm. longae, 0*5 cm. diam. ;
tubo calycis leviter subcostato, limbo minute bidentato ; operculo conico,
calycis tubo brevius. Antherse versatiles, late ovatae vel orbiculares
longitudinaliter dehiscentes. Capsulae pedicellatae, campanulatae,
venulosae et subcostatae 7-8 mm. diam., disco parvo, ineonspicuo, valvis
4-6 truncatis profunde inclusis.

A Mallee-like shrub or small tree 3-7 m. high, with grey-silvery
stems 5-8 cm. in diameter. Bark smooth, leaden grey in colour,
decorticating in long ribbons. Timber very pale, hard and tough.
Juvenile leaves (not seen in the earliest stage) linear oblong to narrow
lanceolate, opposite and alternate, shortly petiolate, dark green above,
pale beneath, the margins slightly irregular and sub-revolute, 2*5-7 cm.
long, 0*4-1 cm. broad. Mature leaves alternate or occasionally opposite,
shortly petiolate, lanceolate, dark green and shining above, pale beneath,
6-13 cm. long, 1-2 • 7 cm. broad. Venation rather obscure, the lateral veins
making an angle of 50° -60° to the midrib, the veinlets reticulate, intra-
marginal vein remote from the edge. Inflorescence in the upper axils
forming fairly large terminal corymbose panicles which become infrater-
minal by the time the fruit develops. Umbels 3-6 flowered; peduncles
compressed or narrowly winged, 10-15 mm. long. Buds conical clavate,
pedicellate, pale green, 1 cm. long, 5 mm. in diam. at the broadest part.
Calyx-tube slightly 4-ribbed or subdipterous at the base, two of the
ribs more prominent than the others and terminating in rudimentary
teeth on the edge of the calyx rim. Operculum conical, rather thin, pale
green shaded pink, shorter than the calyx-tube. Anthers versatile,
broadly ovate to orbicular, with distinct cells opening longitudinally,
gland rather small, attached to the upper half of the connective. Fruit
pedicellate, campanulate, venulose and faintly costate, one or two of the
ribs sometimes expanded into narrow wings, 7-8 mm. diam. Disc small
and obscure, slightly oblique ; valves 4-6, truncate, deeply enclosed.

Pkoc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. XLII.

P'LATE I.

Fig. 1. Juvenile or coppice leaves, nat. size. Fig. 6. Calyx tube and pistil, x

Fig. 2. Flowering Twig, J nat. size. Fig. 7. Fruiting inflorescence, i nat. size.

Fig. 3. Flower bud, x 1| Fig. 8. Capsule, nat. size.

Fig. 4. Flower, x li. Fig. 9. Seeds, enlarged.

Fig. 5. Anther, x 25.

TWO INTERESTING QUEENSLAND EUCALYPTS,

83

Description of Seeds. — The seeds are somewhat similar to those of
Tristania conferta R. Br., and quite distinct from any other species of
Eucalyptus, hence a new subseries, Leptospermae, is proposed.

Fertile seeds pale brown, glossy, minutely rugose on the sides only,
the back smooth and glossy, flask-shaped to arcuate, usually 2-ribbed,
the base obtuse or produced into a small, straight point, gradually
narrowed upwards into the small truncate hilum, 1^ mm. long, \ mm.
broad in the widest part. Sterile seeds somewhat similar in shape and
size to the fertile seeds, but straighter and of a darker colour.

Description of Seedlings. — Cotyledons reniform, 5 mm. long, 2\ mm.
in diameter. Hypocotyl slender, terete, pale pink, 1-1*5 cm. long.
First pair of leaves linear-lanceolate, shortly petiolate, pale green,
1-1*5 cm. long, 4-5 mm. broad. Second pairs of leaves linear-lanceolate,
petiolate, 1*5-2 cm. long, 6-7 mm. broad, dark green above, pale beneath.
Third to fifth pair of leaves narrow-lanceolate, shortly petiolate, smooth,
pale on the lower surface, 4-8 cm. long, 0*7-1 cm. broad. Sixth to eighth
pair narrow-lanceolate, 7-12 cm. long, 1-1*3 cm. broad, the same colour
as the earlier leaves. Intermediate leaves alternate, petiolate, lanceolate
to obliquely lanceolate, 6-8 x 1*5-2 cm. Venation fine and somewhat
obscure.

Range. — Sandstone hills near Plunkett, about 33 miles S.W. of
Brisbane: C, T. White, 26/8/1923 (sine No.). Bushes 6-8 ft. high,
bark peeling off in long strips ; 24/2/29 No. 5592, very common on
sandstone ridges, small trees up to 7 m., but mostly smaller of Mallee-
like growth, trunks with a smooth grey silvery bark ; Nov. 1929
(flowering specimens), D. Curtis (the type).

The species is named in honour of Mr. Densil Curtis, who first
drew the attention of one of us (C.T.W.) to the tree when collecting
in that locality in 1923. Unfortunately, only fruiting specimens were
gathered. The locality was again visited in February 1929, but again
the trees were only seen in fruit, although a good series of fruiting
specimens, wood, and coppice leaves were gathered. Mr. Curtis, however,
gathered good flowering specimens in November 1929, which enabled
us to draw up a satisfactory description.

Affinities. — The species closely resembles E. Shiressii Maiden &
Blakely, in shape, colour, and general appearance of the juvenile and
adult leaves, also in the shape of the buds, but the anthers place it in a
different subsection, while the fruits are more venulose, and the wood is
pale.

The leaves are reminiscent of those of Tristania laurina R. Br.,
and the fruits and seeds resemble the corresponding characters of
T. conferta R. Br. to a marked degree.

Systematic Position. — It is a very interesting species with the
Mallee-like habit of E. eudesmioides F. v. M. and the rudimentary
toothed calyx of some of the members of the Eudesmieag, but the stamina!

84

PROCEEDINGS OF TPIE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

ring is regular, and the filaments are not tufted. The rather large
terminal inflorescence is not unlike the Corymbosae, but the anthers are
much shorter, the fruits not urceolate, and the timber is white.

It cannot be satisfactorily placed under any of Bentham’s subseries
(Series Normales in' the “ Flora Australiensis”) and a new subseries —
Beptospermas — intermediate between the Corymbosae and Eudesmieae, is
here proposed to receive it. The characters are as follows: —

Subseries Leptospermce. — Flowers rather large, inflorescences borne
in the upper axils forming a terminal more or less corymbose panicle
(infraterminal in fruit). Calyx ribbed, two of the ribs produced into
minute teeth on the calyx rim. Capsule campanulate, seeds narrow,
minutely rugose on the sides, the back smooth.

Eucalyptus tenuipes n. sp.

Arbor parva vel mediocris, cortice fibrato persistenti. Folia
juvenilia opposita vel alterna, linearia vel anguste lanceolata, sessilia vel
breviter petiolata; folia matura vel secundaria opposita vel alterna
breviter petiolata, anguste lanceolata, 6-15 cm. longa et 0*8-1 -8 cm. lata;
venis later alibus e costa media angulo 60° -70° emergentibus, venis
lateralibus et venulis subobscuris. Inflorescentiae umbellas axillares
dispositae ; umbellis 5-10 floris ; pedunculis 1 • 2-1 • 7 cm. longis ; pedicellis
tenuibus subteretibus, 0* 7-1*1 cm. longis. Flores ignoti. Capsulas
hemispherical vel late turbinatae 4-5 mm. diam. valvis 3-4 leviter inclusis
vel discum subasquantibus.

A “Stringybark or Mahogany ” of medium size, bark long-fibred,
dark reddish brown, close and persistent to the small branches. Juvenile
leaves not seen in the earliest stage ; those available are smooth, yellowish-
green when dry, opposite and alternate, linear to narrow-lanceolate,
sessile to shortly petiolate, dark coloured and subcaniculate above, pale
beneath, with a yellowish prominent midrib, 5*15 cm. long, 0*5-1 cm.
broad. Mature (adult or secondary) leaves opposite and alternate,
shortly petiolate, narrow-lanceolate, thin and pale, drying a dull
yellowish green, 6-15 cm. long, 0-8-1-8 cm. broad. Venation very fine
and subobscure, the lateral veins diverging at an angle of 60° -70° to
the midrib ; the intramarginal vein very close to the edge. Inflorescences
in axillary umbels of 5-10 markedly pedicellate flowers. Peduncles
slender, subangular, 1*2-1 *7 cm. long; pedicels very slender, subterete,
0* 7-1*1 cm. long. Flowers unknown. Fruit pedicellate, hemispherical
to goblet-shaped, remarkably thin, 4-5 mm. diam. Disc depressed or
much lower than the calycine ring, rather flat, or forming a thin carnose
ring over the delicate capsule and partly concealing the three or four
very small valves. Fertile seeds pale brown, D-shaped to obliquely
pyramidal, glossy, faintly 2-ribbed l|x 1 mm. Hilum small, terminal,
irregular in shape. Sterile seeds pale brown, as long as the fertile seeds,
but narrower and more irregular in shape.

Affinities. — Its affinities are firstly with E. acmenioides Schauer,

TWO INTERESTING QUEENSLAND EUCALYPTS,

85

particularly in the venation of the leaves, shape and sculpture of the
fruit, and probably in the anthers ; the bark is also like that of
E. acmenioides Schauer, known in New South Wales as White Mahogany
and in Queensland as Yellow Stringybark. It is, however, readily
distinguished from E. acmenioides by its narrow sub-rigid juvenile
leaves, its uniformly narrower adult leaves, and in the exceedingly long
slender pedicels to the fruits, E. Curtisii Blakely & White resembles
this species mainly in the narrow juvenile and adult leaves, and to
some extent in the shape of the fruits, but E. Curtisii is a smooth-barked,
small, Mallee-like shrub or tree, with a large terminal inflorescence,
while E. tenuipes is a medium-sized tree with a very fibrous persistent
bark.

Synonym* . — E. acmenioides Schauer, var. tenuipes, Maiden &
Blakely Crit. Rev. Gen. Euc. vol. vii. (part lxx.), p. 464, plate 285,
figs. 5, 6.

Range. — Meteor Creek, South-Central Queensland; local name
“Peppermint Stringybark”: Dr. H. I. Jensen, July 1921 (type). Dalby
Forest district, “Stringybark of medium size”: Deputy Forester
Singleton, No. 34. Nudley via Dalby: Forest Overseer Scouller:
Chinchilla, small “Stringybark” tree of stunted appearance, very loose
outside bark, 25-30 ft. high; the best stem I could find was, 8 inches in
diameter, older trees very hollow; I only know of one patch of these
trees about here; inside wood of a brown colour. R. C. Beasley, No. 11 r
3/7/1928: Chinchilla on poor stony ground, local name “Mahogany/'
R. C. Beasley: Additional specimens 16/1/30 (sine No.).

86

Vol. XLII., No. 10.

The Consideration of certain Factors as
Potentialities in Mosquito Control in Australia.

By R. Hamlyn-Harris, D.Se., City Entomologist, Brisbane.*

Plates I -II.

(Read before the Royal Society of Queensland , 1st September , 1930.)

INTRODUCTION.

There is perhaps no phase of mosquito control less understood
than that appertaining to the breeding places of mosquitoes in the open.
It is commonly supposed by the average person that any and every
water-holding swamp is an actual breeding place, and it is extremely
difficult to bring home the actual truth with regard to this difficult
question because, whilst we know that there are many that are not and
never do breed mosquitoes, it is very difficult to give a correct inter-
pretation of what is actually going on. In order to explain the position
with any degree of accuracy, it has been sought to divide breeding
places into places of selection as opposed to places of compulsion. The
explanation as to why this should be so, however, cannot be sought by
taking one factor alone into consideration, and therein lies the difficulty
of the problem.

POTENTIAL VERSUS ACTUAL BREEDING PLACES.

During fieldwork it may be possible to determine the causes of
avoidance or selection with some degree of certainty in isolated
instances, but unfortunately these reasons cannot be generally applied.
The most obvious thing with regard to -the selection of breeding places
seems to be the factor of the food supply. Of recent years a good deal
of attention has been given to the hydrogen ion concentration of the
water, and, though these investigations have not so far yielded the
results we had hoped, yet the consideration of this interesting side of
the question has produced valuable scientific data (MacGregor10 and
others). Records indiscriminately taken and applied without any

From the Entomological Section, Department of Health, Brisbane City Council.

CERTAIN FACTORS AS POTENTIALITIES IN MOSQUITO CONTROL.

87

careful co-ordination tend to become useless and in some cases are
grossly misleading. The hydrogen ion concentration of any given water
is a useful indication of the types of waters selected by different types
of mosquitoes and for this purpose alone is helpful. Hydrogen ion
concentration, however, is a far more difficult thing to determine than
appears at first sight, for the changes are sometimes so rapid and are
influenced by so many factors that it is quite possible to take the
readings of the same water at different places, at different levels, and
under varying conditions of temperature and locality, and obtain
different results each time, so that no useful purpose can be served by the
reiteration of their values. Hydrogen ion concentration readings should
be taken, therefore, with the greatest possible care, and in view of the
fact that temperature has such a profound influence upon ionic dissocia-
tion, or whatever the cause may be, the temperature of the water at
the very spot at which records are taken should go hand in hand.
Most waters show a gradual rise in pH during the height of the sun’s
activities, which drops again the moment the temperature begins to fall.
.Some have regarded this change in pH as due to the presence of aquatic
vegetation only, producing by photosynthetic activity changes in the
water irrespective of temperature. This pH range can, however, be
induced quite irrespective of vegetation; the change is just as
pronounced and shows practically no difference from those waters which
are supposed to be constantly affected b}^ the vegetation which abounds.
The way in which temperature influences the rise and fall of pH is
shown by the accompanying graphs. An interesting instance of the
supposed effects of aquatic vegetation upon the pH is that recorded by
Matheson & Hinman11 when they interpret the presence of Char a
fragilis as giving rise to lethal effects and producing the death of
mosquito larvae, the lethal action of the plant being said to be closely
associated with a high pH which varies directly with the degrees of
photosynthetic activity. In Queensland Nitella phauloteles is said to
act in a similar way, and yet, when the water is examined in which this
Charophyte flourishes, the pH is shown to stand mainly in relationship
to the temperature of the water, and even on the hottest day in summer
this rarely exceeds 88° F. or so during the peak period of the day when
the highest pH is reached, with the decline of temperature the pH also
declines. This plant is definitely stated to be lethal to mosquitoes, and
yet throughout the greater part of November and December 1928 both
Anopheles annulipes and Culex annulirostris were found thriving in
thick masses of it. This does not suggest any lethal action in the field
at all events.

88

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

9 o

8 c

*

7-0

6 &

T/me of Day

Graph I. — Hydrogen Ion Concentration of w Nitella” Waters.

The relationship of temperature and pH in a small pool with Nitella cristata
and Nitella pliauloteles, illustrated by two different readings taken within a fortnight
of one another at the same spot, the first on 2nd November, and the second on
15th November, 1928 (rapidly drying up). On both occasions Anopheles ammlipes
and Culex annulirostris were plentiful. Chara benthami was also present in small
quantities. Larval destructors exceptionally numerous.

It is an extraordinary thing that, however varied the readings may be, there
exists some definite relationship between temperature and pH, for notice how the
pH drops with the decrease in temperature. Furthermore, as evidence that this pH
is not indued by photosyntlietic activity but is produced by the* effects of tempera-
ture upon ionic dissociation, it is instructive to notice that test tubes provided with
water placed in the pools from which the readings are taken will show similar
differences throughout the day to those shown by the pools themselves.

Enoggera Creek (5-mile radius from Brisbane Post Office).

Of greater importance, by far, than this question of pH seems to
be the presence of decomposition products in the water. Here we tread
on surer ground, at least so it would appear, and possibly by far the
greater mortality amongst mosquito larvae can be attributed to the toxic
effects of these. That this would prove of importance has been
foreshadowed by others (Harvey0 7 8 ; Pruthi1516; MacGregor10;
Williamson23). Some experiments conducted by the writer during the
winter months, with a view to discovering the changes that would be
likely to take place under laboratory conditions, have yielded results
of scientific and practical interest.

CERTAIN FACTORS AS POTENTIALITIES IN MOSQUITO CONTROL. 89

Four large glass jars holding approximately 9 or 10 litres each,
to which a 2-5 per cent, peptone solution had been added as nitrogen
supply, were used.

Object of such Experiments.

Sample 1. — This experiment was conducted with the express
intention of testing the effects of a well-aerated peptonised solution
upon mosquito larvn?. It was thought that a superfluity of oxygen
might possibly prolong life. In order to supply oxygen to the water
regularly, air was bubbled through it night and morning. In other
respects this jar was the same as No. 3. Both' were exposed to the
atmosphere.

Sample 2 was used to test the effect of a C02 blanket kept constantly
upon the surface of the water. The air was kept excluded by means
of a glass cover. C02 was delivered from a Kipp’s apparatus night
and morning.

Sample 3. — This jar was left exposed to the atmospheric conditions
of the room during the whole period and acted in some measure as a
control.

Sample 4 was kept covered to exclude dust. Further 5 cc.’s were
added on five different occasions, making a total of 50 cc.’s of peptone
solution during the whole period under observation. This was done
to allow for the food factor. The possibility of the food supply being
used up during the process of the experiment was thereby excluded.

It is, however, recognised that, with the appearance of toxic
substances as by-products of putrefaction, the killing power of the
solution becomes apparent. It is unfortunate, however, that though
we have every reason to believe in their presence we know so little about
the nature of them.

Samples of the water as per the accompanying table were taken
and subjected to analysis at intervals of about ten days, attention being
specially given to consideration of the nitrogen products and the changes
induced therein.

Six egg-rafts of Culex fatigans, approximating anything from
1,000 to 1,500 eggs, were added to each on the 27th August (1928) ;
temperature of tap water used being in each case 67° F.

Experiments dealing with Putrefaction Changes.

90

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

„ ,, Note.— I would here like to express my gratitude to Mr. W. J. Chamberlain, Water Chemist to the Brisbane City Council’s Water and Sewerage Department,

for the trouble he has taken in making the analyses above detailed.

CERTAIN FACTORS AS POTENTIALITIES IN MOSQUITO CONTROL,

91

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92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The interpretation of these results is fraught with much difficulty,
but it will be recognised at a glance, however, that the mortality of
the larvae was such that very few adults matured. The peptone
solution was intended to meet the food demand, and, in order to make
doubly sure that there was no possibility of the larvae dying from
starvation, additional quantities of peptone were added to Sample 4
from time to time. It is interesting to note that, under such favourable
conditions as at first obtained, the larvae made rapid progress, and at
the end of the first week or two, when most of the other jars were
sadly depleted, Sample 4 contained by far the greater number of larvae
in a thoroughly flourishing condition. Everything seemed to go well
until suddenly the larvae commenced to disappear, and from that time
on disaster after disaster overtook them.

Approximately 600 c.c. were abstracted from the jars each time
water was taken for analysis, so that, allowing for a certain amount of
evaporation, the tendency would be for each breeding place to become
more restricted, including also possibly a higher concentration of the
water contents.

It is difficult to explain the tremendous mortality of the larvae in
all the experimental jars except in terms of the nitrogen cycle; these
facts seem to speak for themselves, forcing us to the belief that in this
instance this question is of greater moment than the food supply. It
certainly has proved itself to be so in the laboratory ; in the field a
greater number of factors are naturally brought into play, but we have
no reason to believe that in the main the mortality would be any less,
in the field, given similar conditions, than elsewhere.

Particularly astonishing are the results recorded from Sample 2.
It must occasion some surprise that the larvae continued to live on for
some time in spite of the C02 blanket which was never absent from
the surface of the water. It may be presupposed that very little of
this would enter into solution, and it is a mystery from where the larvae
procured their oxygen. The only feasible explanation seems to be that
larvae must be capable of using up dissolved oxygen from the water.

The opinion may be further expressed that the water would probably
contain sufficient oxygen to enable the original larvae to keep alive in
spite of the presence of a narcotic poison, on the surface. With regard
to the larvae themselves there is a further factor to be taken into
consideration besides that of oxygen, namely, the conversion of free
and albuminoid ammonia into nitrite. In the proportions in which it
occurs there can be little doubt that the nitrite would be toxic to
mosquitoes, and the experiments tend to show that the toxicity of the
decomposition products was responsible for the final debacle. Peptone
is a putrefying substance, and, according to Pruthi,16 the moment the
first important change causes the appearance of toxic substances, the
killing time (his researches deal with fish) would only be a matter
of hours.

CERTAIN FACTORS AS POTENTIALITIES IN MOSQUITO CONTROL.

93

For purposes of comparison, the following analysis of water taken
from a manure pit should be studied. The liquid was a highly
concentrated one and was full of all developmental stages of C. fatigans ;
hence, for the purposes intended, no more typical breeding place of this
species could he imagined.

The total nitrogen is considerable ; the presence of albuminoid
ammonia in such quantities is evidently responsible for the existence of
such an ideal breeding place in which large numbers of bacteria would
swarm. The larvae of this species seem to prefer coarse foodstuffs
which insure rapid development. It is further extraordinary how
consistently Gulex fatigans selects “hay infusion’7 mixtures of this sort.
A further interesting instance of this is often seen in the field when
waterholes, hitherto free from infestation, commence to breed Gulex
fatigans freely the moment rotting grass is thrown into the water.

In such a sample as this the amount of organic matter present is
not only natural but of immense value as a food reserve, and the
so-called “suspended developmental phase,” with which one is so
familiar, seldom occurs. The significance of chlorides and total
alkalinity is very imperfectly understood at present, though the high
content might be a factor in the retardation of development of certain
sylvan mosquitoes. No other mosquito with the possible exception of
Lutzia halifaxi, which is also occasionally found in liquid manure, could
exist in such concentration.

Parts per Million.

Free ammonia
Albuminoid ammonia
Nitrites

Nitrate . .

Chloride
Total alkalinity

Consumed oxygen at 212° in 30 mins.
pH ..

25-75

25-5

•0025

-6

220-0

820-0

370-0

7-5

Hydrogen Ion Concentration and Temperature.

Our knowledge with regard to hydrogen ion concentration and its
contributing' factors is undergoing many changes.

For some time past the necessity for taking readings of various
waters, waters of all kinds and description, some breeding mosquitoes,
some not, some containing vegetation, and some not, has been apparent.
As has already been stated, the hydrogen ion concentration will vary
throughout the day irrespective of the presence of aquatic life. It is a
significant fact that, from the moment a peak period is reached in the
temperature of the day and the temperature commences to fall, the
hydrogen ion concentration of the water falls with it. It is of course not
to be supposed that temperature alone is responsible, but from actual
readings taken over and over again it would seem as if this were the

7e/r>/oer<afure of Water

94

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

main determining factor. That there are contributory causes must be
self-evident from the variations that are liable to take place. A study
of, the accompanying graphs should make this quite clear.

Graph No. 2. — Hydrogen Ion Concentration of “Rice” Waters.

The hydrogen ion concentration of the rice-fields varies. In this instance the
maximum is reached in water among the rice itself. Though the localities at which
the temperature and pH were taken were only 4 yards apart, the presence of rotting
s/oudan grass near the check-bank asserted itself by influencing the pH as shown
above, the pH remaining nevertheless all the time on the alkaline side of neutrality.

These readings were taken in crabhole country at Ellimo, near Yenda (Farm
No. 1640, Patterson). The paddock was 5* acres in extent and the rice ten weeks
old.

Anopheles annulipes was present along portions of the check-bank in small
quantities, and Culex annulirostris was just commencing to breed in association.

The tendency of rotting fibre to alter the pH, as is suggested by this record,,
opens up the question of the efficacy of such to create conditions unfavourable to*
mosquito breeding.

I8th December, 1928 — Mirrool, M.I.A.

In taking readings, the greatest care has been taken that the
thermometer is placed in the same spot every time and that no disturbing
influences are allowed to affect the water, for it is quite possible that
discrepancies in some records may be attributable to disturbing elements
which are apt to upset the equilibrium of the water during the course
of the day. Particularly noticeable is this in Graph 3, which records
happenings in one of the rice paddocks of the Yanco district,
Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area, taken during a very hot spell. During
the course of the day the temperature of the water rose steadily to
its highest point of 95° F. by 2 p.m. The pH at the same time of the
day rose to 8-8 ; suddenly there was a change in the atmosphere and by
about 2.45 p.m. a severe dust-storm had swept over the rice-fields,
travelling it was estimated at a rate of about 30 miles an hour, and

CERTAIN FACTORS AS POTENTIALITIES IN MOSQUITO CONTROL.

95

the drop in the pH was exceptionally noticeable, which during that
short period of time had fallen to 7-8. From that time on, the tempera-
ture continued to fall and the pH with it. At 5.30 p.m. another storm
made its appearance, which necessitated retreat. A slight rise in the
hydrogen ion concentration between the two storms remains unexplained.

7/me of Day

Graph No. 3. — The Temperature of “Rice'” Waters in its Relation to
Hydrogen Ion Concentration.

Temperature of pH readings taken in one rice-field on each side of a check-
hank dividing t'wo bays at Murrami, Farm No. 1081 (Tooth) /on 7th January,
Cvlex annulirostris and Anopheles ammtlipes present in both bays. The period
under review suffered t^o dust-storms, one between 2 and 3 o’clock in the
afternoon and the other after 5 o’clock, necessitating retreat; the fall in temperature
and the corresponding alterations in pH are particularly noticeable. The rice crop
was grown on the same chocolate soil two years running.

The difference in the temperature and pH of the two bays throughout the day
is difficult to account for. Pools forming the floor of a creek-bed and situated side
by side all vary in the same kind of way. Such changes are not at all uncommon.

It must of course be conceded that waters taken in different parts of
the rice-fields will yield slight variations of temperature as well as
slight variations of pH. (Graphs 2 to 4.)

It is a foregone conclusion that water in the field will not have
the same temperature or pH as it will have after having been brought
into the laboratory, where We find the tendency is for the water to
increase in alkalinity quite irrespective of any photosynthetic activity
or temperature. When once the water has been brought into equilibrium
with the temperature of the laboratory the water still shows a tendency
to rise in pH, so that when conducting experiments in the laboratory
this side of the question must not be overlooked. It is interesting to
note, however, that hydrogen ion concentration seems to follow very
much the same rate of development in most waters, at all events in
Southern Queensland, whether provided with aquatic vegetation or not,

96 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

and, unless there is some abnormal condition responsible, the pH rarely
if ever rises beyond 8*6 to 8-8, even on the hottest day in Brisbane.
Where a high pH of 9*0 is reached in the field, whatever apparently
the conditions may be that have induced it, mosquitoes invariably fail
to select it. On investigation it nearly always transpires that the pH
is due to the presence of some other factor rather than temperature,
in one case, perhaps, to an increase of an alkali or some other chemical
which may be present. If a weed like Nitella phauloteles is allowed to
remain in an aquarium for a considerable length of time so that the
whole jar becomes balanced, there is generally a slight variation in pH
during the course of the day, and when the jar is) placed during the
hottest part of the day in the direct sunlight the pH rises only
gradually; though many figures relating to Charophyta have been
aecumulated, I have never been able to get the high pH referred to by
Matheson & Hinman.11 Furthermore it is of importance to note
• at times, if such a jar containing Nitella phauloteles placed in the
laboratory is supplied with egg-rafts of Culex fatigans, the eggs hatch
quite normally but seldom mature. This has been a source of continual
worry, because the same thing happened with other Charophyta which
normally in the field breed thousands of mosquitoes though perhaps a
sylvan type.

Seeing that the pH reached in these jars is usually a consistent
one, it was determined to test out the food factor as thoroughly as
possible, and, knowing the voracity of C. fatigans larvae and their
preference for coarse organic substances, a fish food known as
“Piscidin” was used as a supplemental food, with unexpected results,
for the larvae thrived and continued to thrive. As long as they were
fed with this food every third day, the breeding cage was thronged with
adults of both sexes in a shorter space of time than is usually the case.
Such results proved that Nitella phauloteles is nof lethal to mosquitoes
under normal conditions, provided that the food supply is adequate
to meet all larval requirements.

This is further confirmed in the field. During the recent summer of
1928, pools forming the bed of Enoggera Creek were numerous, and
in these pools time after time various species of Nitellas had come to
rest, so that the whole floor of the pools was covered from end to end
and from side to side with copious growths of various Charophytes
consisting of Nitella cristata and Nitella phauloteles , Chara benthami ,
Char a australis , and others, and in some of them several species were so
entwined that it was futile to attempt to separate them. In all these
pools without exception, Anopheles annuUpes Walker occurred breeding
side by side with large numbers of Culex annulirostris Skuse. The
waters in which these plants occur are rich in iron and the deposition
of iron salts is considerable, influencing to some extent the hydrogen ion
concentration of the water in question, and, though iron salts in the
ferrous state would seem to destroy food organisms, these sylvan
mosquito larvae seem to be in no way inconvenienced thereby.

CERTAIN FACTORS AS POTENTIALITIES IN MOSQUITO CONTROL.

97

The Waters of the Rice-fields.

The potentialities of the rice-fields must not be overlooked, because
with the greater accumulations of water the numbers of mosquitoes will
naturally tend to increase. In every part of the world where rice is
grown, the carriers of malaria in particular constitute a serious menace.
It is no wonder, therefore, that the numbers of Anopheles annulipes in
the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area should be a matter of some concern.

Breeding in the rice-fields is first induced by mosquitoes which
have survived the winter in drain-ditches and such like. As colonisation
of the rice-fields must take place every year, the sources of supply from
which those mosquitoes come should be regarded as the principal
breeding places in the area, and control should be directed against them.
After colonisation of the rice has once taken place, breeding may go
on unrestrictedly. During the period of the rice’s growth the water
reaches a high temperature, but, with the stooling, shade is provided
and mosquito larvae linger in the cooler portions of the rice-field. With
the growth of the rice, the water becomes more and more suitable for
breeding purposes. The presence of organic matter is shown by the
analyses of rice-waters taken from the spot. For this reason it would
appear as if the rice-paddocks in the early stages were not so suitable
for larval growth, as in the latter, when the water has become suitably
balanced, vegetation is plentiful, and food supplies are assured.

As the Graphs 2-4 show, rice-water is usually on the alkaline side
of neutrality; probably this condition suits not only the rice best but
also the organisms and bacteria which flourish therein. There has been
some talk of the condition of water being affected adversely by rotting
fibre (Williamson23). So far no experiments have been made to test
this possibility, though it was noticeable that in one of the rice-paddocks
containing a considerable quantity of last year ’s rice-trash no
mosquito larvEe could be located. Such a negative finding, though
apparently of little value, may some day lead to more positive results.
The adverse influences of toxic substances produced as by-products of
putrefaction against which no mosquito larvae can possibly hope to
survive have yet to be studied. Research in mosquito eradication tends
to take this direction, and, compared with the importance of this aspect
of the question, the food supply sinks into mere insignificance.

Analyses of Samples of Water from the Rice-fields at Kubank’s
Farm, No. 101, Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area : — -

Sample 1. — Taken from the edge of rice-field on eastern end of
Farm, Mirool. Less turbid than Samples 2 and 3.

Sample 2. — Taken from drain outside check-bank on the western
side of the rice-field. Sample turbid and containing green algal growths.
Little movement of water in this drain.

Sample 3. — Taken from drain along road to the south of the rice-
field. Little movement of water in this drain; water turbid and
containing green vegetable growths.

R.s. — g

98

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Duplicate samples of about one litre each were taken, and the
results are averages of the duplicates. No mosquitoes were breeding in
any of these waters at the time.

—

pH.

i Alkalinity,
p.p,m.,

1 expressed as
j CaC03.

i

Cl., parts per
100,000.

Oxygen
consumed at
212° F. at
30 min., parts
per 100,000.

Sample 1

7-2

i

62 0

1-22

8-31

Sample 2

81

600

1-60

10-89

Sample 3

7-5

i "*

1-62

11-33

Remarks: (1) pH. — These results do not give a correct idea, since the readings
were determined 2| hours after having been taken into the laboratory, so that by
that time the water had come to equilibrium with the laboratory temperature, which
at 3 p.m. stood at 77° F.

(2) Cl. — The chlorine content of this water is low, but there is no particular
reason why it should be higher than that of the water in the canal, which would
be very suitable for irrigation purposes if it contained any great quantities of salts.

(3) Oxygen Consumed. — These figures are higher than one is used to in ordinary
waters, and can only be explained by the fact that the water had been in contact
for some time with a dense rice crop, as well as a large quantity of vegetable
debris, and. all the samples w'ere particularly turbid. The estimation, however, was
carried out on the filtered samples.

Note. — My thanks are due to Mr. H. Norman England, Assistant Soil Survey
Chemist’ at the Research Station, Griffith, New South Wales, for kindly under-
taking the analyses of these waters, which were made on 22nd March, 1929.

Time of Day

Graph No. 4.

To illustrate the difference of temperature of the water and pH on “red”
and “ black” soils respectively, the readings taken in two adjoining rice-paddocks,
Farm No. 1456 (Spencer), Murrami, Yanco Area, New South Wales, during
10th January, 1929. No mosquito larvae present’. “Red” soils which are light,
friable, and easily worked are apparently warmer than the heavier “black” soils.
The “red” soil was flooded on 22nd October and the “black” soil rice-paddock
a week later. Both were grown on “virgin” (rice) soil.

CERTAIN FACTORS AS POTENTIALITIES IN MOSQUITO CONTROL.

99

— -X- -Breeding jo/aces of Cu/ex annu//rosrr/s
and /l nop/? e/e s anni/Z/pes.

No more ideal breeding place than that here selected by Culex cinnulirostris and
Anopheles annulipes can be imagined; the places were shallow seepage drains, the
distance being a matter of 3 or 4 feet between each check-bank and extending for
§ mile in length. The food supply consisted mainly of decaying vegetation, the
attractive influence of the 1 1 hay infusion’’ favouring the growth both of Protozoa
and Bacteria. The rice-water first selected is that grown on the same soil two
years running, always nearest to the source of supply.

Murrami, Yanco Area.

100

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

It is significant that rice grown on the same land two years running breeds
more mosquitoes than rice grown on virgin soil. This is due to the presence of
much organic matter, providing considerable food supplies. In this particular
instance the whole of the shaded portions were covered in vegetation consisting
mainly of lucerne and several varieties of paspalum, and it was in the shade of
these, under the protection of the bank, that larvae were found in constant
association, whilst no larvae occurred at all in any part of the actual rice -field.
The breeding in the drain alongside was insignificant in comparison.

Locality: Murrami, Yanco Area,

~ -Breed/ng Local/f/es of C u /ex annu//rosfrfs
and Anophe/es an/)u//pes

Text-figure 6. — Mosquito-breeding in the Shelter of the Check-banks.

In Queensland the presence of such sylvan mosquitoes as Culex
annulirostris and Anopheles annvMpes, thriving among various species
of Nitella in the field as we have seen, rules out the possibility of the
Characeae being of any practical utility.

Graphs 1, 7, and 8, illustrating the relationship of the temperature
of the water and pH in pools covered with Charophytes, seem to
suggest that the plant has less to do with the pH than one might be led

CERTAIN FACTORS AS POTENTIALITIES IN MOSQUITO CONTROL. 101

to suppose. The graphs illustrate results obtained in pools in which
two sylvan mosquitoes bred, and in which —

(1) Different results are obtained in the same pool during the
• same periods of the day — on two different occasions a fort-
night in between — the fauna and flora of the pool remaining
relatively constant throughout (Graph 1) ;

(2) N. cristata was alone in evidence (Graph 7) ;

(3) Nitella cristata and N. phauloteles completely covered the
floor of the pool, which was situated in the shade during the
afternoon (Graph 8).

It is worthy of note that in all those instances investigated the pH
remained fairly consistent throughout. A considerable number of read-
ings, too numerous to publish but which show the same typical drop in
pH with decrease of temperature, were taken. Not once did these
particular waters record a higher pH than 84. This is important in
view of the results obtained by Matheson & Hinman10 with Chara
fragilis, who state that the water daily rose to a pH value of 9-0. Now

Time _ of Day_

Graph No. 7. — pH and Temperature of ‘‘Nutella” Waters.

Illustrating the relationship between temperature and pH in pool, the floor of
which was completely covered with Nitella cristata. Anopheles annulipes and Culex
annulirostris occurred here in considerable numbers. The drop in temperature and
pH commenced when the pool became enveloped in shade.

2nd November, 1928, Enoggera Creek (5-mile radius), Brisbane Area.

102 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

in our experience a pH of 9-0 is exceptionally rare both indoors and
out, in normal waters, at any time or place. When occasionally an
unusual pH is found, the cause of it can usually be referred to some
known factor such as the close proximity of a pool to highly alkaline
soil ; when artificially produced the reason of it is not far to seek.

This difference of high pH values in different countries is a puzzling
one. Why Chara fragilis in Queensland should yield a lower pH at the
maximum point of the day than the same plant does in Ithaca (U.S.A.)
is not apparent unless one believes that higher latitudes and other
climatic conditions exercise a distinct influence on pH.

Graph No. 8. — Hydrogen Ion Concentration Independent of Temperature.

The persistence with which the pH remains on the acid side of neutrality
irrespective of temperature is evidence of the presence of another factor pulling
in the opposite direction. It is suggested that the large numbers of iron bacteria
growing in the water may have something to do with it.

The peak period is reached at 1.15 p.m., comparatively early in the day,
accounted for by the fact that after that period the waterhole was completely
enveloped in shade.

Nitella cri'Stata at one end and Nitella phau oteles at the other completely
covered the floor of this waterhole. Culex annulirostris and Anopheles annulipes
were present in exceptionally large numbers in spite of the fact that the whole
surface was covered with a deposit' of an iron salt. Culex annulirostris laid egg-rafts
on this scum and the so-called deterrent qualities of such a scum must therefore '
mecessarily be called in question.

Brisbane area.

CERTAIN FACTORS AS POTENTIALITIES IN MOSQUITO CONTROL. 103

Before we can hope to apply conditions in U.S.A. to Queensland,
would it not be necessary to have some definite understanding with
regard to standards needing climatic adjustments? So, for instance,
the mean annual range in Ithaca (U.S.A.) is 101° F. ; Brisbane, on the
other hand, only has a departure from the mean temperature of a range
of about 10° on either side of the mean. "We in Queensland do not get
such extremes as are applicable to U.S.A. and Canada, hence the mean
annual range is somewhere in the region of about 20° F.

If, therefore, the pH follows temperature, as is apparently the case
judging by the evidence herein produced, then this question will prove
of greater moment in our conceptions of the relativity of pH values,
and considerable climatic adjustments will be necessary before the data
obtained can be interpreted at their true value.

When the time arrives for this aspect of the question to be taken
into consideration, it may also be found necessary to consider the effects
of solar radiation upon our natural waters and on pH in particular.
The results might astonish us. There is also another factor to be taken
into consideration in dealing with natural control, and that is the
limitations of the species itself and the various influences which
contribute to such limitations.

In the absence of larval destructors, the physical environment
assumes important proportions, but, although we know so little about
the physico-chemical factors, their significance in natural control must
be stressed. But over and above all these is the 4 1 deficiency of ability ’ ’
of the mosquito to mature under certain existing environmental factors,
and the greater importance of extending our knowledge in the field,
rather than in the laboratory, is stressed.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.

1. It is established that mosquitoes in choosing any particular
breeding-place do so for very definite reasons and not in a haphazard
way, and if their love of such places as have a distinct “hay infusion”
attraction can be taken seriously, then it would appear as if the food
factor were really the main determining one.

2. Mosquitoes tend to breed under ideal conditions in waters best
suited to their particular requirements, suitable food being the primary
influence in selection. Subsequent alteration of the waters due to
decomposition or other causes does not necessarily affect the choice of
breeding-places, for eggs are frequently laid on waters which ultimately
prove to be death-traps.

3. The economic importance of Anopheles annulipes is still in the
balance, and it is highly desirable that its real influence upon the
incidence of malaria in Australia be determined, the ideal drain-ditches
of the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area being particularly productive of
larger numbers of this mosquito, the control of which is in itself only a
simple matter.

104

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

4. Decomposition products in the water are of vast importance in
determining the duration of the developmental stages of the larvse and
the power of the larvae to survive in the presence of toxicity. It would
seem that the presence of albuminoid ammonia insures a plentiful food
supply of sorts, and renders the water particularly attractive to Culex
fatigans.

5. That larvae can exist for an abnormal time without atmospheric
oxygen is shown experimentally ; since larvae cannot exist for any length
of time without oxygen, it is surmised that they are capable of making
use of dissolved oxygen in the water.

6. Hydrogen ion concentration varies with the temperature: the
warmer the soils the higher the pH.

7. Characeae exert no lethal effect upon larvae in the field. In the
laboratory other factors are brought into play which equally influence
waters in aquaria and other vessels, affecting the food supply so that
the addition of supplemental food for larvae induces them to select such
waters ; such larvae grow and mature normally.

8. The waters of the rice-fields, though conducive to breeding, are
not selected at the commencement of the season. As mosquitoes are
turned out of the drain-ditches and other permanent breeding-places,
colonisation of the rice-fields takes place anew every year. This
knowledge should provide the best means towards prevention.

Acknowledgment. — My best thanks are due to the following for their kind
hospitality during my stay on the M.I. Area; but for them many of the observations
herein recorded would have been impossible: — Mr. and Mrs. Berry, Bice Farm No.
1444, Bilbul; Mr. and Mrs. Patterson, Bice Farm No. 1640, Ellimo, Yenda; Mr.
Harold Tooth, Bice Farm No. 1081, Murrami, Yanco; Mr. and Mrs. C. T. Spencer,
Farm No. 1456, Murrami, Yanco.

LITERATURE.

1. Ferguson, E. W. — Notes on Insects A. Mosquitoes (including a Mosquito

Survey of the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area). Bept. of the Dir. -Gen.

of P.H. N.S.W. for 1920, pp. 181-183. Sydney 1922.

2. Ferguson, E. W. — Mosquitoes of New South Wales. 15th Beport Microbiol.

Lab. Gov. Bur. Microbiol, for the year 1924, 187-191. Sydney 1926.

3. Hamlyn -Harris, B. — The Biological Side of Mosquito Control. Med. Jl. of

Aust., vol. 1, No. 4, 22nd Jan., 1927.

4. Hamlyn -Harris, B. — Notes on the Breeding Habits of* Culex fatigans Wied.

and its associated mosquitoes in Queensland. Proc. of the Boyal Soc.

of Q ’land, vol. xl., No. 8, 26tli Nov., 1928.

5. Hamlyn-Harris, B. — The Delation of certain Algse to Breeding-places of

Mosquitoes in Queensland. Bull. Ent. Bes., vol. xviii., pt. 4, May 1928.

6. Harvey, H. W. — Oxidation in Sea Water. Jl. of Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K., vol. xiii.,

Oct. 1925, No. 4.

7. Harvey, H. W. — Nitrate in the Sea. Jl. of Mar. Biol. Assoc., U.K., vol. xv.,

No. 1, Mar. 1926.

8. Harvey, H. W. — Nitrate in the Sea II. Jl. of Mar. Biol. Assoc., U.K., vol. xv.,

No. 1, Feb. 1928.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’lanD, Yol. XLII.

Plate I.

Drainage Channel Running Outside Rice Paddock (Farm 1444, Bilbul, N.S.W.).

This drain receives the overflow of the rice-fields and is some miles in length.
During January of 1929, this ditch was responsible for innumerable numbers of
Culex ammlirostris, and to a lesser degree of Anopheles anomlipes. As a breeding
place it is ideal; the water is stagnant, and decaying vegetable matter provides
necessary larval food which also consists of algae and bacteria. The whole drain is
suggestive of a delightful “hay infusion,” so attractive to certain types of
mosquitoes, and Tceniorhynchus uniformis taken biting at sundown on the check-
banks was possibly also breeding in this ditch.

It is in drains such as these that the greater bulk of mosquitoes occurring in
the rice-fields breed; the protection offered by the overgrown banks is sufficient
for all mosquito purposes.

A Newly Cleaned Drainage Channel shown by way of Contrast to the

Foregoing.

Whilst the sides of the ditch are kept free from weeds, the water is confined
to the centre and is in constant motion; this channel is not even a potential
breeding place.

Griffith Area, N.S.W.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. XLII.

Plate II.

Two Newly Planted Rice Paddocks.

Showing the relationship of the supply channel and seepage pools. It is mainly
in the seepage that breeding is likely to occur as soion as the channels become
overgrown with vegetation. The supply channels are at all times found to be
free of mosquito larvae.

Mirrool Area.

A Rice Field, 8 Weeks Old (No. 1444, Griffith Area).

Where readings of temperature and pH were taken throughout the course of one
of the hottest days in the year (13-12-28). No mosquitoes were breeding either
in the rice or in the seepage channel close by. The maximum temperature was
reached at the peak period of the day (3 p.m.) in seepage water at 96° F. The
readings were always taken 2 inches below the surface at the same spot in every
case. In no instance did the pH rise beyond 8.6.

certain factors as potentialities in mosquito control. 105

9. Macgregor, M. E. — The Influence of Hydrogen Ion Concentration in the Develop-
ment of Mosquito Larvae. Parasitology, vol. 13, No. 4, Nov. 1921.

10. Macgreror, M. E. — The Significance of the pH in the Development of Mosquito

Larvae. Parasitology, vol. 21, Nos. 1 and 2, May 1929.

11. Matheson, R., & Hinman, E. H: — Chara fragilis and Mosquito Development.

The Amer. Jl. of Hyg., vol. viii., No. 2, 292-293, Mar. 1928.

12. Matheson, R., & Hinman, E. H. — Further Studies on Chara spp. and other

Aquatic Plants in relation to Mosquito Breeding. American Jl. of
Trop. Med., vol. ix., No. 4, July 1929.

13. Matheson, R., & Hinman, E. H. — A Seasonal Study of the Plancton of a

Spring-fed Chara Pool versus that of a Temporary to Semi-permanent
Woodland Pool in relation to Mosquito Breeding. Amer. Jl. of
Hygiene, vol. xi., No. 1, 174-188, Jan. 1930.

14. Matheson, R. — The Utilization of Aquatic Plants as Aids in Mosquito Control.

Amer. Nat., vol. lxiv., Jan.-Feb. 1930.

15. Pruthi, H. S. — The Ability of Fishes to Extract Oxygen at different' Hydrogen

Ion Concentrations of the Medium. Jl. of Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K.,
vol. xiv., No. 3, Mar. 1927.

16. Pruthi, H. S. — Preliminary Observations on the Relative Importance of the

various Factors responsible for the Death of Fishes in Polluted Waters.
Jl. of Marine Biol. Assoc. U.K., vol. xiv., No. 3, Mar. 1927.

17. Rudolfs, W. — Contributions to the Causes of Mosquito Breeding in specific

places. Proc. 15th Ann. Meeting, N.J. Mosquito Extermination
Society, 1928. New Brunswick, N.J.

18. Rudolfs, W. — The Composition of Water and Mosquito Breeding. Amer. Jl. of

Hyg., ix., No. 1, pp. 160-180, Lancaster, Jan. 1929.

19. Senior-White, R. — Physical Factors in Mosquito Ecology. Bull. Ent. Res.,

vol. xvi., No. 3, Jan. 1926.

20. Senior-White, R. — On the Relationship existing between Carbonates and pH

and conductivity in Natural Waters. Indian Jl. of Med. Res., vol. xv.,
No. 4, April 1928.

21. Senior- White, R. — Physical Factors in Mosquito Ecology, Part II. Indian

J. Med. Res., vol. xvi., No. 1, July 1928.

22. Senior-White, R. — Progress towards the Realization of Biological Control of

Mosquito Breeding. Trans. 7th Cong. Far East Ass. Trop. Med.
1927, ii., pp. 718-722, 7 refs. Calcutta 1929.

23. Williamson, K. B. — Mosquito Breeding and Malaria in relation to the Nitrogen

Cycle. Bull. Ent. Res., vol. xviii., pt. r, May 1928.

24. Williamson, K. B. — Chemical Factors in relation to Anopheline Breeding.

Trans. 7th Cong. Far East Ass. Trop, 1927, ii., pp. 723-735, 2 figs.,
2 refs. Calcutta 1929.

25. Wright, Rees. — On the Effects of Exposure to Raised Temperatures upon

Larvae of certain British Mosquitoes. Bull. Ent. Res., vol. xviii.,
part 1, pp. 91-94, Sept. 1927.

The Royal Society of Queensland

Report of the Council for 1929.

To the Members of the Royal Society of Queensland.

Your Council has pleasure in submitting its Report for the year
1929.

Fourteen original papers were read before the Society and
published during the year. Five public meetings were held. On 9th
August, Dr. C. M. Yonge, leader, delivered a lecture, in which, with
the aid of lantern slides, he described the work of the British Expedi-
tion on the Great Barrier Reef. On the 30th September, Professor E. J.
Goddard, B.A., D.Sc., delivered a lecture entitled “ Science and
Agriculture in Java.” On 8th October, Professor J. A. Prescott, M.Sc.,
gave an address on “The Classification of Soils.” On 22nd November,
Professor Douglas Johnson delivered a lecture entitled “Studies in
Shoreline Physiography.” On 11th December, Professor H. C. Richards,
D.Sc., delivered a lecture, illustrated by moving films, entitled “South
Africa : Its Geology and Mining. ’ ?

The Council wishes to acknowledge generous subsidies amounting
to £142 10s. from the Queensland Government towards the cost of
printing the Proceedings of the Society. Appreciative acknowledgment
is also made to the University of Queensland for housing the library
and providing accommodation for meetings. Dr. J. Y. Duhig very
generously donated £15 for the binding of certain valuable periodicals.

The membership roil consists of 4 corresponding members, 7 life
members, and 164 ordinary members. During the year there were 10
resignations, and 7 new members were elected. Mr. TI. Tryon was
elected a life member of the Society.

There were ten meetings of the Council, the attendance being as
follows: — E. W. Bick 8, W. H. Bryan 9, W. D. Francis 4 (granted
leave of absence 31st October, 1929), C. D. Gillies 0 (resigned 3rd
October, 1929), G. H. Hardy 2 (elected 31st October, 1929), R. W.
Hawken 4, J. B. Henderson 6, D. A. Herbert 9, T. G. Jones 7, H. A.
Longman 3, J. P. Lowson 6, E. 0. Marks 3 (elected 3rd October, 1929),
T. Parnell 4, F. A. Perkins 9, R. Veitch 6.

J. P. LOWSON, President.

F. A. PERKINS, Hon. Secretary.

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

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H. J. PRIESTLEY, Hon. Auditor. E. W. BICK, Hon. Treasurer.

VI.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Abstract of Proceedings, 31st March, 1930.

The Annual Meeting of the Society was held in the Geology Lecture
Theatre of the University at 8 p.m. on Monday, 31st March. 1930. The
President, Professor J. P. Lowson occupied the chair and about sixty
members and visitors were present. An apology for absence was received
from Miss Bage. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and
confirmed. The Annual Report and Balance-sheet were adopted.

The following officers were elected for 1930 : —

President : Mr. J. B. Henderson, F.I.C.

Vice-Presidents : Prof. J. P. Lowson, M.A., M.D. {ex officio) and
Dr. D. A. Herbert.

Hon. Secretary : Mr. F. A. Perkins, B.Sc. Agr.

Hon. Librarian : Mr. W. D. Francis.

Hon. Treasurer : Mr. E. W. Bick.

Hon. Editors : Mr. H. A. Longman, F.L.S., C.M.Z.S., and Dr. W. H.
Bryan, M.C.

' Hon. Auditor : Prof. H. J. Priestley, M.A.

Members of Council : Dr. R. W. Cilento, Dr. T. G. H. Jones,
Mr. J. A. Just, M.I.M.E., Prof. H. C. Richards, D.Sc., and
Mr. C. T. White, F.L.S.

The following were proposed for ordinary membership : — Mr. A. J.
Stoney, B.E.E., proposed by Dr. Herbert and Mr. Perkins ; Dr. J. M.
Roe, proposed by Mr. Buhot and Mr. Perkins ; Mr. E. M. Shepherd, B.E.,
proposed by Mr. E. J. Wood and Mr. Perkins. Messrs. D. 0. Atherton
and H. K. Lewcock, M.Sc., were unanimously elected ordinary members,
of the Society.

The President moved and Prof. Richards seconded the following
motion, which was carried unanimously That a message be sent
to Sir Douglas Mawsori, Capt. Davis, Prof. Harvej^ Johnston, and the
rest of their party congratulating them on their safe return, and the
wonderful work achieved.”

Prof. J. P. Lowson delivered his Presidential Address, entitled
“ Recent Psychology.” On the motion of Prof. Goddard, seconded by
Prof. Scott Fletcher, a vote of thanks was accorded the retiring President
for his address. Prof. H. C. Richards and Mr. H. A. Longman expressed
the Society’s appreciation of the presence of His Excellency the Governor.

SUMMARY OF PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

The main subject of the address is the repetition of the past in the
present in our mental life.

The repetition of the past in the present is a universal characteristic
of mental process. It is not confined to conscious memory, but is true
of all our perceptions, thoughts, and actions. We can perceive only

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

VII.

what we have learned to perceive and analysis and experiment show
that the greater part even of our external experience comes from within,
although it seems to us to come from without. The human mind is
somewhat like a magic lantern. Consciousness is the screen on which
our experience appears. But it is lit up from two sides at once, from
within as well as from without. Our experience is a compound of
pictures thrown from within out of the past with pictures thrown from
without out of the present (through the senses), but the two harmonise
so beautifully that we cannot distinguish them. In nervous breakdown,
however, and still more in insanity, the inner and the outer pictures
may clash and their opposite origin becomes apparent.

An important step forward in recent psychology has been the
recognition of the fact that the principle of unconscious repetition of
the past in the present, which makes possible the growth of every kind
of knowledge and practical skill, is equally true of our emotional growth
and development. Just as little in the emotional sphere as in the sphere
of knowdedge and action do new ways of feeling come into being out
of nothing and without relation to the past. Our emotional life consists
in fact very largely of the repetition in the present of emotional responses,
the true origin of which is to be found in our past. It is, for example,
a mistake to suppose that the disadvantageous peculiarities of character
and feeling from which so many of us suffer are always inborn
disadvantages. They are just as likely to be acquisitions made in those
earliest years of our life which we have forgotten, and fixed by the
repetition of the past which our mental constitution tends to force on
us. The same is naturally true of advantageous qualities and feelings
also. What we find in practice is that modes of emotional response
(love, hatred, and the like) called out in the earliest years of life, tend to
persist as part of the apparently fixed character of the individual. This
is a fact of very great social importance, since it opens up the possibility
of a form of social culture hitherto neglected. Moral education has
usually taken the form of enforcing the acceptance of certain ideas and
certain forms of conduct without much regard to the nature of the
motives which actually induce the child to accept them. The result
has often been to cripple rather than further emotional growth. We
now7 recognise that a child’s emotional and moral inheritance cannot be
expected to unfold and develop normally in unsuitable conditions any
more than a plant will develop normally in the absence of sunlight, air,
and suitable soil.

Passing now to psychoanalysis. — The practice of psychoanalysis
introduced by Professor Freud, of Vienna, has thrown the facts just
mentioned about our emotional life into sharp relief ; but psychoanalysis
has also made special contributions of its own which reinforce the
importance of these facts. Fifty years ago another Viennese physician,
Josef Breuer, made the discovery that consciousness does not necessarily
accompany our mental processes. Under certain circumstances particular
experiences lost to conscious memory may nevertheless persist

VIII.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEED] NGS.

unconsciously and exert a powerful and irrational influence over
subsequent emotional .life. Shell-shock during the war furnished
many illustrations of this. Thus the idea of unconscious mental process
under repression came into being, one character of such process being the
compulsive repetition of past emotion, not in harmony with, but in
defiance of, reason and the present.

It was this observation of Breuer’s which, in the hands of Professor
Freud, lead to the gradual development of the modern psychoanalytic
method. The value of the method itself is not seriously disputed, but
the results attained by its use have been the subject of much dispute.
It is often argued, for example, that they are exaggerated. My own
experience leads me to believe that the acceptance of the main position
actually held by Freud is only a matter of time, but I must confine myself
to a single central feature of it.

Analytic investigation appears to show (in conformity with what
I have said above) that the first appearances of altruistic feeling in
infancy — that is to say, the first affection felt towards a fellow creature
clearly distinguished from the infant himself — constitutes a cardinal
step in emotional development, since the feelings then called out form
the germ out of which all later social affections will have to develop.
Hence it is of the greatest importance that this particular step in develop-
ment should go forward normally. But at the same time that this became
apparent a further most important fact appeared also. Our earliest
affections are not only the germ of later social feeling, they contain
also the immature but powerful determinants of later sexuality. This
close association between the first appearances of sexual feeling and
the first appearance of affection in the wider sense is not very surprising,
since it is paralleled by other features of our development, but it is
naturally somewdiat repugnant from the adult point of view, since the
earliest affections of an infant are naturally directed towards those who
stand nearest to it — that is, towards the nearest members of its own
family. The situation is further complicated by the fact that most
of the manifestations of sexuality in infancy undergo repression (in
the technical sense) at the commencement of childhood proper. Apart
from analysis they remain excluded from conscious memory. Nevertheless,
the influence which they may exert on the sexual life of the individual
at adolescence and subsequently is sometimes of the last importance.
Many sexual abnormalities find here their explanation, in the compulsive
and irrational force exerted by infantile repressed experience. On both
these counts then — social and sexual — we hold that infantile experience
is the most powerful and important determinant of adult life and
character.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

IX.

Abstract of Proceedings, 2Stpi x\pril, 1930.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting was held in the Geology Lecture
Theatre of the University on Monday, 28th April, at 8 p.m. Dr.
Herbert in the chair, and about twenty-five members present.
Apologies for absence were received from Messrs. Henderson and
Lewcock. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and
confirmed. The following were proposed for ordinary membership : —
Messrs. E. A. O’Connor, M.Sc., and M. White, M.Sc., proposed by Dr.
Jones and Mr. Perkins; Dr. W. H. Steel, proposed by Mr. Perkins and
Prof. Lowson. Misses F. E. Scott and E. M. Ferricks were proposed
for associate membership by Messrs. Perkins and Cayzer. Messrs.

A. J. Stoney, B.E.E., and E. M. Shepherd and Dr. J. M. Roe were
unanimously elected ordinary members of the Society.

Mr. II. A. Longman exhibited two somewhat abraded otoliths of a
freshwater catfish, Tandanus sp,, which had been found in alluvium at
Lake’s Creek, Rockhampton, by Mr. F. Jardine, who had sent them
to the Queensland Museum. Generic identification was established by
direct comparison with otoliths or “ear-stones” taken from recently
captured catfishes.

Dr. E. 0. Marks exhibited the anterior half of a stone axe, found
near the junction of Ewen Creek and Stanley River, near Peachester.
The cutting edge had been fashioned entirely by chipping. This exhibit
was commented on by Mr. Longman.

Dr. W. H. Bryan read extracts from a paper by E. C. Tommerup,

B. Sc., A.A.C., entitled “A Geological Reconnaissance of the Linville-
Nanango District.”

This paper deals with the geology of a large area situated between
Linville and Nanango, Queensland, the information being gathered
during numerous journeys made by the writer while engaged in
making traverses of the district as an officer of the Queensland Forest
Service.

The writer has attempted to correlate and classify the various
rock formations of the district, but does not regard the classification
as either complete or final.

The oldest rocks in the area are representatives of the Brisbane
Schists which occur between Yarraman and Wondai. Next in

succession (between Yarraman and Esk) there are several outcrops of
slates which probably belong to the Gympie Series. Whether these
were deposited in situ or were faulted into their present positions is
not clear.

These were followed by the Andesitic Stage of the Esk Series,
which is typically developed near Marbletop, east of Nanango. The
writer was able to follow the massive andesites and andesitic

X.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

agglomerates of this stage from Gooineri to the head of the Brisbane
River and beyond Mount Stanley at least as far as the junction of
Avoca Creek with the Brisbane River.

The overlying Shale Stage of the Esk Series was examined by the
writer at a number of different localities within the area described,
among them being Upper Yarraman Creek, where a small seam of coal
is included in the section. Many of the conglomerates associated with
the shales contain numerous pebbles of milky quartz, jaspers, and other
representatives of the Brisbane Schists, together with others, derived
apparently from the Gympie Slates.

The igneous rocks of the area fall naturally into three groups —
viz.: (a) Granodiorites, (b) Porphyrites, (c) Basalts. The grano-
diorites are younger than the Gympie Series, which they intrude, but
are older than the overlying Esk Series. The age of the porphyrite
intrusions is not clear. They are apparently closely associated with
the granodiorites, although they are probably somewhat older. On
the other hand, they may possibly prove to be related to the Andesitic
Stage, which is restricted to the eastern part of the area. The basalts
outcrop along the Cooyar Range and elsewhere, and overlie the Shale
Stage of the Esk Series.

The paper is illustrated by a sketch-section from Tarong to
Taromeo, and by geological and contour sketch maps.

Miss Dorothy Hill, M.Sc., read a paper entitled ‘‘The Development
of the Esk Series between Esk and Linville, with Reference to the
Possible Occurrence of Workable Coal.’7

In the Brisbane Valley, between Esk and Linville, a series of
Triassic rocks is trough faulted along the north-westerly grain of the
country into the Palaeozoic (including Permo-Carboniferous) forma-
tions. These Triassic rocks, the Esk Series, are freshwater basin
deposits laid down by rapidly changing currents, with intensive
contemporaneous volcanic activity. The Lower Esk Series is typified
by very intense andesitic activity, with the formation of a great
thickness of peculiar andesitic boulder beds, with sedimentary
deposits being formed during periods of temporary cessation of
volcanic activity. The strictly conformable Upper Esk Series, however,
is typified by a thick development of rapidly varying sedimentary
deposits, with interbedded flows and tuffs resultant from intermittent
trachytic activity. Above the Upper Esk Series the Bundanba
sandstones, now all eroded away except from the southern part of the
area west of Esk, were deposited without angular unconformity.

In addition to the trough faulting, the Esk Series has been
strongly affected by sharp north-westerly directed anticlinal
fracturing, accompanied by the intrusion of an important series of
hypabyssal rocks, the Brisbane Valley Porphyrites, closely related in
mineralogical type to the flows and tuffs of the period of sedimentation.
The time relations of the trough faulting and anticlinal fracturing are

ABSTRAct OB PROCEEDINGS. XI.

unknown, but they both occurred before the extrusion of the Tertiary
rhyolites.

The conditions of deposition and the type of folding of the Esk
Series do not promise well for the occurrence of a large field of
workable coal, but some of fhe synclinal areas are worth more detailed
mapping on the chance of the discovery of a deposit large enough to
support a small colliery.

These papers were discussed by Prof. Richards, Drs. Bryan,
Whitehouse, and Marks, and Messrs. Denmead, Bennett, and Dunstan.

A paper, "‘Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora, Part 1,
Baeckea virgata,” by T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., and M. White, M.Sc., was
laid on the table.

1,560 ccs. of oil, representing a yield of -88 per cent., were distilled
from 353 lb. of the leaves. The constants recorded for the oil are —
[d] == + 16-5; N = 1-4742; Acetyl No. = 41; Ester No. = Nil;

D

Density = -9021.

Examination of the oil showed the presence of d a-pinene 50-60%,
cineol 30%, with pino-carveol, aromadendrene, and a sesquiterpene
alcohol in smaller quantities.

Prof. H. C. Richards communicated a short paper, £tA Record of
Graptolites from Mount Isa,” by R. A. Keble.

A sample of fine, thinly-bedded sandstone with some of the
laminations completely silicified and showing galena, and with some
of the others more or less stained with ferric oxide, was found, last
summer on a spoil dump at Mount Isa by Mr. J. O’M. Lyons, and was
subsequently handed to Mr. R. A. Keble by Mr. E. Broadhurst.

Mr. Keble regards the face of the specimen as showing graptolites
preserved either as impressions or as films light-red in colour.

There are about fifty polyparies in all, poorly preserved, but many
showing both proximal and distal extremities, and one or two showing
thecal details.

They all belong to the Monograptidae, and, although absolute
specific determination is unwise, Mr. Keble has no hesitation in citing
Monograptus cf. halli Barr and M onograp tus . cf. undulatus E. and W.

On this evidence he regards the age of the Mount Isa beds as being
Silurian, and mentions that M. cf. halli occurs in shale approximately
1,000 feet above the base of the Silurian in Victoria at Jackson’s Creek
and on the Wood’s Point Goldfield. He also regards the European
equivalent of the Mount Isa beds as approximately zone 21 near the
top of the Llandovery.

Especially since the finding of the Cambrian trilobites at the
Templeton River the Mount Isa beds have been regarded, very
R.S. — H

XII.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

generally as Pre-Cambrian in age. On this account, and owing to the
association of ore-bodies of much importance, the determination is of
considerable interest.

In communicating the paper Professor Richards summarised the
evidence for the existing general idea as to the Pre Cambrian age of
the Mount Isa beds, and especially considered the relationship between
these steeply dipping beds and the gently undulating fine grits of
Middle Cambrian age at the Templeton River a few miles to the west
of Mount Isa.

The results of the traverses made by Messrs. Shepherd and
Ridgway, of the Queensland Geological Survey, and of Mr. J. B.
Wadley in the same region were considered, and possible interpreta-
tions of these in terms of a Silurian age for the steeply inclined Mount
Isa beds were put forward.

Considerable discussion took place, and general disagreement with
the determination of the specimen as graptolitic in character was
expressed by several members, especially Dr. F. W. Whitehouse, Mr.
B. Dunstan, and Mr. E. C. Saint-Smith.

The firstnamed considered the specimen organic, but he could not
believe it to be a graptolite, particularly a species of Monograptus.
Messrs. Dunstan and Saint-Smith regarded the specimen as purely
inorganic, and pointed out that much search had been made for
graptolites and other fossils at Mount Isa, and, although material
similar to the specimen under discussion had been seen, the structures
were considered to be purely inorganic.

Abstract of Proceedings, 26th May, 1930.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting was held in the Geology Lecture
Theatre of the University on Monday, 26th May, at 8 p.m., the President,
Mr. J. B. Henderson, in the chair, and about twenty-five members present.
An apology for absence was received from Miss Holdsworth. The follow-
ing visitors were also present Professor Sir T. W. Edgeworth David,
Professor E. W. Skeats, Dr. P. Marshall, Dr. L. K. Ward, Dr. C. Fenner,
Mr. J. F. Bailey, and Professor Summers. The minutes of the previous
meeting were read and confirmed. The following were proposed for
ordinary membership: — Mr. F. Barker (proposed by Messrs. Watkins
and Herdsman) and Mr. J. B. Wadley (proposed by Dr. Marks and
Mr. Perkins). The following were unanimously elected members of the
Society: — Misses E. M. Ferricks and F. E. Scott, Dr. W. H. Steel, and
Messrs. E. A. O’Connor and M. White.

Mr. C. T. White exhibited a specimen of the fruit of Parinarium
laurinum A. Gray picked up on the beach at the southern end of Moreton
Bay by Mr. Densil Curtis. Fruits of this tree, which is a native of the
Solomon Islands and New Guinea, are sometimes picked up on the
Queensland beaches, but the species so far as known has not yet succeeded
in establishing itself here.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XIII.

Dr. E. 0. Marks read a paper entitled “The Physiographical
Significance and Non-Migration of Divides.”

Where, owing to comparative shortness or other denudational
advantage, one stream is more active than its neighbour, it will erode
its basin more rapidly and encroach on the neighbouring basin. This
shifting of the divide, known as migration or headward erosion, is
generally recognised as a very active physiographical principle, and on
it is based the theories of river-capture and rearrangement of drainage
which figure largely in modern physiography.

In this paper it is pointed out that, according to the theory, any
originally straight divide must be made crooked by the irregular action
of this headward encroachment. Consequently any straight divide must
have a tectonic origin and still be in its original position.

The Blackall-D ’Aguilar ranges form such a straight divide,
separating the group of numerous short streams running eastwards into
the sea from the headwaters of the Stanley and Mary rivers. On Mount
Mee and Blacks 11 tablelands the divide is at 1,500 feet elevation, but for
10 miles between these is about 500 feet. Here the rocks are soft and
differential denudation obviously accounts for the lower elevation and
different character of this part of the divide. Although the short
streams have courses entirely on soft sandstone country, while the
Stanley waters have 180 miles to go largely over hard rocks, and although
there is clear evidence of the lowering of this part of the divide by
denudation at least 1,000 feet, there has been no migration, and this in
a situation where it would necessarily have occurred had the theory
been correct.

Other straight divides confirm this absence of migration in situa-
tions where the theory would require it, except to such a minor degree
as to render it utterly incapable of the results claimed for it.

It is necessary, therefore, that all that part of physiographical
theory depending on the migration must be seriously modified if not
entirely discarded.

Some inquiry is made to discover the flaw which renders the theory
inconsistent with the observed results of these nature-performed
experiments.

This paper was discussed by Professor Sir Edgeworth David, Drs.
Ward, Fenner, Marshall, and Bryan, and Messrs. Bennett and Jones.

Mr. Perkins read extracts from a paper by B. B. Grey entitled
£ ‘ Chaetognatha from the Society Islands. ’ ’

The Chaetognatha discussed in this paper were collected in sixteen
hauls, irregularly spaced over a period of twelve months. Ten species
are represented, belonging to two genera, Sagitta and Pterosagitta,
including 8. oceana n. sp. A table illustrating the coincident occurrence
of the species is included. Sagitta Oceania n. sp. is described as new to
science, the description being supplemented by several text figures. The

XIV.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

fertilisation of the Chaetognatha is discussed, special reference being
made to observations on 8. Oceania and 8. enflata. A brief account is
given of the parasites found in four species of Sagitta. A meal taken by
8. enflata is described in detail, the meal being a specimen of 8. fridrici.

The following paper was laid on the table : — ‘ ‘ Essential Oils from
the Queensland Flora, Part 2, Agonis abnormis,” by T. G. H. Jones,
D.Se., and M. 'White, M.Sc.

Examination of the essential oil obtained from the leaves of Agonis
abnormis (yield -6 per cent.) has shown that it possesses the following
constants : —

dis’s, '9040, n P4905, [a]D, -f 9, Ester number 7*4, Acetyl value 16,
Acid number 1*7, and is composed of a mixture of d a-pinene 30%,
aromadendrene 60%, and a small percentage of sesquiterpene alcohols.
The aromadendrene fraction is being fuither examined and at least two
sesquiterpenes are present.

Abstract of Proceedings, 30th June, 1930.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting was held in the Geology Lecture
Theatre of the University on Monday, 30th June, at 8 p.m. The Presi-
dent, Mr. J. B. Henderson, in the chair, and about twenty members
present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.
Messrs. F. Barker and J. B. Wadley were unanimously elected members
of the Society.

A paper, entitled ‘ 4 The Genus Oxyscelio : Its Synonymy and Species,
with the Description of One New Genus,” by Mr. A. P. Dodd, was laid
on the table.

This paper discusses the characters of the Scelionid genus Oxyscelio
Kieffer, erected with O. foveatus Kieffer from Java as the genotype. The
genera Camptoteleia Kieffer, Dicroteleia Kieffer, and Xenoteleia Kieffer
are regarded as synonyms of Oxyscelio, the reasons for making these
alterations being given at length. Many species originally described or
formerly placed in the genera Sceliomorpha Ashmead, Hoploteleia
Ashmead, Psilanteris Kieffer, and Scelio Latreille are transferred to
Oxyscelio, which will now contain 32 listed species from Ceylon, the
Philippine Islands, Java, and Australia.

The characters of Oxyscelio are compared with those of related
genera, A new genus, Bradgfba, is erected to contain Chromoteleia
nigrescens Dodd and two new species, Bracalba laminaia and B. cuneata,
all from Australia, B. laminata being selected as the genotype.

Dr. L. S. Bagster conducted some very interesting experiments with
liquid air, and showed a metallic spectrum on the lantern screen.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XV.

Mr. E. J. Wood, M.Sc., exhibited specimens of the following diseases
of sugar-cane from the collection of the Bureau of Sugar Experiment
Stations: — (1) Physiological: Chlorosis (deficiency), banded chlorosis
(the effect of cold moist nights). (2) Virus: Two specimens showing
Mosaic (Fiji) disease, which, though not shown by the experimenter to
be transmitted by inoculation or by insects, has X bodies which seem to
indicate its virus nature. Dwarfing is a disease which seems to be new to
science. It has not been reported from any other country, and 66 stools of
it are known. It resembles Fiji disease in its symptoms, except that the
galls are replaced by chlorotic areas somewhat similar to Mosaic. It is a
phloem disease and is transmissible through sets, as has been proved by
the writer, who is at present working on the etiology of the disease. Its
symptoms suggest a virus disease, but artificial inoculations have not yet
succeeded. (3) * Bacterial : Gumming ( Bacterium vascular urn) ; Leaf
Scald ( B . albilineans ,) ; and Top Rot, a bacterial disease not confined to
the vascular tissue. (4) Fungal: Downy Mildew (, Sclerospora sacchari),.
Pokkah Boeng, and Knife Cut (presumably Fusarium moniliforme) . A
number of root diseases of fungal origin were exhibited. Peg Leg is a
butt infection of the Bundaberg-Childers areas and clayey Mackay soils.
Schizophyllum commune is a secondary parasite of little importance.
(5) Phanerogamic Parasites: Striga spp., which are short-lived, flourish-
ing from December to February. (6) Teratological : Hairy Root, a rare
abnormality.

Dr. D. A. Herbert exhibited: (1) Haustoria of Olax retibsa, a
phanerogamic parasite attacking Gahnia sp. ; the haustoria were the size
of a pinhead, and were collected at Burleigh, June, 1930. (2) A French

bean seed with two embryos. (3) Pliragmidium disciflorum, a rust of
the rose on the variety Star of Queensland (uredospore stage). (4) A
section of a stem of a liana, Vitis acetosa, with exceptionally long and
wide vessels.

On behalf of Mr. E. C. Tommerup, B.Sc., specimens were exhibited
of Hoop Pine ( Araucaria Cunninghamii) showing heat girdling, which
he has investigated in conjunction with Mr. R. B. Morwood, M.Sc..
The stem and crown die, the roots remain vigorous and often throw
off coppice leaves at ground level. At the ground level, however, a collar-
like constriction is formed, and though the bark is unbroken the water
supply is evidently cut off and the tree dies. Plantation trees of two
or three years’ establishment may be affected. The girdle is often
associated with slight swellings above and below the constriction ; when
the bark is peeled away, dark necrotic rings may be seen above and below
the lesion. This disease has been reported from Reserve 151 Neumgna
in the Bunya Mountains Area, and from Reserve 220 Kilkivan. Both
these areas are on the ecological limit of the rain forests and only receive
about 35 inches of rain per annum, with a mean summer temperature of
approximately 80 deg. F. Although Bunya Mountains area is one in
which the pines are frequently affected by fungal growths, it is con-
sidered that this condition exists because the trees are struggling for a
living and are more susceptible to fungal attack than are vigorous trees,,,

XVI.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

rather than that the meteorological conditions of this locality are favour-
able to fungal incubation. The plants attacked are nearly always in
exposed situations on heavy soil. Several possible factors were con-
sidered, such as wind, damping, fungus, insect injury, frost, &c., but it
was eventually decided that it was primarily due to the heating effect
of the soil when exposed directly to the sun’s rays. Similar diseases are
recorded from U.S.A. with other conifers.'

Dr. J. Y. Duhig, on behalf of Professor Goddard and himself, showed
two fish of the species Galaxias o’connori (Ogilvy) which had suffered
from melanosis. Dr. Duhig showed lantern slides of sections of the skin
of the fish. The pigmentation was shown to be due to heavy deposits of
what is believed to be melanin about the walls of rounded or oval sub-
epithelial cysts, which are lined with epithelium and' are, in reality,
processes budded off from the skin epithelium. Another section showed
these cysts to contain a parasite, which Dr. Goddard stated to be the
metacercaria stage of a trematode, Clonorchis (? species). A section
was shown demonstrating the ventral sucker by which the genus could
be identified. The fish is the second intermediate host of the parasite
and the authors propose to continue their investigations in the direction
■of feeding experiments in order to secure the adult worm. To this end
they desire specimens of sick fish which are well pigmented. The exhibit
had a double interest, in that it raised the problem of melanin production
and the subject of the exhibit was an indigenous species to which little
attention had been paid.

Mr. C. T. White exhibited specimens of Datura ferox Linn, from
Clermont, Central Queensland. The species, which is supposed to be a
native of Spain and Sicily, was first collected in Queensland at Macalister,
Western Darling Downs, by E. W. Bick about March 1916. Since
then it has spread to other places, but Clermont represents the northern-
most locality so far recorded.

Professor H. C. Richards, D.Sc., exhibited several beautiful speci-
mens collected by Mr. A. N. Falk of the zeolite Natrolite, from vughs
within the weathered olivine basalt on the Main Range some 2 to 3
miles south-east of Toowoomba. He offered remarks upon the origin of
the mineral, its crystalline habit, and how it may be distinguished from
other zeolites.

Mr. E. W. Bick exhibited a specimen of flowers of Spathodea
campanulaia , the tulip-tree of West Africa. The unopened flower-buds
of this species contain a considerable quantity of water of glandular
origin. The plant is sometimes known as the fountain-tree on account
of the behaviour of the buds when punctured.

Mr. J. E. Young exhibited matted fibrous roots of Gasuarina
suberosa, which had grown in a blanket-like mass in the crevices of
consolidated sand on Stradbroke Island.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XVII.

Abstract of Proceedings, 28th July, 1930.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting was held in the Geology Lecture
Theatre of the University on Monday, 28th July, at 8 pan. The
President, Mr. J. B. Henderson, in the chair, and about thirty members
present. Apologies were received from His Excellency the Governor,
the Premier, the Minister for Agriculture, and Mr. White. The minutes
of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.

A paper, entitled “Two Interesting Queensland Eucalypts, ” by
Messrs. W. F. Blakely and C. T. White, was laid on the table.

Two previously undescribed eucalypts are named. Eucalyptus
Curtisii collected on sandstone hills at Plunkett, south-east of Queens-
land, represents a new subseries Leptospermae of Bentham’s series
Normales. The chief characters which necessitate the formation of a new
subseries are the terminal more or less corymbose panicles, the toothed
calyx-rim, and the narrow rugose seeds. The tree is a small one of
Mallee-like growth, with smooth silvery or leaden-grey bark. The other
species, E. tenuipes, is a stringybark or mahogany found in parts of
Central or Southern Queensland, and previously named by Maiden and
Blakely as a variety of the widely distributed E. acmemoides, Schauer.

Mr. A. P. Dodd gave an address on “The Biological Control of
Prickly-pear. ” The first step was taken in 1912, when a Travelling
Commission made a world tour, and on its return submitted a very
valuable report in which it recommended the introduction of certain
insects and diseases from America. Since 1919 many of these insects
have been carefully studied both in America and Australia, and ten
species have been established in Queensland and New South Wales.
Of these, the most important are Chelinidea tabulata , Tetranychus
opuntice, Dactylopius, foment oms , and Cactoblastis cactorum, and their
propagation and distribution has been the main feature of the work
during the last few years. C. cactorum has been remarkably successful,
and it is anticipated that within twelve months further distribution will
be unnecessary .

Mr. H. K. Lewcock gave an address on “The Role of Diseases in
the Biological Control of Prickly-pear.”

Investigations have shown that the biological control of prickly-pear
in its native habitats is not due to any one pest or group of pests. Each
cactus region has its own combination of cactus enemies which serve to
keep the cacti under control. In every such region the components of the
cactus enemy complex embrace various species of insects, various fungous
and bacterial diseases and, occasionally, certain species of rodents and
other small animal life. These pests react differently to changes in their
environment, so that the cactus enemy complex is never static but
changes considerably at different seasons of the year. In general, the
insect pests are far less sensitive to external conditions than are the
fungous and bacterial diseases, and are, therefore, more or less in

XVIII,

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

evidence throughout the entire year. On the other hand, certain types
of diseases are definitely seasonal in their incidence and may be entirely
wanting except during limited periods when conditions are favourable
for their development. In the prickly-pear infested areas of Queensland,
the successful introduction and establishment of such insect pests as
cochineal and Cactoblcistis has resulted, within recent years, in an
amazingly rapid destruction of large tracts of dense pear. However,
it has long been evident that this destruction is not due solely to the
depredations of the insect pests, but that very valuable assistance is
rendered by rots and other types of disease. In other words, the
destruction of the pear pest in Queensland is being effected by a complex
of insect, bacterial, and fungous parasites in a manner strictly analogous
to the way in which the Cactaceie are controlled by biological agencies
in their native habitats. Because of the abundance of water in their
tissues, succulent plants, such as prickly-pears, are particularly suscep-
tible to attack from soft or wet rot diseases arising from either fungous
or bacterial infections. Hence, it is not surprising that by far the most
destructive of the diseases known to attack Opuntias, either in Australia
or other countries, is a soft rot bacteriosis. Under favourable conditions
this disease spreads rapidly throughout the entire plant, causing the
complete collapse of the trunk and limbs as well as of individual cladodes.
Diseases of this character are of the greatest value in destroying the
pear, since insect pests, such as Cactoblastis, are forced to migrate from
the rotted areas to healthy tissue, and thus bring about a rapid and
widespread dissemination of the disease-producing organism. In fact,
it is becoming increasingly evident from field observations that the
extent of spread and, in consequence, the ultimate value of such a
disease, is dependent on the numbers and vitality of suitable insect
vectors during periods of weather favourable for the development of
the disease. In addition: to the soft rot bacteriosis, a number of other
diseases occurring on prickly-pears in Australia were described. For
convenience in presentation, these diseases were roughly grouped
according to the types of injury that they commonly induce. Four such
groups were distinguished. In the order of their relative importance
under Australian conditions they are — (1) Fungous soft rot diseases
such as that caused by Schizophyllum commune , (2) dry rot diseases
which are probably chiefly in the nature of physiological disorders,
(3) anthracnose diseases such as those caused by the fungi Phyllosticta
concava and Gloeosporium lunatum, and (4) the so-called ‘‘sun scald”
diseases which may be caused by a variety of weakly parasitic fungi.

Mr. Bennett, Dr. Herbert, Prof. Richards, and the President took
part in the discussion which ensued, and the meeting terminated with a
hearty vote of thanks to the speakers.

Abstract of Proceedings, 1st September, 1930.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting was held in the Geology Lecture
Theatre of the University on Monday, 1st September, at 8 p.m. The

ABSTRACT OP PROCEEDINGS.

XIX.

President, Mr. J. B. Henderson, in the chair, and about 130 members
and visitors present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read
and confirmed.

Dr. R. Hamlyn Harris read a paper entitled “The Character of
Certain Breeding Places of Mosquitoes in Australia.”

Studies into the possible breeding places of mosquitoes are here
continued, and it is sought by patient attention to factors involved
to determine the methods underlying selection. The pH Concentration
seems an elusive factor, as is shown by the way in which temperature
of the water and the warmth of the soils tend to determine it in a
large measure. The warmer the soils the higher the pH. That the
food factor plays an enormous part in the selection of breeding places
is still further emphasised by careful observations in the field.

Sylvan mosquitoes undoubtedly tend to neglect waters in which
a rich protozoal and bacterial fauna is missing. Mortality amongst
mosquitoes in water in which a high decomposition rate is in progress is
very noticeable, particularly in such instances where the death rate can
be definitely traced to the toxicity of decomposition products. The
ability of C. fatigans larva? to live for some time in water provided
with a constant C02 blanket is incomprehensible, unless it is possible
for dissolved to take the place of atmospheric oxygen.

The effects of the Characeie in the field in Queensland are negligible ;
pH varies with the temperature, but sylvan mosquitoes breed freely
between the narrow limits, usually in waters on the alkaline side of
neutrality.

Work done on the Murrumbidgee irrigation area shows quite
clearly that as the colonisation of the rice fields takes place every year,
it should be possible to control mosquitoes effectively by clearing
mosquitoes out of the drain-ditches and other permanent breeding
places at present in vogue. This would, at all events, tend to reduce
to an enormous extent the incidence of mosquitoes on the Murrum-
bidgee irrigation area of New South Wales.

A vote of thanks, moved by Prof. Goddard, supported by Dr.
S. F. McDonald and His Excellency the Governor, was carried by
acclamation.

Abstract of Proceedings, 29th September, 1930.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting was held in the Geology Lecture
Theatre of the University on Monday, 29th September, at 8 p.m. The
President, Mr. J. B. Henderson, in the chair, and about 40 members
present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and
confirmed.

XX.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Dr. L. S. Bagster gave a very interesting address on “The Sugar
Industry.” The address was accompanied by several exhibits, and
illustrated by lantern slides.

A vote of thanks, moved by Prof. Murray, supported by Messrs.
Watkins and Bennett, and the President, was carried by acclamation.

Abstract of Proceedings, 27th October, 1930.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting was held in the Geology Lecture
Theatre of the University on Monday, 27tli October, at 8 p.m. The
President, Mr. J. B. Henderson, in the chair, and about 100 members
and visitors present. Apologies were received from the Premier,
Hon. A. E. Moore, Hon. N. P. Macgroarty, Hon. H. E. Sizer, and Mr.
Collins, M.L.A. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and
confirmed. Mr. W. M. L ’Estrange was proposed by Dr. E. 0. Marks
and Mr. F. Bennett for ordinary membership.

Mr. 0. A. Jones exhibited (a) a stone axe which was found in tin
wash about 15 feet deep at China Camp, near Cooktown; (b) a quartz
crystal with exceptionally large grains of Cassiterite included, from
the same locality.

Professor H. C. Richards delivered a very interesting address on
“ The Development of a Mining Industry by Modern Scientific
Methods. 7 ’

A vote of thanks moved by Mr. L ’Estrange, seconded by Mr.
Longman, and supported by Dr. Robertson, Messrs. Bennett, Gipps,
Ball, and the President, was carried by acclamation.

Abstract of Proceedings, 24th November, 1930.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting was held in the Geologjr Lecture
Theatre of the University on Monday, 24th November, 1930. The
President, Mr. J. B. Henderson, in the chair, and about fifty members
and visitors present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read
and confirmed. Messrs. W. M. Kyle, M.A., and W. A. McDougall were
proposed for ordinary membership by Mr. Perkins and Dr. Herbert.
Mr. W. M. L ’Estrange was unanimously elected an ordinary member
of the Society. The business for the evening was a discussion on ‘ ‘ The
Distribution and Classification of Queensland Soils.”

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XXI.

Mr. H. J. Hines dealt briefly with the descriptions of soil in
common use, and showed that none of them by itself was capable of
describing fully any type of soil. However, sufficient agricultural
experience had accumulated in the State to warrant the attachment of
considerable importance to common descriptive terms. He then out-
lined the method of profile description -and the generalisations proposed
by the Russian and American investigators. Attention was drawn
to the soil map of Australia recently published by Professor Prescott,
wherein types in Queensland were compared to those established in
Russia, Further field investigation supplemented by laboratory deter-
minations of “single value” soil characteristics had suggested that
greater weight should be placed on the geo-chemistry of the parent
material, vegetation, topography, and drainage than was apparent in
Russian views. He suggested that these could be harmonised by con-
sidering the process of rock weathering in simple terms of mass action :
by considering the process simply as an hydrolysis. The rock-mass
could be looked on as a mixture of substances, part of which (A) were
relatively easily decomposed, and part (X) undecomposable, or
decomposable with difficulty. This mixture reacting with water would
eventually form the hydroxides of the alkalies and alkaline earths, silica,
and oxides of alumina and iron. The reaction proceeded through several
stages producing the common soil materials. As an equation it could be
written —

A

\m Si02 Al203Fe203] + X + n [Clay] + X + mOH

AUG-, etc. + X

V

soluble

If at any one stage the reaction in the direction of the right-hand side
proceeded so slowly that apparent equilibrium was reached, a definite
soil type could be discerned. The stage reached would depend both
on the active masses of the reactants and of the products of the reaction.
The active mass of A corresponded with the basicity and slight solu-
bility of the rock; that of the water with the soil water and was thus
•determined by climate, topography, and texture of soil. The products
of reaction of most importance were the alkali and alkaline earth
hydroxides which became converted into carbonates, but were capable
of yielding ions of the alkali and alkaline earth metals. Their removal
was effected by drainage, and was thus dependent on precipitation,
topography, vegetation, and soil texture. Hence, if rock type and
topography in any area were average, climate and vegetation would
dominate the formation of soil type. The further action of water was
seen in the downward translocation of the clay minerals, which might

XXII.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

proceed slower than, as fast as, or faster than chemical decomposition
according to the texture of the soil and its water relationships. This
generalisation appears sufficient to explain the frequent occurrence of
intrazonal soils in Queensland. As an example the black earth
(tchernosem) of Queensland was taken. It developed on the Cretaceous
plains as a grey-brown earth; the strip of desert sandstone broke the
continuity of the zone eastwards. In the Peak Downs district the true
black earth developed on the more basic* rocks. Here brigalow and belar
thickets began to invade the grassland. The black earth then still
retained its characteristic layer of calcium carbonate though becoming
lighter in colour. With the advent of rain forests, however, the calcium
carbonate disappeared. Highly basic rocks became deep red loams, less
basic rooks brown loams with red-clay subsoils. More acidic rocks gave
yellow earths and an open forest vegetation. Attention was drawn to
Keen’s demonstration that the maximum effective capillary rise of soil
water was about 3 feet. It was pointed out that the calcium carbonate
layer in the black earth occurred at a depth of about 3 feet, and hence
would serve to maintain the upper soil layer in equilibrium with calcium
ions. If this layer became deeper or were removed through any cause,
further decomposition of the primary clay became possible. In the
case of the deep red loams this was more rapid than peptisation and
downward translocation. Values for oven-dry moisture and ignition
loss suggest a change from the montmorillonite group of minerals to
those of the kaolinite group with liberation of sesquioxides.

Dr. W. H. Bryan dealt with the several factors which influenced
the production of soil types. With reference to the climatic factor, he
pointed out that the obvious parallelism of the soil zones of Russia with
pronounced climatic belts was explained by the fact that temperature
and rainfall both varied wdth the latitude, the result being a series of
regular zones. In the United States of America the major soil-belts
made no such regular pattern, and it had been suggested that this lack
of regularity was due to the fact that, while the temperature varied
from north to south, the rainfall varied from east to west. Some
authors had expressed the opinion that this lack of parallelism in the
two climatic factors should lead to a checkered arrangement of the
principal soil types, but such a pattern was not shown by the soil map.
Several attempts had been made to reconcile the distribution of soils in
the U.S.A. with the principle of climatic control by the use of composite
factors based on the temperature-rainfall ratio, but these were unsatis-
factory for several reasons, A study of the American soil map suggested
a simple explanation of the nature of the climatic control which in
spite of its simplicity seems to have been overlooked. It appeared that

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XXIII.

where the annual rainfall exceeds a certain amount (approximately
25 inches) , temperature becomes the controlling factor, and that where
the precipitation falls below this value temperature is relatively unim-
portant and rainfall is the decisive factor. This generalisation was
expressed diagrammatically as follows : —

Diagram to show the relationship between some soil types and the two

climatic factors.

RAINFALL.

If this arrangement does in truth represent an important principle
of the relationship of climate to soil type, then it should also be
applicable in areas other than U.S.A. — e.g. Russia. The climatic range
of Russia would occupy a diagonal strip across the diagram, and
would provide the correct sequence of soil types. An arrangement
somewhat similar to that of the U.S.A. might be predicted for the soils
of Eastern Australia, but the pedalferic soils would be confined to a
narrower strip. Referring to Professor Prescott’s soil map of Australia,
Dr. Bryan suggested that many of the soils of Queensland tentatively
shown as Podsols were more probably the equivalents of the Yellow
Earths of the U.S.A.

Professor J. K. Murray dealt with soils from the point of view of
agricultural experiments.

Dr. D. A. Herbert pointed out the importance of a study of soils
with regard to plant ecology.

Professor II. C. Richards recommended for the consideration of
the Council of the Society that a committee be formed to collect data
and to prepare an account of the soils of Queensland for submission
to the Third International Congress of Soil Science.

XXIV.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

Publications have been received from the following Institutions,
Societies, etc., and are hereby gratefully acknowledged.

Algeria —

Societe de Geographie et d’ Archaeoiogia
d’Oran.

Argentic e

Universidad Nacional de la Plata.
Australia—

Department of Agriculture, Melbourne.
Department of Mines, Melbourne.

Royal Society of Victoria.

Field Naturalists’ Club, Melbourne.
Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, Melbourne.

Department of Mines, Adelaide.

Waite Agricultural Research Institute,
Glen Osmond.

Royal Society of South Australia.

Royal Geographical Society of Australasia,
Adelaide.

Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery,
Adelaide.

University of Adelaide.

Standards Association of Australia, Sydney.
Naturalists’ Society of New South Wales.
Department of Agriculture, Sydney.
Department, of Mines, Sydney.

Royal Society of New South Wales.
Linnean Society of New South Wales.
Australian Museum, Sydney.

Public Library, Sydney.

University of Sydney.

Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

Field Naturalists’ Club, Brisbane.
Department of Mines, Brisbane.
Queensland Museum, Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture, Brisbane.
Registrar-General’s Department, Brisbane.

Royal Geographical Society of Austra-
lasia (Queensland), Brisbane.

Commonwealth Bureau of Census and
Statistics, Canberra.

Australian Veterinary Society, Sydney.
Field Naturalists’ Club, Hobart.

Royal Society of Tasmania.

Mines Department, Hobart.

Mines Department, Perth.

Royal Society of Western Australia.

Austria —

Naturhistorische Museum, Vienna.
Belgium —

Academic Royale de Belgique.

Societe Royale de Botanique de Belgique-
Societe Royale Zoologique de Belgique

Brazil —

Institute Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janerio..

Ministerio de Agricultura Industria y
Commercio, Rio de Janerio.

British Isles—

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew •

British Museum (Natural History), London.
Cambridge Philosophical Society.

Literary and Philosophical Society, Man-
chester.

Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society-
Royal Society, London.

Conchological Society of Great Britain
and Ireland, Manchester.

Royal Empire Society, London.

The Bristol Museum and Art Gallery.
Imperial Bureau of Entomology, London.

Imperial Agricultural Bureau, Aberysth
wyth.

Royal Society of Edinburgh.

Botanical Society of Edinburgh,

Royal Dublin Society.

Royal Irish Academy, Dublin.

Canada — -

Department of Mines, Ottawa.

Royal Astronomical Society of Canada.
Royal Society of Canada.

Royal Canadian Institute.

Nova Scotian Institute of Science.
Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.

Ceylon —

Colombo Museum.

Cuba—

Sociedad Geografica de Cuba, Habana,
Denmark —

The University, Copenhagen.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

XXV.

France —

Station Zoologique de Cette.

Societe des Sciences Naturelles de l’Ouest.
Museum d’Historie Natural, Paris.

Societe Botanique de France.

Societe Geologique et Mineralogique de
Bretagne.

Societe de Geographie de Rochefort.
Germany —

Zoologische Museum, Berlin.

Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde Berlin.

Deutsche Geologische Gesellschaft, Berlin.
Naturhistorischer Verein der preus Rhein-
land und Westfalens, Bonn.
Naturwissenschaftlichen Verein zu Bremen.
Senckenbergischen Bibliothek, Frankfurt
a. Main.

Kaiserlich Deutsche Akademie der Natur-
forscher, Halle.

Zoologischen Museum, Hamburg.
Naturhistorisch-Medizinischen Vereins,
Heidelberg.

Akademie der Wissenschaften, Leipzig.
Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Munich.

Centralblatt fur Bakteriologie.

Hawaii — •

Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu,
Holland —

Technische Hoogeschool, Delft.

Italy—

Instituto di Bologna.

Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Pisa.
Societa Africana d’ltalia, Naples.

Museo Civico, Genova.

India—

Geological Survey of India.

Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa.

Japan —

Imperial University, Kyoto.

Imperial University, Tokyo.

National Research Council of Japan,
Tokyo.

Java —

Koninklijk Naturkundige Vereiniging,
Weltvrederi.

Department van Landbouw, Buitenzorg.

Mexico —

Instituto Geologico de Mexico
Sociedad C'ientifica “ Anatonio Alzate,”
Mexico.

Secretario de Agriculture y fomento,
Mexico.

Observatorio Meterorologico Central,
Tacaibaya.

New Zealand—

Dominion Museum, Wellington.

New Zealand Institute, Wellington.
Auckland Institute and Museum.
Dominion Laboratory, Wellington.

Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, Wellington.

Geological Survey of New Zealand.
Peru—

Sociedad Geologica del Peru, Lima.
Philippines—

Bureau of Science, Manila.

Poland —

Polskie Towarzystwo Przyrodnikow im.

Kopernika, Lwow.

University of Poland.

Societes Savantes Polonaises.

Portugal—

Academia Polytechnicada, Oporto.
Sociedade Broteriana, Coimbra,

Institute Botanico, Coimbra.

I Russia—

Akademie des Sciences Russie, Leningrad.

I Bureau of Applied Entomology, Leningrad.
Spain —

Real Academia de Ciencias _y Artes de
Barcelona.

Real Academia de Ciencias, Madrid.
Museo de Historia Natural, Valencia.
Academia de Ciencias de Zaragoza,

Sweden —

Geological Institute of Upsala.

Switzerland —

Societe de Physique et d’Historie Natural,
Geneve,

Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, Zurich.

The League of Nations, Geneva.

South Africa —

Geological Society of South Africa,

J ohannesburg.

South African Museum, Capetown.

Durban Museum, Natal.

Transvaal Museum, Pretoria.

XXVI.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

United States of America —

United States Geological Survey, Washing- |
ton.

Natural History Survey, Illinois.

Lloyd Library, Cincinnati.

Wisconsin 'Academy of Arts, Science, and I
Letters, Madison.

California Academy of Sciences.

Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

University of Minnesota.

University of California.

Library of Congress, Washington.

Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.

American Museum of Natural History,
New York.

Buffalo Society of Natural History.

Boston Society of Natural History.

American Philosophical Society, Phila-
delphia.

American Geographical Society, New
York.

Smithsonian Institute, Washington.

Carnegie Institute, Washington.

United States Department of Agriculture,
Washington.

Oberlin College, Ohio.

National Academy of Science, Washington.

Rochester Academy of Sciences.

Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila-
delphia.

New York Academy of Science.

Indiana Academy of Science.

American Academy of Science and Arts.
Boston.

Institute of Biological Research, Balti-
more.

John Crerar Library, Chicago.

Ohio Academy of Science, Colombus.
Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plains.
Michigan Academy of Arts, Science, and
Letters.

University of Michigan.

Minnesota Geological Survey.

New York Zoological Society.

Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology,
Philadelphia.

Portland Society of Natural History.

San Diego Society of Natural History.
Puget Sound Biological Station, Seattle.
Missouri Botanic Gardens, St. Louis.
University of Illinois, Urbana*.

State College of Washington, Pullman.
Bureau of Standards, Washington.
National Research Council, Washington.

United States National Museum, Washing-
ton.

Public Health Service, Washington.
Peabodv Museum of Natural History.
Yale.

Lawde Observatory, Arizona.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

XXVII.

List of Members.

Corresponding Members.

David, Professor, Sir T. W. E., F.R.S. ... The University, Sydney, N.S. W

+Domin, Dr. K Czech University, Prague.

JMaitland, A. Gibb, F.G.S Melville Place, S. Perth, W.A.

+Skeats, Professor E. W The University, Melbourne, Vic.

Ordinary Members, Etc.

Atherton, D. 0., B.Sc.Agr.

Bage, Miss F., M.Sc. ...

fBagst'er, L. S., D.Sc.

-fJBailey, J. F

Ball, L. C., B.E

-f+Bancroft, T. L., M.B.

Barker, Miss E., B.A.

Barker, F.

Barker, G. H

Barr, L. L. S., B.Sc.Agr

Barton, E. C., A.M.I.C.E

Beckman., G. H., B.Sc.

^Bennett, F., B.Sc

Bick, E. W

Bostock. J., M.D., B.S., D.P.M.,

M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.

4:Briggs, Mrs. C.

Broadbent, J. E. . .

Brown, Jas., B.A.. M.D., Ch.B. (Edin.),
D.Ph. (Cambridge)

HBryan, W. H, M.C., D.Sc

Bryan, W. W., B.Sc.Agr

Brydon, Mrs

tBuhot, E. W

Bundock, C. W., B.A

Butler-Wood, F., D.D.S

Buzacott, R. H.

Cameron, Colonel D. C., C.M.G., D.S.O.,
M.P.

Cameron, W. E., B.A.

Carson-Cooling, Geo., M.Sc.

Cayzer, A., B.Sc.

Chamberlain, W. J., M.Sc

Cilento, K. W., M.D., B.S

Department of Agriculture and Stock, Nam-
bour.

Women’s College, Kangaroo Point, Brisbane
The University, Brisbane.

Botanic Gardens, Adelaide, S.A.

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.

Palm Islands, Queensland.

Infants’ School, Fortitude Valley, Brisbane.
Railway Audit Office, Brisbane.

Adelaide street, Brisbane.

Edgecliffe, River Terrace, Kangaroo Point,
Brisbane.

care of National Bank of Australasia, 4 Queen
Victoria Street, London.

Crook Street, Northgate, Brisbane.

State School, Toowong, Brisbane.

Botanic Gardens, Brisbane.

Wickham House, Wickham Terrace, Bris-
bane.

First Avenue, Eagle Junction, Brisbane.
Department of Justice, Brisbane.

“ Widmoorene,” Margaret Street, Too-
woomba.

The University, Brisbane.

Gatton College, T.P.O. South.

Department of Public Instruction, Brisbane.
Department of Health, Brisbane.

“ Kooralbyn,” Beaudesert.

Permanent Chambers, Adelaide Street, Bris-
bane.

Entomological Laboratory, Meringa, via
Cairns.

Parliament of the Commonwealth, Canberra.

Tattong, Victoria.

Boys’ Grammar School, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Water Supply and Sewerage Department,
Brisbane City Council

Steamship Chambers, Eagle Street, Brisbane.

f- Life Members.

* Members who have contributed papers to the Society.
R.S. — I

++ ++

XXVIII.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Cottrell-Dormer, W., B.Sc.Agr

Crawford, Miss L

Croll, Gifford, M.B

Cumbrae-Stewart, Professor F. W. S.,
D.C.L., K.C.

+Denmead, A. K., M.Sc. ...

Dixon, G. P., C.B.E., M.B., Ch.M. ...
tDodd, Alan P

JDuhig, J. V., M.B

Duhig, Archbishop, D.D.

Dunstan, B

Epps, A. M

Evans, C. K., M.Sc

Ferricks, Miss E. M.

Fitzgerald, Miss M., B.Sc

Ford, F. Campbell

Fortescue, L

tFrancis, W. D

Franzen, L.

Freeman, C. B

Frew, A. E. Harding, B.E

Gaukr«dger, D. W

Gibson, J. Lockhart, M.D

Gillies, C. D., M.B., B.S., M.Sc. ...
Goddard, Prof. E. J., B.A., D.Sc.

Graff, R., M.B., B.S

+Grey, Mrs. B. B., F.L.S

Greene, Miss A.

tGurney, E. H

JHamlyn-Harris, R., D.Sc

Ilardie, Sir David, M.D.. M.S

JHardy, G. II

Harris, V. E. G., B.Sc

+Hawken, Professor R. W., B.A., M.E.,
M.Inst.C.E.

tHenderson, J. B., F.I.C

^Herbert, D. A., D.Sc.

Herdsman, L P.

+Hill, Miss D., M.Sc

Hines, H. J.. B.Sc

Holdsworth, Miss N. M., B.Sc. ...
Hitchcock, L. F., B.Sc

Department of Agriculture and Stock, Bris-
bane.

Children’s Hospital, Brisbane.

Sherwood, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Geological Survey, Edward Street, Brisbane.
Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Prickly-pear Laboratory, Sherwood, Bris-
bane.

“ Edmonton,” Wickham Terrace, Brisbane
“ Dara,” Brisbane.

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.

Sugar Refinery, l^ew Farm.

Ipswich Technical College, Ipswich.

Old Sandgate Road, Eagle Junction, Bris-
bane.

Children’s Hospital.

“ Stanford,” Kennedy Terrace, Red Hill,
Brisbane.

New Zealand Chambers, 334 Queen Street*
Brisbane.

Botanic Gardens, Brisbane.

Hurworth Street, Bowen Hills.

City Buildings, Edw ird Street, Brisbane.

T. and G. Buildings, Queen Street, Brisbane.

Windermere Road, Ascot, Brisbane.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Ridge Street, Northgate.

The University, Brisbane.

Alpha District Hospital.

Union Bank of Australasia, Broome, Western
Australia.

High School, Wynnum.

Agricultural Chemist’s Laboratory, William
Street, Brisbane.

Town Hall, Brisbane.

“ Blythsdale,” Hamilton, Brisbane.

Biology Department, University, Brisbane.
The Southport School, Southport.

The University, Brisbane.

Government Analyst, Brisbane.

Biology Department, University, Brisbane.

Government Printing Office, George Street,.
Brisbane.

Newnham College, Cambridge.

The University, Brisbane.

Queensland Museum. Brisbane.

Kedron Park Road, Wooloowin.

f Life Members.

X Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

XXIX-

Hirschfeld, 0. S., M.B

Hubbard, Rev. W. P. II

fHulsen, R.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.
St. Alban's Rectory, Innisfail.
Valley Corner, Brisbane.

Irving, C. R., B A

State School, Caboolture.

Jack, Thos.

Jackson, A. G. ...

$ Jensen, H. L, D.Sc

Jones, Miss G. ...

Jones, A. J., M.L.A

Jones, Inigo

... Cunningham Street, Dalby.

... Synchronome Co., Elizabeth Street, Brisbane.
... Treasury Chambers, George Street, Brisbane.
... Children’s Hospital.

... Parliament House, Brisbane.

... Bower Street, off Gladstone Road, South
Brisbane.

+ Jones, Owen, M.Sc

£ Jones, T. G. H., D.Sc., A.A.C.I. ...

... Sydney Street, Eagle Junction, Brisbane.

... Chemistry Department, The University,
Brisbane.

Jorgensen, G. H.

... care of Australian Chemical Co., Grey Street,
South Brisbane.

Just, J. S

... Box 1Q67N, G.P.O., Brisbane.

Kelly, N. L., B.Sc

.. care of Department of Agriculture and
Stock, Brisbane.

Kemp, J. R

.. Main Roads Commission, Desmond Chambers,
Adelaide Street, Brisbane.

Kerr, W. H., Ph.D.. M.Sc

.. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Bris-
bane.

^Lambert, C. A. ...

+Legg, J. D., V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S

.. care of Bank of N.S.W., Melbourne, Vic.

.. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Towns-
ville.

L’Estrange, W. M

Lethbridge, Miss M. E

Lewcock, H. R., M.Sc

^Longman, H. A., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S.

tLove, W., M.B., Ch.M

Lowson, Professor J. P., M.A., M.D. ..
Lydon. R. J

43 Charlton Street, Ascot.

Children’s Hospital, Brisbane
The University, Brisbane.

Queensland Museum, Brisbane.

1 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

. Lauriston,” Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Central Technical College, Brisbane.

^Mackerras, Mrs. Ian, M.B

care of Dr. I. Mackerras, Linnean Society of
N.S.W., 16 College Street, Sydney.

Mandelson. L. F., B'.Sc.Agr.

. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Bris-
bane.

Marks, Hon. Dr.

Marks, A. H., C.B.E.. D.S.O., M.D. ..

tMarks, E. 0., M.D., B.A., B.E

tMassey, Rev. C. II

Mathewson, J. H. R., M.B., Ch.B.

. 101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

. Cleveland.

. Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace, Bris-
bane.

+McGall, T., F.I.C

McDonald, S. F., M.D., M.R.C.P.

McDowall, YaL, M.D

McKenzie, A. D., M.B., Ch.M

McLean, J. B., D.S.O., M.B., B.S.

. Government Analyst’s Department, Brisbane.
. “ Fancourt,” Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Preston House, Queen Street, Brisbane.

. Russell Street, Toowoomba.

. General Hospital, Brisbane.

t Life Members.

+ Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

XXX

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Meyers, E. S., M.B

Michael, Rev. N.

Moorhouse, F. W., M.Sc. ...

Morris, L. C., A.M.I.C.E

Morton, C., A.C.T.S.M

Morwood, R. B., M.Sc.

Muir, Miss E., B.Sc.

Murphy, Ellis, M.D

Murray, Professor J. K., B.A., B.Sc.Agr.

O’Connor, E. A., M.Sc

Ogilvie, C., B.E. ...

Parker, Geo., L.D.S. (Eng.), H.D.D.,
R.C.S. (Edin.)

Parker, W. R., L.D.S

JParnell, Professor T., M.A.

tPearce, Mrs. T. R., M.Sc

. Perkins, F. A., B.Sc.Agr

Phillips, T. J

tPound, C. J., F.R.M.S

Preston, G.

Price, T. A., M.B., B.S

^Priestley. Professor H. J.. M.A

Reid, J. F. F

JReid, J. H

^Richards, Professor H. C., D.So

fRiddell, R. M

Rimmer, T., M.Sc

Roberts, F. H., M.Sc

Roe, J. M, M.B

Russell, E., M.B., Ch.M

Saunders, G. J., M.Sc., B.E.

Schindler, C

Scott, Miss F. E

Sharp, A. F., B.E

Shaw, B. E., A.M.I.E.

Shepherd, E. M.. B.E

Simmonds, J. H., M.Sc

Simmonds, J. H., senr.

iSmith, F. B., B.Sc., F.I.C

Smith, J. IP, M.Sc. ...•

Steel, W. PI., M.B. ...

Steele, Professor B. D., D.Sc.. F.R.S. ...
Stephenson, S., M.A. ...

Stoney, A. J., B.E.E.

Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace, Bris-
bane.

The Rectory, Ayr, North Queensland.

Marine Department, Brisbane.

Department of Public Instruction, George
Street, Brisbane.

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock, Bri&
bane.

Girls’ High Schcol, Gympie.

97 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Agricultural High School and College,
Gat ton.

The University, Brisbane.

Irrigation Commission, College Road,
Brisbane.

Derby street, Highgate Hill, Brisbane.

185 Edward Street, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Queen street, Stanton Hill, Townsville.

The University, Brisbane,
care oi “ Daily Mail,” Queen Street. Bris-
bane.

Bacteriological Institute, Yeerongpilly.
Gregory Terrace, Brisbane.

Toowoomba.

The University, Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane.

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane
The University, Brisbane.

Department of Public Instruction, Brisbane.

University, Brisoam.

Department of Agriculture and Stock, Bris-
bane.

Department of Public Health, Brisbane.

63 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Central Technical College, Ipswich.

Stuckey Road, Eagle Junction, Brisbane.
Scott Road, Herston.

Irrigation Commission, College Road, Bris-
bane.

Irrigation Commission, College Road, Bris-
bane.

Irrigation Commission, College Road, Bris-
bane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock, Bris-
bane.

Hillsdon Road, Taringa. Brisbane.

Hutton’s Factory, Zillmere.

Court House, Cairns.

Rosemount Hospital, Windsor.

The University, Brisbane.

Boys’ Grammar School, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

t Life Members.

+ Members who have contributed papers to the Society

LIST OF MEMBERS.

XXXI

Swain, E. H. F

Sylow, Paul

Taylor, G. C., M.B., Ch.M

Theodore, Hon. E. G

Thompson, C. L., B.D.Sc

jTibbits, P. C

trilling, H. W., M.R.C.S. (Eng.). L.R.CH
(Lond.).

Tommerup, E. C., B.Sc. ...

pTrvon, H.

Turnbull, F. C., M.R.C.S.. L.R.C.P.

♦Turner, A. J., M.D., F.E.S

Veitch, R.. B.Sc

Waddle, I., M.Sc.

Wadley, J. B

iWalkom, A. B. D.Sc,

Watkins, S. B., M.Sc.

Wearne, R. A., B.A. ...

Wells, W. G

♦White. C. T., F.L.S

White, M., M.Sc

JWhiteho-use, F. W., Ph.D., M.Sc.

Winks W. R., B.Sc.

Wood, E. J. Ferguson, M.Sc.

Director of Forests, Brisbane

Angus Street, Bardon. .

Children’s Hospital.

Commonwealth Offices^ Sydney.

Club Chambers, Creek Street, Brisbane.

Irrigation Commission, College Road, Bris-
bane.

Town Hall, Brisbane.

C.S.I.R., 314 Albert Street, East Melbourne,.

Botanic Gardens, Brisbane.

Wickham House, Wickham Terrace, Bris-
bane.

131 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock, Bris-
bane

Brisbane State High. School, Musgravo
Park, Brisbane.

State School, Severnlea.

Macleay House, 16 College Street, Sydney.

Central Technical College, Brisbane.

Central Technical College, Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock, Bris-
bane.

Government Botanist. Botanic Gardens,
Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Geological Department, University, Brisbane.

Agricultural Chemist’s Laboratory, Depart-
ment of Agriculture anJ Stock, Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock, Bris-
bane.

Young, J. E. ... ... Graceville, Brisbane.

f Life Members.

1 Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

Frederick Phillips, Government Printer, Brisbane.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

QUEENSLAND

FOR 1931.

VOL. XL 1 1 1.

ISSUED 23rd MARCH, 1932.

Printed for the Society
by

H. POLE ’& -GO., LIMITED, Printers. Elizabeth Street, Brisbane^

1 1932

The Royal Society of Queensland.

Patron :

.TIIS EXCELLENCY, LIEUT.-G ENERAL SIR JOHN GOODWIN, K.C.B., C.B.,

C.M.G., D.S.O., E.R.C.S.

OFFICERS, 1931-1932.

President :

D. A. HERBERT, D.Sc.

Vice-Presidents :

J. B. HENDERSON, F.I.q.

T. G. H. JONES, D.Sc., A.A.C.I.

Hon. Treasurer : Hon. Secretary :

E. W. BICK. F. A. PERKINS, B.Sc. Agr.

Hon. Librarian : Hon. Editors :

W. D. FRANCIS. H. A. LONGMAN, F.L.S., C.M.Z.S-

W. H. BRYAN, M.C., D.Sc.

Members of the Council :

R. W. CILENTO, M.D., B.S. J. S. JUST, M.I.M.E.

E. 0. MARKS, B.A., B.E., M.D. H. C. RICHARDS, D.Sc.

C. T. WHITE, F.L.S.

Trustees :

F. BENNETT, B.Sc. J. B. HENDERSON, F.I.C.

A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D.

Hon. Auditor :

H. J. PRIESTLEY, M.A.

Bankers :

COMMONWEALTH BANK. OF AUSTRALIA.

CONTENTS

VOLUME XLIII.

INo. 1. — Presidential Address : By J. B. Henderson, F.I.C. Issued
17th August, 1931

No. 2. — Two Previously Undescribed Queensland Myrtaceae : By
C. T. White, F.L.S. Issued 17th August, 1931

No. 3. — The Movement of Neptunia Gracilis, an Australian Sensitive
Plant : By D. A. Herbert, D.Sc. Issued 17th August,

1931

No. 4. — Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora, Part III., Agonis
Luehmanni : By T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc. Issued 17th
August, 1931 . . . . . . . . . . ....

No. 5. — The Fixed Oil from the Seeds of the Noogoorra Burr
( Xanthium pungens ) ; By L. F. Hitchcock, M.Sc., and T. G.
H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I. Issued 2nd September, 1931

No. 6. — Aphididae in Australia : By G. H. Hardy. Issued 30th

November, 1931

No. 7. — Investigations of Queensland Soils. I. Properties as
shown by Single Value Characteristics : By H. J. G.
Hines, B.Sc. Issued 30th November, 1931

No. 8.— Two Previously Undescribed Rutaceae from South Eastern
Queensland : By C. T. White. Issued 7th March,

1932

No. 9.— A Previously Undescribed Papuan Dipterocarp : By C. T.
White. Issued 7th March, 1932

No. 10. — Australian Flies of Genus Actina ( Stratiomyiidae ) : By G. H.
Hardy. Issued 7th March, 1932

No. 11. — Correlations of the Queensland Permo-Carboniferous
Basin : By J . H. Reid. Issued 7th March, 1932

No. 12. — Appendix to Correlations of the Queensland Permo-
Carboniferous Basin : By F. W. Booker, B.Sc.
Issued 7th March, 1932

No. 13. — Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora : By Thomas
Gilbert Henry Jones. D.Sc., A.A.C.I. Issued 7th
March, 1932

No. 14. — Some Notes on Queensland Droughts : By Professor J. K.

Murray, B.A., B.Sc.Agr. Issued 21st March, 1932

Report of the Council

Abstract of Proceedings . . . . . . . . . .

List of Library Exchanges
List of Members . .

Pages

1-14

15-16

17-23

24-27

28-30

31-36

37-45

46-48

49

50-55

56-65

66-72

73-75

76-8 3
iv. -vi.

VII .-XV I.
XVII.-XIX .

. . XX.-XXIV.

Vol. XLIIL. No. 1.

Proceedings of the Royal Society of
Queensland

Presidential Address

By J. B. Henderson, F.I.C.

(Delivered before the Royal Society of Queensland , 30th March , 1931).

You have heard from the Annual Report that despite the diffi-
cult year through which the State has passed and the fact that we
have had no subsidy from the Government during the latter half of
the year, satisfactory work has been done and the printed volume
shows a record of good and varied progress.

I regret to have to record the death of one of our members during
the year, Mr. R. C. Cowley, who, while he did not take a very active
part in our proceedings was an interested member for many years.
Mr. Cowley was in charge of the Liverpool College of Pharmacy from
1893 till he left for Queensland in 1908, and was the prime mover in
putting the Queensland College of Pharmacy in its present position.
He published many papers in the Pharmacy journals in England and
Australia.

During the year the Council appointed a Committee consisting
of Dr. Bryan, convener, and Messrs. Herbert, Hines, Kerr and Murray
to prepare a report on the soils of Queensland for submission to the
3rd International Congress of Soil Science in 1935.

Among scientists the most outstanding feature of the year was
the meeting of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of
Science in Brisbane in May. Members attended from all the States,
from New Zealand. and a few from Overseas. Of the work done a
part has been published in the Proceedings of the Association, but
possibly the most important part, the stimulus received by workers
through meeting with fellow workers, never appears on the printed
record. Advantage was taken of the occasion to hold meetings of
various scientific societies with Interstate membership such as the
National Research Council, the Great Barrier Reef Committee, the
Pharmacists, the Institute of Chemistry and others. A meeting of
importance to us was held at which representatives were present from
all the Royal Societies in Australia. The principal question raised
was the possibility of having a united Australian Royal Society with
Proceedings published at one centre, thereby giving the volumes
greater importance and possibly retaining here papers by Australian
workers at present published in England or elsewhere. While that
in itself would be a good thing, it would inevitably result in the Royal

2

PROCEEDINGS OE THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Society library at one centre containing all the exchanges, leaving j
the others to purchase the 200 yearly volumes which are now received
as exchanges and possibly would also result in the loss of State sub-
sidies which materially help in printing the proceedings. These were
considered sufficient reasons for justifying a recommendation that no j
further action be taken in this matter at the present time.

During the year the Great Barrier Reef Committee have carried
on since the Expedition returned to England and while, owing to
financial stringency, very little new research work could be under-
taken, the Government is still consulting the Committee and utilising
the special knowledge of some of the members in dealing with matters
relating to the Barrier Reef, for example, in more effectually pre-
serving certain islands as Sanctuaries and Reserves.

The work of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research in
our State during the year has been noteworthy, if not spectacular.
The report of Dr. Jean White-Haney on the Noogoora Burr was
published, and although this investigation was only to “ state the
problem/’ it is the first time our ignorance and knowledge of this pest
plant has been summarised. Some suggestions were also made in the
report of possible lines of attack on this Burr. The investigation
into the Flying Fox Pest, also only to ‘/state the problem,” by Mr.

F. N. Ratcliff e, has been pushed along during the year and is now
practically completed. Mr. Ratcliffe’s report we hope will supply
the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research with sufficient data
to decide whether or not it is worth while to attempt to control these
pests, and, if it is considered worth while, that the most promising
lines along which to work may be indicated. Mr. W. J. Wiley, one
of our old Queensland students, on return last year from two years’
Research Scholarship work in Dairy Chemistry in England, was
started on an investigation into the alleged “ Wood Taint in Queens-
land Butter ” and is still engaged on that work. The intensely
interesting investigation by the Division of Animal Nutrition into the
special feeding of sheep in Queensland was continued during the year,
so also was the investigation into the Buffalo Fly menace in North
West Queensland. The negotiations for the establishment of a large
permanent Cattle Research Station in Queensland were continued
and judging by the latest published reports there are prospects of
its successful establishment in the near future.

The work of Prickly Pear destruction still goes on apace and
while no great area of dense pear has been completely cleared the
total weight of pear on the infected area is decreasing very rapidly.
The problem of secondary growths and of the growth of subsequent
seedlings has not yet seriously arisen. It will almost certainly have
to be faced and the primary work — the biological work — of this new
phase must be done by the scientists. The problem will not be
nearly such a difficult one as that of the first clearing and I have not
the slightest doubt of its successful solution. More especially am I
confident of such success because the Prickly Pear Land Commission
has shown such eager efficiency to apply the methods worked out by
the scientists that any scientific worker can now be certain of a
sympathetic hearing and have his methods tried out. When we
think of the enormous difficulty scientific workers had, not so many
years ago, in trying to convince any Government of the advantages

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS

3

to be gained by scientific control, of the years of waiting for action
to be taken, and then think of the rapid, thorough, efficient and large-
scale manner in which the Prickly Pear Land Commission attacked
the pear with the weapons provided by the scientists, we heartily
congratulate the Commission on their work and look forward without
fear to the future. It is of course essential that the arduous work
of both the scientists and the Commission be maintained and there
must be no slackening off in the fight because we have gained the
first few rounds. Our Society can look back with pleasure on the fact
that every member of the Board which first formulated the successful
policy of parasitic attack on the pear and had that policy adopted
by the Government, was a member of this Society.

Our Library during the year has, in the absence in England of the
Librarian, Mr. Francis, been well looked after by Mr. Hardy, to whom
our best thanks are due. The volumes are now better stored and
better indexed and therefore more accessible than they have ever
been previously, though the Librarians report that there is still much
that should be done. The position of Librarian to the Royal Society
is no sinecure.

In considering the question of a presidential address, I thought
it would be of interest to look over the list of Presidents during the 47
years the Society has been in existence. We have in that time had
41 different presidents, four having occupied the presidential chair
on two occasions ' one on three. Sir Augustus C. Gregory was our
first President and Dr. J. Bancroft was our second. It is noteworthy
that in his presidential address Dr. Bancroft pleaded for the estab-
lishment of a University and suggested the Botanic Gardens and
Government House domain as a suitable site — that was 45 years ago.
Then came L. A. Bernays and the Hon. A. Norton, followed by C. W.
De Vis who occupied the chair for two successive years. Next came
Saville Kent and F. M. Bailey, both of world- wide repute. By the
way, Mr. Bailey’s son, Mr. J. F. Bailey, was President in 1909 and his
grandson, Mr. C. T. White, in 1921 — three generations of botanists.
Mr. Bailey was followed by Miskin and the Hon. A. Norton in one
year. Next came Dr. J. Shirley and Dr. R. L. Jack, Drs. Taylor and
Lauterer, then C. J. Pound, the oldest of our Presidents still living,
S. B. J. Skertchly and J. W. Sutton. In 1900 came Dr. J. Thomson,
then Dr. W. R. Love and the Hon. J. Cameron. The remaining
Presidents with the exception of Dr. John Shirley, W. R. Colledge and
P. L. Weston are all still to the fore, and are known to us all. It will
be noticed that the list includes nearly all the residents of Queensland
who have been doing scientific work of any prominence, besides some
who, while not scientific workers themselves, were keenly interested
and sympathetic and whose help was much appreciated by the
Society.

To show the varied attainments of our Presidents it might be
noted that the Chair has been occupied by a biologist 10 times,
medical 9, geologist 7, chemist 6, general scientist 4, botanist 3,
engineer 3, pastoralist 3, physics and mathematics 1 each. Since the
establishment of the University in 1910 about half of our Presidents -
have been members of the University Teaching Staff.

4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

I propose to address yon to-night on some phases of individual
and national life where science and scientific methods are not being
applied, where science has provided knowledge and full advantage
has not been taken of that knowledge.

At present there is an enormous mass of new knowledge being
collected every year. Some of this is quickly put into use by the
general community, but unfortunately a large proportion of it lies
dormant in the records of the scientific societies. Rorturiately for
science, for scientists and for humanity, the average research worker
is not interested in how much motley he can make out of research work,
so when he gets his results published he is quite content that cc that
is a good job finished and published,” and he gets on with another
investigation.

That this attitude is well known even to politicians is shown by
an incident that I happened to come across a good many years ago.
A recommendation had been put before a certain Minister for the
appointment of a scientist and the salary recommended was £800
per annum. The Minister wrote a note “ approved, but it is well
known that scientists work for love of their work rather than for
money — make the salary £500,” and £500 it was accordingly.

So the scientist goes on with his work and other scientists add to
it, and the mass of knowledge grows, but much of it does not get
beyond the libraries. Recently the scientifically trained commercial
men and the commercially trained scientists have been hunting through
this treasure ground and as we all know have acquired much valuable
treasure by transmitting the information so acquired into coin of the
realm.

And yet there is still unlimited room for further research, and
urgent need for reducing our ignorance on many matters connected
with agriculture, industry, and other phases of our national life in
Queensland.

I intend to-night to mention a few of the many directions in
which the community is suffering through allowing the work of the
scientists to lie idle or through neglecting in attacking problems to
make use of the organised common-sense methods of work so
successfully used by the scientists.

Some one once said that Science was merely organised common
sense,” or as I saw it put lately “ specialised common sense.” The
distinction between “ common sense ” and “ organised common
sense ” is perhaps not very clear at first sight, but an illustration will
help to make the meaning clearer. Any one with “ common sense ”
can see that, to put it shortly, the sun rises in the east in the morning
and circles round the stationary earth to rise once more in the east.
But organised common sense ” knows that there are many more
facts concerning the case than those seen by the eye. Those seen by
the eye are what are generally called “ obvious,” but they are very
misleading if taken as a full statement of the case. Science or “ organ-
ised common sense ” has studied the chse, finds there are many much
more important factors to consider than those seen by the eye and

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

5

completely reverses the “ obvious ” decision by stating that the
rotating earth circles around the sun.

It is this demand of the scientist that in considering any question
all known facts related to a problem, however contradictory they may
appear to be, shall first be collected and considered, which has led to
the saying that “ a problem correctly stated is a problem half solved.

It is rather interesting to look around at some of our problems in
Queensland and to see if we are applying either all the known facts or
the best known methods to insure that we shall get the best possible
results from our efforts.

In the science of medicine some of the methods used are lagging
behind the actual knowledge available. In no respect is this so out-
standing as in the matter of diet. With all the advances of modern
civilization, the last 60 or 70 years we are told has seen a drop rather
than an increase in the health of the ordinary adult. The expecta-
tion of life has been enormously increased in infancy — it has not
increased in adults. Yet the adult is better clad, is better housed,
has much better sanitary surroundings and much better working
conditions than he had before. With all these plus factors added,
what are the minus factors which overbalance them ? Undoubtedly
a badly balanced diet is by far the most important factor. The
shocking statistics of the health of all men examined for the A.I.F.
in a land of plenty like Australia where a lack of total amount of food
was practically unknown, shows how badly that generous ration was
balanced by even the young men. And Australian statistics were
not so bad as those in England.

In considering the general health of the individual I would
emphasise that we are apt to judge by a very low standard, that of the
average child or adult as we know them, instead of by that standard
which could be readily attained by any normal individual living on
a balanced diet and taking regular exercise.

For hundreds of thousands of years human beings were used to
certain kinds of food, and until last century there was very little real
change in the foods eaten by man. Foods were rarely “ manufactured ”
in the modern sense of that term. Most meat was eaten fresh, some
was salted ; no meat was “ tinned ” nor was any “ preservatised.”
Starchy foods were difficult to obtain, mostly grown in cereals, and
were eaten in a form which digested slowly, while sugars were unknown
except in the form of honey. Nowadays all sausage meat, corned meat,
hams, practically all beers and soft drinks and all dried fruits,
contain preservative and the Law Court Records regularly show
convictions for the presence of excessive proportions of these poisons.
Grain foods, from which we derive most of our Vitamin B, are rarely
sold as our forefathers had to eat them — crushed whole grain. Now-
adays the germ and outer part of the grain are removed before selling,
taking away at the same time practically all the vitamins, enzymes
and other chemically active substances. For many years, as the
general characteristics of the remainder of the grain were not much
altered it was thought that the resultant white flour was just as good
a food as the whole grain, an idea not yet extinct. The modem
medical biochemists have shown us that the extremely minute pror

6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

portions of vitamins, enzymes, and other highly potent substances
which exist in grains and other foods are just as important and as
absolutely essential to health as are the bulky main constituents. It
is just as harmful to interfere with the supply and proportion of these
minute traces of chemicals as to interfere with the supply and propor-
tion of the carbohydrates or proteins.

Crushed grains were eaten by man for hundreds and thousands
of years, in fact up to until about 60 years ago, as crushed whole grains,
and his internal manufacturing laboratory has become adapted to work
on the complicated mixture. Now w~e ask that laboratory to elaborate
all the hundreds of chemicals required to keep the body in sound
health without a fair proportion of some essential constituents of
the raw material and with the large extra proportion of carbohydrates
in a too easily assimilated form. No wonder it ceases to function
perfectly.

And similarly we take “ fruit ” out of a tin, minus all or practic-
ally all of its vitamins, mix it with a custard which is artificially
coloured, and artificially flavoured prepared starch, not eggs and milk
as it should be, and recommend such fruit and custard as a “ cooling
food.” As a matter of fact it is an utterly unbalanced food, and far
from being cooling, is useful only as providing heat. It is just about
the last thing in the way of food that should be given to growing
children. And similarly we have such unbalanced foodstuffs as pre-
servatised dried fruits and dried vegetables, cakes made from prepared
starch and prepared sugar, and many others. No wonder our children,
despite the fact that they are rarely short of quantity of food, often
fall much short of the physique which they should have in a climate
and with a food supply like we have in Australia. How long it is
going to take the community to absorb and apply the simple founda-
tion facts of a balanced diet is hard to foretell.

Take one phase of it — the growth of bone, taking the most
striking phase of bone growth, that of the teeth. The factors in bone
and teeth growth have been well known for a considerable time. The
records show that there are four main factors which must be included
in an ordinary diet if good teeth are to be maintained : (a) sufficiency
of vitamins, particularly of Vitamin I). ( b ) a sufficiency of lime ;

(c) a sufficiency of phosphorous and (d) (a rather unexpected factor)
the lime and phosphorous must be balanced. At once the question
arises — how are we to arrange our food so that these four factors
will all be balanced, and the medical biochemist replies : “ By eating
natural foods — the balance is already there.”

The position in regard to teeth was strikingly put some time
ago by a well-known dentist in Brisbane when addressing a public
meeting on the care of the teeth. He said that all the dentists in
Australia working all their available time every day could not keep
the teeth of the children in Australia in good condition. American
accounts show that immigrants from the country districts of
Scandinavia on arrival generally have perfect teeth, but a few years
of American diet soon put them about on the low dental level of the
average American. About 25 years ago a medical friend showed me
an article in the “ British Medical Journal” by a London medical
professor who had prescribed a diet for seven babies of friends of his.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

7

The children grew up strong and healthy and at the end of seven years
each child had perfect teeth and not one had ever used a toothbrush.

There is not a working man who shows a dog at a Dog Show
unless the dog has perfect teeth — every dog fancier, without recourse
to medical advice, knows how to balance a ration for his dog. But
there is probably not a family in Brisbane with children whose teeth
are anything like perfect, practically nobody knows any balanced
ration for a child, nor does any one seem much concerned. A
balanced diet or ration has a very wide range in variety of food and a
fairly wide range in proportions and amount ; it is already known and
has been known for years, but is taught in neither primary school,
secondary school nor university. Let us hope, for the sake of our self
respect that some day soon parents will know how to feed their
children as well as they feed the dog, so that the boy need not be
envying the good teeth of his canine friend.

Many of you must remember Professor Metchnikoff’s famous
investigation with regard to the long-lived Bulgarian peasants. He
found that in their case the characteristic flora in the lower intestine
was, in addition to the coli, the harmless lactic acid bacillus working
in an acid medium as in the case of our infants, whereas in ordinary
civilised people the characteristic bacteria in addition to coli are of
the objectionable Gaertner type (streptococci, spore bearing bacilli,
other Gram-negative bacilli) and work in an alkaline medium.
Hence was derived his theory of autointoxication which looked
so sensible and his suggested cure by the consumption of large
quantities of lactic ferment in milk. He had a small proportion
of brilliant cures, but the large majority of patients were not
much the better of the treatment. Unfortunately, Metchnikoff
was not a chemist and did not realise that to establish the
lactic ferment in an alkaline lower intestine was impossible. A
suitable diet is essential containing a proportion of slowly
digesting material, mainly starches, which will not be entirely
absorbed in the upper intestine but- will last into the lower intestine
to act there as food for the lactic acid bacilli. Lately the work of
Bach and Wheeler in England who have followed up his theory has
been extremely successful in curing or relieving chronic diseases such
as neurasthenia, rheumatoid arthritis, chronic rheumatism, chronic
colitis, chronic headache, anaemia, sciatica, etc., by means of a toxin
to clear out the old established bacteria in addition to the altered
diet, and without the use of " medicine.” Bach and Wheeler state :
“ Now if an ordinary man or woman, in so-called ordinary health, wall
live for some weeks on a special diet, changes will ensue in the appear-
ance and general character of the faeces. The diet must be of food as
largely as possible uncooked. Haw fruit with good quantities of nuts
(well masticated), vegetables, salads, dairy produce, wholemeal bread,
cereals, milk puddings ; and for fluids, water, weak tea, milk ; wines
of all kinds are permissible, but not spirits. After a variable time,
covering in any case some weeks and often running to months, the
character of the faeces will change. They will become bright yellow,
soft, semi-solid, entirely odourless and acid in reaction. Bacterio-
logically there is a great diminution in all organisms that thrive in an
alkaline medium, namely, B. Coli, Streptococci and spore-bearing
bacilli. Of the utmost importance is the appearance of the Lactic
acid bacillus, virtually non-existent in the alkaline stools, but multi-

8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

plying in response to this diet until it may constitute as much as 30
per cent, of the total bacterial flora. Tf the individual has habitually
eaten much meat or otherwise departed from this special diet in
ordinary life, or is heavily infected with the non-lactose-fermenting
bacilli, he (or she) may take a long time to effect these changes in
faecal characteristics and may never exactly reproduce those !
described. But whoever will faithfully follow the diet will achieve 1
them in a greater rather than in a lesser degree.” (See “ Chronic
Disease,” p. 11, Bach & Wheeler). They find, however, that
“ intestines once thoroughly infected are seldom if ever cleared by
diet alone ; some anti-bacterial measures are needed in addition.”

Then there is the question of disinfecting wounds. During the
war iodine was found to have several grave defects as a disinfectant
and much research was made for substitutes. Several were dis-
covered which were so superior 'to iodine that the use of iodine for dis-
infecting wounds or skin was superseded. Two of the best were
Chloramine T, a bleaching powder derivative, and Acriflavine one of
the dyes. And yet these two so far as I can learn are only occasionally
used in Queensland.

Much of the work done years ago in preventive medicine also lies
unapplied by the authorities, but time forbids incursions into that
important field.

But there is one remark I would like to make about a branch of
this subject on which the public through ignorance wastes much
money and much health every year. About 30 years ago Professor
Robt. Hutchinson in one of his famous lectures made a statement,
which is as true to-day as it was then, that “ no patent food and no
patent medicine is worth the money asked for it.” This statement
was made through his knowledge of diet and medicine, but his state-
ment has been swamped by the advertisements of the manufacturers
through their knowledge of the weakness of human nature.

In engineering, the value of softening water used for steam raising
has been known for many years. This was first done, as you know, by
the old Clark process, while later on soda was used in conjunction with
lime, giving much better results with certain waters. One trouble
about the process was that it was difficult to run without chemical
supervision. With a chemist on the works, it was simple and
occupied little of his time, without a chemist there was often trouble.
About 30 years ago it was found that hard waters when passed through
certain substances of the zeolite type give up their lime and magnesia
to the zeolite, each molecule of lime and magnesia in the water being
replaced by one of soda from the zeolite, the water becoming quite soft.
When the zeolite became exhausted a saturated solution of common
salt was run through it, which washed out the absorbed lime and
magnesia and replaced them with soda and so regenerated the
zeolite.

When first introduced, only artificial zeolites were used and these
were too expensive for general use. Shortly after the war the cost
of the zeolites was much reduced, natural zeolites were found which
were easily prepared for use, and the cost of the process now compares
well with that of the lime soda process, while the supervision is easier.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

9

Here is a case where the system was adopted for a large institution
with two large boilers about two years ago. The water was very
hard, about 34° Clark, with magnesium chloride present as well as the
usual carbonates. Both boilers were being heavily incrusted by the
carbonates and corroded by the magnesium chloride. They leaked
badly, were continually having tubes replaced, and the boiler
inspector had cut down the permitted pressure from 165 lbs. to 135 lbs.
per square inch, and had stated that he would probably condemn the
boilers altogether in two years’ time.

A zeolite process was installed. The old incrustation soon scaled
off and was blown out, the old corrosion marks ceased deepening and
showed a smooth surface, all leaks ceased, no more new tubes have
been put in, the coal consumption has been cut down about one ton
per day, the water evaporated has largely increased and the hot water
supply has also increased. The saving in repairs has been about
£300 per annum and the boiler has been granted a new lease of life.
Also the softened water used in the large laundry has saved about £80
per annum in soap.

Of course there is always a fly in the ointment. The boiled water
in this process becomes strongly alkaline from the sodium carbonate
which replaces the lime and magnesia compounds, and some caustic
soda is formed in the boiler. Unless frequent blowing off is practised
the solution causes corrosion and the strong alkali also causes embrit-
tlement of the steel. In this case things were going so well that an
attendant was tempted to save heat by not blowing off regularly.
The concentrated solution caused corrosion in a plug, blew it out and
blew the boiling alkaline water and steam into the engine room.
Fortunately no one was seriously injured but every scrap of paint on
the machinery and in the room was taken off by the hot caustic soda
solution. So even this simple process requires common sense in using
it.

Still there are many steam users in Queensland who suffer the heavy
losses entailed by the use of hard water for steam raising when very
great savings can be made in fuel and in boiler maintenance by the
adoption of a by no means new process.

In architecture, with regard to lighting it is most remarkable
that practically the only people who have ever taken full advantage
of the knowledge of lighting are the theatre owners. Who ever saw a
public hall or a church that did not present glaring lights before the
eyes ? Can one imagine a theatre with bright lights stuck around the
walls and near the stage, or a church or hall without at least one or
two bright lights catching the eye when watching the speaker ? There
is no excuse but ignorance nowadays, with the electrical supply so
easily available, for anything but perfect lighting in halls and churches
and all public buildings.

Also in ventilation, modern knowledge and facilities for supplying
pure cool air are generally ignored. Even in Queensland where we
can usually have all windows open and the driving of fresh air through
a room is no problem at all, we often see fans in the ceiling throwing
the hot vitiated air down on the heads of the audience and stirring up
the dust and bacteria from the floor — altogether as useless and
insanitary an attempt at getting cool pure air as incompetence and
ignorance could devise.

10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

In the consumption of fuel there is still room for much better use
of the mass of knowledge that has been acquired as to how to get the
best results from the burning of coal. One or two of our largest
consumers of coal make good use of that knowledge, and have a fairly
complete control of their work. They determine carefully the destina-
tion of all the B.T.U.’s for which they have paid. If more than a
certain minimum proportion of these valuable heat units escape up
the chimney or in any other way without evaporating their quota
of water then somebody hears about it. The scientific engineer is a
hard task master to the coal — he gets out of every pound of it the last
possible heat unit, trying to make every one of them, which he can’t,
penetrate the steel of the boiler and heat the water to boiling. Then
he grudges the fact that such a number of them dodge him as regards
work by going “ latent,” but nowadays he catches most of these later
on.

In metallurgy in Queensland we have with few exceptions been
stagnant in our methods for many years, the natural result being that
our metalliferous mining industry has been moribund for some time.
As a result of the adaptation of old knowledge with splendid results
in Australia let me remind you of a case quoted by Professor Richards
in his lecture here in October last. He pointed out to us how by
making certain changes at Mt. Lyell the total cost of producing the
copper had been lowered by £50 per ton of metallic copper without
lowering the proportion recovered. No new research was required to
make that saving. Most of it was made by the use, with some
modern improvements, of an oil flotation process that has been known
for about 30 years. Mt. Lyell had previously passed the ore through
the blast furnace, fluxing off the silicates as slag and treating the
resulting matter in converters. By the process now used the cost of
the blast furnaces, particularly of the costs of fuel and of fluxes, have
been reduced enormously.

At Mt. Isa, in North Queensland, there is a huge mass of compar-
atively low grade lead-zinc ore. This was taken up some years ago
but the problem of economically separating the lead. and zinc sulphides
made the earlier owners give up the proposition. The present owners
have adopted the old oil flotation process with a few modern improve-
ments. I have not the full details of the process, nor is this an
occasion to describe them, but briefly outlined the process is as follows :
The whole bulk of the ore as it is taken out is crushed to a definite
degree of fineness. If treated at once by a flotation process both the
lead and zinc sulphides would be floated off together, and the smelting
of these mixed sulphides is not an economical proposition. So to the
pulped ore is added a chemical solution which prevents the zinc
sulphide from being floated, but does not affect the lead sulphide.
Practically the whole of the lead sulphide is floated off with only a
very small proportion of zinc sulphide. The pulped ore freed from
lead is then treated with a second solution to neutralise the first and
the ore is “ floated ” a second time, a good recovery of zinc sulphide
being obtained with only a negligible proportion of lead sulphide.
By making use of this modern variation in an old process it seems
as if we are going to have in Queensland one of the largest silver lead
mines in the world running successfully before the year is out.

As Professor Richards also pointed out we have had in Queens-
land more than our own share of high-grade gold ores and copper

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS

11

ores, but it is not likely that there are a large number of that class left.
We have not even one going at the present time. But suitable low
grade ores pay much better, and for a longer time than the small
rich deposits. It is almost certain there are many such in Queensland.
The knowledge is here as to how to work economically, but there is
as yet only the beginnings of interest in that problem. I have spoken
to most of our Queensland geologists and also to several visiting
geologists on the probabilities of our having in Queensland large
deposits of low grade ores suitable for treatment. I have not yet
met one who is not quite confident that such deposits are there, and
conld be found if looked for by qualified prospectors.

It is probably in Agricultural and Pastoral Industries that we
suffer our greatest losses through not making use of knowledge which
is being applied elsewhere. We had last year about 23,000 dairy
farmers in Queensland, with about 680,000 dairy cows. The produc-
tion of butter was 87 \ million pounds weight, cheese 14 J million lbs.,
condensed milk over three quarter million lbs., the total value of the
milk being about £8,000,000.

The average yield per cow in Queensland is about 145 lbs. of
commercial butter per annum, while the Agriculture Department
knows that 260 lbs. average is attainable — has been obtained in herds
here. As Denmark averages 299 lbs. commercial butter, 260 does
not seem a very high standard at which to aim. If the yield of the
present number of cows could be raised to 260 lbs. the extra production
would be practically 70,000,000 lbs. of butter which at the average
price of 1/3 per lb. would add another £4,360,000 to our Queensland
dairymen’s incomes.

I do not know of any single research which could definitely
promise such savings in a few years as the applying of known good
methods of dairying. The average yield is going up slowly, there is
nothing but ignorance to prevent it being doubled in a few years.
Even then the average yield would be below that of Denmark. To
put those statistics in another way, the average yield per cow last year,
which by the way was a record good year, was worth about £10, while
quite a number of farmers are known to have averaged over £25 per
cow for their whole herds.

In addition to the enormous increase which could be made in the
yield there are very many farms where a considerable saving could be
made in the costs of production. I recently heard of one compar-
atively small farm where it was decided to rebuild the 40 year old
milking yards. The new yards were carefully designed as to relative
position of milking yards, separators, and separated milk feeding
troughs for the calves. A saving of 1J hours labour per day was made,
equivalent to 68 days of 8 hours each in the course of the year.

Statistics show we are improving, but very slowly. There have of
late been several marked attempts by members of the industry to
hasten forward the use of better methods. The reformers have plenty
of scope for making striking reforms and advances, and deserve the
best wishes of every one for speedy success in a difficult task — the
education of adults.

12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Sir Arnold Theiler and Dr. J. B. Orr were here a few years ago,
probably the two greatest authorities at the present time on animal
husbandry. They came at the request of the Commonwealth
Government, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, to give
advice on the best means of assisting our stock industries. Dr. Orr,
the specialist on animal nutrition, after seeing a considerable area of
each of the States stated that “ the yield of animal products in Aus-
tralia available for export could be doubled in a few years ” (page 66
(2), 3rd par. of report). Now that is the published opinion of a man
who knows his subject thoroughly. As the latest Australian return for
animal exports at the time he wrote (1928) showed a value of 79
millions, we have awaiting us by the application of knowledge requiring
no research to make it available, an additional income of something
like 80 millions per annum. It is not suggested that that would be
all profit, and these values are subject to considerable variations,
but it would provide quite sufficient to convert our recent adverse
balances into bank credit balances and cancel the adverse exchange
rates.

With regard to sheep there is time to note only one matter. An
investigation was carried out by a sub-committee of the Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research some years ago and the best method
of jetting sheep with arsenic solution was determined, as a prevention
of blow-fly attack. We had ample evidence then that the method
gave complete protection in ordinary seasons and good protection
even in bad blow-fly attacks. Lately I have seen statements published
of heavy losses incurred through blow-fly attack. If that is so then
the jetting method prescribed was either not used or not properly used.
The protection generally lasted, depending on the rainfall, for about
two to three months and the cost was about Id. per sheep. One
pastoralist who had interests in several large sheep properties told me
that in the aggregate his company had saved many thousands of
pounds by the use of the method. That statement was made wdthin
two or three years of the first publication of the method. If large
losses are now being incurred through blow-fly attack it is another
instance of “ unused knowdedge.”

In the course of my enquiries many other cases of “ unused
knowledge ” in Agriculture have been pointed out to me, but time
forbids the mention of any more of them.

In no direction does our lank of organised common sense methods
show up more disastrously than in our extraordinary method of
selecting our rulers, no test of fitness being required, and in no direction
are we suffering more for our inefficiency. I am not a party politician,
and am not attacking politicians, but am laying the blame on our-
selves for our lack of method in dealing with this problem. Democracy
ought to mean national efficiency. Unless we alter our methods,
it looks like being national inefficiency.

And the methods of our legislators in ruling us, not of one party
but of all of them, are not always those of “ organised common sense.”
In not very distant days we all knew that a certain proportion of
workers were continuously badly paid — were in fact generally short of
proper food and clothing. So various methods were tried to solve the
problem, all of them failing to give satisfaction. But no one tried

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

13

appointing a number of trained economists to enquire into the whole
problem and find out what would be a fair return to the worker, in
relation to the cost of living, to the value of the work to the employer,
and to the value of the wotk to the nation, and also to consider all the
other factors bearing on the problem. Instead of that method certain
laws were passed and Courts were appointed with very great powers in
certain directions and very limited powers in others. We all hoped
for good results, but the results, while showing very much improved
rates of pay for certain classes of workers, left others worse off than
before, as they could not get before the Court, got no increase in
earnings, and the Costs of living were increased. 1 give herewith a
few examples out of hundred^ to better illustrate the position we
have achieved : —

Industry

Occupation

Award or not

Weekly Earnings

Meafworks

Slaughterman

Award

£7

12

0 to £14 6

8

Labourer

Award

£5

10

0 to £7 12

6

Wool

Shearers

Award

£12

12

0 to £14 0

0

Shearers’ Cooks Award

£9

0

0 to £10 0

0

Sugar

Cane Cutters

Award

£9

0

0 to £14 0

0

Meehan. Engineering

Turners and
Fitters . .

Award £5/1/-

£5

1

0

State Service

Unclassified
Officers . .

Award £300
Per Annum

£5

15

4 less 10%

Typists

Award £230

. £4

8

5 less 10%

Day Labour

Labourer

Award

£3

17

0

Rural Workers

Farm Labourer No Award . .

£1

0

0 to £2 0 <

9+ keep

Domestic Service

Boarding

House

Award

£1

12

6 to £3 3

0+keep

Domestic Service . .

Private House

No Award . .

£1

0

0 + keep

These rates are all recent. I do not quote these to discuss the
question as to whether any or all of these award rates are or are not
justifiable. The point I wish to bring out is that the nation has made
no attempt whatever to treat all its workers alike. The problem
has not been examined in its entirety, and quite clearly the result
has been that either Certain workers are receiving too much, or other
workers doing at least equally skilled work and work of equal national
importance are receiving too little. The problem is going to be more
difficult to solve than problems in physical or biological science as the
psychological element, the variable human factor, is an important
one. Nevertheless the skilled economists are the only people qualified
to deal with this intricate problem and to solve it not only to the
satisfaction of any one type of worker, or of any parasitic industry,
but to solve it in the interests of the whole nation. There has been a
tendency within the last two years, when our rulers realised how
dangerous the national position had become, to consult the economists.
It is to be hoped that the methods of the economists, if and when given
a fair trial, will be found as successful in this case as for example the
methods of the biologists were in the case of the prickly pear problem.

I have now called attention to a few of the very many directions
in which we are suffering through failure as a people to take advantage

14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

of knowledge provided freely to ns by searchers after truth. The
list could be added to by every member present, but I hope I have
said sufficient to make it clear that, while stressing the need for more
and more research, there is also a necessity that we should see that |
the work already done should be utilised.

When Dr. J. B. Orr, to whom I have already referred, was in
Australia he stated (page 68 (3) last par) — “The great need of
Australian husbandry in its present state of development is not so
much research in nutrition as the application of existing knowledge-
to pressing practical problems.” And that remark was made while
Dr. Orr was stressing the great need for further research. He was
pointing out what all applied scientists have realised for a long time,
that great as are the savings which could be made in Australia through
the acquiring of more knowledge by research, and the subsequent
application7 of that new knowledge, in addition to these savings still
greater savings could be made by applying “ unused knowledge ”
which has already been successfully applied elsewhere. And the
returns from the application of unused knowledge are much more
quickly received ; such methods can be applied at once without waiting
for small scale experiments.

,, ' . _ ■

As a Society it is not our duty to see the application of science
to industry, but certainly we have no desire to see much of the new
knowledge which our members, and others have laboriously collected
from the darkness of the great unknown, at once returned to an almost
equal darkness among the dusty archives of scientific libraries. It
is clearly the duty of each industry to educate the members of that
industry to increase their yield of products, and that at lower relative
costs. It is only by so doing that we have any chance of selling our
products at a profit on the world’s market, and unless we can do that
we have no hope of meeting our enormous debts, or, which to some
people seems even more important, no hope of contracting more debts.

Fortunately some of our industries are making efforts to make more
use of known methods, but it is doubtful if the general rate of advance
has yet reached the rate of accumulation of new knowledge. The
scientists are doing their part ; it rests now with the industrialists
and others to devise means of taking full advantage of the knowledge
so lavishly provided by the scientists.

Vol. XLIIL, No. 2.

15

Two Previously Undescribed Queensland Myrtaceae

By C. T. White (Government Botanist, Brisbane).

Plates i.-n.

■ (Read before the Royal Society of Queensland , 27 th April, 1931).
Darwinia Porteri sp. nov.

Frutex glaber. Folia opposita, ramulorum ■> apicem versus
conferta ; linearia vel anguste spathulata, saepe falcata vel subfalcata,
plerumque 1 cm. longa, 1.5 mm. lata, ad apicem acuta, basem versus
gra.datim angustata, breviter petiolata. Flores terminales binatim
dispositi ; pedicellis 2 mm. longis ; bracteolis 7 mm. longis. Calyx
1 cm. longus ; tubo 6 mm. longo, alte 5-costato : lobis 4 mm. longis
alte laciiiiatis. Petala subrotunda, 3.5 mm. longa. Stamina 2.5 mm,
longa ; filamentis applanatis ; antheris subglobosis ; staminodiis
1.5 mm. longis, applanatis. Stylus 2 cm. longus, infra stigma
barbatus.

Shrub, glabrous in all parts. Leaves opposite, crowded towards
the ends of the branchlets ; linear or very narrowly spathulate,
straight or falcate, mostly 1 cm. long and 1.5 mm. broad ; apex acute,
base gradually tapering to a short petiole. Flowers in pairs at the
ends of the branchlets on pedicels of 2 mm. Bracteoles large, red,
7 mm. long. Calyx 1cm. long, tube red, strongty 5-ribbecl, 6 mm.
long, lobes yellow, 4 mm. long, deeply laciniate for nearly half their
length into 5-6 teeth. Petals yellow, rotund, slightly shorter than the
calyx lobes (3.5 mm. long). Stamens 2.5 mm. long, filaments
flattened, anthers subglobose ; staminodia 1.5 mm. long, flattened
and tipped with an abortive anther. Style 2 cm. long, bearded below
the stigma.

Habitat. — Watsonville near Herberton, North Queensland.

Charles Porter, communicated by Mr. W. J. Gallogly, who states : —

“ This shrub appears to be confined to Watsonville so far as this
Northern district is concerned. We can learn of no trace in surround-
ing districts.

“ It grows upon apparently the bare rock at a considerable eleva-
tion, bare and unprotected. Its roots work into the crevices and it
grows thickly in the form of a real hedge.

“ When cut and placed in water it maintains its freshness for a
considerable time. The plant was collected by Mr. Charles Porter.”

Affinities. — The present species comes into Bentham’s section-
Schuermannia (Flora Australiensis III. 7) and is most closely allied to
D . Thomasii (F.v.M.) Benth, the only other Queensland member of

16

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

the genus, the chief distinctions between the two species being as
follows : —

Leaves obovate ; flowers single on pedicels of 6-7 mm., calyx lobes

minutely denticulate . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Thomasii ■

Leaves linear or very narrowly obovate, flowers in pairs on pedicels

of 2 mm. ; calyx lobes deeply laciniate . . . . . . D. Porteri

Melaleuca Cheelii sp. nov.

Arbor parva, 10 m. alta ; cortice lamellato ramulis junioribus
pubescentibus. Folia opposita, glabra, elliptica vel ovata 0.8-1 cm.
longa, plerumque lj-plo longioribus quam lata, perbre viter petiolata,
textura crassa, 1-3-nervata sed nervis costa media excepta obscuris.
Flores albi in spicas terminates dispositi, rhachide et bracteis et
calycibus pubescentibus ; bracteis ovatis ; 3 mm. longis ; calycis tubo
elliptico, 3 mm. longo, lobis brevis, triangularibus ; petalis breviter
unguiculatis, cum ungue 2.5 mm. longis, ungue ipso 0.5 mm. longo ;
staminibus in phalanges 5 petalis oppositis connatis ; cum parte
connata 0.5cm. longis; parte connata ipsa 1.5mm. longa; stylo
0.6 cm. longo ; stigmate capitate. Capsula elliptica vel subglobosa,
0.5 cm. diam.

A small tree about 10 m. high, of rather spreading habit. ; bark
papery. Branchlets pubescent in the younger stage but soon becom-
ing glabrous. Leaves opposite glabrous elliptic or when more rounded
at the base ovate, 0.8-1 cm. long, mostly 1| times longer than broad,
very shortly petiolate ; texture rather thick, 3-5-nerved but except
for the midrib obscure. Flowers creamy white borne in short
terminal spikes, the rhachis, bracts and calyces pubescent, rhachis
1 cm. long, 5-8-flowered ; bracts ovate 3 mm. long ; calyx tube ellip-
soid, 3 mm. long ; lobes short, broadly triangular ; petals shortly
clawed, with the claw 2.5 mm. long, the claw itself 0.5 mm. ; stamens
united in five bundles of 9-12 opposite the petals, including the united
portion 0.5cm. long, the united portion itself 1.5mm. long. Style
0.6 cm. long, stigma capitate. Capsule ellipsoid or subglobose,
0.5 cm. diam.

Habitat. — Traverston, mouth of the Burrum River, about 180
miles north of Brisbane, Queensland. Common in wet places in
sandy “ wallum ” country. C. T. White, 6335 flowering and fruiting
specimens. 6/10/1929.

Named in honour of Mr. Edwin Cheel, Curator, National Her-
barium, Sydney, who had done much to increase our knowdedge of the
Australian Myrtaceae.

Affinities. — The present species comes into Bentham’s Series V.
Spiciflorae (Flora Australiensis III. 125) and has its closest affinities
with M. squarrosa Sm. but differs in several important details, the
chief distinctions between the two species being as follows : —

Leaves 5-7-nerved, the lateral nerves clearly visible, spikes dense,

20-f lowered or even more . . . . . . . . . . M. squarrosa

Leaves 3-5-nerved, the lateral nerves obscure or not at all visible ;
spikes interrupted, 5-8-flowered

M. Cheelii

orq QfQ

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLIII.

Plate I.

Fig. 3.

Darwinia Porter i sp. nov.

Flowering branchlet, nat. size. Fig. 4. (a )Staminode, (b) Stamen— front view,
Two flowers x 2J. (c) Stamen — dorsal view x 15.

Flower laid open x 4^.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLIII.

Plate 11.

Melaleuca Cheelii sp. nov.

Fig. 1. Flowering branchlet, nat. size. Fig. 4. Anther X 43.

Fig. 2. Fruiting branchlet, nat. size. Fig. 5. Pistil x 4.

Fig. 3. Single flower x 4. Fig. 6. Seed capsule, viewed from above, X 4.

Vol. XLIII., No. 3.

17

The Movements of Neptunia gracilis, an Australian
Sensitive Plant

By D. A. Herbert, D.Sc., Department of Biology, University of

Queensland.

( Read before the Royal Society of Queensland , 21th April , 1931).

There are two endemic Australian species of the leguminous genus
Neptunia. N. monosperma, F.v.M. is a tropical species extending
south to Blackall ; N. gracilis in its typical form ranges from Shoal-
water Bay and Broad Sound, North of Rockhampton, to western New
South Wales between the Darling River and Cooper’s Creek ; two
varieties — villulosa and major — extend the distribution of the species
northward from Rockhampton (1). Of the ten extra- Australian
species, the sensitive N. oleracea is best known. This is a floating
plant, and its leaves are very similar to those of N. gracilis ; it is
figured by Arber (2).

In South Queensland the typical form grows on black soil and on
alluvium. It is a straggling undershrub with procumbent or erect
stems a foot or a little more in length, dying down in winter and
scooting from its rootstock in spring. It roots deeply, and unless the
plants are quite young they are difficult to transplant. The coty-
ledons are ovate-sagittate. The first leaves to make their appearance
are pinnate with several pairs of leaflets. Several bipinnate leaves
with one pair of pinnae are then produced before the normal adult
type with two or three pairs of pinnae appears ; the number of pairs
of leaflets in each pinna varies ; in the early stages, about four to six
pairs are the rule, but though on old branches as many as twenty may
be found, the usual number is about twelve. The pinnae and their
leaflets in the unstimulated condition are horizontal. The terminal
pinnae are at right angles to one another ; they each make an angle of
135 degrees with the axis. Those of the other pairs are in line at right
.angles to the rachis.

Sleep Movements. — The cotyledons of Neptunia gracilis fold to-
gether, and assume the vertical position at night or when covered

during the day. Those of Mimosa pudica and of M. Spegazzinii

behave similarly. In darkness the leaflets fold together. The
pinnae approach one another with an oblique downward movement
until they are parallel ; the final angle made with the stem depends
on the position of the leaf on the stem, that is, on the position of the

axis of the leaf. Usually the pinnae are reflexed to make an angle

of 30-45 degrees with the axis, but they may be bent back so far that
they are actually parallel with it. The petiole in darkness undergoes
a slight depression of 5 to 15 degrees on the initial angle. A vertical
petiole at the end of a branch shows a smaller amplitude of move-
ment than one horizontally placed.

18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Mechanical stimulus . — The cotyledons, when stimulated by a
light blow or by a stronger stimulus such as cutting or burning, fold
together. Struck, the leaflets fold together upwards, and the pinnae
approach one another slightly while bending backwards. The final
position, even after a very violent blow, is not the same as that of a
leaf in the night position. In a typical case the approach of the leaf-
lets to one another was through an angle of about 3 degrees, and the i
pinnae were bent back through an angle of 30 degrees. The primary
pulvinus moved the petiole through an angle of 5 degrees. Even when
the stimulus was so violent that one pinna was broken from the axis
(a piece of elastic being used for the blow) no greater movement took
place. This latter fact also indicates that response to wounding
does not produce as great a movement as darkness. This was borne
out by subsequent experiments in which the terminal leaflets in some
cases and the rachis of the pinna in others were cut or crushed ; the
leaflets closed together, but the primary and secondary pulvini did
not bend to the night angle. Recovery is usually complete in about
fifteen minutes, the time varying with the age of the leaves and with
external conditions.

Moierial Used. — The plants used in the experiments described in
this paper were grown in a garden plot in Wooloowin from seed
obtained from Beaudesert by Mr. E. C. Tommerup, R.Sc. The seed was
planted in October, 1929, and the young seedlings transplanted to a deep
clay loam garden bed beside similar seedlings of Mimosa pudica raised
from local seed, and of Mimosa Spegazzinii raised from seed obtained
from Heinrich Mette, of Germany. B\^ the end of March, 1930, the
Neptunia plants had produced branched procumbent stems of about
six inches in length ; the Mimosa pudica plants were much branched
and over a foot in diameter ; and those of Mimosa Spegazzinii wete
erect, branching at the base, and from nine inches to two feet high.
All the plants were healthy and vigorous, and were growing under
similar conditions of light and soil.

During the winter the plants of Neptunia gracilis died down,
shooting again in spring and producing several straggling stems
attaining a length of two to three feet.

The object of growing these three species together in the same bed
was to compare their rates of response to stimulus under similar
environmental conditions. As the rates in all three species vary under
different environmental conditions, it was decided that the times
mentioned in the experiments would have more significance if com-
parisons were made between the responses of adjacent plants of the
three species.

Experimental Data.

A. Mechanical stimulus. — Experiment 1. — Relative rates of re-
covery of leaves of adjacent 'plants of Neptunia gracilis, Mimosa pudica
ana l Mimosa Spegazzinii growing under similar environmental con-
ditions—

Neptunia gracilis . , . . . . 10-15 minutes

Mimosa pudica . . . . . . 5-8 minutes

Mimosa Spegazzinii . . . . . . 5-8 minutes

These figures represent a great many experiments conducted on
vigorous health}^ leaves. The leaves of Neptunia gracilis fold together

THE MOVEMENTS OF NEPTUNIA GRACILIS.

19

slowly even when violently stimulated. Whereas the leaflets of the
two species of Mimosa close in a fraction of a second, those of Neptunia
take from 5 to 7 seconds to complete the movement, though response
commences on stimulation. The whole response is therefore more
sluggish than in the two species of Mimosa.

. The response to mechanical shock is shown only by those leaflets
which are directly stimulated. If the end of a pinna is struck a sharp
blow, the leaflets in that region commence to fold together, but the
shaking has directly stimulated the primary and the secondary pulvini
which therefore commence to move at the same time. If the leaf be
clamped so that no shaking of the parts distal to the point of mechanical
stimulation can take place, no response takes place beyond the clamp.
This is consistent with what has been found in Mimosa pudica.

B. Wound Stimulus.— If the terminal leaflets be scorched or cut,
care being taken to protect the rest of the leaf from the stimulus or
from shaking during the operation, conduction of the excitation takes
place. The leaflets of the injured pinna close one after the other until
all are closed ; the pulvinus at its base then curves very slightly, swing-
ing the pinna through a small angle. The secondary pulvinus of the
pinna immediately below then curves similarly, and the leaflets
commence to close from the base towards the tip. When the move-
ment is half way along this pinna, the pinna opposite that stimulated
in the first place may commence to close, but frequently only the
bottom leaflets close and the rest are unaffected or it may show no
response at all. The fourth pinna remains unaffected.

If, for convenience, we call the terminal pinnae a and b and the
lower pair c and d, c being below a, the following may be given as
a typical example of the rate of the action :

Experiment 2. — Bate of conduction of excitation in leaf of
Neptunia gracilis following the cutting of the terminal leaflets of a termi-
nal pinna (a).

Time of closing of all leaflets of a after cutting the terminal

leaflets ... . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 seconds

Time of closing of all leaflets of c (from time of cutting) . . 30 seconds

Time of closing of all leaflets of b . . . . . . . . . . 32 seconds

W'hen one of the lower pinnae, c, is snipped at the tip, its leaflets

fold together in turn, and finally its pulvinus curves slightly. The
pinna a immediately above then commences to respond about 2 seconds
later. The following is a typical example :

Experiment 3. — Rate of conduction in leaf of Neptunia gracilis
when lower pinna is injured :

Time of closing of all leaflets of lower pinna c after snipping of

terminal leaflets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 seconds

Time of commencement of response in pinna a immediately above

(from time of injury) . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 seconds

Time of complete closing of the pinna a . . . . 28 seconds

Thus it appears that acropetal and basipetal conduction in the
axis of the pinna, as indicated by the response of the leaflets, take place
at approximately the same rate.

20

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The movement gives no indication of a reflex arc through the main
pulvinus.* The stimulus passes along the axis to the pinna immedi-
ately below or above (as the case may be) and just as the pulvinus of
this pinna commences its curvature, or in some instances a second or
two later, the pulvinus of the pinna opposite the one stimulated also
responds. The transmission across the leaf axis — a distance of about
one thirty-second of an inch — takes as long as, or longer than, the
transmission along the axis — a distance of about one-third of an inch.
Even when the response of the two pinnae is practically simultaneous,
as it commonly is, the one opposite often responds with a few of the
lower leaflets, and this indicates that the stimulus received across the
axis is much weaker than that which passes longitudinally. Where
the original stimulus is relatively weak, as when the terminal leaflets
are only slightly injured by cutting, the opposite pinna may not
respond at all.

That transmission from a pinna to the one opposite takes place
across the axis and not through a reflex arc is shown by a simple
experiment.

Experiment 4. — Transmission across the axis , not through a reflex
arc. — The terminal pair of pinnae of a leaf was removed by cutting
through the axis. The terminal leaflets of one of the remaining pair
(now terminal) were stimulated by cutting with a sharp pair of
scissors. In 20 seconds its leaflets had closed. Twelve seconds after
the opposite pinna commenced to respond, and had completely closed
in seventeen seconds. No response was shown by the primary
pulvinus at the base of the leaf, and a reflex arc of course did not exist
at the apical end.

The rates of conduction vary considerably, depending, no doubt,
on variation in the severity of the stimulus, as well as on the individual
leaves, but the following experiment will indicate the relative rates :

Experiment 5. — Comparison of apparent rates of conduction of
excitation by wounding in Neptunia gracilis, Mimosa pudica, and M .
Spegazzinii.

These figures, which were obtained by cutting the tips of pinnae
and measuring the time taken for the secondary pulvini to commence
to curve, must be regarded as only an indication of the rates of con-
duction. They represent the time taken for the pulvini to curve
visibly in response to the conducted stimulus. That there is an
appreciable reaction time for the leaflet pulvini is shown by the fact
that when basipetal conduction is taking place the lower two or three
leaflets may still be open when the secondary pulvinus reacts, and they
close while the pinnae are swinging towards one another. In Mimosa
Spegazzinii, for example, a pinna 3 inches long was snipped at the

^Reference is here made to the contention of Bose, which is supported by Molisclu
that there is a reflex arc through the main pulvinus of the leaf of Mimosa pudica •
Umrath has demonstrated that this reflex arc does not exist, and Ball also rightly con-
siders that the transition takes places at the apex of the petiole.

Neptunia gracilis
Mimosa pudica
M. Spegazzinii . .

20-35 seconds per inch of pinna
8-20 seconds per inch of pinna
8-20 seconds per inch of pinna

THE MOVEMENTS OF NEPTTJNIA GRACILIS.

21

tip ; the leaflets closed in pairs, and in 25 seconds the secondary
pulvimis curved, though the lower three pairs of leaflets had not shown
any visible response ; they showed a definite visible movement one
second later. The same thing was noticed with both Mimosa pudica
and Neptunia gracilis , but in by no means all cases.

Stem conduction , acropetal but not basipetal.

In no case was it possible to obtain evidence of conduction in the
stem when the leaf only was stimulated. The stimuli which readily
produce conduction in the stem of Mimosa pudica and of M.
Spegazzinii, namely, burning or cutting of the pinnae, had no such
effect on Neptunia. Slight wounding of the tips of the leaflets
affected no more than five or six pairs of leaflets nearest to the wound,
and did not produce any movement at all in the pulvinus at the base
of the pinna.

Conduction takes place acropetally, however, when a razor cut is
below a leaf. The stimulus passed up the petiole, and in the case of a
large cut affects all leaflets. When the cut is small, it may affect one
pinna only, or part of one — usually the right-hand lower pinna. In
no case was basipetal conduction noted, even when the cut was made
immediately above and very close to the pulvinus on the stem, though
this type is found in the leaf.

The conduction of the stimulus suggests the possibility of a
mechanism similar to that of Mimosa Spegazzinii and of M. pudica
(3, 4, 5, 6). Normal conduction is, however, set up by a cut which does
not reach to the wood.

Attempts to find a stem stimulant.

A number of living stems of Neptunia were crushed in a few drops
of water. When the cut end of a stem of Mimosa pudica (or M.
Spegazzinii) is put into an extract made from the shoots of its own
species in this way the leaves respond in turn as the stimulating sub-
stance reaches them. When stems of Neptunia, which had been cut
and placed in water and allowed to recover, were placed in the
Neptunia extract no such response was produced. Other stems were
placed in extracts of Mimosa pudica and of M. Spegazzinii which had
been proved to be active by testing with recovered shoots of their own
species. No response took place in this case. Both species of Mimosa ,
however, responded normally when treated with Neptunia extract.

Leaves of Neptunia gracilis were removed by cutting through the-
petiole half way along its length. They were allowed to recover fully
in water and then transferred with their cut surfaces in Neptunia
extract. No response took place, with the exception of two leaves which
closed in half an hour and never reopened again, although transferred
back to water. Such cases are met with when any sensitive plant
is placed in water ; some leaves close permanently for no apparent
reason. Apart from these exceptions the leaves which failed to respond
in the extract were quite normal. They closed readily when struck
a light blow. We may conclude that the so-called normal conduction
of Mimosa pudica is not the type of conduction in Neptunia gracilis.

That stimulus is conducted is obvious. The presence of the stem
stimulant in Neptunia capable of producing a response in the two species-

22 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

of Mimosa lost much of its significance when extracts of a number of
other Leguminosae were tested on Mimosa pudica and produced a
normal response such as is produced by the extract of the sensitive
plant itself. Amongst the plants found to produce this result were
Leucaena glauca (Mimoseae), Mimosa Spegazzinii (Mimoseae), |
Bauhinia purpurea (Caesalpineae), Phaseolus lunatus (Papilionaceae), ;
Wistaria sinensis (Papilionaceae). No response was produced by
extracts of a number of non-leguminous plants. I find that
these extracts are stable on boiling. Snow reported that his extract
of Mimosa pudica was not stable, but left the point in' doubt owing to
his lack of material and the fact that Ricca had reported that his
stimulant of M . Spegazzinii was not destroyed by boiling. My results
were always doubtful after mid- day, as the leaves either showed in-
complete recovery or erratic response after recovery. In the morning
positive results could practically always be obtained with boiled
Mimosa pudica extract, and usually in the afternoons as well.

These results will be published in detail later ; for the present it
is necessary to refer to them as they indicate that the presence of sub-
stances stimulating Mimosa pudica and M. Spegazzinii is a character-
istic of widely separated species of Leguminosae, and such a substance
may be expected and does occur in Neptunia , which also belongs to the
Mimoseae , though it may have no function in the transmission of
.stimulus in that plant.

Summary.

Neptunia gracilis is an endemic sensitive plant with pinnate leaves
sensitive to mechanical and wound stimulus, but whose movement is
much slower than that of Mimosa pudica or of M. Spegazzinii.
Recovery takes place in 10-15 minutes as against 5-8 minutes in the
two species of Mimosa. Sleep movements of the leaves are much more
pronounced than shock movements. Response to mechanical stimulus
is shown only by those leaves which are directly stimulated. Wounding
of the terminal leaflets of the pinna results in a transmission of
excitation to the pinna immediately above or below, and when
sufficiently severe, to the one opposite to the one stimulated, but the
primary pulvinus and the pinna most remote from the point of injury
are not affected. Acropetal and basipetal conduction in the rachis
of the pinna take place at practically the same rate. The rate of con-
duction in the pinna is 20-35 seconds per inch, as contrasted with 8-20
seconds per inch in the cases of the two species of Mimosa. Conduction
across the axis to an opposite pinna is direct, and not through a reflex
■arc.

Stem conduction is acropetal, but not basipetal, and takes place
when a razor cut is made even when this does not reach the wood. A
concentrated aqueous extract of Neptunia shoots produced no reaction
when the cut ends of recovered Neptunia shoots were placed in it.
The extract produced a reaction in similar shoots of Mimosa
Spegazzinii and of M. pudica. Extracts of these species were also
without effect on Neptunia shoots. It was found incidentally that
extracts of various leguminous plants belonging to the three sub-families
gave positive results with shoots of these species of Mimosa.

THE MOVEMENTS OF NEPTUNIA GRACILIS.

23

REFERENCES.

(1) Bailey, F. M. — Queensland Flora, Part II., p. 472, 1900.

(2) Arber, Agnes— Water Plants, p. 191, Cambridge, 1920.

(3) Ricca, U. — Soluzione d’un problema di fisiologia. Nuovo Giornale Botanico Italiano,

23, 1916.

(4) Snow, R. — Conduction of Excitation in Stems of Mimosa pudica. Proc. Roy. Soc.,

B96 : 349, 1924.

(5) Snow, R. — Conduction of Excitation in leaf of M. Spegazzinii. Proc. Roy. Soc.

B98 : 188-201, 1925.

(6) Herbert, D. A. — Movement of Mimosa pudica as affected by anaesthetics and other

substances. Proc. Roy. Soc. XXXVII, 121-147, 1925.

24

Vol. XLIII., No. 4.

Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora.

Part III.— AGONIS LUEHMANNI.

By T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., and M. White, M.Sc.

( Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 25th May, 1931).

Agonis Luehmanni was originally described as a species of
Leptospermum by Bailey,1 but was later transferred to the genus
Agonis by White and Francis. The species is known only to occur
on the tops of some of the Glasshouse Mountains. Leaves and
terminal branches were collected from the rocky slopes of Ngun Ngun
Mountain, the difficulties of transport preventing large supplies being
obtained, although the tree grows in abundance on the Mountain.
The yield of oil from samples collected at different periods of the
year showed little variation, ranging from 2 to '25%.

Examination of the oil reveals a striking difference from that
obtained from Agonis abnormis ,2 the only other Queensland Agonis
at present investigated, which contains a preponderance of sesquiter-
penes. The dominating constituent of the oil of Agonis Luehmanni
is d a-pinene (greater than 60%), but the presence of the olefinic
terpene ocimene associated with it is noteworthy. This terpene,
noted for its rapid absorption of oxygen on exposure imparts its
characteristic odour to the oil, and its presence can be readily detected
by crushing the leaf.

Minor constituents of the oil totalling not more than 15% were
found to be an unidentified alcohol, probably CioHigO, a trace of
cineol, aromadendrene, a sesquiterpene alcohol and a crystalline
yellow solid, melting point 104°C., apparently identical with that
obtained by Penfold3 from the oils of BaecJcea crenulata and Darwinia
grandiflora.

EXPERIMENTAL.

250 lbs. collected on 20th September, 1929, gave 265 ccs. of oil,
400 lbs. collected on 26th April, 1930, gave 430 ccs. of oil, the wet
season intervening between these two collections, making little
difference in either the yield or the constants of the oils, which were
determined as —

•8675
1-4738
+ 34
3

acetyl value . . 36

15.5

20

[ah

ester value

ESSENTIAL OILS FROM THE QUEENSLAND FLORA

25

Extraction of the oil with dilute sodium hydroxide solution / d
traces of phenols only, and no absorption was shown by the other
usual reagents. 300 ccs. of oil were submitted to fractional distillation
at 26 mms. pressure, and the following fractions collected : —

Fraction.

Temp.

CCS.

d15.5

n20

Md

1

0— 60°C.

175

•8653

1-4636

+ 43

2

60— 95 °C.

50

•8464

1-479

+ 20

3

95— 110°C.

25

•905

1-480

+ 15

4

110— 140°C.

20

•941

1-496

+ 9

5

viscous residue

30 ccs.

crystals

slowly sepa

rated

Refractionation of fractions (1) and (2) gave a series of fractions,
showing diminishing density and optical rotation and rising
refractive index. Details of these fractions are omitted for economy
of space, but the presence of pinene, associated with smaller quantities
of ocimene was indicated on examination. The presence of pinene
was demonstrated by examination of the first main fraction obtained,
viz. : —

165 ccs. b.p. 58-62°C. 26 mms. 155° 760 mms.

d , -8653

15 .o

n*> 1-4636

[aJp --(-42

Pinonic acid was obtained on oxidation of a smaller portion in
the prescribed manner, the absence of /5-pinene being similarly shown.

The presence of ocimene in the various fractions was demonstrated
by examination of the following fraction, viz. : —

24 ccs. b.p. 72-80°C. 26 mms.

di5 5 -828

[«]D +11

n20 1478

This fraction consisted of d a -pinene to which the rotation was
mainly due, admixed with ocimene and represented the nearest
approach to a pure sample of ocimene obtained. Treatment in
alcoholic solution with metallic sodium gave a liquid with the
following constants : —

b.p. 165-1 69° 0.

d15 5 ‘8050

[<+ +12

n» 1-4530

The odour of dihydro ocimene was most pronounced, and
confirmation of its presence was obtained by the preparation of the
tetra bromide M.P. 88°C.

Extraction of the several pinene ocimene fractions with resorcin
solution revealed the presence of a trace only of cineol.

26

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Fractions (3) and (4) (together with higher boiling residues from
the pinene ocimene fractionations) were further fractionated at |
4 mms. pressure, and the following fractions obtained : —

(a)

CCS.

15.5

20

b.p. 50-60°C. (4 mms.)

•9042
1-4680

This fraction appeared to consist of ocimene, together with an
alcoholic body, probably CioHigO. The alcohol combined with
phthalic anhydride, and on isolation in this way possessed a pleasant
odour. The amount available was, however, too small for
characterisation.

(6) 10 ccs. b.p. 70-80° (4 mms.)

This fraction gave the usual colour reaction with bromine vapour
and acetic acid characteristic of Myrtaceous sesquiterpenes, and
after repeated distillation over sodium, possessed the following
constants

d]55 -9150

n» 1-4860

Wd “M2

These constants are in moderate agreement with those of
aromadendrene.

(c) 4 ccs. b.p. 85-95 (4 mms.)

(L. . *947

15 .5

The colour reaction for sesquiterpene was also shown by this
fraction : the higher density and analysis indicated the presence of

an oxygenated body, presumably an alcohol.

As noted in the original table of fractionation, a residue was
obtained which slowly deposited crystals. The whole was spread
on porous tile to remove liquid impurities and the separated crystals
purified by repeated crystallisation from alcohol. Yellow crystalline
prisms were obtained M.P. 104°C.

Combustion Results. —

Found H = 6-5%

C = 70-5%

Methoxyl determination — OCHs = 22-8%

We were unable to carry out more than two combustions of the
substance owing to lack of material, little more than J gramme being
available in the pure state. These figures do not agree with those
quoted by Penfold3 (H = 7 7 : C = 65 5), and it is possible that

the substances are not identical, although we would not unduly stress
the accuracy of our results given above, no definite formula being
calculable from them.

ESSENTIAL OILS FROM THE QUEENSLAND FLORA.

27

Our thanks are due to Mr. C. T. White for his usua courteous
botanical assistance, and to the Commonwealth Department of Science
and Industry for a grant to one of us (T.G.H.J.), which defrayed the
cost of collection of leaves.

REFERENCES.

1 Bailey, The Queensland Flora, p. 592.

2. Jones and White, Royal Society of Queensland, 1930, p. 68-70.

3. Penfold, Royal Society of N.S.W., 1922, p. 87-89.

28

Vol. XLIII., No. 5.

The Fixed Oil from the Seeds of the Noogoorra Burr

(. Xanthium pungens).

By L. F. Hitchcock, M.Sc., and T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I.

( Read before the Royal Society of Queensland , 29 th June , 1931).

The investigation of the above oil was undertaken at the request;
of Dr. Jean White-Haney, at that time an officer of the Division of
Plant Industry of the Commonwealth Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research, in order to determine whether any economic
value was attached to the oil. The seed used was collected in the
neighbourhood of Brisbane and the oil obtained by extraction of the
fully ground seeds with low boiling point benzoline. 32 lbs. of oil.
were obtained from 40 lbs. of seed, a yield of 8%.

The oil on examination proved to be a semi-drying oil consisting
principally of the glycerides of oleic, linolic and smaller amounts of
saturated acids. Although such oils are of economic value, in our
opinion the difficulty attached to the collection and isolation of the oil
in the case of the Noogoorra burr would render the process unprofit-
able.

The tough nature of the burr seeds present a formidable obstacle
and the only method, found available on the large scale, was to grind
the whole in a mill to a powder. On the small scale, burrs may be
opened by hand and the interior extracted, the yield of oil in this
case being considerably higher, 20-25%, owing to the rejection of the
shell which contains no oil.

In the investigation we have also considered the question of the
structure of linolic acid and have confirmed that proposed recently
by Howarth,-1 viz.,

CH, — (CH2)t— CH=CH— CH,jgCH==CH (CH,)7-COOH

“ ■

The amount of crystalline unsaponifiable material obtained in the^
investigation was too small for investigation.

EXPERIMENTAL.

40 lbs. of finely ground burr were extracted three times with
boiling benzoline, the solvent being removed by distillation finally
in vacuo.

The oil, which was dark in colour, and of characteristic odour
possessed the following constants —

d -9616

15.5

n» 1-4745

Saponification value 192

Iodine value 145

FIXED OIL FROM THE SEEDS OF THE NOOGOORRA BURR.

29

Isolation of Acids.

The acids obtained in the usual manner by hydrolysis of the
glycerides comprised 91% by weight of the oil, and possessed the
following constants —

d15.5

•9104

nD

1X20

1-4649

Acid number

198

Iodine value

140

Investigation of these acids by the standard lead salt method
showed them to consist of 90% unsaturated, and 10% saturated acid.

The saturated acids consisted of a mixture of palmitic and stearic
acids.

The unsaturated acids, subsequently shown to consist of oleic
and linolic acids, possessed iodine value of 145 indicating 60% linolic
and 40% oleic acids.

Methyl esters of the acids.

Methyl esters were obtained from the mixed acids by refluxing
for several hours with methyl alcohol and a little concentrated sul-
phuric acid. Distillation of the isolated esters (B.P. 205-210°C.
10 mms.) gave a colourless liquid with iodine value 147.

Oxidation of the mixed esters.

100 grammes distilled esters, dissolved in 1500 ccs. acetone, con-
taining a suspension of 20 grammes sodium bicarbonate, were oxidised
at room temperature by the gradual addition of finely divided
potassium permanganate (500 grs.). The acetone solution, removed
by filtration, at the end of the oxidation from the manganese dioxide
sludge, yielded, on evaporation of the solvent, 10 grammes of esters
(iodine value nil) of saturated (unoxidised) acids consisting primarily
of methyl palmitate and stearate.

The acid oxidation products, obtained in solution as potassium
salts, by thorough leaching of the manganese dioxide sludge with
boiling water were liberated by acidification of the solution. Volatile
acids were separated by distillation in steam and subsequently con-
verted to ethyl esters. Involatile acid was isolated by extraction
of the solution, remaining after steam distillation, with ether. It was
shown to consist of azelaic acid (M.P. 106°C). Oxalic acid was also
shown to be present by the solution of potassium salts by isolation
of calcium oxalate.

The ethyl esters of volatile acids (obtained above) were fraction-
ally distilled, being thereby separated into two main fractions--

(а) Ethyl hexoate B.P. 166°C.

Hexoic acid, obtained on hydrolysis, was identified by
silver salt determined (48*8% Ag.).

(б) Ethyl nonoate B.P. 222°C.

Monoic acid was likewise identified by the silver salt method
(40-5% Ag.).

30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND,

The results, obtained on oxidation of the mixed esters indicated
about 10% saturated acid and 90% unsaturated acid, confirming the
result obtained by the lead salt method.

Isolation of hexoic, nonoic, axelaic and oxalic acids demonstrated
the presence of oleic and linolic acids, confirming also the formula for
this latter acid.

Examination of sativic acid prepared from linolic acid.

As four isomeric linolic acids (geometric isomers) are theoretically
possible, 30 grammes of mixed acids were oxidising in the prescribed
manner for preparation of dihydroxy stearic and sativic acids. As
melting points of 153°C and 171°C have been recorded for isomeric
sativic acids and conclusions thereby drawn as to the nature of the
original linolic acid, it was thought advisable to examine the sativic
acid isolated in this oxidation.

Prolonged practical crystallisation from water (containing 2 ccs.
concentrated HC1 per litre) gave numerous fractions with melting
point 153°C, only a small quantity being finally obtained of M.P.
171°C. indicating that the sativic acid consisted principally of the
acid M.P. 153°C.

Sativic acid was also obtained from the original mixed acids2
by preparation of linolic acid tetrabromide, decomposition of the
tetrabromide yielding linolic acid and final oxidation to sativic acid.
This sativic acid was also submitted to repeated fractional crystallisa-
tion and readily yielded the two form M.P.’s. 153°C and 171°C, the
latter in much larger amount than obtained in the experiment above*

Our examination of the isomeric sativic acids would therefore
suggest that little information can be drawn from them regarding
isomeric linolic acids, ^ as it is clear that the much greater yield of the
sativic acid of higher melting point (171°C) obtained by the tetra-
bromide method of isolation as compared with that obtained by direct
oxidation, must have been occasioned by isomeric change during the
operations. The preponderance of the sativic acid of lower melting
point (153°C) in the products from direct oxidation, suggest that the
original linolic acid consists largely of one of the possible isomers, it
being probable that isomeric change does not occur in this process of
direct addition of four hydroxyl groups to linolic acid.

Our thanks are due to the Commonwealth Council for Scientific
and Industrial Pecearch for a grant which has defrayed part of the cost
of this investigation.

REFERENCES.

(1) R. D. Haworth, J.C.S., 1929, 1456-1461.

(2) Nicolet and Cox, J.A.C.S., 1922, 144-152.

(3) Compare W. S. Smith, Amer. Chem. Abst. 1930, 4261.

VOL. XLIII., No. 6.

31

Aphididae in Australia.

By G. H. Hardy.

Walter & Eliza Hall Fellow in Economic Biology, University of

Queensland.

(Bead before the Royal Society of Queensland , 27th July , 1931).

No account has yet been given of the aphides occurring in Aus-
tralia. A few species regarded as being of importance are mentioned
by Tillyard in the “ Australian Encyclopedia ” and in his “ Insects
of Australia and New Zealand.” Also various authors have treated
with some of them in economic literature, but the bulk of the species
remains neglected. It seems advisable, whilst introducing this subject
in its wider aspect, to summarise all the forms that are known to me,
the majority of the species recorded being new to the Australian list.

Nearly all the known species are regarded as being introduced,
but there is a form that I have not seen, Anomalaphis comperei Baker,
on Acacia and Eucalyptus in South Western Australia ; this is an out-
standing exception, for there can be little doubt but that it is indigen-
ous, and perhaps the grass-root feeding species of Anoecia, found by
Mr. R. W. Mungomery in the sugar-cane districts of Queensland
together with a species of Oregma found by Mr. H. Try on in Brisbane,
may also be indigenous. Again it may prove difficult to show that
N eophyllaphis on Podocarpus and Greenidea on Ficus , are not of the
same category. The bulk of aphides occurring on indigenous plants
are, however, introduced, of this there can be little doubt.

Of the subfamily Aphidinae, four of the six tribes are found in
the Commonwealth. The tribe Lachnini is represented by two species
on Thuja orientalis, found originally by Mr. F. A. Perkins. One,
Lachnus thujafoliae Theobald, was described as indigenous under the
name Dilachnus callitris by Froggatt, whilst the other is a small green
form that takes on the generic characters of both Lachnus and
Dilachnus quite indiscriminately, thus making it inadvisable to accept
the generic status of Dilachnus , unless it be founded on a better basis
than that given by Baker in 1920. A grass-root feeding species of
Anoecia belongs to the subtribe Tramina.

The tribe Callipterini is represented by N eophyllaphis podocarpi
Takahashi, on Podocarpus elata, by Myzocallis sp. on Arundinaria
(Bamboo) in the Sydney Botanical Gardens, and by Myzocallis
annulata Hartig, on various species of Quercus.

The tribe Greenideini has the very interesting Greenidea
ficicola Takahashi, that has been found on every indigenous species of
fig tree yet searched, but on no commercial varieties as far as yet
known ; on one occasion a small colony was found on Oak ( Quercus ).

32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The tribe Aphidini is one containing numerous species and most
pests come under it. It is composed of four subtribes, all in Australia
where at least twenty-five per cent, of the genera are represented. In
subtribe Aphidina, genera Anuraphis, Aphis, Brevicoryne, Ilyalop-
terus, Rhopalosiphum, and perhaps others have been found. Under
subtribe Cervaphidina, comes the indigenous Anoinalaphis , the only
other known genus being confined to Java. Of subtribe Macrosip-
hina, Macrosiphum, Macrosiphoniella Myzus, Rhopalosiphoninus and
perhaps others occur. Finally in the Pentalonina, there are Pentalonia,
Idiopterus and Fullawayella, three of the four known genera.

The subfamily Eriosomatinae is represented by the notorious
woolly aphis ( Eriosoma ) of apple and another is recorded from pear.

The subfamily Hormaphidinae contains a species of Oregrna
and the world-wide Cerataphis lataniae which occurs on orchids and
palms, being quite common in glass-house and bush-houses, and in
Brisbane it regularly produces the winged form about April.

Subtribe Pentalonina

Key to the genera of Pentalonina

1. Radial and median veins typically fused at a point beyond the

first branching of the median ; rarely separated

Radial and median veins typically separated, but if fused the fusion
starts before the branching of the median vein.

2. Cornicles cylindrical, but usually constricted in the middle, that is

invariably the latter half is no thicker than the basal half

Cornicles swollen at the apical half, that is, they swell out in this
region so as to be a little wider than at the basal portion

Pentalonia

2

Idiopterus

Fullawayella

I have been forced to modify the characters given by Baker in
each of the three genera given above, whilst the fourth genus given
by him does not seem to be very distinctive. It appears to me that the
whole subtribe is worthy of only generic status and would then be
placed under subtribe Macrosiphina. Baker suggested that some of
the specific names standing may prove to be synonyms, and this is
now found to be the case with one of the two listed under genus
Pentalonia . Theobald places Fullawayella as a synonym of
Idiopterus but gives no reasons for doing so, nevertheless there is much
to commend the action.

Pentalonia nigronervosa Coq.

Pentalonia nigronervosa Coquerel, Ann. Soc. Ent. France, 1 859, 259 ; Wilson,
Journ. Econ. Entom. ii., 1909, 346 ; Fullaway, Ann. Rep. Hawaii Agr. Exp.
Stat. 1910, 346 ; Baker, Bull. Ent. Res. London, x. 1919, 45 ; Swain, Univ.
Cal. Tech. Bull, iii., 1919, 78 ; Takahashi, Aphid. Formosa i. 1921, 30 ;
and ii. 1923, 89 ; and v. 1927, 16 ; Froggatt, Agric. Gaz., N. S. Wales,
xxxiv. 1923, 296 ; Moriera, Inst. Biol, defessa Agrig. Bull. ii. 1925, 28 ;
Theobald, Aphid. Gt. Britain, i. 1926, 361 ; Magee, Council Scient. Ind. Res.
Bull. No. 30, 1927, 64 pp. ; Froggatt, Queensl. Agric. Journ. xxx, 1928, 11 ;
Veitch and Simmonds, Pests and Diseases of Queensl. fruits and veg., 1929,
117; reprinted in Queensl. Agric. Journ. xxxii, 1929, 274; Zeck and

Eastwood, Agric. Gaz. N. S. Wales, xl, 1929, 675.

Pentalonia caladii v.d. Goot, Contr, faune Indes Nee drl., 1917, 57; Baker, Bull.
Ent. Res. Lond. x 1919, 45.

APHID ID AE IN AUSTRALIA,

33

Synonymy, — The recognisable difference between P. nigronervosa
find P. caladii exists in the density of the infnscation along the veins
■of the wing, this being much lighter on the latter form. When
Pentalonia from Musa were placed on Caladium, and vice versa, those
found on Caladium were placed on banana stools, those aphides that
would normally have produced the dark winged forms on Musa , yielded
light forms when transferred to Caladium and these transferred from
Caladium to Musa produced dark forms. In addition there is a strong
tendency for those bred on Caladium to be more slender and to differ
in the number of sensoria on the antennae, but the same variations
in build were found when comparing the aphides from Musa in the
north of Queensland with those from Brisbane, showing that these
differences, as well as that of the wing, may be due to environment.

Host-plants. — P. nigronervosa is found throughout the world
wherever bananas are grown and all species of Musa are liable to be
attacked by them.

Strelitzia and Ravenala, in Brisbane, are sometimes found to
support small colonies, but winged forms have not been found amongst
these.

Caladium , as reported under remarks on synonymy, again are
found to support colonies, and quantities of winged forms are found
there in the autumn, but the plant dies down before the winged ones
have reached their peak numbers, so in consequence these colonies
do not last their normal life.

Alocasia macrorrkiza, the Cunjevoi, has long been reported as
harbouring the species, and Professor E. J. Goddard searched for and
discovered some near a plantation visited by him. Later, some plants
grown in the University grounds were attacked, and at about the same
time those in the Botanical Gardens were found harbouring them. The
transferrence of colonies from Musa to Alocasia is readily achieved ; the
colonies take to their new host plant and breed freely. An African
species of Alocasia in the Botanical Gardens was found harbouring the
aphis in large quantities in two consecutive years, both times in the
autumn.

Opuntia inermis, growing alongside bananas infested with the
aphis, were alighted upon and colonies started on the buds and con-
tinued to thrive as long as the flowers flourished. As soon as the sap-
flow ceased, though the petals had scarcely time to wither and fall,
the colonies died. Apparently they can thrive on the pear only on the
flower heads.

Hedychium coronarium was found harbouring the aphis during
the autumn of 1929 ; one plant in the Botanical Gardens supported a
large colony in which the winged forms had started to develop.

Alpinia vittata variegaia in the glass-house of the Sydney Botanical
Gardens supported many colonies during April, 1928 ; they have been
reported from two other species of this genus, Alpinia rafflesiana
at Kew Gardens, England, and Alpinia speciosa in Formosa.

Heliconia, also in a glass-house of the Sydney Botanical Gardens,
was found to aupport colonies in small numbers in December, 1930,
at which time none were found on Alpinia.

o

34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Dieffenbachia magnified is a plant upon which Pentalonia breeds
prolifically in Brisbane, and in April, 1928, some wingless specimens of
presumably the same species were detected in the Botanical Gardens
of Sydney. a •

The species is also recorded as breeding on Arum in Brazil, but none
have been found in Australia on this plant which is estensively grown
in Brisbane. From California comes one record of a specimen on
Pelargonium , but it was not recorded as breeding on this plant.

A review of this list of plants upon which Pent alonia has been
found shows a monocotyledon type of plant dominates. The others
recorded consist of the flower heads on Opuntia under unnatural con-
ditions and Pelargonium based on a not very satisfactory record.
Doubtless there are other monocotyledons yet to be found supporting
this aphis. I have tried transferring specimens to Platycerium the
host-plant of Idiopterus, and to Viola , the host-plant of Fullawayellar
but in neither case with success.

Natural controls. — Other than those afforded by climatic conditions,,
there are no adequate controls of Pentalonia in Brisbane. Only on one
occasion was a larva of a Syrphid fly discovered amongst a colony.-
I regard thisAmmunity as being due to the habits of the aphis, for they
live usually in protected positions, like the unrolled leaf of the banana,
on the pseudostem beneath the hard outer covering down to the
ground level and even below it. Such positions are usually excessively
moist, a condition that may not be congenial to predatory and
parasitic insects.

Idiopterus nephrolepidis Davis.

In 1926 and 1927, this species was very abundant on Platycerium
grande and P. alcicorne, and occasionally on Asplenum nidus , but it
was heavily preyed upon by predaceous insects. During 1928 and
subsequent years it was difficult to find, and those colonies noted wer&
soon exterminated by predaceans. Only once was it found harbouring
an internal parasite ; the ferns supporting the colonies were grown
under cover of a lobby leading to a small central yard of a hotel, where-
predaceous insects are not likely to penetrate.

Fullawayella violae Pergande.

This species was found on violets in 1926 and during all subsequent-
years except 1929. It is confined to the winter months of June and
July and disappears during August ; the winged form becomes very
plentiful for a short period. Neither predaceous nor parasitic insects^
have been found preying upon it.

List of identified aphides and their host-plants.

A uobria sp. .. .. ..

iMchnus thujafoliae, Theob.
Lachnus sp. . .

N eophyllaphis podoccirpi, Tak.
M yzocallis annulata, Hartig,
Myzocallis sp.

Echinochloa colona and Digitaria marginata — -
on roots.

Thuja orientalis.

Thuja orientalis.

Podocarpus data.

Quercus spp.

Arundinaria falcala (in Sydney).

APHIDIDAE IN AUSTRALIA.

35

List of identified aphides and their host-plants. — Continued,

Qreenidea ficicola, Tak.

Anuraphis sp.

Aphis tidipae Boyer
Aphis sacchari Zehnt.
Brevicoryne brassicae L.
Hyalopterus arundinis Fab.
Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae L.
Macrosiphoniella sanborni Gill.
Macrosiphum rosae L.
Macrosiphum gei Koch.

Myzus persicae Sulz.

Fullawayella violas, Perg. . .
Idiopterus nephrdepidis Davis
Pentalonia nigronervosa Coq.

Geoica lucifuga Zehnt.
Oregma sp.

Ceratachis lataniae Bois.

Ficus glomerata, F. hilli, and F. macrophylla
in Brisbane ; F. parcelli , F. rubiginosus and
F. stephanocarpa in Sydney. Quercus sp,
(on one occasion only).

Hordeum.

Daucus carota.

Saccharum officinarum.

Brassica sp.

Phragmites communis.

Vallisneria.

Chrysanthemum leucanthemum.

Rosa spp.

Gladiolus and Musa (rare).

Ageratum , Bougainvillea , Brassica, Cineraria
and Papaver.

Viola.

Platycerium spp., Asplenium nidus.

Musa spp., Caladium, Alocasia macrorrhiza,
Alocasia sp. (African). Dieffenbachia
magnifica, Hedychium, Ravenola. Strelitzia .
Alpinia vittatavariegata, Opuntia (flowers).

Saccharium officinale (roots).

Dactyloctenium and rarely Setaria macmstachya

Epidendrum and other Orchidaceae.

The above are only some of the aphides gathered from over eighty
genera of plants, but the majority of the aphides are identified only as
far as the genera. One unidentified species of genus Aphis can be
recognised as common on Eucalyptus paniculata, Tristania conferta
and Banksia intregrifolia. In Sydney it infests at times the avenues
of Tristania, and it is not uncommon around Brisbane on saplings,
and cows invariably eat the leaves containing the aphides when they
find them.

There are two species of Prickly Pear (Opuntia), a green one on
the roots and a black one on the pads. Also Polygonum hydropiper
has two, an Aphis and a Macrosiphum, one clustering on the stems,,
the other on the underside of the leaves.

There are twenty-nine genera of indigenous plants supporting
aphides in Queensland, but there is no evidence to indicate that any
of these aphides are indigenous too.

For the naming of practically all plants in this paper, X wish toj
acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr. C. T. White, Government Botanist,,
and to Mr. E. W. Bick, Director of the Brisbane Botanical Gardens.

LIST OF INDIGENOUS PLANTS HARBOURING APHIDES.
Dicotyledons —

Bixineae

Scolopia Brownii

Aphis.

Portulaceae

Portulaca oleracea

Aphis.

Malvaceae

Malvastrum tricuspidatum

Myzus.

Sterculiacea

Sterculia discolor

Aphis.

Zygophylleae

Tribulus

Aphis.

Meliaoeae

Flindersia

Aphis.

Sa nindaceae

Harpullia pendula

Myzus,.

36

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

LIST or indigenous plants harbouring aphides.

Dicotyledons.— Continued.

Myrtaceae

Araliaceae

Rubiaceae

Polygonaceae

Proteaceae

Loranthaceae

Urticaceae

Gymnosfermeae—

Taxaceae

Monocotyledons —
Orchideae
Lilliaceae
Aroideae
Cyperaceae
Gramineae

■ Cry pto a a m si — .
Filiees

Eucalyptus paniculata
Tristania conferta
Astrotricha floccosa
Sarcocephalus Bartlingii
Polygonum hydropiper
Rum ex Brown ii
Banksia integrifolia
Loranthus longiflorus
Ficus spp.

Ficus cunninghamii

Podocarpus elata

Dendrobium

Cordyline

Alocasia macrorrhiza
Cv perus rotundus
Digitaria marginata
Echinochloa colona
Dactv locten i u m
Setaria macrostachya
Tmperat.a arundinacea
Phragmites communis

Asplenium nidus
Platycerium spp.

Aphis.

Aphis.

Anuraphis.
Macrosiphoniella.
Aphis, Macrosiphum.
Aphis, Myzus.

Aphis.

Aphis.

Green idea.

Aphis;

Neophyllaphis.

Cerataphis.
Pentalonia, Aphis.
Pentalonia.

Aphis, Myzus.
Anoecia, Aphis.
Anoecia, Aphis.
Oregma.

Oregma.

Aphis. .
Hyalopterus.

Idiopterus.

Idioj)terus.

Since the above was written, Tribe Setaphidini (subfamily
Aphidinae) has been found at Southport, in the scrub along the main
beach, on Breynia oblongifolia. This species of Setaphis appears to be
undescribed and may possibly be indigenous.

Vol. XLIIL, No. 7.

37

Investigations of Queensland Soils.

1. — Properties as Shown by Single Value Characteristics.

By H. J. G. Hines, B.Sc.

Lecturer in Agricultural Chemistry, University of Queensland.

(Three Text Figures)

{Tabled before the Royal Society of Queensland, 31s£ August, 1931).

Although a considerable body of information exists as to the
chemical features of Queensland soils,1 little has been done of recent
years to indicate more permanent properties of our soil types, which
would serve as a basis for classification. This is no doubt in part due
to the labour involved in mechanical analyses and the difficulty of
their interpretation. Although methods of mechanical analysis have
been considerably improved, the analysis is not free from criticism,
both on theoretical and manipulative grounds. Furthermore for
rapid routine work, mechanical analysis is tedious and expensive.

During the last decade, it has become apparent, that apart from
the effects of the coarser structural units, the physical properties of
the soil mass, and more particularly the soil-water relationships, are
dominated by the amount and nature of the collodial material present.
Numerous attempts have been made to devise simple methods capable
of giving an estimate of the nature of these properties and British
Empire workers in particular have achieved considerable success in
this respect. Following a comprehensive study of Natal soils, in
which the results of mechanical analyses were compared and corre-
lated with a number of soil- water relationships, Coutts has shown that
it is highly probable that these latter give a more accurate estimate
of colloid properties than does the more elaborate procedure.2

During the past two years a number of samples representative
of typical Queensland profiles had been collected, partly from around
Brisbane and partly from other parts of the State when accompanying
Professor J. A. Prescott on a preliminary survey of the State. This
paper records the results of a number of “ single- value ” determina-
tions designed to give rapidly and conveniently information on a
number of physical properties of these samples.

38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Methods.

All samples had been ground to pass a 2 mm. sieve and stored
for some months before used. The determinations made were those
suggested by Coutts, viz., water absorbed per 100 gms. of soil, pore
space and volume swelling as determined by the procedure of Keen
and Racskowski, moisture at the point of maximum plasticity (sticky
point), air-dry moisture and ignition loss.

In the Keen-Racskowski procedure soil passing a 1 mm. sieve
was used and was sifted through a 70 mesh sieve and the portions
remixed. Owing to an error in Coutts’ paper the boxes were made
1 inch in diameter. These small boxes worked well and gave repro-
ducible results. The standard boxes3 are now being used.
Moisture at the point of maximum plasticity was determined by the
method advocated by Keen and Coutts.4 Samples were dried at
105° in a Hearson electric oven and all values here reported are
calculated on the basis of oven-dry soil.

The following soils were used.

Grou:

Grey sandy soils, with brown
forest vegetation.

No.

Locality. Horizon

Depth

1

Brisbane, Gregory
Terrace

Ai

0-3"

2

Brisbane, Gregory A
Terrace.

-C

3-14"

3

Enoggera Gap

A

0-14"

4

Enoggera Gap

B-C

14-34"

5

Happy V alley, Bris-
bane.

A

0-11"

6

Happy Valley,
Brisbane

Bi

11-14"

7

Happy Valley,
Brisbane

B2C

14-20"

8

Wild River,
Herberton.

Ai

0-5"

9

Wild River,
Herberton

a2

5-12"

10

Wild River,
Herberton

Bi

12-22"

11

Wild River,
Herberton

b2

22-39"

12

Selheim

Ai

0-3"

13

Selheim

a2

3-12"

14

Selheim

Bi

12-36"

15

Selheim

BjrC

36-48"

16

Callide Expt. Station

A

0-5"

17

Callide Expt. Station

B

5-40"

,18

Callide Expt. Station

C

40 and bel

A.

or yellow subsoils, carrying open

Description.

Grey Brown. Humus sandy loam.
Skeletal.

Grey yellow sandy loam with rock
fragments. Brisbane Schist.

Grey brown sandy loam.

Yellow brown loam with fragments of
decomposing granite.

Grey brown sandy loam.

Brown sandy clay with accumulation
of stones at 11-12".

Yellow coarse sand and clay on Bris-
bane Tuff.

Dark grey sandy humus.

Ash grey coarse sand.

Brown sandy clay and gravel.

Pint sandy clay on granite.

Humus fine sand.

Grey brown sandy loam.

Grey brown sandy clay with ferruginous
concretions.

Brown sandy clay on Desert Sandstone.
Grey black sandy loam (cultivated).
Grey black loam,
v Yellow sandy loam (alluvium).

INVESTIGATIONS OF QUEENSLAND SOILS.

39

Group B.

Brown sandy loams or loams with red or red-brown loam or day

loam subsoils.

No.

Locality.

Horizon.

Depth.

Description.

19

Selheim

. . A

0-9"

Reddish-brown

.20

Selheim

. . B

9-27"

Bright red sandy clay on Desert
Sandstone.

21

Charters Towers

.. Ai

0-5"

Reddish brown coarse sandy loam with
humus.

22

Charters Towers

. . a2

5-14"

Reddish brown coarse sandy loam.

23

Charters Towers

.. Bi

14-24"

Red brown clay loam.

24

Charters Towers

. . B2C

24-36"

Red bown clay loam, with granite
fragments.

:25

Rockhampton

.. A

0-12"

Dark grey brown sandy loam (cultivated
for pineapples).

-26

Rockhampton

. B

12-27"

Red clay loam, with layer of stone
12".

27

Rockhampton

C 27" and down

Yellow, partly decomposed granite.

Group

c.

Brown sandy loams with deep red or red- brown subsoils.

No.

Locality.

Horizon .

Depth.

Description.

28

Raff’s Hill

.. Ai

0-2"

Humus sandy loam.

29

Raff’s Hill

. . a2

2-14"

Brown sandy loam.

30

Raff’s Hill

.. Bi

14-18"

Red clay, with many ferruginous con-
cretions.

.31

Raff’s Hill

. . b2

18-54"

Red clay loam, with few concretions.

22

Raff’s Hill

.. C

54-78"

White clay mottled red and purple.
Decomposed. Petrie Series.

.33

Scarborough Cliff

A

0-30"

Brown loam humus stained.

34

Scarborough Cliff

Bi

30-78"

Brick red clay' loam. Marble size con-

cretions.

35

Scarborough Cliff

Bg

78-108"

Red clay loam, thickly studded with
buckshot ferruginous concretions.

36

Scarborough Cliff

B-C

108" down

Red and white mottled clay, with purple
streaks

Group

I).

Red loams of indeterminate depth on basalt carrying rain forest.

No.

Locality.

Horizon.

Depth.

Description.

37

Tolga Scrub

. . A

0-9"

Reddish-chocolate coloured loam.

38

Tolga Scrub

. . A

9-18"

Reddish-chocolate coloured loam .

39

Tolga Scrub

. . A

18-27"

Reddish-chocolate coloured loam

40

Tolga Scrub

. . A

27-35"

Reddish-chocolate coloured loam

41

Childers Mill

. . A

0-9"

Red loam.

42

Childers Mill

.. A

9-18"

Red loam.

43

Childers Mill

.. A

18-27"

Red loam.

44

Kingaroy

. . A

0-9"

Red loam.

40

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Group E.

Dark coloured soils with calcareous subsoils.

No.

Locality.

Horizon.

Depth.

Description.

45

Bald Hills ..

A

0-12"

Dark brown clay loam (grassy knoll).

46

Bald Hills

C

12-36"

Yellow brown clay loam, with partially
decomposed tertiary basalt. Faintly
calcareous. Veins of magnesite in*
fissures of parent material.

47

Monto

Ai

0-22"

Brown loam. (Softwood monsoon

forest).

48

Monto

a2

22-33"

Yellow brown loam.

49

Monto

B-C

33-42"

Brown calcareous loam.

50

Emerald Downs . .

A

0-12"

Dark brown clay loam. (Brigalow
forest).

51

Emerald Downs . .

A

12-27"

Brown-black clay loam, with carbonate-
grains.

52

Emerald Downs . .

C

27-36"

Brown clay loam, with carbonate con-
cretions and gypsum.

53

Orion ' Downs

A

0-5"

Brown-black clay loam crumb structure*
(grass land).

54

Orion Downs

A

5-27"

Brown-black compact clay, carbonate*
grains.

55

Orion Downs

C

27" down

Yellow clay, with carbonate nodules.

56

Blairmoor, Winton

A

0-9"

Brown loam, loose crumb structure.

• 57

Blairmoor, Winton

A-2

9-15"

Brown loam, nut structure. Carbonate-
grains.

58

Blairmoor, Winton

B-C

15-27"

Yellow brown clay, with carbonate
nodules.

59

Blairmoor, Winton

B-C

27-40"

Yellow brown clay, with' carbonate-
nodules and gypsum.

60

Blairmoor, Winton
Chestnut soil.

C

40" & down
Group

Yellow brown loam, gypsum flakes om
mudstone.

E.

No.

61

Locality.

Fifteen miles West

Horizon.

Depth.

Description.

62

of Huglienden . .
Fifteen miles West

A

0-10"

Brown crumbly clay loam.

63

of Hnghenden . .
Fifteen miles West

C

10-18"

Brown compact clay loam, flecks of
carbonate and gypsum.

of Hughenden . .

C

18" & down

Brown compact clay loam, increasing;
gypsum in larger crystals-.

The following values were obtained •

Keen

Racskowski

Box

Moisture at
sticky point.

Air- dry
moisture.

Ignition

loss.

Soil No.

W

P

V

S

A

I

1

44.8

51.1

0.18

37.5

1.94

6.93

2

42.4

50.9

nil

33.5

1.73

5.80

3

32.3

41.4

1.47

27.2

1.11

3.45

4

30.1

39.3

2.79

32.0

I .52

3.46

5

42.0

49.7

1.10

32.2

1.42

5.18

6

40.7

47.6

5.65

38.3

4.17

6 . 66

7

42.9

49.0

8.75

38.7

5.04

7.14

INVESTIGATIONS OF QUEENSLAND SOILS. 41

Keen

Racskowski

Box

Moisture at
sticky point.

Air-dry

moisture.

Ignition

loss.

Soil No.

4V

P

V

S

A

I

8

20:8

33.1

nil

16.9

0.20

1.9

9

48.3

30.4

nil

15.9

0.30

1.4

10

38.2

47.1

4.96

31.4

1 .85

6.71

11

53.1

53.9

6.82

50.8

3.1

10.9

12

16.4

27.4

0.64

15.4

0.40

1 .4

13

13.8

24.8

1.1

14.0

0.20

0.5

14

23.9

. 30.8

6.78

21.1

3.52

3.31

15

39.1

46.6

8.83

26.4

4.29

4.39'

16

48.3

55.0

2.87

35.3

4.29

8.11

17

49.2

53.8

10.15

40.3

5.60

6.87

18

45.8

50.4

10.7

34.3

4.82

4.30

19

20.5

32.8

0.58

15.6

0.5

2.95

20

34.1

43.5

0.89

23.6

1.31

5.07

21

32.4

40.0

3.49

24.8

2.46

6.02

22

34.9

45.6

4.42

36.7

2.25

4.40

23

44.3

49.9

8.21

35.3

5.93

8.10

24

28.9

41.4

3.49

22.3

2.20

2.61

25

28.6

40.4

3.64

20.0

2.29

5.51

26

42.1

47.3

7.36

33.8

4.93

8.50

27

32.4

40.0

6.90

31.1

5.26

5.88-

28

44.9

49.7

0.54

28.5

2.20

8.42

29

33.9

43.0

0.93

25.8

2.07

7.1(1

30

30.1

40.4

1.94

25.2

1.63

5.47

31

42.2

48.5

2.48

35.0

2.58

7.12

32

46.5

51.8

2.17

41.6

2.21

8.89-

33

38.1

47.2

2.51

29.7

3.22

11.7

34

49.6

54.4

2.48

38.4

3.31

14.1

35

45.0

50.9

1.97

39.9

3.31

13.4

36

55.2

57.0

0.15

44.1

2.85

1 2 .9

37

63.7

56.3

12.6

51 ,0

5.72

20 7 &

38

52.8

55 . 3

4.84

43.9

4.17

15.2

39

46.0

53.6

2.02

41.8

2.89

13.5

40

48.5

54.2

1.16

43.1

3.11

12.4

41

53.8

56.5

5.81

41.2

4.51

14.5

42

44.3

49.7

3.49

44.1

3.22

11.0

43

44.9

52.4

2.79

36.0

2.99

10.7

44

49.5

52.7

9.84

44.8

6.16

13.8

45

51.2

53.9

11. 0

46.7

7.41

10.5

46

54.2

54.3

6 . 95

45.9

7.64

8.94

47

45.4

48.7

10.15

38.7

5.25

10.4

48

51.7

53.8

14.1

38.4

6.50

6.19

49

44.5

49.2

9.64

35.3

6.16

6.57

50

49.8

59.3

19.5

32.2

7.07

6.21

51

50.2

53.7

16.8

32.5

6.50

5.86-

52

45.6

50.7

13.5

32.7

5.04

4.73-

53

80.2

63.1

29.6

63.7

15.1

10.9

54

83.0

57.2

24.7

47.8 ■

9.45

9 . 22

55

59.3

57 . 1

17.3

48.4

10.7

8.86

56

49.9

54.8

16.0

38.9

6.04

4.98

57

49.1

54.0

17.0

40.3

6.83

3.58

58

48.1

55.9

10.0

43.2

7.41

5.37

59

47.5

57.9

12.6

42.3

7.41

3.87

60

59.3

56.7

20.9

38.3

7.63

4.74

61

59.4

60.9

20.5

42.2

9.17

6.77

62

61.9

56.7

27.5

51.2

9.65

6.47

63

64.4

56.3

20.5

48.9

12.0

9.29

42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Discussion.

The soils used include a wide range of types with a preponderance
of sandy soils. Certain general relationships confirmatory of obser-
vations made elsewhere are apparent. These have been expressed
.graphically by ranging the soils in order of their S values, grouping
to nine groups of seven and plotting the mean values obtained.

Tigure 1. — Relationships of Volume Swelling to Air-dry Moisture and

Ignition Loss.

The collodial properties of the soil as a whole, as reflected in their
water relationships, will be compounded of two main factors : —
(a) what may be termed the degree of comminution, i.e., the propor-
tion of particles small enough to exhibit collodial behaviour, ( b ) the
influence of the chemical composition of these particles on their water
relationships. Of the values determined the ignition loss is most
likely to be affected by the latter factor, including as it does both
“ combined ” water, carbon dioxide from carbonates and organic
matter. “ Combined ” water has been shown by several investi-
gators to vary with chemical composition of the colloidal material,
being high in the case of material of low silica — seSquioxide ratio.5

Pore space, water absorbed and moisture at the sticky point are
values of the same order and are less likely to be disturbed bv chemical
influences, although the nature of the exchangeable bases and the
presence of salts may lead to variations. It will be seen that the
relationship between S and W is probably linear, and between S (on
-a weight basis) and P (on a volume basis) is curvilinear (Fig. 2). The
values obtained show a minimum pore space of approximately 26%
nnd a minimum water capacity of 14-16 as indicated on theoretical
grounds by Keen.0 The pore space as determined by this method

INVESTIGATIONS OF QUEENSLAND SOILS. 43

appears to approach an upper limit of about 60%. A close relation-
ship exists between S and A (Fig. 3) and if an equation were justified
it would be of the type S= - 14+5 A, confirmatory of the suggestion
that in a closely packed soil the “ free ” water is about 14%. 4

The volume swelling appears to be associated with the air dry
moisture rather than with ignition loss (Fig. 1), and in general it may
be said that but for the erratic values of the ignition loss these results
tend to confirm those previously obtained elsewhere and need not be
,discussed further in a general way.

to *

C5 2*s> 3x2 40 SO 60 70

W or P

Figure 2. — Moisture at Sticky Point plotted against Water Absorbed or

Pore Space.

The soils examined have been grouped in accordance with profile
resemblances, and the laboratory measurements reveal interesting
resemblances and differences. All samples were taken from unculti-
vated soils except where indicated.

In group A there is a general sharp contrast between A and B
horizons with well marked zones of accumulation. The shallow soil
on the Brisbane schist (Bunya phyllites) resembles in some
eharacteristics those of Group D. Following the colour change from
grey through brown to red in groups B, C and D, a gradual transition
in colloidal properties is noticed. The soils become finer in texture
and exhibit less tendency to accumulate colloidal material in the
lower horizons. Indeed in the case of the deep red loams, the values
decrease in magnitude with increasing depth. These latter
constitute the most interesting group of the non-calcareous soils.
Although finely comminuted they exhibit low value swelling and air
dry moisture and high ignition loss. These characteristics serve to
identify them with the lateritic soils (cf Marchand,7 Hardy8). They
develop under rain-forest cover upon basic rocks. Characteristic of

44 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND,

them is the low silica — alumina ratio of the clay fraction. Agri-
culturally they are highly valued not only for their often high fertility
but also for their ease of working and free drainage. This latter
characteristic is in accord with their low volume swelling as shown by
Green and Ampt9 and by Hardy.10

In marked contrast to the behaviour of these non-calcareous
soils are the soils of groups E and F. Except for numbers 47-52 these
support a grassland flora. As has been observed in other countries,
these are typical clay soils, which, under cultivation, are highly fertile
but difficult to work except under favourable moisture conditions.
The results quoted show characteristically high values for volume-
swelling and air-dry moisture and relatively low values for ignition
loss. These appear to be characteristic for clays relatively rich in
silica as shown for example in the analyses of Holmes and Edgington11
and also for bentonites and minerals of the montmorillonite group.12
The values of air dry moisture and ignition loss for groups C and D
show marked resemblances to those quoted in analyses of h alloy site
and kaolinite. The soils of groups E and F resemble, however, those
of group D in that some are derived from basalt ; they are fine in
texture and there is a tendency for colloidal properties to diminish with
depth.

Figure 3. — Relationship of Moisture at Sticky Point to Air-dry Moisture,

INVESTIGATIONS OF QUEENSLAND SOILS.

45

Summary.

A number of soils, typical of Queensland profiles have been
examined, using simply determined “ single value ” measurements
.on the lines suggested by Coutts. The general findings of earlier
workers have been confirmed and comparisons made of the
characteristics of Queensland types with those of soils of other
countries. The usefulness of such determinations as an aid to classi-
fication and prediction of field behaviour has been demonstrated.

I am indebted to the Commonwealth Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research for a grant in aid of expenses.

REFERENCES.

(1) Annual Reports, Agricultural Chemist, Brisbane.

(2) Coutts, J. R. H., J. Agric. Sci., 1929, 19, 325.

(3) Coutts, J. R. H., J. Agric. Sci., 1930, 20, 407 ; see also Keen, B.A., ibid, 414.

,(4) Keen, B. A., and Coutts, J. R. H., J. Agric., Sci., 1928, 18, 740.

i(5) See e.g. Holmes, R. S., and Eddington, G., U.S. Dept. Agric. Technical
Bulletin, No. 229, 1930.

,(6) Keen, B. A., J. Agric. Sci., 1924, 14, 170.

(7) Maruhand, B. de C., J. Agric. Sci., 1924, 14, 151.

(8) Hardy, F., J. Agric. Set, 1925, 15, 434.

(9) Green, W. H., and Ampt, G. A., J. Agric. Sci., 1911, 4, 1.

.(10) Loc. cit.

♦(11) Loc. cit.

«(12) Ross, C. S., and Shannon, E. V7., J. Amer. Ceram. Soc., 1926, 9, 77.

46

Vol. XLI1I., No. 8.

Two Previously Undescribed Rutaceae from South
Eastern Queensland.

By C. T. White (Government Botanist), Brisbane.

( Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 30 th November , 1931),

Z ieria collina sp. nov.

Frutex 2-3 m., ramulis junioribus dense pilosis adultis glabris
lenticellatis ; foliis oppositis trifoliolatis, pedicellis, pilosis 5-8 mm. ;
foliolis sessilibns lanceolatis supra viridis glabrescentibus subtus albidis
tomentosis 1-2 cm. longis ca. 3 mm. latis ; floribus in cymis 2-3-
chotomis axillaribus dispositis pedunculis gracilis 0.5 — 1.5 c.m.
peduneulis et ramulis pilosis, bracteis linearibus, pedicellis 1-2 mm.,
bracteolis parvis ; calycis lobis late ovatis ca. 0.5 mm., petalis ovatis
utrinque dense tomentosis, staminibus glabris, gynoecio glabro ;
carpellis 2 mm. longis, seminibus opaquis nigris 1.5 mm. longis.

Large spreading shrub 2-3 m. forming thickets on hillsides in
brush or in clearings in light rain-forest, younger branches densely
pilose, older ones glabrous lenticellate ; leaves opposite, 3-foliolater
pedicels pilose 5-8 mm. long, leaflets sessile lanceolate, dull green
and glabrescent above, densely whitish tomentose beneath, 1-2 cm.
long, mostly about 3 mm. broad. Flowers in axillary 2-3-chotomous
cymes, peduncles slender 0.5 — 1.5 c.m. long, peduncle and branches-
pilose, bracts linear, pedicels 1-2 mm., bracteoles small ; calyx lobes
broadly ovate about 0.5 mm., petals ovate densely tomentose on both
faces, 2 mm. long, stamens glabrous, filaments white, 1 nm. long ;
anthers orange red (in dried state, cream), 0.5 cm. diam ; gynoecium
glabrous ; cocci 2 mm. long ; endocarp white cartilaginous, seed dull
black 1.5 mm. long.

Tamborine Mt., S.E. Queensland, C. T. White, 6155, flowering;
specimens (11-8-1929) — type ; large spreading shrub on hillsides,,
forming thickets in brush or in clearings in light rain-forest ; leaves
dull green above, paler beneath ; petals white, filaments white, anthers
orange red. Goambo Creek, Tamborine Mountain, F. M. Bailey ;
Tamborine Mt., C. T. White, 3337, fruiting specimens 27-12-1926.

This is evidently the plant referred to by Domin Bibl. Botanica
89, 837 to Z ieria Smithii Andr. var. parvifolia Benth. and as such
it was labelled on the sheets in the Queensland Herbarium. I

TWO PREVIOUSLY UNDESCRIBED RUTACEAE.

47

was very doubtful on this point, however, and after collecting fruiting
specimens in December, 1926, forwarded specimens to the Directory
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, where they were reported on by Mr.
V. S. Summerhayes as follows : —

“ White 3337. The specimen does not agree with anything
we have in the herbarium.. Of the two specimens cited by
Bentham under Z ieria Smithii var. parvifolia, that collected
by Robert Brown does not fit the description, most of the leaflets
being 1J-1J inches long. In any case it does not seem to be the
same as White 3337 since it has the black glands on the under
surface of the leaves so characteristic of Z. Smithii Andr. Type.
We have no specimen labelled f New England,’ but there is one
collected by C. Stuart near Tenterden which may be the specimen
cited. This, however, has hairy, not stellately pubescent branches
and very short petioles. It seems to be more closely related
to Z. pilosa. I should very much like to see more Queensland
material of Z. Smithii, as the various forms are not at all clear,
but I do not believe that var. parvifolia, as far as R. Brown’s
specimens are concerned, is distinct from the type variety.”

Now that good flowering material has been collected I name
the species as above.

Acronychia suberosa sp. nov.

Arbor alta cortice suberoso ; ramulis puberulis, mox glabris ;
foliis oppositis, tirfoliolatis, petiolis supra sulcatis ad 3 cm. longis ;
foliolis sessilibus, lanceolatis ad 7 cm. longis et 2 cm. latis sed plerumque
minoribus ; floribus citrinis suaveolentibus in cymis simplicibus axil-
laribus dispositis ; pedunculis ad 2 cm. longis puberulis vel
glabrescentibus ; pedicellis puberulis, 1-2 mm. longis ; calycis lobis
rotundis 2.5 mm. latis, extus puberulis, intus glabris ; filamentis.
applanatis marginibus in parte inferiore pilis albis longis dense
obsitis ; antheris ca. 1 mm. ; ovario glabro conico prominente 4-loculari ;
stylo 4 mm. longo in parte inferiore pilis longis albis obsitis ; stigma,
parva, capitata ; fructu carnoso ca. 2.5 cm. longo infra medium ca.
2 cm. diam. ; loculis distinctis et facile separatis ; semnibus castaneis-
vel nigris, 3 mm. longis.

Large tree with a corky bark, branchlets puberulous, soon glabrous.
Leaves opposite, trifoliolate, petiole channeled above, thickened at
the apex, up to 3 cm. long, leaflets sessile, lanceolate, up to 7 cm. long
and 2 cm. broad, but mostly somewhat smaller. Flowers yellowish
cream, sweetly scented borne in simple axillary cymes ; peduncles
up to 2 cm. long, puberulous or glabrescent, pedicels puberulous 1-2
mm. long ; calyx lobes rounded 2.5 mm. across, outside puberulous,
inside glabrous ; petals linear, 6 mm. long, puberulent with scattered
hairs outside, glabrous inside ; filaments flattened densely clothed
on the edges in the lower half with long white hairs., anthers about
1 mm. long, ovary glabrous conical, prominently divided into 4 cells,
style 4 mm. long, densely clothed in the lower part with long white
hairs, stigma small capitate. Fruit succulent about 2.5 cm. long
and 2 cm. or slightly more in diameter below the middle tapering

48

PROCCEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

towards the top to a blunt apex, the individual cells very distinct
.and easily separable, endocarp of thin parchment -like consistency ;
seeds brown or blackish 3 mm. long.

Roberts Plateau, Lamington National Park, S.E. Queensland,
H. Try on and C. T. White. Flowering and fruiting specimens, March,
1921. Large trees with a corky bark, flowers sweetly scented.
dSpringbrook, S. F. Queensland, altitude 3,000 ft. C. T. White, 6270,
.20-9-1929 (leaves only).

Closely allied to the common North Queensland A. melicopoides
P.v.M,, which differs in being larger in all its parts, in the petals being
<quite glabrous except for a few hairs on the margin near the base,
in having a densely hairy ovary and in the less succulent fruit not
jeadilv separable into distinct carpels.

Vol. NLIII., No. 9.

49

A Previously Undescribed Papuan Dipterocarp.

By C. T. White (Government Botanist, Brisbane).

{Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 30 th November, 1931).

Hopea glabrifolia sp. noy.

Arbor partibus junioribus et inflorescentiis pubescentibus ; foliis
petiolatis, petiolis 5-7 mm. longis, laminis ad 14 cm. longis plerumque
:3-plo longioribus quam latae ellipticis supra nitidis subtus pallidioribus
basi rotundatis et inaequalibus apice obtuse acuminatis acumine ipso
ad 1 cm. longo, nervis praecipuis utrinque 9-11 subtus prominentioribus ;
paniculis lateralibus et axillaribus foliis brevioribus, ramulis
pubescentibus ; floribus sessilibus vel brevissime pedicellatis 2-bract-
-eatis, bracteis pubescentibus late ovatis ca. 1 mm. longis, calycis
segmentis imbricatis, 2 exterioribus 3 mm. longis obtuse acuminatis,
■extus in dorso pubescentibus margine in parte superiore ciliolatis ;
petalis linearibus, acutis 3 mm. longis 1 mm. latis extus pubescentibus ;
staminibus, 10 cum seta 2 mm. longis, seta ipsa 1 mm. longa ; ovario
glabro ; fructu ignoto.

Papua : Misima Island. Received from Hon. Staniforth Smith,
Director of Agriculture, Port Moresby, with the following note : —

“ A very useful mining timber found on Misima Island : the
native name is ‘ Rub’ ”

The present record extends the known range of the family
considerably eastwards.

D

50

Vol. XLIII., No. 10.

Australian Flies of Genus Actina ( Stratiomjiidae )

By G. H. Hardy

(Walter and Eliza Hall Fellow in Economic Biology, University of
Queensland, Brisbane).

( Tabled before the Royal Society of Queensland , 30th November , 1931).

In Australia there are four defined genera of Stratiomyiidae
that come within the tribe Beridini, and three of these are represented
by one described species each. It is not possible to associate the-
Australian species seen by me with a number of other genera that are*
allied and described from other parts of the world, as the species before
me do not fall into line with the characters cited ; nevertheless there-
are several that grade towards tho'se genera and are here retained
under genus Actina, which is used in a wider sense than usual. The
following key will enable the new species to be relegated to this*
genus : —

1. Abdomen short, more or less parallel sided and all the

segments wider than long ; eyes pubescent or bare ;
median vein three or four branched ; antennae quite
normal in shape and very similar to that of
Neoexaireta ; the tenth segment is usually about
the length of the two preceding ones never less ;
scutellum with six or eight spines . .

Abdomen long, widening towards the apex and at least
some segments are as long as wide ; eyes invariably
bare ; antennal segments normal or irregular in size

2. Antennae with the three last segments very minute, being

reduced in both length and width ; scutellum with
four spines ; median vein three branched

Antennae not so formed

3. Fourth to ninth antennal segments about equal in size,

the tenth about as long as four of these. Scutellum
with four spines. Median vein four branched

Third to seventh antennal segments subequal, the eighth
and ninth are much longer and the tenth as long as
the four preceding ones. Scutellum with six spines.

Median vein two branched . .

Actina Meigei®
%

Nanthoberis White
3'.

Neoexaireta Ost.-Sackem
Eumecacis Enderlein-

Only Actina and Neoexaireta are commonly found, both being
very plentiful in collections and therefore are best understood. They
may be distinguished by many characters, of which the more
important ones seem to be in the hairs of the pleura. Neoexaireta
has a bare area extending from the pteropleura, immediately below
the insertion of the wing, to the hypopleura, between the inter-
mediate and posterior coxae. When the posterior leg is drawn up

AUSTRALIAN FLIES OF GENUS ACTINA.

51

against the body, it lies along this bare area which perhaps accounts
for its nature. The whole of the pteropleura is hairy on Actina, and
the hypopleura is bare ; variations in the density of the hairs
occur in this genus, so that sometimes the hairs on the pteropleura
are scantily represented. Hairs are present on the metanotum of
Neoexaireta, and absent there on Actina. The hind femora may be
equally thickened in both genera, but on Neoexaireta a small ventral
tubercle occurs well before the apex and seems to be distinctive.
Hitherto none of these characters have been regarded as of generic
importance.

Genus Actina Meigen.

Actina Meigen, Klassif. i. 1804, p. 116. White, Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania, 1914,.
p. 49 ; and Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales, xli, 1916, p. 77. Hardy, Proc. Roy.
Soc. Tasmania, 1920, p. 40. Malloch, Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales, liii, 1924,
p. 40.

The hairy nature of the eyes and the spines of the scutellum
are two characters usually regarded of generic importance for this
genus, but neither are maintained on the species before me. A male
caught in a fruit-fly lure and given to me by Mr. A. F. Perkins,
comes from somewhere in the Toowoomba district, Queensland, and is
now mounted whole on a micro-slide. The pubescence of the eyes,
though on a male, is of the same nature as that on the typical
female, and moreover the hind metatarsus is considerably dilated,
a character not seen by me on any other species. Again from the
dense rain-forest regions of Queensland and Western Tasmania,
come two further forms on which the eyes are bare, and are described
below. The scutellum contains normally six spines, but one species
and one sex only of another has eight. According to modern
innovations, all or nearly all of these species would be placed in
different genera, but they are very much alike in all general features
and are too closely related to be treated other than as one generic
conception.

Key to Species of Actina.

1. Eyes thickly pubescent, long on the male and short on

the female. Pleural hairs plentiful

Eyes entirely bare, pleural hairs scanty

2. Wrings with a large dark costal blotch around the stigma

and reaching towards the apex. Abdomen entirely
blue-black, thorax with abundant bright yellow
pubescenece. Scutellum with eight spines

Wings hyaline, or uniformly smoky. Scutellum norm-
ally with six spines, rarely eight

3. Spines of scutellum entirely metallic green ; abdomen

entirely black

Spines of scutellum invariably yellow at least on the
apical half. Abdomen rarely entirely black, usually
some traces of yellow to be found on the under-
side

4. First antennal segment about or less than one and a half

times the length of the second. Australian
mainland

.First antennal segment at least twice the length of the
second. Tasmanian species

2

5

ocinis n. sp ,

a

coslata White
4

incisuralis Macquart.
nigricornis Endcrlein

-52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Key to Species of Actina. — Continued.

5. First antennal segment about or less than one and a half
times the length of the second ; the apical segment

about the length of the eighth to ninth . . imperfecta n. sp.

First antennal segment at least twice the length of the
second ; the apical segment about the length of the

sixth to ninth . . . . . . . . . . . . silvicola n. sp.

Actina ocinis n sp.

Male : the head is similar to that on A. incisuralis, but the hair
of the eyes is shorter. The antennae are yellow. The copper-coloured
dorsal area of the thorax is overlaid by abundant long yellow hairs,
the scutellum is similarly coloured and has eight spines, but the pleura
is blue black, as is also the abdomen both above and below. The legs
are black with the intermediate and anterior tibiae and tarsi sometimes
dirty yellowish. The wings are somewhat smoky with a large fuscous
area around the stigma, and extending towards the apex of the wing.

Female : the head is similar to that of A. incisuralis , but the
irons has hair scattered all over it and is sunken ; the eyes have
very short pubescence. The thorax is vivid green above and has
abundant yellow pubescence. In other characters it resembles the
male. The metallic colours are liable to vary, as is usual in the genus.
Length, 7J to 8 mm.

Hab. — Queensland ; Brisbane, April and May, 1928 to 1931.
25 males, 9 females. It was also seen in September and December,
1931.

The species is rather common during the autumn, and is to be
found resting on the underside of leaves and is readily seen in such
-positions on fig-trees, sometimes in company with A. incisuralis.
When alive the eyes are green with a large blue blotch above, this
area, having a reddish-purple edge, touches only the frontal margin.

Actina costata White.

Actina costata White, Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania, 1914, p. 51 ; and Proc. Lin. Soc.
N.S. Wales, xli. 1916, p. 77. Hardy, Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania, 1920, p. 41;
and Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, xxxvi. 1924, p. 40.

This form is metallic blue-green on the thorax of both sexes,
but the leg colouration varies. The female has the hair distributed
all over the frons, whereas on A. incisuralis there is a bare strip on
the central third of the frons.

Hab. — Tasmania : not uncommon at high altitudes. Victoria :
there are five specimens labelled “ Begong Plains, 5600-6000 ft., Jan.,
1928, F. E. Wilson.” These differ only in having the eyes slightly wider

.apart.

AUSTRALIAN FLIES OF GENUS ACTINA.

53

Actina incisuralis Macquart.

Beris incisuralis Macquart, 1847-9 ; Walker 1854.

Actina incisuralis White 1916 (part) ; Hardy 1920 and 1924.

Beris filipalpis Macquart 1849.

Actina filipalpis Enderlein 1921

Beris fusciventris Macquart 1849.

Beris nitidithorax Macquart 1849.

Actina victoriae Hill 1919; Hardy 1920; Malloch, Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales, liii,
1928, p. 364.

*

(For references not cited in full above, see these proceedings,
Vol. xxxvi., 1924, p. 40).

Synonymy. — When cataloguing the Stratiomyiidae for my paper
published in 1920, I went rather fully into White’s Tasmanian
specimens of Actina incisuralis and the descriptions of A. victoriae,.
discovering the difference in the basal segments of the antennae.
In 1924, I again revised the position using this clue in antennal
structures on the material from various States, and I incorporated
my conclusions concerning Enderlein ’s species described in the interval.
Since then the question has arisen with regard to the type locality
“ Tasmania ” given in the fourth supplement of “ Dipteres
Exotiques,” by Macquart, and it seems necessary to amend this to
“ Sydney ” (see Hardy, Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales, liv., 1929, p. 61).
The status of the Australian and the Tasmanian forms may be regarded
as of subgeneric value, and if so, then it scarcely matters about
separating them under more than one specific conception. So far
as I have been able to discover, there is only the antennal character
to maintain their present position and gradations may yet be found
in this structure.

In Brisbane there occurs a dark form which, at the lightest, has
the lateral margins of the abdomen broadly black, thus restricting the
orange colour to larger or smaller spots on the central area. The
tendency for the abdomen to become completely black is especially
marked on the male, but the underside usually retains its lighter
tones in such cases.

From Stanthorpe, only females are before me, and on them the
abdomen has the typical colouration.

In Sydney, the typical female occurs, these having practically
no lateral dark stripe, or an incomplete one, but the males before mo
are of the dark form.

From Melbourne, the dark males are before me, and also from
Millgrove there is a male on which three segments are uniformly dirty
brown. The females from Victoria, judging from Hill’s species, of
which I have seen one, are similar to those from Sydney.

From Tasmania, typical coloured females are before me, but one
male" from Sheffield and one male from Hobart both have the narrow
darkened lateral border of the female, whilst other males, one being
the largest I have yet seen (7J mm.), are black or practically so.

54 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

With regard to the male, it would seem that gradations are found
from the typical female colouration on Tasmanian specimens to the
practically black colouration that is to be found throughout the
eastern coast of Australia, as well as in Tasmania. Dark females are
not common in the southern States, but quite plentiful in Queensland.

Actina nigricornis Enderlein.

Actina incisuralis White 1914 and part of 1916 ; Hardy 1920 (nec. Macquart).

Actina nigricornis Enderlein, Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin, x, 1921, p. 191.

Actina filipalpis Hardy, Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, xxxvi, 1924, p. 40 (nec.

Macquart).

It would seem that Enderlein described this species from a very
dark form of the female on which the orange colour had disappeared.
The name given by Enderlein seems to be the only legitimate one
that is applicable to Tasmanian specimens.

Hab. — Tasmania : throughout the whole eastern half of the
island, at low elevations.

Actina imperfecta n. sp.

Eyes bare and widely separated on both sexes. The frons is
entirely bluish green with two square spots of white pubescence
occupying almost the whole width just above the antennae. This
pubescence extends down the face which is otherwise also bluish
green and, as on other species, much narrower on the male than on
the female. Proboscis and palpi, like the antennae, are yellowish,
but are without the black stains that occur on the fourth to tenth
segments. In profile the antennae are seen to be inserted above the
centre of the head ; this and other general features being like that
of other species.

The thorax is metallic green above, with humeral and postalar
tubercles yellow on the female, and the underside is also yellow ;
on the male the thorax is bronze green above and below, with yellow
humeral and postalar callus. The scutellum in both sexes is metallic
with light yellow spines, six on the female and eight on the male.

The abdomen is dirty yellowish with violet tinges, these markings
becoming more defined on the male. The light colour is comparable
to that on A. incisuralis, and the variations in the colour marks are
very similar to those of that species, the lateral dark border being well
defined on some specimens, thus there is a range of forms from light
to dark ones, but specimens completely black above have not been seen.
The abdomen is yellow below on both sexes.

The wings have the typical venation except the third median
vein is very stunted on the male and missing on the female ; they are
distinctly smoky along the anterior border, but show a clear spot
just beyond the stigma, but these markings may be obscure. Except
for the hind tibiae being stained apically on the female, and almost
entirely black on the male, and the first segment of the posterior
tarsi being apically black, and the following ones on the male only
being black, the legs are yellow.

AUSTRALIAN FLIES OF GENUS ACTINA.

55

Hab. — Queensland : National Park, March, 1921, 1 male holotype
and 1 female allotype. Paratypes are 1 female, March, 1929 (A. J.
Turner) ; 1 female with clear wings, November, 1925 (A. J. Turner) ;
1 male, December, 1921 (H. Hacker) ; 1 female with a long third
median vein, October, 1923 (H. Hacker) ; Tamborine Mt., 1 male,
October, 1925 (H. Hacker) ; Mapleton, 1 male, March, 1924 (H.
Hacker).

Actina silvicola n. sp.

The eyes are bare and widely separated on both sexes. The
Irons is metallic blue on the male and metallic green on the female.
The pubescence on the frons and face, and the colour of the
.antennae, proboscis and palpi are as on A. imperfecta, but the tenth
antennal segment is unusually long, being about half the length of
the third to ninth segments united, whereas on other species it is as
long as or slightly longer than the two preceding segments.

The thorax is metallic green on the female and blue on the male,
both above and below, but the humeral and postalar callus are
yellow. The scutellum is similarly coloured on each sex and with
six yellow spines ; a seventh is indicated on the male.

The abdomen above is dirty yellow in the centre, bordered by
somewhat brownish sides and bands along the incisions of the
sclerites, thus cutting the yellow into spots. The darker colouration
is more intense and widely spread on the male where three yellow spots
occur, than on the female which has four such spots. Below, the
abdomen is yellowish on both sexes.

The legs are yellow except on the male the posterior femora have
the apical half black and the tibiae are mostly black. The wings
have the typical venation, the third median vein being present ; the
smoky area along the anterior border of the wing is as in A . imperfecta ,
and interrupted by a clear spot just beyond the stigma.

Hab. — Tasmania : Strahan, People’s Park, February, 1924.

1 male and one female, both taken by sweeping the lower branches
of tall trees.

Note , — On the male, the hook-like claspers of the genitalia are
exserted and clearly defined, having a shape such as I have not seen
on any other species. No attempt has yet been made to study the
genitalia of these obscure forms, but I have examined some in situ
without discovering characters that would aid in distinguishing between
species, other than in the present case. In general appearance this
species looks very like A. imperfecta , and presumably it is subject to
similar variations in colour markings.

56

Vol. XLIII., No. 11.

Correlations of the Queensland Permo-Carboniferous Basin,

THE DILLY STAGE OF THE LOWER BOWEN.

By J. H. Reid.

( Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 30 th November, 1931).

There are many diverse aspects of the Permo-Carboniferous
system in Eastern Australia on which there is no general agreement
as yet. It is hoped that the present contribution of one who has;
been enabled to carry out considerable field research over the
enormous Permo-Carboniferous basin of the Great Syncline of
Queensland may at least tend to ameliorate that condition and help
to advance knowledge a little further towards general elucidation
of some of its major problems. While most of the field work has-
been of a reconnaissance type (with all its obvious limitations), several
areas have been mapped in detail and from data supplied largely
by the latter it seems possible to formulate queries and deductions
regarding the vast areas which are yet imperfectly known and which
may largely remain so for many years to come. This paper deals1
with the Dilly Stage of the Queensland Lower Bowen Series, and
attempts to prescribe its distribution in Queensland, the variable
physical character of its beds, as well as discuss its probable age. An
appendix by Mr. F. W. Booker describes a hitherto undescribed species
of Productus of cosmopolitan type which, as far as the stratigraphicaL
zoning of the Springsure Dome in Central Queensland has proceeded,
appears confined to the Dilly Stage. A large collection of this species-
has been made during the past year from the districts of Springsure-
and Saltbush Park (Nebo), and has formed the material described
in the appendix. While mapping the Springsure Dome the writer
observed, on one horizon, immense numbers of the pedicle valve of
a productid that showed abnormal ear expansions that were mostly
broken off. A chance recollection of a past reference that had
stimulated some interest recalled Diener’s figures of a form from the
Anthracolithic fauna of Kashmir. By dint of careful searching a
number of beautiful brachial valves were also discovered in the hard
calcareous concretions enclosed in the soft shales in which the pedicle
valves were mostly in a decrepit state with the brachials either
obscured or missing. It is clear from the figures of Productus
( Linoproductus) spring surensis that odd specimens of it have been
found previously in Queensland, but it is certainly the first occasion on
which such a complete collection of both valves has been brought
together and which has enabled an adequate description to be made
available of this interesting form, interesting because it is evidently an
additional link between the Tethyan and Pacific faunas.

CORRELATIONS OF THE PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS BASIN

57

The Type District : At Dilly, a few miles north of Springsure?

the beds of this stage were first remarked, many years ago, apparently
by Dr. Jack. Beyond a good individual outcrop of the Eurydesma-
glacial horizon, the lack of exposures in the surrounding district did
not permit of its stratigraphical position in the. Lower Bowen being
established. In 1929 a Queensland Geological Survey party, under
the writer’s direction, was enabled by broad mapping of an extensive
region to place this horizon in the general sequence. This sequence
has needed some modification since detailed work was carried out
by the writer under other control in 1930, on portion of the Spring-
sure Dome, about 40 miles southerly from Dilly.

The Dilly Stage, as defined by this latest work, is as follows : —
Dilly Stage Section, Springsure Dome.

Serocold Sandstone (freshwater and marine) . . . . . . 950 ft.

Overlap

Upper shales (L. s/pringsurensis zone) . . 100-140 ft.

Dilly * Shell beds (mainly Spirifer zone) . . . . 20-50 ft.

Stage < *Fossiliferous ferruginous shales . . . . 30 ft.

(310ft.+ ) *Sandstone group (with shales) .. .. 40-100 ft.

Eurydesma limestone (15 ft.) in shales .. 55 ft.-f-

(The base of the Dilly Stage is unknown).

The beds marked * comprise the glacial horizons in the locality.
The two small outcrops of the Eurydesma limestone, being the only
exposures of this bed that occur on the crest of a local dome, do not
contain the glacial erratics which are present in the equivalent bed
at Dilly.

The stage appears to be totally marine and is very rich in the
remains of varied marine organisms, as all divisions of it are
more or less fossiliferous. The shale beds, mostly, are the common
type of the yellow, blue and grey shales of the other marine stages
of the Lower and Middle Bowen in the district and contain thin seams
of gypsum, secondary lime and magnesian efflorescences.

The Eurydesma bed is a shelly limestone plus hard calcareous
shale with a most prolific fossil fauna. A preliminary list of the
fauna has been published by Dr. Whitehouse (1930, Little Gorge
Creek B — Eurydesma limestone). The overlying sandstone group
has revealed one fossiliferous sandstone. The ferruginous shales —
brown, yellow and red — contain numerous casts of brachiopods, etc.
The shell (Spirifer) beds are denoted by myriads of broken and
comminuted remains of the original tests and contain bands or lenses
of hard shelly limestone though the enclosing matrix is usually shale
but varies to soft yellowish sandstone. Loose fragments of Spirifer ,
Plerophyllum, etc., litter the outcrops. The preliminary list of fossils
from this bed and from the upper shales has been published by
Whitehouse (1930, as Little Gorge Creek A). The upper shales are
well exposed at the headwaters of a small watercourse — Cattle Creek.
In its crumbling shale banks, 40 ft. high, enormous numbers of the
newly -described L. springsurensis are entombed.

58 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

These beds are all exposed about the crest of a local dome and
are entirely surrounded by the cliff-forming sandstones of the
iSerocold Stage, which, in several instances, overlap the upper shales
between Cattle and Little Gorge Creeks. There are no contem-
poraneous volcanic rocks in the Lilly Stage, nor, as far as our
knowledge goes, in the complete marine Permo-Carboniferous succession
of the Springsure district.

The Lilly Stage appears to have a limited faunistic individuality,
that is not partaken of by the other known marine stages in the
district, and more definitely, because better known, by the younger
marine stages. There are certain reservations that must be given
due weight in making such a statement for the overlying stage of
nearly 1,000 ft. consists of massive sandstones which are known to
be definitely marine in its upper members while, just as definitely,
some of them are of freshwater origin. As a whole the Serocold Stage
does not generally contain a suitable facies for the preservation of
the usual marine organisms. The Lower Bowen section below the
Lilly Stage is not well known and it would be unsafe yet to dogmatise
as to the downward range of some of the characteristic species of that
■stage, the base of which has not been definitely identified.

Amongst the large retinue of Permo-Carboniferous fossils the
following are of more than ordinary interest from this stage : —

Plerophyllum gregoriana, P. cf. cainodon, Stenopora crinita,
JS. ovata, Fenestella spp., Protoretepora ampla, Productus farleyensis,
P. hrachythaerus , P. (?) subquadratus , P. ( Linoproductus ) spring-
surensis, Strophalosia cf. jukesi, S. gerardi , S. clarkei, Spirifer cf. stokesi ,
Orthotetes perfidiabadensis, Aviculopecten cf. mitchelli, Eurydesma
<cor datum, E. sp. nov.

The collections made during 1930 have not yet been either
formally listed or described. They include possibly a new species
of “ Derby ia.”

With the reservations mentioned Productus (?) subquadratus,
Linoproductus springsurensis, and Eurydesma appear restricted to
the Lilly Stage in the Springsure district sections.

The position of the main Eurydesma horizon is as listed earlier.
Only one specimen of the genus has been collected in higher horizons,
either in the upper shales or shell beds. In view of the detailed
mapping performed its rarity above the main horizon is notable and
the lower horizon may represent its acme. P. (?) subquadratus is
present in the Eurydesma bed and has been found in the sand-
stone group above it (associated with “ Derbyia.” ) L. springsurensis
occurs sparingly in the Eurydesma beds and reaches its appar-
ent acmaic stage of development in the upper shales. In this
zone Strophalosia gerardi is numerically well represented, and little
else has been found but a large M oeonia is represented in the collections
by one specimen. The three supposedly restricted forms, in
combination and particularly with the adjunction of Aviculopecten
of the A. mitchelli type (restricted to the Lower Marine in N.S.W.),
are considered to form a strong nucleus for instituting a limited zonal
correlation in the Queensland Lower Bowen.

CORRELATIONS OF THE PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS BASIN

59

The marine division of the Lower Bowen lying above the Serocold
Sandstones is, to a considerable extent, lithologically similar to the
generality of beds in the Billy Stage ; likewise it forms a conspicuous
horizon of glacial erratics of large size. Though extensively collected
from, neither L. spring surensis nor P. (?) subquadratus has been found
in it though their associate in the Billy Stage, L. cora or L. farleyensis,
is well represented. Its presence, as well as a rather general
lithological similarity, would suggest that the former are possibly not
absent through unsuitability of either environment or facies, and
it would seem that they are, in ranging upwards, restricted at some
horizon below the top of the Serocold Stage. On the present evidence
P. (?) subquadratus may be restricted below the ferruginous shales.
L. springsurensis since it is so predominant in the highest zone must
evidently have a higher range of life than the top of the Billy Stage.
Neither of the Lower Bowen corals, Monilopora and Trachypora,
has been found in the Billy Stage. They have, however, been recorded
in association in the Coral Stage (with Conularia ) at an interval of
possibly 900 ft. below the Billy Stage. They have also recently been
found by the writer in the marine stage above the Serocold Stage,
but Trachypora is exceedingly rare therein, while Monilopora is
abundant.

Correlations in the Great Syncline of Queensland.

The zoning of the Billy Stage on the Springsure Borne enables,
for the first time, a definite attempt to be made to correlate the eastern
and western beds of the basin. In attempting to correlate Lower
Bowen stages- on the eastern side of the Great Syncline with the
Billy Stage, a remarkable feature is that those beds that seem
faunally allied to it do not appear to have any undoubted glacial
erratics so far as observed.

The detailed field study of certain limited portions of the
Springsure Borne, in demonstrating overlaps, rapid sequences of
alternating freshwater, marine and lagoonal deposits, in addition to
faunal and stratigraphic overlaps in other districts, attests the
markedly unstable conditions of the Lower and Middle Bowen
periods of sedimentation. Physical configuration must have been
variable to a degree that has left its impress in dissimilar
composition of the vertical columns of the system in distinct areas
Through great differences are woven threads of similarity of type ;
thus, as an example, a minor type in the amorphous yellow and grey
( Monilopora ) limestones of one of the Lower Bowen stages on the
Springsure Borne has its replica in specimens collected from the BawTson
River region some 150 miles distant. But while apparently
contemporaneous stages in distant districts may be very different
lithologically, certain sedimentary types are universal throughout
the main basin such as the common bluish, yellowish and grey
micaceous shales which are of uniform type and appearance of
almost any age of Lower and Upper Marine deposition.

It may perhaps be repeated here that the Great Syncline forms
an elongated trough tapering at its northern extremity (lat. about
20° 30' S.) and passing southwards beneath the overriding and
unconformable Mesozoics of the Great Artesian System (lat. about

60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

25® 45'). It is margined by outcropping Lower Bowens (very largely
of volcanic derivation) and marine strata of more than one series
form, apparently, an almost continuous, if disconnected, marine zone
around it. For 400 miles on an almost direct line between tho
parallels of latitude mentioned above, marine sediments mark the
eastern side of the syncline along the inland or western foothills of the
coastal ranges. In the latitude of Springsure, outcrops of corresponding
stages on the eastern and western sides of the basin have an interval
of as much as 120 miles covered by younger beds, apparently without
intervening outcrop. The Lower Bowen sedimentation on the
western (Springsure) margin was exempt from volcanic accumulations
while on the whole of the eatern side contemporaneous volcanic action
contributed quotas, in some cases predominantly, and then marine
sedimentation could only occur during geologically brief interregna
between the deposition of intermittently progressive volcanic deposits.
Thus there is a great possibility, considering also the intercalated
freshwater beds in the volcanic areas, that land surfaces more habitually
existed then, in the area of the present coastal hinterland, than in the
more westerly areas such as Springsure, where one may perhaps
postulate an increase to maximum deposition of marine strata in the
southern half of the syncline.

The apparent absence of glacial horizons in the Lower Bowen-
marine beds of the eastern margin, even in the stages in which
contemporaneity with the Lilly Stage is most strongly implied by the
the mutual association of apparently restricted life forms, may be duer
in conjunction with the effects of crustal movements, to the great
accumulations of volcanic ejecta that were massed on that margin
at various periods. These may have represented obstructions
interrupting marine transportation of ice floes, for it may be remarked
that no terrestrial glacial deposits are known to exist in the Queensland
Permo-Carboniferous. Apart from such arguments to account fer-
tile lack of glacial erratics, the vagarious distribution of glacial debris
from floating and dispersing ice is illustrated locally in the Springsure
district itself where in one case the Eurydesma bed is littered with small
erratics and in two other exposures of it they are absent.

Considering the association of L. springsurensis, P. (?)
subquadratus , Aviculopecten mitchelli and Eurydesma as strongly
indicative of Lilly age, with the reservation that the evidence cannot
yet be considered conclusive that they, individually or collectively,,
may not range below that stage, we may consider the occurrence of
these forms in combination on the eastern side of the Great Syncline
together with other species occurring in that stage or known to be
co-zonal.

Mt. Britton (Homevale Bed). P. (?) subquadratus , Linoproductus
springsurensis, A. mitchelli (*) ; also Linoproductus farleyensis
A. tenuicollis (*). (Girtyites (?) recorded here but not in Lilly Stage*.
Springsure).

^Restricted to Lower Marine in N.S.W.

CORRELATIONS OF THE PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS BASIN

61

Saltbush Park, Nebo. In beds occurring six miles N.E. of
Homestead and continuing north-westwards to at least 15 miles N.
of Homestead.

P. (?) subquadratus , L. springsurensis, A. mitchelli ; also

M onilopora.

Yatton. — P. (?) subquadratus and Eurydesma cordatum in
unidentified beds; L. springsurensis , M onilopora and Trachypora

were found in a comparatively limited zone which is likely to embrace
the former two.

Cracow. — P. (?) subquadratus , L. springsurensis, A. mitchelli,
E. cordatum, E. sp. nov. (Dill}7 type), also Stenopora cf. ovata,
L. farleyensis, P. brachythaerus .

The Cracow section of A. K. Denmead (1931) includes the
Eurydesma, M onilopora and L. springsurensis zones in that

ascending order in a section comprising shales, sandstones and

limestones with andesites in intermediate flows. It is of particular
interest in relation to Dilly because of the grouping of the three common
torms of the Eurydesma bed there in the lowest specified Cracow
horizon and an abundance of L. springsurensis in the highest specified
•zones in both areas.

It thus appears that there are palaeontological grounds for
correlating portions of the marine sections in all four eastern localities,
enumerated above, with the Dilly Stage. It is not improbable that
the stage or portions of it may be represented almost continuously
along the eastern margin from Cracow, where it passes under the
Artesian System, proceeding northerly to the south-eastern portion
of the Bowen River Coalfield.

The following localities have beds with limited claims to
provisional equation with the stage : —

Hazlewood Creek and Blenheim (Bowen River System) : the
former has provided some of our most typical Queensland specimens
of P. (?) subquadratus while L. springsurensis occurs at Blenheim.

Camboon Woolshed and Delusion Creek (Dawson River
System) ; Shelly and also chalcedonic limestone with Trachypora and
very large crinoids, etc. It continues to Delusion Creek, where there is
a remarkable crinoidal limestone interbedded with andesites. At
Camboon Woolshed the limestone is probably the most conspicuous
Trachypora horizon yet located in the Great Syncline. On the
weight of evidence — intercalation with andesites and the presence
of Trachypora which, like M onilopora, has never been found in the
knowm post-Greta beds of the main basin — this horizon may be
definitely placed in the Lower Bowen. Its extension to Delusion
Creek takes it within twelve miles of representatives of the Dilly Stage
at Cracow and the presence of limestone with Trachypora in the
andesitic series of both localities, renders it not improbable that these
two occurrences are exactly contemporaneous in age. In a northerly
direction the writer has rapidly traversed the Camboon Lower Bowen

62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Series of volcanics, sandstones, conglomerates, etc., and has not
been able to separate them, as a series, from the Lower Freshwater
Series of the Lower Bowen of Dunstan (1901) at Banana and to the
west thereof. It is therefore not beyond the bounds of possibility
that beds of Billy age are represented in the Banana Lower Fresh-
water. What age, then, are the marine zones of Dunstan’s still older
Lower Marine Series ? It is very possible that over such an extensive
area the scattered fossil localities may represent different zones if
not stages. Still lower, and conformably (?), according to Dunstan,
are the metalliferous slates, etc., including limestones with
Aviculopecten and a rugose coral, that he classified as Gympie. A
striking feature of his Lower Marine fossil lists is the absence, from,
rather extensive collections, of such easily recognised forms as
Productus (?) subquadratus and Eurydesma, forms which had a most
extensive habitat and are found abundantly in a number of Lower
Bowen localities of the main basin. It would certainly be premature
to draw the conclusion that their absence might indicate a downward
limit to the range of the two forms mentioned at an horizon above
his Lower Marine Section, but it seems to make desirable a further
palaeontological examination of any material collected from Dunstan’s
Lower Marine and Gympie Series of the Dawson River.

Correlation with New South Wales Lower Marine : There is a>

ready correlation of the Eurydesma-gleLcial beds of Dilly and Allendale
(N.S.W.), which is strengthened by the abundance of Eurydesma
cordatum, Aviculopecten mitchelli and numerous pencilliform Stenopora
in both zones as well as the mutual records of Strophalosia clarkei
and Productus brachythaerus , though these latter records may need
revision. M onilopora, which is evidently co-zonal with the Dilly fauna
is not known in the Hunter River district, but, according to David
(1930), who evidently endorses the Dilly- Allendale correlation,
it possibly ascends to the main Eurydesma zone at Kempsey. It
is known, only recently, that M onilopora ascends above the Eurydesma
horizon in the main basin of Queensland.

Age of the Dilly Stage : Any consideration of the age of this

stage entrenches on the delicate and arbitrary question of the division
line between Upper Carboniferous and Lower Permian formations,
a question that has universally raised more academic discussion
between palaeontologists than perhaps almost any other, and a
convenient retreat from which was the coining and continued usage
of the term Permo-Carboniferous.

It appears for the present that the determination of age will rest
largely on the brachiopods and certain bryozoans and pelecypods
owing to the absence so far of definite ammonites as horizon markers.
Evidently the only possible specimen of the latter found in the entire
Permo-Carboniferous basin Queensland is one collected by the writer
in 1924 from the Mount Britton (Homevale) bed. This is a very
incomplete impression of several whorls and was determined by
Dr. Whitehouse (1925) as “ impression of a cephalopod (?) resembling
Girtyites.”

CORRELATIONS OF THE PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS BASIN

6&

In the description of Linoproduclus springsurensis, Booker has
stated that its nearest allies are Productus waagenianus (Girty) of the
Guadalupian, P. eucharis (Girty) of the Phosphoria Formation of
South-eastern Idaho and P. aagardi of the Spitzbergen Artinskian,.
all three of recognised Permian age. Girty (1908) provisionally
classified the Guadalupian fauna as Lower Permian. Schuchert (1928)
placed the upper (Capitan) division of the Guadalupian in the Upper
Permian on the ground that the lower division (Delaware) had some
ammonite relationships with other American Permian formations
which were definitely tied to the Fusulina limestone of Sicily.
P. waagenianus occurs on about a middle horizon of the Capitan.
P. eucharis comes from the Lower Permian (Phosphoria). Girty
(1927) stated it may be identical with P. aagardi (Toula). Our species
may also have a close alliance with P. aff. aagardi of the Alaskan
Lower Permian. Booker gives two other close relationships for the
Dilly species, viz., Diener’s form of P. waagenianus from the Zewan
Permian beds and the Uralian form of P. aagardi from the Russian
Upper Carboniferous. Thus through L. springsurensis the Dilly
Stage would appear to have at least one definite affiliation with the
Tethyan and American Permian. Such an affiliation is not weakened
by Etheridge’s record of Strophalosia clarkei from Dilly, a form which,
he went to the trouble of declaring (in 1892) had much relationship
with S. goldfussi which is a conspicuous species of the Zechstein of
the European Upper Permian. At Dilly the abundant development
of Strophalosia gerardi and the presence in its lower beds of the
Permian Upper Marine species. Stenopora crinita, will make it
additionally difficult to maintain an earlier age than Lower Permian
for the Stage.

The Dilly Stage may have a time relationship with the Eurydesma;
and Conularia faunas of the Salt Range in the latter of which Schuchert
states there are nine Australian species, one of those cited ( Chonetes
cracowensis ) intriguing the interest since the Dilly fauna seems really
established at Cracow, Queensland, where the type of this species
comes from. As to the age of these Salt Range horizons Schuchert
places them as Middle Permian, C. S. Fox (1928) as Lower Permian.,
while Dighton Thomas gives reasons for regarding them as of high:
Carboniferous age.

“ If the Eurydesma and Conularia faunas of the Salt Range are
reliable guides they indicate an Upper Carboniferous age for the Lower
Marine Series of the Hunter River of New South Wales,” according
to the last-quoted authority, an interpretation of age that has also
secured the adhesion of A. C. Seward. To the contrary, there seems
to be an ever-growing body of opinion in Australia that the base of
the Permian must at least be placed very considerably down in that
Series, and the Dilly Stage with several definite Permian affiliations
seems certain to be correlated with a low stage in it and at present,
most obviously, with the Eurydesma -glacial stage of Allendale. If the*
Eurydesma beds of India and Eastern Australia are approximately
synchronous then a considerable body of Australian opinion would
appear to closely conform to the Indian view expressed by Fox as to
the position of the dividing line between Carboniferous and Permian.-
in regard to that fauna.

64

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

It would be outside the ambit of this paper to refer to statements
which have appeared in papers abroad, and which have subsequently
been cited in Australian related literature that there are no ammonites
in the Permo-Carboniferous of New South Wales were it not that
any such occurrences should have a bearing on the age of the Bowen
Series in Queensland. In a footnote by Whitehouse (1929 b) to
fossil lists of the Bowen River Coalfield, he showed that a number
of the reputed “ Agathiceras micromphalus ” from that field were
referable to Bellerophon , but the statement allowed that the species
from the Upper Marine Series of the Maitland district, referred by
Etheridge (1896) to Goniatites micromphalus Morr. sp., is a definite
ammonoid.

It will now be difficult to maintain that the coral known as
Monilopora nicholsoni from the Queensland basin is restricted to the
^Carboniferous owing to the recent discovery of a very large type of
it in post-Dilly beds of the Springsure Dome and in the L. spring surensis
zone of Saltbush Park.

The writer’s view, based on his stratigraphic investigations in
Queensland, and the faunal determinations available, that the
Queensland Permo-Carboniferous fauna dates from the Upper
Carboniferous would possibly not be affected by advocacy of a Lower
Permian age for the Dilly Stage. If it is really equivalent to some
portion of the Lower Freshwater of the Dawson River, as there are at
present grounds for believing, there must be a very great thickness of
strata below it, involved in Dunstan’s Lower Marine and perhaps
portion of his Gympie Series, which contains what is usually termed in
Australia a Permo-Carboniferous faunal assemblage. The records
of these beds, possibly very imperfectly collected from, do not contain
Productus (?) subquadratus nor Eurydesma , two characteristic, if not
restricted, forms of the Dilly Stage of the Lower Bowen.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

•(1832) Etheridge, R. (Jr.) — Geology and Palaeontology of Queensland, by R. L.
Jack and R. Etheridge, Jr., p. 259.

(1896) Etheridge, R. (Jr.) — Pal. Novae Camb. Merid. N.S.W. G.S. Rec. Vol, IV.
pt. 1, p. 32, pi. VII.

(1901) Dunstan, B. — Geology of the Dawson and Mackenzie Rivers, Q’ld. Geol.
Sur. Pub. 155.

(1908) Girty, G. S. — The Guadalupian Fauna. U.S. Geol. Sur. Prof. Paper 58.

(1915) Diener, Carl — Anthracolithic Fauna of Kashmir, etc. Mem. G.S. I. Pal.
Indica Vol. 5, No. 2.

(1925) Whitehouse, F. W. — List of Fossil Fauna, Nebo District, Q.G.M. Jour,
p. 474.

(1927) Girty, G. H. — Geology, Etc., of Part of South-Eastern Idaho, U.S. Geol.
Sur. Prof. Paper 152, pp. 79 and 80.

(1928) Schuchert, C. — Review of the Late Palaeozoic Formations and Faunas,
Etc., Bull. Geol. Soc. America, Vol. 39, pp. 819-821.

(1928) Fox, C. S.— Geology of the Punjab Salt Range, Rec. G.S. I., Vol. LXI.,
Pt. 2, p. 166.

CORRELATIONS OF THE PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS BASIN

65

,(1929) Reid, J. H. — Geology of the Springsure District (Q.), Q’ld. Govt. Min.
Jour. Vol. 31, pp. 87 et seq.

.(1929) Thomas, H. Dighton — The late Palaeozoic Glaciation, Nature Vol. 123,
No. 3112, p. 946 et seq.

(1929) (a) Whitehouse, F. W. — Report on Springsure (Q.) Fossils, Q.G.M. Jour.
Vol. 31, pp. 156-7.

.(1929) (6) Whitehouse, F. W. — See Geol. of Bowen River Coalfield, Q.G.S. Pub.
276, p. 80.

.(1930) David, Sir T. W. E. — Permo-Carboniferous Correlation, Aust. and N.Z.
Assoc. Adv. of Sci., p. 64 (Brisbane).

Denmead, A. K. — Cracow Repts. Q.G.M. J., Aug. -Sept., 1931.

(1931)

66

Vol. XLIII., No 12.

Appendix to Correlations of the Queensland
Permo-Carboniferous Basin.

A NEW SPECIES OF PRODUCTUS FROM THE LOWER
BOWEN SERIES— QUEENSLAND.

By F. W. Booker, B.Sc. (Geological Survey of New South Wales).

Plates III-IV.

( Communicated by Mr. J. H. Reid, to the Royal Society of Queensland r
30 th November , 1931).

Introduction.

The material for the study of this new and interesting species of
Productus has been made available to me by Mr. J. H. Reid from his
private collection, and my thanks are due to Mr. Reid not only for the
opportunity to study this interesting form, but for the generous help
he has accorded me while working on it. My thanks are also due to
Mr. W. S. Dun, of the Geological Survey of New South Wales, for much
advice, and to the officers of the Australian Museum and Public
Library, Sydney, for their assistance.

GENUS, PRODUCTUS, Sowerby.

SUBGENUS, LI NOPRODUCTUS, Chao, 1927.

Synonyms :

Cora, Fredericks, 1928. Bull. Com. Geol. Leningrad, VoL
XL VI, No. 7, p. 789, 1928.

Euproductus , Whitehouse (Nom. nuda), Aust. Assn. Adv. Science,,
p. 282, 1926.

Anidanthus, Whitehouse (Nom. nuda), Loc. cit.

Pedicle valve strongly convex, brachial valve flattish to slightly
concave in the visceral portion, strongly geniculated towards the front,
resulting in the formation of an anteriorly produced long trail. Surface
marked by numerous fine, radiating striae and indistinct concentric
wrinkles. A double row of spines is invariably present along the
margin of the hinge line. Genotype, Productus cor a, d’Orbigny.”1

APPENDIX TO CORRELATIONS OF PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS BASIN 67

Chao refers the following species to the subgenus Linoproductus :

Productus ( Linoproductus ) lineatus, Waagen.

P. ( Linoproductus ) cora, d’Orbigny.

P. ( Linoproductus ) tenuistriatus , Verneuil.

P. ( Linoproductus ) simensis, Tchernyschew.

P. ( Linoproductus ) cancriniformis, Tchernyschew.

P. ( Linoproductus ) hemisphaerium , Kutorga.

P. ( Linoproductus ?) subplicatilis , Freeh.

P. ( Linoproductus ?) sinensis, Freeh.

P. ( Linoproductus ?) mammatus, Keyserling.

To these must be added P. ( Linoproductus ) aagardi, Toula, 1875 ;
P. ( Linoproductus ) waagenianus, Girty, 1908 ; P. ( Linoproductus )
eucharis, Girty, 1919 ; P. ( Linoproductus ) cora var. farleyensis, Eth.
& Dun ; and the new species herein described, Linoproductus
spring surensis.

Owing to overlapping ‘ in researches Fredericks’ genus Cora , 2
genotype, Productus cora, d’Orbigny, is synonymous with Chao’s
Linoproductus, 1927. 3 Chao’s subgenus must be accorded priority

over Fredericks’, having been published in 1927. Fredericks’ genera
unfortunately are described in Russian, with only a short English
summary, which is very vague.

In two footnotes to a paper published in 1926, Whitehouse 4
refers to Euproductus, genotype Productus cora, d’Orbigny and
Anidanthus, “ a new genus proposed for a new species of productid
(figured in Jack and Etheridge, Geology and Palaeontology of
Queensland and New Guinea, PI. 12, fig. 16, and PI. 44, fig. 13).”
Euproductus must therefore be regarded as synonymous with Chao’s
Linoproductus .5

The two figures referred to as Anidanthus appear to represent
two very different forms, of which one (PI. 44, fig. 13) is that herein
described as Linoproductus spring surensis. I have examined the
cast of a specimen showing the external ornament of a pedicle valve
from Saltbush Park, Nebo District, which I understood had been
referred by Whitehouse to Anidanthus. This was referable to Lino-
productus spring surensis. I have also a photograph of two specimens
of Anidanthus from Lake’s Creek, Rockhampton. These appear to
differ v^ery materially from the Springsure and Saltbush Park specimens,
particularly in the size and contour of the valves, in the ornamentation
and degree of demarcation of the ears. Productus cora, var. farleyensis,
Etheridge and Dun6 is also referred to Linoproductus, Chao.

Linoproductus spring surensis, sp. nov.

Compare Productus, sp. indt. cf. young of P. giganteus, Martin.
Jack and Etheridge, Geol. and Pal. of Queensland and New Guinea,
1892, p. 257, PI. 44, fig. 13.

Shell small. Pedicle valve much curved, inrolled and spreading
transversely. Umbo inflated, pointed and strongly incurved. Ears
depressed, flattened and distinctly marked off from the visceral portion

PROCCEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

‘68

of the valve. A shallow sinus is present, but the degree of development
varies considerably in individual specimens. The hinge line is very
long and straight.

The brachial valve is flat or slightly concave in the visceral portion
and is then strongly geniculated and produced to the anterior margin.

The surface of the pedicle valve is marked with fine radiating
striae. On the visceral portion of the valve there are on an average
about 16 striae in 10 mm.

The following table shows the size of the specimens and the coarse-
ness of the ornament : —

Locality

Length

Breadth

No. of Striae

in 10 mm.

25 mm.
29 mm.

19 mm. *
23 mm.

14 \

15 /

(Type)

Springsure

31 mm.

21 mm.

18

Dome

30 mm.

16 mm.

15

32 mm.

25 mm.

16

29 mm.

■ —

14

30 mm.

20 mm.

18

1

l

f

(Paratypes)

29 mm.

21 mm.

16

i

Saltbush Park

21 mm.

13 mm.

12

23 mm.

16 mm.

14 1

f

[ear the anterior

margin of

one or two

specimens are a few obscure

Tubercles, probably the bases of spines. Spines also occur along the
hinge line. Concentric wrinkles are developed on the ears and pass
into obscure, widely spaced, low undulations on the visceral portion
of the valve.

The brachial valve is ornamented with radiating striae, similar
to those of the pedicle valve. A number of strong, irregularly spaced
concentric wrinkles occur on the visceral portion of the valve. The
brachial valve has a well developed cardinal process and a septum
extending anteriorly for approximately two-thirds of the distance
from the hinge line to the point of geniculation of the valve. The
muscular impressions are compact and undifferentiated.

Main Horizon : Upper section of Hilly stage, Lower Bowen, with
a known range from the main Eurydesma horizon to the top of the

rstage.

Localities: Cattle Creek and Little Gorge Creek, Springsure Home;
Saltbush Park, Nebo Histrict ; Mt. Britton ; Yatton Goldfield, Queens-
land.

Linoproductus spring surensis is closely related to Productus
{ Linoproductus ) waagsnianus , Girty,7 P. ( Linoproductus ) eucharis,
Girty,8 and P. ( Linoproductus ) aagardi, Toula.9

APPENDIX TO CORRELATIONS OF PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS BASIN 69*
Girty’s description of P. waagenianus is as follows : —

“ Productus waagenianus , n. sp.”

“ Shell small. Ventral valve much inrolled, gradually
spreading transversely. Beak inflated, pointed, strongly incurved,
slightly projecting. Ears small, depressed, quadrate, flattened.
Sinus absent. Towards the margin the shell developes a few low
folds.

“ Dorsal valve nearly planate, with a narrow geniculated
portion around the front and sides, beak small indistinct, ears
undefined.

“ Surface marked by radiating lirae, concentric lirae, concentric
wrinkles and spines. Lirae very fine, about 14 in 5 mm. ; low,
rounded, separated by intervals as wide or wider than them-
selves. Concentric lirae rather coarse, but indistinct. Wrinkles
faint, distant, covering more than half the surface ; strong on
ears. Visceral portion with a few rather large nodes, which may
have been bases of spines, some of which appear to have been
located on the ears, especially near the hinge line. The foregoing
description, so far as it relates to the surface, is based on the ventral
valve. The surface of the dorsal valve is marked by concentric
wrinkles (and presumably concentric lirae) and radiating lirae.
The wrinkles on this valve are very strong, regular, subimbricating
and rather distant, covering the surface as far as the geniculation.
The shape and ornamentation are such as to simulate certain
varieties of Leptaena rhomboidalis . The wrinkles are so much
stronger than those of the ventral valve as to suggest that the
two shells do not belong together ; but the other characters are
similar, they are associated in the same beds, and nothing has so
far come to hand which in either case could be taken for a supple-
mentary valve. I have at present little doubt about their relation-
ship. Were it not for the peculiar character of the dorsal valve
it might perhaps have been possible to refer this form to the
common P. cora ; but with the present association it is out of
question.”

Diener refers to P. waagenianus , Girty a form from the Zewan beds
of Mandakpal.10 He mentions one specimen from the neighbour-
hood of Sangcha Malla in Eastern Johor, which had previously been
identified as P. Planohemisphaerium, Netsch and which may probably
be referred provisionally to P. waagenianus or P. eucharis , Girty.”11

A speciment previously referred to as Strophomena analoga, Phill. 12 ;
is also referred to P. ivaagenianus.

P. aagardi, Toula was the earliest of this group of producti to be
described.13 A free translation of Toula V original description is as
follows : —

“ A small Productus with unusually well arched pedicle valve.
This rises steeply from the anterior margin in a sharp bend and
falls away steeply to the produced and pointed umbo. The
latter projects only slightly over the hinge line and is especially

70 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

sharp at the umbo, yet incurved. The greatest breadth lies
behind the straight hinge line. From this strong wrinkles lead
up the sides without reaching the top (of the valve). The shell is
coarsely striated ; the striae run straight in the umbonal region
but beyond that are more irregular. They are very crowded in
the middle of the shell, where their number is augmented by
intercalation. A strong median sinus is visible in the centre of
the valve. The shell is comparatively thick and no traces of
spines are visible on the surface.

Productus cora, d’Orbigny, is perhaps most closely related
to our species as regards the form and height of the pedicle valve,
but the thickness of the shell, the coarse striations. and the small
size of our species are striking.

“ Dimensions : Breadth, 20 mm. ; height, 13 mm. ; length,
15 mm. ; breadth of largest specimen, about 28 mm.”

The Uralian type of P. aagardi figured by Tchernyschew14 differs
considerably from Toula’s description and figures. Unfortunately,
Tchernyschew’s description is in Russian, but his figures show a long
hinged, inflated shell with fine striae and larger ears than Toula’s
specimens, and in addition Tchernyschew’s figures do not show a
sinus. It is possible that Tchernyschew had a series of specimens
showing the transition from Toula’s form to his own, but if so he does
not mention them. The specimens he figures, however, appear to
resemble Diener’s Zewan specimens of P. waagenianus more closely
than they do Toula’s original figures of P. aagardi, particularly in the
finer and more regular striation and the absence of a median sinus.

Girty compares P. waagenianus 15 and P. eucharis 16 with
P. aagardi. He states that “ P. waagenianus is related to the Arctic
species P. aagardi, Toula, not only in a general way but in the plicated
condition of the dorsal valve. It is distinguished from it however
by its much finer liration.” As Toula does not mention the brachial
valve in his description or include a figure of one in his plates it is
evident that Girty’s comparison is with some other figures, possibly
those of Tchernyschew. The same remarks apply to the comparison
of P. eucharis with P. aagardi. P. eucharis resembles P. waagenianus
very closely ; in fact Diener17 states “ the only character of difference
which I can find, is the presence of spines in P. eucharis, “ some of them
large enough to occasion the deflection of the radiating lirae.”
P. eucharis is also without a median sinus.

Less closely related is Productus rewahensis , Cowper-Reed.18

Linoproductus spring surensis is very closely related to

P. waagenianus, Girty and P. eucharis, Girty. The striation of
L. spring surensis is coarser than that of the Guadelupian form and it is
probably nearer the Delaware variety. 19 which has about eight or nine
striae in 5 mm. L. spring surensis is also closely related to Diener’s
Zewan form of P. waagenianus and to the Uralian form of P. aagardi ,
Toula, figured by Tchernyschew. It differs from all these however
in the possession of a shallow, ill defined sinus, which varies consider-

APPENDIX TO CORRELATIONS OF PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS BASIN 71

ably in the extent of its development, being present in about sixty per
cent, of the specimens examined as a definite shallow sinus. In the
rest it is very shallow indeed or represented only by a flattening of the
shell along the median line, combined with a flexing of the growth
lines and an irregularity of the striae in that part of the shell.

L. springsurensis resembles Toula’s Arctic form of P. aagardi in
the possession of a sinus, but differs from it in the considerably longer
hinge line and more inflated and incurved umbo.

Associated with Linoproductus springsurensis in the Dilly beds
of Springsure Dome is a large Productus referrable to Productus
( linoproductus ) cora, d'Orbigny, which also occurs with L. spring -
surensis at Saltbush Park, Nebo district. A large Strophalosia
referrable to the common S. gerardi and a Spirifer of the S. stolcesi
type also occur in the same beds. Both these forms occur in the Lower
and Upper Marine Series of New South Wales.

REFERENCES.

(1) Chao, Y. T., Pal. Sinica, 1927, Ser. B. Vol. v, Fasc. 2, Productidae of China, pt. i,

pp. 128-147.

(2) Fredericks, G., Bull. Com. Geol. Leningrad, 1928, vol. xlvi. No. 7, p. 781 and 790.

(3) Chao, Y. T., Pal. Sinica, 1927, Ser. B. Vol. v., fasc. 2, pt. 1, pp. 128-147.

(4) Whitehouse, F. W., Aust. Assn. Adv. Science, 1926, p. 282.

(5) Muir Wood, H. M., Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 1930, v. 25, p. 104.

(6) Etheridge, R., Junr. & Dun, W. S., Records Geol. Survey N.S. Wales, 1909,

vol. viii, pt. iv, p. 302.

(7) Girty, G. H., The Guadelupian Fauna U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper No. 58,

1908, p. 253, pi. xii, figs. 6-7a.

(8) Girty, G. H., U.S. Geol. Survey Bulletin No. 436, 1910, p. 28, pi. ii, figs, 3-4.

(9) Toula, F., Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie (Separ. Abdr.), 1875, p. 235, pi. vii,

fig. 2.

(10) Diener, C., Pal. Indica, New Series, 1915, vol. v, Mem. No. 2, pp. 71-72, pi. vi,

figs. 18, 19, pi. vii, fig. 6.

(11) Diener, C., Pal. Indica, 1903, Ser. xv, vol. 1, pt. v., p. 73, pi. iii, fig. 17.

(12) Diener, C., Pal. Indica, 1899, Ser. xv, vol, 1, pt. 2, pi. 1, fig. 12.

(13) Toula, F., Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie (Separ. Abdr.), 1875. p. 235, pi. vii,

fig. 2,

(14) Tchernyschew, Th., Com. Geol. Russie, 1902, vol. xvi, No. 2, p. 285, pi. lvi, figs.

1-3.

(15) Girty, G. H., The Guadelupian Fauna, U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper, No. 58,

1908, pp. 253-4.

(16) U.S. Geol. Survey Bulletin No. 436, 1910, p. 28, pi. ii,

figs. 3-4.

(17) Diener, C., Pal. Indica, 1915, New Ser. vol. v, pt. 2, p. 72.

(18) Cowper-Reed, F. R., Rec. Geol. Survey India, 1928, vol. lx, pt. 4, p. 376, pi. 32,

figs. 1-la, pi. 35, figs. 1-7.

(19) Girty, G. H., The Guadelupian Fauna, U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper No. 58,

1908, p. 254.

72 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plate III.

Figs. 1, 2 Linoproductus springsurensis, sp. nov. Pedicle valve of Type specimen
from Upper Zone of Dilly Stage, Lower Bowen, Cattle Creek,
Springsure Dome, Queensland. X I.

Figs. 3-6 Linoproductus springsurensis, sp. nov. paratypes from the same-
locality. X I.

Plate IV.

Fig. 1

Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Fig. 4

Linoproductus springsurensis, sp. nov. Drawing by Mr. I. W. Helmsing
of the exterior of a brachial valve, showing ornament and concentric
wrinkling. Locality Cattle Creek, Springsure Dome. x I.

Linoproductus springsurensis, sp. nov. Photograph of the specimen
shown in Fig. 1. X 1.

Linoproductus springsurensis , sp. nov. Interior of a brachial valve-
showing septum and muscular impressions. Locality, Cattle Creek,
Springsure Dome. x I-

Linoproductus springsurensis , sp. nov. Interior of brachial valve
showing geniculation. Locality, Cattle Creek, Springsure Dome.

X I.

Figs. 5 & 6. Linoproductus springsurensis, sp. nov. Brachial valves from Saltbush
Park, Nebo district, Queensland. X L

Fig. 7 Linoproductus springsurensis, sp. nov. Cast of pedicle valve from

Saltbush Park, Nebo district. X L

Proc, Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLIII.

Plate III.

LI NOPRODUCT US SPRI NGSURENSI S (sp. nov.)

(1 and 2) Pedicle Valve of Tyfe Specimen.

(3 to G) Paratypes.

Loc. : Springsure Dome.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLIII.

Plate IV.

LI NOP ROD U CT V 8 SPR1 NGSURENSI S (sp. nov.)

(1 to 6) Brachial Valves.

(7) Cast of Pedicle Valve.

Vol. XLIII., No. 13.

73

Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora,

Part IV. — Agonis elliptica.

By Thomas Gilbert Henry Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I.

{Tabled before the Royal Society of Queensland , 30th November , 1931).

In continuation of the investigation of the oils derived from
the Agonis species growing in Queensland, the oil obtained from
the leaves of Agonis elliptica has now been examined. Supplies of
leaves were obtained from the swampy area a little to the north of
Beerwah, in which place several acres are covered very largely with
this shrub.

The essential oil which is present in the leaves to the extent only
of about .25% proved on examination to be somewhat similar to that
obtained from Agonis Luehmanni, although in this instance the
amount of ocimene was somewhat less. The principal constituent
is dextro rotatory pinene 70-80 % with ocimene and sesquiterpenes-
as minor constituents, little if any, oxygenated bodies being present.

Experimental.

400 lbs. of leaves collected at Beerwah on the 11th and 12th July,
1931, and distilled on the 16th July, gave 450 ccs. of oil with tho
following constants : —

d -8715

15 .5

[ci] . . . . 4-1P5

. D

n2o 1-4756

Ester Value . . . . . . Nil

Acetyl Value . . . . . . 6

Sodium hydroxide solution extracted a trace only of substance from,
the oil.

74

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Fractional Distillation of the Oil.

300 ccs. of oil

were

submitted to fractional distillation at 4 mms.

pressure and the following fractions

collected : —

Fraction

CCS.

+5.5

n20

MD

d)

0- 45° C

212

.8572

1.4670

+ 13

(2)

45- 80° C

14

.8929

1.488

-2.5

(3)

80-100° C

23

.9130

1.498

-2.5

(4)

100-110° C

11

.9299

1.4985

+ 12

(5)

110-140° C

7

.9588

1.4995

+ 0

Fraction (1) readily gave a nitrosyl chloride of melting point 105°C.,
likewise a hydrochloride and on oxidation pinonic acid characterised
by its semicarbazone M.P. = 204°C.

The fraction therefore consisted very largely of a pinene.

It was however further fractionated and divided into 6 fractions,
the first five of which also gave the characteristic tests for pinene.
The sixth fraction however was found to possess the following
constants : —

d -834

n20 1,4815

—2-5

The density suggested an olefine terpene and on further fractionation
6 ccs. of liquid were obtained of density ’828. This possessed the
characteristic odour of ocimene.

Reduction of the fraction gave a liquid of density .8164 whence
was prepared the solid tetrabromide (dihydro- ocimene tetrabromide)
M.P. 88°C. Although difficult to characterise in presence of pinene,
these experiments definitely indicated the presence of small quantities
of ocimene. No ft pinene could be detected.

Fractions (2), (3), (4) and (5) ail gave the usual colour reactions
with bromine vapour suggesting sesquiterpenes. Analysis indicated
the almost complete absence of oxygenated bodies. After further
fractionation finally over metallic sodium the following fractions (all
with molecular composition C15H94) were obtained : —

(a) 5 ccs. d

15.5

np
20

[a]

L Jn

•9064 b.p. 70-80°C. 4 mm.

1*4962
— 6

( b ) 15 ccs. d

15.5

20

[a]

(c) 10 ccs. d

15.5

20
[a I

•9146 b.p. 80-90°C. 4 mm

1-4985
—3

•9305
1-4995
+ 12

b.p. 90-100°C. 4 mm.

ESSENTIAL OILS FROM THE QUEENSLAND FLORA

75

Two sesquiterpenes appeared therefore to be present in the oil, one of
which was probably aromadendrene.

The somewhat higher density of the original fraction (5) gave
indication in this fraction of a small amount of sesquiterpene alcohol
in association with the sesquiterpene.

No solid derivatives could be prepared from these sesquiterpenes
and the small amount present in the oil precluded extended
investigation.

Thanks are due to Mr. C. T. White, Government Botanist, for
his usual courteous assistance, and to Mr. H. A. Slaughter, Glasshouse
Mountains, who was responsible for the collection of the leaves.

REFERENCE.

(1) Jones, T. G. H., and White, Proc. Royal Society of Queensland, XLII, 1931,
p. 24-27).

76

Vol. XLIII., No. 14.

Some Notes on Queensland Droughts.

By Professor J. K. Murray, B.A., B.Sc.Agr., Faculty of Agriculture,
University of Queensland.

( Read before the Royal Society of Queensland , 28 th September, 1931).

I. INTRODUCTION.

To define just what is a drought makes for difficulty. The
“ Weather Map ” definition for English conditions is quite inappro-
priate here. For Australia there may not be an authorative defini-
tion in the opinion of the Queensland State Meteorologist. Our climatic
conditions are very different from those of Britain. Rainfall of areas
may be similar in annual total, and one regarded as dry, the other
wet. The Lockyer Valley receives a greater annual rainfall than
London or the Rothamsted Experiment Station ; it can, however,
hardly be described as a wet district. The number of days on which
rain falls, the amount of sunshine received, the mean humidity —
these play an important part. Blackall receives an annual rainfall
not greatly dissimilar from that of Harpenden, England, where the
Rothamsted Experiment Station is situated, but the evaporation
from a water surface at Blackall (83") is almost five times the Har-
penden (Herts., Eng.) figure (17"). This leads to the consideration
that absolute quantities of rainfall are not of themselves a guide to
droughts or good conditions.

The last year of the 1900-1902 drought period had a rainfall
50% below the average for the State. In 1905 the rainfall was 36%
below average for the whole of the State.

Those years which have been characterised by the Bureau of
Meteorology as very bad years from the point of view of deficiency of
rainfall, may be regarded as droughts of a severe type.

II. GENERAL.

Some parts of the State, the Moreton district for instance, have
been blessed since 1927 with a run of fair to good seasons, a period
at least quite as long as those sequences which meteorological records
have shown as normally occurring between droughts. Moreton
agriculturists at least may have reason to consider means offsetting
the evils of drought, should it occur. Some other sections of the State
had a series of bad years beginning with 1926. These, too, may be
wise to endeavour to frame a programme calculated to reduce the ill-
effects of droughts, since records illustrate the possibility of only

SOME NOTES ON QUEENSLAND DROUGHTS

7 7

short relief periods — no longer than 1930-31. It needs only the
picturing of a Queensland drought, added to our other troubles in
1930 and 1931, to cause a realisation of the necessity to safeguard
properties and the State, as far as economically possible, against the
effects of a drought in the possibly near future. There does appear
to be a case for State consideration of means of insurance against
drought risks and consequences.

Some droughts (1900-1902) have ravaged the whole continent,
others (1926-7) Queensland ; and yet others have been most severe
in some parts of the State, while other portions have enjoyed good
seasons — 1927 and 1928 are recent examples. Other examples of
such years were 1897, a very bad year in most parts, but of normal
rainfalls on much of the Darling Downs ; 1904 was generally bad,

but west of a Normanton-Birdsville line rainfalls were above average.
In some areas a disastrous series of very bad years have been experi-

-enced.

The

rainfall for

nine

successive

years at Boulia (average

10.38")

was

for instance-

1922 . .

6.47

1926

.. 5.43

1923 . .

3.41

1927

.. 3.03

1924 . .

9.31

1928

.. 2.72

1925 . .

5.28

1929

.. 5.15

1930

.. 8.07

The disastrous 1900-1902 period was for Queensland “ the climax
of eight bad years.” From 1888 the drought years generally in Queens-
land might include 1888, 1892 (?) 1897, 1900-1902, 1905, 1912, 1914-
1915, 1919, 1922, 1923, 1926, 1927, 1928— a total of fifteen years of
acknowledged drought in a period of forty-three. A notable feature
is their frequency, but it is to be observed that the South East has
sometimes received normal rains while the North and West have
passed through a very bad year ; many variants of this type occur.
Rainfall itself may occasionally be a poor guide to drought conditions,
since an abnormal precipitation at one period of the year may cause
floods and cause average total rainfall to be recorded, masking,
however, periods of grave difficulty. The year of the Mackay-Innisfail
-cyclones was a case in point. The intensity of an undoubted drought
year is added to when the very bad year is preceded and/or followed
by a year of sub-normal rains, but hardly of itself a drought year.
1900 and 1901 were dry years followed by a very dry 1902. 1907,

1908 and 1909 were years in which parts of the State received in each
less than the normal rainfall, and the cumulative effect of shortage
made for a drought.

III. LOSSES DUE TO DROUGHT.

Some features are difficult to assess accurately. There is the
undoubted State or even national depression which may be so acute
as to result in losses of population, as indicated in the following
extract from the Commonwealth Year Book (No. 17, 1924). “ In

4he case of the drought of 1902-3 the departures from Australia exceeded
the arrivals for the two years 1903 and 1904 by 12,859 ”....“ for
the former of these years the natural increase of population was
.abnormally low.” The loss of purchasing power in the agricultural

78

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

industries has, of course, its effect on metropolitan centres. Unem-
ployment in secondary industries is experienced, and there is an almost
general loss of prosperity in city businesses. There are, too, the
widespread repercussions in governmental finance, taxation from
many sources showing a marked decline.

The direct losses in the Agricultural industries are somewhat
difficult to determine, other factors sometimes exaggerating or
minimising the drought effect.

Wheat. — The loss may be indicated by an acreage yield of 4f
bushels of wheat in Queensland in 1923 (drought) ; by 57,084 acres in
1926 (drought) yielding 379,338 bushels (average yield per acre, 6.65
bushels), and 1927-28 (good year in wheat area) 215,073 acres yield-
ing 3,783,548 bushels (average yield 17.59 bushels per acre). As
indicative of the continental distribution of drought and non- drought
areas in the disastrous Queensland year 1926-27, Victoria experienced
one of her best seasons, averaging 16.08 bushels of wheat per acre,,
and harvesting 46,886,020 bushels.

The wheat yield per acre and the total yield for Queensland is
subject to very wide fluctuations, owing to the location of the crop on
a relatively small, compact area in the South-East of the State,
covering at most three degrees of latitude, whereas other crops of
Queensland, such as sugar and maize, are distributed over twelve or
more degrees of latitude. There is seldom the same intensity of the
favourable or unfavourable conditions over twelve degrees of latitude,
as may occur over a belt of country covering but three. Moreover,
Queensland wheat is grown in a warm country with a summer rainfall,
whereas most winter-grown wheats are cultivated in somewhat colder
climates with a dominantly winter rainfall.

Sugar. — With sugar, the drought years 1923-24 and 1926-27
have yields of cane per acre of 14.75 and 15.45 tons, while the good
years, 1924-25 and 1925-26 gave an average per acre of 18.92 and
19 . 34. The reductions in yield are not so severe as with wheat, because
of the distribution of the cane crop over 1,000 miles of coast line,
the drought seldom being uniformly severe over the whole of the
latitudes represented ; the increasing trend of sugar cane production
north of Townsville may tend to cause wider fluctuations, though
the average yield may be higher.

Maize. — In the drought year 1926-27 the yield of maize in
Queensland was 2,658,895 bushels at an average yield per acre of
19.33. In the good year 1927-28 the yield was 6,703,518 bushels,
and the yield per acre 28.65. Again the distribution of the crop
covers more than 1,000 miles of coast line. Very wide differences in
average yield, such as those characterising wheat in Queensland,
where a good season yield is apt to be hundreds per cent better than
the drought one, do not occur with maize. Yield losses to maize
farmers are sometimes partially off -set by the high prices prevailing
as a consequence of the feeding of starving stock in drought :stricken
pastoral areas ; the cattle industry carries consequent abnormal
debits and the State the loss on the transport of grains and fodder ,
at starving-stock rates.

SOME NOTES ON QUEENSLAND DROUGHTS

79

Live Stock. — With live stock, drought losses are very grave, though
the effects vary with the type. Rapid recoveries are made with some,
as with pigs. The recovery with cattle is naturally slower, a longer
period being required to reach breeding age. When prolonged droughts
affect the State with only short periods of recovery, the results are
apt to be very severe.

Cattle. — In the following figures the effects of market fluctuations
also play a part, but the major factor is drought. Cattle and sheep
are affected by the respective prices for cattle and sheep products —

1921

1922

1923

1924

1925

1926

1927

1928

1929

7,047,370

6,955,463

6,396,514

6,454,653

6,436,645

5,464,245

5,225,804

5,128,341

5,208,588

Recovery from the 1922-24 droughty conditions affecting many of the
pastoral districts was impossible before the 1926-28 drought made
further severe reductions.

Horses. — The extensive use of cars, trucks, and tractors has
complicated the horse position, and it is difficult to state to just what
degree droughts, rather than displacement as power units, has resulted
in a lowered number of horses. The figures from 1922 to 1928 are as
follows —

1922

1923

1924

1925

1926

1927

1928

1929

713,015

660,385

659,023

637,426

570,690

547,412

522,490

500,104

The influence of heavy droughts as well as that of cars, trucks and
tractors in the decline in numbers given above is almost certain.

Sheep. — The loss in numbers owing primarily to droughts has
been marked —

1925

1926

1927

1928

1929

. . 20,663,323

. . 16,860,772

. . 16,642,385

. . 18,509,201

. . 20,324.303

The variation in the wool yield has followed a somewhat similar trend.
The loss of approximately five millions of sheep, or (say) 25% of the
total for 1925, represents a very heavy blow to the sheep industry ;

80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

just how heavy is difficult to state. There is, for instance, the
reduction in natural increase due to a lowered number of ewes, and a
lowered lambing percentage —

Ewes Mated

Lambs Marked

Lambing Per-
centage.

1925 . .

8,772,276

4,638,376

52.88

1926 . .

6,557,034

2,245,998

34.25

1927 . .

6,980,529

2,481,955

35.56

1928 . .

7,820,137

3,995,065

51.09

With sheep, owing to a probable positive correlation, under normal
financial conditions, between Australian wool production and world
prices, it may be held that a somewhat lower number of sheep would
not really result in a lowered Commonwealth net return and that the
expensive carrying through by hand feeding is not nationally economic.
The loss to the State, however, as a consequence of a depletion of its
flocks by 25% is not likely to be gainsaid.

Dairying. — The influence of drought years on the dairying industry
is indicated in these figures from the 1931 Annual Report of the
Queensland Farmers’ Co-operative Association —

Butter

Paid

Average

Manufactured

Suppliers

Price per lb.

1926

8,807,659 lbs.

£564,643

1. 3.38

1927

6,697,134 lbs.

£420,416

1. 3.08

1928

9,741,233 lbs.

£660,670

1. 4.27

The significant figures are those of butter manufactured in the drought
period January-December, 1927, compared with those of the year
before and after.

The following figures from the Commonwealth Year Book, 1930,
similarly illustrate the loss entailed —

Queensland.

Butter Cheese

1925- 26 63,001,073 12,580,942

1926- 27 51,402,633 9,260,043

On page 11 of a “ History of Queensland Dairying ,” published
inj December, 1923, by the Queensland Council of Agriculture, the
total loss to the dairying industry as a consequence of one drought
(1915) is assessed at more than two million pounds (£2,315,722).

In addition to the direct loss of stock there is also in all the live
stock industries, the loss entailed in the purchase or use of foodstuffs
to keep stock alive when the duration of the drought may make much
of the effort futile, or cause the expenditure on foodstuffs to equal or
exceed the value of the animal. There is also the loss of the breeding
effort. This is particularly noteworthy in the cattle industries where
so long a period is needed to complete an improvement in the herd.
It is discouraging to select carefully stud rams and ewes and flock rams
with a view to increasing the quality and quantity of wools if,

SOME NOTES ON QUEENSLAND DROUGHTS

81

periodically, the improved flocks are cut to pieces by the lack of
foodstuffs during the drought. It is similarly depressing for farmers
io purchase A.I.S., Jersey or other pure-bred dairy bulls from high-
producing lines and then, when the high-producing herd has been bred,
lose its valuable members through lack of feed during one of the
periodic droughts.

IV. CAUSES OF LOSSES AND MEASURES TO COMBAT THEM.
(i) Shortage of Water.

There was a time when the most serious menace occasioned
by droughts was the water shortage but, with the great development
of supplies from the great artesian basin, which Queensland fortunately
possesses, this trouble has been ameliorated to a great extent for our
£heep and cattle country. However, in this matter also some thought
of conservation is essential, since it seems certain that the ordinary
sinking, and the present maintenance of bores, leaves something to
be desired if we are to continue to obtain the maximum flow from the
artesian basin. The sinking of additional and better care of present
dams or tanks is necessary. Assistance is being given by the State
jn the provision of water facilities to meet the requirements of graziers.

(ii) Shortage of and Inefficiency in the use of Foodstuffs.

(a) Pastures Generally.- — Just to what extent pastures can be
improved to enable a smaller proportion of the holding to carry the
stock is less certain in the sheep and beef cattle industries than it is
in dairying. If such can be done, then grazing reserves or their
-equivalent are possible. Knowing what has been done in the improve-
ment made within two botanical species, wheat (T. vulgare) and
Maize ( Zea mays), to enable a greater production from a unit area,
it does not call for a great deal of courage to envisage pastures much
more productive than those we now have. The solution is one calling
for a special research effort, and the great importance of the pastoral
interest's to Queensland justify a belief that it will be undertaken.
Even more is this so when we consider the pasture improvement work
done in New Zealand, the southern Australian States and England.
The work has been commenced in Queensland, but the problem with
us is a much more difficult one, since our climatic conditions are not
dhose under which much of the knowledge at present available has been
obtained. Generalisations applied to Queensland on the basis of
.Southern Australian experience may be as wasteful as the application
:now of superphosphate to the Queensland black soil wheat areas.
sThe success of Farrer’s Federation and Florence in Australian wheat
-culture, the successful introduction of paspalum and clovers give hope
for improvement within grass species and the introduction of species
and varieties which will add to the efficiency of our pastures. It is
work for .a Pasture Research Branch generously provided with funds,
and with a personnel of the highest calibre.

The avoidance of over-stocking on pastures, even of a climax type
is sufficiently obvious as a drought precaution to need no stressing ;
dhe deterioration of pastures by the encouragement given to dominance
Iby the poorest constituents is one of the worst effects of overstocking.

F

82 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

(6) Inability to Transport Stock. — In a drought time it is essential
to be able to transport stock from drought stricken areas to those more
happily situated. The railway completed within recent years from
Winton to Longreach is a very valuable drought -fighting feature.
There is need for a railway from the Yaraka or thereabouts to the
Charleville-Quilpie line. It may be possible to construct such a liner
partly or wholly, from Unemployed Relief Funds, and thus convert
some of these contributions into State Capital on which no interest
will be payable and an asset obtained which would help the pastoral
industries to make the best use of the pastures we have. The further
link to Bourke would be worthy of consideration, keeping in mind the-
possible loss of pastoral business to the adjoining State ; obviously^
there must be a limit beyond which an industry in a Commonwealth
should not be handicapped to meet provincial interests. The possi-
bilities of the transport of stock by motor truck, as demonstrated by
W. A. Russell, Esq., M.L.A., is worthy of attention.

It may be unwise, as well as actuarially unsound to charge to sc
railway system the losses following on the provision of facilities to*
meet drought difficulties. Railways providing transport for starving
stock at unpayable rates will give their best results at drought times^
when the losses are recognised as a charge against some other Depart-
ment of State.

(c) Supplementary Foodstuffs . —It is possible that further research-
in keeping with the objective actuating the C.S.I.R. experiments at-
Meteor Downs may assist in drought-fighting by indicating methods-
of sheep and cattle feeding which are more efficient than those at
present in vogue. The use of licks as pasture supplements has not
been fully availed of and may be expected to furnish help also.

(d) Fodder Conservation. — A number of schemes have been
proposed — there is, for instance, the comprehensive one of the Council
of Agriculture, details of which are given in the first Annual Report-
of that body. In the dairying districts the possibilities are easier to*
visualise. There it is possible now to conserve grains and fodder with
a view to carrying the herd through the next drought. The possibilities-
of hay, silage and grains have only been touched. The conservation
of fodder and grains for the West, particularly with the prices of by-
products at the present low ebb (it is but an ebb) presents graven
difficulty, but I cannot believe it is insuperable. Once again we have
maize at a price in the vicinity of 2s. 3d. a bushel, and the conserving
of grain at that price should be sound business. This State can grow
large quantities of maize and lucerne to meet its drought needs ; it has-
also by-products such as the meals and molasses.

(e) Education.— There is a definite need for increased knowledge^
of animal nutrition among graziers and farmers. For the future this?-
can be done most effectively by encouraging graziers’ and farmersr
sons to attend University and State Agricultural College courses.
Immediately, the furtherance of the Adult Schools of Instruction and
the constant provision of suitable articles on nutrition in pamphlets,,
newspapers, and periodicals will be helpful. Without a sound know-
ledge of nutrition or a skilled guidance, drought-feeding and the?
purchase of foodstuffs for starving stock, is apt to lack something in
economy.

SOME NOTES ON QUEENSLAND DROUGHTS

8S:

(/) Weather Forecasting. — With notable advances in astronomical
and physical knowledge, it is difficult to believe that a research
organisation with a personnel highly trained in Mathematics, Physics
and Astronomy would not within a reasonable period be able to fore-
cast drought periods. With such forecasting, droughts would lose
the major part of their difficulties. The greatest single service that
science could confer on the farming and grazing industries might well
be reliable short and long distance weather forecasting. The possi-
bilities presented by such a service in the increased efficiency of agri-
culture would probably surpass those of plant -breeding effort, splendid
as these are.

So important does the United States of America consider the
weather forecasting and meteorological services to be in agriculture
that the Weather Bureau is a branch of the Federal Department of
Agriculture. With perspective of the order that some churches possess
and that an agriculturally based nation should have, research in weather-
forecasting should be a major project.

To assess the losses of a severe Queensland drought at £10,000,000
is probably not to exceed reasonable figures. The sheep, cattle and
dairying and merchandising units should find it worth while to prepare
for a contingency of the kind ; and the State may consider the matter
of sufficient importance to explore all avenues which present possi-
bilities of lessening the damage which droughts assuredly cause.

I am indebted to the Queensland Divisional Meteorologist, the
Council of Agriculture, and the Year Books of the Commonwealth
and of Queensland. I have drawn also on an article “ Droughts
appearing in the Queensland Agricultural College Magazine in 1927.

The Royal Society of Queensland

REPORT OF COUNCIL FOR 1930.

To the Members of the Royal Society of Queensland.

Your Council has pleasure in submitting its Report for the year
1930.

Nine original papers were read before the Society, and published
during the year. In addition, the following addresses were delivered : —
“ The Biological Control of Prickly-pear,” by Mr. A. P. Dodd ; “ The

Role of Diseases in the Biological Control of Prickly-pear,” by Mr.
H. K. Lewcock, M.Sc. ; “ The Sugar Industry,” by Dr. L. S. Bagster ;
“ The Development of a Mining Industry by Modern Scientific
Methods,” by Professor H. C. Richards, D.Sc.

The Council wishes to acknowledge generous subsidies amounting
to £70 10s. from the Queensland Government towards the cost of
printing the Proceedings of the Society. Appreciative acknowledgment
is also made to the University of Queensland for housing the library
and providing accommodation for meetings.

In connection with the financial statement, it will be noted that
only half the usual Government subsidy is shown. For a considerable
time the Government has paid half our Government Printer’s bill
for printing our Proceedings, the amount of subsidy being limited to
£150 per annum. This subsidy has been of very great value to us,
enabling us to publish much more than would otherwise have been
possible. There are probably members who do not realise that it is
only by publishing a respectable volume of new work every year, that
we obtain the 200 volumes of the proceedings of other scientific
societies which makes our library so extremely valuable to nearly all
scientific workers. Should we fail to keep our publications at a fair
level, we will certainly lose our exchanges, and might find it extremely
difficult to regain the lost position. As the fiscal year of the Govern-
ment ends on 30th June, we had the subsidy up to that date. Since
then we have had no subsidy, and certain papers had to be held over —
-a procedure which we all deplore. A deputation to the Premier, in
August last, pointed out that all the Government subsidy as well as
all our subscriptions goes to building up this essentially national library
— the only one of its kind in Queensland — that no member of the
Society receives honorarium or pay for anything done for the Society,
and that the work of the Society was of great importance in the
development of the State. The Premier, Mr. Moore, received us most
.sympatheticalty, stated that he quite recognised the national importance
•of keeping our work and our library going, and trusted that he would

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

be in a position next financial year to assist us again with the printing,
of our Proceedings.

At a time like this there is a tendency for members to meet a
dwindling private income by dropping their subscription to our Society.
Fortunately, so far, only a few have felt this course to be necessary,,
and we trust that few others will follow suit. There are many
people in Queensland who, if they knew of the need for help towards
publishing in Queensland the scientific work of Queenslanders would
readily assist by giving the small annual subsidy which we ask for
membership. Your Council trust that all members, realising the
difficult position the Society is in, will strive during this year to
get as many new members as possible, particularly from among
professional workers who depend for their livelihood on a knowledge
of science and scientific methods.

During the A.A.A.S. meeting in Brisbane last May, a conference
was held which was attended by delegates from all the Royal Societies
in Australia. The purpose of the conference was to discuss the
possibility of forming a Royal Society of Australia. After a lengthy
discussion the delegates agreed that the idea was impracticable at the
present time.

The membership roll consists of 4 corresponding members, 7 life
members, 167 ordinary members, and 2 associate members. During
the year there were 5 resignations, and 13 new members were elected.
The death of Mr. R. C. Cowley is reported with regret.

There were eleven meetings of the Council, the attendance being
as follows : — E. W. Bick, 9 ; W. H. Bryan, 10 ; R. W. Cilento, 2 ;
G. H. Hardy, 10 ; J. B. Henderson, 8 ; D. A. Herbert, 11 ; T. G. H.
Jones, 9 ; J. S. Just, 6 ; H. A. Longman, 4 ; J. P. Lowson, 0 ;
F. A. Perkins, 10 ; H. C. Richards, 9 ; C. T. White, 5 . Mr. Francis’
was granted leave of absence for the year.

J. B. HENDERSON, President.

F. A. PERKINS, Hon. Secretary.

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

STATEMENT OF RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE FOR YEAR ENDING 31st DECEMBER, 1930.

IWI.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

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Examined and found correct.

JOHN S. JUST, Act. Hon. Auditor. E. W. BICK, Hon. Treasurer.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Vll.

Abstract of Proceedings, 30th March, 1931.

The Annual Meeting of the Society was held in the Geology Lecture
Theatre of the University at 8 p.m. on Monday, 30th March, 1931.
The President (Mr. J. B. Henderson) occupied the chair, and about
sixty members and visitors were present. An apology for absence
was received from Miss Bage. The minutes of the previous meeting
were read and confirmed. The following were proposed for ordinary
membership — Miss Cue and Messrs. Kyle and McDougall, proposed
by Mr. Perkins and Dr. Herbert, and Messrs. F. C. Bennett, J. B.
Brigden, W. L. Payne, and Dr. Reye, proposed by Mr. Henderson
„and Prof. Richards. The Annual Report and Balance -sheet were
adopted.

The following officers were elected for 1931 : —

President : Dr. D. A. Herbert.

Vice-Presidents : Mr. J. B. Henderson, F.I.C. (ex officio) and
Dr. T. G. H. Jones.

Hon. Secretary : Mr. F. A. Perkins, B.Sc. Agr.

Hon. Treasurer : Mr. E. W. Bick.

Hon. Librarian : Mr. W. D. Francis.

Hon. Editors : Mr. H. A. Longman, F.L.S., C.M.Z.S., and
Dr. W. H. Bryan, M.C.

Hon. Auditor : Prof. H. J. Priestley, M.A.

Members of Council : Dr. R. W. Cilento, Mr. J. S. Just,
M.I.M.E., Dr. E. O. Marks, Prof. H. C. Richards, D.Sc.,
and Mr. C. T. White.

Mr. J. B. Henderson delivered his Presidential Address, entitled
11 Unused Knowledge.” His Excellency the Governor moved a vote
•of thanks, which was carried by acclamation. Prof. H. C. Richards
expressed the Society’s appreciation of the presence of His Excellency
the Governor.

Abstract of Proceedings, 27th April, 1931.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting was held in the Geology Lecture
Theatre of the University on Monday, 27th April, at 8 p.m. The
President, Dr. D. A. Herbert, in the chair, and about thirty members
and visitors present. An apology was received from Mr. Bick. The
minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. The
following were unanimously elected members of the Society : — Miss
J. Cue, B.Sc., Messrs. W. M. Kyle, M.A., W. McDougall, B.Sc., F. C.
Bennett, B.Sc., W. L. Payne, J. Brigden, M.A., and Dr. Reye. The
following were proposed for ordinary membership : — Miss E. Duncan,
B.Sc., by Messrs. Stoney and Perkins ; Dr. J. G. Drew, by Mr.
Henderson and Professor Richards; Mr. N. Fisher, B.Sc., by Dr.
Brvan and Mr. White.

vm.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Dr. W. H. Bryan exhibited an interesting basaltic agglomerate
from the hill known as Mt. Tarampa, in the Lockyer Valley, near
Tar mpa.

This exhibit was commented on by Mr. Tryon.

Mr. H. A. Longman exhibited a specimen of Demansia guttata
Parker, which had been sent to the Queensland Museum by Mr. A.
McLeod, Hazelwood, Longreach. This species was described from
two specimens collected at Winton by Captain (now Sir Hubert) Wilkins
for the British Museum. The snake exhibited was the third to be
recorded. Comments were made on this exhibit by Dr. Marks and
Mr. Tryon.

The President extended a hearty welcome to Mr. Francis, the Hon..
Librarian of the Society, on his return from Europe. Mr. Francis^
gave an account of his trip abroad, describing the different herbaria
in which he had worked, and the botanists with whom he came in
contact.

Mr. C. T. White read a paper entitled “ Two Previously'
Undescribed Queensland Myrtaceae.”

The paper describes two new species of Myrtles from Queensland.
The first of these is Darwinia Porteri, first collected by Mr. George-
Porter on rocky hills near Watsonville, North Queensland. The
genus is an interesting one as it is confined to Australia, most of the
species being natives of Western Australia. The* genus commemor-
ates the famous naturalist, Charles Darwin, and was previously only
represented in Queensland by one species. It is a pretty little shrub
with red and yellow flowers and when placed in water retains its^
freshness for quite a long time.

The second plant is a new species of Tea Tree or Melaleuca col-
lected at Traverston at the mouth of the Burrum River by the author,
and it has been named Melaleuca Cheelii after Mr. Cheel of the Botanic^
Gardens, Sydney, in recognition of his work on this genus of plants.

This paper was commented on by the President.

Professor Hawken then took the chair, and the President, Dr.
D. A. Herbert, read a paper entitled “ The Movements of Neptunia
gracilis , a Native Sensitive Plant.”

Neptunia gracilis is a native sensitive plant whose leaves close-
rapidly when touched or wounded, reopening slowly until in ten or
fifteen minutes they are again in their normal position. At night
they close, but to a greater extent than they do when wounded. In
a wounded leaf the stimulus is transmitted along the leaf, and also-
slowly across the axis to opposite leaflets, and not along the axis and
back down the other side.

An extract of Neptunia leaves produces a normal response in those-
of the American sensitive plants. Mimosa pudica and Mimosa

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ix.

Spegazzinii , but curiously does not produce any movement in the
leaves of Neptunia itself. Extracts of a native species of wattle,
Acacia podalyriaefolia, and of various other leguminous plants, were
found to act as a stimulant in the same way, so that the property of
producing a stimulant is not restricted to plants such as Mimosa and
Neptunia, which show rapid movement. Non-leguminous sensitive
plants such as Averrhoa do not respond to the substance.

This paper was discussed by Messrs. Hines, Tryon, Longman,
Dr. Marks and Professor Hawken. Professor Richards then moved,
a vote of thanks to Mr. White and Dr. Herbert which was carried by
acclamation.

Abstract of Proceedings, 25th May, 1931.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting was held in the Geology Lecture
Theatre of the University at 8 p.m., on Monday, 25th May. The
President, Dr. D. A. Herbert, was in the chair. Apologies were received
from Messrs. Henderson, White and Perkins. The minutes of the
previous mee ing were read and confirmed. The following were
unanimously elected members of the Society : — Miss E. Duncan, B.Sc.,
Dr. J. G. Drew and Mr. N. Fisher, B.Sc.

Dr. Lockhart Gibson exhibited the inflorescence of a papaw
plant, which had been cut back in you h. The inflorescence also
bore young fruit. In addition to male and female flowers, the plant
bore flowers, exhibiting stages intermediate between the male and
females. It is sometimes claimed that male plants of this species
can be converted into females by cutting back before the flowering
period. The exhibitor remarked upon the occurrence of hermaphro-
ditism in human beings. The President, Mr. Bick, Dr. E. O. Marks,
and Mr. W. H. Parker, a visitor, commented upon the exhibit.

Dr. T. G. H. Jones read a paper by himself, and Mr. M. White,
M.Sc., entitled “ Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora : Agonis
Luehmanni Bailey.”

Agonis Luehmanni is known only to occur on the tops of some
of the Glass House Mountains. The yield of oil was .25%.
Constituents of the oil proved to be principally pinene 60%, ocimene,
aromadendrene, sesquiterpene alcohol, and a small amount of a
crystalline yellow solid. This result is in contrast with that from
Agonis abnormis, the oil of which consists primarily of sesquiterpenes.

Dr. T. G. H. Jones gave a short lecture on “ Essential Oils.” The
lecture dealt with the general properties of essential oils and the
methods of extracting them. The primary method was that of
distillation in steam, but for perfumery extraction with suitable
solvents was frequently resorted to. This yielded better perfumes.
The steps necessary in the general examination of essential oils were
then discussed, particularly the determination of important physical
and chemical constants. Reference was then made to the essential

X.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

oils from Australian plants, particularly those from the eucalypts.
The theory of Smith and Baker, connecting leaf v nation and
-chemical constituents, and the possible evolution of the eucalypts
was finally dealt with.

The President, Mr. Bennett, Dr. E. 0. Marks, Mr. Francis and
Dr. Lockhart Gibson took part in the discussion which ensued.

Abstract of Proceedings, 29th June, 1931.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting was held in the Geology Lecture
Theatre of the University on Monday, 29th June, at 8 p.m. The
President, Dr. D. A. Herbert, in the chair, and about seventy members
and visitors present. Apologies were received from Dr. Bagster and
Mr. Francis. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and
■confirmed. The following were proposed for ordinary membership :
Messrs. B. Blumberg, B.Sc., and D. C. Fison, B.Sc., by Messrs.
Perkins and Hitchcock, and Mr. Cummings by Messrs. Henderson
and Perkins.

Dr. T. G. H. Jones read a paper by himself and Mr. L. Hitchcock,
B.Sc., entitled “ The Fixed Oil from the seeds of the Noogoorra Burr,
Jtanthium pungens”

The investigation of the oil from the seeds was undertaken in
order to determine whether it possessed economic value. The yield
of oil obtained by extraction of the finely ground burr, by low boiling
point benzoline, was 8%, considerably lower than that obtained by
extraction of the seeds themselves 25%, a process unpracticable on
the large scale. The oil was found to be a mixture of the glycerides
of oleic and linolic acids with smaller amounts of saturated glycerides
.and can be classified as a semi-drying oil. Although of some economic
value, the difficulty of isolating the oil from the burr would render
the process of little value as a source of oil.

This paper was commented on by Mr. Bennett and the President.

Mr. F. W. Moorhouse delivered a lecture entitled “ Recent Marine
Biological Work on the Barrier Reef.” He described his experiences
while carrying out research work on the life history and habits of the
green turtle, trocus, and sponges. The green turtle lays up to 195
■eggs at a time, returning to the beach to lay at intervals of about a
fortnight, returning as many as seven times in three months. Only
the females came ashore, the largest animal seen having a back
measurement of 48 inches, and the smallest measured 35 inches. The
incubation period lasted from 9J-10J weeks according to the situation
of the nest. On hatching the young turtles remain in the nest until
after dark and then run with amazing speed straight to the sea. Mr.
Moorhouse gave a brief account of the rate of growth of trochus and
sponges.

A vote of thanks, moved by Prof. Goddard and supported by
Prof. Richards and Mr. Longman, was carried by acclamation.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XI

Abstract of Proceedings, 27th July, 1931.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting was held in the Chemistry Lecture
Theatre of the University on Monday, 27th July, at 8 p.m. The
President, Ur. U. A. Herbert, occupied the chair, and about thirty
members and visitors were present. Apologies were received from
Prof. Goddard, and Messrs. L’Estrange and Henderson. The minutes
of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Messrs. B.
Blumberg, U. Fison, and Cummings were unanimously elected ordinary
members of the Society. Mr. R. Wilson was proposed for ordinary
membership by Messrs. Bick and Perkins.

Mr. G. H. Hardy read a paper entitled £t Aphididae in Australia.”

This paper gives an account of the Aphides found to occur in
Australia, only one being regarded as definitely indigenous. Twenty
genera are recorded, those of the subtribe Pentalonina being treated
in full. A list of identified aphides and their host-plants is given,
and also a list of indigenous plants found harbouring aphides in
Queensland.

Mr. C. T. White exhibited specimens of three species of Aceratium
all from North-eastern Queensland. The genus was previously only
known to consist of twelve species, ten in New Guinea, one in the
Molucca Islands and another in the New Hebrides. The genus
belongs to the family Elaeocarpaceae and has not previously been
recorded for Australia. Descriptions of the Australian species have
been drawn up and will be published at an early date.

Dr. Bagster performed a very interesting experiment using ether
to demonstrate critical phenomena in a liquid-gas system.

Mr. H. J. Hines demonstrated (a) A new colormetric method for
the determination of P205 and As.^Os (Zinzadze. Z. Pflanz. Diing.,
1930, 16a, 129). (6) An electrical method for the reduction of draft

in ploughing (Crowther and Haines J. Agric. Sci., 1924, 221). (c) The

Zeiss Cardiod Condenser.

Dr. Herbert exhibited (a) Nostochopsis lobatus Wood a blue green
Alga from the Albert River. (6) Rafflesia manillana flowers collected
at 2,000 feet altitude on Mt. Maquiling, Philippine Islands. This
plant is parasitic on Cissus sp. and the flowers only are external, the
vegetative parts being reduced to strands in the host tissues, (c) On
behalf of Mr. L. P. Hitchcock a specimen of the bark of Sterculia sp.
from the West Indies prepared to show the reticulated rings of bast
fibres.

Mr. Perkins exhibited ( a ) A female gall of Apiomorpha excupula
Pull. (Fam. Coccidae) on E. paniculata collected at Bauple, Q., by
Mr. F. Sheldon Stringer. This is a new record for the State and also
a new host record. (6) Specimens of the Buffalo Fly ( Lyperosia
exigua) collected on Mornington Island by Dr. I. A. Mackerras.

Mr. McCall exhibited an Analytic Quartz Lamp. This is a mercury
vapour lamp so fitted with two Wood’s filters that ultra violet rays

Xll.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

are projected horizontally and vertically. The vertical rays fall
inside movable black curtains, so that specimens may be examined for
fluorescence in daylight. The effect of the ultra violet rays was shown
on various drugs and chemicals, also on minerals and precious stones,.

Abstract of Proceedings, 31st August, 1931.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting was held in the Geology Lecture
Theatre of the University on Monday, 31st August, at 8 p.m. The
President, Dr. D. A. Herbert, occupied the chair, and about seventy
members and visitors were present. Apologies were received from
Messrs. Kyle and Francis. The minutes of the previous meeting
were read and confirmed. Mr. P. S. Hossfeld, M.Sc., was proposed
for ordinary membership by Professor Richards and Dr. Bryan. Mr.
R. Wilson was unanimously elected an ordinary member of the
Society.

The evening was devoted to the celebration of the Michae
Faraday centenary, and the following addresses were given : —

‘‘Michael Faraday: Biographical Sketch,” by H. A. Longman
F.L.S.

“Faraday as a Physicist,” by Prof. T. Parnell, M.A.

“ The Chemical Aspects of Faraday’s Work,” by Prof. L. S'-
Bagster, D.Sc.

“ The Engineering Aspects of Faraday’s Work,” by J. S. Just,.
M.I.M.E.

A vote of thanks to the speakers, moved by Mr. W. M. L’ Estrange
was carried by acclamation.

A paper by Mr. H. J. G. Hines, B.Sc., entitled “ Investigation of
Queensland Soils, No. 1, Properties as Shown by Single Value
Characteristics,” was laid on the table.

This paper records results obtained in a preliminary examination
of some Queensland soil types. Values are recorded for 63 soils of
air-dry moisture, ignition loss, moisture at the sticky point, and Keen-
Racskowski box data. Confirmatory of other workers all the above
values give useful information, applicable to survey and classification.

The ignition loss is of doubtful value as a measure of the colloid
content of the soil owing to its variation with the chemical nature of
the collodial material. The soils were grouped according to profile
characteristics, marked differences occurring between calcareous and
non-calcareous soils. In the latter group a gradation of properties
exists through the sequence yellow earths, red earths, laterites.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Xllt.

Abstract of Proceedings, 28th September, 1931.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting was held in the Geology Lecture
'Theatre of the University on Monday, 28th September, at 8 p.m.
The President, Dr. D. A. Herbert, occupied the chair, and about
thirty members and visitors were present. An apology was received
from the Minister for Agriculture. The minutes of the previous
meeting were read and confirmed. Mr. P. S. Hossfeld, M.Sc., was
unanimously elected an ordinary member of the Society.

The main business of the evening was an address by Prof. J. K.
Murray, entitled “ Some Notes on Queensland Droughts.”

The Queensland Council of Agriculture estimated the loss of the
dairying industry due to the 1915 drought at £2,300,000. Severe losses
■occur as a consequence of interrupted schemes of stock improvement ;
ieeding drought stricken cattle may be an entire loss.

To decrease the losses amelioration of the causes is necessary.
Greater efficiency in the use of the Artesian Basin water supply and
increased conservation of run off. Increasing the carrying capacity
of pastures and provision of pasture reserves. A Pasture Improvement
research branch is an essential. Improvement of stock transport
facilities to enable the movement of stock to regions experiencing a
better season ; the charging of railway losses on such transport to a
Department of State other than the Railways Department. Research
in the matter of pasture supplementary foodstuffs and substances
n,nd drought fodders. Conservation of grains and fodders when
prices are abnormally low, vocational education of farmers’ and
graziers’ sons so that, by extending the knowledge of animal
nutrition, the use of pastures, their improvement and drought feeding
of cattle, etc., might be more efficiently done. The establishment of
-an Australian Long Distance Weather Forecasting Bureau with a
personnel highly trained in Mathematics, Physics and Astronomy
represents the most important and promising strategic measure in the
ultimate minimising of drought effects.

The lecturer indicated the more than usual desirability of pre-
paring for drought during the present crisis ; a drought added to our
present difficulties would be a grave occurrence.

Droughts are taken to mean those seasons in which a major
portion of the State received less than average rainfall. The English
definition is not applicable. Evaporation from soils and abnormal-
ities in distribution influence the worth of rainfall for water reserves
and pasture production ; the Blackall evaporation figure is five times
that of Harpenden, England, though the annual rainfall is not greatly
dissimilar.

Very severe drought periods have been the culmination of two or
more years’ shortages (1900-1902) ; the rainfall for 1902 was only 50%
of the average for the State and followed two years of shortage
(1900-1901). Boulia experienced eight consecutive years with a
rainfall below normal. The lesser droughts vary in incidence. One
portion of the State may be gravely affected ; another may experience
a good season.

XIV.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

The consequences of droughts may include losses of population,,
decreases in national income, governmental difficulties in finance,,
distress in metropolitan and rural areas, loss of farm and grazing;
capital.

With Queensland crops the losses may be instanced by decreases
in acreage and yield per acre. The 1923 and 1926 droughts gave
wheat per acre yields of 4f and 6| bushels ; in the latter year Victoria
experienced one of her best seasons. These two years depressed the
sugar cane yields from an average of about 19 tons to 15 tons per
acre despite the distribution of the crop over 1,000 miles of coast line ;
maize, similarly distributed, was similarly depressed in yield in 1926.

Drought, as a major factor, was responsible for a decrease in the
number of cattle from seven to five millions between 1921 and 1928,

The drought period, 1926-27, reduced the sheep from twenty to>
sixteen millions, and the lambing percentage from 53 to 34.

A vote of thanks moved by Prof. Richards, and supported b;y
Messrs. Bennett, Williams, Jones, Marks, Gipps, Kemp and th&
President, was carried by acclamation.

Abstract of Proceedings, 26th October, 1931.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting was held in the Geology Lecture-
Theatre of the University on Monday, 26th October, at 8 p.m. The
President, Dr. D. A. Herbert, occupied the chair, and about thirty
members and visitors were present. Apologies were received from
Messrs. White and Francis. The minutes of the previous meeting
were read and confirmed. Mr. J. E. Ridgway was proposed for
ordinary membership by Messrs. Reid and Perkins.

Mr. J. H. Reid exhibited some fossiliferous limestone boulders-
from Bannockburn, near Rockhampton. The matrix consisted of
pebbles of quartz, and andesite in calcareous grits. Favosites, Try -
plasma , and four other coral genera occurred, designating a Devonian
age. The boulders are of interest because they were probably con-
temporaneous with an horizon at Silverwood where similar boulders-
occur. It is not suggested that the limestone boulders at Bannock-
burn have a glacial origin, and no boulders of granite, schist, etc.,
have yet been observed. Professor Richards and Drs. Bryan, Marks,,
and Whitehouse commented on this exhibit.

The main business of the evening was a lecture by Dr. F. W.
Whitehouse on “ Some Problems of Queensland Palaeo-botany.”

The Lower Mesozoic sediments of Queensland are extraordinarily
rich in fossil plants ; and in spite of the fact that a number of mono-
graphs have been published by Walkom and others on these floras
there are still many undescribed species. Recent work suggests that
the following stages may be recognised in these deposits :

\BSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

4. A Middle Jurassic Stage, characterised particularly by
Otozamites, Sagenopteris, Taeniopteris spathulata and Phlebopteris
(? Laccopteris) , but without Thinnfeldia.

3. A Lower Jurassic (Liassic) Stage, characterised by the
association of Taeniopteris spathulata , with Thinnfeldia and having;
present also Ptilophyllum, Coniopteris hymenophylloides , Araucarites,
Anomozamites , Johnstonia (?), Linguifolium, etc.

2. An Upper Triassic Stage without Taeniopteris spathulata
and characterised by normal forms of Thinnfeldia, Stenopteris spp,
nov., Sphenopteris superba, Yabeiella, Fraxinopsis, Linguifolium r
Dictyophyllum, Ginkgoites, etc.

1. A Lower Triassic Stage characterised by abundant
Schizoneura, species of Thinnfeldia with very large pinnules, Glossop -
teris, Asterotheca, Linguifolium, Yabeiella, Fraxinopsis, Nilssonia
etc.

The distribution of plants in these stages, and the suggested
correlation of the several series of Australian Lower Mesozoic rocks
with them was illustrated.

The floras of these beds are particularly interesting because of
the occurrence in them of certain apparent angiosperms, together
with some very interesting hemicycads. Hitherto, only two types of
angiosperms have been described from Lower Mesozoic rocks. Thomas
has described certain fruits and flowers associated with leaves of
Sagenopteris in Jurassic beds in Yorkshire ; and a similar association
has been described by Seward from Greenland. Furthermore,
Wieland has described a genus of fruiting body, which he called
Fraxinopsis , from Triassic beds in Argentine that was associated with
a type of leaf to which Oishi has given the name Yabeiella. This-
type of leaf has been recorded in other countries but no further fruiting
bodies have been described.

Here in Queensland we find, in the Middle Jurassic beds of Dura ka^
impressions of flowers and fruiting bodies associated with the leaves
of Sagenopteris, similar in external appearance to those described by
Thomas and Seward. Furthermore, in both our Upper and Lower
Triassic beds, Fraxinopsis occurs here associated with Yabeiella. In
addition, in the Upper Triassic beds of Ipswich, there is at least one
other undescribed fruit of Angiosperm type. Specimens of these
forms were exhibited.

The beds are interesting also from their wealth of hemicycads.
Specimens from Queensland were exhibited of many forms, including i

(1) Female flowers of Williamsonia attached to fronds of

Ptilophyllum ; and

(2) Flowers apparently of a new genus akin to W illiamsoniella „■

These forms occur with fronds of Taeniopteris, Linguifolium -
etc., but it cannot be determined with which type of frond
they are connected.

XVI.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

The relationship of the hemicycads to other groups (angiosperms,
cycadofilicales, etc.), was discussed, and the suggestion was made that
possibly Glossopteris, which in the Permian had developed several
distinct structural types, might be the ancestral group of both the
hemicycads and the early angiosperms.

Specimens of Glossopteris from the Lower Triassic beds repre-
senting two of the structural types found in the Permian were recorded
and exhibited.

Mr. Reid and the President took part in the discussion which
ensued. A vote of thanks to the lecturer was carried by acclamation.

Abstract of Proceedings, 30th November, 1931.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting was held in the Geology Lecture
Theatre of the University on Monday, 30th November, 1931.

The President, Dr. D. A. Herbert, occupied the chair, and about
25 members and visitors were present. Apologies were received
from Messrs. Jones, Hardy and Longman.

The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.
Mr. J. E. Ridgway was unanimously elected an ordinary member
of the Society.

Two papers, “ Two Previously Undescribed Rutaceae from S. E.
Queensland ” and “ A Previously Undescribed Dipterocarp ” were
read by Mr. C. T. White. A paper by Mr. G. H. Hardy, entitled
^Australian Flies of the Genus Actina,” was laid on the table.

The following papers were read by Mr. J. H. Reid : — “ Correlations
of the Queensland Permo-Carboniferous Basin : The Dilly Stage of

the Lower Bowen,” by Mr. J. H. Reid ; and “ A New Species of
Productus from the Lower Bowen Series, Queensland,” by Mr. F. W.
Booker. These papers were discussed by Dr. Bryan, Mr. Denmead
and Dr. E. 0. Marks.

A paper by Dr. T. G. H. Jones, entitled “ Essential Oils from the
Queensland Flora, Part IV. : Agonis elliptical was laid on the table.
This paper was commented on by Mr. White and the President.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

XVII;

Publications toe been received from the following Institutions,, Societies, etc., and
are hereby gratefully acknowledged

Algeria —

| Societie de Geographic et d’Archaeologia
d’Oran.

Argentine —

Universidad Nacional de la Plata.
Australia —

|- Commonwealth Bureau of Census and
Statistics, Canberra.

Department of Agriculture, Melbourne.
Department of Mines, Melbourne.

Royal Society of Victoria.

Field Naturalists’ Club, Melbourne.

I Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, Melbourne.

Department of Mines, Adelaide.

Waite Agricultural Research Institute,
Glen Osmond.

Royal Society of South Australia.

Royal Geographical Society of Australasia,
Adelaide.

Public Library, Museum,, and Art Gallery,
Adelaide..

University of Adelaide.

; Standards Association of Australia, ; ....
I',..' ’Sydney/. ... , __ ...

Naturalists’. Society; of New South. Wales.
Department of Agriculture, Sydney.
Department of Mines, Sydney.

Royal Society of New. South Wales.
Linnean Society of New South Whales.
Australian Museum, Sydney.

Public Library, Sydney.

I University of Sydney.

> Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

Australian .Veterinary Society, Sydney.

; Field Naturalists’ Club, Brisbane.
Department of Mines, Brisbane.
Queensland Museum, Brisbane.
Department of Agriculture, Brisbane.
Registrar-General’s Department, Brisbane.
Royal Geographical Society of Austra-
lasia (Queensland), Brisbane.

Field Naturalists’ Club, Hobart.

Royal Society of Tasmania.

Mines Department, Hobart.

Mines Department, Perth.

Royal Society of Western Australia.

Austria —

Naturhistorische Museum, Vienna.

Belgium —

Academie Royale de Belgique.

Societe Royale de Botanique de Belgique..
Societe Royale Zoologique de Belgique.

Brazil —

Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janerio.
Ministerio de Agricultura Industria y
Commercio, Rio de Janerio.

British Isles — -

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

. British Museum (Natural History), London
Cambridge Philosophical Society.

Literary and Philosophical Society, Man-
chester.

Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society. »,
Royal Society, London.
iConchological - Society of Great .-Britain
and Ireland, Manchester.

Royal Empire Society, London.

The Bristol Museum and Art Gallery. •

Imperial Bureau of: Entomology, London.-
Imperial Agricultural Bureau, Aberysth-
wyth.

Royal Society of Edinburgh. * .
Botanical Society of Edinburgli.

Royal Dublin Society.

Royal Irish Academy, Dublin.

Canada —

Department of Mines, Ottawa.

Royal Astronomical Society of Canada,
Royal Society of Canada.

Royal Canadian Institute.

Nova Scotian Institute- of Science.
Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.

Ceylon —

Colombo Museum.

Cuba —

Sociedad Geografica de Cuba, Habana
Denmark —

The University, Copenhagen.

G

Xvlll.

PUBLICATION S RECEIVED.

France —

Station Zoologique de Cette.

Societe des Sciences Naturelles de 1’ Guest.
Museum cl’Historie Natural, Paris
Societe Botanique de France
Societe Geologique et Mineralogique de
Bretagne

Societe de Geographic de Rochefort.
Germany —

Zoologische Museum, Berlin.

Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde Berlin.
Deutsche Geologische Gesellschaft, Berlin.
Naturhistorischer Verein der preus Rhein-
land und Westfalens, Bonn.
Naturwissenschaftlichen Verein zu Bremen.
Senckenbergischen Bibliothek, Frankfurt
a. Main

Kaiserlich Deutsche Akademie der Natur-
forscher, Halle.

Zoologischen Museum, Hamburg.
Naturhistorisch-Medizinischen Vereins>
Heidelberg.

Akademie der Wissenschaften, Leipzig.
Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Munich.

Centralblatt fur Bakteriologie.

Hawaii—

Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu.
Holland —

Technische Hoogeschool, Delft.

Italy —

Instituto di Bologna.

Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Pisa.
Societa Africana d’ltalia, Naples.

Museo Civico, Genova.

India —

Geological Survey of India.

Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa.

Japan —

Imperial University, Kyoto.

Imperial University, Tokyo.

National Research Council of Japan,
Tokyo.

Java —

Koninklijk Naturkundige Vereiniging,
Weltvreden.

Department van Landbou v, Buitenzorg.

Mexico —

Instituto Geologico de Mexico.

Sociedad Cientifica “ Anatonio AlzateJ'
Mexico.

Secretario de Agriculture y fomento,
Mexico.

Observatorio Meterorologico Central,
Tacaibaya.

New Zealand —

Dominion Museum, Wellington.

New Zealand Institute, Wellington.
Auckland Institute and Museum.
Dominion Laboratory, Wellington.
Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, Wellington.

Geological Survey of New Zealand.

Peru —

Sociedad Geologica del Peru, Lima.

Philippines —

Bureau of Science, Manila.

Poland —

Polskie Towarzystwo Przyrodnikow im
Kopernika, Lwow.

University of Poland.

Societes Savantes Polonaises.

Portugal —

Academia Polytechnicada, Oporto.
Sociedade Broteriana, Coimbra.

Institute Botanico, Coimbra.

Russia —

Akademie des Sciences Russie, Leningrad.
Bureau of Applied Entomology, Leningrad

Spain—

Real Academia de Ciencias y Artes de
Barcelona.

Real Academia de Ciencias, Madrid.
Museo de Historia Natural, Valencia.
Academia de Ciencias de Zaragoza.

Sweden —

Geological Institute of Upsala.
.Switzerland —

Societe de Physique et d’Historie Natural,
Geneve.

Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, Zurich.
The League of Nations, Geneva.

South Africa—

Geological Society of South Africa,
Johannesburg.

South African Museum, Capetown.
Durban Museum, Natal.

Transvaal Museum, Pretoria.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

XIX.

United States of America —

United States Geological Survey, Washing-
ton.

Natural History Survey, Illinois.

Lloyd Library, Cincinnati.

Wisconsin Academy of Arts, Science and
Letters, Madison.

California Academy of Sciences.

Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.
University of Minnesota.

University of California.

Library of Congress, Washington.

Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.
American Museum of Natural History,
New York.

Buffalo Society of Natural History.
Boston Society of Natural History.
American Philosophical Society, Phila-
delphia.

American Geographical Society, New
York.

Smithsonian Institute, Washington.
Carnegie Institute, Washington.

United States Department of Agriculture,
Washington.

Oberlin College, Ohio.

National Academy of Science, Washington.
Rochester Academy of Sciences.

Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila-
delphia.

New York Academy of Science.

Indiana Academy of Science.

American Academy of Science and Arts,
Boston.

Institute of Biological Research, Balti-
more.

John Crerar Library, Chicago.

Ohio Academy of Science, Columbus.
Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plains.
Michigan Academy of Arts, Science and.
Letters.

University of Michigan.

Minnesota Geological Survey.

New York Zoological Society.

Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology,
Philadelphia.

Portland Society of Natural History.

San Diego Society of Natural History.
Puget Sound Biological Station, Seattle.
Missouri Botanic Gardens, St. Louis.
University of Illinois, Urbana.

State College of Washington, Pullman.
Bureau of Standards, Washington.
National Research Council, Washington.
United States National Museum, Washing-
ton.

Public Health Service, Washington.
Peabody Museum of Natural History,
Yale.

Lawde Observatory, Arizona.

XX.

LIST OF MEMBERS,

List of Members.

David, Professor, Sir T. W.
♦Domin, Dr. K.

* Maitland, A. Gibb, F.G.S.
♦Skeats, Professor E. W.

Corresponding Members.

E., F.R.S. The University, Sydney, N.5.W.
Czech University, Prague
Melville Place, S. Perth, W.A.
The University, Melbourne, Vic.

Ordinary

Members, Etc.

Atherton, D. 0., B.Sc.Agr.

Bage, Miss F., M.Sc.

fBagster, L. S., D.Sc.
*tBailey, J. F.

Ball, L. C., B.E. . .

*f Bancroft, T. L., M.B.
Barker, Miss E., B.A.
Barker, F. . .

Barker, G. H.

Barr, L. L. S., B.Sc.Agr.

Barton, E. C., A.M.I.C.E

Beckman, G. H., B.Sc. .
♦Bennett, F., B.Sc.
Bennett, F. C., B.Sc.
Bick, E. W.

Blumberg, B.

Bostock, J., M.D., B.S.,
M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.

Brigden, V. B., M.A.

D.P.M.

Briggs, Mrs. C.

Brown, Jas., B.A., M.D., Ch.B
D.Ph. (Cambridge)

♦Bryan, W. H., M.C., D.Sc.
Bryan, W. W., B.Sc.Agr.
Brydon, Mrs.

♦Buhot, E. W.

Butler- Wood, F., D.D.S.

(Edin.

Buzacott, R. H. . .

Cameron, Colonel D. C., C.M.G.

D.S.O.,

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane

Women’s College, Kangaroo Point, Bris-
bane

The University, Brisbane
Botanic Gardens, Adelaide, S.A.
Geological Survey Office, Brisbane
Palm Island, Queensland
Infants’ School, Fortitude Valley, Brisbane
Railway Audit Office, Brisbane
Adelaide Street, Brisbane

Edgecliffe, River Terrace, Kangaroo Point,
Brisbane

care of National Bank of Australasia.

4 Queen Victoria Street, London
Crook Street, Northgate, Brisbane

State School, Toowong, Brisbane
Pharmacy College, Brisbane
Botanic Gardens, Brisbane
Inkerman Street, South Brisbane

Wickham House, Wickham Terrace, Bris-
bane

Department of Labour and Industry.
Brisbane

First Avenue, Eagle Junction, Brisbane

“ Widmoorene,” Margaret Street, Too-
woomba

The University, Brisbane
Gatton College, T.P.O., South
Department of Public Instruction, Brisbane
Department of Health, Brisbane

Permanent Chambers, Adelaide Street,
Brisbane

London Road, Clayfield
Brisbane

•j-Life Members.

♦Members who have contributed papers to the Society-

LIST OF MEMBERS.

XXI.

Cameron, W. E., B.A.

Carson-Cooling, Geo., M.Sc.

Cayzer, A., B.Sc.

Chamberlain, W. J., M.Sc.

Cilento, R. W., M.D., B.S.

Colvin, J. . .

Cottrell -Dormer, W., B.Sc.Agr.

Crawford, Miss L.

Croll, Gifford, M.B

Cue, Miss J., B.C. . .

Cumbrae-Stewart, Professor F. W. S.,
D.C.L., K.C.

Cummings, W. H.

*Denmead, A. K., M.Sc.

Dixon, G. P., C.B.E., MB., Ch.M.
*Dodd, Alan P.

Drew, J. G., M.B

Duncan, Miss E., B.Sc. . .

*Duhig, J. V., M.B

Dunstan, B.

Epps, A. P.

Evans, C. K., M.Sc. . .

Fisher, N., B.Sc.

Fison, D. G., B.Sc. . .

Ferricks, Miss E. M.

Fitzgerald, Miss M., B.Sc.

Ford, F. Campbell

Fortescue, L.

* Francis, W. D.

Freeman, C. B.

Frew, A. E. Harding, B.E.
Gaukrodger, D. W.

Gibson, J. Lockhart, M.D.

* Gillies, C. D., M.B., B.S., M.Sc.
*Goddard, Prof. E. J., B.A., D.Sc.

Graff, R., M.B., B.S. . . . .

*Grey, Mrs. B. B., F.L.S.

Greene, Miss A. . .

*Gurney, E. H.

*Hamlyn-Harris, R., D.Sc.

Hardie, Sir David, M.D., M.S.

* Hardy, G. H.

Tatong, Victoria

Boys’ Grammar School, Brisbane
The University, Brisbane

Water Supply and Sewerage Department,
Brisbane City Council

Steamship Chambers, Eagle Street, Brisbane
Central Technical College, Brisbane

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane

Children’s Hospital, Brisbane
Sherwood, Brisbane

c/o Mrs. Foster. Rossmore Avenue, Coor-
paroo

The University, . Brisbane

The Telegraph, Brisbane

Geological Survey, Edward Street, Brisbane

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane

Prickly-Pear Laboratory, Sherwood, Bris-
bane

Health Department, Brisbane
Girls’ Grammar School, Brisbane
Wickham Terrace, Brisbane
Franklin Street, Annerley, Brisbane
Sugar Refinery, New Farm
Ipswich Technical College, Ipswich
Mt. Isa

O’Connell Street, Kangaroo Pt., Brisbane
Old Sandgate Rd., Eagle Junction, Brisbane
Children’s Hospital, Brisbane

“ Stanford,” Kennedy Terrace, Red Hill,
Brisbane

New Zealand Chambers, 334 Queen St.,
Brisbane

Botanic Gardens, Brisbane
City Buildings, Edward Street, Brisbane
T. and G. Buildings, Queen St., Brisbane
Windermere Road, Ascot, Brisbane
Wickham Terrace, Brisbane
Ridge Street, Northgate
The University, Brisbane
District Hospital, Alpha

Union Bank of Australasia, Broome,
Western Australia

High School, Wynnum

Agricultural Chemist’s Laboratory, William
Street, Brisbane

Town Hall, Brisbane
“ Blythsdale,’” Hamilton, Brisbane
Biology Department, University, Brisbane

fLife Members.

^Members who have contributed papers to the Society,

XXII.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Harris, V. E. G., B.Sc. . .

♦Hawken, Professor R. W., B.A., M.E.,
M.Inst.C.E

*Henderson, J. B., F.I.C. . .
♦Herbert, D. A., D.Sc.

Herdsman, L. P. . .

♦Hill, Miss D., M.Sc.

♦Hines, H. J., B.Sc.

Holdsworth, Miss N. M., B.Sc.
Hitchcock, L. F., B.Sc.

Hirschfield, 0. S., M.B.

Hossfeld, P. S., M.Sc.
f Hulsen, R.

Jack, Thos.

Jackson, A. G.

*Jensen, H. I., D.Sc.

Jones, Miss G.

Jones, A. J., M.L.A.

Jones, Inigo

* Jones, Owen, M.Sc.

♦Jones, T. G. H., D.Sc., A.A.C.I.

Jorgensen, G. H. . .

Just, J. S.

Kelly, N. L., B.Sc

Kemp, J. R.

Kerr, W. H., Ph.D., M.Sc

Kyle, W. M., M.A

♦Lambert, C. A.

*Legg, J. D., V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S

L’Estrange, W. M.

Lethbridge, Miss M. E. . .

Lewcock, H. K., M.Sc. . .

♦Longman, H. A., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S.

*Love, W., M.B., Ch.M

Lowson, Professor J. P., M.A., M.D. . .
Lydon, R. J.

♦Mackerras, Mrs. Ian, M.B.

Maitland, A. Gibb
Mandelson, L. F., B.Sc.Agr.

Marks, Hon. Dr.

The Southport School, Southport
The University, Brisbane

Government Analyst, Brisbane
Biology Department, University, Brisbane

Government Printing Office, George St.,
Brisbane

Newnham College, Cambridge
The University, Brisbane
Queensland Museum, Brisbane
Kedron Park Road, Wooloowin
Wickham Terrace, Brisbane
Department of Home Affairs, Canberra
Valley Corner, Brisbane
Cunningham Street, Dalby
Synchronome Co., Elizabeth St., Brisbane
Treasury Chambers, George St., Brisbane
Children’s Hospital
Parliament House, Brisbane

Bower Street, off Gladstone Road, South
Brisbane

Sydney Street, Eagle Junction, Brisbane

Chemistry Department, The University,
Brisbane

care of Australian Chemical Co, Grey St.>
South Brisbane

Box 1067N., G.P.O., Brisbane

care of Department of Agriculture and
Stock, Brisbane

Main Roads Commission, Desmond
Chambers, Adelaide Street, Brisbane

Department of Agriculture and Stock4
Brisbane

University, Brisbane

care of Bank of N.S.W., Melbourne, Vic.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Townsville

43 Charlton Street, Ascot
Children’s Hospital, Brisbane
Department of Agriculture, Brisbane
Queensland Museum, Brisbane
1 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane
“ Inchcolm,” Wickham Terrace, Brisbane
Central Technical College, Brisbane

care of Dr. I. Mackerras, Linnean Society
of N.S.W., 16 College Street, Sydney

Melville Place, Perth, W.A.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane

101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane

fLife Members.

♦Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

XXIII.

LIST OIT MEMBERS.

Marks, A. H., C.B.E., D.S.O., M.D. .
♦Marks, E. 0., M.D., B.A., B.E.
♦Massey, Bey. C. H.

Mathewson, J. H. R., M.B., Cli.B.

♦McCall, T., F.I.C. . . ..

McDonald, S. F., M.D., M.R.C.P.
McDougall, W. A., B.Sc.

McDowall, VaL, M.D

McKenzie, A. D., M.B., Ch.M.

McLean, J. B., D.S.O., M.B., B.S. .
Meyers, E. S., M.B

Michael, Rev. N. . .

Moorhouse, F. W., M.Sc.

Morris, L. C., A.M.I.C.E.

Morton, C. C., A.C.T.S.M.

Morwood, R. B., M.Sc.

Muir, Miss E., B.Sc.

Murphy, Ellis, M.D.

♦Murray, Professor J. K., B.A., B.Sc.Agr

O’Connor, E. A., M.Sc.

Ogilvie, C., B.E.

Parker, Geo.. L.B.S. (Eng.), II.D.D
R.C.S. (Edin.)

Parker, W. R., L.D.S

♦Parnell, Professor T., M.A.

Payne, W. L.

♦Pearce, Mrs. T. R., M.Sc.

Perkins, F. A., B.Sc.Agr.

Phillips, T. J.

♦Pound, C. J., F.R.M.S

Preston, G.

Price, T. A., M.B., B.S.

♦Reid, J. H

Reye, A. J., M.B.

♦Richards, Professor H. C., D.Sc.

f Riddell, R. M

Ridgeway, J. E. . .

Rimmer, T., M.Sc.

Roe, J. M., M.B.

Russell, E., M.B., Ch.M.

Saunders, G. J., M.Sc., B.E.

Schindler, C., B.Sc.Agr.

Scott, Miss F. E.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane
101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane
Ekebin, Brisbane

Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace,
Brisbane

Government Analyst’s Dept., Brisbane
“ Fancourt,” Wickham Terrace, Brisbane
Department of Agriculture, Mackay
Preston House, Queen Street, Brisbane
Russell Street, Toowoomba
“ Lauriston,” Wickham Terrace, Brisbane

Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace,
Brisbane

The Rectory, Ayr, North Queensland
Marine Department, Brisbane

Department of Public Instruction, George
Street, Brisbane

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane

Girls’ High School, Gympie
97 Wickham Street, Brisbane

Agricultural High School and College
Gatton

The University, Brisbane

Irrigation Commission, Winton

Derby Street, Highgate Hill, Brisbane

185 Edward Street, Brisbane

The University, Brisbane

Lands Department, Brisbane

Queen Street, Stanton Hill, Townsville

The University, Brisbane

care of Daily Mail, Queen Street, Brisbane

Bacteriological Institute, Yeerongpilly

Gregory Terrace, Brisbane

Toowoomba

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane

97 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane

The University, Brisbane

Department of Public Instruction, Brisbane

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane

University, Brisbane

Department of Public Health, Brisbane

(>3 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane

Central Technical College, Ipswich

Stuckey Road, Eagle Junction, Brisbane

Scott Road, Herston

fLife Members.

♦Members who have contributed papers to the Society,

LIST OF.. MEMBERS.

XXIV.

Sharp, A. F., B.E.

Shaw, B. E., A.M.I.E. . .

Shepherd, E., M., B.E.

Shepherd, S. R. L.

Simmonds, J. H., M.Sc.

Simmonds, J. H., senr. . .

*Smith, F. B., B.Sc., F.I.C.

Smith, J. Id., M.Sc.

Steel, W. H., M.B.

Steele, Professor B. D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Stephenson, S'., M.A. .. .. ..

Stoney, A. J., B.E.E.

Swain, E. H. F. . . . .

Sylow, Paul . . . . . .

Taylor, G. C., M.B., Ch.M.

Theodore, Hon. E. G. ... .

Thompson, C. L., B.D.Sc.

*Tibbits, P. C.

-{•Tilling, H. W., M.R.C.S. (Eng.), L.R.C.T.
(Lond.)

Tommerup, E. C., B.Sc. . . . .

*Tryon, H

*Turner, A. J., M.D., F.E.S.

Veitch, R., B.Sc. . .

Waddle, I., M.Sc. . . . .

Wadley, J. B.

fWalkom, A. B., D.Sc. ... .. . ..

Watkins, S.. B., M..,Sc... ...

Wells, W. G. ..

* White, C. T., F.L.S. . . : . . .

White, M., M.Sc. . . .. .. ..

*M hitehouse, F. W., Ph.D., M.Sc.

Wilson, R.

Wood, E. J. Ferguson, M.Sc.

Irrigation Commission, College Road, Bris-
bane

Irrigation Commission, College Road, Bris-
bane

Irrigation Commission, College Road, Bris-
bane

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane

Hillsdon Road, Taringa, Brisbane

Hutton’s Factory, Zillmere

Court House, Cairns

Rosemount Hospital, Windsor

The University, Brisbane

Boys’ Grammar School, Brisbane

The University, Brisbane

Director of Forests, Brisbane

Angus Street, Bardon

Children’s Hospital, Brisbane

Commonwealth Offices, Sydney

Club Chambers, Creek Street, Brisbane

Irrigation Commission, College Road, Bris-
bane

Town Hall, Brisbane

C.S.I.R., 314 Albert Street, East Melbourne
Gladstone Road, Highgate Hill, Brisbane
131 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane •

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane

Brisbane State High School, Musgrave
Park, Brisbane

State School, Severnlea . • . '

Science House, Gloucester Street',. .Sydney
Central Technical College, Brisbane

Department of Agriculture and Stock
Brisbane

Government Botanist, Botanic Gardens,
Brisbane

The University, Brisbane
Geological Department, University,
Brisbane

Kirkland Avenue, Coorparoo
Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane

fLife Members.

*Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

PROCEEDINGS

ROYAL SOCIETY

OF THE

QUEENSLAND

FOR 1932.

The authors of the several papers are individually responsible
for the statements made therein.

VOL XLIV.

ISSUED 25th MARCH, 1933.

PRICE

FIFTEEN

Printed for the Society

by

H. POLE & CO. PTY. LTD., Printers, Elizabeth Street, Brisbane

NOTICE TO AUTHORS,

1. Each paper should be accompanied by the author’s name, degrees and official

address.

2. Papers must be complete and in a form suitable for publication when communicated

to the Society and should be as concise as possible.

3. Papers must be accompanied by an abstract of not more than one hundred words.

i

4. Papers should be in double-spaced typescript on one side of the paper with ample

margins.

5. The use of italics in the text should be restricted to generic and specific names,

foreign words and titles of periodicals.

6. The cost of author’s corrections to proof above what the Council considers a reason-

able amount, must be borne by the author.

7. Unless otherwise specified each author will be supplied with fifty separate copies

of his paper. Any number exceeding this may be obtained at approximately
cost price.

8. All references should be listed at the end of each paper and arranged alphabetically

under authors’ names, e.g.t

Keilin, D. (1929) Proc. Roy. Soc. B, vol. 104, p. 207.

Lesage, P. (1895) Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot., vol. 1, p. 309.

The corresponding references in the text should be :

“ Keilin (1929)”, “ Lesage (1895)”.

9. The size of the printed plate will not exceed 8 in. x 4£ in., and drawings may be to

this size, or preferably to a convenient small multiple thereof. The effect of
the necessary reduction on lettering and fine detail should be borne in mind.
Text figures should be drawn for reduction to a width not exceeding 4 in.

10. Drawing in line should be executed in intensely black ink, such as good India ink,

on a smooth surface, preferably Bristol board. Excessively fine, scratchy
or faint lines are to be avoided. Tints or washes cannot be reproduced in line
drawings, in which the maximum degree of contrast is necessary.

11. Drawings or photographs for reproduction in half-tone should, where possible,

be grouped for reproduction on one plate. They should be done or mounted
on a smooth surface, such as Bristol board, as the grain of most drawing papers
becomes visible on reproduction. Single photographs should be sent flat and
unmounted. All prints should be on glossy bromide or gas-light paper.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

QUEENSLAND

FOR 1932.

VOL XLIV. 7£ ' 1 •

The authors of the several papers are individually responsible
for the statements made therein.

ISSUED 25th MARCH, 1933.

PRICE: FIFTEEN SHILLINGS

Printed for the Society
by

H. POLE & CO. PTY. LTD., Printers, Elizabeth Street, Brisbane

The Royal Society of Queensland.

_===^=

Patron :

HIS EXCELLENCY.. LIEUT. -GENERAL SIR JOHN GOODWIN, K.C.B.,.
K.C.M.G., D.S.O., F.R.C.S.

OFFICERS, 1932-1933,

President :

T. G. H. JONES, D.So., A.A.C.I.

Vice-Presidents :

D. A. HERBERT, D.Sc.

R. W. CILENTO, M.D., B.S.

Hon. Treasurer : Hon. Secretary :

E. W. BICK. F. A. PERKINS, B.Sc. Agr.

Hon. Librarian : Hon. Editors :

W. D. FRANCIS. W. H. BRYAN, M.C., D.Sc.

L. F. HITCHCOCK, M.Sc.

Members of the Council :

J. B. HENDERSON, F.I.C., J. S. JUST, M.I.M.E., E. 0. MARKS, B.A., B.A.I., M.D.
H. C. RICHARDS, D.Sc., C. T. WHITE, F.L.S.

Trustees :

F. BENNETT, B.Sc., J. B. HENDERSON, F.I.C., A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D.

Hon. Auditor :

J. S. JUST, M.I.M.E.

Bankers :

COMMONWEALTH BANK OF AUSTRALIA

CONTENTS

VOLUME XLIV.

No. 1. — Presidential Address : By D. A. Herbert, D.Sc. Issued 18th
July, 1932

No. 2. — The Production of Protein by Inorganic Material : Evidence
Suggestive of the Generation of Life : By W. D. Francis.
Issued 8th August, 1932

No. 3. — Notes on Australian Stratiomyiidae : By G. H. Hardy.

Issued 13th September, 1932

No. 4. — A Revision of the Australian Species of the Coral Genera
Spongophyllum E. & H. and Endophyllum E. & H. with A
Note on Aprophyllum Smith: By 0. A. Jones, M.Sc., F.G.S.
Issued 24th September, 1932

No. 5. — Preliminary Note on the Geology of Mount Barney : By

Professor H. C. Richards, D.Sc., W. H. Bryan, D.Sc., and F. W.
Whitehouse, Ph.D. Issued 28th September, 1932

No. 6. — Note on the Stratigraphical Significance of Monilopora
Nicholsoni : By W. H. Bryan, M.G., D.Sc. Issued 4th

October, 1932 . .

No. 7. — The Australian Species of Macroteleia and Prosapegus
(Scelionidae) Hymenoptera : By Alan P. Dodd. Issued 7th

February, 1933

No. 8. — The Geomorphology of the Moreton District, Queensland :
An Interpretation : By C. A. Sussmilch, F.G.S. Issued 15th

February, 1933

No. 9. — Some Observations on the Physiography of the Brisbane
River and Neighbouring Watersheds : By E. 0. Marks,

B.E., M.D. Issued 20th February, 1933

No. 10. — Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora. Part V.

Eriostemon Glasshousiensis : By T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc.,

A.A.C.I. Issued 1st March, 1933

No. 11. — On the Presence of Glendonites in the Dawson Valley : By
F. W. Whitehouse, Ph.D., M.Sc. Issued 17th March, 1933 . .

Report of the Council

Abstract of Proceedings

List of Library Exchanges

Pages

1-22

23-40

41-49

50-63

64-70

71-74

75-103

104-131

132-150

151-152

153-155

iv-vi.

VII.-XVII.

XVIII.-XX.

List of Members . .

. . xxr.-xxv.

Vol. XLIV., No. 1.

Proceedings of the Royal Society of
Queensland.

Presidential Address.

By D. A. Herbert, D.Sc., Department of Biology, University of

Queensland.

( Delivered before the Royal Society of Queensland, 29th March, 1932).

The Royal Society of Queensland performs three functions in
the life of the community. It endeavours to set a high standard of
scientific research, it publishes the results of current investigations
of scientific workers in the State and beyond it, and by exchange
it is accumulating a valuable library of the publications of kindred
societies in all parts of the world. Realizing that the Society has
a wider duty as a unit in the great co-operative organization of modern
science, the Council has steadily pursued its objective of having the
Proceedings, embodying the work of Queensland investigators, avail-
able in all the main centres of research. The Proceedings have
consequently increased in importance as a medium for publication
of results of more than local importance. In common with other
sections of the community, the Society has just passed through a
difficult year. The Government grant, which in more pros-
perous years supplemented the members’ subscriptions in supporting
the work of publication and exchange of scientific periodicals, is no
longer available. The Council has, however, been able by rigid economy
to publish its forty-third volume of Proceedings, and to end the year
with a small credit balance. The Library Committee, under the
direction of Mr. Francis, has worked continuously at the reorganization
of the Society’s chief possession, its library, and the work is nearly
complete. Mr. H. A. Longman is retiring from the editorship of the
Proceedings and we tender him our best thanks for his years of
painstaking work.

It is with sincere regret that I record the deaths of three of our
colleagues.

By the death of Mr. C. W. Bundock, B.A., the Society has lost
one of its oldest members. Mr. Bundock was a pastoralist in the
Beaudesert district, and a member of one of the pioneering families
of the Richmond River District. He graduated from the University
of Sydney in 1878, and in 1912 was admitted ad eundern gradum
to the degree of Bachelor of Arts in the University of Queensland.

Professor H. J. Priestley, M.A., who was educated at Mill Hill
School and Jesus College, Cambridge, came to Queensland to the
Chair of Mathematics in February, 1911, as one of the first four

2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

professors appointed to the teaching staff of the newly formed
University. He identified himself with every phase of University
life, and many Societies received his unobtrusive help. His con-
nection with the Royal Society included a term as President, and many
years as a committeeman and honorary auditor. By his death we,
as a Society, lose one of our most valued members, and as individuals,
a sincere personal friend.

Mr. R. A. Wearne, B.A.. Principal of the Central Technical
College, passed away in March, 1932. Mr. Wearne’s interests covered
a wide field, but were mainly in the subject of vocational training,
and under his principalship the Central Technical College became
the second largest institution of its kind in Australia. Mr. Wearne’s*
work in geology led to the publication, in 1911, of a paper
entitled “ Notes on the Geology of West Moreton, Queensland,” in
the Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales.

ijc * * ^ * * *

The Relationships of the Queensland Flora.

Introduction.

The Main Associations :

Rain forests.

Mangrove forests.

Open forests.

Grassland.

Strand vegetation other than mangroves.

The Relationships of the Flora:

The Fossil Record.

The Association as an indication of the relationships of the*
Flora.

The Palaeotropic Element.

The Antarctic Element.

The Australian Element.

Summary.

Bibliography.

In dealing wdth. the affinities of floras, it is usually the custom-
to compare the lists of native plants. Through a consideration of the
types which are common or closely related, and their geographical
distribution in the countries concerned, conclusions are reached as to
the migration of antecedent floras whose mixing and sifting have
culminated in the present plant populations. The statistical method
of analysis was applied to the floras of Australia by Hooker1 in I860,
and the development of Indian features in the north-west, Polynesian
and Malayan in the north-east, New Zealand and South American

RELATIONSHIPS OF THE QUEENSLAND FLORA.

3

in the south-east, and South African in the south-west, with New
Zealand, Andean, Fuegian and European genera and species on the
mountains was pointed out. An important point brought out by
Hooker’s analysis was that the families of Australia were almost all
also found elsewhere, and though various families reach different
degrees of development, many of the largest families here are the largest
in the world as a whole. Statistical analysis has been given a much
wider scope by Willis,2 who, on a study of the distribution of endemic
species in relation to that of wides, was led to formulate his “ Age and
Area ” hypothesis. This he expresses as follows : “ The area occupied
(determined by the most outlying stations at any given time, in any
given country, by any group of allied species, at least ten in number),
depends chiefly, so long as conditions remain reasonably constant,
upon the ages of the species of the group in that country, but may be
enormously modified by the presence of barriers such as seas, rivers,
mountains, changes of climate from one region to the next, or other
ecological boundaries, and the like ; also by the action of man, and
by other causes.” Applying this principle, Willis, by a consideration
of the distribution of endemic and wide-spread species, has determined
the relative age of groups in particular areas. In New Zealand, for
example, the massing of endemics in particular regions leads him to
the conclusion that there have been at least three distinct invasions.
The northern group is considered as probably Indo-Malayan, the
central perhaps Australian, and the southern perhaps a younger
invasion of northern hemisphere types through the south. Since
its first appearance, the hypothesis and its varied implications have
been subjected to a continuous fire of criticism. Much of this has not
been of particular value, concerning itself with special cases of small
groups to which the hypothesis cannot be applied, but the provisos
in the more recent statements represent patches where the critics have
scored direct hits. If the modifications of the hypothesis could he
allowed for with any degree of accuracy, we should have a very valuable
criterion for the determination of the origins of our native flora.
Unfortunately this is not always the case. Even in the case of New
Zealand, on which Willis bases so much of his argument, ecological
control must be taken into account.3 New Zealand had its own
ancient flora (two dicotyledons have been recorded as associated with
Cladophlebis in the lower Cretaceous) which is now closely associated
with sub-antarctic elements, and this combination is a temperate
element ; in addition, there is a long-established palaeotropical element
with its own endemic genera and species. Past and present climates
and earth movements have shaped these into the present plant
population. The Age and Area hypothesis does not stand a fall by
such tests, but they certainly indicate the caution with which it must
be applied.

Any study of the relationships of a flora, as a whole, cannot be
simply statistical. It must take into account the factors which
modify the operation of the Age and Area principle, and, in Australia,
the wiping out of types over tremendous areas by past climatic changes
must never be lost sight of. Before we can examine the external
relationships of a flora we must deal with its internal relationships —
the opportunities for migration and establishment, the factors
governing local distribution of its associations, and the past geological
history which has so largely determined what raw material should
be available for environmental factors to shape into the present flora

4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

In this paper, therefore, it is proposed to consider first the
internal structure of the Queensland flora in relation to past and
present conditions, and to follow from this to its relationships with
the floras of other countries. Here we have a land area of 670,500
sq. miles of diversified physiography and climate, with abrupt climatic
barriers and gradual climatic control ; with highlands trending north
and south and so permitting the northward extension of southern types,
with isolated mountain floras, with land connections to the south and
west, with recent land connections with New Guinea and the smaller
continental islands fringing the coast, and with oceanic islands which,
with no endemic flora of their own, are peopled with the waif plants
of the region. We have, in short, great opportunities for the mixing
of the available types and a great diversity of environments for their
rearrangement.

The main associations of the Queensland flora have been des-
cribed briefly by Domin,4 but the best general account is by White,6
in the Handbook for Queensland, written for the 1930 meeting of the
Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science. In this
publication the Forestry Board presents a good general account of
the associations of forest trees. Francis6 has given a valuable account
of the rain forest trees (with the exception of those confined to the
tropics), and a description of the rain forest on the Eungella Range,7
with some remarks on its relation to the main northern and southern
rain forests. Miss Gibbs8 has described the vegetation of Bellenden
Ker, and her description has added interest because her visit was made
during the wet season. Various lists of plants from particular areas,
e.g., that of Shirley for the MacPherson Range, lose much of their
ecological value because the plants are listed without notes as to their
association.

The associations may be classified as follows : —

1 . Rain forests.

2. Mangrove forests.

3. Open forests, ranging from the wet sclerophyll forests
occurring along the coast to the attenuate savannahs
of the arid interior.

4. The Grasslands of the rolling downs.

5. Strand vegetation — other than mangroves.

Rain Forests.

The most luxuriant type of forest in Queensland is the rain
forest which reaches its best development in areas with more than
50 inches of rainfall per annum. It is restricted to the coastal plains
and highlands where it forms a discontinuous belt. It has been des-
cribed by Francis, White, Domin, and others.

The individual members of the rain forest vary greatly in their
physiology ; and moisture, light, and heat requirements are by no
means uniform. The rain forest trees of the upper story for the most
part have leathery leaves. McLean9 and others have shown that there

RELATIONSHIPS OF THE QUEENSLAND FLORA.

5

is a considerable variation in humidity in the upper levels of the forest,
and Shreve.10 working in Jamaica, has found that the transpiration
of the rain forest trees is comparable with that of the most hygro-
philous desert plants. Beneath the canopies of the upper stories the
variation in humidity during the day becomes less and less marked,
and such plants as the filmy ferns occupy positions where conditions
approach uniformity. Here, too, on the floor of the rain forest, the
light intensity may be only 1/140 of that in open sunlight, and shade-
loving species unable to thrive outside cover the feebly illuminated
ground and trunks. Survival of young tree species is made possible
by the possession of a suppression period. According to Brown’s^
curves11 for the rate of growth of Parashorea malaanonan, for example,
it would require 71 years for an average tree of this species to reach
a diameter of 5 cm. in the forest, though growth is more rapid when
it has reached the canopy. A suppression period is an important
factor in the struggle for existence in the crowded rain forest, and sun-
loving types, such as Eucalyptus, have no chance of becoming
established there.

In the matter of temperature, the fluctuations in the canopy are
greater than those at the base of the trees. The average maximum
temperature is some degrees higher in the tree tops than below, and
the average minimum is slightly lower. The shade plants of rain forests
are, therefore, under more uniform conditions of humidity, light and
heat than the trees under which they grow. In the typical rain forest
practically all the available space is covered with luxuriant epiphytic
and terrestrial vegetation. Where conditions become less favourable,
as in regions of decreased rainfall, the more xerophytic types — the
trees — are best equipped for survival, and may form an association
in which the hygrophvtic types have disappeared, though the more
xerophytic epiphytes, such as Platycerium and species of Dendrobium
are often present. Such associations are common along the coast of
Queensland, and along rivers. Were it not for the fact that they show
all shades of gradation to the most luxurant types of forest, they
would have no claim to consideration with rain forest, being often
definitely sclerophyllous, with many of their members ( Tristania
conferta, etc.) passing out into the open Eucalyptus forest.

The effect of temperature on rain forest is apparent when a
comparison is made of these forests along the coast of eastern Aus-
tralia. The rain forests of the MacPherson Range and the Richmond
River are almost as luxuriant as those of the Cairns region, but though
many genera are common to the two regions, temperature is a limiting
factor which limits the range of many species, both in a northerly
and a southerly direction. Francis gives a short account of the
mingling of types in the Eungella Range. It must be borne in mind
that there is no hard and fast frontier between the two, though the
transition becomes sharper north of Maryborough. In southern
Queensland and the Northern Rivers of New South Wales many charac-
ters of tropical rain forest persist — plank buttresses, density of vegeta-
tion. exclusion of eucalypts, and predominance of the characteristic
appearance of the northern forests. To the south these characters
become less pronounced, and the Queensland type of rain forest has
its southern outpost in eastern Victoria where trees such as Tristania

6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

conferta, Eugenia Smithii, Eucryphia Moorei, Acronychia laevisy
Elaeocarpus holopetalus, E. reticulatus, Livistona australis, and such
climbers as Vitis hypoglauca, Smilax australis, Rhipogonum album ,
Eustrephuslatifolius, Geitonoplesium cymosum, Marsdenia f lav escens, and
31. rostrata, and other species (including Dendrobium speciosum) occur.
These, for the most part, are not necessarily heavy rainfall plants in
Queensland (where they often invade open formation), nor are they in
Victoria, as they do not occur in the typical Victorian rain forest.
There they are restricted to a small area in the east where temperature
conditions, influenced by a warm ocean current, allow their survival.
A few species of typical open forest plants of a northern type, such as
Angophora intermedia, also extend to East Gippsland.

In North Queensland, in the regions of high rainfall, rain
forest grows on practically all types of soil, and covers all slopes.
High temperatures and high rainfall are essentially the optimum
conditions for its growth, as here it approaches most nearly to
independence of soil conditions. As the tropics are left, however,
and temperature conditions become less favourable, there is an
increasing tendency for it to be restricted to sheltered gullies, southern
slopes, and special types of soil (in south Queensland and northern
New South Wales mainly those derived from basalt). In southern
New South Wales shelter becomes increasingly important, as in the
Blue Mountains and the Illawarra Range, and the sifting effect of
temperature is shown in the decreasing number of northern types.

Mangrove Forests.

Mangrove forests live under peculiar soil and atmospheric
conditions. At high tide the salt content of the upper layers of the
soil is somewhat higher than that of sea water, but at low tide it
gradually increases, and when evaporation is very rapid it may even
reach 12%. This, in itself, is a fluctuation not experienced by other
associations, but the mangroves have, in addition, marked and rapid
changes in saturation deficit, strong insolation and frequently strong
winds. F. C. von Faber’s12 researches have demonstrated that the
success of the mangroves depends mainly on their powers of obtaining
water at high tides through the development of high osmotic pressure
and devices for its regulation. Some mangroves such as Bruguiera ,
Sonneratia, Lumnitzera, and Xylocarpus can adapt themselves to
life in soil with relatively low salt content, but all of the others are
more or less obligate salt plants.

Were the changes in the salt content of the soil the only un-
favourable factors in mangrove habitats, we should have more species
colonizing the tidal flats. As it is the first colonists are usually such
types as Avicennia and Rhizophora, but when the forest is well estab-
lished there appear a number of types which possess the faculty of
regulating osmotic pressure ( Barringtonia , Clerodendron inerme, etc.).
These are the hangers-on of the mangrove forests. Where atmos-
pheric conditions are most favourable, the mangrove forest reaches
its greatest luxuriance, and, generally speaking, such conditions are
found near rain forests. In North Queensland and in North Australia
the genera Rhizophora, Bruguiera, Ceriops, Sonneratia, Aegiceras,
Avicennia, Excaecaria, Lumnitzera, Xylocarpus, Aegialitis, Acanthus,

RELATIONSHIPS OF THE QUEENSLAND FLORA.

7

and Acrostichum are true mangroves. In North Queensland Nipa is
also found. These genera are found through Malaya under similar
climatic conditions. Where conditions become more arid, the mangrove
forest has increasing difficulty in obtaining its water supply, and the
outpost in arid coasts is Avicennia officinalis, which, with its enormous
osmotic pressure, is best equipped for survival. As the tropics are
left and lower temperatures are added to the unfavourable conditions
to be contended with, mangrove after mangrove drops out of the
association. In southern Queensland Bhizophora, Bruguiera, Excaecaria ,
Aegiceras and Avicennia occupy the available territory, but when
Victoria is reached, Avicennia is the last outpost. Though Avicennia
extends to Chatham Island (lat. 44 deg. S.) which is in approximately
the latitude of Hobart, it is not found in Tasmania.

In the mangrove we find aridity in the tropics is evidenced by the
falling off in numbers as we go west along the tropical coast from
North Australia, and low temperatures as we leave the tropics acting
as limiting factors in the present distribution. This is in spite of
the fact that the opportunity for immigration of the species is there,
and is an instance of the importance of present conditions, in this case
climatic, in sifting the available material.

Open Forests.

Between the luxuriant rain forest of parts of the Queensland
coast and the bare gibber plains of the interior is a long transition of
sclerophyllous formations. As has been pointed out, the rain forest
itself shows transitions to a more sclerophyllous type, the sclerophyllous
trees commonly surviving apart from their more hygrophilous
associates in localities with an annual rainfall down to 35 inches.
As a rule, however, there is a sharp transition between rain forest
and sclerophyllous eucalyptus forest both in floristics and physiognomy.
The relationship between the members of the wet sclerophyll forest
(say the blackbutt forests of the Nerang district) and the dry
“ wallum ” vegetation is closer than that between blackbutt forest
and rain forest, though the latter types may be in contact with one
another.

The wet sclerophyll forests are found in Queensland, mainly in
the Nerang, Blackall Range, and Fraser Island districts, but smaller
areas are found associated with many of the South Queensland rain
forests. Commonly in the etocone, between the two types, such
rain forest trees as Melia azederach, Elaeocarpus cyaneus, Diploglottis
Cunninghamii , and herbaceous types such as Alpinia coerulea and
Alocasia macrorjlniza wander out and become mixed with the open
forest types. On the other hand, the open forest types have little
chance of colonizing the rain forest ; it is a closed formation where
competition is already terrific, and the light-demanding open forest
plants are not equipped to compete in the gloom.

Evaporation and monthly distribution of the rainfall are import-
ant factors in the distribution of open forest. Thus, in areas with an
annual rainfall of over 40 inches, North Australia has a drier type of
vegetation than corresponding areas along the east coast where the
precipitation is better distributed. Other things being equal, regions

8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

with summer rainfall are drier than those with winter rainfall, because-
of evaporation, and we find along the Queensland coast a much poorer
development of wet sclerophyll forest than in New South Wales. A
general idea may be obtained from the recently issued map compiled
for the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research by Prescott.

The major types of open forest in Queensland, starting from those-
which border the rain forest, are (a) wet sclerophyll forest ; (6) sclero-
phyll forest or savannah (including the depauperate “ wallum ”),
generally dominated by Eucalyptus ; (c) inland savannahs which dot
the rolling Mitchell and Flinders grass downs as more or less pure
stands of Acacia, such as brigalow (A. harpophylla) , lancewood
( A. Shirleyi), boree ( A. homalophylla) , mulga ( A . aneura) with which
may be associated other trees, such as Wilga ( Geijera parviflora), White-
wood ( Atalaya hemiglauca), etc., and, in the case of the brigalow
scrubs, the beelah ( Casuarina lepidophloia) ; ( d ) the steppe savannahs

usually grouped as mulga, dominated by Acacias, such as A. aneura ,
and poor in eucalypts ; (e) the attenuate steppe savannah of the

porcupine grass ( Triodia) country where the Acacias cease to dominate,
and such trees as Duboisia Hopwoodii and stunted eucalypts occur ;
(/) the fringing river savannahs of the interior, where eucalypts,
such as Coolabah (E. microtheca) and the pan- Australian E. rostrata
(a red gum) assert themselves locally.

Details of the factors influencing distribution of types in the
arid parts of the State remain to be worked out. Soil is all important
in the distribution of the inland scrubs, the savannahs of the downs ;
gidgee ( Acacia Cambagei and A. Oswaldi) prefers black soils, and
mulga ( A. aneura) is generally on red soils. These inland scrubs are
related to the mulga steppe savannah, and though their development
is restricted by edaphic factors, they show a transition between it and
the sclerophyll eucalyptus forest nearer the coast. The fringing
forests of the rivers and dry water-courses of these regions give another
indication that water supply is a limiting factor in the distribution
of eucalypts. Over 70 eucalypts occur in the Northern Rivers
district of New South Wales and in South Queensland, but in the arid
country to the west of this strip, there are only about 20, and most
of these are restricted in habitat. Such a control over the dominant
genus of the coastal open forests naturally exaggerates their floristic
zonation from the coast to the interior, though the ecological graduation
is comparatively smooth.

Grassland.

Extensive grassland occurs in Western Queensland in a more
or less continuous belt from the Gulf to the New South Wales border
on the rolling downs, and extends in that State to the Liverpool Plains,
i.e., practically the whole length of the region, with rain falling mainly
in summer.

The grasses of this region include the Mitchell Grasses ( Astrebla
spp.), the Flinders Grasses ( Iseilema spp.), Kangaroo Grass (Themeda
australis ), and others. The summer rains also bring up an ephemeral
crop of annuals — composites, legumes, etc.- — and floristically the
whole vegetation is Australian in type. Over large areas it is mixed

RELATIONSHIPS OF THE QUEENSLAND FLORA.

9

with savannah woodland. The factors responsible for the absence
of trees in Queensland grasslands remain to be investigated, but
attention may be drawn to Ramann’s work on the Russian steppes.13
The month of greatest rainfall is June, with 5-7 cm. The relative
humidity through the summer is 60-70 per cent. The evaporation
is very strong, and, at the end of summer, dry winds sweep over the
steppes. The herbaceous vegetation draws its water supply from the
superficial layers of the soil, and dries up when this is not available.
Lack of water in the deeper layers prevents the growth of trees.. In
America, Weaver has found that some prairie plants, though not all,
are specially adapted in root structure to what water is available ;
and this would appear to be the case with many of our grasses.
Whether we can agree with Lundegardh14 that absence of trees is due
simply to a lack of water in the deeper layers of the soil is debatable
on account of the reciprocal effect of trees on the water table, and the
whole matter in Queensland is one which needs the earnest attention
of the soil technologist and the botanist working in fullest callaboration.

Littoral Vegetation.

Above high-tide mark the vegetation is definitely zoned as it is
elsewhere where water content changes along a definite front. On
sandy beaches in North Queensland the trailing sand binders, such as
Ipomoea pes-caprae fringe the bare strip of sand, and Vitex trifolia
is not far behind. The vegetation of the strand is a curious assemblage
of the waif plants of the coast mixed, more particularly behind the
dunes, with plants which are commonly found in other associations.
Where the hills slope down sharply to the water’s edge the zonation
is not so apparent, and the narrow strip of strand vegetation may almost
disappear.

Opportunity for colonization coupled with peculiar environmental
conditions, determine the nature of this type of association. Sea-
borne seeds do not always become established ; Eucalyptus is not
found in South America, though its fruits have been picked up on the
Chilean coast ; nor do those of Parinarium laurinum on the Queens-
land coast, where they are often cast up. Many species, however,
are successful, as for example, Entada scandens , and even pads of
Opuntia inermis which are washed up on islands in Moreton Bay
after being carried out to sea from the Brisbane River. The spread
of littoral species inland is usually limited by ecological conditions,
but on sandy coastal plains they may extend for great distances from
the coast. Some, such as Entada scandens , Hibbertia volubilis, and
Stephania hernandiaefolia are found inland in rain forests. Entada
scandens, with its wide distribution in America, Africa, Asia and Aus-
tralia, has apparently spread originally from the strand as an invader,
but Hibbertia volubilis and Stephania hernandiaefolia, in view of their
floristic relationships, have probably spread to the coast from inland.
Acacia longifolia var. Sophorae and Scaevola Koenigii are Australian
in their relations, the former restricted because its seeds sink in salt
water and cannot be transported, the latter distributed through the
Pacific by ocean currents.

Oceanic islands, on which overland colonization of the strand by
types wandering from inland formations is impossible, are peopled by

10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

the waif plants of the area. A typical flora is that of Masthead
Island as described by Longman.15 and his list may be taken as a typical
one of plants which surmount the sea barrier, by virtue of their
adaptation to water, wind, or bird carriage. The restricted nature
of many of the oceanic island floras is, however, also partly due to
failure of establishment of species because of the limited environ-
mental range. They show their own characteristic zonation within
their range of edaphic variation, and where this variation is great,
as on Krakatau, the colonizing species are correspondingly more
numerous.

Land connection with inland formations may certainly modify
the strand flora to a considerable extent, but the sharp exclusion of
the majority of inland types from its composition is another instance
of the tremendous effect of ecological conditions in controlling the
composition of the flora.

THE RELATIONSHIPS OF THE FLORA.

The Fossil Record.

On October 26th, 1931, Dr. F. W. Whitehouse16 exhibited before
this Society impressions in Middle Jurassic rocks of flowers and fruit-
ing bodies associated with leaves of Sagenopteris, and similar in
external appearance to those described by Thomas17 from the Lias
of the Yorkshire coast and from Greenland ; and also Fraxinopsis,
which occurs in Queensland, associated with Yabeiella in both Upper
and Lower Triassic beds, and which is figured by Wieland18 from the
Rhaetic strata of the Minas de Petroleo, south-west of Mendoza, in
Argentina. Such records indicate the ancient nature of angiosperm
inhabitation of the continent.

A general account of the Cainozoic flora of Australia is given by
Chapman,19 and, as this is readily available, a few remarks only need
be offered. The evidence rests practically entirely on the leaf
impressions, and in view of criticisms levelled at the work of von
Ettingshausen, and of Unger, there is a tendency to avoid reference
of fossil leaf types to extra-Australian genera. Quercus, for example,
is found in New Guinea at the present day, but Ettingsahausen’s
assignment of a type from Darra to this genus is questioned, though
his identification of Banksia , Cinnamomum , Diemenia and Eucalyptus
is accepted. The same caution is not observed in the acceptance of
the idea that the bloodwoods are an archaic type and that other types
are necessarily more modern ; and we find Chapman concluding from
a mixture of such types in beds underlying the older basalt in
Victoria that the age can hardly be Eocene, but may be Miocene.

The fossil evidence does, however, indicate several important
points. The eucalypts and various types now characteristic of both
open forest and rain forest were well developed in the early Tertiary.
Though the rain forest types are not necessarily tropical, they do
indicate warmer conditions than obtain in those localities at the pre-
sent day. Strong evidence of past warmer conditions is afforded by
the extinction of plants, with the bloodwood type of leaf, from

RELATIONSHIPS OF THE QUEENSLAND FLORA.

11

Tasmania and southern Victoria. The present distribution of these
types is controlled strictly by climate, as has been shown in a previous
paper, and the southern range represents a re-invasion after the last
glacial period.

We must commence an enquiry of the relationships of the present
flora, therefore, by recognizing that the continent has been inhabited
by a diversity of both rain and open forest types since, at least, the
early Tertiary, and that their geographical range has, in the past,
been profoundly modified by climatic and geological change. In
other words, the sifting effect of environment has been operating
for a long time, and the mixing of types of various origins, and the
elimination of others, has culminated in our present flora.

The Association as an Indication of the Affinity of the

Flora.

The frequency of any species usually falls off rapidly as the
optimum habitat is left behind, and the boundaries of adjacent
associations are often remarkably sharp. Rain forest often rises up
like a dark wall at the edge of the open Eucalyptus forest. In the
interior of the State the association of stunted shrubs and porcupine
grass is strikingly different from the adjacent mulga on the red soils.
The association consists of species which are suited to a particular
habitat, and, in a general ecological survey, the association and not the
species, becomes the unit. As the factors which influence the habitat
(rainfall, evaporation, temperature, wind, soil, physiography and
biota) are so complex, the sifting effect of environment modifies
migrating associations considerably. Some members may drop out
entirely, others may wander beyond the association and become
established in other communities. When large distances are involved
the gradual dropping out of species and their replacement by others
may, in due course, produce an association of quite different composi-
tion. As an instance of the change of an association by the dropping
out of species and their replacement by others, we may take Eucalyptus
alba , which, in North Queensland, is associated with E. tessellaris,
E. terminalis and E. tereticornis ; in the Kimberleys (W.A.) it occurs
with E. Spenceriana and E. miniata ; and in Papua with E. papuana,
E. tereticornis and E. clavigera. Francis, in his paper on the Eungella
Range, gives examples of rain forest trees of southern distribution
which are replaced to the north by megathermic species ; here
northern and southern types are mingled, and to the north and south
the sifting effect of climate is seen at work. The wandering of species
from one association .to another is exemplified by such rain forest
species as Flindersia australis, which, not uncommonly round Brisbane,
is found in the open forests, and Alphitonia excelsa, which is particularly
common in both types of forest ; many orchids, such as Dendrobium
speciosum, and ferns such as Asplenium nidus, which are epiphytic
in the rain forest, find suitable conditions on rocks in the open forest.
Even species of very restricted habitat may wander occasionally ;
and, in the MacPherson Range, isolated beech trees ( Nothofagus
Moorei) may be found scattered through the rain forest.

The association is, therefore, a community of species banded
together in a suitable environment, and its different members may
differ widely in their tolerance, and in ability to compete successfully

12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

in other associations. Some of its members thrive only in a very
restricted set of conditions, as is the case with the hygrophytes of the
rain forest floor. To the Hymenophyllaceae the shelter of the other
plants is all important, as here the favourable conditions of humidity
and temperature prevail. When the trees are cleared, Alocasia
macrorrhiza and other plants of the forest floor often suffer from frost
in South Queensland. To such species, membership of a particular
association is more or less obligate, but shelter is their principal require-
ment from the other members of the association.

The idea of the wandering of associations rather than of individual
species has been particularly useful in the study of distribution, but
the type of association needs careful consideration. The obligate
association of host and restricted parasite has provided a valuable
method for the working out of dispersal lines, though most of the work
up to the present has been in the field of zoogeography, where its
significance has been ably worked out by von Ihering, Harrison,
Metcalf, and others. Association of host and parasite in widely
separated areas affords a valuable criterion of common origin, and
this will be referred to particularly when antarctic relationships are
considered later in this paper.

A number of factors are instrumental in breaking up this intimate
association, as is shown by a few cases which indicate why the data
for von Ihering’s method are not always available for settling problems
in plant distribution.

Artificial breaking up of host-parasite associations is shown in
the introduction of wattles to South Africa, and of prickly pear to
Australia. In the case of the rusts, Arthur20 has pointed out that
dryness of the air may influence viability of spores, even killing them
before an opportunity for growth arises, and that mountain chains are
barriers in that they interrupt the continuity of both the host and
favourable meteorological conditions for plant disease. Soil moisture
is also important to such types as Tilletia. Temperature is often
important in determining the success or otherwise of fungal attack.
The optimum temperature for infection of wheat, by the bunt fungus*
Tilletia tritici, is between 16 deg. and 20 deg. C. ; whereas the
optimum for its host, wheat, is 25 deg. C. When wheat germinates
at high temperatures, therefore, the fungus is at a disadvantage,
and to this is attributed the freedom from smut of wheat grown in
South Russia, India, and elsewhere. Another fungus attacking wheat,
though not restricted to it, is Helminthosporium sativum , the optimum
infection temperature of which lies between 28 deg. and 32deg. C.,
which is considerably higher than the optimum for its host. Here
then are two factors — moisture and temperature — which may break
up the host-fungal parasite association. An obligate parasite cannot
usually, however, wander to another association, as may an auto-
trophic plant, and so pays the penalty of its extreme specialization,
and disappears. Survival of such an association indicates, in separated
localities, a common origin, and also that environmental conditions
are suitable for both, and that those conditions have persisted during:
its history.

RELATIONSHIPS OF THE QUEENSLAND FLORA.

13

PALAEO TROPICAL AFFINITIES.

The tropical rain forest of North Queensland is essentially
Malaysian in physiognomy and floristics, but the Malaysian flora
is by no means uniform. Wallace’s Line, as revised by Merrill,21
runs north between Bali and Lombok, Borneo and Celebes, Palawan
and the rest of the Philippine group, turning east between Luzon and
Formosa. It constitutes an important biological boundary to the
western Malaysian flora and fauna, and follows approximately the
eastern margin of the Asiatic continental shelf. Another important
boundary, Weber’s Line, approximately follows the Australian
continental shelf, running between Australia and Timor, passing
between New Guinea and Ceram, and to the west of Halmaheira. It
constitutes the western boundary of the eastern Malaysian type of
flora and fauna. In between the two boundaries we have an unstable
insular area in which the two types meet, and in which intermittent
isthmuses have permitted an exchange and migration of types from
time to time. This archipelagic region has acted as a barrier against
free interchange between east and west, and the flora and fauna of
the two masses have developed along their own lines. Merrill finds
that 356 western Malaysian genera of flowering plants do not reach
eastern Malaysia, while about 225 genera of eastern Malaysian genera
are not found west of Wallace’s Line. Many of these, however, have
been recorded from the intermediate region, 218 and 56 respectively
being found in the Philippines. Merrill stresses the point that neither
Wallace’s Line nor Weber’s Line constitutes a true biogeographic
boundary, but that the two approximately define the limits of the
two centres of origin and distribution, Sunda Land on the west, and
New Guinea in the east.

Miss Gibbs,22 working on the flora of the Arfak Mountains in
Dutch N.W. New Guinea, had previously stressed the point of New
Guinea’s being a centre of distribution for many so-called Polynesian,
Australian, and to a lesser extent, Malayan types, remarking that the
Papuan species are not only older in type, but also with extra-
ordinarily pronounced specific differentiation. Endemic mountain
types, for example, are widely spread in New Guinea. The general
relationships of the Papuan pteridophytes and bryophytes are
Polynesian rather than Malayan, though endemic Papuan in type.
Skottsberg makes similar claims for the ancient types of the Pacific
floras, and strongly combats some of Guppy’s deductions as to Indo>
Malayan post-glacial immigration.

All the high Polynesian Islands contain a high percentage of
endemics, but scattered through them are many types of Malayan
affinity. Skottsberg,23 who knows the Pacific floras well from first-
hand experience, regards them as the present remains of an old flora
with many eu-Pacific types, but with a fair number of types with
Australian, Malayan and American affinities. He regards the
Pacific floras as having a number of centres of concentration at the
present time — New Caledonia and Fiji in continental western Pacific,
and Hawaii in the central Pacific, Juan Fernandez and the
Desventuradas in the south being examples. Though from a
geological point of view the Hawaiian Islands are young, the character-
istic plants of this region can only be satisfactorily accounted for by

14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

an assumption of more intimate association with other land masses
than exists at present, and the evidence compiled by Campbell24 shows
the pronounced relationships with both New Zealand and Australia.
As Merrill has pointed out, the Pacific, from a botanical point of view,
is not a unit (except in the extreme north), the vegetation of the east
and west sides differing radically because of past geological history^
and present climatic conditions. There is, however, running through
it, that thread of ancient types which, though mixed with plants of
Indo-Malayan and southern affinities, marks it as something more than
a collection of waifs and strays from the present continental masses.
It seems reasonable to regard the palaeotropic element in Polynesia as
an ancient one, the present day representative of an old wide-spread
flora, never more homogeneous than it would be allowed to be by
prevailing climates and geological conditions. Sifting by changing
geological and climatic factors has given rise to those differences
which are to-day apparent in the floristics of the western Malaysian,
eastern Malaysian, Australian, Polynesian, and New Zealand
palaeotropic communities. A simple example of the operation of this
principle is seen in the distribution of the genus Mida (Santalaceae).
Formerly found in Juan Fernandez and New Zealand, it has become
extinct in the former, and has become a New Zealand endemic.

The Australian branch of the palaeotropic element is easily
recognised as distinct from the typical Australian element. The area
it covers is restricted primarily by climatic factors, as has been
pointed out, though it has a wide range in Australia. Formerly it
covered a much greater area, as the fossil record from New South
Wales and Victoria indicates, and its present area represents a con-
siderable contraction of its territory. Increasing dryness must have
been a more important factor than temperature changes, in view of
the present latitudinal range, and also the relative poverty of types
in North Australia and the North-West. In Western Australia where
the rainfall conditions are extremely unfavourable, especially in the
sub-tropical region, only vague indications of the Malaysian element
are to be found beyond the tropics, in the presence of such genera as
Albizzia, Owenia, and Vitis, which extend beyond the rain forest.

Types found in Papua, but which have not reached Australia,
are the important timber family Dipterocarpaceae, the Begoniaceae,
the genus Quercus. Some northern types, such as Rhododendron and
Agapetes extend to the Bellenden Ker range. In Queensland the
development of large numbers of endemic genera not recorded from
extra Australian localities — ( Pentaceras , Akania, Bosistoa, Pleiococca,
Medicosma, Pagetia, Wilkiea, Daphnandra , Schizomeria , Ceratopetalum,
Castanospermum, etc), of genera extending to New Zealand —
Pennantia, Quintinia, Notelaea, etc.), indicates the ancient character
of this element in Australia. Eastern Malaysia and Western Malaysia
differ considerably from one another, but North Queensland shows a
further differentiation from New Guinea, North Australia from North
Queensland, and South Queensland from North Queensland. The
differences are sufficiently accounted for by the long continued
sorting of types by climate without reference to the relative ages of
the palaeotropic element in the different areas under consideration,
just as the sorting of the mangroves has taken place.

RELATIONSHIPS OF THE QUEENSLAND FLORA.

15

The mangroves are another aspect of the distribution of palaeo-
tropic types. They belong to a wide range of families of tropical
distribution. In some cases, as in Excaecaria, other members of the
genus are found in the rain forest. E. Dallachyana and E. parvifolia
are Queensland rain forest trees ; E. agallocha is a mangrove. The
family Rhizophoraceae contains a large number of mangroves
( Rhizophora , Bruguiera, etc.), but Carallia and Gymnotroches have
about a dozen rain forest species. Other examples might be cited.
Anatomical and physiological examination shows that mangroves
differ in degree only fron many rain forest trees in their peculiar
structures, and they must be regarded as an ancient adaptation of
tropical types to a peculiar environment. In view of this, the rapidity
with which they colonize suitable areas, and the way they exhibit
the same type of distribution as the rain forest trees along the coast,
indicates that the Australian palaeotropic element is restricted in range
by climate and not by age.

The Antarctic Affinities.

The present flora of Antarctica consists of a grass, Deschampsia
antarctica, which, with a few cryptograms, represents the remnants
of a much more luxuriant flora. The Tertiary flora contained dicoty-
ledonous types which have been referred to Knightia, Drimys , Laurelia,
and Nothofagus ; and amongst the conifers Araucaria and a type
allied to Sequoia i. These are living genera, Knightia being found in
New Zealand and New Caledonia ; Drimys in South America and New
Zealand, through Australia to the mountains of Borneo ; Laurelia
in New Zealand and Chili, and Nothofagus in South America, New
Zealand and Australia as far north as the MacPherson Range.
Araucaria has a southern hemisphere circum-Pacific distribution,
ascending the mountains in New Guinea. The distribution of the pre-
sent day representatives of this flora is sub-antarctic, and in Australia
is naturally best developed in Tasmania and some of the mountain
tops of Victoria. In Queensland it reaches its best development in the
beech forests of the MacPherson Range, which, at an altitude of over
3,000 feet, occupy the ridges, and are flanked by rain forest of the
palaeotropical type. In the southern States, particularly in the
Tasmanian mountains, the antarctic element is much more widespread
and is represented by more types. In Tasmania Nothofagus , Drimys ,
Ourisia, Prionotes, Nertera, Oxalis magellanica , Acaena, Donatia,
Azorella, Gaultheria, Pernettya, Embothrium, Lomatia, Drapetes,
Dacrydium, Fitzroya, Gaimardia, Astelia, Oreobolus , and Uncinia, are
amongst the plants characteristic of the present South American
flora, though some of them, such as Lomatia , are probably not oiiginally
American, and would indicate that this collection of sub-antarctic
plants is just such a mixture as is the palaeotropical element. In
Tasmania and in New Zealand the antarctic element is interwoven
with the Australian and the Palaeozealandic elements respectively. In
Victoria, as in Tasmania, we find Nothofagus Cunninghamii growing
side by side with Eucalyptus and Acacia. Nothofagus re-appears after
a gap in its distribution in Central New South Wales, and from there
Nothofagus Moorei extends to Queensland. In the MacPherson Range
it occurs with such non-antarctic types as Cuttsia and Quintinia,
and its most conspicuous epiphyte, the beech orchid which is, at present,
referred to Dendrobium falcirostris , is a palaeotropic type. The

16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

sub-antarctic genus Drimys is conspicuously associated with the
beech in Australia, D. dipetala being the MacPherson Range species,
but when Nothofagus disappears from the antarctic element in Queens-
land, Drimys dipetala continues northwards to the Eungella Range.
D. oblonga occurs at 5,000 feet on Bellenden Ker ; D. cyclopum at
8,000 feet on Mt. Obree, in Papua ; and in Borneo, D. piperita is re-
recorded by Stapf25 above 3,000 feet. Alpine types of antarctic
affinity overlap with those of undoubted arctic affinity in the Malayan
Islands. On Kina Balu, in Borneo, occur the genera Pratia , Gaultheria,
Drimys, Coprosma and Nertera ; these genera and some of their species
extend from Borneo right across the sub-antarctic region. With them,
however, are such genera as Leptospermum and Leucopogon, which
are mainly Australian and do not extend beyond New Zealand ; genera,
such as Potentilla, which are mainly boreal, and cosmopolitan types,
such as Drosera, Utricularia, Eriocaulon and Scirpus. Du Rietz26
records the mixing of boreal and New Zealand types in the high
volcanoes Ardjoeno and Welirang, in Java.

The antarctic element is, therefore, an ancient one, as is indicated
by its wide dispersal, its fusion with other elements in associations
in different countries, and the fossil record. It must be regarded as
essentially a flora of the southern hemisphere adapted to alpine and
cool lowland conditions ( i.e ., to present sub-antarctic conditions), and
to be no more homogeneous than the palaeotropical element. The pre-
sent isolation of its main concentration centres, and the infiltration of
types of other geographical history, makes the antarctic element less
easy to define with any exactness. On Bellenden Ker (N.Q.), for
example, we have the Epacridaceous genus Dracophyllum, represented
by D. Sayeri . Its family is usually looked on as typically Australian,
but its territories extend, on the one hand to Malaysia and India,
on the other to Polynesia, New Zealand and South America. There
is an endemic genus, Lebetanthus (section Prionoteae) in Fuegia and
Patagonia, but the only other genus of the section is in Tasmania.
In the case of Dracophyllum, the closely related genera Sphenotoma
and Richea are West Australian and Tasmanian respectively, and the
lateral relationship suggests a vertical one. We find, however, that
Dracophyllum is at present mainly concentrated in New Zealand
where is has 28 species, as against five in New Caledonia and 10 in
Australia and Tasmania. It is an Australian type which has been
successful in New Zealand, and may be looked on as a Western Pacific
member of the Antarctic community, but can only be called an antarctic
type if we admit locally adapted types along with such typical and
widespread genera as Nothofagus, Colobanthus, Drimys, etc., which
are the backbone of the antarctic element. Just where the dividing
line should be drawn is difficult to determine.

Though up to a certain point the antarctic element may be looked
on as the local adaptation of the floras of the countries to which it is
indigenous, endemism being more pronounced where the favourable
areas are greatest, there runs through it a floristic relationship which
denotes a former connection of its now separate parts. Applying the
von Ihering method and using, as criteria, such obligate parasitic types
as rusts and Cyttaria, the evidence for former land connection between
South America, New Zealand and Australia seems conclusive.

RELATIONSHIPS OF THE QUEENSLAND FLORA.

17

The members of the genus Puccinia are obligate parasites. In
his first catalogue of those found in New Zealand, Cunningham27
deals with 72 species, of which 45 are indigenous ; of these 23 are
endemic, 19 occur in Australia, 15 in Tasmania, and six extend to North
America and Europe. Cunningham’s subsequent papers add to the
introductions and to the endemic species of the genus, and other genera
of Uredinales show somewhat similar type of distribution. Most of
the species which are common to New Zealand and Australia, or to
other southern hemisphere localities, are on the same or closely allied
species, though they do not, in all cases, cover the entire geographical
range of the host plants. Puccinia unciniarum, for example, found in
Chile and New Zealand, is not recorded from Australia, though its
New Zealand host, Uncinia compacta, is present. Assuming that the
fungus is absent from Australia, and not merely overlooked, we have
here the breaking up of an association. Puccinia hydrocotyles similarly
is unrecorded from Australia, though widely spread through Europe,
the Americas and New Zealand ; the host genus Hydrocotyle is, however,
well represented here both in number of species and number of
individuals. Cyttaria is a genus of Ascomycetes, practically co-
extensive with the southern beeches Nothofagus, i.e., South America
to New Zealand and Australia. The two Australian species of the
fungus are restricted to the moister localities, and are absent from
beeches growing in dry aspects. C. gunnii, in Tasmania, attacks
Nothofagus Cunninghamii, an inhabitant of moist gullies, and a
shelter-loving species. N. Cunninghamii , which grows in drier
positions, has no associated species of Cyttaria, though of course dry-
ness may not be the only reason. In the MacPherson Range, South
Queensland, the recently described C. septentrionalis28 attacks the
beech Nothofagus Moorei, but only in the dampest parts of the forest.
Large areas of beech forest, on Roberts Plateau, are not infested
at all.

While we are dealing with the evidence afforded by parasites
on the former continuity of the antarctic element, attention should be
drawn to a paper by Du Rietz ( loc . cit.) on the lichen flora of New
Zealand. Antarctic regions are at present practically destitute of
vascular plants, consequently the antarctic connection is usually
regarded as a hypothesis, but from the point of view of the licheno-
logist it is a fact. Usnea antarctica, for example, closes the chain
from New Zealand to Ecuador. The beeches of South America and
Australia have a characteristic lichen flora in common, and in many
cases showing no northern relationship at all.

Du Reitz traces the migration route of lichen types with bipolar
distribution such as Cetraria islandica through the American cordilleras,
and disagrees with Oliver’s view29 of a northern invasion in two
independent circumpacific migration streams. Oliver’s concept has
been criticised ably by Skottsberg, Harrison and others, and it need
only be added that the distribution of such parasites as Cyttaria provides
additional evidence of antarctic radiation of important types.

The Australian Element.

The typical Australian element in the present flora of the con-
tinent exhibits a marked zonation from the flora of the arid interior
to the wet sclerophyll forests and very restricted rain forests found

B

18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

around the margin of the continent where the rainfall is suitable.
The great arid belt with an annual rainfall of less than ten inches
divides eastern from western Australia, and the sclerophyllous
forest of the south-west has lost contact with that of the east.
Wallace30 regarded the south-west as the remains of the continent
on which the characteristic Australian flora was originally developed.
Tate31 divided the Australian flora into three groups — the autoch-
thonian or south-western, the euronotian or south-eastern and north-
eastern, and the eremian or desert flora. Tate considered the last
type to be derived from the autochthonian and euronotian, with some
oriental infiltration in Pliocene times. He suggested that the
western Australian type might be regarded as of greater antiquity,
hence the name, in view of the absence of primitive old world types
such as Quercus, Fagus, Panax, Litsaea, etc., its highly specialised
Australian types, and its long continued isolation from the rest of
Australia. Though Tate’s divisions have been considerably modified
by Hedley, Spencer and others, the concept of the greater antiquity
of the south-western flora re-appears time and time again in the
literature on the subject. Harrison32 admits that for animals, the
antochthonian element is not exactly defined, but seems willing to
accept the hypothesis that a recognisable ancient floral element is
confined to the south-west. It is certainly recognisable but is not
confined to the south-west. It reappears in eastern Australia in similar
environments, and even along the tropical northern coast, though there
with a strong admixture of palaeotropical types. The great character-
istic genera of the south-west, Grevillea, Hakea, Banksia, Eucalyptus ,
Acacia, Oxylobium, Daviesia, Tetratheca, Hibbertia, etc., reappear in
the east, often with a great gap in their distribution, and often the
species are identical (e.g., Ricinocarpus pinifolius). The dominant
tree genus of the Australian element, Eucalyptus, with over 300 species,
is represented in the Eocene in eastern Australia, including Tasmania,
and its present distribution is mainly eastern and south-eastern.
There is considerable evidence presented in a former paper33 to show
that this genus has retreated from regions formerly well watered but
now arid, and that the present species represent a development of
survivors of a period of extensive dying out in the centre of the
continent. In the last glacial period we have definite evidence of
the extinction of the bloodwood type in the south and of the re-invasion
when warmer conditions returned, though the whole of the lost*
territory has not been re-peopled. Both aridity and temperature
have, in the past, directed the destiny of the eucalypts. Along the
coast of extra-tropical eastern Australia there are approximately
160 species, and on the average their geographical range is much wider
than that of the 130 odd species of south-western Australia, from Sharks
Bay to Eucla.

Western Australia shows very markedly, and not only in the
distribution of eucalypts, the powerful confining action of its arid
frontiers. Its well developed endemism is paralleled by that of the
Cape province in South Africa. Thistleton-Dyer pictured a retreat
of the Cape types into a cul-de-sac from which there was no escape,
Bews’ anonymous friend was right in pointing out that plants do not
behave like a flock of sheep, but the fact remains that in Australia
there has been such a retreat to the margins, and western Australia
is now so hemmed in that its endemics have little chance of spreading

RELATIONSHIPS OF THE QUEENSLAND FLORA.

19

far. Many of its endemic types are probably relics. A couple of
examples of types almost endemic are Gastrolobium, with a tropical
species, out of contact with all the south-western species, spreading
across the north to Queensland ; Lambertia with one species in New
South Wales, and six in western Australia. The danger of trusting
to arithmetic in these matters of distribution is shown by the
cosmopolitan genus Drosera, a genus particularly dependent on edaphic
conditions. Of the 90 species, 62 are Australian and 45 of these are
in Western Australia. Drosera plants are so common in Western
Australia that there is no doubt that the suitable environment has
encouraged the development of the genus there to a greater degree
than in countries where it may be just as old. The peculiarities of the
Western Australian environment are further shown in the great poverty
of ferns in the flora ; there are less than 20, and these include such
hardy types as the pan- Australian Cheilanthes. Rain forest is absent,
though the Karri forests of the far south-west are very luxuriant and
comparable with the best type of wet sclerophyllous forests in the east.

The admixture of palaeotropic types in the south-west is limited,
as it is in the east in similar latitudes. Recognisable antarctic types
cannot be indicated, and here it may be pointed out that the
environmental conditions under which they are found in the eastern
States — high mountains and suitable rainfall — are absent. In short,
the flora of south-western Australia may be regarded as the purest
collection of aboriginal plants in the Commonwealth which is spread
over wide areas, but the evidence indicates that this is due to its
isolation and the peculiar environment which excludes those other
elements which enrich the mixed eastern floras.

In Queensland, as in other eastern States, environment influences
the amount of admixture with these other elements — the palaeotropical,
the antarctic and the cosmopolitan. The south Queensland wet
sclerophyllous forests often contain palaeotropical types which are
normally members of the rain forest ; this applies particularly to such
epiphytes as are present. The drier types, such as the various types of
Eucalyptus forests on the hills round Brisbane are relatively purer,
and in the associations of the coastal sandy plains the genera are
almost all characteristically Australian. In other words, the local
changes in a small district parallel the changes noticed in different
States when the floras, as a whole, are examined. The florula of the
sandy country at Sunnybank (Brisbane) has much in common with
the florula of King’s Park, in Perth, but little in common with that
of the rain forest area of the MacPherson Range.

To the north the admixture of palaeotropical types in the open
forest becomes more and more marked. Here the wet sclerophyll forest
is very strongly infiltrated with them. Albizzia, Macaranga, Pandanus,
Tephrosia, etc., become increasingly important as fellow members
with the Australian element in the open forests. In the Gulf
country, Mr. Bick informs me that Nepenthes is an open forest type.
Erythrophloeum Laboucherii , the Ironwood, in the dry country around
Camooweal extends across Northern Australia, and has congeners
as far as Sierra Leone. These are open forest plants in palaeotropical
countries, though in many cases not restricted to open forests. Their
association with Australian types persists beyond Australia, and the

20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

savannahs at the mouth of the Fly River, in New Guinea, have a
distinct Australian physiognomy. Climatic conditions in eastern
Malaysia are not, on the whole, suitable for the persistence of open forest
types, and the Australian element is consequently not strongly repre-
sented over wide areas. This state of affairs, however, is found in
North Queensland, in parts of the Cairns region, where open forest
plays a minor part. Eucalyptus alba extends as far west as Flores.
E. clavigera, E. papuana, and E. tereticornis are in New Guinea. Species
of Andropogon, Patersonia , Thysanotus , Clianthus , Acacia {A. confusa,
a phyllodineous species), Stackhousia, Pimelea, Casuarina , Tristania
and Leptospermum extend to various extents, into Malaysia and the
Asiatic mainland, but, in addition to climatic controls, have been
influenced in distribution by the geographical vicissitudes of the
archipelagic areas between Wallace’s and Weber’s Lines.

In Victoria the Australian element preponderates in the wet
sclerophyll forest and rain forest. To the north palaeotropic types
become increasingly important, as has been pointed out, until in the
northern rivers of New South Wales they dominate the rain forests
almost, but not quite, to the exclusion of Australian types. Bucking-
hamia, Cardwellia and Hicksbeachia are among the genera of Aus-
tralian affinity restricted to rain forest ; Geijera, Grevillca and
Codonocarpus have open forest and rain forest members. These are
only a few examples, but the total number is not great, and the
individual range is often not wide, even in Australia, and Australian
rain forest types are consequently not plentiful in Malaysia. Tristania
is certainly successful, and Eucalyptus naudiniana, which grows on
rain forest fringes, has a scattered distribution from New Guinea to
Mindanao. The presence of the palaeotropic element in Australia
does not imply an equal admixture of Australian types in Malaysia
for two reasons. Both of these ultimately depend on climate. First,
the Australian types must compete with palaeotropic open forest
types in the open forests, and these are limited in area ; and second,
they are, with few exceptions, unfitted for competition under rain
forest conditions.

SUMMARISED CONCLUSIONS.

Any study of the relationships of the Queensland flora must
commence by the recognition of two facts revealed by the fossil record,
the existence of angiospermous types at least as early as the Triassic,
and the existence of well differentiated modern types, undoubtedly
referable to living genera, in the early Tertiary. The leaf impressions
from Eastern Australia are of types found in both open and rain
forest, and of types of sub-antarctic palaeotropic and autochthonian
affinity, so that already in Eocene or Miocene times the flora was one
of considerable complexity. The present distribution of these types
indicates that geological and climatic changes have modified con-
siderably their original geographical distribution. A detailed
examination of the main associations shows that the Queensland
plant populations of to-day are strictly controlled by climatic and
geographical factors. In general, types whose affinities are with
those at present dominant in Malaysia occupy the warmer parts of
the continent where rainfall exceeds about 35 inches. Types of sub-
antarctic affinity, common in Tasmania, are found in Queensland,

RELATIONSHIPS OF THE QUEENSLAND FLORA.

21

in the higher mountains, often, but not necessarily, in characteristic
associations. The ecological conditions are, or have been, widespread
over sufficiently continuous land masses, and both elements may be
regarded as the ancient occupants of their own type of habitat in
palaeotropic and sub-antarctic countries respectively.

The palaeotropic element in Queensland is part of the original
widespread palaeotropic flora which, differentiated by geological and
climatic isolation, has developed along somewhat different lines in
Western Malaysia, Eastern Malaysia, North Queensland, South
Queensland, Polynesia, and other centres. Here, as elsewhere, it
has been enriched by the incorporation of certain plants not character-
istic of palaeotropic communities generally, e.g., Grevillea.

The sub-antarctic element is also portion of the great sub-
antarctic flora, but here the area with ecological conditions suitable
for its development is relatively small. We find, however, as with the
palaeotropic element, a floristic backbone of types widespread from
South America to Australia, some of them apparently South American,
others apparently Australian, and yet others apparently Zelandic,
but now widespread. With them, however, are interwoven local
types in all the countries concerned, as must be expected in a wide-
spread flora where homogeneity is impossible.

The autochthonous element is more localised in its distribution
than the palaeotropic or the sub-antarctic. It is for the most part
a flora of open formations and is not well adapted to cold conditions ;
nor does it reach its best development in the tropics even where open
formations are the natural type of vegetation. Such types as
Dracophyllum and Lomatia have been successful in sub-antarctic
countries, and such types as Stackhousia and Pimelea occupy suitable
territory in Malaysia, but for the great majority circumscription by
unsuitable territory has resulted in isolation and consequent marked
localised development. It is a quantitative and not a qualitative
distinction which has led to the designation of this type as the
Australian element.

REFERENCES.

(1) Hooker, J. D., Introductory Essay, Flora of Tasmania, 1860.

(2) Willis, J. C., Age and Area. Cambridge, 1922 (also various papers in Annals

of Botany, particularly vols. xxxi-xxxvii).

(3) Cockayne, L., Vegetation of New Zealand in Die Veg. der Erde, xiv. 2nd

edition, 1928.

(4) Domin, K., Queensland’s Plant Associations. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q., xxiii., 57-74,

1911.

(5) White, C. T., Queensland Vegetation in Handbook of Queensland, A.A.A.S,

Meeting, Brisbane, 1930.

(6) Francis, W. D., Australian Rain Forest Trees, Brisbane, 1929.

(7) Francis, W. D., The Rain Forest of the Eungella Range. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q.,

xxxix, 107-114, 1927.

(8) Gibbs, L. S., The Phytogeography of Bellenden-Ker, Jour. Bot., lv., 297-301,

22

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

(9) McLean, R., Studies in the Ecology of Tropical Rain Forest, Journal of Ecology,
vii., 5-54, 1919.

(10) Shreve, F., A Montane Rain Forest, 1914.

(11) Brown, W. H., Vegetation of Philippine Mountains, Manila, 1919.

(12) von Faber, F. C., The Physiology of the Mangrove. Treub Laboratory,

Buitenzorg.

(13) Ramann, E., Bodenkunde, 1911 (cited by Lundegardh).

(14) Lundegardh, H., Environment and Plant Development, 330 pp., London, 1931.

(15) Longman, H. A., The Plants of Masthead Island. Proc. Roy. Soc., Q., xxv.,

17-23, 1913.

(16) Whitehouse, F. W., Lecture on Problems in Queensland Palaeobotany.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q., xliii., p xiv., 1931.

(17) Thomas, H. H., The Caytoniales, a new group of Angiospermous plants from the

Jurassic rocks of Yorkshire. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., Ser. B., 299-363, 1925.

(18) Wieland, G. R., The Antiquity of Angiosperms. Proc. Internat. Cong. PI., Sc.,

I., 429-456, 1926.

(19) Chapman, F., A Sketch of the Geological History of Australian Plants : the

Cainozoic Flora, Viet. Nat., xxxvii., 115-119, 127-132, 8 plates, 1921.

(20) Arthur, J. C., The Plant Rusts, New York, 1929.

(21) Merrill, E. D., Distribution of the Dipterocarpaceae ; Philippine Jour. Science,

xxiii., 1-32, 1923.

(22) Gibbs, L. S., A contribution to the Phytogeography and Flora of the Arfak

Mountains, 226 pp., London, 1917.

(23) Skottsberg, C., Remarks on the relative independency of Pacific flora. Proc.

Third Panpacific Science Congress, I., 914-920, 1926.

(24) Campbell, D. H., The Australasian element in the Hawaiian flora. Proc. Third

Panpacific Sci. Cong., I., 938-946, 1926.

(25) Stapf, 0., On the flora of Mount Kinabalu in North Borneo. Trans. Linn. Soc.,

Lond. (2nd series, Bot.), IV., 69-263 (20 plates), 1894.

(26) Du Rietz, G. Einar, The discovery of an arctic element in the lichen flora of

New Zealand and its plantgeographical consequences, Rept. A.A.A.S., xix.,
628-635, Hobart, 1928.

(27) Cunningham, G. H., The Uredinales or Rust Fungi of New Zealand. T.N.Z.I.,

lv., 1-58, 392-396, 1924.

(28) Herbert, D. A., Cyttaria septentrionalis, a new Fungus attacking Nothofagus

Moorei in Queensland and New South Wales. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q., xli., 158-
161, 1930.

(29) Oliver, W. R. B., Biogeographical relations of the New Zealand region. Jour.

Linn. Soc. (Bot.), lxvii. (313), 99-140, 1925.

(30) Wallace, A. R., Island Life, 3rd edition, 1911.

(31) Tate, R., On the influence of physiographic changes in the distribution of life

in Australia. Rept. A.A.A.S., I., 312-335, 1887.

(32) Harrison, L., The composition and origins of the Australian fauna, with special

reference to the Wegener hypothesis. Rept. A.A.A.S., xviii., 332-396, Perth,
1926 (1928).

(33) Herbert, D. A., The major factors in the present distribution of the genus

Eucalyptus. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q., xl., 165-193, 1929.

Vol. XI.1V.. No. 2.

23

The Production of Protein by Inorganic Material :
Evidence Suggestive of the Generation of Life.

By W. I). Francis.

Plates I and II.

( Read before the Royal Society of Queensland , 21th June , 1932).

CONTENTS.

I. Introduction.

II. Preliminary Outline of the Experiments.

III. Experiments Series A.

IV. Experiments Series B.

V. Otto Warburg’s Work on Cellular Physiology.

VI. Carbon Dioxide Assimilation in the Protein-Producing
Experiments.

VII. The Ferruginous Material of the Experiments considered
in Relationship to Organisms.

VIII. The Most Primitive Organisms.

IX. Generation of Life on the Earth.

X. Summary.

I.— INTRODUCTION.

In 1926 a paper4 by the writer on the relationship of iron to the
origin of life was published in these Proceedings. In the same year
a German translation of this paper was published in Botanisches
Archiv by Prof. Carl Mez of Konigsberg University.

The experimental work outlined in the present paper was under-
taken to test the validity of the theories which were put forward in
a suggestive spirit in the previous paper4. Before describing the
experiments, some theoretical considerations bearing on the origin
of life will be very briefly discussed.

In my previous paper4 I maintained throughout the view that
life may originate in the present as it did in the past. It is quite
clear from the paper that I did not restrict the theories to happenings
in the past. ^

24 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Whatever individual scientists may think about life’s origin
there is no shadow of doubt that the earth at present is capable of
supporting life on a grand scale. This is equally evident whether
we contemplate the large human populations of the cool temperate
regions as in the cities of Northern Europe, or the populations con-
centrated in the extensive and crowded cities in the torrid climate
of tropical India. The dense rain forests of tropical regions, teeming
with diverse species, are ample indications of the earth’s potentialities
for the maintenance of vegetable life in its highest and lowest forms.
These considerations predispose one to believe that the world may
yet be capable of generating life.

Natural phenomena are more often the outcome of law and order
than of chaos and accident. Natural processes are much more
frequently continuous than detached. So that the supposition that
life arose at one period of time almost as a coincidence or accident
may be quite readily regarded as much less feasible than the view
that it is a continuous process functioning in the present as well as
in the past.

In concluding this section of the paper attention is drawn to the
remarks of Professor' Schafer11, in his Presidential Address to the
British Association for the Advancement of Science at Dundee in
1912 :

The process of evolution is universal If living

matter has been evolved from lifeless in the past, we are justified
in accepting the conclusion that its evolution is possible in the
present and in the future. Indeed, we are not only justified in
accepting this conclusion, we are forced to accept it. When or
where such change from non-living to living matter may first
have occurred, when or where it may have continued, when or
where it may still be occurring, are problems as difficult as they
are interesting, but we have no right to assume that they are
insoluble.

II.— PRELIMINARY OUTLINE OF THE EXPERIMENTS.

Throughout the -experiments a solution of the same chemical
composition was used. The solution has been employed by
bacteriologists in cultivating bacteria, especially iron bacteria such
as Spirophyllum ferrugineum. R. Lieske5 gives the composition
of it. According to Cholodney1 Lieske used this solution with the
addition of metallic iron in his successful culture work on Spiro-
phyllum. I had also used it three years ago in an endeavour to cultivate
Leptothrix ochracea in an inorganic medium. The solution is composed
of

Ammonium sulphate . .

Potassium chloride

Magnesium sulphate

Potassium monohydrogen phosphate

Calcium nitrate

Distilled water

1.5 grams.
0.05 „

0.05 „

0.05 „

0.01 „

1 litre

It will be noticed that the solution contains all of the protein
elements except carbon. Provision for the supply of this element

PRODUCTION OF PROTEIN BY INORGANIC MATERIAL

25

is made by lowering into the solution metallic iron in such a way
that part of the iron is exposed to the air and the other part immersed
in the solution. The purpose of this arrangement is to allow of the
absorption of the carbon dioxide of the air by the iron as it undergoes
corrosion.

The experiments were carried out in two series. The first series
was of a preliminary character. It will be referred to as series A.
The second or series B is more extensive and critical.

In both series the solution was placed in glass containers and the
orifices plugged with cotton wool to prevent infection from the air.
The containers with the solution were sterilised by steaming for one
half hour on three successive days. The iron was sterilised by heating
to redness in the flame of a spirit lamp and then placed in position
in the glass container, taking care that the upper part of the iron was
exposed and the lower part immersed in the solution. The heating
of the iron caused it to be coated with a bluish black film of oxides
of iron. The iron was placed in position after sterilisation of the
solution, and mostly while the solution was still hot or warm. The
containers were then left at room temperatures for periods varying
from 7 to 14 days, unless otherwise stated. When the time allotted
had elapsed, the cotton wool plug was removed and the film or
incrustation of ferruginous material on the iron at the surface of the
solution was transferred to cover glasses and dried over a spirit lamp.
This process is carried out with a platinum loop which is sterilised by
heating to redness. These cover glass preparations are similar to
the “ dry film ” preparations of bacteriologists. The cover glasses
are then placed on a glass slide in distilled water and examined with
the microscope. In this way protein bodies of microscopic size were
found in the material adhering to the iron at the surface of the solution.
The protein bodies occur in the finely divided ferruginous material
which is composed largely of ferric hydrate. In all of the instances
in which a careful examination was made, minute patches and granules
of ferric hydrate were included in the protein bodies. Before drying,
which forms part of the preparation of the cover glass samples, the
ferruginous material is composed of a mixture of coarse and fine sus-
pensions with the solution as the continuous phase. Many of the
smaller particles approach in size the upper limits of the particles
of typical colloidal solutions.

The protein bodies are almost colourless. They remain dark
when examined under the crossed nicols of the polarising apparatus
and are, therefore, not doubly refracting. They are mostly strongly
contrasted with the brown and yellow colours of the ferric hydrate
which constitutes most of the material of the cover glasses.

III.— EXPERIMENTS SERIES A.

In this series the solution was composed of reagents obtained
from the Agricultural Chemist’s Laboratory. Although obtained
from there about three years ago most of them were taken from
bottles containing Merck’s guaranteed reagents. The distilled
water used to dissolve the reagents was also obtained from the

26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

laboratory of the Agricultural Chemist. The experiments were carried
out in ordinary 5 inch test tubes. They were plugged with cotton
wool after the solution was placed in them. In each case a fine steel
sewing needle was lowered by means of brass wire into the solution
so that it was immersed for about one half its length in the solution.
The protein bodies in this series gave positive reactions to the follow-
ing microchemical tests : Million’s reagent, Xanthoproteic reaction,
Raspail’s test, Iodine in potassium iodide. They were insoluable
in absolute alcohol, nitric, sulphuric and hydrochloric acid, one part
concentrated to one part of water. With 3-5 per cent, solution
of caustic potash they swelled to almost twice their original size.
Two protein bodies were measured before and after treatment with
3-5 per cent, caustic potash with the following results : before
treatment the first measured 25.9 x 18.5 f i , and the second also
measured 25.9 x 18.5 /n ; after treatment the first measured
38.1 X 31.5 [jl, and the second 51.8 x 33.3 / 1 . In describing the
reactions of the protein bodies found in the experiments of Series B
details of the microchemical reactions will be given.

Although the experiments of this series are somewhat homely,
they probably resemble more closely conditions in nature than do
those of Series B. The steel needle in composition may resemble
native forms of iron more closely than the purer iron wires used in
the experiments in Series B.

IV.— EXPERIMENTS SERIES B.

Although the chemical composition of the solution used in this
series of experiments was similar to that of Series A, redistilled water
was used and the reagents were weighed out from previously unopened
bottles. E. Merck’s pure chemicals were used exclusively. A special
form of test tube was designed and manufactured. With the
ordinary cylindrical test tubes plugged at the orifice with cotton wool
there is a slight possibility of an inorganic solution contained in the
tube becoming contaminated with organic matter from the cotton
wool during sterilisation. Steam arising from the solution may be
condensed on the glass in contact with the cotton wool, and drain back
into the solution. To avoid this possibility test tubes bent downwards
at an acute angle at the top were used instead of the straight test
tubes. When these special tubes are plugged with cotton wool any
steam coming into contact with the cotton wool and condensing there
would not find its way back into the solution. E. Merck’s iron wire
was used in all of these experiments. The glassware coming into con-
tact with the solution, such as the bent tubes, cover glasses and slides,
after a preliminary rinsing with water, were cleaned with sulphuric
acid and potassium bichromate, rinsed with water several times,
rinsed with a dilute solution of caustic potash, rinsed several times
with distilled water and then with redistilled water. After being
cleansed in this manner the cover glasses and slides were placed in
Petri dishes and allowed to dry before being used.

In the first experiment of this series to be described iron wire
of 0.2mm. diameter was inserted into the solution after sterilisation
of the solution and the wire, as already outlined in the experiments of
Series A. The bent tube was then placed in a light-proof cardboard

PRODUCTION OF PROTEIN BY INORGANIC MATERIAL.

27

box, which waa wrapped in a camera focussing cloth, and left for 14
days. The purpose of this experiment was to ascertain whether
light affected the generation of the protein bodies. Approximately
eleven cover glasses of the ferruginous material from the iron wire
were prepared in the manner already described. The protein bodies
were found in the material of all these cover glasses.

The results of microchemical tests, which were applied to the
material adhering to these cover glasses, are given below : —

1 . Xanthoproteic reaction. It was found that the best results
were obtained with concentrated nitric acid when diluted
with an equal volume of water as the evolution of gas
bubbles which interfere with observation was much less in
evidence.

2. Millon’s reaction. With Millon’s reagent a rose red to pink
colour is given. The reaction is accelerated by gradual
warming.

3 Raspail’s reaction. A concentrated solution of cane sugar
with the addition of concentrated sulphuric acid gives a
violet colour.

4. Biuret reaction. The reaction, as modified by Low and
Bokorny, was used. The cover-glass preparation was placed
in a 0.2 per cent solution of caustic potash for half an hour,
washed, then placed in a 10 per cent, solution of copper
sulphate for half an hour, washed and mounted in a 2 per
cent, solution of caustic potash. The larger protein bodies
were coloured faintly red.

5. Aldehyde reaction. The cover-glass preparation was placed
in a 1 per cent, solution of vanillin in alcohol for 24 hours
and then mounted in sulphuric acid (one part concentrated
to one part water) to which a few drops of a solution of ferric
sulphate were added. After careful warming the protein
bodies were coloured blue to violet. In the larger bodies
the colour was seen to be in patches.

6. Potassium ferrocyanide reaction. A cover-glass preparation
was acted upon for an hour by a solution containing one
volume of 10 per cent, aqueous solution of potassium ferro-
cyanide, one volume distilled water, and one volume of a
solution of two parts of acetic anhydride in one part water ;
60 per cent, alcohol was drawn under the cover glass until
the alcohol had lost its acid reaction and no blue colour was
given with a solution of ferric chloride. The protein bodies
were coloured blue before the addition of a ferric chloride
solution which completes this reaction. The blue colour,
however, was slightly intensified by the addition of the
ferric chloride. There are evidently sufficient ferric com-
pounds on the cover glass to complete the reaction without
the addition of ferric chloride.

28 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

7. Iodine reaction. On treatment with a solution containing

1 per cent, of resublimed iodine and 5 per cent, potassium
iodide, the protein bodies became bright yellowish brown.

8. Picric acid reaction. A concentrated solution of picric acid
coloured the protein bodies bright yellow.

9. Caustic potash reaction. On treatment with a 3 per cento
solution of caustic potash the protein bodies swelled. Two
of the bodies which were kept under observation were
measured before and after addition of the caustic potash.
Before being acted upon they measured 29.6 X 14.8 [jl and
25.9 X 9.25 fi ; after swelling took place, they measured
40.7 x 22.2 fi and 33.3 X 25.9 fi respectively.

10. Insolubility tests. The protein bodies were found to be
insoluble in absolute alcohol and in nitric, sulphuric and
hydrochloric acids containing 1 part concentrated acid in
1 part water.

All of the microchemical tests outlined above gave positive
reactions for protein. In carrying out these tests I have frequently
consulted the works of Molisch7, Schneider-Zimmerman12, Czapek2,
and Meyer6. Eniich3 in the section of his book dealing with protein
reactions especially refers to the above indicated works of Molisch
and Schneider-Zimmerman ; and these authors on some points refer
to Meyer, who gives many details about the microchemical reactions
of protein, especially protein crystals in the cells of organisms.

According to Czapek2 (p. 36) Millon’s reaction and the Xantho-
proteic reaction are due to the tyrosin groups in the protein molecule.
Czapek2 (p. 42) also quotes Cole to the effect that Raspail’s reaction
depends upon the splitting of tryptophane from protein. Meyer®
(p. 63) states that the aldehyde reaction is only shown by protein bodies
containing a skatol group.

The action of aniline dyes is also an indication of the protein
composition of the bodies. Czapek2 mentions that the numerous
aniline dyes of histology are, for the most part, tests for protein.
Methylene blue and gentian violet both stain the bodies to varying
degrees. The extent to which these basic aniline dyes colour the
bodies is most probably affected by the amount of iron present in the
bodies. I have noticed when staining iron bacteria that the presence
of ferric hydrate to any observable extent prevents the staining of
the bacterial protoplasm. A similar experience occurred with the
preparations containing the protein bodies. Those bodies with a
faint yellow impregnation of ferric hydrate only stained very feebly
or scarcely at all with methylene blue. In making permanent
preparations, cover glasses with the ferruginous material containing
the protein bodies are stained with Ziehl Nielsen’s carbol-fuchsin.
This stain imparts to the protein bodies a deep cherry red colour.
I chose it because experience in the past in staining the protoplasm
of iron bacteria indicated that this stain is much more permanent

PRODUCTION OF PROTEIN BY INORGANIC MATERIAL.

29

than many of the others employed in histological work. The photo-
micrographs of the protein bodies illustrating this paper are from
preparations stained with carbol-fuchsin.

In the second experiment of this series a fine glass tube was passed
through the cotton wool plug of a bent tube containing the solution
and a piece of Merck’s iron wire 0.57mm. in diameter. At intervals
of three days carbon dioxide from a Schroedter’s apparatus was passed
through the fine glass tube into the solution. The experiment was
carried out in the diffused light of a room. At the end of 14 days
the ferruginous material was removed from the wire, and cover-glass
preparations made in the usual way. On examination it was found
that protein bodies were present in all of the preparations, but were
not so numerous as in the other experiments in which no carbon dioxide
was artificially introduced into the system. Perhaps too much carbon
dioxide was introduced. A very large amount of ferric hydrate was
formed in the solution. In this experiment and all of the succeeding
ones the iron wire used was taken from a previously unopened jar
bearing Merck’s label.

The third experiment of the series was carried out in an apparatus
designed to exclude the carbon dioxide of the air from the solution
with iron wire suspended in it. Mr. F. B. Smith suggested the
experiment and indicated the suitability of soda-lime as a medium
of extracting the carbon dioxide from the air passing into the apparatus.
Two U tubes were used. One of these contained the soda-lime and
the other the solution with the iron wire placed in it. The two U
tubes were connected by a very short length of rubber tubing. The
two unattached arms of the U tubes were plugged with cotton wool.
The whole apparatus was sterilised by steaming for half an hour on
three successive days. The air in the U tube with the solution and
iron wire was drawn through the U tube with the soda-lime
several times in order to remove any traces of carbon-dioxide from
it. All of the stoppers of the apparatus, except the one which
maintained the column of solution in position, were opened so
that the air passing into the corroding iron passed through the
soda-lime and was thus deprived of its carbon-dioxide. The apparatus
was exposed to the diffused light of a room and opened up after 14
days. Five cover-glass preparations were made from the ferruginous
material adhering to the wire at the surface of the solution. Of these
the first three completed were free from protein bodies. The last
two prepared were not distinguished from each other, and on one of
them one protein body was found. Some days later the experiment
was repeated with fresh material and new apparatus. In this experi-
ment four cover-glass preparations were made. The first two cover-
glass preparations to be taken from the iron wire and dried were found
to be free of protein bodies. The last two were not distinguished
as to sequence of completion, and one of these was found to contain
two protein bodies. As the finding of protein-free cover-glass pre-
parations made from the material adhering to the iron at the surface
of the solution was unique in my experience, I ascribed it to the absence
of carbon dioxide from the air in the U tube containing the oxidising
iron. The only way I could account for the appearance of protein
bodies in the last preparations made from the ferruginous material
was by assuming that the carbon dioxide of the air became fixed and

30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

combined during the time which elapsed between the opening of the
apparatus and the final drying of the last preparations. In both
experiments the results were similar.

The experiment excluding carbon dioxide from the oxidising
iron wire in the solution was carried out a third time. On this
occasion the U tube containing the iron wire and solution was opened
after the lapse of five days instead of 14 days. The method of sampling
was also varied slightly. Instead of spreading the ferruginous
material on all five cover glasses before drying, each cover glass was
spread and dried before the next one was spread. The time elapsing
between the opening of the U tube and the final drying of each cover-
glass preparation was noted and is shown in brackets : No. 1 (4
minutes), No. 2 (9 minutes), No. 3 (16 minutes), No. 4 (25 minutes).
No. 5 (41 minutes). The drying of No. 5 cover glass was purposely
delayed. Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4 were found to be free of protein bodies.
Two delicate protein bodies were found on No. 5. The results of this
experiment confirm those of the two preceding ones. The only
appreciable difference in the first and last preparations made from
the ferruginous material was in the absence of protein bodies from
the first preparation. In all of the preparations it was evident that
the ferruginous material was composed of particles of extremely
varied sizes. It is quite clear that when the ferruginous material
is lying undried on the cover glass, and even during the time subse-
quent to the removal of the stopper of the U tube, it is a medium
containing a finely dispersed phase and therefore highly suitable for
the development of surface reactions.

This experiment, which is based upon the exclusion of carbon
dioxide, and which was carried out very carefully three times, indicates :

1. The protein bodies are not impurities.

2. The protein bodies are products of the assimilation of the

carbon dioxide of the air.

3. The protein bodies can be generated within 41 minutes of

the access of the carbon dioxide of the air to the
product of the oxidation of the iron wire in the solution.

These conclusions at first seem incredible in the light of all
previous knowledge. It is certain, however, that knowledge of
natural processes is far from complete, and it is almost equally
certain that fresh knowledge can at first appear to be almost unbeliev-
able.

One other observation should be mentioned in connection with
the question of the protein bodies being impurities. In the event
of protein being in solution or suspension in the solution, it would
betray its presence in the cover-glass preparations in the form of
scum-like margins deposited as the solution contracts into a smaller
volume while being dried. Even traces of protein in a solution will
show in this manner, especially in a stained preparation. I have
looked on the cover-glass preparations both stained and unstained
for these indications of the presence of protein and have never found
them. Before the material on the cover glass is dried the greatest

PRODUCTION OP PROTEIN BY INORGANIC MATERIAL.

31

part of it is composed of the solution, as this is necessary in order to
transfer the ferruginous material in suspension. Had protein been
present as an impurity, I expected to find it on the cover glasses with
the ferruginous material formed when carbon dioxide was excluded.

The possibility of the protein bodies being derived from organisms
is excluded by the results of the previously described experiments
in which the carbon dioxide of the air is excluded and then allowed
access for a short period of time to the ferruginous material. It is
obvious that organisms could not develop and have their protein
content metamorphosed into the irregular protein bodies within 41
minutes, which is the time elapsing between the first access of the
carbon dioxide of the air to the ferruginous material and the drying
of the material on the cover glass. In addition, it is to be noted that
it would be scarcely possible for organisms to be present in such
numbers and so consistently as to cause agglomerations of protein
of the size of the protein bodies without the organisms leaving some
indication of their presence. In the various experiments at least
60 cover-glass preparations of the ferruginous material were examined
microscopically and in none of these was any indication of organisms
found. There is, therefore, no evidence to suggest that the protein
bodies are derived in any way from organisms.

V.— OTTO WARBURG’S WORK ON CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY.

Some of the most notable contributions to the knowledge of the
physiology of the cell in recent years have been made by Otto
Warburg and his collaborators. In this section of the paper I have
summarised some of the results of Warburg’s work. It is highly signifi-
cant that the general principles enunciated by Warburg evidently
operate in my experiments, although his investigations were generally
carried out with living cells or material derived from them.

In outlining experiments on the physical chemistry of cell
respiration, Warburg13 states that when the red blood corpuscles
of birds are brought into a freezing mixture of -80° the cell membranes
are torn and by thawing out a liquid is obtained in which the solid cell
constituents are suspended. The experiment is so carried out that
the cell respiration remains unaltered for some hours after the thawing
out. By centrifuging two layers are obtained : an upper clear layer
free of the solid cell constituents and a lower turbid one containing
the solid cell constituents. When the respiration is measured in
each layer it is found that only the lower turbid layer respires. The
general respiration is connected with the solid cell constituents. In
all cases so far in which a disruption of the cell is obtained without
at the same time abolishing the respiration, similar observations
have been made. The respiration of the unfertilised eggs of sea urchins
and the respiration of the liver cells of higher animals are connected
with solid particles, which are designated intracellular granules.

After studying the effects of narcotics on respiration, the oxida-
tion of amino acids on blood charcoal and the effects of narcotics and
prussic acid on the oxidation of the amino acids, Warburg concludes
that cell respiration is a capillary-chemical process which takes place

32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

on the iron-containing surfaces of the solid cell constituents ; that
cell respiration is not thereby physically explained but reduced to
phenomena of the non-living world ; that narcotics retard respiration
by covering the surfaces and thereby displacing the oxidisable
material : that respiration is an iron catalysis ; and that prussic acid
retards respiration in that it converts the iron into a form unable to
transfer the oxygen.

In the introduction to his work on the catalytic actions of living
substance Warburg15 (p. 10) states that from the characteristics of
the respiration enzyme it is concluded that it is an iron-pyrrol
combination in which the iron is connected with the pyrrol nitrogen
as in haemoglobin.

In a paper dealing with his experiments on carbon dioxide
assimilation Warburg14 gives the results of his researches on the
effects of light of varying intensity on Chlorella, a green alga. Two
processes are concerned in assimilation : Blackman’s reaction and a
photochemical reaction. Blackman’s reaction is an ordinary chemical
reaction which is not affected by the illumination ; it precedes or
succeeds the photochemical reaction. The photochemical reaction
is independent of the temperature and proportional to the absorbed
illumination. In discussing the experiments Warburg states that the
energy transmission in the photochemical reaction during carbon
dioxide assimilation is a process which takes place on surfaces. This
is indicated by the effect of narcotics. The stronger one of these
substances becomes absorbed by assimilating cells, the stronger
is the retardation of the energy transmission in the photochemcial
reaction. Blackman’s reaction is also a surface reaction as shown
by its retardation by narcotics. Unlike the photochemcial reaction,
Blackman’s reaction is specifically retarded by prussic acid. From this
retarding effect of prussic acid it is concluded that the Blackman
reaction is a heavy-metal catalysis. If this is true, other substances
which react with heavy metals should retard Blackman’s reaction.
In fact sulphuretted hydrogen in very small concentrations retards
Blackman’s reaction.

After reviewing the experimental data indicating that respira-
tion and fermentation are reactions on surfaces and heavy-metal
catalyses, Warburg15 (p. 12) proceeds to generalise :

Heavy-metal catalyses are also Blackman’s reaction,, which
is a process participating in carbon dioxide assimilation, nitrate
assimilation ami hydrogen peroxide decomposition. For the
enzymes of the reactions also form dissociating compounds with
prussic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen. In addition these
reactions are also surface reactions, so one recognises that the
most fundamental catalytic actions of living substance are based
upon the same principle. The metals and the manner of their
combination may vary, the principle remains the same.

There is a very significant relationship between the conditions
in my experiments and the fundamental principles enunciated by
Warburg. In my experiments an extensive surface consisting of a

PRODUCTION OF PROTEIN BY INORGANIC MATERIAL.

« 33

minutely divided disperse phase results from the oxidation and
hydration of the heavy metal iron. In this way the operation of
Warburg’s two principles of heavy-metal catalysis and reactions on
surfaces is provided for simultaneously. The oxidising iron forms
with the solution a system consisting of a disperse phase of varying
degrees of division suspended in the solution. The coarse and fine
particles provide surfaces comparable with those existing in living
cells (see fig. 4). The photomicrographs (figs. 1, 2, 3, 5) show the
protein bodies enclosing and in contact with granules of ferric hydrate,
indicating the connection of the protein bodies with solid surfaces.
In all of the protein bodies which I have carefully examined I have
always found this intimate connection with granules of ferric hydrate.
I have never found indications of protein in solution. From these
facts it is inferred that the protein bodies are products of surface
reactions. Of all the heavy metals functioning in organisms, iron
is the most important. It is apparent from Warburg’s work that
he considers iron as the principal heavy metal in organisms. In his
introduction to the work on the catalytic actions of living substance15
(p. 7) he devotes several paragraphs to a statement of the iron content
of living substance. His theory of respiration is based upon iron.
The final paragraph of Warburg’s introduction to the work mentioned
above is headed “Catalysis in Chemical Technique”, at least that
is the English equivalent. As there are significant allusions to
biological principles in it I shall reproduce the substance of it :

The works reported upon here originated at a time in which
chemical manufacture in the treatment of Haber, Bosch and
Mittasch developed the methods of catalysis. They pass gradually
from the platinum metals to the metals of the iron group ; and
as it appears at present, the principal processes are iron catalyses
on surfaces. “If one wishes,” says Mittasch, “to compare the
elements in relation to their catalytic value so shall one, when
he has in view the inorganic manufacturing industry, award
the prize to the metals of the iron group, especially to iron itself.”
So has chemistry found the way by which living nature has
proceeded since the beginning.

WL— CARBON DIOXIDE ASSIMILATION IN THE PROTEIN
PRODUCING EXPERIMENTS.

The protein bodies appeared regularly in the ferruginous material
formed on the iron when the carbon dioxide of the air had access to it.
They were found to be absent from it just as regularly when the carbon
dioxide was extracted from the air, and they appeared in the pre-
paration when the untreated air had access to the ferruginous material
for 41 minutes. All of the evidence indicates that the protein bodies
are the products of carbon dioxide assimilation.

In the first experiment of series B the test tube containing the
solution and iron wire was kept in darkness. As protein appeared
in the preparation it is evident that the production of protein is not
connected with photosynthesis. Evidently the process can be classed
with the activities of the nitrate and nitrate bacteria. These
organisms are able to assimilate the carbon dioxide of the air in dark-
ness with the energy obtained from the oxidation of ammonia to

c

34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

nitrate and nitrate to nitrate. This type of organic activity is termed
chemosynthetic assimilation. It is highly probable that the oxidation
of the iron or of the lower oxides of iron provides the energy for the
assimilation of the carbon dioxide of the air in my experiments. There
is already a precedent for this hypothesis as it is now fairly generally
accepted that the iron bacteria Spirophyllum and Leptothrix utilise
the oxidation of iron and manganese salts as sources of energy
(see Lieske5, p. 285).

The experiment in which protein bodies appeared in a prepara-
tion, after its exposure to air for 41 minutes, indicates that the system
which achieves this result is a very potent one. At the same time it
must be remembered that the protein bodies were few in number
and microscopic in size. Even so the reactions which resulted in
the production of these delicate protein bodies must have taken
place rapidly. The initial part of the process consisting of the absorp-
tion of carbon dioxide can be explained. Roscoe and Schorlemmer10
state that ferrous hydroxide rapidly absorbs carbon dioxide. It is
evidently the ferrous hydroxide of the system which begins the
process by absorbing the carbon dioxide of the air. It is known that
considerable quantities of ferrous hydroxide are formed during the
rusting of iron10 (p. 1270). The presence of ferrous hydroxide in
the ferruginous material adhering to the iron wire during the experi-
ments was indicated by the greenish colour.

The oxidation of the iron wire in the solution also takes place
rapidly as I have observed specks of brown ferric hydrate on the sur-
face of the wire within one half hour from the time of suspending
the wire in the solution.

I have no idea as to what intermediate products are formed
during the combinations leading to the eventual generation of protein.
Apparently no starch was present in the preparations tested for
protein with iodine as its presence would have been indicated by the
familiar blue colour.

While I do not presume to explain the production of protein
in the experiments, there are several facts which may throw some
light on the process.

The fact that the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
sulphur and phosphorus are in a state of combination in protein,
indicates quite clearly that there are chemical affinities between them.
I have already shown4 (pp. 103-105) that iron exhibits chemical
affinities for all of the protein elements and that the rust of com-
mercial iron, under atmospheric conditions, contains a potential
supply of all the common protein and carbohydrate elements in its
content of water, carbonate, oxides, ammonia, sulphur and phos-
phorus. Because of the combining properties of iron in relationship
to the protein elements I suggested that iron might have acted or
may act as the assembling agent of the protein and carbohydrate
elements or of the compounds containing them.

PRODUCTION OF PROTEIN BY INORGANIC MATERIAL.

35

In view of the natural chemical affinities between the protein
elements and the ability of iron to embody the compounds containing
all of these elements into one medium containing extensive surfaces
and material undergoing rapid oxidation the generation of protein
is less difficult to understand.

As the elements in protein, especially the carbon, hydrogen and
nitrogen, are in a highly reduced state, a considerable amount of
reduction must take place during the production of protein. The
reduction of nitrates can be inorganically effected by the ferrous
hydroxide of the ferruginous material as Roscoe and Schorlammer10
(p. 1266) state that that compound is a powerful reducing agent and
reduces nitrates and nitrites to ammonia. The same authors10
(p. 1234) also state in their discussion of the reactions in the blast
furnace that metallic iron is oxidised when heated either in carbon
dioxide or in carbon monoxide, free carbon being deposited in the latter
case. It is possible that this relationship between iron and carbon
with respect to oxygen may be^ a factor in the catalytic properties
of iron in carbon dioxide assimilation. This possibility cannot be
entirely discounted in view ol the increasing significance which is
being ascribed to systems with large surfaces. Wolfgang Ostwald8
remarks :

We are driven to conclude that all phenomena observable
at ordinary surfaces increase enormously in intensity, and that
they may even change qualitatively when we come to deal with
dispersoids with their immense internal surfaces. There are
also certain forms of energy that play an insignificant role in
macroheterogenous systems but an enormous one in dispersoids.

It seems scarcely necessary to mention that the substance of
living cells and the ferruginous material of my experiments are
dispersoids.

Since writing the above statement with reference to the reactions
in the blast furnace, I find that Rinne9 in a very recent work makes
observations on the same subject. He draws a comparison between
the inorganic physico-chemical systems of the kind in the blast
furnace with happenings in the organic world.

VII.— THE FERRUGINOUS MATERIAL OF THE EXPERIMENTS
CONSIDERED IN RELATIONSHIP TO ORGANISM.

In the ferruginous material adhering to the surface of the iron
in the solution some of the most fundamental properties of a living
inorganically nourished cell are represented : (1) a system with a large
surface consisting of a finely divided disperse phase in a nutrient
medium ; (2) an energy-liberating system composed of material

undergoing oxidation, which represents cell respiration ; (3) a system

absorbing the carbon dioxide of the air. When protein is produced
by this system and incorporated with it, another property of an
inorganically nourished cell is added, since protein bodies and crystals
are commonly found in cells. From the point of view of assimilation
the ferruginous material with its protein producing ability is scarcely

36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

excelled by any living cell which has been studied physiologically.
In view of these facts it is tentatively proposed to compare each one
of the specks and patches of ferruginous material on the iron to an
organism. These specks and patches are mostly visible to the unaided
eye and vary considerably in size and shape. One of the most pro-
minent features of an organism, which is absent from the specks and
patches of ferruginous material, is specific form.

VIII.—1 THE MOST PRIMITIVE ORGANISMS.

One of the results of finding that protein is generated from
inorganic material may be to invalidate the conclusions formed from
many careful experiments carried out in the past. Even traces of
iron in the nutrient solutions used for cultivating autotrophic
(inorganically nourished) bacteria may be found to produce protein.
The experimental production of protein from inorganic compounds
under the conditions of my experiments indicates the probability
of similar processes taking place in nature. The production in nature
of highly complex organic compounds, such as protein, from inorganic
materials may tend to minimise the importance of the difference
between organically and inorganically nourished organisms of the
lowest classes, such as bacteria. Although Lieske5 is doubtful as
to whether the iron bacteria Spirophyllum and Leptothrix are
inorganically nourished, I am inclined to think that these organisms
will prove, on further investigation, to be very primitive. Some
of the other iron bacteria, which have not been investigated physio-
logically, may be more primitive than either Spirophyllum or
Leptothrix. Over three years ago I carried out some investigations
on Leptothrix ochracea and, as soon as time permits, I shall prepare
the results of the work for publication. It might be mentioned here
that I found iron in both the ferrous and ferric states in the proto-
plasm of the organism.

IX.— GENERATION OF LIFE ON THE EARTH.

The principal object of my work, both theoretical and experi-
mental, was to endeavour to trace the course of natural processes
in the primary stages of the evolution of organic material. The solution
which was used is a nutrient solution designed for the cultivation
of certain kinds of bacteria and algae. Obviously the solution must
possess some degree of similarity to the natural conditions surrounding
the organisms for which it is suitable. Otherwise the organisms
would not grow in it.

It is not determinable from my experiments whether the presence
of metallic iron is essential or whether the lower oxides of iron are
capable of initiating the reactions leading to the production of protein.

Judging from the numerous discussions concerning the sources
of energy of the iron bacteria, it is possible, or even probable, that
ferrous hydroxide may be capable of effecting the primary steps which
lead to the generation of protein. In its turn the production of protein
is definitely indicative of processes associated with life.

PRODUCTION OF PROTEIN BY INORGANIC MATERIAL.

37

Ferrous hydroxide resulting from the decomposition of ferrous
compounds or other combinations of iron in the rocks and soils of
the earth may be the starting point of the evolution of the organic
from the inorganic. By ferrous hydroxide carbon dioxide in solution
or suspension could be absorbed. The oxidation of other molecules
of the same hydroxide may provide energy representing the respiration
of living cells. The ferric hydrate resulting from this oxidation could
supply the finely divided particles constituting a large surface, as
in the writer’s experiments. Nitrates or ammonium salts, sulphates
and phosphates in solution in the natural waters could take part in
the reactions. In this way protein may be formed in nature.

By microscopic observations made many years ago I am aware
that the large surfaces provided by finely divided ferric hydrate are
present in many rocks undergoing disintegration. The presence of
this ferric hydrate is indicated macroscopically by the brown stain
so often seen in rocks which are affected by weathering processes.
The ferric hydrate is especially in evidence in the joints and cracks
of rocks.

The experiment showing that the protein bodies are formed
when the solution with the suspended iron wire was kept in darkness
shows conclusively that the production of protein is independent
of light. This experiment and the fact that the primitive nitrite
and nitrate bacteria assimilate the carbon dioxide of the air in dark-
ness suggest that this process, known as chemosynthesis, is more
fundamental than the photosynthesis effected by green plants. In
the vital processes functioning at the earth’s surface, the energy of
sunlight (photochemical energy) may displace, to some extent, the
energy of mineral compounds in a reduced state, especially as mineral
compounds are more highly oxidised towards the surface than lower
down towards the unaltered rocks.

According to this view of the initiation of biological processes
the immense stores of energy contained in unweathered rocks become
liberated by oxidation and hydration during the process of disinteg-
ration and provide the energy for the development of the earliest
forms of life. These stores of energy are located particularly in
iron in the ferrous state in the rocks of the earth.

The primal forms of life are visualised as composed largely of
mineral constituents, such as ferrous hydroxide. The ability of
these precursors of organisms to generate highly complex compounds,
such as protein, indicates their relationship to the organisms recog-
nised by the biologist. It can be contended that these alleged early
forms do not possess many of the characteristics of organisms, as for
instance, the power of reproduction. As, however, they are derived
directly from inorganic material, there is scarcely any necessity for
the ability of reproduction. They are generated directly from the
simple compounds of rocks, soils, water and the atmosphere. Their
requirements and equipment are, therefore, not always identical with
those of the organisms recognised by the scientist.

38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

This sequence of events is in accordance with the great principle
of evolution. Unquestionably there are speculative passages in the
scheme outlined. On the other hand there are many facts as a basis
to it.

X.— SUMMARY.

Iron, mostly in the form of wire, was suspended in a very dilute
aqueous solution containing ammonium sulphate, potassium chloride,
magnesium sulphate, potassium phosphate and calcium nitrate.
After the lapse of several days the ferruginous material adhering to
the iron wire on examination was found to contain protein bodies of
microscopic size. The solution and the iron wire were separately
sterilised. During the experiments the solution and the wire were
protected from contamination. The experiments when carried out
in an atmosphere freed of carbon dioxide by soda-lime, were found
not to produce the protein bodies except after exposure of the ferrugin-
ous material to the untreated air for a period of 41 minutes. It is
clearly indicated by the experiments that the protein results from the
assimilation of the carbon dioxide of the air. The ferruginous material
adhering to the iron wire in the solution consists of a complex
system containing a large surface consisting of finely divided suspended
particles, chiefly of ferric hydrate. This system, the association of
the protein bodies with granules of ferric hydrate, and the absence
of indications of protein in solution, indicate that the reactions
leading to the production of protein take^J place on surfaces.

The ferruginous material adhering to the surface of the iron wire
possesses the following properties of a living, inorganically nourished
cell : (1) a system with a large surface consisting of a finely divided
disperse phase in a nutrient medium ; (2) an energy-liberating system
composed of material undergoing oxidation, which represents cell
respiration ; (3) a system absorbing and assimilating the carbon
dioxide of the air and producing protein. In view of these facts it
is tentatively proposed to compare each one of the specks and patches
of ferruginous material on the iron to an organism.

In a discussion on the subject of the most primitive organisms
it is suggested that the iron bacteria Spirophyllum and Leptothrix
may rank among the lowest of known organisms.

Considering all of the evidence brought forward, a theory of the
generation of life on the earth is proposed. It is suggested that life
may be generated from mineral compounds in a reduced state in the
rocks and soils of the earth. The oxidation of ferrous hydroxide, on
account of the special properties of this hydroxide, is particularly
mentioned as a possible starting point for the evolution of life. The
process whereby organic compounds are produced in the absence
of light by the ferruginous material of the experiments and by the
nitrite and nitrate bacteria is considered to be more primitive than
the photosynthesis of plant cells containing chlorophyll or a corres-
ponding pigment.

PRODUCTION OF PROTEIN BY INORGANIC MATERIAL.

39

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The writer is deeply indebted to Mr. Frank B. Smith for advice
on several technical chemical questions. It has already been stated
that the experiments in which the carbon dioxide was extracted from
the air were due to suggestions from Mr. Smith. However, it is due
to him to mention that I accept full responsibility for the statements
contained in this paper. A large number ot the reagents used for the
protein tests were generously supplied by the Agricultural Chemist.
Mr. McKechnie, an analyst of the Agricultural Chemist’s staff, kindly
undertook to redistill the water which was used in experiments of
series B.

REFERENCES.

1. Cholodny, N., Die Eisenbakterien (Pflanzenforschung, Heft 4), 95, 1926.

2. Czapek, F., Biochemie der Pflanzen, dritte Auflage, zweiter Band, 94, 1925.

3. Emich, F., Lehrbuch der Mikrochemie, zweite Auflage, 268, 1926.

4. Francis, W. D., A Contribution to the Theory of the Relationship of Iron to the

Origin of Life. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, 37 : 98-107, 1926. German
translation by Carl Mez, Botanisches Archiv, 15 Band, Heft 5-6, 377, 1926.

5. Lieske, Rudolph, Kurzes Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Bakterienkunde, 325, 1926.

6. Meyer, A., Morphologische und physiologische Analyse der Zelle der Pflanzen und

Tiere, erster Teil, 62, 1920.

7. Molisch, Hans, Mikrochemie der Pflanze, zweite Auflage, 311, 1921.

8. Ostwald, Wolfgang, Handbook of Colloid Chemistry, 2nd English Edition,

translated by M. H. Fischer, 28, 1919.

9. Rinne, F., Grenzfragen des Lebens, 90, 1931.

10. Roscoe, H. E., and C. Schorlemmer, A Treatise on Chemistry, vol. II, part II,

1266, 1923.

11. Schafer, E. A., Presidential Address to British Association for the Advancement

of Science, Dundee, 15-17, 1912.

12.. Schneider, H., and A. Zimmerman, Botanische Mikrotechnik, 238, 1922.

13. Warburg, 0., Physikalische Chemie der Zellatmung. Biochemische Zeitschrift,

119 Band, 134-166, 1921.

14. Warburg, O., Versuche uber die Assimilation der Kohlensaure. Biochemische

Zeitschrift, 166 Band, 386-406, 1925.

(This and the preceding paper are reprinted in Warburg’s work cited in refer-
ence 15.)

15. Warburg, O., Uber die katalytischen Wirkungen der lebendigen Substanz, 10,

1928.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

All of the figures are from unretouched photographs.

Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4 were photographed with a 2mm. apochromat (n.a. 1.33} and
periplanatic ocular x 15. Fig. 5 was photographed with a 4mm. apochromat (n.a. 0.90)
and periplanatic ocular x 15.

40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Plate I- — Pig. 1. Photomicrograph of protein body. The darker patches and spots
represent granules of ferric hydrate. Preparation from ferruginous material on Merck’s
.57mm. iron wire in the nutrient solution used in the experiments series B. The iron
wire and solution were contained in a U tube with a U tube of soda-lime attached for
14 days and remained for another 10 days with the soda-lime U tube detached and with
access of air. Preparation stained with Ziehl-Nielsen’s carbol-fuchsin. x 1,200.

Plate I — Pig. 2. Photomicrograph showing two protein bodies (the two large
bodies) on same slide as protein body depicted in fig. 1. The right-hand part of the
lower protein body is out of focus. The upper protein body is in contact with granules
of ferric hydrate on its upper right and right sides. Granules of the same material are
imbedded in the upper protein body and in the left hand portion of the lower protein
body. The ferric hydrate is shown as darker than the protein. x 1,200.

Plate II — Fig. 3. Photomicrographs of tenuous protein body in ferruginous
material from Merck’s .2mm. iron wire in nutritive solution used in experiments series B.
The bent tube containing the wire and solution were kept in darkness for 14 days and
then sampled. The protein is seen in a somewhat diffused condition enveloping exceed-
ingly fine granules and coarser particles of ferric hydrate. The granules and particles
of ferric hydrate are shown as darker than the protein. Preparation stained with
Ziehl-Nielsen’s carbol-fuchsin. x 1,200.

Plate II — Fig. 4. Photomicrograph showing the particles, principally of ferric
hydrate, which form the disperse phase in the ferruginous material. The picture
was taken from the same cover-glass preparation, parts of which are shown in figs. 1
and 2. Unstained. X 1,200.

Plate II — Fig. 5. Photomicrograph of protein body in the same preparation,
part of which is shown in fig. 3. Here again the darker patches represent particles
of ferric hydrate. Stained with Ziehl-Nielsen’s carbol-fuchsin. x 500.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLIV.

Plate I.

Two large protein bodies in ferruginous material.

X 1200.

.YTJX .joY ,g r/iA.r()

.YuH . 'OHS

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLIV.

Plate II.

'

.

‘

X

%

%

* ' •

3. Tenuous protein body in ferruginous material. X 1200.

4. Microscopic structure of ferruginous material. X 1200.

5. Protein body in ferruginous material. X 500.

Vol. XLIV., No. 3.

41

Notes on Australian Stratiomyiidae,

By G. H. Hardy,

(Walter and Eliza Hall Fellow in Economic Biology, Queensland
University, Brisbane).

( Tabled before the Royal Society of Queensland, 21th June , 1932).

The Australian Stratiomyiidae fall into five clearly definable
subfamilies which may be readily distinguished by the characters
in the key given below. Certain genera have been misallied in the
past, and three are still somewhat ambiguous. Two of these,
Syndipnomyia Kertesz, and Ophiodesma White, would be best allied
with the subfamily Clitellarinae, whilst Geranopus White, may be
placed with the Sarginae. The genera N egritomyia Bigot, Elis soma
White, and Peratomastix Enderlein, join Lagenosoma, in the Her-
metiinae, as these all form a homogeneous group. The genus
Hermetia is represented by the introduced H. illucens Latrielle, and
it is somewhat doubtful whether H. pallidipes Hill, is congeneric,
but it belongs to the same subfamily, whilst Pycnothorax Kertesz,
described with incomplete antennae, may come in here too.

Key to the subfamilies of the Stratiomyiidae.

1. Antennae with an extremely long apical segment.

Abdomen with five to seven normal segments, hut
when the sixth and seventh are normal, they are
usually capable of being telescoped within the
fifth

Antennae with the apical segment otherwise formed

2. Abdomen with seven clearly defined segments, none of

which are retracted

Abdomen with not more than five clearly defined seg-
ments, the others being modified to form part of
the tubular ovipositor which is retracted, and
similarly reduced on the male

3. Antennae normal, at most terminating in a thickened

style, never with an arista

Antennae with a hair-like arista

4. Fourth median vein branching from the baso-median

cell

Fourth median vein branching from the median cell

Hermetiinae

2

Beridinae

3

4

5

Stratiomyiinae

Clitellarinae

5. Median vein three branched. .

Sarginae

Median vein two branched . .

Paschygasterinae

42

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Subfamily Beridinae.

Genus Actina Meigen.

I recently gave a survey of the species of this genus and drew r
attention to the existence of an intermediate form. I have now added
to my collection another species of this intermediate type ; the
pubescence on the eyes of the male being short and scattered. The
metatarsus of the posterior leg of the male of this form is slightly
swollen, and this character will distinguish it from that previously
referred to. There is no difficulty in isolating the males of the species,
but in the new one here described, some difficulty may be experienced
in separating it from the female of A. incisuralis Macq. I still have
some males before me that may belong to other species not yet
diagnosed, but all the females known to me may be separated by the
following key : —

Key to the females of species of Actina.

1. Wings marked with brown along part of the anterior

border . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Wings entirely hyaline .......... 4

2. Eyes with short, scanty hairs. Legs, black. Large

species with very long depressed yellow hairs on the

dorsum of the thorax . . . . . . . . 4 ocinis Hardy

Eyes, bare. Legs, mainly yellow. Small species with
short inconspicuous yellow hairs on the dorsum of

the thorax . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3. Apical segment of antennae about as long as the four

segments preceding it . . . . . . . . silvicola Hardy

Apical segment of antennae about as long as the two

segments preceding it . . . . . . . . imperfecta Hardy

4. Scutellar spines entirely metallic green . . . . . . costata White

Scutellar spines with at least the apical half yellow . . 5

5. First antennal segment fully twice the length of the

second . . . . . . . . . . . . . . nigricornis Enderlein

First antennal segment only one and a half times the

length of the second .......... 6

0. Palpi and antennae yellow ; the latter may be stained

with black . . . . . . . . . . . . incisuralis Macquart

Palpi and antennae black ; at most the latter is stained

with yellow . . . . . . . . . . . . brevihirta n. sp

Actina brevihirta n. sp.

Male. — The eyes have scanty short pubescence and are well
separated. The frons is bluish black with a silver- white tomentose
spot just above each antenna ; these spots may become confluent.
The white also covers the whole face. The antennae are normal with
the first segment twice the length of the second (the proportion is
limited to this sex). The proboscis is yellow and the palpi and antennae
are black ; the latter may be stained with brown.

The thorax dorsally, is almost entirely bright metallic green,
with rather long yellow pubescence ; the six scutellar spines are
yellow, and the humeral and postalar callus, though dark, may be

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN STRATIOMYIIDAE,

43

lacking the metallic colour. The pleura is metallic, but much darker
and with long, white hairs. The blue-black abdomen has both black
and white hairs on it. The coxae, most of all the femora, the posterior
tibiae, and all the tarsi except the posterior metatarsus are black,
elsewhere yellow. The wings are hyaline. The male terminalia
seem to differ distinctly from those of A. incisuralis , but they have
not been studied in detail.

Female. — The hairs of the eye are not readily detected in this
sex as they are very scattered. The eyes are much wider apart than
those on A. incisuralis , but the antennal proportions are about the
same. The pleura are of the same colour as the dorsal area of the
thorax, and the abdomen has a light dorsal area covering at least
three of the abdominal segments, while the ventral area is largely
or entirely yellow-brown. The legs are entirely yellow except the
tarsi which are more or less stained with black, and the apex of the
posterior tibiae and tarsi may be more or less black. In other
characters it agrees with the male.

Length. — 5-6 mm.

Hab. — Queensland : Brisbane, 17 males, 4 females, May, 1932 ,
all these were taken in the University grounds. Also 1 male, August;
1924, 1 male, October, 1925. Mt. Glorious, 2 males, 1 female,
April, 1930.

New South Wales : Sydney, 1 male, April, 1928.

This species frequents grass and low vegetation, whereas other
species known to me are associated with trees. The males were seen
to dance in the air, and the females were sought for and found by sweep-
ing low vegetation nearby.

Note. — Some remark is called for, in regard to the interpretation
of the colour of the palpi. On the present species it is entirely black,
and must not be confused with the case commonly met with in which
the apex only is' black. Enderlein gives the character of black for
the Tasmanian nigricornis, the description of which reads very much
like the present one. As far as I know, it is only the apical seg-
ment of the palpi that is black on A. nigricornis , as I do not know
of this colour being otherwise represented on Tasmanian specimens ;
Enderlein described the female only. Another point of importance
is present in the antennae. This is the first species described
from the mainland on which the first segment is twice the length
of the second. This character was hitherto limited to the Tasmanian
specimens, but it is now found (on one sex only) on a Queensland
species.

Subfamily Clitellarinae.

Genus Ophiodesma White.

Ophiodesma White, Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales, xli., 1916, 88; Hardy, Proc. Roy.

Soc. Tasmania, 1920, 49.

Diapontiomyia Kertesz, Ann. Mus. Nat. Hung., xx., 1923, 116.

The above genera are based upon the southern species, the only
one hitherto recognised, so there can be no doubt concerning the

44

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

synonymy. The northern species has been known to me for some
years but I have failed to discover its breeding ground. 0. flavipalpis
is to be met with along the outskirts of rather boggy land at Black-
heath, New South Wales, and is scarce. Specimens from Victoria
seem to have been taken on land that is perpetually damp.

Key to species of Ophiodesmct.

Frons of female with the central area corregated, and a knob

issuing from the median sulcus . . . . . . flavipalpis Macq.

Frons of female with the central area smooth, and there is no

interruption of the median line . . . . . . innodus n. sp .

Ophiodesma flavipalpis Mac quart.

Odontomyia flavipalpis Macquart, Dip. Exot. suppl. 4, 1849, 49.

Ophiodesma flavipalpis White, Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales, xli., 1916, 89. — Hardy,
Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania, 1920, 50.

Diapontiomyia rufispina Kertesz, Ann. Nat., Hungary, xx., 1923, 118.

Both Macquart and Kertesz described this species from the male,
which they associated with the Stratiomyiinae. White established
the female and removed the genus to this position, nevertheless the
appearance of the form is strikingly like that of Odontomyia.

Description. — On the female, the frons is over a quarter the width
of the head (eye-frons-eye measurements are 15-11-15), and much
of it is covered with a short pubescence ; a fairly large area is bare,
showing corrugations, the ridges of which descend each side of a knob
that protrudes through the median sulcus ; there are four of these
ridges, and outside these the frons is densely punctured, each puncture
bearing a hair. The sulcus through which the knob protrudes, extends
down from the ocellar tubercle ending at a transverse suture where
the corregations and the punctures also cease. The scutellum is
semicircular, the spines being placed at each third of its apical border.
The colour of the eyes, when alive, was not noted.

Hab. — New South Wales. The species is well represented in
various collections, and the one from which the above description
is taken is from Sydney, March, 1918. There is a male before me
from the same locality, dated November, 1919. Sydney is the type
locality given by Kertesz.

Ophiodesma innoda n. sp.

This species was originally confused with 0. flavipalpis , from
which it differs by having the frons distinctively different on the
female.

Female. — The frons is under one quarter the width of the head
(15-9-15) with a low bare flat carina on which the median line is
distinguishable ; the protruding knob and the corrugations are missing.
On each side of the carina the frons is densely punctured except for
an interruption midway between the ocellar tubercle and the base of
the antennae, where it is shining like the carina ; both the carina

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN STRATIOMYIIDAE.

45

and the punctures stop at a transverse suture just above the antennae.
The scutellum is less widely semicircular in comparison with that
of the typical form, and the spines are much closer together, so that
the distance between them is noticeably shorter than that from the
spines to the thorax along the margin of the scutellum.

The species is like the typical one in many other respects, but
besides differing in the above characters, the hairs of the thorax tend
to form stripes, a character to be noted in both sexes, whilst the
margin behind the eyes, seen from the lateral aspect, is not quite as
broad, being reduced in conformity with the smaller head. When
alive the eyes were green, with a spot above and below, purple in
colour, and edged with red. Between these spots were five similarly
coloured bars, two touching the posterior border of the eye, and two
the anterior border.

Male. — This is very similar to the male of 0. flavipennis, but
there is a tendency for the scutellar spines to be closer together, but
not to any very marked degree.

Hab. — Queensland ; Brisbane, one female (holotype), March,
1924, and one male (allotype), November, 1929.

Tribe Antissini.

Members of this tribe are to be distinguished by the presence
of a short bristle-like spine at the apex of the intermediate tibiae.
There are two genera placed here, both unknown to White, and I have
been unable to trace them. Antissa was based on a Western Australian
species by Walker, and it might be the same as Antissella White,
whilst Anacanthella Macquart, from South Australia, might be
Lecomyia White.

Genus Lecomyia White.

This genus is readily distinguished by the very broad abdomen,
being about as broad as long. Of the typical form, L. quinquecella
Macquart, only the male is known, so a key to the species cannot yet
be given.

Lecomyia cyanea White.

White described the female only, from the Hawkesbury River,
New South Wales. It has since been found in Queensland, where
it occurs on tree-trunks, and is difficult to catch.

Male. — Eyes separated, and with dense white pubescence (on
quinquecella Macquart, this pubescence is black). The frons is blue,
the pubescence together with that at the summit, is black, except
that some white hairs occur at about half its length, and again just
above the antennae, and thence the white hairs occur down much
of the face. The beard is white, and behind the head the hairs are
black and white. The black palpi have mainly black hairs, but some
white ones are to be detected. The thorax is very dark, practically
black, but with violet reflections, and much of the pubescence on it
is white, and forms a distinct pattern. The scutellum lies at an angle

46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

of about 30 degrees to a line drawn from the neck to the base of the
scutellum ; it is fringed with long white hairs, and elsewhere on it, the
pubescence is black. The abdomen is blue with violet reflections, the
pubescence is mainly dark, but white hairs form two or four pairs
of diagonally placed lateral bars. The coxae, femora and tibiae are
mainly black, with much shorter white hairs ; the knees and tarsi
are white. On the wings a band is more or less clearly defined,
reaching right across from the costa, and is invariably indicated just
behind the radio-median crossvein, even when the remainder is com-
pletely obsolete.

Hab. — Queensland ; Brisbane, September to November, 1923
and 1925. The allotype male and five paratype males are in my
collection. Other paratypes are in various collections.

Lecomyia notha n. sp.

Male . — The eyes are densely pubescent, with long black hairs,
and they are approximated from the ocellar tubercle to near the
insertions of the antennae. The very small frons so formed, is
metallic but very dark, and the same colour extends on to the face
which widens out, being much wider than that of the species referred
to above. The pubescence of the face and frons is mainly white, else-
where on the head it is black. The antennae are brown, the segments
4 to 10 being shorter than normal, and some of these segments are
difficult to detect ; all the segments together are shorter than the head.
The black palpi have black hairs. The thorax is vivid blue, as are
the scutellum and abdomen ; it has violet reflections and is covered
with long black hairs which extend on to the scutellum. The scutellum
has four pairs of short spines, all the same size, and there is a subapical
depression bordering it for the entire length of its outer margin ; the
last character is not to be detected on the other species. The
uniformly distributed black and white pubescence of the vivid blue
abdomen, is short and does not form a pattern. The legs are entirely
black and the wings hyaline.

Female. — This differs from the male by having the eyes widely
separated, the frons being metallic blue, but becoming black just above
the antennae ; the black extends down the face and the area so
covered bears white hairs. White hairs are traceable in the beard,
on the palpi and down the centre of the frons. The palpi are black
with a brown tip. The pubescence of the thorax is very short, and
hairs reflect white when seen at an angle. The pubescence of the
scutellum and abdomen is similar.

Hab. — Queensland ; Ormiston, near Cleveland, August, 1924.
Three males and two females were found resting on twigs in a patch
of bush beside the railway station. Brisbane, August, 1929, two
males from twigs at Mt. Gravatt close to the township.

Genus Antissella White.

There is little to distinguish this genus from Lecomyia, but the
spines are reduced to mere knobs along the border of the scutellum,
and the abdomen is more or less longer than broad, also the general

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN STRATIOMYIIDAE.

47

appearance is quite different. One species described from Tasmania,
A. parvidentata Macquart, has also been taken in New South Wales,
Barrignton Top (G. Goldfinch, December, 1921), and another species
from Brisbane, described below, has the thorax covered with bright
yellow depressed hairs.

Antissella angustifrons n. sp.

Female. — The frons is rather narrow, metallic, and with a carina
strongly indicated ; white hairs occur at about the central third of
the frons on each side of the carina, and again just above the antennae,
from where they continue on the face. Behind the head the hair
is also white. The eyes are minutely hairy and appear to be bare
and the antennae are black. The dorsal surface of the thorax and
seutellum is metallic green and densely covered with bright yellow
depressed hairs that give the appearance of being golden. The
metallic colour of the blue-black abdomen is scarcely discernible.
The legs are yellow. Length : 5 mm.

Hab. — Queensland, Sunnybank, near Brisbane, October, 1927,
one female taken on a window. Other specimens are in various collec-
tions but only this one is before me. The species appears to be dis-
tributed widely, and perhaps is more frequently to be found inland.

Subfamily Sarginae,

White recognised two genera in this subfamily, one of which he
attributed to Sargus. Later Hill added another species that evidently
comes into this subfamily but he apparently knew neither of White’s
generic conceptions, and the species he allied with Sargus is not con-
generic with that of White, if his description is correct. Reference
must also be made here to Geranopus White, which would seem to be
anomalously placed by White in Clitelarinae, on wing venation, but
shows affinities with this subfamily. I have seen White’s type but
was unable to place it satisfactorily. The two genera may be dis-
tinguished by Sargus being metallic blue without scutellar spines,
and Acanthasargus being otherwise coloured and with scutellar spines ;
in both, the arista is placed dorsally on the terminal segment which
is either the sixth or perhaps the seventh segment. This character
will distinguish the two genera from Geranopus , and from the species
placed by Hill under Sargus. I do not know if the generic conception
thus limited, is strictly applicable to Sargus , but it agrees fairly well
with that genus as generally understood. White’s species differs
from the one here described by colouration, the abdomen being
metallic brown with a golden tinge.

Sargus darius n. sp.

Female. — Metallic blue with voilet reflections. Frons is narrow
and a third of its length, just above the antennae, is white. The
anterior ocellus is three times further away from the posterior ones,
than the posterior ones are from each other. The face is brown, and
the proboscis white. The head is deeply excavated behind the eyes
and black, the neck is long and dirty yellow brown. The yellow brown
antennae have seven segments discernible, the arista being placed

48

PROCEEDINGS OE THE ROYAL SOCIETY OE QUEENSLAND.

dorsally on the apical one. A few hairs are readily seen under the
binocular on the arista. The antennae are inserted at about three-
quarters the depth of the head and, -seen in profile, the frons pro-
trudes beyond the eye margin.

The thorax has a white humeral callus, and a white line running
from it to the insertions of the wings. Below this line, a large brown
triangular area occurs. There is also a large brown area covering the
postalar callus and metapleura, and it extends in a line round the
scutellum. The anterior and postalar coxae are more or less tinged
black in parts, the posterior pair being mostly shining black, and the
femora have a dark subapical patch. The tibiae are basally black,
and the intermediate and posterior tarsi are mostly dark on the type,
but this colour varies. In other respects the legs are yellow. Five
abdominal segments are normal, the sixth and onwards form the tubular
ovipositor, the apex of which is yellow, with metallic blue two-
segmented lamellae.

Length. — 9 to 7 mm.

Hab. — Queensland : holotype from Gt. Palm Island, May, 1925.
There are four paratypes, Brisbane Botanical Gardens, March, 1926
(from a window, H. Try on), Dunk Island, May, 1927 (A. J. Turner),
and May, 1914 (R. Hamlyn Harris), Tamborine Mt. (W. Davidson).
The three last are in the Queensland Museum. In the Deutsches
Entomologisches Institut Berlin, there is another paratype from
Kuranda, February, 1910.

Genus Acanthasargus White.

This genus differs from Sargus by having spines at the apex of
the scutellum, and, in addition, the appearance is quite distinct.

Key to species of genus Acanthasargus.

1 . Thorax and abdomen entirely black ...... 2

Thorax and abdomen yellow in part ...... 3

2. Scutellum and scutellar spines black . . . . . . pallustris White

Scutellum with a yellow bar between yellow scutellar

spines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gracilis White

•3. Scutellum and spines entirely yellow ; legs almost

entirely yellow . . . . . . . . . . flavipes n. sp.

Scutellum black, scutellar spines yellow ; legs yellow,

with sections of the femora and tibiae black . . varipes n. sp .

Acanthasargus flavipes n. sp.

Female . — The frons, antennae, face and the whole of the post-
ocular region are black, except for two yellow spots on the frons,'
situated one above each antenna and another pair of yellow spots \
occur on the flange, one behind the upper corner of each eye. The
proboscis is yellow. The thorax is black, except that the humeral
callus and the postalar callus are yellow ; the same colour also extends

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN STRATIOMYIIDAE.

49

along a strip of the pleura between the humeral callus and the wing
insertions. The scutellum is yellow. The black abdomen has the
dorsal surface laterally margined with yellow, the colour extends
slightly so as to form lateral confluent spots on each segment. The
coxae and the two apical segments of the tarsi are black, otherwise
the legs are entirely yellow.

The male is similar except that the eyes are contiguous for most
of their length, and the spots above the antennae are confluent whilst
the flange behind the eyes is almost eliminated, and the yellow occurs
there as a line.

Length. — 5 mm.

Hah. — Queensland : Brisbane, May and September to November
1929 and 1930, two males and four females, all taken on windows
in the University.

Acanthasargus varipes n. sp.

Female. — Head black, but with two large confluent yellow spots
above the antennae, these forming a broad bar that reaches from
eye to eye and are hardly divided in the centre ; in addition, the flange
behind the eyes is yellow on the upper two thirds. The thorax has the
humeral callus and the postalar callus yellow, the same colour extends
along a strip of the pleura, from the humeral callus to the wing inser-
tions. The scutellum is black, with the spines yellow or testaceous.
The black abdomen has a pair of yellow lateral spots on three segments.
The coxae are stained black, but the yellow is discernible in places.
The fermora and tibiae have a black ring, broad on the former, situated
at about half their length, otherwise these and the first two segments
of the tarsi are yellow, and the other segments of the tarsi are
stained black.

The male is similar, but the frons is very narrow, almost linear,
but widens above the antennae to a triangular area which is yellow.
The flange behind the eyes is broad, and like that of the female.

Length. — 5 mm.

Hah. — Queensland : Brisbane, January, February, April, and
from September to December, 1927 to 1930, two males and nine
females. Some of these were taken on windows in the University,
but others were gathered, either on vegetation on a piece of waste
ground, or resting on leaves, in the University grounds and in the
Botanical Gardens.

DEFERENCES.

Full references, not given above for genera and species, will be
ound in my catalogue in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of
Tasmania , for the year 1920, pp. 33-64 ; and for the purposes of this
paper add : —

Kertesz. — Ann. Mus. Nat. Hungarici, xviii., 1921, 171 (Syndipnomyia) ; and
xx., 1923, 124 (Pycno thorax).

Hardy. — Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, xliii., 1932, 51. (Actina).

D

50

Vol. XLIV., No. 4.

A Revision of the Australian Species of the Coral Genera
Spongophyllum E. & H. and Endophyllum E. & H.
with a Note on Aphrophyllum Smith.

By 0. A. Jones, M.Sc., (Cantab.), M.Sc. (Q.), F.G.S.

Plates III. and IV. and Two Text Figures.

( Read before the Royal Society of Queensland , 27th June , 1932).

Till recently some confusion existed as to the structure of the
genotypes of both these genera. As a result some of the descriptions
of the Australian species are not as full or as clear as is desirable.
The writer has recently revised the genotypes (1929)* and the follow-
ing work is based upon that paper. For some of the species more and
better preserved topotypes have been obtained and the descriptions
have been amplified or amended.

The writer wishes to thank Dr. R. S. Allan for placing his collec-
tion at his disposal ; Dr. Stanley Smith for a specimen of Aphrophyllum
hallense ; Prof. Wanner of Bonn University for Eifel material, and Dr.
Koliha of the Narodni Museum, Prague, for specimens of Cyathophyllum
manipulatum.

The following records have been made : —

1888 Endophyllum ( spongophylloides ) Foerste, from the Upper

Silurianf of Bowning. This species was referred to Spongo-
phyllum by Chapman in 1925. See p. 52.

1889 Lonsdaleia ? ( Spongophyllum ) bipartita Eth. fil. Examination

of Foerste’s material has shown this to be identical with the
foregoing species. See p.52.

1898 Endophyllum schluteri Eth. fib, Middle Devonian, Isis River.

See p. 59.

1899 Spongophyllum giganteum Eth. fib, Middle Devonian, Moore

Creek. See p. 54.

1911 Spongophyllum cyathophylloides Eth. fib, Devonian, Clermont.
See p. 55.

1911 Spongophyllum sp. Eth. fib, Silurian, Chillagoe. See p. 54.
1913 Spongophyllum enorme Eth. fib, Upper Silurian, Yass. See p. 61.

* See bibliography p. 62.

f Silurian is used in the sense of Gothlandian, so that Upper Silurian — Wenlock
and Ludlow.

AUSTRALIAN CORAL SPECIES.

51

1918 Spongophyllum halysitoides Eth. fil., Middle Devonian, Nemingha,
See p. 56.

1918 Spongophyllum sp. Dun and Benson, Middle Devonian, Loom-
berah. See p. 57.

1920 Endophyllum schluteri var. colligatum Eth. fil., Middle Devonian,
Moore Creek. See p. 59.

1920 Aphrophyllum hallense Smith, Carboniferous, near Bingara.
See p. 60.

1924 Spongophyllum cf. halysitoides Eth. fil., Richards and Bryan,

Devonian, Silverwood. See p. 56.

1925 Spongophyllum stevensi Chapman, Yeringian ( — Upper Silurian),

Lily dale. See p. 52.

1925 Spongophyllum shearsbii Chapman, Upper Silurian, Yass.
See p. 51.

1928 F. W. Whitehouse recorded Spongophyllum halysitoides Eth,
fil., in rolled Devonian pebbles from the Lower Limestone
in the Carboniferous beds near Mt. Lion. See p. 57.

In 1922 W. N. Benson catalogued the Devonian species noted
above, and added some new localities.

SPONGOPHYLLUM SHEARSBII Chapman.

Plate III. ; Figures 1 and 2. Plate IV. ; Figure 1,

1925 Spongophyllum shearsbii ; F. Chapman, p. 113, pi. xiv., figs.

18a, b ; pi. xv., figs. 25, 26.

Holotype. — The specimen described and figured by Chapman
(1925, p. 113-114, pi. xiv., figs. 18a, b ; pi. xv., figs. 25, 26), now in
the National Museum, Melbourne ; Hatton’s Corner, Yass ; Silurian.

Description. — Corallum compound, cerioid, reaching a diameter
of 15 cms. or more. Corallites polygonal, variable in size, average
diameter about 5 mm. Epitheca thick. Septa very variable in num-
ber, average 20-30.* Major septa arising from the epitheca, stout
at their bases, but rapidly becoming thin, reaching or almost reaching
the centre of the corallites. Minor septa very variable in develop-
ment, sometimes arising directly from the epitheca, more often starting
as spines and crests on the first or second cycle of dissepiments, in
which case the dissociated peripheral ends appear as septal ridges
on the epitheca. Dissepiments large, in two or three cycles, strongly
curved, steeply inclined, almost vertical at the theca. Tabulate
area narrow, about one-third the diameter of the corallites. Tabulae
nearly all complete, about 2 per mm.

* The large corallite shown in PI, III., figs. 1 and 2, has 60 septa.

52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Remarks. — The great variation in the number of septa is in part
due to the variable development of the minor septa, but the number
of septa also increases rapidly with the increase in size of the corallites.

S. shearsbii differs from the genotype in having much thicker
walls, both major and minor septa, the former of which are stout
basally and are always attached to the epitheca. Such differences
are, perhaps, to be expected in an early form, and may give some indica-
tion of the characters of the ancestral stock.

At first glance this species is very like the Devonian Cyathophyllum
manipulatum Pocta (1902, p. 103, pi. 64 ; pi. 103, fig. 3 ; pi. 104,
figs. 6, 7 ; pi. 112, figs. 1-3) from Bohemia. Examination of thin
sections of the latter has shown it to differ in several respects ; its
corallites are slightly larger and septa more numerous, and it has
a narrow stereozone extending about 1 mm. inside the epitheca. Apart
from the stereozone in C. manipulatum the longitudinal sections are
very similar.

Locality. — Bowspring Limestone, Hatton’s Corner, Yass, N.S.W.

Age. — Upper Silurian.

SPONGOPHYLLUM STEVEN SI Chapman.

1925 Spongophyllum stevensi F. Chapman, p. 113, pi. xiv., figs. 17a,
b ; pi. xv., figs. 24, 27.

Holotype. — The specimen described and figured by Chapman
(1925, p. 113 ; pi. xiv., figs. 17a, b ; pi. xv., figs. 24, 27). Now in
the National Museum, Melbourne. Cave Hill, Lily dale. Silurian.

Remarks. — This species was founded on a single corallum from
Lily dale, and the writer has not obtained any further specimens.
According to Chapman the epitheca is even thicker than in S. shearsbii.
The important difference from the latter is that the major septa extend
only about half way to the centre.

Locality. — Cave Hill, Lilydale, Victoria.

Age. — Upper Silurian (Yeringian).

SPONGOPHYLLUM S PON GO PHY LLOIDES (Foerste).
Plate III. ; Figures 3, 4.

1888 Endophyllum ( spongophylloides ) A. F. Foerste, pp. 131-2, pi. xiii.,

figs. 16-17.

1889 Lonsdaleia'i. ( Spongophyllum ) bipartita R. Etheridge, junr.,

pp. 22-26 ; pi. III., figs. 1-5.

1925 Spongophyllum bipartita (Eth. fil.) F. Chapman, pp. 114-5.

Holotype. — The specimen figured by A. F. Foerste, 1888, pi. xiii.,
figs. 16, 17, now in the British Museum (Natural History).

AUSTRALIAN CORAL SPECIES.

53'

Description. — Corallum massive, forming large, probably hemi-
spherical masses, with a “ thin and pellicle like (basal) epitheca,
bearing broad longitudinal subangular ribblets, and distant secretion
ridges.”* Corallites variable in size both in the same specimen and
from specimen to specimen, 10 to 16 mm. in diameter. Epitheca well
developed but thin, bearing pronounced septal ridges. f Septa thin ;
very variable in development, some younger corallites having very
few indeed. Major septa 18-20, often meeting at the middle of the
corallites, but seldom reaching the epitheca, usually ending as crests
on the dissepiments. Minor septa poorly developed, sometimes
absent or represented only by ridges on the epitheca ; when fully
developed, equal in number to the major.J Dissepimental area wide.
Dissepiments large, forming several series of steeply inclined, curved
plates, supplemented by a considerable number of smaller plates..
Tabulate area very narrow, 1/4 to 1/5 of the diameter of the corallites ;
tabulae thin, mostly complete, fairly numerous, 10 or 12 in a space
of 3 mm.

Remarks. — The writer has had the opportunity of examining
Foerste’s own material, now at the British Museum, and there is no
doubt of the identity of S. bipartita with the coral which Foerste
called “ Endophyllum spongophylloides .” Neither Foerste’s descrip-
tion nor his figure is accurate, which led to Chapman (1925, p. 115)
regarding them as distinct species.

This species differs from the genotype, S. sedgwicki% in several
respects. In S. spongophylloides the corallites are nearly twice as
large and the septa, tabulae and dissepiments are more numerous.
There can, however, be no doubt concerning its reference to Spongo-
phyllum — the septa being weak, the dissepiments large and the tabulate
area narrow.

Etheridge thought he detected the presence of a rudimentary
columnella, and so doubtfully referred it to the genus Lonsdaleia ,
but the writer, dealing with a considerable quantity of excellently
preserved material, has found no trace of one.

This species is similar to S. inficetum Pocta (1902, p. 153, pi. 102,
fig. 1), but the latter has smaller corallites — 5 to 7 mm. in diameter,
and the septa, which cannot be divided into major and minor are 30
to 34 in number. S. inficetum is from stage E2 of the Bohemian
deposits, which, according to Kayser (1923, p. 130), is near the top
of the Upper Silurian.

* The basal epitheca is not preserved on any of the specimens which the writer
has examined ; the above remark is quoted from Etheridge (1889, p. 24).

f The septal ridges are very marked in tranverse sections of well preserved
specimens, but are not always noticeable in poorly preserved examples. They are not
shown in Etheridge’s figure.

X Etheridge (loc. cit., p. 24) states that the septa are all major — “ careful examina-
tion having failed to detect the presence of intermediate and smaller radii.” Some of
the specimens in the writer’s collection show no minor septa ; this is due to poor pre-
servation, which was probably the case with Etheridge’s material.

§ See Edwards and Haime, 1853, p. 242, pi. lvi., figs. 2 — 2e ; O.A. Jones, 1929,

p. 88.

54 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Localities. — Bowspring Limestone, Hatton’s Corner, Yass ;
Barrandella Limestone, Hatton’s Corner, Yass ; Derrengullen Creek,
Yass ; Limestone Creek, Yass ; Humewood Lead Mine, near Yass
(Etheridge) ; Bowning, N.S.W. (Foerste).

Age. — Upper Silurian.

SPONGOPHYLLUM sp.

1911 Spongophyllum sp. R. Etheridge, jun., p. 8, pi. B., figs. 3, 4.

Remarks. — Etheridge’s material was very poorly preserved and
as no further specimens have been obtained, a new name is not justified.
It probably does represent a new species which is most nearly related
to S. spongophylloides . It is distinguished from the latter by its few
and very weak septa, and the smaller size of its corallites.

Locality. — Chillagoe, Queensland.

Age. — Upper Silurian.

SPONGOPHYLLUM GIGANTEUM Eth. fil.

1899 Spongophyllum giganteum R. Etheridge, jun., pp. 158-9, pi. xx.,
figs. 1-3 ; pi. xxxviii., fig. 3.

1922 Spongophyllum giganteum Eth. fil. ; W. N. Benson, p. 66.

Lectotype (here chosen). — The specimen figured by Etheridge,
1899, pi. xx., fig. 2 ; it is preserved in the Australian Museum —
registered number F. 4294. Other specimens figured by Etheridge —
pi. xxxviii., fig. 3 (F. 4315), pi. xx., fig. 1 (F. 4293) — are also in the
Australian Museum. The original of pi. xx., fig. 3, cannot be traced.

Description. — Corallum compound, cerioid. Corallites prismatic,
polygonal, large — 20 mm. or more in diameter. Epitheca well
developed, moderately thin. Septa, very variable in development,
40 to 50 in number, all of about the same length, extending nearly
to the centre, but only occasionally reaching the epitheca, usually
breaking up into crests on the peripheral dissepiments. Dissepiments
large, steeply inclined, becoming nearly vertical to form a well marked
theca at their junction with the tabulae. Tabulate area narrow,
about one-third of the diameter of the corallite. Tabulae very
numerous, complete and incomplete, concave upwards, ending abruptly
at the theca.

Remarks. — Etheridge stated that the tabulae are rarely complete ;
their apparent incompleteness is due to their crowded nature and the
difficulty in obtaining a longitudinal section in which they are not
broken up by the septa.

This species differs from the genotype in being much larger,
having nearly three times as many septa, and more numerous tabulae.
The weak septa, narrow intrathecal area, well marked theca, and
large dissepiments at once place it in this genus.

AUSTRALIAN CORAL SPECIES.

55

Diagram of longitudinal section of a specimen of 8. giganteum, from Moore Creek.
X 5. The dissepiments are in part obscured.

Of the Australian species it is most like S. spongophylloides
(Foerste), but it has more septa and is larger.

Locality. — Moore Creek Limestone, Moore Creek, near Tam-
worth, N.S.W.

Age. — Middle Devonian.

SPONGOPHYLLUM CYATHOPHYLLOIDES Eth. eil.

1911 Spongophyllum cyathophylloides R. Etheridge, jun., pp. 7, 8 ;
pi. A., fig. 3 ; pi. C.

1922 Spongophyllum cyathophylloides Eth. fil. ; W. N. Benson, p. 66.

Lectotype (here chosen). — The specimen figured by Etheridge,
1911, pi. A, fig. 3 ; pi. C, fig. 2. The specimen (four pieces) is in the
Australian Museum — registered numbers F. 9494-7. The other
iigured specimen — pi. C, fig. 1, is also in the Australian Museum —
registered numbers F. 9717-8.

Remarks. — No new material of this species has been examined
and Etheridge’s description and figures are quite adequate. The
epithecal walls are the thickest of any of the Australian species. As
in the genotype the septa sometimes reach the epitheca, but usually
do not ; they are more numerous than in the latter ; also the dissepi-
ments are more numerous, but the narrow tabulate area is a feature
common to both.

Locality. — Clermont, Queensland.

Age. — Devonian.

56

PROCEEDINGS OE THE ROYAL SOCIETY OE QUEENSLAND.

S PON GO PH Y LLM HAL YSITOIDES Eth fil.

1918 Spongophyllum halysitoides R. Etheridge, jun., p. 49, pi. viL

1922 iSpongophyllum halysitoides Eth. fil. ; W. N. Benson, p. 67.

1924 Spongophyllum cf. halysitoides Eth. fil. ; H. C. Richards and
W. H. Bryan, pp. 97, 98-99, pi. xvii., figs. 1, 2.

Holotype. — The specimen described and figured by Etheridge,,
1918, p. 49, pi. vii., figs. 1-3 ; Road near Beedles’ Farm, Moonbi,
County Inglis, N.S.W. Middle Devonian.

Description. — Corallum compound, cerioid. Corallites poly-
gonal, variable in size, diameter 4 to 6 mm. Epitheca well defined,
moderately thin, bearing marked septal ridges.*

Septa absent or represented by a few short lamellae or crests
about the theca. Dissepiments very large, forming a single series of
steeply inclined convex plates, supplemented by a few smaller plates.
Tabulate area very narrow, about one -fourth of the diameter of the
corallite. Tabulae complete, horizontal, four or five in a space of
3 mm., ^ending abruptly against the vertical dissepiments, thus forming
a well marked theca.

Remarks. — For some reason Etheridge quite misinterpreted the
structure of this coral. It is clear that when he described, in
longitudinal section, a tabulate zone with “ egg shaped vesicles ”
surrounded by a narrow zone of complete horizontal tabulae, he
described two corallites as if they were one,| the large convex
dissepiments of the two corallites giving his zone of egg shaped
vesicles.

Text Figure 2.

Diagram of longitudinal section of a specimen of S. halysitoides, from Silverwood.

X 4.

The longitudinal section is strikingly like that of the genotype
in its marked theca, large dissepiments and narrow tabulate area,
with few and complete tabulae. The almost complete absence of
septa at once separates it from the latter, and in this respect it

* The thick, short, septal ridges give rise to that appearance in transverse section
which Etheridge described as like a “ string of minute shuttle-like figures, swelling
and contracting alternately,” and from which he derived the trivial name.

f In the thin section from which his figure was taken (pi. vii., fig. 3) the two
centre corallites have parted, causing the destruction of the wall, and this may have
led to his overlooking the fact that they are two corallites.

AUSTRALIAN CORAL SPECIES.

57

approaches more closely to S. kunthi Schluter (1881, pp. 96-99, pi.
xii., figs. 1, 2), which, in its development of septa, lies between the
genotype and the species under discussion.

The writer has examined the specimen from rolled Devonian
pebbles in the Carboniferous at Mt. Lion which Dr. Whitehouse (1928)
recorded as S. halysitoides. This coral is about four times as large
as S. halysitoides, but otherwise is very similar to it. The only speci-
men is very crystalline, and more material is needed before a definite
conclusion as to its relationships can be reached.

It may be noted that this species has been recorded from two of
Benson’s Devonian provinces (see Benson, 1922), viz. : the Eastern
(Nemingha Limestone, Lower Middle Devonian) and the North Eastern
(Upper Middle Devonian) — if Dr. Whitehouse’s identification be
accepted — and also from Silverwood, which area Richards and Bryan
(1924, pp. 59, 98-99) regarded as intermediate between the above
two provinces, but more closely related to the former.

Localities. — Road near Beedles’ Farm, Moonbi, . Co. Inglis,
N.S.W. (Nemingha Limestone, Lower Middle Devonian) ; Limestone
Siding, near Silverwood ; Lomas North, near Silverwood ; (Lower?
Middle Devonian).

? SPONGOPHYLLUM sp.

1918 Spongophyllum sp. nov., W. S. Dun and W. N. Benson, pp. 377-8,
pi. xxxiv., figs. 2, 3 ; text fig. 5 on page 378.

1922 Spongophyllum sp., W. S. Dun ; W. N. Benson, p. 67.

Remarks. — The writer has not been able to examine the material
which Dun and Benson described as Spongophyllum sp. nov. The
material appears to have been badly preserved and the figs. 2 and 3,
pi. xxxiv., are obscure. From the text fig. 5 (a drawing of the trans-
verse section) the form appears more likely to be related to Endophyllum
than to Spongophyllum.

Locality. — Loomberah Limestone, N.S.W.

Age. — Middle Devonian.

SUMMARY OF THE CHARACTERS AND RELATIONSHIPS
OF THE AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF SPONGOPHYLLUM.

These species fall into three well defined groups — (1) S. shear sb i
and S. stevensi ; (2) S. spongophylloides , S. sp. Eth. fil., S. giganteum,
and S cyathophylloides ; (3) S. halysitoides. The first group may be
again divided on the presence or absence of the amplexoid trend. The
following table (p. 58) sets out these groups with their distinguishing
characters and also serves to indicate a possible evolution of the species.
It must be stressed, however, that, owing to the gap between the
Upper Silurian and the Middle Devonian, the evolutionary scheme
is extremely hypothetical.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Narrow ta
f ew an

bulate area*,
d large dissepiments#

Narrow tabulate
area; numerous
tabulae; increase
in number of
dissepiments ;
Lonsdaloid
trend.

\Loss of
septa

Amplexoid

trend

Strong major
septa, start of
Lonsdaloid trend
in minor septa

Upper

Devonian

Middle

Devonian

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Lower

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Upper

Silurian

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S. halysitoides approaches most closely to the genotype, but differs
in the absence of septa. S. shearsbii and S. stevensi are very like the
genotype in longitudinal sections but transverse sections show them to
possess strong septa and epitheca ; but this perhaps is not surprising
in forms earlier in age than the genotype. The S. spongophylloides ,
S. giganteum group shows a more complex structure ; the septa are
more numerous and are differentiated into major and minor ; dissepi-
ments are more numerous but still large ; and tabulae are more
numerous and sometimes incomplete.

Probably the ancestral form was a species with strong epitheca
and septa, few and large dissepiments and a narrow tabulate area.
Development perhaps proceeded along two main lines — (1) loss of
septa by retreat both from the centre (S. stevensi) and from the walls
(S. halysitoides ) ; (2) increase of all the coral tissue except the septa
which retreated from the walls (S. spongophylloides , S. giganteum group).

AUSTRALIAN CORAL SPECIES.

59

ENDOPHYLLUM SCHLUTERI Etheridge fil.

1898 Endophyllum schluteri, R. Etheridge, jun., pp. 43-46, pis. IV., V.

1922 Endophyllum schluteri, Eth. fil. ; W. N. Benson, p. 67.

Lectotype (here selected). — The specimen from which the slides
(M. 233 (2) ) figured by Etheridge, 1898, pi. V., figs. 1, 2, were cut.
Now in the collection of the Geological Survey of New South Wales.

Remarks. — The writer has examined the material described by
Etheridge, 1898. Etheridge‘s figures as well as this material show
clearly that this species is closely related to the Endophyllum bower -
banki end of the bowerbanki-abditum series (see 0. A. Jones, 1929,
p. 85) ; his description may be supplemented in a few points. The
major septa are very strong at the base, but rapidly become very thin
and somewhat flexuous. As in E. bowerbanki E. and H., the minor
septa are very short, and both major and minor septa break up
peripherally into a vertical series of crests resting on the successive
dissepimental platforms. There are two series of tabulae, a central
flat series and an outer series inclined downwards to the well marked
theca, very similar to those in the lectotype, (see Etheridge, 1898,
pi. V., fig 4). The species agrees also in size with E. bowerbanki,
but the dissepiments are even larger and much thicker, numbers
uniting to form thick floor like expansions, with thinner ones in between.
There are about 28 major septa in E. schluteri and 30 to 35 in E. bower-
banki.

Localities. — Isis River, Parish of Crawney, Co. Brisbane, N.S.W.
(M. Devonian) ; Moore Creek, near Tamworth, N.S.W. (M. Devonian),

ENDOPHYLLUM SCHLUTERI Eth fil. var COLLIGATUM

Eth. fil.

1920 Endophyllum schluteri Eth. fil, var. colligatum, R. Etheridge, jun.
p. 55, pi. xiii ; pi. xiv., fig. 1.

1922 Endophyllum schluteri Eth. fil, var. colligatum, Eth. fil. ; W. N,
Benson, p. 67.

Lectotype. — The author has not been able to trace the specimens
figured by Etheridge, but has examined some of his material. Speci-
men F. 9228 (2 sections cut) is here chosen tentatively as lectotype.

Remarks. — Etheridge’s description of this variety is not very
clear, but his figures show it to be a form corresponding to about the
middle part of the bowerbanki-abditum series. Thus, in parts, it is
cerioid or sub-phaceloid instead of astraeoid, and a weak epitheca
is then developed. The septa frequently reach the epitheca and are
not modified peripherally to as great an extent as in E. schluteri. The
corallites and intrathecal areas are about the same size in the species
and the variety.* In the astraeoid parts of the coralla the structure
is indistinguishable from that of the species.

* Etheridge, p. 55, stated that the corallites in the variety are larger, but he com-
pared the diameter of tlm corallites of the variety with the diameter of the intrathecal
areas of the species.

60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Locality. — Moore Creek, near Tam worth, N.S.W. (Upper

Middle Devonian).

ENDOPHYLLUM sp.

.This form collected by Mr. L. C. Ball from Kroombit Creek, about
50 miles south south-west of Gladstone, differs from both the previous
forms. The material is very poorly preserved — too poorly to warrant
a trivial name or to give figures.

The most marked difference between this and the other Australian
forms is that the former possesses a definite epitheca which appears
to be somewhat thickened by stereoplasm. The form is, therefore,
related to the E. abditum end of the E. abditum- E . bowerbanki series.*
The corallum is cerioid or sub-phaceoid ; the corallites are about
12 mm. in diameter ; the septa, which are confined to the intrathecal
area, are of two orders. The major vary greatly in length, sometimes
reaching almost to the centre, sometimes but a short distance into
the intrathecal area ; the minor are one-third to half the length of the
major. The tabulae are divided into two series and are crowded
as in the genotype. The dissepiments are so crushed and broken in
the available material that their disposition cannot be determined.

Locality. — Kroombit Creek, 50 miles s.s.w. of Gladstone.. •

Age. — Devonian.

APHROPHYLLUM HALLENSE Smith.

1920 Aphrophyllum hallense S. Smith, p. 53, pi. 11, figs. 1-5.

Remarks. — Dr. Stanley Smith noted (p. 55) the close resemblance
in transverse section, of A. hallense and Endophyllum abditum
Edwards and Haime (1851, p. 394 ; 1853, p. 233, pi. liii., fig. 6).
See also Jones (1929, p. 87, pi. x., figs. 3, 4). Examination of longitu-
dinal sections of E. abditum has brought to light further characters in
common. As in Endophyllum the tabulae of Aphrophyllum are divided
into two series — an inner flat or slightly arched series the members of
which are frequently incomplete and an outer series which curve sharply
down to the theca in Aphrophyllum but sharply down and then up
again to the theca in Endophyllum. Further, the dissepiments in both
are very large and steeply inclined.

The points of agreement of the two genera may be summarised
as follows : —

(1) The septa frequently do not reach the epitheca.

(2) The dissepiments are large and steeply inclined.

(3) The tabulae are in two series.

* See O. A. Jones, 1929, p. 85.

AUSTRALIAN CORAL SPECIES.

61

Now these are the generic characters of Endophyllum, but it is
perhaps inadvisable to merge the two genera at present, as they are
probably an example of heterogeneous homeomorphy.

Locality . — Carboniferous Rocks, Parish of Hall, 16 miles south of
Bingara, N.S.W.

CRINOPHYLLUM gen. nov.*

Genotype. — Spongophyllum enorme R. Etheridge, jun. (1913,
p. 35, pis. IV.-VII.). Escarpment north east of Boonoo Ponds Creek,
Hatton’s Corner, Yass River, near Yass ; Upper Silurian.

^ Diagnosis. — Cerioid rugose corals with septa developed only as
crests on the dissepiments and tabulae. Tabulate area moderately
wide. Dissepiments very large and rather flat, forming, at their
junction with the tabulae, a well marked theca.

Remarks. — In vertical sections the genus shows some likeness to
Ketophyllum Wedekind (1927, Taf. 15). The latter is, however, a
simple coral, has smaller dissepiments and a stronger development
of septa.

The genus differs from Spongophyllum E. and H. in having less
well developed septa, much flatter dissepiments and a wider tabulate
area.

CRINOPHYLLUM ENORME (Eth. fil.).

Plate IV. Figures 2 and 3.f

1913 Spongophyllum enorme R. Etheridge, jun., pp. 35-37, pis. iv., vii.

Description. — Corallum compound, cerioid, forming very large
spreading masses. Corallites polygonal, very large, 2 to 4 cms. in
diameter. Calices funnel shaped, moderately deep, somewhat
flattened at the peripheries, flat bottomed. Septa numerous but
very weak, developed only as crests on the dissepiments, passing a
short distance into the tabulate area ; variable in strength and number
from corallite to corallite. Dissepiments very large, rather flat at
the periphery, curving sharply down till almost vertical at the theca,
supplemented by a few smaller curved plates at the periphery.
Tabulate area moderately wide. Tabulae numerous, complete and
incomplete, flat in the centre, sometimes curving up and passing
imperceptibly into the dissepiments, more often ending abruptly
against them.

Remarks.— Etheridge stated (p. 35) that the tabulae 44 pass
insensibly into the general body of smaller vesicles forming the
peripheral mass of each corallite ” ; but both in his figure (pi. vii.,
fig. 1) which, it should be noted, is upside down, and in the sections
examined by the writer, they more often end abruptly against the
almost vertical dissepiments, thus forming a very marked theca,

* Kqivov = a lily.

f For good figures of externals and further photomicrographs, see Etheridge,
oc. cit., pis. iv-vii.

62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

In very weathered specimens the corallites frequently break along
the large dissepiments giving a series of invaginated cups.

Localities. — Etheridge’s material was from the Boonoo Ponds
Limestone, Boonoo Ponds Creek, Hatton’s Corner, Yass. The writer
has obtained material from the equivalent Bowspring Limestone,
Hatton’s Corner, Yass.

Age. — Upper Silurian.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Benson, W. N., 1922. — Material for the study of the Devonia • Palaeontology of
Australia. Rec. Gol. Surv. N.S.W., Vol. x., pt. 2, pp. 83 2( 4, pis. xiii, xiv.,
xiv a.

Chapman, F., 1925. — New or Little Known Fossils in the National Museum. Pt.

xxviii., Some Silurian Rugose Corals. Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, vol. xxxvi
(n.s,), pt. 1, pp. 104-118, pis. xii-xv.. May, 1925.

Dun, W. S. and Benson, W. N., 1918. — In Benson, W. N., The Geology and Petrology
of the Great Serpentine Belt of N.S.W., pt. vii. The Geology of the Loom-
berah District and a portion of the Goonoo Goonoo Estate. Proc. Linn. Soc.
N.S.W., Vol. xlii., pt. 2, July, 1918, pp. 375-382, text figs. 3-5, pis. xxxiv-
xxviii.

Edwards, H. M. and Haime, J., 1851. — -Pol. Foss. Terr. Pal. Arch. Mus. d’Hist. Nat.,
Tome V.

Edwards, H. M., and Haime, J., 1853. — A Monograph of British Fossil Corals, pt. iv.,
Corals from the Devonian Formation. Palaeontographical Society.

Etheridge, R. Junr., 1889. — On the Occurrence of a Coral, intermediate in its structure
between the Genera Lonsdaleia and Spongophyllum in the Upper (?) Palaeozoic
Rocks of N.S.W. Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Vol. 1, pt. 1, No. iv., pp. 22-26,
pi. ii., figs. 1-5.

^ — , 1898. — On the Occurrence of the Genus Endophyllum, E. and H.

(emend. Schluter) in the Lower Palaeozoic Rocks of N.S.W. Rec. Geol. Surv.
N.S.W., Vol. vi., pt. 1, pp. 43-46, pis. iv., v.

, 1899. — On the Corals of the Tamworth District. .... Rec. Geol.

Surv. N.S.W., Vol. vi, pt. III., July, 1899, pp. 151-182, pis. xvi-xxxviii.

— 5 1911. — The Lower Palaeozoic Corals of Chillagoe and Clermont.

Queensland Geol. Surv., pub. No. 231, pp. 1-8, pis. A-D.

■ , 1913. — A very remarkable species of Spongophyllum from the

Upper Silurian Rocks of N.S.W. Rec. Aust. Mus., Vol. X., No. 3, pp. 35-37,
pis. IV- VII.

, 1918. — Two Remarkable Corals from the Devonian of N.S.W.

.... Rec. Aust. Mus., Vol. xii., No. 4, April, 1918, pp. 49-51, pis. vii-ix.

— , 1920. — Further additions to the Coral Fauna of the Devonian

and Silurian of N.S.W. Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Vol. ix., pt. 2, pp. 55-63,
pis. xiii-xv.

Foerste, A. F., 1888.— Notes on Palaeozoic Fossils. Bull. Sci. Lab. Denison Univ.,
Vol. III., pt. II., pp. 117-136, pi. xiii.

Jones, O. A., 1929. — On the Coral Genera Endophyllum , Edwards and Haime, and
Spongophyllum, Edwards and Haime. Geol. Mag., Vol. lxvi., No. 776, Feb.,
1929, pp. 84-91, pi. x.

Proc. Roy. Soo. Q'land, Vol. XLIV.

Plate III.

Spongophyllum shearsbii Chapman.

Fig. 1. — Transverse section of a specimen from the Bowspring Limestone, Hatton s
Corner, Yass. x 2.

Fig. 2. — Portion of the same section. X 4. The lonsdaloid trend in the minor septa
is well displayed in the large corallite.

Spongophyllum spongophylloides (Foerste).

Fig. 3. — Transverse section of a specimen from Limestone Creek, Yass. X 2.

Fig. 4. — Longitudinal section of a specimen from the Barrandella Limestone, Hatton’s
Corner, Yass. X 2.

Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLIV.

Plate IV

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Fig. l.

Spnngopliyllum shear sbii Chapman.

Fig. 1. — Longitudinal section of the same specimen as pi. III. figs. 1, 2. x 2.
Crinophyllum enorme (Eth. fil. ).

Fig. 2. — Transverse section of a specimen from the Bowspring Limestone, Hatton’
Corner, Yass. X 2.

Fig. 3. — Longitudinal section of the same. 2.

AUSTRALIAN CORAL SPECIES,

63

Kayser, E., 1923. — Lehrbuch der Geologischen Formationskunde, zwei Bande, 1 Bd.,
8 vo., Stuttgart.

Pocta, P., 1902. — in Barrande, J., Systeme Silurien du Centre de la Boheme. 1st part,
vol. viii., Tome 11, Prague.

Richards, H. C. and Bryan, W. H., 1924. — The Geology of the Silverwood-Lucky
Valley area. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, Vol. xxxvi.. No. 6, pp. 44-108,
pis. vii-xx.

Schlttter, C., 1881. — Ueber einige Anthozoen des Devon. Zeits. d. deut. geol. Gesell,,
Bd. 33, pp. 75-108, pis. vi.-xiii.

Smith, S., 1920. — On Aphrophyllum hallense gen. et sp. nov. and Lithostrotion, from the
neighbourhood of Bingara, N.S.W. Jour, an Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., Vol.
liv., pp. 51-65, pis. ii.-v.

Wedekind, R., 1927. — Die Zoantharia Rugosa von Gotland. . . Sveriges Geol. Under -
sokning, ser. Ca., No. 19, Avhanlingar och uppsatser i 4 : 0.

Whitehouse, F. W., 1928. — Abstract Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, Vol. xxxix, p. xi.

64

Vol. XLIV., No. 5.

Preliminary Note on the Geology of Mount Barney

By Professor H. C. Richards, Dr. W. H. Bryan and Dr. F. W.

Whitehouse,

Department of Geology, University of Queensland.

( Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 25th July, 1932).

I. INTRODUCTION.

The following note is the result of a recent visit to Mount Barney
made with the express purpose of investigating the possible occurrence
of late Palaeozoic strata within the area.

In the year 1911 there appeared the following- paragraph in a
paper by Wearne and Woolnough* * * § dealing with the geology of West
Moreton :

“ An inlier of Permo-Carboniferous rocks is to be found immedi-
ately to the north west of Mount Barney, a high double peaked
mountain, which is situated about six miles to the north-north-west
of Mount Lindesay. These rocks have been previously considered as
of Trias-Jura age, but the discovery of a definite specimen of
Fenestella fossula Lonsd., submitted to Mr. W. S. Dun for indenti-
fication places them in the Permo-Carboniferous. This is the first
record of Permo-Carboniferous fossils in the West Moreton District.”

Later in the same paperf there appears the statement “ Mount
Barney the culminating peak of southern Queensland, 4,625 feet high,
is also composed of rhyolite, intruded by basalt dykes.” Wearne and
Woolnough considered this rhyolite to be of Tertiary age.

In another paper published in the same year WearneJ stated that
Mount Barney “ was found to consist of rhyolite intruded by basalt
and dolerite,” but added that “ The age of the volcanic eruptions
was found to be Trias-Jura contemporaneous with the uppermost
portion of the Walloon stage of the Ipswich coal-measures.”

In 1915 Richards § after considering all the relevant evidence
concluded that he was “ unable to accept the evidence for a Trias-
Jura age ” but was “ firmly of the opinion that these rocks have all
been extruded during the Cainozoic era.” Of the Mount Barney area

* Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., Vol. XLV., p. 142.

f Op. cit., p. 147.

t A.A.A.S., 1911, p. 194.

§ Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., Vol. XXVII., p. 131.

PRELIMINARY NOTE ON THE GEOLOGY OF MOUNT BARNEY 65

in particular the same author states :* “ Large masses of rhyolitic
rocks which seem to represent plugs associated with central vents
occur at Mount Lindesay, Mount Barney . . . . ” and again “ On the
Upper Logan River between Mounts Lindesay and Barney, there are
rhyolitic dykes intruding the Walloon sandstones and shales, and at
the Yellow Pinch reserve, just to the east of Mount Barney, there is
a rhyolitic dyke about 15 feet wide, which has severely baked the
intruded sandstones and shales. Heat metamorphism of the intruded
coal measures seems to have been more pronounced in connection with
the Mount Barney mass than in any other locality examined.”

In 1916 Walkomf recorded “ the occurrence of Fenestella and
Polyjpora (?) in a boulder about eight inches in diameter in a conglomer-
ate of Cainozoic age near Richmond Gap.” Referring to the specimen
of Fenestella collected by Wearne near Mount Barney (some 16 or 17
miles away) Walkom wrote : “ Mr. Wearne has informed me that he
collected the specimen when time did not permit him to make any
further investigations as to its source, and he agrees with me that it
was probably another such occurrence as the one now recorded.”

In 1923 MortonJ made a geological reconnaissance of the Upper
Logan and Albert River watersheds which included a hurried traverse
up the Logan River. The map accompanying the report shows Mount
Barney as part of a mass of “ high precipitous ranges mainly
rhyolite ” and assigned to the Tertiary era. This mass is shown as
bounded on the east by members of the “ Upper Jurassic Walloon
Series ” dipping to the east at angles which vary from 30 degrees to
40 degrees.

II. INVESTIGATIONS IN THE FIELD.

The first step in our field investigations was a thorough examina-
tion of the pebbles in the bed of the Upper Logan River about one
mile downstream from the locality known as the Yellow Pinch. This
search soon revealed boulders of a dark fine-grained quartzite contain-
ing crinoid stems and bryozoa.

Proceeding upstream an examination was made of the pebbles
at the mouth of the tributary streams (at this time dry water courses)
which drain the eastern part of the Mount Barney mass. The first
stream course to be examined (a short tributary joining the river in
the north-eastern part of Portion 127 V.) contained no boulders with
marine fossils, but only sandstone and other pebbles lithologically
similar to the undoubted Mesozoic sediments found farther to the
east. A little further up the Logan Valley a larger and longer water
course enters the river. (This is unfortunately not shown on the land
map). The pebbles at the mouth of this creek were found to contain
a greater proportion of fossiliferous marine sediments than those of
the Logan River itself, although mixed with these were pebbles of grits
and sandstones of a Mesozoic appearance and two apparently different
varieties of rhyolite. It was decided to proceed up the dry creek bed

* Op. cit., p. 132.

f Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., Vol. XXVIII., p. 101.
X Qld. Govt. Min. Jrnl., p. 244.

66

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

which was found to run in an easterly direction through Portion 127 V
roughly parallel to and a little to the north of the surveyed road shown
in that portion. This westerly traverse revealed at first nothing but
grits and sandstones of a Mesozoic aspect, nearly horizontal or
dipping towards the west. After about half-a-mile, greenish brown
sandstones were encountered striking N.N.E. and dipping westerly
at 60°. A sudden change in strike separated these beds from sand-
stones and mudstones containing indeterminate plant remains and
striking N.N.W. with a steep dip to the west. This 45° change in the
strike of steeply dipping beds within a few yards strongly suggested
an important fault at this point.

The beds containing the indeterminate plant remains were con-
formably succeeded by a very compact bar of rhyolite which forms
a waterfall some 15-90 feet in height at this point.

This appears to be either an interbedded flow or a sill as the
junction with the associated mudstones is very sharp and no cutting
across the bedding is noted. The margin of this fine grained rhyolite
is fluidal.

There is a sharp difference in appearance between this conformable
rhyolite and the micrographic rhyolite which forms the main mass of
Mount Barney*.

As the creek bed was followed up still further to the west, the
sediments which succeeded the rhyolite became more and more
compact. The strike of the sediments which were now almost vertical
in position was N.N.W. and any dip the strata had was very steeply
inclined easterly.

The fossil remains of bryozoans were found associated with these
indurated sediments.

Intercalated with these sediments was another but much smaller
mass of rhyolite.

Continuing in a westerly direction from these fossiliferous beds
towards the summit of Mt. Barney, massive, fine-grained, felspathic
grits were encountered. These rocks, which usually are so massive
that it was impossible to make any definite observations of dip and
strike, extend westwards for about three-quarters of a mile and to a
height of 2,000 feet above sea-level. Near this point a thin, interbedded
conglomerate was found with pebbles of a pink granite.

Here these older sediments are intruded by the mass of the Mt.
Barney micrographic rhyolite which extends, with practically no varia-
tion in the hand specimens, to the summit of the mountain. This
igneous mass, which weathers into rounded boulders in a way resemb-
ling a granite, has occasionally a rude columnar structure. It is
intruded by a dolerite dyke, about 7 feet wide, that weathers away to

* Examination under the microscope, however, shows a rather surprising resem-
blance between the two in that the groundmass in each case is granophyric.

PRELIMINARY NOTE ON THE GEOLOGY OF MOUNT BARNEY 67

form the very prominent gorge that is one of the outstanding features
of the eastern side of the mountain mass. This is closely comparable
and probably continuous with the similar feature described by Wearne
on the western side.

In addition to this main mass of micrographic rhyolite an outlier
was observed on the ridge in the south-east of portion 127 V., resting
on the upturned edges of the marine fossiliferous shales.

This rock has already been described by Richards* in the follow-
ing terms : “ This forms the main plug of Mount Barney and it is some-
what different from the other rhyolites, as it is much coarser. It is
greyish white in colour and in patches is stained brown by the limonite
resulting from the altered magnetite in the rock. This rock contains
phenocrysts of felspar, a good deal of which is possibly anorthoclase,
and quartz, the felspar being the more abundant. In many cases the
felspars are subidiomorphic, whereas the quartz is allotriomorphic.
The groundmass consists of a micrographic intergrowth of quartz
and orthoclase, which is developed to a great perfection. The inter-
growth forms a framework around the phenocryst which in some cases
has been embayed. Frequently one sees the intergrowth radiating
off from a particular point or line and there is apparently no nucleus
of felspar or quartz. Distributed through the rock are abundant
small granules of magnetite which are frequently being altered into
limonite. Minute grains of apatite and zircon occur as inclusions in
the phenocrysts. Specific gravity 2.50. Name : Micrographic
Rhyolite .”

A second traverse was made up the valley of the Logan River
for a mile or so on either side of the Yellow Pinch in Reserve 191. This
showed an interesting series of exposures strictly comparable with those
recorded above. The first point of interest is just above the ford where
the surveyed bridle track crosses the Logan River. Here the Mesozoic
sandstones, showing marked current bedding and containing much fossil
wood and interbedded carbonaceous mudstones, dip 15° to 20° in a
N.E. direction.

From this point the dip of the sandstones and mudstones becomes
gradually but rapidly steeper as one goes upstream until the sandstones
and carbonaceous shales become quite vertical and abundant evidence
of faulting is seen. On the right bank of the river at this point, which
is opposite the central southern part of portion 164, there is a big cliff
section exposed by comparatively recent landslides. Recent river
gravels and boulder beds some 100 feet above the present stream
course have been faulted probably as a result of recent movement
along the old fault line. Immediately to the west of the fault
rhyolite is met striking N.N.E. and dipping 80°-85° to the east.
The width of outcrop of the rhyolite is of the order of 200 feet and is
similar to the finer grained rhyolite associated with the older sediments
in portion 127 V.

The stratigraphical sequence to the west of the rhyolite in the Logan
River valley is precisely the same as in the creek course in portion 127 V.
including the presence of the second smaller rhyolite mass. But in

* Op. cit., p. 136. ,

68

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

addition to the bryozoans there were found in this traverse brownish
sandstones containing abundant brachiopods and other marine
organisms.

The traverse was continued up the Logan River to a creek bed
between portions 201 and 202.

In this creek course the marine sediments were followed west for
a half mile and the same N.N.E. strike with steep dip (80° to 85°) in an
easterly direction was recorded. Here the marine sediments are more
calcareous than noted elsewhere and, while great masses of secondary
coarsely crystalline calcite are abundant, much of the sedimentary
material consists of a dark, somewhat foetid limestone.

An examination of the right bank of the Logan River as it passes the
Yellow Pinch revealed that it was made up of a steep cliff of rhyolite
continuous with and on the line of strike of the larger of the two
masses met with in both the earlier traverses.

In the southern portion of the Yellow Pinch reserve a very strong
fault was observed, the fault line striking in a N.N.E. direction. At
this point typical Mesozoic shales and sandstones have been very much
disturbed and dip vertically. This fault is almost certainly continuous
with the two important faults noticed in the earlier traverses. The
three faults if joined form an almost straight line running in a general
direction somewhat east of north and with a very slight concavity
directed towards Mount Barney.

III. THE AGE OF THE SEDIMENTS.

Two series of sedimentary rocks are present in the area — an older,
highly inclined series that has yielded marine fossils, and a younger
series, in general with relatively gentle dips, that contains fossil wood
and is part of the widespread Lower Mesozoic beds of this part of
Queensland.

In the older series the marine fossils have been found in the middle
portion of the section at two localities, each of them immediately
west of the main mass of the inter bedded rhyolite and with comparable
strikes and dips. Thus they most probably represent the same zone.
This fauna contains Polypora smithi Eth. fib, Aviculopecten cf.
ptychotis McCoy, crinoid stems and undescribed species of Fenestella,
Pustula, “ Spirifer ,” Spiriferina , Dielasma and Pleurotomaria. This
is the fauna of the upper portion of the Rockhampton Series (the
Neerkol Series of Reid) in the Stanwell and Neerkol area of central
Queensland. Very few elements of this fauna have yet been
described ; but the same species of Polypora , Fenestella, Pustula,
“ Spirifer ” and Spiriferina that occur in the beds at Mount Barney
are present in the very similar sediments of the Stanwell-Neerkol area.

In Central Queensland these beds lie above the Amygdalophyllum
Limestone, a wide-spread although intermittent horizon in Eastern
Australia that has a fauna of the Dibunophyllum (D2) Zone of the
European succession. The overlying Pustula beds with which these

PRELIMINARY NOTE ON THE GEOLOGY OF MOUNT BARNEY

69

Mount Barney beds are to be correlated represent apparently the very
top of the Lower Carboniferous. No representatives of the Amygdalo -
phyllum Limestone were found in this preliminary survey of the Mount
Barney area.

Marine Carboniferous fossils have been found in Queensland also
in the hinterland of Gladstone (Mt. Grim), at Cania, Canindah, Mun-
dubbera and Texas. Only at Cania and Canindah, however, do we
know of such faunas that would appear to be later than the Amygdalo-
'phyllum Limestones ; but neither of these faunas is closely to be com-
pared with the forms from the Mount Barney beds.

Fossils are abundant in the Burindi Series of New South Wales ;
but, as far as one can gather from published records, very few species
have yet been described from the beds above the Amygdalophyllum
Limestone. No close comparison of the Mount Barney fossils can be
made with any of the known Carboniferous faunas of New South Wales.

Thus the only fauna that can definitely be correlated with this
assemblage is the suite from the beds immediately above the
Amygdalophyllum Limestone in Central Queensland ; but, fortunately,
a very close comparison indeed can be made with these two faunas.

The two specimens containing fenestellids that previously were
described from this area — the one by Wearne and Woolnough and the
other by Walkom — have not been traced, so that no further observa-
tions are possible on these forms. It seems probable that they may
have been derived ultimately from these or similar beds in the area.

In attempting to correlate the section of these older beds as a
whole one difficulty arises. These beds are nearly vertical ; but the
dips that are recorded are all definitely to the east — which would
suggest that the sequence would be, in descending order : —

Compact mudstones with imperfect plant remains ;

(Larger Conformable Rhyolite)

Sediments without fossils ;

(Lesser Conformable Rhyolite)

Compact mudstones with marine fossils ;

Massive grits.

However, in such an area of intrusion and faulting with the beds so
nearly vertical, it is not impossible that the sequence may be in the
reverse order. If the sequence as given is correct, then it would be
logical to suggest that the massive grits are equivalent to the rather
similar grits in the lower portion of the Rockhampton Series.

No observations were made that place definitely the horizon of
the Mesozoic sediments. Fossil wood occurs in these beds, but usually
in a bad state of preservation.

70

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

IV. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.

An inlier of marine sediments of Carboniferous age occurs on the
south-eastern flanks of Mount Barney in south-eastern Queensland.

The fact that Mr. R. A. Wearne obtained Fenestella from the
North Western flank of the mountain suggests a considerable extension
of the mass in that direction.

The occurrence is in the nature of a horst being separated from the
freshwater sediments of the Walloon Series of Jurassic age by a strongly
marked fault.

Associated with the fault but within the older series is a large
massive sill of rhyolitic nature standing almost vertically. Petro-
logically this sill and a smaller parallel one are similar to the mass
forming the upper portion of Mount Barney and to dykes which
penetrate and metamorphose the Walloon sediments, especially in
the development of micrographic and granophyric structures.

Vol. XLIV., No. 6.

71

\ '-i:

Note on the Stratigraphical Significance of
Monilopora Nicholsoni.

By W. H. Bryan, M.C., D.Sc.

Lecturer in Geology, University of Queensland.

( Tabled before the Royal Society of Queensland, 29th August, 1932).

I. INTRODUCTION.

In several of those classificatory schemes that have been advanced
in recent years in an endeavour to correlate the various late Palaeozoic
series of Australia, the coral Monilopora nicholsoni has played an
essential part. It is very important, therefore, that the validity of its
use for this purpose be critically examined.

The stratigraphical value of M. nicholsoni like that of all other zone
fossils will depend upon three things:

1. The precise knowledge of the stratigraphical position of the
type ; 2. The strictly accurate diagnosis of all those specimens assigned
to the species ; and 3. The stratigraphical range of the species as shown
by the relative positions of all specimens that can be confidently
referred to the type.

It is the purpose of this note to show that :

1. The stratigraphical position of M. nicholsoni where first des-

scribed in West Australia is not known with certainty.

2. The fossil corals in Eastern Australia referred to M. nicholsoni

embrace several distinct forms none of which may be speci-
fically identical with the type.

3. That the comprehensive group formed of those Eastern Aus-

tralian fossils assigned to M. nicholsoni covers such a great
vertical range that the stratigraphical value of the group as
such is negligible.

II. GENERAL.

Monilopora nicholsoni was first described by Etheridge from Mount
Marmion in North West Australia.1’2- This remained the only record
of the genus for Australia until 1924 when Richards and Bryan3 des-
cribed and figured a closely comparable form from the Condamine
River in southernmost Queensland. In the same publication these
authors drew attention to certain corals from Boorook, New South

72 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

Wales, seen in the Australian Museum, which closely resembled some
of the Condamine Block material, and to the similar coral from Kempsey
which Dun had described as “a stout variety of Cladochonus tenui-
collis .”4 Following this publication fossil corals more or less closely
resembling M. nicholsoni were discovered both as unnamed or wrongly
named specimens in old collections and as a result of active collecting
in the field in many parts of Queensland, and near Drake in New South
Wales.

III. RANGE OF MONILOPORA NICHOLSONI sensu stricto.

The genus Monilopora, like the closely related genus Cladochonus,
and like the frequently associated genus Trachypora, is generally re-
garded as essentially Carboniferous. Consequently, and in view of the
accompanying fossils Etheridge placed the type of Monilopora
nicholsoni from Mount Marmion in the Carboniferous. Whitehouse5
pointed out that the so-called “ Gastrioceras jaclcsoni ” which occurred
over a thousand feet below Monilopora nicholsoni was a “ Parale-
goceras ” and indicated a high Upper Carboniferous age. Sir Edge-
worth David6 cited Dighton Thomas’ opinion to the same effect, but
in an appendix to his recently published summary of the Geology of
Australia David7 quoted the opinion of Dr. Arthur K. Miller that
“ Gastrioceras jacksoni is not a Paralegoceras but a Metalegoceras and
a definitely Permian genus.”

IV. RANGE OF MONILOPORA NICHOLSONI sensu lato.

Let us turn now to Eastern Australia. The beds of the Condamine
Block of Richards and Bryan were correlated with the Upper Marine
of the Hunter River largely on account of the abundant development of
Trachypora wilkinsoni, the authors remarking that “ The presence of
such typically Carboniferous genera as Cladochonus and Monilopora
is somewhat surprising.”8

Whitehouse9 in 1926 and again in 192810 regarded all the Aus-
tralian examples of Monilopora known at the time as restricted to a
horizon equivalent to the base of the Middle Bowen Series on the one
hand and the Greta Coal Measures on the other.

David11 in turn disagreed with Whitehouse and to quote his own
words “ stresses the point that the characteristic Carboniferous corals
Monilopora and Cladochonus occur in some profusion in Queensland
on certain Permo-Carboniferous horizons, always Sub-Greta.” David
consequently places what he terms the “ main Monilopora horizon ”
as 500 feet below the base of the “ main Eurydesma cordatum horizon ”
which places it towards the bottom of the Lower Marine Series of the
Kamilaroi System.

In the same year David and Sussmilch12 restated this position
and added the statement : “ Thus by means of these two fossils
(Monilopora nicholsoni and Eurydesma cordatum), both of which are
characteristic and of restricted range, the Kamilaroi strata of Western
Australia can be correlated with those of Queensland and northern New
South Wales . . . .”

STRATIGRAPHIC AL SIGNIFICANCE OF MONILOPORA NICHOLSONI 73

A s late as 1932 David13 still regards Monilopora as restricted to one
horizon which he places near the base of the Kamilaroi System.

In the work of J. H. Reid in 1930 on the Upper Palaeozoic Succes-
sion in Queensland14, we find yet another interpretation of the strati -
graphical position of M. nicholsoni. That author placed all those
localities in which Monilopora or Trachypora had been discovered in
Queensland (including those previously assigned to the Middle Bowen
by R. L. Jack or Whitehouse or himself) as pre-Middle Bowen (pre-
Greta) but, while he placed some occurrences within the Lower Bowen
Series, others were moved farther down into his Gympie Formation
which Reid regarded as definitely pre-Permo-Carboniferous. Of the
latter (Gympie) group he writes “ Trachypora wilkinsoni and Monilo-
pora appear characteristic of what are probably the later stages of the
Upper Carboniferous transition,” while concerning the fossils of the
Lower Bowen he states “ Trachypora wilkinsoni and Monilopora
nicholsoni definitely ascend to approximately mid-horizons in the Lower
Bowen Series.”

Reid’s position has been further modified as the result of recent
work in the Springsure district. In a recent paper on “ The Dilly
Stage of the Lower Bowen ”15 he records that “ Neither of the Lower
Bowen Corals, Monilopora and Trachypora, has been found in the Dilly
Stage. They have, however, been recorded in association in the Coral
Stage (with Conularia) at an interval of possibly 900 feet below the
Dilly Stage. They have also recently been found by the writer in the
Middle Bowen marine stage above the Serocold Stage, but Trachypora
is exceedingly rare therein while Monilopora is abundant.” Reid adds
“ It will now be difficult to maintain that the coral known as Monilopora
nicholsoni from the Queensland basin is restricted to the Carboni-
ferous. ...”

Thus we see that fossils more or less closely resembling the West
Australian Monilopora nicholsoni have been placed by different workers
in horizons regarded by them as equivalent to (1) Upper Marine,
(2) Greta, (3) Lower Marine, (4) Pre- Kamilaroi. That the disparity
does not represent solely differences of opinion as to the age of one
horizon is shown by the fact that in the Springsure area Reid has col-
lected Monilopora from horizons separated by over 2,000 feet of strata,
the so-called Eurydesma cordatum horizon lying about mid -way between.

The practice of selecting certain of the localities in which these
corals are obtained and grouping them as the “ main Monilopora
horizon ” and assigning to the latter a definitely restricted range does
not in the writer’s opinion meet the difficulty but, on the other hand,
introduces a dangerous method. One might just as reasonably refer
all those localities in Queensland where Trachypora wilkinsoni occurs
abundantly to the Upper Marine of the Hunter River section when an
entirely different scheme of correlation would be obtained.

V. DIAGNOSIS OF M. NICHOLSONI .

The question now arises as to which, if any, of the forms from
Eastern Australia can be confidently assigned to Etheridge’s species
M. nicholsoni from Mount Marmion ?

74

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

This is essentially a question for the palaeontologist, but the writer
is convinced after personally collecting in the field from a number of
different localities in Queensland and New South Wales, examining
Museum specimens from other localities, and studying the descriptions
and figures that have been published, that the name Monilopora
nicholsoni is at present loosely used to cover quite a number of perfectly
distinct forms.

In the Condamine area alone there are present : (1) the form

referred by Richards and Bryan to * (?) Monilopora nicholsoni ” ;
(2) a very stout but otherwise somewhat similar form ; (3) a form
referred by Richards and Bryan to Cladochonus tenuicollos but which
Whitehouse16 thinks should also have been referred to the genus
Monilopora ; and (4) a form which Richards and Bryan could not refer
definitely to either Monilopora or Cladochonus.

In a paper published by Girty17 in 1925, “ On the Genera
Cladochonus and Monilipora ” [sic] it was argued that “ Cladochonus
and Monilipora are really the same genus, not only because they have
by description essentially the same characters, but also because they
probably have the same genotype.” (It is quite clear from the context
that Girty ’s “ Monilipora ” refers to Monilopora, the name for the genus
as erected by Nicholson and Etheridge.18) Girty’s paper opens with
two statements especially significant here : “ The genera Cladochonus ,
Monilipora and Aulopora all occur, or at least have been cited as
occurring, in the Carboniferous strata of North America. To identify
corals of this group even generically, is usually quite difficult . . . .”
Of what value then are the specific determinations of M. nicholsoni,
many of them made in the field ?

VI. CONCLUSIONS.

Palaeontological research in the genera Monilopora and Clado-
chonus is urgently needed in Australia. The systematic study of these
corals may well lead to the definition of a number of species or varieties
that will be useful for stratigraphical work in the future. At present,
however, the genus Monilopora appears to be of little value for the
purpose of precise correlation of our late Palaeozoic strata.

REFERENCES.

1. Bull. Geol. Sur. W. Aus., No. 58, 1914, p. 14.

2. Trans. Roy. Geog. Soc. S. Aus., 1916-1917, p. 3, PI. xxxix, figs. 2 and 3.

3. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., Vol. XXXVI., 1924, p. 102, PI. xviii, figs. 5 and 6.

4. Records Geol. Sur. N.S.W., Vol. V., p. 181.

5. A.A.A.S., 1928, p. 76.

6. A.A.A.S., 1930, p. 66.

7. Explanatory Notes of Geological Map of Australia, Addenda et Corrigenda.

8. Op. cit., pp. 67 and 102.

9. A.A.A.S., 1926, p. 282.

10. A.A.A.S., 1928, p. 76.

11. A.A.A.S., 1930, p. 64.

12. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 42, p. 515.

13. Explanatory Notes, p. 61.

14. Qld. Geol. Sur. Pub. No. 278, pp. 62 and 69.

15. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., Vol. XLIII., 1931, p. 59 and p. 64.
xo. Verbal communication.

17. Jour, of Geol., Vol. 33, 1925, p. 19.

18. Geol. Mag., 1879, p. 293.

Vol. XLIV., No. 7.

75

The Australian Species of Macroteleia and Prosapegus
(Scelionidae) Hymenoptera

By Alan P. Dodd.

( Tabled before the Royal Society of Queensland, Slst October, 1932).

This contribution revises and re-describes the Australian species
of the above genera, and adds nine new species in Prosapegus Kieffer.
The members of these two segregates are mostly long slender insects,
in which the first abdominal segment is not distinctly narrowed or
sub-petiolate ; the parapsidal furrows are complete ; the marginal
vein is often longer and is never much shorter than the stigmal vein,
and the postmarginal vein is well developed.

The genera are closely related, differing in propodeal characters
as follows :

Propodeum in the female with a raised median area or process,
variable in form, triangular, narrow-oblong, or rectangular,
which is hidentate at apex ; the teeth may be broad, divided to
their base, and even completely separated, or they may be
replaced by two approximate longitudinal carinae that are joined
except at the apex ; in the male the process is often reduced to
a pair of strongly-raised median carinae ; lateral carinae of pro-
podeum strong and complete, and, at least in the male, pro-
jecting at the posterior margin . . . . . . . . . . Prosajpegus

Propodeum without a raised median area, process, carinae or
teeth, the lateral carinae delicate and not projecting at the
posterior margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Macroteleia

Another distinguishing character is the apex of the male abdomen
which is unarmed in Macroteleia but bears two teeth or spines in
Prosapegus.

Romilius duris Walker ( Scelio duris Walker, 1839), founded on
a male from Tasmania, should be placed in one of these two genera ;
the bispinose apex of the abdomen suggests Prosapegus. but an examin-
ation of the propodeum of the type is required for confirmation.

Macroteleia Westwood.

Proc. Zool. Soc. London, iii., 1835, p. 70.

A world-wide genus containing about forty described species.
This revision recognises four Australian species. The following group
of congeneric species, originally referred by me to Macroteleia , is more
nearly allied to Baryconus Forster, and may be included in a broad
interpretation of the limits of the latter genus : — M . varicornis Dodd,
M. australica Dodd, M. tricolor Dodd, M. unicolor Dodd, M. setosa
Dodd, M . minima Dodd, M . polita Dodd, M. inornata Dodd, M . infus-
cata Dodd, and M. simillima Dodd.

Key to the Australian Species of Macroteleia.

1. Female propodeum excavated, the abdomen with a basal process ;
head and scutum smooth ; male antennae with funicle 2 longer
than 1

cornuta

76 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

Female propodeum not excavated, the abdomen without a basal
process ; head and scutum densely punctate ; male antennae
with funicle 2 shorter than 1 . . . . . . . . 2

2. Major colour bright orange . . . . . . . . . . . . apicalis

Head, thorax and abdomen black . . . . . . . . . . 3

3. Postmarginal vein twice as long as the marginal ; female abdomen

2^-3 times as long as head and thorax . . . . . . magna

Marginal and postmarginal veins subequal ; female abdomen a

little less than twice as long as head and thorax . . . . torresia

Macroteleia cornuta Dodd.

Trans. Royal Soc. South Aust., xxxvii, 1913, p. 178.

Female. — Length, 4.30 mm. Black, the tegulae brown ; legs,
including the coxae, golden-yellow ; first five antennal joints
suffused with yellow.

Head polished, smooth and without sculpture except for a very
few scattered punctures, a line of fine punctures on either side of
frons against the eyes, and a row of punctures against the occipital
margin, each puncture bearing a ‘fine short hair; lower frons lightly
depressed medially. Antennal scape moderately long and stout ;
pedicel 2| times as long as its greatest width ; funicle 1 and 2 elongate,
narrower than the pedicel, 1 as long as the pedicel, 2 slightly longer
than 1, 3 two-thirds as long as 2, 4 two-thirds as long as 3, somewhat
longer than wide ; club compact, rather stout, joints 1-5 each twice
as wide as long, 1 rather small, 3 slightly the widest. Thorax almost
twice as long as its greatest width ; pronotum narrowly visible on
the sides, punctate ; scutum almost as long as its greatest width,
its anterior margin narrowly rounded, the median lobe declivous
anteriorly, the surface smooth with very scattered small punctures
bearing fine white hairs ; parapsidal furrows distinct, complete, not
foveate or punctate ; scutellum smooth with a few small punctures
and fine hairs, with a line of foveae against the anterior and posterior
margins, the latter faintly concave ; metanotum showing as a trans-
verse faintly concave line ; propodeum moderately long, deeply
excavated to its base to receive the abdominal process, the excavation
bounded laterally by the delicate lateral carinae outside which the
surface is finely punctate and pubescent, and there is a fringe of white
hairs arising on either side of the excavation at its base. Posterior
coxae slender, their tibiae very long, twice as long as the femora, the
tarsi slightly longer than the tibiae, their basal joint twice as long a
2 - 5 united. Forewings extending to base of fourth abdominal
segment ; sub -hyaline ; marginal vein a little longer than the stigmal
which is very oblique, its apex curved ; postmarginal vein twice
as long as the marginal ; basal and median veins not marked.
Abdomen two and one-third times as long as the head and thorax
united, its greatest width somewhat narrower than that of the thorax ;
a little narrowed at base but not sub-petiolate, gradually tapering to
apex from segment 3 ; segments 1-3 not carinate laterally ; 1 one-half
longer than its posterior width, at base with a slender oblique horn
projecting forward into the propodeum as far as the metanotum ;
2 one-half longer than 1 ; 3 a little longer than 2, two-thirds longer
than wide ; 4 as long as 2 ; 5 one-fourth shorter than 4 ; 6 not com-
pressed, scarcely longer than 5, three times as long as its basal width ;
1 rather strongly striate, its horn smooth ; 2-4 more finely striate
and with fine punctures between ; 5 and 6 with finer sculpture ;
lateral margins of 2-5 smooth ; dorsum of 2-4 with scattered fine hairs,
the pubescence longer and denser on 5 and 6 and along lateral margins.

AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF MACROTELEIA

77

Male. — Length, 3.50 mm. Scutellum straight posteriorly ;
metanotum tran verse but not linear, its posterior margin straight; pro-
podeum raised and flat medially, sloping laterally, its posterior
margin concave and gently carinate, its surface rugose-punctate
medially, finely punctate outside the lateral carinae. Abdomen
hardly twice as long as the head and thorax united, widest at the
posterior margin of segment 4 ; anterior margin of 1 convex ; 3 no
longer than 2 ; 4 somewhat shorter than 3 ; 5 two-thirds as long as 4,
three-fourths as long as its basal width ; 6 one-half as long as 5, no
longer than its posterior width ; 7 short, one-half as long as 6, broadly
truncate or faintly convex at apex ; 1-3 with several strong striae ;
4 and 5 finely striate and punctate ; 6 and 7 punctate and coriaceous.
Antennal scape reddish-yellow, the pedicel dusky, the flagellum black ;
funicle 1 one-half longer than the pedicel, fully twice as long as wide,
2 one-half longer than 1, 3 as long as 2, 4-9 gradually shortening,
9 as long as 1.

Habitat. — North Queensland ; Cairns district, one pair.

Holotype in the South Australian Museum, I. 1,445.

Very distinct from the other species in the long abdominal process
and excavated propodeum in the female, the smooth head and scutum,
and the differences in antennal segmentation in both sexes.

Macroteleia apicalis Dodd.

Proc. Royal Soc. Queensland, xxvi, 1914, p. 99.

Female. — Length, 4.25 mm. Bright brownish -yellow or orange,
the eyes and ocelli black ; vertex of head and apical Segment of
abdomen dusky-black ; segments 1 and 5 of abdomen dark brown ;
legs golden-yellow ; first six antennal joints yellow, the club black.

Head shaped as in M. magna except that the vertex behind the
ocelli slopes precipitiously to the occipital margin ; cheeks, frons
and vertex with numerous rather small punctures bearing fine pale
pubescence, the punctures dense but not confluent towards the
occiput ; frontal impression shallow, smooth medially ; mandibles
rather small, tridentate. Antennal scape moderately long ; pedicel
slender, almost three times as long as its greatest width ; funicle 1
as long as the pedicel and a little narrower ; 2 two-thirds as long as 1,
twice as long as its greatest width ; 3 somewhat longer than wide ;
4 wider than long ; club 6-jointed, joint 1 a little wider than long,
2-5 each twice as wide as long. Thorax almost twice as long as its
greatest width ; pronotum narrowly visible, densely punctate ; scutum
as long as wide, with numerous setigerous punctures ; parapsidal
furrows complete, punctate ; scutellum with scattered fine punctures
bearing fine pale hairs ; metanotum very transverse, foveate, at meson
projecting shortly and narrowly into the propodeum ; propodeum
narrowly and completely divided at meson, its posterior border gently
concave and not margined, finely punctate laterally, finely punctate
and striate medially, the lateral carinae fine and hardly distinguish-
able. Forewings reaching almost to apex of segment 4 of abdomen ;
faintly stained ; venation thick and distinct ; marginal vein one-
half longer than the stigmal which is rather short and scarcely oblique,
the postmarginal twice as long as the marginal. Abdomen two and
one-third times as long as the head and thorax united, somewhat
narrower than the thorax ; segments 1-3 carinate laterally ; 1 some-
what raised at base, its anterior margin convex and fitting close to
the propodeum ; 1 a little longer than its posterior width ; 2 one-half

78 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

longer than 1 ; 3 a little longer than 2, one-half longer than wide ;
4 as long as 2 ; 5 somewhat shorter than 4 ; 6 slightly longer than 3,
strongly compressed dorso-ventrally and narrowly acuminate ; wholly
finely longitudinally striate and with obscure punctures between ;
dorsum of 2-4 with fine short pubescence, 5 and 6 and sides of abdomen
with longer conspicuous pubescence.

Male. — Unknown .

Habitat. — North Queensland ; Herbert River, the holotype female
in March, A. P. Dodd.

Holotype in the South Australian Museum, I. 11,013.

Agrees very closely in structure and sculpture with M. magna
except that the vertex of the head is more precipitous posteriorly.

Macroteleia magna Dodd.

Trans. Royal Soc. South Aust., xxxvii, 1913, p. 149.

M. angusta Dodd, ibidem, p. 150.

Female. — Length, 5.50 mm. Black (in spirit specimens often
showing brownish), the tegulae yellow ; legs, including the coxae,
golden-yellow ; antennal scape clear yellow, the pedicel and funicle
joints somewhat dusky, the club black.

Head from dorsal aspect sub-quadrate, one-third wider than
long, the vertex sloping gently to the occipital margin which is gently
concave and not carinate ; from lateral aspect the vertex and upper
frons are rounded, the lower two-thirds of the frons being almost
at right angles, so that the head is as long as high and the mouth is
situated at the posterior extremity ; lower frons depressed above the
antennae ; eyes moderately large, bare ; ocelli well apart, the lateral
pair against the eyes ; vertex and frons finely coriaceous and with
numerous scattered rather small punctures which are dense toward
the occiput and on the lower frons except for the smooth median line ;
cheeks broad, finely coriaceous and rather densely punctate ; head
with a noticeable pubescence of fine white hairs ; mandibles rather
small, tridentate, the middle tooth small. Antennal scape long and
slender; pedicel slender, almost three times as long as. its greatest
width ; funicle 1 hardly shorter than the pedicel, 2 two-thirds as long
as 1, 3 somewhat shorter than 2, a little longer than wide, 4 as wide
as long ; club compact, rather slender, 6- jointed, joint 1 largest, as
long as wide, 2-5 plainly wider than long. Thorax three-fourths
longer than its greatest width ; pronotum, scutum and scutellum
with a conspicuous pubescence of white fine hairs ; pronotum
narrowly visible, densely punctate ; scutum as long as its greatest
width, its anterior margin rather sharply rounded, almost flat, with
numerous punctures which are dense anteriorly on the median lobe,
the parapsides finely coriaceous also ; parapsidal furrows complete,
punctate ; scutellum with numerous punctures, its posterior margin
foveate and almost straight ; metanotum very short, transverse,
foveate, not raised or prominent, at meson with a short projection
into the propodeum ; propodeum moderately long, sloping laterally,
its posterior border gently concave and not margined, the posterior
angles not prominent, the lateral carinae delicate and straight,
without a median process or carinae but somewhat raised and narrowly
divided to its base, punctate and pubescent. Forewings extending
to base of fourth abdominal segment ; sub -hyaline ; venation thick,
deep yellow ; marginal vein one-half longer than the stigmal vein
which is rather short, slightly curved, not very oblique ; postmarginal

AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF MACROTELEIA

79

vein twice as long as the marginal ; basal and median veins not
indicated. Posterior coxae long, not much shorter than the rather
stout femora, the tibiae long and slender, the tarsi slightly longer
than their tibiae, their basal joint shorter than 2-5 united. Abdomen
2J to three times as long as the head and thorax united ; somewhat
narrower than the thorax ; almost as wide at base as its greatest
width, its anterior margin somewhat convex and fitting close to the
propodeum ; segments 1-3 carinate laterally ; 1 not raised at base,
a little longer than its posterior width ; 2 one-half longer than 1,
as long as 4; 3 one-half longer than wide, somewhat longer than 2 ;
5 shorter than 4 ; 6 as long as 3, strongly compressed dorso-ventrally ;
1-5 finely longitudinally striate and with subobsolete punctures
between the striae, the punctures more pronounced on 5 ; 6 punctate
on its dorsal ridge, striate laterally ; 2-4 with fine short pubescence
which is longer on 5 and 6.

Male. — Length, 5.25 mm. Metanotum not projecting at meson ;
posterior margin of propodeum almost straight. Abdomen two to
two and one-third times as long as the head and thorax united ;
fitting close to the propodeum but the anterior margin is straight ;
segment 6 two-thirds as long as 5, not compressed ; 7 two-thirds as
long as 6, as long as its greatest width, pointed at apex ; pubescence
of abdomen longer and denser than in the female. Antennal scape
yellow, the pedicel and funicle joints suffused with yellow or brown,
less so apically ; pedicel fully twice as Jong as its greatest width ;
funicle 1, as long as the pedicel, 3 somewhat shorter than 1,2 a little
shorter than 3 ; 4-9 subequal, each slightly longer than wide.

Habitat. — Queensland ; Cairns district (type) ; Brisbane ; Mt.
Tambourine ; a small series.

Holotype in the South Australian Museum, I. 1,389.

M. angusta Dodd appears to be merely a small male, 3.50 mm.
of this species.

Macroteleia torresia Dodd.

Trans. Royal Soc. South Aust., xxxvii, 1913, p. 150.

Macroteleia perJcinsiana Dodd, Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1919, p. 327.

Female. — Length, 3.40 mm. Black ; legs reddish-yellow, the
coxae usually fuscous ; antennal scape yellow, the pedicel and funicle
joints fuscous, the club black.

Head shaped as in magna ; frons and vertex between the
ocelli with numerous small punctures which are dense and sub-
confluent between the ocelli and the occiput and on the cheeks ; a
smooth area on lower frons medially ; pubescence fine and pale.
Antennal scape slender ; pedicel long and slender ; funicle 1 narrower
and shorter than the pedicel, 2 J times as long as its greatest width ;
2 one-half as long as 1, slightly longer than wide; 3 slightly wider
than long ; 4 transverse ; club 6- jointed, joint 1 longest but wider
than long, 2-5 each twice as wide as long. Thorax two-thirds longer
than its greatest width ; pronotum, scutum, and scutellum with fine
whitish pubescence ; pronotum narrowly visible, densely punctate ;
scutum almost as long as its greatest width, its anterior margin rather
broadly rounded, with moderately dense small punctures which are
confluent on the median lobe anteriorly ; parapsidal furrows com-
plete, punctate, not very conspicuous ; scutellum with small
scattered punctures ; metanotum very transverse, not prominent,
foveate, its posterior margin straight ; propodeum moderately long,

80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

raised medially, sloping laterahy, the posterior border gently con-
cave and not margined, the median line apparently not divided ;
surface of propodeum finely punctate and, except laterally, longitudin-
ally striate, the lateral carinae very delicate and hardly distinguished
from the striae. Fore wings extending to apex of fourth abdominal
segment ; sub-hyaline ; venation thick, deep brown ; marginal and
postmarginal veins subequal, each twice as long as the stigmal vein
which is rather short, not very oblique, straight ; basal and median
veins faintly marked. Legs much as in magna. Abdomen a little
less than twice as long as the head and thorax united, a little
narrower than the thorax ; slightly narrowed at base, narrowly
acuminate at apex, its basal margin lightly convex and fitting close
to the posterior margin of the propodeum ; segments 1-3 carinate
laterally ; 1 as long as its posterior width ; 2 one-half longer than 1 ;
3 slightly longer than 2, scarcely longer than wide ; 4 as long as 2 ;
5 two-thirds as long as 4 ; 6 as long as 3, strongly compressed dorso-
ventrally ; 1-4 finely longitudinally striate and with sub-obsolete
punctures between the striae ; 5 very finely striate and with fine
punctures between ; 6 punctate on its dorsal ridge, finely striate
laterally ; 2-4 with very fine short pubescence, 5 and 6 and sides of
abdomen with longer conspicuous pubescence.

Male. — Length, 3-3.30 mm. Basal margin of abdomen straight
and free from the propodeum ; abdomen more pubescent than in the
female ; segment 6 broad, not compressed, two-thirds as long as 5 ;
7 acutely triangular, much shorter than 6 ; punctures distinct on
5-7. Antennal scape yellow, the pedicel and basal funicle joints
suffused yellowish ; pedicel twice as long as its greatest width ;
funicle 1 slightly shorter than the pedicel, 3 somewhat shorter than 1,
one-third longer than wide, 2 a little shorter than 3, as wide as long,
4-9 subequal, each as wide as long.

Habitat. — Queensland ; Thursday Island ; Pentland ; Proser-
pine , Westwood ; Wowan ; Bundaberg ; Mt. Tambourine ; Chin-
chilla ; five males, five females, in November- April.

Holotype and Allotype in the South Australian Museum, I. 1,390.

A widely- distributed although not common species the type
locality is Proserpine. A smaller species than M. magna , the abdomen
shorter in relation to the head and thorax, and the postmarginal vein
not longer than the marginal. M. perkinsiana Dodd, erected on two
females from Bundaberg, is a true synonym.

Prosapegus Kieffer.

Ann. Soc. Sci. Brussels, xxxii, 1908, pp. 121, 147.

Apegus Ashmead (not Forster), Bull. U.S. National Museum, xlv, 1893, p. 226.

Cacellus Dodd (not Ashmead), Trans. Royal Soc. South Australia, xxxix,
1915, p. 445; ibidem, xl, 1916, p. 23-24 ; Archiv fur Naturg. Berlin, lxxx,
1915. Macroteleia (part) Dodd (not Westwood), Proc. Royal Soc. Qld.
xxvi, 1914, p. 100 ; Archiv fur Naturg. Berlin, lxxx, 1915 ; Trans. Royal
Soc. South Australia, xxxix, 1915, p. 444. Alloteleia Kieffer, Broteria, xv,
1917, p. 59.

This genus was erected by Kieffer for Apegus elongatus Ashmead.
The female of this insect has not been described ; yet in all his works
Kieffer has assumed that the female antennae are without a terminal
club.

AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF MACROTELEIA

81

Several years ago, Mr. A. B. Gahan of the U. S. Bureau of
Entomology kindly compared specimens of Cacellus giganteus Dodd
and C. propinquus Dodd with the type of elongatus, and furnished me
with valuable notes from which it appears evident that the Australian
species are congeneric with the North American insect. I had already
made this suggestion (Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1919, p. 321).

Mr. Gahan states that the head of elongatus is more quadrate
than in giganteus and propinquus, but this is true of at least one
Australian species. Further, he gives the following characters of
elongatus, some of which are always present in the Australian species :
Propodeum with two high carinae which converge but do not meet
posteriorly ; dorsum of abdomen with a median carina on segment
2 and lateral carinae on segments 1-3.

Alloteleia appendiculata Kieffer, founded on a male from the
Philippine Islands, is undoubtedly congeneric with the Australian
species, a fact which is established from an examination of the des-
cription of this, the genotype and only described species.

Thus Prosapegus should contain one species from North America,
one from the Philippine Islands, three from New Guinea (P. violaceus
Dodd, P. atrellus Dodd, and P. metatarsalis Dodd), and one from
Fiji (P. glorianus Dodd), while in this paper fifteen species are
recognised from Australia. The species vary in size from moderately
large to very large ; P. violaceus from New Guinea is one of the largest
known Scelionids, and P. giganteus and P. insignis are the largest
members of the family from Australia. They are slender Macroteleia-
like forms with the exception of P. validus which is a stouter insect
with a general resemblance to species of Oxyscelio Kieffer and
Hoploteleia Ashmead.

Most of the Australian species are closely related, and are dis-
tinguished by small structural and sculptural differences.

Key to the Australian Species of Prosapegus Kieffer.

1. Females . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Males . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2. Propodeal process triangular with one median carina ; size very

large . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . giganteus

Propodeal process with two median carinae or none, or divided

into two teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3. Segments 2-4 of abdomen strongly sparsely striate, the punctures

between rather indefinite ; teeth of propodeum small , well-
separated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . nigriscapus

Segments 2-4 densely punctate, sometimes with more or less dis-
tinct, but fine, striae . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

4. Teeth of propodeum widely separated . . . . . . . . discissus

Teeth of propodeum joined or at least close together at base . . 5

5. Pubescence of abdominal segments 5-6 scattered . . . . . . insignis

Pubescence of segments 5-6 dense . . . . . . . . . . 6

6. Abdomen shorter, one-fourth longer than the head and thorax ;

funicle 1 no longer than the pedicel . . . . . . . . validus

Abdomen longer, at least one-half longer than the head and

thorax ; funicle 1 plainly longer than the pedicel .... 7

7. Punctures of median lobe of scutum becoming small and indefinite

posteriorly ; thorax and abdomen more or less brownish . . fuscicorpus
Punctures of median lobe not small and indefinite posteriorly ;

thorax and abdomen wholly black . . . . . . . . 8

8. Punctures of median lobe sparse on posterior half ; propodeum on

either side with a long straight carina inside the lateral carina

which it joins posteriorly ; coxae dark . . . . . . . . infusus

F

82

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

9.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

I«.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

Punctures of median lobe even in density ; propodeum without
the inner carina, or if present it is short and joins the posterior
margin well inside the lateral carina ; coxae red or yellow . .
Propodeal process broad, narrowly divided, the teeth broad ;
abdomen more slender apically, segment 5 plainly longer than
its basal width, 6 at least twice as long as its basal width
Propodeal process either narrow or broadly divided almost to its
base ; abdomen less slender apically, segment 5 never longer
than its basal width, 6 less than twice as long as its basal width
Anterior margin of abdomen straight, not projecting forward into
the propodeum

Anterior margin of abdomen not straight, projecting forward into
the propodeum

Punctures of median lobe of scutum larger, well separated
Punctures of median lobe smaller, confluent or sub-confluent
Apex of abdomen convex
Apex of abdomen concave and bispinose

Lateral carinae of propodeum curved ; abdomen two-thirds longer
than the head and thorax, segment 2 one-half longer than 1,
6 longer than its basal width . . . . . .

Lateral carinae of propodeum straight ; abdomen one-half longer
than the head and thorax, segment 2 one-fourth longer than 1,
6 no longer than its basal width
Abdomen with a convex ridge medially, segments 1-3 without a
lateral carina

Abdomen without a convex ridge medially, segments 1-3 with a
lateral carina

Abdomen one-half longer than the head and thorax ; teeth of
propodeal process narrowly separated
Abdomen twice as long as the head and thorax ; teeth of process
well separated

Propodeal process triangular with one median carina ; size very
large

Propodeal process with two median carinae or none ; size smaller,
except in insiginis
Abdomen very sparsely striate

Abdomen densely punctate, or if striate the striae are numerous. .
Propodeum with a long carina between the median process and the
lateral carina, joining the latter posteriorly
Propodeum either without a carina between the median process or
carina and the lateral carina, or with a short carina that joins
the posterior margin well inside the lateral carina
Propodeal process broad with two stout teeth
Propodeal process either narrow, with two approximate teeth
or carinae, or reduced to a pair of carinae
Abdomen scarcely narrower than the thorax, segment 3 wider
than long

Abdomen distinctly narrower than the thorax, segment 3 longer
than wide

Punctures of median lobe of scutum small and scattered posteriorly
Punctures of median lobe large and numerous posteriorly
Median carinae of propodeum parallel and close together ; post-
marginal vein 2\ times as long as the marginal
Median carinae of propodeum wide apart at base ; postmarginal
vein one-half longer than the marginal
Propodeal process in the form of a long narrow bicarinate tooth
that projects well beyond the posterior margin medially
Propodeal process reduced to a pair of raised carinae that hardly
project beyond the posterior margin medially
Carinae of propodeal process approximate for their entire length,
a strong carina present on either side ; punctures of scutum
larger .... . . . .

Carinae of process divergent towards base ; no strong carina on
either side ; punctures of scutum smaller
Propodeum long medially, the median carinae sub-parallel
Propodeum rather short medially, the median carinae converging
posteriorly . . . .

Segments 2 and 3 of abdomen slightly longer than wide ; basal joint
of posterior tarsi longer than 2-5 united

9

extensus

10
11

14

illustris

12

13

augustus

regalis

distinctus

fissilis

15

solitus

accultus

giganteus

17

nigriscapus

18

infusus

19

20

21

insignis

extensus

22

23

fusci corpus
discissus

24

25

illustris

solitus

26

27

fissilis

AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF MACROTELEIA

83

Segments 2 and 3 much longer than wide ; basal joint of posterior

tarsi a little shorter than 2-5 united .. .. .. .. augustus

27. Posterior margin of propodeum gently concave between the lateral

carinae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . regalis

Posterior margin of propodeum deeply concave between the lateral

carinae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

28. Abdomen three-fourths longer than the head and thorax, six times

as long as its greatest width, segments 1-4 each plainly longer
than its posterior width . . . . . . . . . . . . accullus

Abdomen one-half longer than the head and thorax, not more than
four times as long as its greatest width, segmerits 1-4 each no
longer than its posterior width . . . . . . . . . . distindus

Prosapegus giganteus Dodd.

Cacellus giganteus Dodd, Archiv. fur Naturg., Berlin, lxxx, 1915.

Female. — Length, 7.50 mm. Black ; legs, including the coxae,
golden-yellow ; tegulae, mandibles, and antennal scape deep red or
black.

Head from dorsal aspect twice as wide as long, the vertex

sloping sharply from immediately behind the lateral ocelli to the
occiput which is gently concave ; ocelli very large, separated from
each other by their diameter, the lateral pair narrowly separated
from the eyes which are large and bare ; frons with large, rather
scattered punctures, denser ventrally, each bearing a fine hair ; frontal
impression shallow, broad and smooth ; vertex behind the ocelli
highly polished, rather densely pubescent, with indefinite confluent
punctures forming longitudinal grooves separated by blunt striae
or indefinite carinae, or with definite large punctures arranged in
longitudinal rows ; cheeks rather narrow, with scattered punctures ;
mandibles broad, tridentate, the teeth blunt. Antennal scape long
and slender ; pedicel twice as long as its greatest width ; funicle 1
elongated, twice as long as the pedicel, one-half as long as the scape ;
2 slightly more than one-half as long as 1 ; 3 as wide as long ; 4 some-
what widened, wider than long ; club compact, joint 1 a little wider
than long, 2-5 each twice as wide as long. Thorax one-half longer
than its greatest width ; pronotum with longitudinal grooves? bearing
indefinite punctures ; median lobe of scutum with large rather dense
punctures, shortly smooth against the declivous anterior margin,
the lateral lobes with shallower punctures ; parapsidal furrows deep,
a little curved, indefinitely punctate; scutellum with scattered
punctures ; pronotum, scutum and scutellum shining, with a
pubescence of scattered long fine hairs ; propodeum long, not greatly
shorter medially than laterally, finely pubescent outside the lateral
carinae, which are strong, straight, and close to the base of the median
process, the posterior margin gently concave but with a strong pro-
jection at the junction of the lateral carinae; a strong carina runs
sharply oblique on either side from about one-half the length of the
median process to join the lateral carina at the posterior margin ;
median process smooth, flat, triangular, not projecting beyond the
posterior margin, slightly lGnger than its basal width, strongly carinate
laterally and with a median carina which terminates before the apex,
the lateral carinae oblique but shortly parallel posteriorly and
raised to form from lateral aspect a pair of rounded teeth.
Forewings reaching to apex of fifth abdominal segment ; deeply
smoky ; venation thick, blackish ; marginal vein as long as the stigmal,
the postmarginal slightly longer than the marginal ; radial, basal, and
median veins represented by thick brown lines, M3 +4 and Cul by

84

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

pale brown lines. Posterior tarsi as long as their tibiae, their basal
joint as long as 2-5 united. Abdomen two-thirds longer than the
head and thorax, its greatest width at base of segment 3 two-thirds
that of the thorax ; segment 1 three-fourths as long as its posterior
width, as long as its basal width, its anterior margin straight ; 2 almost
twice as long as 1 ; 3 as long as 2, as long as wide ; 4 a little shorter
than 3, slightly longer than its posterior width ; 5 somewhat shorter
than 4 ; 6 a little shorter than 5, as long as its basal width, terminating
in an acute point or spine ; 1 not raised nor projecting forward at
base ; 2-5 with a strong median carina ; 1-4 with a strong lateral
carina ; 1 strongly striate, smooth between the striae, showing faint
punctures laterally ; 2-4 strongly confluently punctate with a
longitudinal arrangement and showing traces of striae ; 5 more
shallowly punctate ; 6 shallowly fine punctate, finely coriaceous
apically ; 1-4 dorsally with short pubescence, which is longer and
denser on 5 and 6 and along the lateral margins.

Male. — Segment 2 of abdomen about three-fifths longer than 1, a
little shorter than 3, slightly longer than 4 ; 6 slightly more than
one-half as long as 5, a little shorter than its basal width ; 7 short,
transverse, its posterior margin broadly concave and armed with a
stout acute tooth or spine at either angle. Antennae black, the scape
and apex of pedicel either dull red or black ; scape moderately short ;
pedicel short, not greatly longer than wide ; funicle 1 one- half as long
as the scape, twice as long as the pedicel ; 2 and 3 subequal, each
two-thirds as long as 1 ; 4-9 subequal, each slightly shorter than 3
and two-thirds longer than wide.

Habitat. — North Queensland ; Cairns district, four females, four
males in January- April, A. P. Dodd.

Holotype in the South Australian Museum.

The largest representative of the family known from Australia.
The triangular propodeal process with its single median carina will
distinguish it from the other Australian species. P. atrellus Dodd
from Dutch New Guinea is a close relation of giganteus .

Prosapegus nigriscapus Dodd.

Macroteleia nigriscapa Dodd, Archiv. fur Naturg., Berlin, lxxx, 1915. Macroteleia
paucipunctata Dodd, Trans. Royal Soc. South Aust., xxxix, 1915, p. 444.

Female. — Length, — 3.00 mm. Black, the tegulae red ; legs,

including the coxae, golden-yellow ; antennal scape and the funicle
joints yellow, the pedicel fuscous, the club black.

Head from dorsal aspect almost twice as wide as long ; vertex
moderately long, sloping shortly and sharply to the occipital border
which is gently concave and not margined ; ocelli moderately large,
the lateral pair touching the eyes, separated from the anterior ocellus
by twice their diameter and from each other by a somewhat greater
distance ; upper frons and vertex between the ocelli smooth with
numerous scattered moderately small punctures ; behind the ocelli
the punctures are larger and there is a transverse row of confluent
punctures against the occiput ; frontal impression broad and shallow ;
cheeks with numerous punctures. Antennal scape moderately long
and slender ; pedicel slender, 2J times as long as its greatest width ;
funicle 1 slightly longer than the pedicel, 2 somewhat shorter than 1,
3 shorter than 2, one-half longer than wide, 4 as wide as long ; club

AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF MACROTELEIA

85

compact, joint 1 a little wider than long, 2-5 each twice a wide as long.
Thorax one-half longer than its greatest width ; pronotum very
narrowly visible, densely punctate and pubescent ; scutum somewhat
shorter than its greatest width, shortly declivous anteriorly, smooth
with very fine scattered punctures, the anterior half of the median
lobe with dense punctures of moderate size ; parapsidal furrows
foveate, broad, not widening posteriorly where they are separated by
twice their own width ; scutellum with a few minute punctures ;
pubescence of scutum and scutellum of long fine white hairs ; metano-
tum very short, unarmed ; propodeum long laterally, extremely
short medially, the posterior margin very deeply concave from the
lateral angles, the lateral carinae short ; medially the posterior margin
bears a fringe of white hairs, and on either side at base there is a sub-
erect tooth bearing long hairs. Legs slender ; posterior tarsi no
longer than their tibiae, their basal joints as long as 2-5 united.
Forewings reaching apex of fifth abdominal segment ; faintly
yellowish ; venation thick, yellow ; marginal vein somewhat longer
than the stigmal, which is a little curved and not very oblique, the
postmarginal one-third longer than the marginal ; basal and median
veins represented by faint yellow lines. Abdomen twice as long as
the head and thorax united, one-third narrower than the thorax ;
segment 1 as long as its posterior width, at base with a raised promin-
ence that projects forward into the propodeum ; 2 one-half longer
than 1 ; 3 a little longer than 2, one-third longer than wide ; 4 slightly
shorter than 2 ; 5 three-fourths as long as 4 ; 6 as long as 5, almost
twice as long as its greatest width, sharply pointed at apex ; 1 with
a strong lateral carina which is weaker on 2, faint on 3 ; 1 striate,
its prominence smooth ; 2-5 rather finely, somewhat irregularly
longitudinally striate, and with shallow punctures between the striae,
6 smooth with obscure punctures at base, coriaceous apically ; pubes-
cence scattered, but longer and denser on lateral margins and on
segments 4-6.

Male. — Length, 2.75-3.00 mm. Propodeum moderately long
medially, its posterior margin gently concave, the lateral carinae long;
pubescent medially and armed on either side with a strong raised
carina ending posteriorly in an erect triangular tooth, the carinae well
apart and converging a little posteriorly. Abdomen somewhat
narrower than in the female, gradually tapering to apex from segment
2 ; segment 1 raised, flat and tri-carinate medially ; 3 one-half longer
than wide ; 6 somewhat shorter than 5 ; 7 one-half as long as 6,
deeply concave and sharply bidentate at apex ; striation more regular
than in the female, very sparse, there being about eight striae in a
transverse count, the punctures very obscure ; 6 almost smooth ;
2-4 with a median stria or carina. Antennae black, the scape
fuscous ; pedicel one-half longer than wide ; funicle 1 longer than the
pedicel, twice as long as wide, 2 and 3 each slightly shorter than 1,
4-9 sub-equal, each slightly longer than wide.

Habitat. — North Queensland ; Cairns district, one female, three
males in May-January, A. P. Dodd.

Holotype in the South Australian Museum, I. 11,067.

The original descriptions of nigriscapus and paucipunctatus were
based on male specimens. A small slender species with the propodeal
teeth in the female small and well-separated, in which respect it
resembles discissus. It differs from discissus in the short lateral carinae

86 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

of the female propodeum, the less slender thorax, the less quadrate
head, and the more distinct striation of the abdomen, while the male
may be recognised by the very slender sparsely striate abdomen.

Prosapegus discissus n. sp.

Female. — Length, 3.75 mm. Black, the tegulae red ; legs,
including the coxae, bright reddish-yellow ; antennal scape reddish
yellow, the pedicel and funicle joints suffused with red.

Head from dorsal aspect sub-quadrate, one-half wider than long ;
vertex rather long, sloping gently to the posterior border which is
somewhat concave and not margined ; eyes large, not very wide apart ;
ocelli moderately large, equidistant apart, the lateral pair almost touch-
ing the eyes ; vertex, frons and cheeks with moderate-sized dense
punctures and somewhat coriaceous ; between the ocelli the surface
is smooth except for short wrinkles ; frontal impression rather deep,
circular, not sharply defined, faintly sculptured, separated from the
eyes by two or three rows of punctures ; above the antennal insertion
there is a median carina for some distance ; pubescence fine, short,
rather dense. Antennal scape moderately long and slender ; pedicel
slender, three times as long as it greatest width ; funicle 1 not or scarcely
longer than the pedicel, 2 much shorter, one-half longer than wide,
3 a little longer than wide, 4 slightly widened, as wide as long ; club
slender, 6- jointed, joint 1 very slightly the longest, 1-5 each plainly
wider than long. Thorax rather slender, almost twice as long as its
greatest width ; pronotum narrowly visible on the sides, densely
punctate and pubescent ; scutum as long as its greatest width, some-
what declivous against the anterior margin of the median lobe ; parap-
sidal furrows complete, foveate, widening and approaching close
together posteriorly where they are separated by not much more than
their own width ; median lobe of scutum with dense moderately
small punctures on the anterior half, with scattered punctures on the
posterior half, and fine reticulation against the parapsidal furrows ;
lateral lobes with fine impressed reticulation and scattered small
punctures ; scutellum smooth with scattered punctures ; pubescence
of scutum and scutellum of fine white hairs; metanotum very short,
unarmed, not prominent ; propodeum moderately long, completely
and rather broadly divided at its base medially, where it is armed on
either side with a triangular sub-erect punctate and pubescent tooth,
the lateral carinae strong and straight, the surface within the lateral
carinae finely punctate, outside the lateral carinae finely punctate
and pubescent, the posterior margin within the lateral carinae deeply
concave to its base medially. Legs slender ; posterior tarsi no longer
than their tibiae, their basal joint as long as 2-5 united. Forewings
reaching apex of fourth abdominal segment ; lightly infuseate ; vena-
tion deep brown ; marginal vein a little longer than the stigmal
which is long, oblique, somewhat curved, the postmarginal almost
twice as long as the marginal ; basal and median veins represented
by thick pale lines. Abdomen slender, twice as long as the head and
thorax united, one-sixth narrower than the thorax, its dorsal surface
flat ; segments 1-3 with a strong lateral carina which fails on 4 ; 1
slightly wider posteriorly than basally, as long as its basal width,
at base with a blunt prominence that projects forward into the pro-
podeum ; 2 two-thirds longer than 1 ; 3 a little longer than 2, a little
longer than wide ; 4 slightly shorter than 2 ; 5 somewhat shorter
than 4 ; 6 as long as 5, one-half longer than its basal width, its apex

AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF MACROTE LEIA

87

sharply convex and almost pointed ; 1 longitudinally striate medially,
smooth between the striae, densely punctate laterally ; 2 and 3
confluently punctate and rather finely indefinitely striate ; 4 with
shallow punctures and finer more definite striae ; 5 with shallow
indefinite punctures, becoming coriaceous laterally and posteriorly ;
6 densely coriaceous ; dorsum of segments 1-4 with fine inconspicuous
pubescence ; 5 and 6 dorsally and lateral margins of abdomen with
dense long pubescence.

Male. — Coxae dusky-brown. Propodeum not divided to its base
medially where it is moderately short with two rather widely-separated
strongly raised and somewhat pubescent median carinae which con-
verge somewhat posteriorly, the surface depressed and punctate
between the median carinae, smooth between the median and lateral
carinae, the posterior border margined and somewhat concave between
the lateral carinae. Segment 1 of abdomen somewhat raised and flat
medially at base but not produced forward ; 6 one-half as long as 5
and as its basal width ; 7 very short, transverse, truncate at apex
and armed on either side with a moderately long acute spine ; 2 and 3
with the fine striae more definite, the punctures less definite.
Antennae bock, the scape golden- yellow ; funicle 1 a little longer
than the pedicel, fully twice as long as wide ; 2 a little shorter than 1
or 3 ; 3 slightly shorter than 1 ; 4-9 subequal, each one-half longer
than wide and somewhat shorter than 3.

Habitat. — Queensland ; Brisbane, one female (holotype) and one
male (allotype) in December and January, A. P. Dodd ; Mt. Tam-
bourine, two females in March, A. P. Dodd ; Beenleigh, one female
in December, A. A. Girault ; Westwood, three males in February-
November, A. P. Dodd. New South Wales ; Hawkesbury River,
one female, four males in January -March, A. P. Dodd.

Holotype and Allotype in the Queensland Museum.

Paratypes in the author’s collection.

The female may be distinguished by the more quadrate head
and the completely divided propodeum with its well-separated teeth ;
while the male may be recognised by the fact that the abdomen is
definitely striate as well as punctate.

Prosapegus insignis n. sp.

Female. — Length, 4. 5-7.0 mm. Black ; tegulae red ; legs, includ-
ing the coxae, bright red, the tarsi faintly dusky or almost black ;
antennal scape bright or dusky red, the pedicel and funicle 1 and 2
sometimes reddish.

Head from dorsal aspect 2J times as wide as long, more trans-
verse than usual, the eyes wider apart ; sloping from just behind the
lateral ocelli to the occipital margin ; ocelli very large, the lateral
pair separated from the eyes by one-half their own diameter and from
each other by fully twice their diameter; frons, vertex and cheeks
with large confluent or sub-confluent punctures which are arranged
transversely behind the line of the lateral ocelli ; frontal impression
moderately shallow, separated from the eyes by three or four rows of
punctures, smooth ; pubescence of long fine hairs ; mandibles stout,
tridentate, the outer teeth blunt, the inner tooth very small.
Antennal scape moderately long and slender ; pedicel fully twice as
long as its greatest width ; funicle 1 elongate, three-fourths longer

88 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

than the pedicel, one-half as long as the scape ; 2 abruptly shorter, j
one-half longer than wide ; 4 as wide as long ; club slender, joint 1
as long as wide, 2-5 each a little wider than long. Thorax one- ■
third longer than its greatest width ; pronotum confluently punctate ; |
scutum and scutellum highly polished ; median lobe of scutum with a
flat or sub-depressed area anteriorly which bears rather dense punctures,
the rest of the median lobe and the lateral lobes with large scattered
punctures, the abruptly declivous anterior margin of the median lobe
with smaller confluent punctures ; parapsidal furrows foveate,
widening posteriorly ; scutellum with large scattered punctures ;
pubescence of scutum and scutellum of long fine hairs ; propodeum
shorter, flatter, and broader than usual, the lateral carinae close to
the median process, the posterior margin uniformly gently concave
except for the projecting lateral carinae, the surface outside these
carinae broad and with dense white pubescence ; median process of
propodeum densely coarsely punctate and with scattered long hairs,
large, very broad at base, not as long as its basal width, projecting
shortly over the abdominal hump, broad at apex and shortly concave,
the two teeth short, truncate or blunt. Forewings extending to
apex of fourth abdominal segment ; rather deeply embrowned ;
venation blackisk ; marginal vein somewhat shorter than the stigmal,
the postmarginal a little longer than the stigmal ; basal and median
veins represented by thick light brown lines ; radial vein indicated by a
long darker brown line forming an elongate false radial cell which
is almost closed ; veins M 3 + 4 and Cu 1 (Tillyardian notation)
indicated by long light brown lines. Posterior tarsi about one-fifth
shorter than their tibiae, their basal joint slightly longer than 2-5
united. Abdomen two -thirds longer or almost twice as long as the
head and thorax united ; gradually tapering to apex, its lateral out-
line gently convex, broadest at apex of segment 2 ; its greatest width
almost as great as that of the thorax, the dorsal surface flat ; seg-
ments 1-4 strongly carinate laterally ; 1 no longer than its basal width,
two-thirds as long as its posterior width, at base medially with a
broad prominence which projects forward slightly into the propodeum ;

2 one-half longer than 1 ; 3 as long as 2, three-fourths as long as wide ;

4 a little shorter than 3, as long as its posterior width ; 5 a little shorter
than 4 ; 6 slightly shorter than 5, as long as or one-half longer than
its basal width, the sub-apical plate sharply convex ; 1-3 strongly
confluently punctate with a longitudinal arrangement, 1 with also
irregular strong striae except laterally ; 4 with shallower punctures
and irregular longitudinal striae ; on 5 and 6 the punctures are shallow
and indefinite, and the striae are stronger and sparser, although some-
times absent on 6 ; 1-4 without pubescence dorsally, with long fine
pubescence below the lateral carinae ; 5 and 6 with scattered long fine
hairs ; 2 with a median carina which may show faintly on 3-5.

Male. — Segment 4 of abdomen three-fourths as long as its posterior
width ; 5 one-fourth shorter than 4 ; 6 one-half as long as 5, one-
half as long as its posterior width ; 7 very short, at apex broadly
concave and with a short acute spine on either side ; 1 somewhat
raised but flat at base, its anterior margin straight ; punctures and
pubescence on apical segments more pronounced, the striation less
definite than in the female. Propodeal process narrower than in the
female, the teeth closer together. Antennae black, the scape red
or almost wholly black ; scape rather short ; pedicel small, hardly
longer than wide ; funicle 1 elongate, fully one-half as long as the

AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF MACROTELEIA

89

scape ; 2-9 sub-moniliform ; 2 and 3 snb-equal, each a little more
than one-half as long as 1 ; 4-9 sub-equal, each slightly shorter than 3,
and somewhat longer than wide.

Habitat. — Queensland ; Jericho, one female in March ; Gogango,
eight females, four males in March ; Biggenden, one male in January ;
Chinchilla, five females, two males in February-March ; Dulacca,
one male in March. New South Wales : Moree, one female in April.
All collected by the author.

Holotype and Allotype in the Queensland Museum ; Paratypes
in the author’s collection.

A fine species with large punctures and rather broad abdomen,
which in the female bears very sparse pubescence on the dorsal seg-
ments. It appears to have a wide range in Central and Southern
Queensland and North-West New South Wales, frequenting the brigalow
( Acacia) and belar ( Casuarina ) scrubs of the sub-coastal and interior
districts. The size is variable, and to a lesser degree is the colour
of the antennae and tarsi. In the series from Gogango, collected on
the one day, are found the smallest examples, varying from 4.5 to
5.5 mm., except one male which measures 6.5 mm. The Jericho
female measures 5 mm., while the Chinchilla specimens vary from
6 to 7 mm. In the smaller examples the abdomen is shorter in relation
to the head and thorax, and the apical segments in the female are
shorter in relation to their width. The antennal scape is usually red,
but is black in one Chinchilla female and in the males from Dulacca
and Biggenden. The tarsi vary from almost clear red to black.
The size of the propodeal teeth vary in the male and may be divergent
although more often close together. The holotype and allotype have
been selected from Chinchilla specimens.

Prosapegus validus n. sp.

Female. — Length, 3.80 mm. Black, the tegulae red; legs,
including the coxae, bright red ; antennal scape red, the next three
joints suffused with red, the remainder black.

Head rather more transverse than usual and sloping more gently
to the occipital margin which is gently concave ; vertex, frons and
cheeks rather strongly sub-confluently punctate and somewhat
coriaceous, with a pubescence of fine white hairs ; frontal impression
broad, shallow, separated from the eyes by two rows of punctures,
smooth but with oblique striae ventrally ; mandibles bidentate, the
teeth short, stout and blunt. Antennal scape moderately long and
stout ; pedicel twice as long as its greatest width ; funicle 1 no longer
than the pedicel, 2 as wide as long, 3 and 4 wider than long, 4 a little
widened ; club slender, joints 2-5 each much wider than long, 1
slightly longer. Thorax one-fourth longer than its greatest width ;
parapsidal furrows deep, foveate, widening posteriorly ; median lobe
of scutum with moderately large punctures, confluent anteriorly,
separated posteriorly, the lateral lobes with scattered shallower
punctures and fine impressed reticulation ; scutellum with scattered
punctures ; pubescence of scutum and scutellum of fine white hairs ;
propodeum moderately long laterally, short medially, punctate,
weakly pubescent outside the irregular rather weak lateral carinae,
the posterior margin moderately deeply concave but not carinate
between the lateral carinae ; propodeal process short, pubescent,
broadly triangular, not projecting beyond the posterior margin, divided

90 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

for some distance from apex, the two teeth short, blunt, separated.
Posterior tarsi no longer than their tibiae, their basal joint slightly
longer than 2-5 united. Forewings reaching almost to apex of fifth
abdominal segment ; lightly stained brownish ; venation thick,
blackish ; marginal vein twT>-thirds as long as the stigmal, the post-
marginal twice as long as the marginal ; basal, median and radial
veins faintly marked. Abdomen one-fourth longer than the head and
thorax united, slightly narrower than the thorax, 2J times as long
as its greatest width, widest at base of segment 3, tapering to apex,
its outline regularly ovate ; segments 1-4 strongly carinate laterally,
2 with a median carina ; 1 rather short, two -thirds as long as its basal
width, one-half as long as its posterior width, its anterior margin straight,
strongly depressed on either side at base, so that the flat meson is
raised as in species of Oxyscelio ; 2 one-half longer than 1 ; 3 scarcely
longer than 2, a little more than one-half as long as wide ; 4 a little
shorter than 3 ; 5 two-thirds as long as 4, one-half as long as its basal
width ; 6 as long as 5, as long as its basal width, bluntly acuminate
at apex which is depressed and without a sub-apical plate ; 1 striate,
densely punctate between the striae ; 2-4 rather strongly confluently
punctate with a longitudinal arrangement ; 5 and 6 more shallowly
confluently punctate ; pubescence short on 1-4, long below the lateral
carinae and on 5 and 6.

Male. — Unknown.

Habitat. — South-west Queensland ; Goondiwindi, one female in
January, A. P. Dodd.

Holotype in the Queensland Museum.

A very distinct species on account of the shorter broader abdomen
and the shorter first funicle joint, and with the general appearance
of species of Hoploteleia Ashmead and Oxyscelio Kieffer.

Prosapegus fuscicorpus Dodd.

Cacellus fuscicorpus Dodd, Trans. Eoyal Soc. South Aust., xl, 1916, p. 24.

Female. — Length, 2.80-3.50 mm. Head black ; thorax and
abdomen dull or dusky brown or reddish-brown ; legs, including
the coxae, pale yellow ; antennal scape pale yellow, the pedicel and
funicle joints brownish-yellow, the club black.

Head from dorsal aspect less than twice as wide as long ;
occipital border rounded and not margined ; upper frons and vertex
with numerous punctures of moderate size which sometimes become
dense and sub-confluent toward the occiput ; lower two-thirds of
frons with a broad smooth shallow impression which is separated from
the eyes by one row of punctures ; cheeks smooth with scattered punc-
tures ; mandibles tridentate, the teeth small. Antennal scape moder-
ately slender ; pedicel slender ; funicle 1 elongate, one-third longer
than the pedicel ; 2 a little shorter than the pedicel, fully twice as
long as wide ; 3 a little longer than wide ; 4 as wide as long ; club
compact, 6-jointed, joint 1 almost as long as wide, 2-5 each plainly
wider than long. Thorax one- half longer than its greatest width ;
pronotum with dense punctures ; parapsidal furrows deep and punc-
tate ; anterior half of median lobe of scutum with dense punctures, the
posterior half and the lateral lobes with scattered indefinite shallow
punctures ; scutellum smooth except for scattered indefinite punctures ;
scutum and scutellum with a pubescence of fine white hairs ; pro-
podeum long laterally, rather short medially, the lateral carinae long
and distinct, the posterior margin within the lateral carinae deeply

AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF MAEROTELEIA

91

concave and strongly margined ; propodeum armed medially with
a pair of parallel carinae, close together, which project for half their
length in the form of slender teeth beyond the posterior margin but
not further than a line drawn across the posterior ends of the lateral
carinae ; outside the median carinae on either side there is a short
straight carina joining the posterior margin ; surface of propodeum
shining and hardly sculptured within the lateral carinae. Forewings
reaching to posterior margin of fifth abdominal segment ; slightly
stained ; venation yellow ; marginal vein a little longer than the
stigmal, the postmarginal 2j times as long as the marginal ; basal
and median veins faint, pale yellow. Posterior tarsi a little longer
than their tibiae, their basal joint a little shorter than 2-5 united.
Abdomen one-half longer than the head and thorax united, three-
fourths as wide as the thorax, widest at posterior margin of segment 3 :
segments 1-4 carinate laterally ; 1 as long as its posterior width,
slightly raised at base, its anterior margin straight and free from the
thorax ; 2 one-third longer than 1 ; 3 a little longer than 2, slightly
longer than wide ; 4 as long as 2 ; 5 two-thirds as long as 4 ; 6 as
long as 5, slightly longer than its basal width, narrowly truncate or
faintly concave at apex ; 1 with several striae, punctate laterally,
smooth at base medially ; 2-4 confluently punctate and irregularly
striate ; 5 more finely shallowly punctate and finely striate ; 6 finely
punctate and densely coriaceous ; 1-4 dorsally with short pubescence ;

5 and 6 and sides of abdomen with longer denser pubescence.

Male. — Length, 2.85 mm. Black, the propodeum and sides of
thorax brownish ; legs, including the coxae, golden-yellow ; antennal
scape yellow, the pedicel dusky-yellow, the flagellum black.

Propodeum densely reticulate-punctate, moderately long medially,
the posterior margin rather gently concave, the median process reduced
to a pair of raised carinae which are parallel and close together.
Segment 1 of abdomen somewhat longer than its posterior width ;
2 and 3 sub-equal ; 4 somewhat shorter ; 5 slightly shorter than 4 ;

6 two-thirds as long as 5 ; 7 transverse, armed with a pair of stout
spines. Antennal scape moderately short ; pedicel short and stout ;
funicle 1 slender, 2J times as long as wide ; 2 and 3 a little shorter,
sub-equal ; 4 distinctly but not greatly shorter than 3 ; 4-9 slightly
decreasing in length, 9 one-half longer than wide.

Habitat. — North Queensland ; Cairns district, six females, two
males in July to January, A. P. Dodd.

Holotype in the South Australian Museum, I. 5,423.

The only Australian species which is not wholly black. The
female resembles augustus , regalis and illustris in propodeal characters
and in the straight anterior margin of the abdomen, but differs in the
weak punctuation of the scutum posteriorly. This same character
separates the male from fissilis and augustus and allies it with male
discissus ; in the latter species, however, the propodeum has the
median carinae wide apart at base, and the postmarginal vein is much
shorter in relation to the marginal.

Prosapegus infusus n. sp.

Female. — Length, 4.15 mm. Black, the tegulae dusky ; antennae
black, the scape washed with red ; coxae black, washed with red,
the trochanters, femora and posterior tibiae deep red, the anterior
and intermediate tibiae blackish except the red base and apex, the
tarsi blackish.

92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

Head from dorsal aspect twice as wide as its median length
vertex sloping shortly to the posterior margin from well behind the
lateral ocelli, the posterior margin rather gently concave ; cheeks
broad ventrally ; frontal impression broad and deep, smooth, with
fine oblique striae ventrally and a few fine tran verse striae dorsally ;
vertex and upper frons somewhat coriaceous, with rather large sub-
confluent punctures which behind the lateral ocelli tend toward
arrangement in transverse rows ; cheeks polished, the punctures
numerous but separated ; pubescence fine and pale. Antennal scape
moderately long and slender ; pedicel over twice as long as its
greatest width ; funicle 1 one-third longer then the pedicel ; 2 hardly
more than one-half as long as 1 ; 3 shorter, as wide as long ; 4 a little
widened, somewhat wider than long ; club slender, joint 1 as long
as wide, 2-5 somewhat wider than long. Thorax almost one-half
longer than its greatest width ; parapsidal furrows deep and foveate,
approaching rather close together posteriorly ; median lobe of scutum
on anterior half with moderately large dense punctures, with scattered
punctures along lateral and posterior margins, a posterior-central
area smooth except for a longitudinal line of small punctures, and
there are fine impressed longitudinal striae against the anterior half
of the parapsidal furrows ; lateral lobes with scattered punctures
and fine impressed lines ; scutellum very strongly foveate at base,
its surface with large punctures but the median line bears small
punctures ; punctures of scutum and scutellum bearing long fine
white hairs ; propodeum long laterally, moderately short medially,
the posterior margin sharply rather deeply concave within the limits
of the lateral carinae, the surface pubescent outside the lateral carinae,
punctate within these carinae, which are long and strong ; on either
side of the median process is a strong carina which diverges some-
what to join the lateral carina in a projecting tooth at the posterior
margin ; median process narrowly triangular, extending beyond the
concave posterior margin almost to a line drawn across the ends of
the lateral carinae, hollowed out, its lateral margins carinate and form-
ing at apex a bidentate tooth, the teeth short, sub-acute, close
together. Forewings reaching to apex of fifth abdominal segment ;
distinctly brownish ; venation blackish ; marginal vein as long as
the long stigmal, the postmarginal three times as long as the marginal ;
median vein marked by a thick brown line, the basal vein by a pale
line. Posterior tarsi slightly longer than their tibiae, their basal
joint slightly longer than 2-5 united. Abdomen one-half longer than
the head and thorax united, its greatest width a little yet distinctly
less than that of the thorax, four times as long as its greatest width
toward the base of segment 3, its lateral outline regularly gently con-
vex, its dorsal surface flat ; segments 1-4 strongly carinate laterally ;
1 slightly longer than its basal width, three-fourths as long as its
posterior width, its anterior margin straight and distinctly separated
from the propodeum, with a deep fovea on either side at base, so that
the median area is strongly raised basally ; 2 one-third longer than 1 ;
3 a little longer than 2, three-fourths as long as wide ; 4 as long as 2,
slightly shorter than its posterior width ; 5 four-fifths as long as 4,
one-fourth longer than its posterior width ; 6 a little shorter than 5,
hardly longer than its basal width, depressed just before apex but
without a plate , the apex in the form of a sub-acute tubercle ; 1 strongly
striate, punctate between the striae ; 2-5 with strong sub-confluent
punctures which are separated in irregular longitudinal rows by

AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF MACROTELEIA

93

irregular striae and are shallow on 5 and posterior half of 4 ; 6 densely
shallowly punctate and coriaceous ; pubescence very short and hardly
noticeable on dorsum of 1-4, long and dense on 5 and 6 and along
lateral margins.

Male. — Length, 4.00 mm. Coxae and tarsi dusky-black, the legs
bright reddish yellow, the first two pairs of tibiae washed lightly with
brown. Antennae wholly black ; scape stout and rather short ;
funicle 1 almost twice as long as the pedicel, 2J times as long as its
greatest width ; 2 two-thirds as long as 1 ; 2-9 sub-equal. Pro-
podeum longer medially than in the female, the posterior margin
moderately deeply concave, the process shorter and scarcely pro-
jecting beyond the posterior margin. Abdomen widest at apex of
segment 3, a little more than three times as long as its greatest width ;
segments 2 and 3 with a strong median stria or carina ; foveae at base
of 1 shallow, the median area not as strongly raised as in the female ;

5 two -thirds as long as 4, somewhat shorter than its posterior width ;

6 two-thirds as long as 5 or as its posterior width ; 7 very short,
truncate, armed on either side with a short stout spine ; pubescence
on dorsum fine but more noticeable than in the female.

Habitat. — New South Wales ; Canberra, one female, one male, in
January, Miss L. F. Graham.

Holotype and Allotype in the collections of the Division of
Economic Entomology, Canberra.

This species has no very close allies and may be recognised
by the following combination of characters : — Dark coxae, unevenness
of the punctuation of the scutum, rather stout abdomen with its
straight anterior margin in the female, and the long straight carina
on either side of the propodeal process joining the lateral carina
posteriorly.

Prosapegus extensus n. sp.

Female. — Length 5.10 mm. Black, the tegulae yellow ; legs,
including the coxae, bright golden-yellow, the tarsi dusky ; antennae
golden-yellow, the club black.

Vertex and frons with moderately large dense punctures, con-
fluent toward the occiput ; frontal impression smooth, deep, rather
narrow, not margined, separated from the eyes by two or three rows
of punctures ; cheeks with dense punctures, confluent above. Pedicel
slender ; funicle 1 elongate, one-third longer than the pedicel ; 2 a
little shorter than the pedicel ; 4 as wide as long ; club slender, joint
1 as long as wide, 2-5 slightly wider than long. Thorax one-half
longer than its greatest width ; parapsidal furrows deep and complete,
widening and approaching rather close together posteriorly ; median
lobe of scutum with moderately large punctures, confluent anteriorly,
more open posteriorly, the lateral lobes, except along the punctate-
foveate margins, with fine impressed reticulation and shallow
scattered punctures ; pronotum, scutum and scutellum with a pub-
escence of long white hairs ; propodeum very short medially, its
posterior margin very deeply concave, the lateral carinae straight
and moderately short, the surface densely pubescent outside the
carinae, punctate within the carinae ; median process of propodeum
densely finely punctate and pubescent, projecting over the abdominal
prominence, as long as its basal width, its lateral margins parallel,
its posterior margin in the form of two stout rounded teeth, the con-
cavity between the teeth not extending for one-half its length ; from

94

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

lateral aspect the process is in the form of a strong curved stout spine.
Posterior tarsi one-fourth longer than their tibiae, their basal joint
one-half longer than 2-5 united. Forewings extending to one-half
the length of segment 4 of abdomen ; lightly brownish ; venation
fuscous ; marginal vein as long as the stigmal, the postmarginal twice
as long as the marginal ; basal and median veins faint. Abdomen
twice as long as the head and thorax united, its greatest width three-
fourths that of the thorax, gradually tapering to apex from segment
2 ; segment 1 a little shorter than its posterior width, at base with a
rounded prominence that projects forward into the propodeum ;
2 one-half longer than 1, one-fourth longer than wide ; 3 as long as 2 ;
4 a little shorter than 3 ; 5 about one-fifth shorter than 4, one-third
longer than its basal width ; 6 as long as 5, over twice as long as its
basal width, the apical margin convex ; 1 strongly punctate, medially
with several strong striae, the basal prominence almost smooth in
front ; 1-3 with a strong lateral carina, 2 and 3 with a faint median
carina ; 2-4 with large confluent punctures in irregular longitudinal
rows ; 5 and 6 more shallowly punctate ; pubescence short on 1-3,
long and dense on 4-6 and sides of abdomen.

Male. — Length, 4.30-4.60 mm Propodeum moderately deeply
concave medially, the lateral carinae normally long, the process
somewhat narrower than in the female. Abdomen rather shorter,
about three-fourths longer than the head and thorax united, not
noticeably tapering to apex from segment 2 ; segment 1 with the
anterior margin straight, the meson rather narrowly raised and flat,
the raised area with three strong striae ; 5 hardly longer than its
basal width ; 6 two-thirds as long as 5, as long as its basal width ;
7 short, its apical margin concave and rather strongly bispinose.
Antennae black, the scape bright yellow ; funicle 1 one-half longer
than the pedicel, 2 as long as the pedicel, 3 no longer than 2, 4-9 almost
sub-equal, each slightly longer than wide.

Habitat. ■ — North Queensland ; Cairns district ; two females,
seven males in February, A. P. Dodd.

Holotype and Allotype in the Queensland Museum.

Paratypes in the author’s collection.

This species may be recognised by the form of the propodeal
process in both sexes, the long first metatarsal joint, and the long
tapering abdomen of the female.

Prosapegijs illtjstris n. sp.

Female . — Length, 4.25 mm. Black, the tegulae deep brown;
legs, including the coxae, bright golden-yellow, the tarsi dusky ;
antennae black, the scape suffused with red.

Upper frons and vertex with rather dense large punctures, which
are confluent behind the ocelli; frontal impression large, smooth,
separated from the eyes by a row of large punctures. Pedicel fully
twice as long as its greatest width ; funicle 1 slender, several times
as long as its greatest width, rather less than twice as long as the
pedicel, 2 as long as the pedicel, 3 shorter, one-half longer than wide
4 wider than long ; club joint 1 a little wider than long, 2-5 each twice
as wide as long. Thorax one-half longer than its greatest width;
parapsidal furrows complete, consisting of a row of punctures ; median
lobe of scutum with very , large well-separated punctures, which are
smaller and confluent toward the anterior margin, the lateral lobes
with a few scattered punctures ; scutelium with numerous large

AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF MACROTELEIA

95

punctures ; propodeum rather long, densely pubescent outside the
long straight lateral carinae, almost smooth within the carinae, the
carinate posterior margin within the lateral carinae rather deeply
concave for one-half the propodeal length ; median area of propodeum
rectangular, lightly pubescent, armed with a long slender bicarinate
tooth whose carinae are parallel and close together, the tooth faintly
bidentate at apex : from lateral aspect this tooth is sub-erect, stout,
and strongly curved. Posterior tarsi one-fifth longer than their
tibiae, their basal joint as long as 2-5 united. Forewings reaching
to one- half the length of the fifth abdominal segment ; distinctly
brownish ; venation thick, fuscous ; marginal vein as long as the
stigmal, the postmarginal twice as long as the stigmal ; median vein
marked by a light brown thick line, the basal vein faint and very
oblique. Abdomen two-thirds longer than the head and thorax
united, about one-fourth narrower than the thorax ; widest at the
third segment, the lateral outline uniformly very gently convex ;
segment 1 flat medially, its anterior margin straight and well-
separated from the thorax ; 2 one-half longer than 1, 3 as long as 2,
4 about four-fifths as long as 3, 5 two-thirds as long as 4 ; 6 three-
fourths as long as 5, a little shorter than its basal width, its sub-
apical plate distinctly concave and shortly bispinose ; 1-4 with a strong
lateral carina and with a faint median carina ; 1 with strong sparse
striae, smooth between the striae except laterally where shallow
punctures occur ; 2-5 confluently punctate, the punctures divided
into irregular longitudinal rows by wavy striae, the punctures shallow
and more or less obscure on 5 ; 6 densely coriaceous and indefinitely
punctate ; 1-4 with short inconspicuous pubescence, which is long
and dense on 5 and 6 and lateral margins of 1-4.

Male. — Length, 4.05 mm. Agreeing very closely with the female
except that the apex of the abdomen is broader and blunter ; segment
6 somewhat shorter than its posterior width ; 7 very short, broadly
concave and shortly bispinose at apex. Antennae black, the scape
suffused with deep red ; pedicel less than twice as long as its greatest
width ; funicle 1 two-thirds longer than the pedicel, over thrice as
long as its greatest width ; 2 as long as the pedicel ; 3 slightly longer
than 2, faintly excised on one side; 3-9 very gradually shortening ;
9 one-half longer than wide.

Habitat. — North Queensland ; Cairns district, two females, one
male in December, A. P. Dodd.

Holotype and Allotype in the Queensland Museum.

Paratype in the author’s collection.

This species agrees with regalis and augustus in the form of the
propodeal process and in the anterior margin of the abdomen being
straight and well-separated from the thorax. It differs from those
two species in the larger punctures of the scutum, and in the first
abdominal segment being flat medially, while the propodeal process
is similar in both sexes and is not reduced in the male.

Prosapegus Augustus Dodd.

Cacellus augustus Dodd, Archiv. fur Naturg., Berlin, lxxx, 1915. C. propin quus
Dodd, Trans. Royal Soc. South Aust., xl, 1916, p. 23.

Female. — Length, 4.35 mm. Black ; tegulae dull yellow ; legs,
including the coxae, golden-yellow, the tarsi dusky brown ; antennal
scape yellow, the pedicel and funicle joints suffused yellowish, the
club black ; mandibles red.

96

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

Vertex and upper frons with rather large confluent or sub-
confluent punctures ; lower two -thirds of frons with a deep smooth
immargined impression which is separated from the eyes by one or
two rows of punctures ; cheeks with numerous non-confluent
punctures. Antennal scape moderately long and slender ; pedicel
twice as long as its greatest width ; funicle 1 a little less than twice
as long as the pedicel, several times as long as wide, 2 as long as the
pedicel, 3 shorter than 2, less than twice as long as wide, 4 as wide
as long ; club 6-jointed, compact, joint 1 the longest, scarcely wider
than long, 2-5 each twice as wide as long. Thorax one-half longer
than its greatest width ; pronotum narrowly visible laterally, its
anterior angles rounded ; scutum large, broadly rounded anteriorly,
with rather long fine pubescence, the median lobe with moderately
large confluent punctures, the lateral lobes with shallow confluent
punctures and finely coriaceous ; parapsidal furrows complete and
distinct, separated posteriorly by rather more than one-half their
length ; scutellum with rather dense punctures laterally, with
scattered punctures medially ; metanotum a foveate line, not raised
or armed ; propodeum moderately long, densely pubescent outside
the lateral carinae, shining and weakly pubescent inside the lateral
carinae, these carinae rather long, curved posteriorly to join the
posterior margin in a projecting point ; a strong shorter carina occurs
on either side nearer the median line ; posterior margin rather deeply
concave and margined within the lateral carinae ; median process
of propodeum in the form of two adjacent sub-parallel carinae which
project beyond the posterior margin for nearly one-half their length
in a slender shortly bidentate tooth, which from lateral aspect is almost
horizontal. Legs slender ; posterior tarsi one-fifth longer than their
tibiae, their basal joint as long as 2-5 united. Fore wings reaching
to base of apical abdominal segment ; lightly stained brownish, the
infuscation inclined to be lighter along the margins ; venation thick ;
marginal vein as long as the long moderately oblique stigmal, the
post marginal 2J times as long as the marginal ; median vein marked
by a thick brown line, the basal vein pale and very oblique. Abdomen
two-thirds longer than the head and thorax united, its greatest width
two-thirds that of the thorax, somewhat narrowed at base, almost
pointed at apex, the lateral margins of segments 2-4 sub-parallel ;
segment 1 a little raised and convex at base medially, its anterior
margin straight and well-separated from the propodeum, two-thirds
as wide basally as posteriorly, as long as its posterior width ; 2 one-
half longer than 1 ; 3 as long as 2, as long as or slightly longer than
wide ; 4 very slightly shorter than 3 ; 5 two-thirds as long as 4 ;
6 a little shorter than 5, a little longer than its basal width, its sub-
apical plate concave and shortly bispinose ; 1-4 with a strong lateral
carina : 1 smooth and with several striae medially, denaely punctate

laterally ; 2-4 with moderately large confluent punctures with an
irregular longitudinal arrangement ; 5 with shallow punctures ; 6
densely coriaceous and with indefinite punctures ; pubescence of 1-4
of fine short hairs ; 5 and 6 and lateral margins with dense long fine
hairs.

Male. — Length, 4.30 mm. Propodeum long medially, finely
punctate and sparsely pubescent, the posterior margin gently concave
within the lateral carinae, the median process reduced to a pair of
parallel carinae, rather close together, which do not project beyond
the posterior margin. Abdomen three-fourths longer than the head

]

j

AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF MACROTELEIA

97

and thorax united, slender, gradually widening to the apex of segment
4 ; segments 1-3 carinated laterally ; 1 a little longer than its posterior
width, without a definite raised area medially where there are two
strong and two weaker striae, densely punctate laterally ; 2 almost
one-half longer than its posterior width ; 3 one-third longer than its
posterior width ; 4 a little longer than wide ; 6 one-half as long as 5
or as its basal width ; 7 very short and transverse, concave and very
strongly bispinose at apex. Antennae black, the scape golden-yellow ;
funicle 2 a little longer than the pedicel, twice as long as wide, 1 one-
half longer than 2, 3 as long as 2 and slightly excised on one side,
4-9 very gradually shortening, 9 one-half longer than wide.

Habitat. — North Queensland ; Cairns district, a small series in
July-December, A. P. Dodd.

Holotype in the South Australian Museum, I. 11,055.

Closely related to several species, such as regalis, accultus, solitus
and fissilis, but at once differing in the concave bispinose sub-apical
abdominal plate. The straight basal margin of the abdomen, well
separated from the propodeum, is found in regalis. The male is
nearest j fissilis, the differences being pointed out in the discussion of
that species.

Prosapegus regalis Dodd.

Cacellus regalis Dodd, Trans. Royal Soc. South Aust., xxxix, 1915, p. 445.

Female.— Length, 4.15 mm. Black; tegulae dull yellow; legs,
including the coxae, golden-yellow, the tarsi dusky ; antennal scape
yellow, the pedicel and funicle fuscous or suffused with yellow, the
club black.

Vertex and upper frons with moderately large confluent punctures
which are numerous but not confluent on the cheeks. Pedicel twice
as long as its greatest width ; funicle 1 elongate, two-thirds longer
than the pedicel, 2 slightly shorter than the pedicel, 3 shorter than 2,
one-half longer than wide, 4 quadrate ; club compact, joint 1 as long
as wide, 2-5 each plainly wider than long. Thorax one-half longer
than its greatest width ; parapsidal furrows deep and complete ; median
lobe of scutum with moderately large sub-confluent punctures, the
lateral lobes shallowly punctate and somewhat coriaceous ; scutellum
sub-confluently punctate ; pubescence of scutum and scutellum of
moderately long, rather dense fine hairs ; propodeum moderately
long laterally, short medially, the posterior margin moderately con-
cave, the lateral carinae curved, with a short carina on either side
either close to the lateral carinae or to the median process ; median
process with two approximate parallel blunt carinae, joined basally,
shortly divided and curved outward at apex, and projecting well beyond
the posterior margin. Fore wings reaching to base of apical abdominal
segment ; lightly brownish ; marginal vein a little longer than the
stigmal, the postmarginal one-half longer than the marginal ; median
vein represented by a thick brown line, the basal vein by a very pale
line. Basal joint of posterior tarsi as long as 2-5 united. Abdomen
two-thirds to four-fifths longer than the head and thorax united,
its greatest width somewhat narrower than that of the thorax, its
lateral outline uniformly gently convex, segment 3 being slightly
the widest ; segment 1 as long as its posterior width, somewhat convex
at base medially, the anterior margin straight and well-separated
from the propodeum ; 2 one-half longer than 1 ; 3 a little longer
than 2 or than its greatest width ; 4 as long as 2 ; 5 two-thirds as

G

98 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

long as 4 ; 6 as long as 5, one-third longer than its greatest width,
its sub-apical plate slightly convex ; 1-3 with a lateral carina ; 1 with
several strong striae medially, densely punctate laterally ; 2-6 with
moderately large confluent punctures with a tendency toward
longitudinal arrangement, the punctures shallow on 5-6 ; pubescence
short on dorsum of 1-4, long on 5-6 and along lateral margins.

Male. — Length, 4.00 mm. Propodeum moderately short medially,
its posterior margin rather gently concave within the lateral carinae ;
median process reduced to two strongly raised carinae which converge
somewhat posteriorly and do not project beyond the posterior margins
Abdomen three-fifths longer than the head and thorax united, it.
lateral outline regularly gently convex, segment 3 being slightly the
widest ; 2 one-fourth longer than its posterior width ; 3 slightly longer
than its posterior width ; 6 two-thirds as long as 5 ; 7 very short,
transverse, its posterior- margin concave and shortly bispinose.
Antennae black, the scape yellow ; segmentation as in augustus but
the flagellar joints are somewhat shorter 2 less than twice as long
as wide , 9 a little longer than wide.

Habitat. — North Queensland ; Cairns district, four females, six
males in April and November, A. P. Dodd.

Holotype in the South Australian Museum; I. 5,168.

This species is very close to augustus but in the latter the sub-
apical plate of the abdomen in the female is concave and bispinose,
the postmarginal vein is longer in relation to the marginal and in the
male the propodeum and its carinae are rather long medially while
the abdomen is more slender, segments 2 and 3 being considerably
longer in relation to their width. The females of accultus, solitus,
and fissilis differ in the deeply concave propodeum and produced
basal margin of the abdomen. The male is very close to accultus ,
in which the posterior margin of the propodeum is deeply concave
medially.

Prosapegus distinctus Dodd.

Macroteleia distincta Dodd, Proc. Royal Soc. Qld., xxvi, 1914, p. 100.

Female. — Length, 3.70 mm. Black, the tegulae dull yellow ;
legs, including the coxae, golden-yellow ; first six antennal joints
reddish-yellow. ,

Head normal, from dorsal aspect twice as wide as long, j
gradually sloping to the occiput ; cheeks, upper frons and vertex
with moderately large dense punctures which are confluent with a
tendency toward transverse arrangement behind the ocelli. Pedicel
twice as long as its greatest width ; funicle 1 elongate, two-thirds
longer than the pedicel, 2 as long as the pedicel, 3 plainly shorter
than 2, one-half longer than wide, 4 quadrate ; club compact, 6-
jointed. Thorax one-half longer than its greatest width ; parapsidal
furrows deep and complete ; median lobe of scutum with moderately
large dense punctures which are confluent anteriorly, the lateral lobes
shallowly punctate and coriaceous ; scutellum with numerous punc-
tures ; propodeum moderately long laterally, short medially, the
posterior margin within the lateral carinae rather deeply concave
and strongly carinate, the lateral carinae straight : propodeal process
in the form of a sub-erect long narrow bicarinate tooth which pro-
jects for half its length beyond the median posterior margin, the carinae
parallel, close together and joined except at extreme apex, not
curved outward at apex. Forewings failing by a little to reach apex
of abdomen ; stained brownish ; marginal vein a little longer than

AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF MACROTELEIA

99

the stigmal, the post marginal twice as long as the marginal ; median
vein represented by a thick light brown line, the basal vein faintly
marked. Basal joint of posterior tarsi as long as 2-5 united. Abdomen
one-half longer than the head and thorax united, its greatest width
somewhat narrower than that of the thorax, widest at apex of seg-
ment 3, its lateral outline regularly convex ; segment 1 as long as
its posterior width, somewhat convex medially at base, the anterior
margin straight and well separated from the propodeum ; 2 one-
fourth longer than 1 ; 3 slightly longer than 2, scarcely as long as wide ;
4 somewhat shorter than 2 or than its posterior width ; 5 two-thirds
as long as 4 ; 6 as long as 5, no longer than its basal width, its sub-
apical plate gently convex ; dorsal surface of abdomen not convex ;
segments 1-4 with a lateral carina ; 1 strongly striate, densely punctate
laterally ; 2-5 densely punctate and with traces of fine irregular striae,
the sculpture becoming finer on 4 and 5 ; 6 shallowly punctate and
densely coriaceous.

Male. — Length, 3.60 mm. Propodeum much as in the female,
short and deeply concave medially ; propodeal process short, scarcely
projecting beyond the posterior margin, the carinae divergent at
base, approaching close together posteriorly. Abdomen, as in the
female, one-half longer than the head and thorax united, its greatest
width at the apex of segment 3 ; 1-3 with a lateral carina, 2 with a
median carina ; 1 somewhat shorter than its posterior width ; 2 one-
third longer than 1 ; 3 scarcely longer than 2, no longer than wide ;
4 a little shorter than 3 or than its posterior width ; 5 two-thirds
as long as 4, no longer than its posterior width ; 6 two-thirds as long
as 5 j 7 very short, broad, armed with a short spine or tooth at either
posterior angle. Antennae black, the scape yellow ; funicle 1 fully
twice as long as wide, 2 one-half longer than wide, 3-9 very gradually
shortening, 9 scarcely longer than wide.

Habitat. — New South Wales ; one pair without further data.

Holotype and Allotype in the Macleay Museum, University of
Sydney.

In the female, the form of the propodeal process and the straight
anterior margin of the abdomen denote a close relationship with
regalis and augustus ; the latter species may be distinguished by the
concave bispinose apex of abdomen. The differences between regalis
and distinctus are small but numerous, and are shown hereunder : —

Lateral carinae of propodeum curved ; carinae of propodeal

process curved outward at apex ; postmarginal vein one-half

longer than the marginal ; abdomen at least two-thirds longer

than the head and thorax, segment 2 one-half longer than 1, 6

longer than its basal width . . . . . . . . . . . . regalis

Lateral carinae of propodeum straight ; carinae of propodeal

process not curved outward at apex ; postmarginal vein twice

as long as the marginal ; abdomen one-half longer than the head

and thorax ; segment 2 one-fourth longer than 1, 6 no longer

than its basal width . . . . . . . . . . . . distinctus

In the male, distinctus has the reduced propodeal process as in
regalis , from which it differs in having the posterior margin of the
propodeum deeply concave. In general and propodeal characters
the male is nearly allied to that of accultus, differing as follows : —

Abdomen three-fourths longer than the head and thorax, six
times as long as its greatest width, the segments relatively longer,

1 to 4 each plainly longer than its posterior width . . . . accultus

100 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

Abdomen one-half longer than the head and thorax, not more
than four times as long as its greatest width, the segments shorter,
1 to 4 each not longer than its posterior width

Prosapegus fissilis n. sp.

distinctus

Female.— Length, 5.00 mm. Black ; tegulae yellow ; legs,
including the coxae, golden-yellow, the tarsi a little dusky ; antennal
scape yellow, the pedicel and funicle joints dusky yellow or deep
brown, the club black.

Frons and vertex with rather large sub -confluent punctures
which are dense but not confluent on the cheeks ; pubescence of fine
rather short pale hairs ; frontal impression smooth, rather narrow,
separated from the eye by three rows of punctures. Pedicel fully
twice as long as its greatest width ; funicle 1 two-thirds longer than
the pedicel, 2 a little longer than the pedicel, 3 somewhat shorter
than 2, 4 slightly longer than wide ; club slender, joint 1 as long as
wide, 2-5 slightly wider than long. Thorax one-half longer than its
greatest width, its dorsal surface almost flat ; parapsidal furrows
deep and complete, rather close together but not widening posteriorly ;
median lobe of scutum with moderately large confluent or sub-con-
fluent punctures, the lateral lobes with shallow punctures and fine
impressed lines of reticulation ; scutellum with numerous non-con-
fluent punctures ; pubescence of scutum long, fine and rather dense ;
propodeum long laterally, its posterior margin broadly and deeply
concave almost to its base medially, the lateral carinae long and rather
delicate, and with a shorter carina on either side nearer the median
line, the surface finely punctate and lightly pubescent inside the
carinae, densely pubescent outside the carinae ; median process of
propodeum finely punctate and pubescent, broadly and deeply divided
almost to its base and forming two rather narrow bluntly triangular
teeth which project over the abdominal prominence. Posterior
tarsi one-fourth longer than their tibiae, their basal joint almost one-
half longer than 2-5 united. Forewings extending almost to apex
of segment 5 of abdomen ; lightly infuscate ; marginal vein as long
as the stigmal, the post marginal fully twice as long as the marginal ;
basal and median veins marked by thick light lines. Abdomen a
little less than twice as long as the head and thorax united, four-fifths
as wide as the thorax, its lateral outline uniformly gently convex,
segment 3 being slightly the widest ; dorsum of abdomen not flat,
but with a broad convex median ridge ; segments 1-3 without the usual
lateral carinae ; 1 almost as long as its posterior width, at base with a
rounded prominence that projects forward into the propodeum ; 2
one-third longer than 1 , as long as wide ; 3 as long as 2 ; 4 very
slightly shorter than 3 ; 5 three-fifths as long as 4, distinctly (about
one-fourth) shorter than its basal width ; 6 as long as 5, one-third
longer than its basal width, its apical plate faintly concave ; 1 densely
punctate, and with irregular striae, its prominence with smaller
punctures but smooth anteriorly ; 2-4 confluently punctate, the
punctures of moderate size and with a tendency toward longitudinal
arrangement ; punctures more shallow on 5 and 6 ; apical half of 6
densely coriaceous ; pubescence short and inconspicuous on 1-4,
longer and dense on 5-6 and lateral margins of 1-4.

Male. — Length , 4.50 mm. Propodeum rather long at meson,
its posterior margin gently concave, the lateral carinae long and dis-
tinct ; median process reduced to two strongly raised, well separated

AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF MACROTELEIA

101

pubescent carinae that do not project beyond the posterior margin
and which from lateral aspect form blunt triangular teeth. Abdomen
three-fourths longer than the head and thorax united, not raised or
bluntly ridged medially ; segments 1 and 2 with a lateral carina which
is hardly marked on 3 ; 1 with its anterior margin straight, its meson
convex and with three strong striae ; 5 hardly as long as its basal
width ; 6 two-thirds as long as 5, three-fourths as long as its basal
width ; 7 short, armed on either side with a strong apical spine.
Basal joint of posterior tarsi a little less than one-half longer than
2-5 united. Antennal scape yellow, the basal flagellar joints a little
suffused with yellow ; segmentation as in extensus.

Habitat. — Queensland ; Cairns district, three females, eight males
in December to February, A.P.D. ; Gympie, one female, A. A. Girault ;
Mt. Tambourine, one female, two males in April, A.P.D. , one female
in February, H. Hacker.

Holotype and Allotype in the Queensland Museum. Paratypes
in the Queensland Museum and the author’s collection.

The description is based on the Cairns examples, from which
the holotype female and allotype male have been selected. In the
female from Gympie, fine impressed reticulation is present on the
median lobe against the parapsidal furrows, and segment 6 of
the abdomen is almost wholly coriaceous. The specimens from
Mt. Tambourine are smaller, 4.10 mm., the abdomen is not more than
two-thirds longer than the head and thorax united, and the basal
joint of the posterior tarsi is one-fourth longer than 2-5 united.

One of the main group of closely related species. The female
may be distinguished by the convex dorsal ridge and absence of lateral
carinae on the basal abdominal segments. The male agrees very
closely with augustus, but in that species the basal joint of the posterior
tarsi is a little shorter than 2-5 united, and the abdomen is more slender,
segments 2 and 3 being very distinctly longer than wide.

Prosapegus solitus n. sp.

Female. — Length, 3.50 mm. Black ; tegulae reddish ; legs,
including the coxae, reddish-yellow ; antennal scape and funicle joints
reddish-yellow, the pedicel fuscous, the club black.

Vertex and frons with moderately large confluent punctures,
the cheeks less densely punctate ; frontal impression deep, smooth,
narrow, separated from the eyes by three rows of punctures. Pedicel
slender ; funicle 1 elongate, one-third longer than the pedicel, 2 about
one-third shorter than the pedicel and hardly one-half as long as 1,
3 and 4 as wide as long ; club joint 1 almost as long as wide, 2-5 each
much wider than long. Median lobe of scutum with moderately large
dense punctures which become confluent anteriorly, the lateral lobes
with fine impressed reticulation and shallow indefinite punctures
parapsidal furrows foveate, not widening posteriorly ; scutellum
densely punctate ; pubescence of scutum and scutellum fine and long ;
propodeum very short medially, the lateral carinae well marked, the
posterior margin carinate and very deeply concave ; propodeal
process punctate and pubescent, triangular, about as long as its basal
width, projecting over base of abdomen, very narrowly divided for
some distance from apex, the two teeth narrow and sub-acute. Fore-
wings reaching to apex of fifth abdominal segment ; marginal vein

102 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

a little longer than the stigmal, the postmarginal twice as long as the
marginal ; basal and median veins very faint. Posterior tarsi one-
fifth longer than their tibiae, their basal joint one-fifth longer than
2-5 united. Abdomen one-half longer than the head and thorax
united, three-fourths as wide as the thorax ; narrowed at base, pointed
at apex, its lateral outline gently regularly convex, widest at base
of segment 3 ; segments 1-3 carinate laterally ; 1 somewhat raised
at base and projecting forward into the propodeum, somewhat shorter
than its posterior width ; 2 one-half longer than 1 ; 3 a little longer
than 2, as long as wide ; 4 slightly shorter than 2 ; 5 three-fourths
as long as 4, a little shorter than its basal width ; 6 as long as 5,
one-third longer than its basal width, its sub-apical plate convex ;
1 densely punctate laterally, with several striae medially, of which
the median pair are strongest ; 2-4 confluently punctate with a
longitudinal arrangement ; 5 and 6 shallowly confluently punctate ;
pubescence as in regalis and related species.

Male . — Length, 3.50 mm. Propodeum longer medially than in
the female, the posterior margin carinate and rather deeply concave
between the lateral carinae, the median process narrower, the teeth
projecting for some distance beyond the posterior margin. Abdomen
one-half longer than the head and thorax united ; segments 1-3
strongly carinate laterally, 4 more feebly so ; 1 with two strong median
striae ; 6 one-half as long as 5, two-thirds as long as its basal width ;
7 shortly strongly bispinose. Antennae black, the scape reddish-
yellow ; funicle 1 one-half longer than the pedicel, 2 and 3 as long as
the pedicel, 4-9 each slightly longer than wide.

Habitat. — North Queensland ; Cairns district, one pair in January,
F. P. Dodd. New South Wales ; Sydney, one female in November,
A. P. Dodd.

Holotype and Allotype in the Queensland Museum ; Paratype
in the author’s collection.

A rather small species with the second funicle joint in the female
shorter than the pedicel, and the abdomen shorter in relation to the
head and thorax. The base of the abdomen in the female is produced
forward into the propodeum, thus differing from augustus and regalis ;
the basal hump is not developed as strongly as in fissilis and accultus ,
in both of which the propodeal process is broadly and deeply divided.
In the male this process is more strongly developed than in the above
four species. However, in the male accultus the median carinae pro-
ject a little beyond the posterior margin, but they are shorter and
wider apart, the posterior margin is more deeply concave, while the
abdomen is longer.

Prosapegus accultus n. sp.

Female. — Length, 4.60 mm. Black ; tegulae reddish ; legs,
including the coxae, bright reddish-yellow ; antennal scape and funicle
joints 1 and 2 reddish-yellow, the pedicel and funicle 3 and 4 fuscous,
the club black.

Frons, vertex and cheeks with moderately large confluent or
sub-confluent punctures ; frontal impression deep, smooth, rather
narrow, separated from the eyes by two or three rows of punctures.
Pedicel slender ; funicle 1 one-half longer than the pedicel ; 2 slightly
shorter than the pedicel, twice as long as wide ; 3 shorter ; 4 as wide
as long ; club rather slender, joint 1 as long as wide, 2-5 plainly wider

AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF MACROTELEIA

103

than long. Thorax one-half longer than its greatest width ; parap-
sidal furrows deep, foveate, narrow anteriorly, widening posteriorly ;
median lobe of scutum with moderately large punctures, dense but not
confluent except anteriorly where they are smaller ; lateral lobes
shallowly punctate and with fine impressed reticulation ; scutellum
with numerous rather large punctures ; pubescence fine and rather
long ; propodeun very short medially, long laterally, the posterior
margin deeply concave and strongly margined within the limits of
the lateral carinae which are well developed, the surface outside the
lateral carinae densely pubescent ; median process of propodeum
punctate, pubescent, deeply broadly divided almost to its base in the
form of two sub-acute well separated teeth which are moderately
long and project over the abdominal prominence. Posterior tarsi
one-fourth longer than their tibiae, their basal joint slightly longer
than 2-5 united. Forewings extending beyond apex of fourth
abdominal segment ; lightly brownish ; marginal vein slightly longer
than the stigmal, the postmarginal twice as long as the marginal ;
basal and median veins very faint. Abdomen almost twice as long
as the head and thorax united, its greatest width two-thirds that of
the thorax, its lateral outline regularly gently convex, segment 3 being
slightly the widest ; dorsum almost flat, the lateral carinae distinct
on segments 1-3 ; 1 a little shorter than its posterior width, at base
with a rounded prominence that projects into the propodeum ; 2
one-half longer than 1 ; 3 as long as 2, slightly longer than wide ;

4 a little yet distinctly shorter than 3 ; 5 two-thirds as long as 4,
almost as long as its basal width ; 6 as long as 5, one-half longer than
its basal width, its sub-apical plate convex ; 1 with several strong
striae, densely punctate laterally, the apex of the basal prominence
smooth ; 2-4 confluently punctate with a longitudinal arrangement ;

5 and 6 shallowly confluently punctate ; pubescence short on dorsum
of 1-4, long on 5 and 6 and along lateral margins.

Male . — Length, 4.10 mm. Propodeum, as in the female, short
medially, the posterior margin very deeply concave and strongly
margined within the limits of the lateral carinae, the process very
narrow, in the form of two strongly raised carinae which project a
little beyond the posterior margin and from lateral aspect appear
as triangular raised blunt teeth. Abdomen three-fourths longer than
the head and thorax united ; segment 1 with three strong striae
medially, its anterior margin straight ; 1-3 with a lateral carina which is
faint on 4 ; 3 a little longer than 2, a little longer than wide ; 5 three-
fourths as long as 4, somewhat shorter than its basal width ; 6 two-
thirds as long as 5, plainly shorter than its basal width ; 7 transverse,
shortly strongly bispinose. Antennae black, the scape red ; funicle
1 two-thirds longer than the pedicel, 2 and 3 each slightly longer than
the pedicel, 4-9 each one-half longer than wide.

Habitat. — South Queensland ; Mt. Tambourine, 2,000 feet, one
female, one male in April, A. P. Dodd.

Holotype and Allotype in the Queensland Museum.

One of several closely related species. In the female the deeply
concave propodeum, the form of the propodeal process, and the well-
developed abdominal prominence are much as in fissilis, which species
differs in the convex dorsal ridge and absence of lateral carinae on
segments 1-3 of the abdomen. In the male the propodeum is shorter
medially, its posterior margin more deeply concave than in fissilis
and regalis, and is nearest solitus, the differences being pointed out
in the discussion of that species.

104

Vol. XLIV., No. 8.

The Geomorphology of the Moreton District, Queensland :

An Interpretation.

By C. A. Stjssmilch, F.G.S., Technical Education Branch, Sydney.

Plate V., one map and four geological sections.

(Communicated by Professor H. C. Richards, D.Sc., to the Royal
Society of Queensland, 28th November, 1932).

1.— INTRODUCTION.

The Moreton district occurs in the south eastern corner of Queens-
land, extending from the southern border of the State northwards
to the head waters of the Brisbane River ; eastwards it is bounded
by the Pacific Ocean and westwards it extends to the Darling Downs
Tableland. The region thus included has an area of about 6,000 sq.
miles and forms the drainage areas of the Brisbane and Logan rivers
together with some of the adjoining coastal streams.

No previous attempt has been made to describe the geomor-
phology of this region as a whole ; various writers have from time
to time made reference to the physiography of certain parts of the
area, for the most part incidental to the description of the geology.
These will be referred to later in the text while a list of references
will be given at the end of the paper. Nearly the whole of the area
has been surveyed geologically but for the most part in no great detail ;
the published geological maps have supplied much useful information,
however, which has been fully availed of. Excellent contour maps
are available for about one half of the area and these have proved very
valuable in supplying detailed information with regard to the topo-
graphy and have enabled a much fuller description to be made of the
areas so covered than would have been possible otherwise. The
information available in the published literature has been supple-
mented by a number of field trips carried out by the writer during
several recent visits to Brisbane, but owing to the size of the area
and the limited time available the personal inspection of the area
has been largely in the nature of a reconnaissance and much detailed
field work will be necessary before it will be possible to give a complete
detailed account of the geomorphology of this very interesting area.
Nevertheless it is considered that sufficient information has been
gathered together to demonstrate the essential features and that this
will form a satisfactory basis for future work in this area. The
writer desires to convey his thanks to Dr. W. H. Bryan, Professor
H. C. Richards, Dr. E. 0. Marks and Dr. F. Whitehouse for very
kind assistance in the field work and particularly the first named who
accompanied him on almost all of his field trips.

GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE MORETON DISTRICT, QUEENSLAND. 105

II. GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES.

The geographical features of this district are in many ways abnormal
and quite unlike what one expects to find in a region of normal river
development following uplift. Along its eastern margin the Moreton
district is bounded by a 1owt lying coastal plain while to the west lies
a continuous tableland (the Darling Downs tableland) about 2,000
feet in altitude. Between these two there exists a complex series of
relatively high tablelands separated from one another by wide relatively
low-lying regions as shown diagramatically in the accompanying
map. It should be understood that the boundaries shown on this
map are merely approximations, particularly in the southern part
of the area. In all of that part of the district which lies to the south
of the Brisbane river these earth blocks are parallel to one another,
have a definite north-south trend and are in general markedly
xectangular in shape. The sub-divisions of this southern region,
starting from the coastal plain, are as follows :

1. The Tambourine Horst,

2. The Birnam Range Fault- block,

3. The Beaudesert Senkungsfeld,

4. The Mt. Flinders Horst,

5. The Fassifern Senkungsfeld,

6. The Lockyer Fault-block.

In that part of the Moreton district which lies to the north of the
Brisbane river the geographical conditions are more complex. In
the eastern part of the area the earth blocks have a general N.N.W.
trend but in the western part of the area the general trend is E.N.E.,
that is practically at right angles to those in the eastern area. In
this northern region the earth blocks, starting from the east, are as
follows :

1. The D’Aguilar Horst,

2. The Upper Brisbane Rift-valley,

3. The Rosewood Bluff Horst,

4. The Lockyer River Senkungsfeld,

5. The Yarraman Tableland.

It might be noticed that this complex region occurs where the
N.S. trends of the Late Tertiary tectonic lines of New South Wales
change to the N.N.W. trends of Queensland. A detailed description
of each of these earth blocks will be given in which will be shown
that there is abundant evidence for the belief that they are primarily
of tectonic origin and have resulted from a differential elevation which
took place in this region at the beginning of the present cycle of
erosion, but before doing this it will be desirable to make some brief
reference to the geology of the area.

III. GENERAL GEOLOGY.

The geological formations present in the Moreton District,
.arranged in chronological order, are as follow :

Tertiary (a) The Volcanic Series

(6) The Freshwater Beds : — Redbank Plains Series and
Petrie Series.

Jurassic (a) The Walloon Series

( b ) The Bundan:ba Series.

Triassic (a) The Ipswich Series

( b ) The Upper Esk Series

(c) The Lower Esk Series.

Carboniferous — The marine and freshwater beds of the Mt. Barney inlier .

Lower Palaeozoic — The Brisbane Schist Series.

106 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The Lower Palaeozoic strata (Brisbane Schist Series) are all
highly tilted and more or less metamorphosed whereas the Mesozoic
strata (Triassic and Jurassic) are for the most part only gently folded
and rest unconformably upon the former.

The close of the Jurassic period appears to have been followed
by earth movements which produced a considerable uplift and this
was followed by a long cycle of erosion (perhaps two cycles) which
extended throughout Cretaceous time and probably well into Lower
Tertiary time, as a result of which there was produced in this region
a well marked peneplain developed alike in the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic
strata. Some previous writers, notably Reid18 and Morton17, do not
consider that this period of erosion produced a true peneplain,
throughout this area, but with that opinion the writer cannot agree.
In his account of the coal measures of the West Moreton district
Reid18 gives a series of very instructive geological sections. In his
two sections of the region to the north of Toowoomba given in plate I
on page 464, the Tertiary volcanic rocks are shown resting upon a
well developed peneplain surface cut alike out of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic
strata. A much longer section is given on page 465 ; this section
extends along a north-south line through the Darling Downs table-
land from Mt. Jockey to the Main Range just south of Mt. Paradise
and this section shows quite convincingly the presence of the
abovementioned peneplain upon which the Tertiary volcanic rocks
rest. As shown in all of these sections the peneplain in this region
to-day stands at an altitude of from 1,750 feet to 2,000 feet ; it must
have been developed at or near sea-level and subsequently elevated
to its present position.

In his paper on the volcanic rocks of south-eastern Queensland,.
Richards21 also gives some interesting sections illustrating this point.
In his north-sou thsection on plate II., which extends from the
McPherson Range in the south to the northern end of the Tambourine*
Plateau, Tertiary velcanic rocks are shown to be resting upon a well
developed peneplain cut alike out of Lower Palaeozoic and Mesozoic
strata. In this region the peneplain surface is no longer horizontal,
but both it and tho volcanic series resting upon it are tilted from south
to north. Such geological evidence as is available, therefore,
indicates that prior to the deposition of the Tertiary volcanic rocks
the area had been well peneplained and this peneplain surface to-day
survives over quite large areas. It is not assumed, of course, that this
peneplain was everywhere a perfect plain ; no doubt residuals of the
highlands out of which the peneplain had been eroded still survive
in places. Some of these will be referred to later. But it is con-
sidered that peneplanation had been carried to a fairly complete
stage and that the Tertiary volcanic rocks were poured out on to a
broadly level surface at a time prior to its uplift to form the present
tablelands.

This peneplain is of importance in studying the geomorphology
of this region, as it supplies an important datum for determining
the approximate amount of elevation which has taken place since its
development.

IV. THE TECTONIC SCARPS.

The Moreton district, as will be shown later, consists of a series
of differentially elevated earth blocks. Some of these have been
subjected to considerable elevation (up to 2,400 feet), other blocks.

GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE MORETON DISTRICT, QUEENSLAND. 107

have suffered relatively less elevation, while still other blocks have
not been appreciably elevated at all. The higher blocks are separated
from the lower blocks which adjoin them in most cases by steep
scarps and in the case of most of these the physiographical evidence
suggests that they have been produced either by faulting or by
monoclinal folding

In some cases there is definite geological evidence that faulting
has actually taken place along the foot of the scarp ; in others there is
corroborative, although not complete, geological evidence, in proof
of the faulting ; but in a number of cases, owing to the absence of
detailed geological surveys, geological evidence at present is wanting
and in these cases the writer has had to depend entirely on the physio-
graphical evidence. With regard to some of these tectonic scarps,
geological demonstration of the faulting will be difficult to obtain
owing to the nature of the geological structure. The Brisbane Schists,
for example, are a very thick and highly folded series of metamorphic
rocks and as the tectonic scarps within this series have much the same
trend as the strike of the strata, proof of the faulting will be unavail-
able until such time as very detailed geological surveys are made.

The Bundamba Series and the Walloon Series, both of which
have a considerable thickness, consist predominantly of siliceous
and felspathic sandstones associated with which are some beds of
shale and both are characterised by a practical absence of “ persistent
horizons ” of any real value for field mapping purposes. As a result
it is not only difficult at times to say to which particular series
a particular outcrop should be referred but also to determine the
exact horizon of an outcrop in either of these series. Consequently
here again faulting will be difficult to prove even where geological
surveys have been made. This would be particularly the case where a
scarp has resulted from a series of parallel faults rather than from one
big fault. Throughout much of the region the only satisfactory geo-
logical datum for proof of differential uplift is the peneplain surface
already described and the base of the Tertiary Volcanic Series where
they rest upon it.

The fact, of course, has not been lost sight of that some of the
scarps may have been produced by monoclinal folding but as such
scarps are genetically similar to fault scarps the distinction is not very
important. Some of the scarps also, instead of having been pro-
duced by one single fault, may have resulted from a number of closely
set, parallel faults or again may have resulted from a combination
of faulting and warping. This applies particularly to those which occur
in Mesozoic strata. In the case of the highly folded Brisbane Schists
the development of steep monoclinal folds would be highly improb-
able and the tectonic scarps in this formation are much more likely
to be fault scarps.

V. THE DARLING DOWNS TABLELAND.

This tableland bounds the Moreton district along its western
side. It has a general elevation of from 2,000 feet to 2,200 feet
along its eastern margin but has a definite tilt towards the west, its
altitude gradually falling in that direction. Throughout the greater
part of the area the underlying formation consists of gently dipping
Mesozoic strata capped by a veneer of Tertiary basalt ; but at the
northern end the Mesozoic strata give place to Lower Palaeozoic

108 PROCEEDINGS OE THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

strata with their associated plutonic intrusions ; these latter are also
capped by Tertiary basalts. As has already been explained, the
upper surface of the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic strata is in this area
an almost perfect peneplain and this peneplain now has an altitude
of from 1,750 feet to 2,000 feet above sea level. The Tertiary basalts
rest as practically horizontal layers on this peneplain surface and
are in general from 200 feet to 400 feet in thickness. The surface
of the tableland is occupied by a series of broad, gently rounded
ridges between which are broad, shallow valleys all more or less
aggraded ; the valleys are from 300 feet to 400 feet in depth. The
ridges, which rise to a similar elevation, are for the most part capped
with basalt, but in the main river valleys the underlying Jurassic
strata are exposed. The topography is therefore a thoroughly mature
one produced during the previous cycle of erosion. Some deepening
of the valleys of the main streams has apparently taken place during
the present cycle of erosion.

In the southern part of the tableland and situated right on its
eastern margin there is a range of volcanic mountains rising fairly
abruptly above the general level of the tableland to altitudes of about

4.000 feet, that is about 2,000 feet above the tableland level. In
this volcanic range the topography is of a youthful character.

Messrs. Wearne and Woolnough22 considered these high peaks
represented denuded remnants of a peneplain and on this point they
wrote as follows : “ The contour of the Main Dividing Range which
separates West Moreton from the Darling Downs, reveals the fact
that two successive uplifts occurred, the first an uplift of about

2.000 feet and the second of 2,700 feet. The summits of the Main
Range — Mt. Castle (3,700 feet), Mt. Cordeaux (4,100 feet), Mt.
Mitchell (4,000 feet) and Wilson’s Peak (4,060 feet) are practically
at a uniform height above sea level. They represent the denuded
remnants of an uplifted peneplain.” With this conclusion the author
cannot agree. There is no evidence that the whole of the thick series
of lava flows and tuffs which constitutes this volcanic range ever
extended right across the Darling Downs as their conclusion suggests.
On the contrary the evidence suggests that the range represents a
row of Tertiary volcanoes built up along a north-south line of fracture
and that these are therefore mountains of accumulation and not
residual mountains. Several transverse valleys cut across this range,,
such as Cunningham’s Gap, Spicer’s Gap and Wilson’s Gap. With
regard to these Wearne and Woolnough22 state that “ they represent
the U shaped mature valleys eroded to base level which have since been
lifted to a height of 2,700 feet above sea level.” As a matter of fact
the base level of erosion for these valleys is the surface of the adjoining
Darling Downs Tableland whose general level is only from 2,000 feet
to 2,200 feet, while the mature valleys on its surface are still lower ;
the 2,700 feet level of these gaps is therefore not a base level of erosion.

The question might also be raised as to whether these gaps are
entirely due to erosion. They may, perhaps, and probably do repre-
sent, primarily, spaces left between adjoining volcanic cones as the
latter were being built up, deepened of course to some extent by
subsequent erosion.

In view of all these facts there is therefore no evidence for Wearne
and Woolnough’s first uplift of 2,000 feet, while the amount of their
second uplift which produced the present Darling Downs Tableland,

GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE MORETON DISTRICT, QUEENSLAND. 109

should be from 2,000 feet to 2,200 feet, the general elevation of the
tableland itself, and not 2,700 feet, the level of the bases of the
so-called gaps.

VI. THE LOCKYER FAULT BLOCK.

This is a roughly triangular area bounded on the south and west
by the Darling Downs Tableland, on the east by the low Fassifern
block and on the north by the low Lockyer River block. This is the
region referred to by Wearne and Woolnough22 as the Lockyer fault
block and they describe it as follows : “ This block is traversed by
four meridional ridges — the Little Liverpool Range, the Mt. Mistake
Range, the Hiproof Range and another of unknown name with hori-
zontal crests rising to a uniform level of 2,000 feet. Immediately
to the east of Toowoomba this faulting carried down a portion of
the old mature valley about 500 feet below its original level. The
faulting here is somewhat complex and this fault is associated with
one or more others increasing the total throw.”

These writers are somewhat vague as to the actual area they
intended to include in this block and they do not seem to have had
accurate information as to the height of the ranges constituting the
block which, they state, as mentioned above, rise to a uniform height
of 2,000 feet. If this last statement were correct the area would pos-
sibly not be a fault block at all but merely a dissected part of the
Darling Downs Tableland. J. H. Reid18 has, however, given more
detailed information regarding the altitude of the abovementioned
ranges in a very interesting section which he has drawn across the
block and shown in Plate VII., page 469, of his account of the geology
of this region.

Using the peneplain level (which is also the level of the base of
the basalt) as a datum, it will be seen from this section that the Darling
Downs Tableland level continues as far east at least as the eastern edge
of what he calls the Egypt and Spring Park Plateau and probably
also continues as far eastwards as the eastern margin of the Mt. Para-
dise ridge which forms the divide between the Ma Ma Creek and Black-
fellows Creek. Mt Paradise has an altitude of 2,245 feet and is basalt
capped, the basalt according to Reid being about 400 feet thick. To
the author it would appear that the Mt. Paradise ridge forms the true
eastern margin of the Darling Downs Tableland in this area and that
the eastern side of this ridge is a line of faulting with a throw to the
east of from 400 feet to 500 feet and would suggest that this be called
the Mt. Paradise fault-scarp. The author is in doubt as to whether
this is where Messrs. Wearne and Woolnough placed their 500 feet
fault, as they are somewhat vague in their description of its location.
The Lockyer Fault-block, therefore, begins at this fault-scarp. This
fault-block appears to consist really of two parallel fault-blocks for
which the author proposes the names (a) The Mt. Mistake Block and
( b ) The Little Liverpool Range Block.

(a) The Mt. Mistake Block. This has a probable width of
about six miles and includes both the Hiproof Range and the Mt.
Mistake Range of Wearne and Woolnough.

Reid's east-west section of the West Moreton district crosses the
Hiproof Range near its northern end and gives the altitude of the base
of the basalt as being from 1,250 feet to 1,350 feet thick ; Richards21
describes this range as consisting of Jurassic strata to a height of

110 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

1,150 feet, capped by a thickness of 600 feet of basalt. The altitude
of the base of the basalt at Mt. Paradise, according to Reid, is 1,750
feet. There is thus a difference of elevation between the two blocks
of from 400 feet to 600 feet according to which figure is taken.

The eastern side of the Mt. Mistake Block is marked by a scarp
which may be a fault-scarp, having a probable throw of about 300 feet
on the line of Reid’s section. It is, of course, possible that this may
be a line of monoclinal folding or warping. It will be convenient to
refer to this scarp as the Mt. Mistake Scarp. Followed southwards,
it passes to the west of Mt. Castle where it joins the Main Range Fault.
According to figures supplied by Reid the base of the basalt at Mt.
Castle is at an altitude of 800 feet to 900 feet so that the combined
faults here much have a throw of at least from 1,100 feet to 1,200 feet.

In looking at this part of the scarp from Kalbar on the opposite
side of the Fassifern depression this splitting of the Main Range Fault
is well shown by the topography, giving a beautiful example of a
splintered fault-scarp. This geological evidence at Mt. Castle as well
as the physiographic features leave no doubt in the writer’s mind
that the Lockyer Fault-block as a whole has been faulted from the
Darling Downs Tableland.

( b ) The Little Liverpool Range Block. This has a probable
width of about four miles and lies immediately to the east of the
Mt. Mistake Fault-block and has a general elevation of about 1,000
feet. At Mt. Castle, which lies at the southern end of this block, the
base of the basalt is at an elevation of from 800 feet to 900 feet and
as Mt. Castle itself has an altitude of 3,700 feet, the basalt here must have
a thickness of about 2,800 feet. At the northern end of the block,
where Reid’s section crosses it, the base of the basalt is also at an
elevation of from 900 feet to 950 feet but the thickness of the basalt
here is only about 200 feet. This fault-block along its eastern margin
is bounded by a well marked fault-scarp which separates it from the
low-lying Fassifern Block. This fault, which has a throw of about
700 feet, is a direct northerly continuation of the Main Range Fault
and will be referred to again when discussing that fault.

The Lockyer Fault-block as a whole extends northwards to the
southern margin of the great Lockyer River depression.

VII. THE FASSIFERN SENKUNGSFELD.

This relatively depressed region with an altitude of from 300 feet
to 600 feet lies between two relatively high regions. The Darling
Downs Tableland and Lockyer Fault-block, already described, lie
to the west of it while the Mt. Flinders Horst bounds it on its eastern
side. To the north of it lies the Rosewood Bluff Horst while on its
southern margin is the McPherson Range. Its major axis has a north-
south trend and its length in this direction is about 36 miles.

In its northern portion this depressed region has a width in an
east- west direction of about 14 miles and its general elevation here
is from 250 feet to 300 feet. The senkungsfeld as a whole, however,
has not a uniformly level surface, the south-eastern and southern
portions being somewhat higher. South from Harrisville the eastern
part of the region has been warped up to an average altitude of about
600 feet and this higher portion really forms a separate tableland
lying between the lower part of the Fassifern Senkungsfeld proper

GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE MORETON DISTRICT, QUEENSLAND. Ill

and the Mt. Flinders Horst. It will be convenient to refer to this
higher portion as the Boonah Tableland although still considering it
as being a part of the Fassifern Senkungsfeld.

The Boonah Tableland starts immediately to the south of the
Flinders railway station and is here known as the Mentone Ridge ;
it has an altitude of about 600 feet and a width of about 3 miles.
Followed southwards it widens and at Boonah the width has increased
to about 6 miles. Beyond here its western margin swings around to
a south-west course and continues thence to the foot of the Main
Range. Where the road from Aratula to Mt. Edwards crosses this
margin it presents a well-marked scarp. To the south of this scarp
the 600 feet level continues to the foot of the McPherson Range.
From Harrisville to Aratula the margin between the Boonah Table-
land and the lower part of the Fassifern Senkungsfeld has a gently
warped surface but from here to the Main Range, as already pointed
out, a definite scarp separates the 600 feet and 300 feet levels and some
faulting may occur here.

Throughout the whole of the Fassifern Senkungsfeld the under-
lying rocks are of Jurassic age, capped over very considerable areas
by varying thicknesses of Tertiary basalt. The topography of its surface
is a thoroughly mature one even on its southern margin. Around
Boonah, for example, one finds a series of broad shallow aggraded
valleys 300 feet to 400 feet deep, separated from one another by
gently rounded ridges rising to a general elevation of 600 feet to 700
feet. Many of these ridges are basalt-capped. We have here, there-
fore, at an elevation of from 600 feet to 700 feet above sea level, an
exactly similar topography to that which occurs on the Darling
Downs Tableland at an altitude of about 2,000 feet and in both cases
the underlying geological structure is the same.

The general level of the Fassifern Senkungsfeld is interrupted
in places by the occurrence of Tertiary volcanic hills and ridges. In
the far south we have the isolated trachyte hills of Mt.Moon — Mt. Alford
(2,200 feet), Mt. Greville (2,700 feet), Mt. Edwards (2,300 feet),
and Mt. French (1,900 feet), while in the central part of the area
there is a well-marked basaltic ridge with a meridional trend which
forms the divide here between the Bremer River and Warrill Creek.
The higher points on this basaltic ridge include Mt. Walker (1,550
feet), Bald Hills (821 feet), Kangaroo Mountain (856 feet) and
Mt. Fraser (1,200 feet).

As has already been mentioned in describing the Darling Downs
Tableland and the Lockyer Fault-block, a very pronounced scarp
separates them from the low-lying Fassifern block. This scarp has
previously been described as a fault-scarp by Andrews1, Jensen9,
Wearne and Woolnough22 and Richards21, but later observers
including Reid18 and Marks16 deny the existence of faulting and
ascribe the scarp to differential erosion.

The physiographic evidence of faulting is as follows : —

{a) The surface of the Darling Downs Tableland at an altitude
of from 2,000 feet to 2,200 feet presents an “ old age ” topography
consisting of broad, shallow, aggraded valleys 300 feet to 400 feet
deep between which are wide gently rounded basalt-capped ridges
all rising to a uniform altitude. The surface of the Fassifern
Senkungsfeld presents an exactly similar topography but at an

112 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

elevation of only 300 feet to 600 feet. In both cases the underlying
geological structure is identical. Under no conceivable circumstances
could one expect exactly similar topographies under exactly similar
geological conditions to be produced side by side at such very different
altitudes.

(b) If the lower region were to be suddenly elevated to the height
of the higher region (or conversely the higher lowered to the lower
level) the two topographies would exactly fit, not only with regard
to the mature valleys and low rounded ridges but even with regard
to the volcanic hills and ridges which rise above the general level in
both regions.

A steep scarp separates the two levels along their whole length.
This scarp has a practically straight north-south trend with no
lateral ridges extending from it out on to the lower country. The face
of this scarp represents a very youthful topography as compared
with the very mature topographies above it and below it.

This physiographical evidence of faulting is strongly supported
by the geological evidence. This evidence is as follows : (a) The
Darling Downs Tableland, along its eastern margin from Wilson’s
Peak to Mt. Cordeaux up to the 2,200 feet level, consists of Jurassic
strata. Above this level are the volcanic rocks of the Main Range.
If the scarp along the eastern edge of this tableland had been pro-
duced by erosion during the present cycle, one would expect to find
Jurassic strata outcropping in the face of the scarp from its base up
to an elevation of 2,200 feet ; if one refers to the geological section
of this scarp previously published by Jensen9 and by Wearne and
Woolnough22, it will be found that the face of the scarp under Mt:
Spicer consists almost entirely of volcanic rocks, mainly trachyte
and trachytic tuffs. If one refers to Richards’ section21 of the Main
Range at Mt. Spicer, it will be found that the volcanic rocks there
have the following thicknesses : —

Upper basalts — about 1,200 feet.

Trachyte and trachytic tuffs — about 600 feet.

Lower basalts — about 300 feet.

Total : 2,100 feet.

Fig./

SKETCH SECTION OF MAIN RANGE ALONG OLD WARWICK ROAD

REDRAWN FROM WOOLNOUGH 8c WEARNE5 SECTION

HORIZONTAL SCALE - VARDS
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

These rocks, as already pointed out, rest upon the Jurassic for-
mation at an altitude of about 2,200 feet. The above thicknesses have
been scaled from Richards’ section and are all only approximate.

GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE MORETON DISTRICT, QUEENSLAND. 113

According to both of the published geological sections, the trachyte
and trachytic tuffs up the face of the scarp have a strong westerly
dip, and, if the thicknesses and dips given are correct, the trachyte
series must have a thickness of several thousands of feet, that is many
times greater than the 600 feet in the Main Range.

It seems quite obvious to the writer that not only does the
trachyte series owe its low position in the scarp as compared with its
counter-part in the Main Range to faulting, but that there must be
several parallel faults producing duplication of these strata to give
their apparent great thickness. In fig. 1 Wearne and Woolnough’s
section has been redrawn, showing at least two parallel faults.

These suggested faults would account for :

1. The concealment of the outcrops of the Jurassic strata

which should otherwise show in the face of the scarp,

2. The abnormal thickness of the trachyte series, and

3. The occurrence of the trachyte series itself in the face of

the scarp.

One of the arguments against faulting is that if the scarp were
due to faulting, the volcanies of the Main Range should have been
faulted down ; the evidence shows that this has actually happened.
It is true that just at this point (Spicer’s Peak) the thick upper series
of basalts has not apparently been faulted down, but that would be
due to the fact that the fault here has only cut through the eastern
flank of Spicer’s Peak and not through its centre as shown in the
section in fig. 1. The actual throw of the fault (or group of faults)
would be from 1,400 feet to 1,600 feet. Further to the north the upper
series of basalts has been subjected to faulting. At Mt. Castle, accord-
ing to Reid, the base of the basalts is at an altitude of about 900 feet.
On the tableland immediately to the west, the altitude of the base
of the basalt is about 2,000 feet and it is obvious, therefore, that a
fault with a throw of at least 1,110 feet lies between Mt. Castle and
the Darling Downs Tableland. Reid18 has recorded that at Bible
and Warrill Creeks (between Mt. Castle and Mt. Cordeaux) dips occur
in the Walloon Series of 50° and 27° respectively. These abnormally
high dips occur on the line of the supposed faulting and may be taken
to be corroborative evidence of it. Just south of Mt. Castle the Main
Range fault (or faults) splits into two definite branches, one branch
passing to the west of Mt. Castle with a throw of about 1,100 feet,
the other passing to the east of Mt. Castle with a throw of about 600
feet. The western branch has already been referred to in describing
the Lockyer Fault-block. The eastern branch maintains the general
north-south trend of the Main Range fault and extends northwards
along the foot of the Little Liverpool Range where it forms the
boundary between the Lockyer Fault-block and the Fassifern
Senkungsfeld. The Little Liverpool Range has an altitude of 1,000
feet and upwards and, except at its far northern end, it is capped
throughout its length with basalt of varying thickness. But along
its whole length from Mt. Castle northwards, the base of the volcanic
series according to Reid18 is at an elevation of about 900 feet. As
the corresponding levels of the basalts in the lower block is at an
elevation of less than 300 feet the fault must have a throw of at least
600 feet. Throughout its whole length this fault-scarp presents a
very youthful topography as compared with the mature topography

114 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

of the Fassifern block and the change from one to another is a very
abrupt one. This line of fault crosses the railway line to the west
of Grandchester and there appears to swing to the east parallel to the
southern margin of the Rosewood Bluff Horst which bounds the
Fassifern Senkungsfeld on its northern margin.

VIII. THE MT. FLINDERS HORST.

Between the Fassifern Senkungsfeld already described and the
Beaudesert Senkungsfeld to be described later there lies a relatively
high earth-block with the same north-south trend of the neighbouring
blocks. This feature at present seems to have no definite name and
it is proposed to call it the Mt. Flinders Horst from the name of the
wellknown mountain which occurs on its surface. The road from
Beaudesert to Boonah crosses this block approximately at right angles
and here it has an altitude of about 1,400 feet and a width of about
8 miles. It is noteworthy that this is the only important road which
crosses this block throughout its whole length.

Followed to the northward the altitude of the block gradually
decreases. At Spring Mountain the altitude is from 800 feet to 1,000
feet and from here northward it flattens very rapidly ultimately
merging into the Redbank Plains. Its north-western portion is known
as the Grampian Hills and these lie about three miles due south from
the town of Ipswich. Within the area so far defined the details of
its topography can be studied from the Ipswich and Flinders military
maps. These show a region with a very rugged topography with the
higher points occurring along its eastern margin ; these higher points
include Spring Mountain (1,163 feet), Mt. Joyce (1,530 feet) and Mt.
Jubbera (1,412 feet) ; it also appears to have a definite tilt from east
to west.

The writer has had no opportunity of seeing this region south
from the Beaudesert- Boonah road, but in this direction it appears to
join up and be continuous with the Mt. Maroon Tableland. In
his description of the geology of South Moreton C. C. Morton17 gives
a section which crosses this southern area and this section shows a
high tableland of sedimentary strata capped by thick rhyolite flows.

The altitude reached by the upper surface of the sedimentary
rocks ranges from 1,450 feet to 1,850 feet with a well marked tilt
from east to west. The overlying rhyolites constitute high peaks
such as Mt. Maroon (3,300 feet), Mt. Toowoonan, Mt. May and Mt.
Barney (4,300 feet). These high points owe their great altitude to
the great thickness of the rhyolite lava flows which here attain a
thickness of at least 1,600 feet. The Mt. Flinders Horst as a whole,,
therefore, apparently increases in altitude southwards. Near the
north-western margin of the Mt. Flinders Horst there is another group
of volcanic cones rising above the general level of the tableland and
known as the Flinders Range. These volcanic peaks lie for the most
part on a north-south series of fractures parallel to but some little
distance east of the western margin of the Mt. Flinders Horst.

The western margin of the Mt. Flinders Horst where it joins
the lower Fassifern block presents a moderately steep scarp.
Jensen9, in describing this region, suggests as a possibility that the
wellknown Great Moreton Fault which further to the north has a
N.N.W.-S.S.E. trend continues into this region and swings around
to a north-south course. If Jensen’s suggestion is correct this fault

GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE MORETON DISTRICT, QUEENSLAND. 115

would follow along the foot of the scarp above referred to. In that
case the scarp would be a fault scarp with a throw of about 700 feet.
This feature, however, needs further investigation ; it may be a
monoclinal fold.

Further to the south in the neighbourhood of Boonah the scarp
appears to be definitely due to monoclinal folding. If one refers
to Morton’s map of the area17 it will be found that along the line of
the scarp for a considerable distance both north and south of Boonah
the dips of the Jurassic strata range from 8° to 15° whereas both to the
west and to the east of the scarp one finds the normal low angle dips
of 2° to 5° to the south-west characteristic of the Jurassic formation.
This steepening of the dips along this line would be sufficient to
account for the difference in altitude here between the higher
Mt. Flinders Horst (1,200 feet) and the lower Boonah Tableland
(600 feet-700 feet). It would seem probable, therefore, that the
scarp here has resulted from monoclinal folding during uplift, a view
supported by the features of the topography. The author has had
no opportunity of studying this scarp further to the south and the
published literature does not provide any definite information.

The eastern scarp of the Mb. Flinders Horst is a more abrupt one
and it is quite a striking feature when viewed from the east. At
Mt. Jubbera the contour map shows a drop from 1,412 feet to 300 feet
in 1J miles. At Mt. Joyce and at Spring Mountain near the northern
end of the scarp there are similar steep slopes. The writer has crossed
this scarp at only one place and that is between Mt. Jubbera and
Mt. Joyce and here the physiography gives the suggestion of a fairly
steep monoclinal fold. The dips of the Jurassic strata as given by
Morton17 supply some useful information on this point. Within
the horst itself and notably in the immediate neighbourhood of
Mt. Jubbera the dips are to the south-west at low angles, 2°-5°, whereas
along the line of the scarp immediately to the east of Mt. Jubbera,
Morton shows a number of steep easterly dips ranging from 30° to 65°,
while still further to the east in the Beaudesert Senkungsfeld the normal
low dips of about 2° to the south-west again prevail. The corres-
pondence between the position of the abnormally high reverse
easterly dips with the position of the scarp is surely not accidental
and may it not be that instead of this being a true anticlinal fold as
suggested by Morton, it is a late Tertiary monoclinal fold with a sharp
throw to the east superimposed upon the older gentle dip to the
south-west of the Jurassic beds. In such a gently folded series as these
one would not expect to find an unsymmetrical anticline of orogenic
origin having a westerly limb with a dip of from 2° to 5° while the
eastern limb has a dip of 65°. It is suggested therefore that the eastern
scarp of the Mt. Flinders Horst in the neighbourhood of Mt. Joyce
is a monoclinal fold.

The Mt. Flinders Horst has been well dissected during the present
cycle of erosion and but little of the original tableland surface appears
to remain. The main streams draining this area, such as Woolaman
Creek, Teviot Brook and Allens Creek, all of which are tributaries
of the Logan River, have not only cut their channels down to base
level but have also developed narrow flood plains in the eastern part of
their courses. It is noteworthy that although this region has a tilt from
east to west, the greater part of it is drained by streams flowing in the
opposite direction, that is from west to east. The course of the

116 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Teviot Brook is a particularly interesting one. It rises in the McPherson
Range, and for many miles follows a northerly course. In the
neighbourhood of Boonah this stream is flowing in a mature valley
on the surface of the Boonah tableland already described, along the
foot of the western scarp of the Mt. Flinders Horst, but at Coulson,
a few miles north of Boonah, it suddenly turns eastward and flows
in a youthful valley right across the higher Mt. Flinders Horst. A
more natural course would have been for it to continue its northern
direction along the foot of the scarp to join the Bremer River. This
stream is obviously a revived stream, its west-east course across the
present day Mt. Flinders Horst having already been determined prior
to the uplift of the horst, the uplift being sufficiently slow to enable
the stream to keep pace in cutting down its channel in the rising
block. Jensen9 has also commented upon the anomalous course
of this stream.

IX. THE BEAUDESERT SENKUNGSFELD.

This is a relatively low region lying between the Mt. Flinders
Horst already described and the Tambourine Horst ; along part of
its eastern boundary the small Mt. Birnam Fault-block lies between
it and the Tambourine Horst. Northwards it extends to the foot of
the D’Aguilar Horst while southwards it extends to Beaudesert,
giving it a total length in a north-south direction of about 30 miles.
This senkungsfeld does not end, however, at Beaudesert but continues
southwards to the foot of the McPherson Range, but as this southern
portion has a more complex structure its details will be described
separately.

The Beaudesert Senkungsfeld proper (from Brisbane River to
Beaudesert) has a somewhat variable width ; at its northern end
(Cooper’s Plains and Brown’s Plains) the width is from 11 to 12 miles
and here on its eastern margin it joins and is continuous with the Bris-
bane Gap to be described later ; at Beaudesert the width is about
six miles. The greater part of the area is occupied by Jurassic strata
with thin cappings of Tertiary basalts over limited areas, but in its
northern portion in the district known as Cooper’s Plains some
moderately extensive areas are covered by Lower Tertiary freshwater
beds. The surface topography consists of a series of gently rounded
ridges all of which rise to a general level of from 250 feet to 300 feet
and between these are a series of broad, shallow, aggraded valleys.
The region as a whole is drained by the Logan River and its tributaries
and along the main streams extensive flood plains have been developed,
whose surfaces are raised but little above sea level. All these features
are well shown in the military contour maps.

As already stated this senkungsfeld does not end at Beaudesert
but continues southwards to the foot of the McPherson Range, a further
distance of about 10 miles. The new railway line from Brisbane to
Kyogle in New South Wales traverses this region and one gets a good
general view of its main features from the train. Apart from two
train journeys, the writer has only visited a small part of this area
by road and the views now put forward are merely suggestions based
to a large extent upon the published work of other observers. The
geology of this region has been described by Morton17 and Reid19
and the former’s geological map and section give some very helpful
suggestions. On the western side of his section occurs the Mt. Maroon

GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE MORETON DISTRICT, QUEENSLAND. 117

Tableland consisting of Walloon strata up to an altitude of about
1,800 feet capped by Tertiary rhyolite lava flows ranging up to
1,500 feet in thickness. This part of the section gives one the
impression that this tableland is a horst with a very definite tilt from
east to west. The southern part of this region in the neighbourhood
of Mt. Barney has recently been visited by Professor H. C. Richards,
Dr. W. H. Bryan and Dr. Whitehouse and they have informed me
that the tableland here is a horst made up of strata of Carboniferous
(Burindi) age, capped by Tertiary rhyolite flows. The Carboniferous
strata are highly tilted and along the eastern margin of the tableland
there is a faulted junction between these strata and the Walloon series,
the downthrow being to the east.

This fault has a north -south trend running just to the east of
Yellow Pinch and here the Carboniferous strata have a vertical dip.
There is good geological evidence, therefore, of the occurrence of a
well-marked fault along the eastern margin of the Mt. Barney-
Mt. Maroon Tableland with a north-south trend. The north-south
course of the Upper Logan River from Mt. Ernest to Mt. Maroon
appears to have been largely determined by this fault.

Immediately to the east of this fault there is a lower tableland
with an altitude of about 1,700 feet which Morton describes
as follows : “ Between Palen Creek and the Logan River is a dissected
plateau made up of acid lavas, conglomerates and tuffs rising in
places to a height of approximately 1,700 feet.” This tableland,
according to Morton, sonsists of members of the Walloon Series with
a gentle dip of 3°-5° to the south-west. In the southern part of the
area the Walloon beds are capped with rhyolites and rhyolite tuffs,
while in the northern part they are capped in places with basalts.
No figures are given by Morton as to the altitude of the upper surface
of the Walloon Series but according to his section it must be at least
1,000 feet. This tableland might be conveniently referred to as the
Palen Creek Tableland and would appear to be a southern continuation
of the Mt. Flinders Horst.

Immediately to the east of the Palen Creek Tableland lies a
much lower region, the southern continuation of the Beaudesert
Senkungsfeld. Here the upper surface of the Walloon Series as shown
in the railway cuttings has an altitude of only 400 feet and these are
capped by a moderately thick series of basalt flows. The scarp
separating this low-lying region from the Palen Creek Tableland to
the west is a direct southern continuation of the eastern scarp of the
Mt. Flinders Horst prevously described and appears to correspond
with the line of folding and faulting shown as passing close to the village
of Rathdowney in Morton’s map and section. Speaking of this line,
Reid19 writes as follows : “ Faulting on an approximately north-
south line along the eastern flank of the anticline, that is along the
west side of the Logan Valley, is indicated between Beaudesert and
the New South Wales border (with a downthrow to the east) by (1) a
sudden flattening of steeply dipping strata ; (2) a strip of almost
vertical strata between areas of uniformly inclined strata about two
miles west of Innes Plain ; (3) the preservation of large areas of Ter-
tiary basalt at low levels on the east of the Logan River and its absence
on the west of it. This faulting is believed to be connected with the
rather acute folding of the east flank of the anticline.”

118 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The writer has already made the suggestion that this so-called
anticlinal fold may be a Late Tertiary monoclinal fold (in this area
accompanied by faulting) superimposed upon the older gentle south-
west dips of the Walloon series. All three of the above points stressed
by Reid support this view, particularly his third point which is a
definite proof that the movement is post-volcanic, that is Late Tertiary.

Turning to the eastern side of Morton’s section, strongly marked
monoclinal folding (or folding and faulting) is indicated near the head
of Widgee Creek. Morton17 points out that the top of the Walloon
Series at the head of Widgee Creek is 700 feet to 800 feet higher than
the base of the basalt at Beaudesert. This represents an elevation
of upwards of 1,000 feet above sea level for the top of the Walloon
Series. In writing of this area he makes the following statement —
“ Immediately to the north-west of Widgee Mountain on the upper
portions of Widgee Creek and the Albert River is an inlier of sedi-
mentaries a few square miles in area, which have been folded. On
the road close to portions 127, 62, 127 and 203, Parish of Telemon, a
section can be seen showing basalts of different types with a
thickness of between 200 feet and 300 feet apparently tilted in
conformity with the underlying rocks at angles of from 45° to 60°
in a westerly direction. The overlying basalts of the middle division
in the hills close by show no sign of this movement and are therefore
assumed to have post-dated it.” Morton states further that “ the
age of this movement may on these observations be assigned to the
early Cainozoic immediately after the commencement of volcanicity.

If such a folding movement had taken place in south-eastern
Queensland in early Cainozoic times between the lower and middle
volcanic epochs, as Morton suggests, surely there would be a more
widespread evidence of it, but all published sections of the Tertiary
volcanic series show that all the members of the series are conformable
to one another. In discussing these occurrences at Mt. Widgee,
Bryan4 states that “ one is forced to the conclusion that the steep
dips of the Mt. Widgee basalts are the results of a movement of folding
or faulting later than the movement which folded the Mesozoic strata.”
The writer is of opinion that this feature is a monoclinal fold possibly
accompanied by normal faulting formed at the close of the Cainozoic
era at the time the present tablelands were being uplifted. It occurs
just where the topography suggests the existence of a tectonic scarp
and it is probably the southern continuation of the western scarp
of the Mt. Tambourine Horst. Morton’s section shows that the base
of the Volcanic Series at Mt. Widgee to the east of this scarp is at as
high an elevation at least as the top of the Volcanic Series to the west
of the scarp and the whole occurrence is simply explained as the result
of a differential uplift, the strata to the east of the scarp having been
elevated at least 1,000 feet more than those to the west of the scarp.

The writer would suggest, therefore, that the region between
the Mt. Maroon Tableland and Widgee Mountain is a typical rift
valley or senkungsfeld.

It is quite possible, however, that there is more than one line
of faulting (or faulting and folding) between Widgee Mountain and
Running Creek ; in travelling along the road from Beaudesert to Lara
Vale one gets the impression that the hills immediately to the east of
the road consist of a series of steep-faulted blocks ; this, however,
needs further investigation. This rift valley extends to the foot of

GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE MORETON DISTRICT, QUEENSLAND. 119

the McPherson Range but as a structural feature it does not stop
there but continues across the border into New South Wales, its surface
being interrupted here, however, by the east-west line of Tertiary
volcanoes whicli constitutes the McPherson Range. The railway
cuttings on both sides of the range show that the upper surface of the
Jurassic strata does not rise above an altitude of 400 feet. Corres-
ponding with this there is a well marked break in the crest of the
range itself known as the Richmond Gap. To the east of this gap
occur such high points as Mt. W'idgee (3,400 feet), Mt. Duringan
(3,500 feet) and the Mt. Roberts Plateau (2,850 feet), while to the w7est
of this gap lie the high peaks of Mt. Lindesay (4,064 feet), Mt. Barney
(4,300 feet) and Mt. Clunie (3,725 feet). This greater height of the
McPherson Range on both sides of the Richmond Gap is not due
entirely to the Volcanic Series having a greater thickness in the higher
regions but is, in part at least, due to the greater altitude to which
the underlying sedimentary formations rise both on the eastern and
western sides of the gap. Morton17 states that in the crest of the
McPherson Range at a distance of from 1J to 2J miles west of Mt.
Lindesay, Walloon sandstones occur at an elevation of 1,450 feet
to 1,850 feet above sea level, while Richards’21 and Morton’s sections
show that to the east of the gap the upper surface of the sedimentary
rocks rises to an altitude of at least 1,000 feet as compared with the
400 feet of the upper surface of these rocks in the Richmond Gap itself.
The physiography on the New South Wales side of the border from
the foot of the McPherson Range to Kyogle suggests the occurrence
there of a similar senkungsfeld to that which lies on its northern side.
It is this relatively low-lying region w7hich is drained by the upper Rich-
mond River where it cuts right in behind the watershed of the Tweed
River.

X. THE BIRNAM RANGE FAULT BLOCK.

This is a relatively small block with a length of about 13 miles
lying between the Beaudesert Senkungsfeld and the Mt. Tambourine
Horst. It has an approximate north-south trend ; its northern margin
is situated about two miles south of Logan Village and here its altitude
is 350 feet and its width about one mile ; at Mt. Dunsinane, some seven
miles to the south, the altitude has increased to 1,050 feet and the width
to about three miles. South from here the altitude gradually decreases
and about one mile south from Beaudesert it merges into the 300
feet level of the Beaudesert Senkungsfeld. The greater part of the
range, according to Marks15, consists of Walloon Series. From Mt.
Dunsinane to its southern margin the crest of the range is capped
with Tertiary basalts the base of which has a very definite tilt towards
the south. The western margin forms a well marked, moderately
steep scarp with a general north south trend ; along the line of this
scarp Marks15 has recorded a number of relatively steep dips ranging
from 12° to 30° whereas the dips just to the west of this line are all
low angle dips. There is some geological evidence, therefore, to
support the view that this scarp is a tectonic one due either to faulting
of to monoclinal folding. The eastern side of this fault-block displays
a much more gentle slope and has the appearance of being the “ back
slope ” of a tilted fault-block. The crest of this “ back slope ” is
near the western margin of the block, consequently most of the drainage
from it flows to the east to the Albert River, the latter lying in the
fault-angle between this easterly tilted block and the adjoining
Mt. Tambourine Horst. The Birnam Range thus appears to be a

120 PROCEEDINGS OE THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

tilted fault-block with its fault slope facing to the west and its back
slope tilted to the east. It is also mildly arched along its north-south
axis and it merges into the plain at both ends. As has already been
pointed out the tilt to the south of the southern part of this block is
accompanied by a similar southerly tilt of the base of the Tertiary
basalts.

XI* THE MT. TAMBOURINE HORST.

That part of the coastal highlands occurring to the south of the
Brisbane River will be referred to here as the Tambourine Horst, while
that lying to the north is known as the D’Aguilar Horst. These
two are separated by a low-lying area situated between the lower courses
of the Brisbane and Logan Rivers, which will be described later as
the Brisbane Gap. It is desirable that these two branches of the coastal
range should be described separately as they are really quite distinct
units.

The Tambourine Horst starts at the New South Wales border
where it is known as the Springbrook Tableland and forms part of
the McPherson Range. Here it has an altitude of about 3,500 feet ;
northwards it gradually decreases in altitude ; at Mt. Tamborine
itself, the altitude has fallen to 2,000 feet and followed still further
northwards the altitude gradually decreases to a few hundred feet
at the Logan River valley. This horst is for the most part covered
by thick flows of basalt. At its southern end in the Springbrook
Tableland these basalts, according to Richards21, have a thickness
of about 1,500 feet, but at Mt. Tambourine the basalts range up to
about 800 feet in thickness, being much thicker on the western side
of the tableland than on the eastern side

Fig.2

SKETCH SECTION FROM BEAUDESERT TO MT TAMBORINE LOOKOUT

Mt. Tamborine

North from Mt. Tambourine the basalts rapidly thin out and dis-
appear. Underlying the basalts throughout the greater part of the
tableland are the Brisbane Schist Series with some limited areas of
Ipswich Coal Measures and Bundamba beds. The tableland as a
whole has a length of about 40 miles, relatively narrow at its northern
end (4 to 5 miles wide) but gradually widening southwards, having its
greatest width where it joins the McPherson Range. It has a very
Tough topography throughout, the streams which drain it being
entrenched in deep narrow gorges.

Not only has the tableland itself a tilt from south to north but
the base of the volcanic rocks and the peneplain surface upon which
it rests has a similar south-north tilt. Immediately to the east of
the Mt. Tambourine Horst lies the low coastal plain still to be described,
while bounding it on the west is the low Birnam Range Fault-block
and the Beaudesert Senkungsfeld. The western scarp of this horst
is a very steep one and forms a very prominent feature.

GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE MORETON DISTRICT, QUEENSLAND. 121

At Mt. Tambourine trigonometrical station (altitude 1,801 feet)
there is a fall to the west of 1,500 feet in 1J miles. At this point the
Mesozoic strata extend up the face of the scarp to the base of the
basalts and display very steep dips to the westward. South of
Mundoolun the scarp appears to split into two branches, the eastern
branch following the course of Baddaddaba Creek, the western branch
following the course of the Albert River as shown in figure 2. On
the ridge between Canungra Valley and Baddaddaba Creek the base
of the basalt is at an altitude of about 1,000 feet.

On the ridge between the latter stream and the Albert River
the altitude of the base of the basalt is about 700 feet whereas in the
Mt. Birnam Range still further to the west the same feature has an
altitude of about 300 feet. The two branches of the fault would thus
have a combined throw of about 700 feet. These features could
of course be explained as being due to monoclinal folding but the topo-
graphy is more suggestive of faulting. In this connection the river
valleys afford some suggestive evidence. The Albert River for many
miles flows in a northerly direction in a wide mature valley, the valley
being a structural feature probably caused by the tilting of the Mt.
Birnam Fault-block towards the Mt. Tambourine Horst. This
structural valley continues northwards without any break to the
Logan River but the Albert River, instead of continuing its northern
course in this structural valley throughout, suddenly changes its course
in the neighbourhood of Plunkett railway station and enters a deep
gorge cut across the northern end of the Mt. Tamborine Horst
(which is here 900 feet in altitude) before joining the Logan River.
This gorge traverses the Brisbane Schists. The structural valley
which the Albert River has ignored to the north of Plunkett railway
station nowhere exceeds 150 feet in altitude above sea level and is
confined to the Jurassic strata, but instead of following this natural
course, the Albert River gives the appearance of having deliberately
avoided it. From these facts it is quite obvious that the Albert
River in the lower part of its course is a revived stream and that
during the elevation of the Mt. Tamborine Horst athwart its course
it maintained its original channel against the rising ground.

The fact that the Albert River leaves the so-called less resistent
Jurassic strata and a natural depression in order to cut a gorge through
the so-called more resistent strata of the Brisbane Schist Series, is
sufficient evidence that differential erosion cannot explain the facts.

The writer has had no opportunity of inspecting this scarp south
from Beaudesert and the published literature seems to afford no
information. The southern end of it at Mt. Widgee has already been
discussed in the description of the southern end of the Beaudesert
Senkungsfeld. With regard to the eastern scarp of the Mt. Tamborine
Horst there appears to be little doubt that it is also a fault-scarp
but it will be described when dealing with the coastal plain in the
nest section.

XII. THE COASTAL PLAIN.

A low-lying plain, usually termed the Coastal Plain, occurs
along the whole of the eastern margin of the Moreton district. At
its southern end this plain is quite narrow, being about two to three
miles in width. It gradually widens northwards and at Brisbane
the width is about six miles and this width is maintained northwards

122 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

to beyond the region now under consideration. The general altitude
of this coastal plain may be taken as 150 feet but considerable areas
are lower than this and much of it is not much more than 50 feet
above sea level.

The underlying formations consist partly of the Brisbane Schist
Series and partly of freshwater Triassic strata the Schists predominating
in the southern part of the area and the latter in the northern part.
At the Pine River the surface over about 25 square miles is occupied
by the Petrie Series of Lower Tertiary age. In places, particularly
for some miles immediately to the north and south of the Brisbane
River, the abovementioned strata are capped by horizontal sheets
of Tertiary basalts of no great thickness. These rest alike upon the
truncated ends of the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic strata and also upon
the Petrie Series. It is quite obvious from these facts that here, as
in other parts of the district already described, a peneplain had been
developed prior to the pouring out of the Tertiary basalts and that
here at sea level we have the same peneplain as that which occurs in
the adjoining Mt. Tamborine Horst at an altitude of 1,700 feet and
in the Darling Downs Tableland at an altitude of 2,000 feet.

The line of junction of this Coastal Plain vith the adjoining
coastal ranges (Mt. Tambourine Horst and D ’Aguilar Horst) is a
well marked scarp with a trend slightly west of north and both the
physiographical and the geological features suggest that this scarp
is a fault-scarp. This Coastal Plain cannot be ascribed to recent marine
erosion because it had already been developed prior to the pouring
out of the Tertiary basalts. For the same reason it cannot be
ascribed to differential sub -aerial erosion during the present .cycle.
Denmead6 has shown that the Brisbane Schist Series outcropping
in the southern part of the coastal plain belong to the Neranleigh
beds, the most resistent member of the whole series. As the
Neranleigh beds occur both in the Coastal Plain and in the adjoining
Mt. Tambourine Horst where they reach an altitude of 1,700 feet,
according to information supplied to me by Dr. W. H. Bryan, this
gives another argument against differential erosion.

The evidence from both the geological and physiographical side,
therefore, suggests that this eastern scarp of the Mt. Tamborine
Horst is a definite fault-scarp. Similar arguments apply to the scarp
further north where it separates the Coastal Plain from the D’Aguilar
Horst.

XIII. THE D’AGUILAR HORST.

The D’Aguilar Horst is an elevated region, rectangular in shape,
bounded on its eastern side by the low-lying Coastal Plain and on its
western side by the Lockyer River Senkungsfeld. Northwards it
extends to the Blackall Range and southwards to the Brisbane River.
Its width in an east-west direction is about 14 miles. That this region
might be a horst was first suggested by L. C. Ball2 who in referring
to the Hemmant-D’Aguilar fault and the West Moreton fault states :
“ These two faults define a horst that formerly extended from the south-
east corner of the State right across the Moreton district.” The
D’Aguilar Horst, however, is not a simple fault-block but consists
of a series of parallel fault blocks all trending N.N.W. as shown in
figure (3) which gives a diagramatic east- west section across it.

GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE MORETON DISTRICT, QUEENSLAND. 123

These separate fault blocks taken from east to west are as follows :

(1) The Taylor Range Fault Block — altitude 900 feet - 1,200 feet.

(2) The D’Aguilar Range Fault Block — altitude 1,350 feet - 2,200 feet.

(3) The Horse Mountain Fault Block — altitude 1,000 feet - 1,200 feet.

(4) The Pine Mountain Fault Block — altitude 700 feet - 900 feet.

The 'D’Aguilar Horst in its southern portion consists of the Bris-
bane Schist Series with their intrusive igneous rocks. Some of the
higher portions are capped over a limited area by Tertiary basalts
and rhyolites.

(1) The Taylor Range Fault Block. — This is a prominent
feature when looking north-west from Brisbane and appears as a
well-marked line of hills running parallel to the higher tableland lying
to the west of it. The eastern flowing coastal streams such as Enoggera
Creek, Cedar Creek, South Pine River and North Pine River, where
they flow across this block, have cut their channels down to base level
and have developed moderately wide flood plains and thus have
divided the block into a number of separate sections, ranging from
in altitude 950 feet to 1,250 feet, the block as a whole having a tilt
from north to south.

The eastern margin of this block presents a fairly straight steep
scarp wdth a definite N.N.W. trend and has every appearance of being
a fault-scarp. The Hemmant-D’Aguilar fault as described by Ball2 *
cannot have any relation to this scarp because, as pointed out by
Bryan4, it cuts right across the line of escarpment. The argument
in favour of this being a fault-scarp are given in the description of
the Coastal Plain.

Fig. 3

SKETCH SECTION ACROSS THE DAGUILAR HORST FROM THE UPPER BRISBANE RIVER

TO THE COASTAL PLAIN

(2) The D’Aguilar Fault Block. — This at its southern margin
has an altitude of about 1,350 feet. At Mt. Glorious the altitude
reaches 2,390 feet while still further to the north Mt. D’Aguilar has
an altitude of 2,444 feet. In this northern area the general altitude
appears to be about 2,200 feet. The block as a whole is well dis-
sected but some more or less flat topped areas still remain around
about Mt. Glorious and Mt. D’Aguilar and small parts of these are

capped by Tertiary basalts. This block forms the divide between

the westward flowing tributaries of the Upper Brisbane River and

124 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

the coastal streams but the amount of lowering of the divide that has
taken place is quite small. From the figures given above it will be
seen that the block has a definite tilt from north to south ; the width
at Mt. D’ Aguilar is about six miles. A well-marked scarp separates
it on its eastern side from the Taylors Range Block ; for example,
between Mt. Sampson and Mt. Kobble there is a drop of 1,000 feet
in little more than a mile, and a similar steep scarp exists on its western
side. Both of these are probably fault scarps but in the absence of
detailed geological surveys there is no geological proof of the faulting.

(3) The Horse Mountain Fault Block. — The writer has had
no opportunity of seeing this block except from a distance and its
probable existence has been determined mainly from the contours
given on the military contour map. It appears to have a general
elevation of from 1,000 feet to 1,200 feet and a width of from 5 to 6
miles. Near its southern end is Horse Mountain with an altitude
of 1,150 feet ; it is well developed between England Creek and Kipper
Creek and here Mt. England (1,002 feet) occurs on its western margin.
It appears also to be well developed to the north of Kipper Creek.

(4) The Pine Mountain Fault Block. — This is a narrow block
about one to two miles wide extending along the western margin
of the Mt. D’ Aguilar Horst with an altitude of from 750 feet to 900
feet. At its southern margin is Pine Mountain with an altitude of 750
feet while near its northern end is Varley*s Hill with an altitude of
914 feet. This block has been well dissected by the streams which
cross it from east to west and these streams have cut their channels
down to base level and developed well-marked flood plains where
they cross the block, so that it now appears as a row of isolated hills
as shown in Plate V., figure 1.

That the eastern margin of this block is a fault-scarp, there can
be no question. Dr. Dorothy Hill7 in her map of this region shows
a well-marked faulted junction between the Mesozoic Strata and the
Brisbane Schist Series ; this is known as the West Moreton fault.
The writer has plotted this fault on to the military contour map and
its position is found to coincide exactly with the foot of the scarp.
The existence of a fault at the foot of this scarp along its whole length
can be no mere coincidence. The question remains, however, as to
whether the scarp is a true fault-scarp or a fault-line scarp.

The position of the Brisbane River in relation to this scarp
affords some interesting evidence ; this river first comes into contact
with the scarp some two miles to the north of Northbrook and from
here southwards, except for a meander to the west at Northbrook,
it hugs the foot of the scarp for a distance of five miles. It then
makes a huge meander to the west at Lowood but here it turns north-
east, reaching the scarp at a point about two miles north of Fern vale
wThere it leaves the low-lying country which it had previously traversed,
cuts eastwards across the scarp and flows for about four miles in a
gorge cut in the Pine Mountain Fault- block. At Fairney View the
river again turns westwards across the scarp only to turn eastwards
again and entrench itself in the Pine Mountain Fault -block in which
it flows southwards for a further distance of four miles until it finally
turns eastwards along the southern margin of the D’Aguilar Horst.
It is quite obvious from these facts that the Brisbane River is a
rejuvenated stream and that its course is older than the fault scarp

GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE MORETON DISTRICT, QUEENSLAND. 125

and that as the scarp was produced during the uplift of the Pine
Mountain Fault-block, the stream maintained its course against the
rising block. It is quite possible that the West Moreton fault
originated as far back as Mesozoic times but it is considered that a
fresh movement took place along it in Late Tertiary times when the
present tablelands were uplifted and that the scarp is a true fault-
scarp. Had it been a fault-line scarp re-exposed during the present
cycle of erosion the Brisbane River would have kept its course in the
supposedly weaker Mesozoic strata and not have meandered backwards
and forwards across the line of faulting into the supposedly more
resistent Brisbane Schist Series.

The southern end of the D’Aguilar Horst is also marked by the
presence of a steep scarp ; that this is a fault scarp is suggested by
the physiographic evidence and has much geological support as
follows :

(а) At the foot of the scarp, as pointed out by Denmead5 6 * * * *, there
is a faulted junction between the Brisbane Schist Series and the
Mesozoic strata.

(б) Immediately to the south of the scarp lie the freshwater
Lower Tertiary strata of Redbank Plains and Cooper’s Plains capped
in places by horizontal sheets of Tertiary basalts now elevated but little
above sea level. To the south of this again lies the Mt. Flinders
Horst of Jurassic strata ranging up to 1,500 feet in altitude. Had
this part of the valley of the Brisbane River been produced by
differential erosion one would have to assume either that (1) the
Redbank Plains Series must have been at one time at least 1,500
feet thicker than they are now and that they had been eroded to their
present level before the overlying Tertiary basalts had been poured
out over them, or (2) that the Tertiary basalts overlying the fresh-
water beds were originally 1,500 feet in thickness and that the present
valley of the Brisbane River had been cut out of these basalts. There
is nothing to warrant the adoption of either of the assumptions.

The topography of the D ’Aguilar Horst is of such a youthful
character that one does not need to go further back than the beginning
of the Pleistocene period to account for its development.

(5) The Stanley River (?) Rift Valley. — Followed north-
wards the D’Aguilar Horst exhibits a well marked physiographic

break at the valley of the Stanley River. This stream rises at the
southern end of the Blackall Range (a probable northerly extension

of the D’Aguilar Horst) and only about 12 miles from the sea coast,

but instead of taking the shorter easterly route to the sea it flows
in a general south-west direction to join the Upper Brisbane River
near Esk. This is the only important tributary which the Brisbane

River receives on its left bank. For the first half of its course the
Stanley River flows over an extensive and mature erosion surface
cut alike out of Palaeozoic granites and Mesozoic strata ; this erosion
level has an altitude of about 600 feet and has been described by
Jensen11 as the “Woodford Peneplain. “ Its eastern margin is a
direct continuation of the eastern margin of the D’Aguilar Horst

and presents a steep scarp to the Coastal Plain ; this scarp has a
remarkably even sky line along its whole length with an altitude of

about 600 feet.

126 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The Stanley River along its lower course, that is from Kilcoy
to its junction with the Brisbane River, follows fairly closely a well-
marked line of faulting which separates Mesozoic strata from the Bris-
bane Schist Series. This fault, which is considered by Morton8 to
be a northern continuation of the West Moreton fault, runs parallel
to and close to the foot of the Toogoolawah Horst which bounds the
valley of the Stanley River on its north-western side. At one place,
called The Gorge, the Stanley River is actually entrenched for a
distance of several miles in the granites of the Toogoolawah Horst
itself, showing that it is a rejuvenated stream. The above facts all
seem to indicate that part at least of the region drained by the
Stanley River has had a tectonic origin ; much more field work, how-
ever, will be necessary before this view can be definitely affirmed.
At its western end this low-lying region joins the Lockyer River
Senkungsfeld, being separated from it only by the Brisbane River.

(6) The Toogoolawah Horst. — This is a high region upwards of
2,000 feet in altitude lying between the converging courses of the Upper
Brisbane and Stanley Rivers. Its western margin is in perfect
alignment with the western margin of the D’Aguilar Horst and it may
be looked upon as being a northern continuation of the latter but
separated from it by the valley of the Stanley River just described.
Dr. Dorothy Hill’s description8 of the geology shows this horst to
consist of strata of the Lower Esk Series capped on its higher levels
by outliers of the Upper Esk Series as shown in fig. 5. It has very
steep slopes both on its eastern and western sides and at the foot of
each of these slopes there is a well-marked line of faulting. The
West Moreton fault which, as pointed out previously, follows the foot
of the western scarp of the D’Aguilar Horst apparently branches at a
point somewhere near Bellevue.

F‘9 *

SKETCH SECTION ACROSS UPPER BRISBANE RIVER RIFT VALLEY
AND THE TOOGOOLAWAH HORST

The eastern branch, as shown by Dr. Hill’s map, trends almost
due north along the eastern foot of the Toogoolawah Horst. Dr.
Hill does not show on her map any fault along the western margin
of this horst but her map gives abundant evidence of the existence
there of a fault. Along this suggested line of faulting Dr. Hill shows
the Upper Esk Series to be dipping steeply to the east against the
Lower Esk Series of the adjoining high block as shown in fig. 4. It
is quite possible that there is more than one fault as the details given
on Dr. Hill’s map suggest the possibility of at least two parallel
faults. It will be convenient to call this the Toogoolawah Fault
and it is suggested that it is probably a branch of the West Moreton
fault. There is therefore very strong evidence that the great western
scarp of the Toogoolawah Range is a typical fault-scarp and that the
range itself is a typical horst.

GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE MORETON DISTRICT, QUEENSLAND. 127

XIV. THE UPPER BRISBANE RIFT VALLEY.

This is a narrow low-lying region with a general altitude of about
400 feet, situated immediately to the west of the Toogoolawah Horst.
It extends from the town of Esk northwards to at least as far as Avoca
Vale and is traversed throughout its length by the Upper Brisbane
River ; its general trend is N.N.W. and its length in this direction
is upwards of 30 miles ; its width appears to be from 4 to 6 miles.
The geology of this region has been described in some detail by Dr.
Dorothy Hill8 who shows it to consist of strata belonging to the Upper
Esk Series lying in a faulted trough bounded on the east by the
Toogoolawah Mountains and on the west by a relatively high table-
land of Palaeozoic strata. As this tableland appears to have no definite
name the author suggests that it be called the Yarraman Tableland
from the town of that name situated on its surface.

The Toogoolawah Range, as has already been pointed out, is a
typical horst with a strongly marked fault separating it from the
Brisbane River valley. Dr. Hill has shown that this latter feature
has also a wrell- marked line of faulting along its western margin
separating it from the Yarraman Tableland. There is ample geological
evidence, therefore, in support of the view that the valley of the
Brisbane River from Esk to Avoca Vale is a typical rift- valley separated
from the highlands on either side by faulting. The highlands to the
east have an elevation of upwards of 2,000 feet, those to the west of
upwards of 1,200 feet.

XV. THE BRISBANE GAP.

It will be seen from the descriptions already given that although
the D’Aguilar Horst and the Tambourine Horst occupy similar
positions with respect to the Coastal Plain, they are separated from
one another by a very definite break which lies a few miles to the
south of the town of Brisbane ; it will be convenient to call this break
in the coastal highlands, the Brisbane Gap.

In this Gap the country is elevated but little above sea level
and its surface to the east merges into the low-lying Coastal Plains
and to the west into the Beaudesert Senkungsfeld. It has a width
in a north-south direction of from 8 to 10 miles and it is interesting
to note that it occurs where the general north-south direction of the
Tambourine Horst changes to the N.N.W. direction of the D’Aguilar
Horst. In this Gap the surface strata consist mainly of Ipswich beds
but with a moderately broad belt of Brisbane Schists outcropping
along both its northern and southern margins.

It has already been shown that the D’Aguiliar Horst ends
abruptly along its southern margin in a fault-scarp and this scarp
forms part of the northern margin of the area now under consideration.
Along its southern margin is the warped surface of the Tambourine
Horst and there may actually be a line of east-west faulting here as
suggested by Denmead6. These two features suggest that this Gap
has had a tectonic origin and this suggestion is supported by the
following additional facts : —

> (a) The Tambourine Horst and the D’Aguilar Horst each consists

of a continuous belt of Brisbane Schist which to-day almost completely
separate the outcrops of the Mesozoic formations of the Coastal Plain
from those of the interior, the only place where these latter extend

128 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

across the line of the coastal ranges being in the Brisbane Gap. That
Mesozoic strata at one time did extend across both of the above-
mentioned horsts seems quite probable but if so they had been removed
from these areas by denudation during the cycle (or cycles) of erosion
which preceded the present one, certainly prior to the time when
the Tertiary basalts were poured out. That Mesozoic strata still
remain in the Gap is due to the fact that this region persistently lagged
behind during the elevation (or elevations) which produced the
D’ Aguilar and Tambourine Horsts.

(6) A thick series of Tertiary freshwater beds occur in the
western part of the Gap and not far south from the foot of the southern
fault-scarp of the D’Aguilar Bange. Their occurrence here gives
further evidence that this region persistently lagged behind, in fact
actually subsided during a part of Tertiary time.

(c) There occur also in this low-lying region several areas of
horizontal Tertiary basalts which in places rest upon the above-
mentioned Tertiary freshwater beds. Dr. W. H. Bryan has informed
me that his study of the soils derived from these basalts suggests a
considerable geological age for them.

( d ) The main drainage channels of the district, namely the Bris-
bane and Logan Rivers, do not flow through the lowest part of the Gap
as one would expect if this feature had resulted entirely from erosional
activities. Instead, the former is entrenched in the Brisbane Schist
along the northern margin of the Gap, while the Logan River traverses
its southern margin where its channel is entrenched in the Brisbane
Schists in the toe of the Tambourine Horst. The Gap itself is drained
by a short unimportant coastal stream called Tingalpa Creek.

Along the northern margin of the Gap there occur several isolated
hills rising notably above their surroundings, such as Mt. Gravatt
(650 feet), Mt. Petrie (553 feet) and Pine Mountain (500 feet). These
hills all consist of some of the more resistent members of the Brisbane
Schist Series and are probably residuals of an older tableland out of
which the great Tertiary peneplain had been eroded. Mt. Cotton
(762 feet) in the southern part of the area probably had a similar
origin.

XVI. THE ROSEWOOD BLUFF HORST.

This is a relatively narrow elevated block extending from the
north-eastern margin of the Lockyer Fault-block in an E.N.E. direction
towards the western foot of the D’Aguilar Horst. At its western
margin its elevation is upwards of 1,100 feet, but eastwards the altitude
gradually decreases to 300 feet at its eastern margin near Marburg
and from here this 300 feet level continues to the foot of the D’Aguilar
Horst. The underlying strata are according to Reid20 of Jurassic
age and belonging mainly to the Walloon Series. These are capped
in places by Tertiary basalts ranging from 100 feet to 400 feet thick.
The base of the basalt has an easterly tilt corresponding to that of
the horst itself. On both its northern and southern margins there are
moderately steep scarps which appear to be fault-scarps, the southern
one facing towards the low-lying Fassifern Senkungsfeld, the northern
one facing towards the low-lying Lockyer River Senkungsfeld. Most
of the drainage from this block flows north-north-eastwards to join
the Brisbane River.

GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE MORETON DISTRICT, QUEENSLAND. 129

XVII. THE LOCKYER RIVER SENKUNGSFELD.

This is a low-lying region lying to the north of the Rosewood
Bluff Horst and has a general elevation of from 300 feet to 400 feet.
It is rectangular in shape with its longer axis trending in an E.N.E.
direction. It has a length of about 30 miles and a width of from
8 to 10 miles. It is entirely surrounded by higher earth blocks. Along
its eastern margin lies the D’Aguilar Horst, to the south lies the Rose-
wood Bluff Horst and the Lockyer Fault-block, to the west lies the
Darling Downs Tableland, while to the north lies the Yarraman
Tableland.

The underlying strata, according to Reid18, belong mainly to the
Bundamba Series. The surface of this region displays throughout
a thoroughly mature topography which extends almost to the foot
of the Main Divide and this topography is essentially similar to that
already described for the Beaudesert and Fassifern Senkungsf elder.

The change in elevation from this low-lying region to its higher
neighbours is everywhere abrupt and no spurs run out from these
higher blocks on to the lower surface. Its eastern margin is bounded
by the western fault-scarp of the D’Aguilar Horst previously des-
cribed. Along its western margin extends the Mt. Paradise fault
referred to in describing the Mt. Lockyer Fault-block. The fault-
scarp which must have existed here at one time has now been com-
pletely broken down by the denudation of the Lockyer River and its
tributaries during the present cycle of erosion with the result that
both the scarp and the Main Divide have migrated westwards to an
extent of at least 3 to 4 miles. The scarp forming the boundary
between this region and the tableland to the north has not been
visited but from a distance has every appearance of being a fault-scarp.

It is considered, therefore, that this region owes its low elevation
to the fact that during the movement which elevated the surrounding
tablelands this region lagged behind and that its origin, therefore,
is primarily a tectonic one. The question should be considered as to
whether this low-lying region could be explained as having resulted
from normal river erosion during the present cycle. Its features as
compared with ordinary river valleys are quite abnormal and there
is nothing in the geological structure to indicate differential erosion
in relatively weak strata ; the highlands both to the south and west
consist of similar Jurassic strata and this same formation also occurs
in the southern margin of the tableland bounding it on the north ;
it is only the highlands to the east (D’Aguilar Horst) that have a
different geological structure and evidence has already been given
that the scarp here is a fault-scarp.

THE YARRAMAN TABLELAND.

This occupies the north-west portion of the Moreton District
and lies between the Darling Downs Tableland and the Upper Brisbane
Rift-valley. The writer has had no opportunity of visiting this part
of the district and the literature with regard to it is very scanty.
Along its eastern margin occurs the fault-scarp referred to in the des-
cription of the Upper Brisbane Rift-valley and where the railway
line ascends this scarp between Linville and Benarkin the ascent
is a fairly abrupt one to an altitude of about 1,400 feet. The Darling
Downs Tableland to the west has an altitude of about 2,000 feet and

130 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

as to whether the junction between the two tablelands is a line of
faulting or of warping, the writer is unable to say. It is quite possible
however, that the Mt. Paradise fault, which further to the south marks
the eastern margin of the Darling Downs Tableland, may continue
into this region either as a fault or as a monoclinal fold.

The Yarraman Tableland is drained by a series of parallel streams
(Cooyar Creek, Emu Creek, Cressbrook Creek, etc.) which rise in the
Main Divide and flow in a north-easterly direction to join the Brisbane
River ; this suggests that the Tableland may have a tilt in a north-
east direction and that the streams are consequent streams.

SUMMARY.

The West Moreton District throughout the Jurassic period was
covered by a fresh water lake (Lake Walloon). At the close of the
period an uplift took place followed by one or more cycles of erosion
which by the middle of Tertiary time had produced an extensive
peneplain throughout the whole of the area. Then followed an epoch
of vulcanism which covered much of the region with lava flows and
tuffs of very variable thickness, and this was followed by a minor
cycle of erosion which continued until the end of the Cainozoic era.
It was this last cycle of erosion which produced the “ Upland Valleys ”
which still exist in places on the surface of some parts of the table-
land ; volcanic activity continued during a part of this cycle. Then
followed an epeirogenic movement of uplift (Koscuisko Epoch) which
produced the existing tablelands. This uplift was a differential one
and resulted in the production of a series of earth blocks some of which
were elevated to produce tablelands and horsts while other blocks
lagged behind and now form relatively depressed regions or senkungs-
felder. The higher blocks are bounded by tectonic scarps, the result
either of normal faulting or monoclinal folding or both. Since the
uplift the more elevated regions have been more or less maturely
dissected by weathering and stream action but they still retain, to a
considerable extent, their original features.

A study of the drainage systems shows that most if not all of the
principal rivers are rejuvenated streams which must have had their
main channels determined in a large part, before the Koscuisko
uplift. The geomorphology of the region as a whole is similar in all
its essential features to those of the tableland regions of New~ South
Wales and Victoria and affords further evidence in favour of E. C.
Andrews’ theory of the geographic unity of Eastern Australia.

Since the above paper went to press Dr. E. 0. Marks has drawn
my attention to the fact that to the south and south-west of
Tambourine in the valleys of the Coomera and Canungra Rivers there
are developments of Tertiary basalts at levels hundreds of feet below
the base of the volcanic rocks as shown in Dr. H. C. Richards’ section
quoted in my paper. My intention was to show that along the line
of this section the surface of the older rocks covered by the Tertiary
volcanic rocks is reasonably even and that this surface represents
a peneplain ; no peneplain ever has, however, an absolutely flat sur-
face. I endeavoured to show that this peneplain surface had a tilt
from south to north ; it may also have a tilt in an east or west direction.
It is quite possible also that both step-faulting and trough-faulting
have occurred within the Tambourine Horst itself and if so this would
account for variations in the level of the base of the volcanic rocks.

Proc. Roy. Soc.. Q’ld., Vol. XLIV.

Plate V.

Fig. 1.

The western margin of the D’Aguilar Horst, as seen from
Lowood showing the dissected Pine Mt. Fault-Block with the
higher D’Aguilar Horst in the background.

Fig. 2.

Surface of the Lockyer River Senkungsfeld from Mt. Tarampa
and looking N.W. towards Benarkin Tableland.

GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE MORETQN DISTRICT, QUEENSLAND. 131

I have already pointed out the probable existence of step-faulting
along the western margin of this horst. All these points, however,
can only be settled in the future by a detailed survey of the whole
region.

REFERENCES.

1.

Andrews, E. C.

Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia in late and
Post-Tertiary Times. Proc. Royal Society of N.S.W.,
Vol. XLIV, 1910.

2.

Ball, L. C

Notes on a Great Fault System in the East Moreton
District, Queensland Govt. Mining Journal, 1916, p. 169.

3.

Bryan, W. H.

Geology and Petrology of The Enoggera Granite. Proc.
Royal Society Queensland, Vol. XXVI, 1914.

4.

do.

Earth Movements in Queensland. Proc. Royal Society
Queensland, Vol. XXXVII, 1925.

5.

do.

Handbook Brisbane Meeting A.A.A.S., 1930.

6.

Denmead, A. K.

A Survey of The Brisbane Schists. Proc. Royal Society
Queensland, Vol. XXXIX, 1928, p. 77.

7.

Hill, Dr. Dorothy

The Stratigraphical Relationship of the Shales about
Esk to the Sediments of the Ipswich Basin. Proc.
Royal Society Queensland, Vol. XLI, 1930, p. 162.

8.

do.

The Development of the Esk Series between Esk and
Linville. Proc. Royal Society Queensland, XLII,
1930, p. 28.

9.

Jensen, H. I. . .

Notes on the Geology of Mt. Flinders and Fassifern
Districts Queensland. Proc. Linnean Society of N.S.W.,
Vol. XXXIV, pt. 1. 1909.

10.

do.

The Building of Eastern Australia. Proc. Royal
Society of Queensland, Vol. XXIII. pt. II., 1911, p. 18.

11.

do.

Geology of The East Moreton and Wide Bay Districts.
Proc. Linnean Society of N.S.W, 1906.

12.

Jones, A. 0.

The Tertiary Deposits of The Moreton District, South
east Queensland. Proc. Royal Society Queensland,
Vol. XXXVII, 1926, p. 23.

13.

Marks, E. 0. . .

Notes on the Geological Ages of the Volcanic Activity
of South-east Queensland. Proc. Royal Society of

Queensland, Vol. XXIII, 1911.

14.

do.

The Physiographical Significance and Non Migration
of Divides. Proc. Roy. Socy. Queensland, Vol. XLII,
1930.

15.

do.

The South East Moreton Coal Measures.

16.

do.

Streams and their Past. The Queensland Naturalist,
Vol. VI, No. 2, 1927, p. 4.

17.

Morton, C. C. . .

South Moreton Geology. Queensland Govt. Mining
Jour. Vol. XXIV, July, 1923, p. 244.

18.

Reid, J. H

Coal Measures of West Moreton Queensland. Queens-
land Govt. Mining Jour. Vol. XXIII, Dec. 1922, p. 462.

19.

do.

Petroleum Prospects in The Beaudesert District.
Queensland Govt. Mining Journal 1922, p. 432.

20.

do.

Geology of The Walloon-Roseville Coalfield.

21.

Richards, H. C.

The Volcanic Rocks of S.E. Queensland. Proc. Roy.
Soc. Queensland, Vol. XXVII, 1916.

22.

Wearne, R. A. and
Woolnough, W. G.

Notes on the Geology of West Moreton. Jour. Roy.
Soc. of N.S.W., Vol. XLV., 1911.

132

Vol. XLIV., No. 9.

Some Observations on the Physiography of the Brisbane
River and Neighbouring Watersheds-

By E. O. Marks, B.E., M.D.

(One Map.)

( Read before the Royal Society of Queensland , 28 th November , 1932).

The writing of these notes is occasioned by the recent visit of Mr.
C. A. Snssmilch, the pleasure of whose company in the field and whose
lecture before the Boyal Society of Queensland were of such stimulating
interest that the publication of his views is keenly awaited. Knowing
that, approaching the subject from a different angle, his views are not
likely to be identical, and feeling that it is desirable that all aspects
should be considered at the same time, the writer has endeavoured
to put together observations which are in themselves scattered and
incomplete.

Differential Erosion.

As is usual elsewhere differential erosion appears to be the most
important factor in the development of land forms within the area
considered. It is the factor which has to be excluded, and which
is usually difficult to exclude, in regard to all suggestions of relative
movement.

The rock formations are very varied and vary in themselves in
resistance to weathering. The basement rocks, the Brisbane Schist
Series, vary from soft phyllites to hard massive greywackes and
quartzites, the granitic rocks from more acid to more basic types,
from coarser to finer grain, with accompanying change in land form.
The mesozoic shales, both of the Ipswich Series and Walloon Series
are interspersed with varying proportions of more durable sandstone
and even the extensive sandstone of the Bundamba Series varies greatly
in character and resistance. While the Cainozoic strata are soft the
variability of the volcanic rocks is very marked.

Though differential weathering is the major factor, perhaps the
only important factor, in the sculpturing of the land into the form
in which we now know it, we must be careful not to credit to it what
may have been due to relative movement. Because an area is hilly
we are not entitled to argue that the rocks are resistant, though that
is the most probable explanation.

Fixity of Divides.

In physiographical literature the migration of divides under the
influence of denudation is usually accepted as having an important
part in the development of the drainage systems either directly or
by river-captures.

In a previous paper the writer questioned this widely accepted
view and gave evidence for concluding that the process takes place

OBSERVATIONS ON THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF BRISBANE RIVER. 133

only to a minor extent and in unusual circumstances. Having
appealed in vain to various authorities for some definite logical
evidence in favour of the migration hypothesis it is necessary to
accept the conclusions previously arrived at from field observations,
and realise that so far as denudational effects are concerned divides
may be regarded as stationary.

River Courses and Drainage Areas.

This general fixity of the divides gives to them a much greater
significance in physiographical interpretation than they are usually
accorded.

Observations on the streams indicate with equal clearness the
fixity also of their courses apart from the trivial effect of meanders.
This is the generally accepted view, except for questions of river-capture
which depend on the misconception that divides migrate, and in any
case have never seriously been claimed in this area.

The fixity of the divides and of the streams means that these
are the most permanent, the most important and probably the oldest
features of the landscape. Their positions must have been determined
by tectonic movements, lava flows, or a combination of these with the
pre-existing irregularities of the surface, and are independent of any
present elevation which may depend largely on subsequent erosion.

In considering the physiography of an area we have thus two
aspects to deal with : —

1. The positions of the streams and divides.

2. The present land forms, elevation, etc., in conjunction with
the solid geology.

While the former, because of the action of denudation, necessarily
affects the latter, the present land form may have little similarity
to the surface on which the streams originated.

Streams and Divides of the Area.

In a general way the streams arrange themselves into fairly well-
defined groups, a grouping due presumably to some common tectonic
origin.

Let us consider the main Brisbane River first as being the main
drain into which the others, or most of them, empty. It turns and
twists in large irregular meanders, “ entrenched ” in the harder
ground, meanders that have no suggestion of that swinging to and fro
in wider and wider curves that gives rise to true meanders in an
alluvial plain. No doubt there has been some cutting away of the
concave bank, but the irregularity and the frequent straight reaches
show some other control than oscillation. Indeed the straightest
part of the river is its estuary.

From near Ipswich to the sea there are few large tributaries
but above this, with the confluence of the Bremer, the basin opens
out like a fan. From its source to near Ipswich the main stream is
remarkable in meandering about a straight N.N.W.-S.S.E. line. This
is in line with, and to the south coincides with the great fault to the
west of Ipswich. Dr. Hill has shown that the Upper Brisbane lies
in a geological trough with this axis. Leaving this axis the general
course of the river turns eastwards, skirting the edge of the Brisbane

134 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Schists. The wide meanders, however, both along the line of fault
and after leaving the fault, seem to take the river quite impartially
into the hilly schist country or the less hilly mesozoic strata. The
great fault for some distance forms the boundary of the schists, but
east of this line the boundary is not a faulted one though in some
places perhaps it may be determined by some of the numerous faults
known to have affected the Ipswich coalfield.

Tributaries of the Upper Brisbane. — With the exception of the
Stanley the larger tributaries are all on the western side. They run
courses north-east to join the main stream at right angles. They
rise in the Main Divide and mostly run considerable distances at an
elevation comparable with the streams on the western or Darling Downs
side of the divide. Northward of the Brisbane watershed, the head-
waters of Barambah Creek and the Stuart Biver are parallel, have a
similar elevation, and head in the same line of divide but are part
of the Burnett River watershed. They are plainly part of the same
group of streams.

The Main Divide, at least North-West from Crow’s Nest, is very
straight although it varies in elevation from 2,000 to 3,600 feet, and
has been extensively denuded as is shown at the Bunya Mountains.
This line is nearly parallel to the axis of the Upper Brisbane and the
streams on its western fall run regular courses away from it at right-
angles. It seems difficult to avoid the conclusion that the divide
was a tectonic ridge or anticline on the N.E. side of which the water
flowed into the roughly parallel depression, be it trough or syncline,
deep or shallow, now occupied by the Brisbane River.

The drainage down the slope was not quite regular, and there
is a suggestion of a minor N.W.-S.E. ridge a few miles N.E. of Crow’s
Nest. On the other side of the river the smaller tributaries also come
in at right angles representing perhaps the other side of the trough
or syncline. While Cooyar, Emu, Anduramba and Maronghi Creeks
each show the characteristic N.E. direction of the group, Buaraba
Creek the next large stream to the south does not show this. The
Lockyer, however, into which it runs, also shows the regular N.E.
direction from near Gatton, and if we take Flagstone Creek as the
main head, the course is regular from the source in the Main Divide
to the junction with the Brisbane. Throughout practically the whole
of its course the Lockyer is in a widely alluviated valley from the
foot of the Main Range escarpment. Apart from Buaraba Creek all
its tributaries worth mentioning are on the southern side, and with
them there is a merging of the drainage arrangement into another
quite distinct group.

These branches on the right or southern side of the Lockyer
rise in the Main Divide and mostly traverse deep valleys with flat
alluvial bottoms, valleys separated by remnants of the basaltic table-
land, as has been shown so well by Mr. Reid. At Toowoomba the
divide is on the scarp overlooking the low Lockyer drainage, and there
is no range of hills as approached from the Darling Downs side. The
appearance of the scarp is very suggestive of being eaten back by the
steep eastern drainage, an appearance supported by the map. It is
difficult to determine actually how much migration there has been,
and one must remember that the appearance would be much the same
in the field if the divide be stationary or migrating. There is nothing
to indicate a migration of more than three or four miles, if so much.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF BRISBANE RIVER. 135

Southward the divide is a range of hills as approached from the west,
a range increasing in altitude. At the head of Heifer Creek (of the
eastern drainage), about 20 miles from Toowoomba the stream gradient
and the ridge at its head forming the divide are much the same as on
the western side of the ridge, showing that migration is not taking
place there. This is also indicated by Ma Ma and Flagstone Creeks
heading in the same line, an occurrence which would be extremely
improbable if they were independently eating back the divide. South
of the Toowoomba region there is not the least suggestion of migration,
while north of it the divide not being on the edge of the high ground
there is not even any theoretical reason for it.

Ma Ma, Blackfellow and Laidley Creeks run northerly courses
to join the Lockyer. On its eastern side Laidley Creek is separated
from the Bremer by the Little Liverpool Range, which is not so high
or important looking as the similar range separating Laidley from
Blackfellow’s Creeks. Indeed part of this was called Mount Mistake
because it was originally thought to be the Main Range, and not merely
a spur off it. To the east the Bremer is separated by a low divide
(from which rises the Mount Walker residual) from its tributary Warril
Creek, and this from the Teviot Brook of the Logan watershed.

These streams, Ma Ma, Blackfellow’s and Laidley Creeks of the
Lockyer drainage, the Bremer and its tributary Warril Creek, and Teviot
Brook of the Logan waters form our second group of streams having
much in common. They have fairly regular, more or less parallel courses,
diverging slightly so that a north direction becomes a north-east
in the Teviot. Four of these streams head in the vicinity of Mount
Castle which is on a spur slightly in front of the Main Range at a node
where this changes its direction from N.W. to a more westerly direction,
and is joined by the Little Liverpool and Mount Mistake Ranges.
From Mount Castle the Main Divide runs for 20 miles south-easterly
to Wilson’s Peak where the Macpherson Range joins it. For the first
12 or 15 miles it is very straight and stands up as a bold escarpment,
the very picture of a fault scarp, over the low Fassifern district, the
peaks being about 4,000 and the gaps 2,000 feet above the sea, but the
elevation not affecting the position of the divide. This part of the
range will be referred to again later in reference to the question of
faulting. From it the drainage runs at right-angles on the western
side but at an angle of about 60° on the eastern side.

Running eastwards from Wilson’s Peak, the Macpherson Range
at first has an irregular course but later keeps a pretty regular
direction which is not deviated from in association with the very great
variations in elevation. The main streams from it run north, later
trending eastwards. The upper part of the Logan has a series of
streams joining it from the western side which form another small
but fairly distinct group, of which the lower part of the Teviot Brook
seems to be part, before the Teviot joins the Logan and the Logan
itself takes a north-easterly trend. There is conveyed from its
general direction on the map an impression that the Teviot should
have been regarded as the main stream, though it has not so large a
drainage area.

Only near the Macpherson Range are there any tributaries on
the east side of the Logan, and these, Running and Christmas Creeks,
are the first two of another well-marked group rising in the basaltic
plateau of the Lamington National Park and Springbrook, and running

136 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

nearly parallel as between neighbouring streams, but slightly
divergent courses. Some still have part of their courses on the plateau
but are mostly sunk in deep valleys separated by remnants of the
plateau, until reaching the open country. The summation of the
slight divergences of a dozen streams rising within a distance of 20
miles on the northern side of the Macpherson Range converts a
western direction of Running Creek to a north-east in Currumbin Creek.

Some of them unite before reaching the sea, but many run long
and closely parallel courses before uniting. Their courses seem to have
no association with the present height of the intervening divides.
For instance, the Canungra and Coomera run closely parallel courses,
deep sunk in narrow gorges which later widen out somewhat but are
separated by the high basalt-covered remnant of the plateau. Near
Canungra there is quite a low gap at the south end of Tambourine
Mountain. The Canungra, diverging a little westwards, emerges into
the wide open country to join the Albert to the west of the mountain
while the Coomera instead of going through the low gap has cut its
way in the gorge which separates Beech Mountain from Tambourine,
both about 1,800 feet in elevation, and enters the sea independently.

Somewhat similarly the Albert, in wide open sandstone country
is, near Plunkett, separated from the Logan by a very low divide,
but enters a narrow valley in high schist hills before finally uniting.
The Logan, again, is separated from Oxley Creek and the Brisbane
watershed by a very low divide, but passes through comparatively
hilly schist country before joining the Albert and entering the sea.

It was suggested by Richards that the long, finger-like processes
of basalt separating the streams in their upper courses had originated
as flows down pre-existing valleys and that the valleys had since
developed in the softer rocks between. A consideration of Back
Creek, for instance, which runs for some miles on the top of Beech
Mountain parallel to and between the Nerang and Coomera Rivers
(both at low level), before Back Creek itself drops into a deep gorge
and continues the same course at the lower level, leaves no doubt
that the streams must have originated on the surface of the basalt
and have merely cut down their gorges into the rocks below.

From near Ipswich to Moreton Bay, and running northwards
into the river and the bay we find a not very well defined group of
streams, none of them important or rising in any well-defined line.
This, our fifth group, seems on the west to merge with Purga Creek
into the second group, to which Warril Creek its next neighbour
belongs. The group includes Bundamba, Woogaroo, Oxley, Bulimba,
Tingalpa and Eprapah Creeks. Oxley, the longest, in its upper part
has a north-east direction suggesting some consonance with the Logan
in this vicinity, it being separated only by a low divide. A curious
feature of the upper part of the Oxley is that, owing to some change
in the conditions, the main stream has aggraded its bed, damming
the branch valleys into shallow lagoons.

To the north of Brisbane we find a sixth group of streams,
particularly well-defined and quite distinct from any of the rest of the
drainage. It consists of the numerous short streams running easterly
courses to the sea and rising in one very regular divide. This group
may be said to begin in the south with Moggil and Breakfast Creeks
(which join the Brisbane) and includes Kedron Brook, the North and

OBSERVATIONS ON THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF BRISBANE RIVER. 137

South Pine Rivers, Burpengary Creek, Caboolture and so on up to the
Maroochy River. Beyond this the drainage is on quite a different
pattern.

North from Landsborough the divide has a western fall into the
Mary River waters, south from this it falls into the Stanley and other
eastern tributaries of the Upper Brisbane. This Blackall-D’ Aguilar
divide runs in a very regular direction, its very minor irregularities
having no relationship with its elevation which is very varied. Near
the highest point, Mount Glorious, the direction changes from north-
south to south-easterly as if here it had come under the influence of
the movements which determined the position of the Upper Brisbane.
This very regular divide, heading such a distinct series of streams,
plainly signifies a tectonic origin though it has no apparent relation-
ship with the solid geology or with faulting. It may have been the
crest of an anticline, or monocline with a slope to the east. The
western fall has not the regular drainage away from it which
characterises the eastern fall.

The only remaining streams to be considered are the Stanley
River and its tributaries. This basin seems to form a system of its
own, having nothing in common with the coastal streams and very
little in common with the Upper Brisbane.

Whatever may be the significance we thus find that the streams
of this part of Queensland fall into seven distinct groups, in addition
to the main Brisbane River. We have seen that the Upper Brisbane,
in a geological fault trough, meanders about a remarkably straight
axial line evidently determined by the faulting or by some subsequent
movement along the same line of weakness. That it was not determined
by the difference in resistance of the rocks of which the faulting has
determined the outcrop is shown by the indifference with which the
river meanders into the harder or softer country. The lower Brisbane
similarly meanders across the boundary of the schists and later rocks,
suggesting a similar determining cause for its position. This boundary
however is not a faulted one except perhaps for local faults, so this
explanation does not hold, whatever may be the true one.

While the Brisbane River is thus seen to have a definite associa-
tion with the geological structure in its general course (until perhaps
in the vicinity of the city itself), in its meanders it shows a complete
disregard of structure. All the other streams, whether in their general
courses or details seem to show also a complete disregard for the geo-
logical structure, be it folding or faulting or the hardness
of the rocks. Geological boundaries seem to have no significance
for them. This singular disregard for structure is nowhere better
shown than by the Stanley meandering into its gorge at Mount
Brisbane when a similar meander in the opposite direction would
have avoided the obstruction or by Reynold’s Creek cutting through
the trachyte mass of Mount Edwards rather than make a small
deviation round it.

With the exception of those streams in our first group which
rises in the Main Divide north of Toowoomba and have courses at
considerable elevation, and of the streams still on top of the basaltic
plateau, all the streams are well graded to near their sources, the larger
rivers having a very low gradient.

138 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Like the streams, the divides seem also to exhibit a complete
disregard for geological structure, unless it be in relation to the edges
of basaltic or volcanic plateaus, a relationship which probably indicates
that the position of the divide has determined, through denudation,
the edge of the plateau. The positions of the divides seem quite
uninfluenced either by the elevation or the rocks traversed.

Surface Relief.

Having referred to the main features in the drainage distribution
we may consider those. comparatively ephemeral features, the relative
elevations. In contrast to our experience with the drainage system
which must have been determined by tectonic movements, volcanic
effusions, or a combination of these with the pre-existing surface,
and which we found to have little or no relationship to the solid geology
apart from the basaltic plateaus, we find a nearly constant association
between the elevation and the resistant nature of the rocks. With
some few exceptions, this relationship of elevation and the solid
geolog}^ is not with the structure but merely with the component rock.
To interpret the present elevations and what movements they may
signify, we have therefore to be very careful to exclude the effects
of differential weathering over an area which has suffered thousands
of feet of denudation. Until this is done, other reasoning is vitiated.

Main Divide. — To the west of our area we have the high lands
of the Darling Downs, forming at Toowoomba a scarp of some 2,000
feet. In the region of our survey, right from Wilson’s Peak to the
Bunya Mountains, the Main Divide is on volcanic rocks — almost
entirely basalts. North from Toowoomba the divide ceases to be on
the edge of the scarp, the high ground extending to the east and
breaking away more gradually to the upper Brisbane valley. The
high ground continues northwards into the Burnett watershed from
which it is not separated by any marked dividing range.

South of Toowoomba, as already mentioned, the divide becomes
a range of mountains, whether approached from east or west. The
western aspect of these shows as “ juvenile ” a topography as does
the eastern fall if one allows for the fact that the base level of the
western flowing streams is in the region of 2,000 feet and the east
is 500 feet.

To the south of Mount Castle the divide reaches elevations of
4,000 feet (Mount Superbus is 4,493) and looks out over the low
Fassifern district which has numerous trachitic and other volcanic
residuals rising from it, up to over 4,000 feet in the case of Mount Barney,
and over 3,000 in Mount Maroon. Mount Lindesay, on the Macpher-
son Range about midway between the Main Range and the plateau
of the National Park which approaches 4,000 feet, is also over 4,000
feet. The mesozoic strata forming the top of the range a little to the
west of Mount Lindesay have elevations of from 1,450 to 1,850 feet
as observed by Morton.

Mtm Flinders Area. — Between the Fassifern and the Beaudesert
districts, both consisting mainly of the Walloon strata, but containing
also extensive developments of volcanic rocks, there is a range of
sandstone hills rising up to 1,500 feet at Mount Joyce. These are on
an anticline which has brought up the Bundamba Sandstone, the
division stratigraphically next below the Walloon Series. This belt
of high sandstone country extends north to the trachyte peak of Mount

OBSERVATIONS ON THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF BRISBANE RIVER. 139

Flinders (2,223 feet) and to the vicinity of Ipswich and Bundamba,
where it gives place to the Ipswich Measures on a lower stratigraphic
horizon. The Teviot Brook runs across this anticline from the
comparatively open Fassifern district through the hills to join the Logan
in the Beaudesert district.

As we travel north the western limb of the anticline steepens
until it becomes the great fault which passes immediately to the west
of Ipswich, separating the Ipswich from the Walloon strata, and
continues northward as already referred to in relation to the course
of the Upper Brisbane. It is very noticeable at Ipswich how the
Bremer with its tributaries Warril and Purga Creeks have wide valleys
with extensive alluvial flats, but immediately the fault is crossed the
valley is narrow. The Lockyer also has a very wide valley with
extensive, alluvium much wider than that of the Brisbane which it
joins and which is situated more or less on the fault line.

The different character of the valleys of these streams when they
meet this line suggests some comparatively recent relative move-
ment along the line, for the Ipswich Measures are not particularly
resistant where the Bremer passes into them though forming hilly
country up to 250 feet, while the wide alluvium west of the fault
suggests some retardation in the drainage. The Bundamba sand-
stone is often a very resistant rock and differential denudation could
account for the hills of the anticline as compared with the Beaudesert
and Fassifern districts. For instance there are sandstone hills in
the Birnam Range north of Beaudesert up to 800 feet and this is not
on the anticline. Further, the geological structure shows that a very
great thickness of sandstone has been denuded away from the top of
the anticline. However, allowing as we must that differential
denudation could account for all, and almost certainly does account
for the greater part of the difference in elevation, there remains a strong
suspicion that part may be directly due to a comparatively recent
relative movement, so slow as not to disturb the Teviot.

National Parle- Tambourine Mountain. — Attaining its greatest
elevation, nearly 4,000 feet, at the border, where it falls away in
precipices on the New South Wales side the basaltic plateau extends
northwards to Tambourine (1,800 feet), though dissected by the streams
into long finger-like projections and isolated fragments. It has plainly
all been part of the one plateau. As there is a thickness of some
800 feet of basalt at its northmost point and along the western side of
Tambourine, it is certain that the area covered by basalt was formerly
much more extensive. On the eastern side the main plateau is
separated from the smaller Springbrook by the valley of Nerang River
with a low gap of not more than 1,000 feet at its head. On the western
side, wdiere overlying the mesozoic sediments the plateau remnants
stand up in bold precipices.

Southern Schist Area. — At Tambourine Mountain the country
on the eastern side is composed of hard greywackes which form
ranges up to only a few hundred feet less than Tambourine itself.
Now the contrast between the mountain and the wide valley of the
Canungra and Albert on its western side is clearly the result of
differential weathering for we see the same contrast on either side
of the Canungra further up its course, and in various other streams
running on sandstone between basalt capped remnants of the plateau,
the only difference being that there is basalt capping on one side of

140 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

the valley only. Further, this contrast in elevation cannot be due
to relative movement for the basalt is not faulted down on the lower
side. If now we consider that the basalt covers, at an elevation of
1,000 feet or more, sandstones, rhyolite and greywackes, and that its
upper surface is more or less level, we must realise that the relative
elevation of the greywacke and the sandstone where not covered by
basalt must necessarily also be due to differential denudation and
cannot be due to any differential movement.

The greywackes form part of the Brisbane Schist Series of which
there is a large area extending from the border at Point Danger
nearly to Brisbane. There is great variation in the nature of the con-
tained rocks, some of which as near Tambourine Mountain are very
resistant and form mountainous or hilly country. On the whole there
is a marked contrast between the schist country and the mesozoic
rocks. That this definitely is due to differential denudation and not
to relative movement is proved by Tambourine Mountain.

North of the Logan River some of the schist is sandy and weathers
into country not very dissimilar to that occupied by sandstone in the
vicinity. Near Brisbane is a narrow neck of mesozoic (Ipswich) strata
connecting the inland area with that extending along the coast. North
of this narrow neck the schists occur again, forming the hills in and
about Brisbane and the block of the D’Aguilar Range.

D ’ Aguilar Block. — This D’Aguilar Block consists of hilly or moun-
tainous country, some 15 miles wide with elevations reaching up to
2,400 feet. It includes several granitic intrusions. These are mostly
deeply weathered, and they form, or tend to form areas of mild relief,
miniature peneplains surrounded by a sea of schist hills. Of these
the Samford Basin, some six miles by four, with an elevation of 200
to 300 feet and surrounded by hills of from 600 to 1,800 feet in elevation,
is probably the best example.

On Mount Glorious, almost the highest point of the range, there
is a small area of basalt.

Further north is Mount Mee, a tableland of schist 1,500 feet in
elevation with some basalt on it. It is about 12 miles long and several
miles wide. Mounts Byron and Archer appear to be outlying remnants
of the same tableland. North again, across the Stanley valley at
Woodford the Belthorpe Range, a southern or south-western extension
of the Blackall Range tableland suggests that these were part of the
same tableland, now separated by the Stanley. On its eastern side
at least the Blackall Range is of basalt capping mesozoic strata, the
junction with the more ancient rocks passing under the basalt. With
the western side of the tableland I am not acquainted.

The Blackall Range, Mount Mee, Mount Archer and Mount
Byron, all about the same level, the two former several miles in length
and breadth, appear to be parts of one formerly continuous plateau.
Whether this was a plain of sub -aerial or marine denudation there
is nothing to show. Part being schist and part basalt would suggest
that it was formed after the basalt flow.

At Mount Glorious the D’Aguilar divide is not so narrow as else-
where, though it can hardly be called a tableland. This greater width
however, and especially the presence of basalt is suggestive of it also
being a remnant of the old land surface which has been raised higher
than Mount Mee. If we look at the summits of the D’Aguilar Range

, OBSERVATIONS ON THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OE BRISBANE RIVER. 141

from certain parts of the southern suburbs of Brisbane we see what
appear to be various flat topped mountains all coming up to the same
plane which descends to earth so to speak at the observer’s eye. The
impression conveyed that they were all part of the same old pene-
plain is very striking. The summits are not really flat, but more or
less horizontal ridges, giving the mountains totally different appear-
ances as seen from different directions. The suggestion that they
represent the old land surface, inclined downwards towards the south
is very attractive, but numerous difficulties appear when we examine
into it, and accentuate the caution required in interpreting such visual
impressions.

The mountain tops are mostly narrow ridges, more or less hori-
zontal. Physically it is not difficult to understand remnants of a plateau
remaining, not yet dissected. It is however very hard to picture the
plateau being dissected to a long narrow ridge, the crest of the ridge
still representing the old land surface, while all the rest had been
denuded away. While no doubt it is possible, it seems unlikely. Now
there is a marked tendency in the schist country for the formation of
long leading spurs to the higher points and long horizontal ridges
where not leading up to anything. These are plainly the result of some
physical control and occur between the higher mountains, as well as
elsewhere, in places where they could, as well as where they could not,
be interpreted as old denudational levels. The higher mountains
may well be something of the same sort on a higher scale.

It is so easy to see in the landscape old surface levels, like
seeing pictures in the fire, and so difficult to remove or disprove the
impression once our minds are biassed to the idea, that we need to
be extremely cautious. Nevertheless one has the feeling, not strictly
justified, that some of the higher points like Mount O’Beilly and Mount
Nebo represent something near the old land surface, in addition to
Mount Glorious.

This does not however in any way imply that there has been a
differential movement such as block-faulting between the higher
ground of the schist block and the lower mesozoic strata around it.
We have seen how the schist hills near Tambourine Mountain definitely
cannot be due to differential movement and one must look for the same
indications in the similar if more extensive D’Aguilar Block. When
we do, we find it with equal plainness. As mentioned, there are
several areas of deep- weathered granitic rocks within the schist block.
The Samford Basin, a miniature peneplain surrounded by schist hills,
as well as the other smaller areas, obviously owe their low level and
low relief to their weathering character as compared with the moun-
tainous country surrounding them. If these enclosed areas have
weathered thus to a low level we must realise that the soft mesozoic
strata outside the schist area would do the same.

If we go further north to the Stanley, which crosses the schist
block in a fully graded valley, flanked by high ground of 1,500 feet
or more, we find the river at Woodford on an area of the deeply
weathered granite while further up it is on mesozoic sandstones. On
both these the relief is very low, and the river has wide alluvial flats.
It is separated by the low escarpment of the D’Aguilar divide (it is
hardly a range here), from similar country of low relief on the coastal
side.

142 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Jensen thought that the Woodford area represented an elevated
Tertiary peneplain, but he could not have been familiar with the similar
granite areas entirely surrounded by mountains.

The low escarpment between the two fully graded drainage
systems is a divide scarp, such as W. M. Davis has pointed out
would result through the longer stream having a higher local base
level than the shorter. Actually from the low escarpment rises the
trachyte plug, Beerwah, the highest (1,700 feet) of the Glasshouse
Mountains, the remainder of which rise from the lower coastal plain.
This escarpment is the low part of the D’Aguilar divide plainly lowered
at least 1,000 feet by differential weathering and forming almost
the ideal natural experiment in differential migration.

After leaving the Woodford “peneplain” and traversing the
schist block, the Stanley, near Kilcoy, gets on to tilted strata, of the
Esk Series (Lower Triassic) which have been intruded at Mount
Brisbane by granitic rocks. Here, as previously mentioned, the Stanley
meanders into a gorge through the upstanding harder rock, which a
similar meander in the opposite direction would have avoided. It
is evident that the Stanley must have lowered its bed from an eleva-
tion higher than the lower side of the gorge (about 1,000 feet) and prob-
ably higher than the higher side, Mount Brisbane, 2,300 feet. The
low divide escarpment has an elevation about 500 feet so that the
Stanley Gorge is further evidence, were it needed, that the low level
is due to denudation. Had it been due to any tectonic lowering of
the Woodford “ peneplain ” the water would necessarily have made
exit over the low divide. A similar difficulty would occur on Jensen’s
idea of it being a raised peneplain lifted from near sea level.

Evidence of Peneplanation.

Having referred now to the drainage systems and the land-form
in a very imperfect and scattered manner because of the imperfect
and scattered nature of the observations of an area which should
have close, consistent and continuous study, we may consider whether
we are in a position to make any general interpretations therefrom.
Our first attention must be as to the existence or otherwise of the
Tertiary peneplain and its “ Kosciusko Uplift ” which seem to form
almost part of the creed of our southern neighbours. In giving this
our attention we must keep our minds quite clear as to whether
the peneplain was the surface on which the volcanic rocks were
poured out or whether it was a surface reduced by denudation subse-
quent to the volcanic extrusions. If the latter, was it after the first,
second or third of the divisions into which Richards has classified them ,
he regarding them as being of Lower, Middle and Upper Cainozoie
age respectively.

Andrews, the author of the peneplain hypothesis, thought it was
late Tertiary. If that is correct, and Richards is correct, the pene-
planation must have occurred at least subsequent to the extrusion
of the second division. This of course profoundly affects our enquiry
for it would at once put out of count any evidence from the base
levels of the lower basalt flows. Such evidence might be of value
in relation to questions of block-faulting as showing that the faulting
had not taken place, but on the other hand the occurrence at different
levels would not necessarily mean faulting, for it might have been due
to an uneven surface.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF BRISBANE RIVER. 143

We have further the difficulty of deciding in any particular place
as to whether the basalt is of the first or the third division. We know
that both the first and second division rocks suffered movement as
well as denudation prior to the effusion of the third division, for Morton
has recorded basalt flows at Widgee Creek tilted with the mesozoic
strata, while at Christmas Creek there is a rock mainly of pyroclastic
materials both rhyolitic and basaltic, containing some waterworn
pebbles, which in one place has a vertical dip. Morton pointed out
that the upper parts of the basalt of the plateau did not seem to have
been affected by the disturbance.

If we regard the surface on which the third division was poured
out as being the peneplain, we must remember that according to
Richards a common thickness of the third division was 2,000 feet.
Remembering this, we can realise that the topography before that
great effusion could have little in common with the present topo-
graphy in which the remnants of that effusion play so large a part.
Add to this both Reid’s and Morton’s opinions that the surface on which
the basalts flowed (presumably the first division) was very uneven
and it will be appreciated how unsatisfactory the position is, and how
impossible, on the present information, to make any claim of evidence
for a peneplain at any stage.

We do not know at what period sedimentation ceased and
denudation began or to what extent denudation and the movements
indicated by the faulting and folding of the strata were concurrent.
We know that some movements went on after some of the vulcanicity
and after the formation of the tertiary sediments near Ipswich and
Brisbane, involving the basalt associated therewith while there is a
flow, apparently of the same basalt, on the denuded outcrop of the
great West Ipswich Fault. The basalt associated with these tertiary
sediments has been met in boring at a depth of 800 feet below
sea level at Bundamba and Wellington Point !

The physiographical history as well as the present topography
over great part of the area we are dealing with, is so inextricably
mixed up with the volcanic phenomena that it is necessary to deal
with the problem they present at some length. The more we know
of them the more complicated do they become. Very varied views
have been held as to their age or ages both by different
writers and even by the same writers. Both R. A. Wearne and

the present writer followed Rands and Jack in regarding part at least
of the vulcanicity as contemporaneous with the mesozoic strata.
Gregory, Skertchly, Jensen and Andrews regarded them all as of
Tertiary age (excluding the Brisbane Tuff underlying the Ipswich
Measures and certain rocks north of the area we are dealing with which
Jensen regarded as mesozoic). Richards in 1916 made a more exten-
sive and connected examination than any of the previous writers
and came to the conclusion that excepting the Brisbane Tuff all the
volcanic rocks are of Tertiary age and none mesozoic. He showed
three divisions in the volcanic rocks, an upper and lower basaltic, and
an intermediate acid or sub-acid.

Since that time work in the Esk district has shown contempor-
aneous andesitic and trachytic rocks in the Lower Esk Series though
both Richards and Miss Hill disagree with Reid and Morton in regard
to other trachytes in the district which the latter consider to be
mesozoic and the former consider to be Tertiary.

144 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Since Richards wrote his paper we have also become aware of
pebbles of igneous rocks in the mesozoic sandstone at Caloundra and
in what is probably mesozoic sandstone at Deception Bay. These
serve to show with what caution the question of the age of any par-
ticular rock must be approached and there seems little doubt that
much further work is needed before the relationship of the various
igneous rocks to one another and to the mesozoic sediments is fully
understood.

For instance Richards’ section through Tambourine Mountain
does not convey the correct relationship of the rhyolite to the schist
and sandstone, between which it occurs in a belt running apparently
also under the basalt of Beechmont and across the Nerang Valley
to Springbrook, all three rocks occurring in the river beds as well as
high up the mountain sides, and all three capped by basalt. It is
hoped that further work will elucidate this relationship at present
unintelligible.

In their present topographic aspect, as was pointed out by the
writer in 1910, there is a great distinction between the basalts forming
the cappings of mountains and that associated with the Cainozoic
sediments near Ipswich and Brisbane and fringing Moreton Bay.
Though in certain localities this forms low hills it mostly is at a low
level with higher mesozoic rocks in the vicinity. As mentioned,
bores have shown it to extend 800 feet below sea level in two places.
A bore at Nundah in a valley surrounded on three sides by hills of
mesozoic strata, passed through 40 feet of it down to about 70 feet
below sea level. At Manly it surrounds on three sides hills of mesozoic
strata as if it had flooded around them. To the writer this seems
to indicate a very much more recent age than those rocks which have
weathered up into mountains showing denudation of thousands of feet.

On the other hand the tertiary sediments with which these low
lying basalts are associated do not give the impression of being
particularly recent and the faulting they have been subjected to in
places does not show itself in the present topography. They are
however very soft and would be rapidly denuded. The occurrence
of these tertiary beds, their level and distribution also have a serious
bearing on the question of the peneplain, as they have on its elevation
or otherwise.

From Bundamba to Oxley they are near the present course of
the Brisbane River, and occurring elsewhere mostly in low ground
and along the margin of Moreton Bay, suggest having had some associa-
tion with a drainage which may not have been vastly different from
the present though certainly not closely identical with the present
course of the river. There is a considerable difficulty in regard to
the significance of the great depth, 800 feet, below sea level which the
bores at Bundamba and Wellington Point have demonstrated. There
is no geological reason to suppose that these areas are faulted sunken
blocks which have resulted in the preservation of these strata, formerly
more extensive. They may have been sunken areas subsequently
filled in by sedimentation, or they may have been valleys in an extremely
youthful topography. If the latter is the explanation we must bear in
mind that the deep valley at Bundamba is separated from the Welling-

OBSERVATIONS ON THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF BRISBANE RIVER. 145

ton Point occurrence by the older rocks. The position is far from clear
and their relationship in time to the other volcanic rocks also requires
clarifying. Lithologically the sediments do not suggest derivation
from the denudation of basaltic areas.

Whatever may eventually be shown as to the occurrence of these
areas of Tertiary sediments and as to their age, and the distribution
of the associated doleritic basalt, the present knowledge of them does
not accord with the peneplain hypothesis.

Supposed Tertiary Uplift.

The question of the supposed “ Kosciusko ” uplift or any other
general uplift whether with or without previous peneplanation
naturally comes into consideration with these Tertiary sediments
for very plainly they have not been affected by any uplift but have
been actually depressed.

In dealing with the question of uplift, before we can regard
any area as having been raised we must know what the previous level
was. We know that the area now occupied by mesozoic rocks was
a fresh-water basin undergoing sedimentation at least into the Jurassic
period. There are no Cretaceous strata, such as occur in Western
Queensland, or to the north in the Maryborough district. Being
an inland basin we do not know at what level the basin was, but the
probability is that it was not far from sea level. Nor do we know
when the change took place from sedimentation to denudation.

What we do know from the geological structure is that there has
been an enormous amount of denudation of the mesozoic sediments
amounting to several thousands of feet in those parts where the lower
beds are now exposed. We also know from the volcanic rocks, par-
ticularly the trachyte plugs which are generally accepted as being
the pipes or cores of former volcanoes, that several thousands of feet
of surrounding strata or volcanic debris have been denuded away
even from above the Jurassic strata now exposed. That there has
been uplift to expose these rocks to denudation is abundantly clear,
apart from the improbability of their being deposited in an elevated
basin. That of course applies to any sediments now above sea level.
What we do not know is to what extent denudation may have been
taking place in some part of our area while sedimentation was in pro-
gress elsewhere, nor to what extent in post-Jurassic time denudation
was concurrent with the earth movements indicated now by the faulting
and folding of the strata. That is to say that while we may reasonably
presume that the sediments having now the highest elevation were
raised at least to that amount, we do not know how much higher
at any time their surface had been — that would depend on the rate
of denudation compared with the rate of movement, which may or
may not have been very slow.

Volcanic rocks such as constitute a large part of the greater
elevations are themselves no indication of elevation as they may have
been extruded on the surface at any leveh

146 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The greatest heights at which sedimentary rocks occur are of
the following order : —

Brisbane Schists in the D’Aguilar Range 2,400 feet.

,, ,, near Tambourine Mt. 1,600 ,,

Carboniferous — Mt. Barney . . . . 2,000 ,,

Mesozoic

Tambourine Moi~cain

1,000 „

Mesozoic near

Mount Lindesay
Wilson’s Peak

1,850 feet

,, near

2,200 „

??

Ma Ma

1,700 „

99

Mount Joyce

1,500 „

99

Mount Hallen

1,270 „

Crow’s Nest . .

2,400 „

Apart from the general question of uplift and the period at which
it occurred some writers have maintained that a relative movement
or block faulting occurred which has left its mark on the present
topography in the Main Range in the region of Cunningham’s Gap.
This view was first put forward by Wearne and Woolnough in 1911
who considered there had been a peneplain in Cainozoic times which
suffered two distinct faulting movements, the first of 2,000 feet and
the second of 2,700 feet. The first resulted in the Lockyer Block
and the second produced the Fassifern Block. The Main Range at
Cunningham’s Gap was held to be a fault-scarp, a view with which
Richards expressed general agreement and seems to have been widely
accepted until Reid examined the solid geology of the district and
disagreed entirely with the evidence of any serious block-faulting.
His view was based largely on the levels of the bases of the lava flows,
particularly in the part which Wearne had termed the Lockyer Block.
His sections seem incontrovertible, and this part not having the
marked appearance of faulting, it is doubtful if any one now would
maintain its existence. Reid’s evidence in regard to Cunningham’s
Gap region seems to the writer equally inescapable, but here there
is the picture-book appearance of a fault-scarp and many physio-
graphers seem inclined to believe the appearance rather than the
evidence of solid geology provided by Reid, evidence which one would
have otherwise expected to render further discussion unnecessary.
It is therefore necessary to refer to it to make the position clear for the
purpose of this paper. The Main Range here forms a bold escarp-
ment, on the very edge of which the divide is situated. It runs at
elevations of 4,000 feet and more on the peaks and 2,000 feet or more
in the gaps, looking out over the low Fassifern district of about 500
feet. Above a certain height the Main Range is composed of basalt
and other volcanic rocks. Below that are the Mesozoic strata, mainly
sandstone, which also constitute largely the Fassifern district. There
are also extensive occurrences of basic volcanic rocks in the lower
country as well as numerous upstanding trachytic plugs of which
Mount Edwards and Mount Greville are good examples and occur
only a few miles in front of the escarpment.

Over the sandstone in the Main Range there is a thickness of
some 3,000 feet of volcanic rock. Reid pointed out that quite apart
from not being able in the field to find any section showing the fault
it was clear that the volcanic rocks had not been faulted down
for the sandstones underlying them are exposed on the eastern or
downthrow side of the alleged fault. This is of course a simple problem
in stratigraphical geology of which the elementary test has always
been the ability to draw an intelligible section. We must also remember

OBSERVATIONS ON THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF BRISBANE RIVER. 147

that the fault-scarp alleged is of the order of 3,000 feet. It is not a
little curious that Richards who in his text agreed with the faulting
hypothesis published a section which does not show the fault. It is
plainly necessary for anyone upholding the hypothesis to draw a
section showing what has happened to the 3,000 feet of volcanic
material on the eastern side of the 3,000 feet fault.

In addition to this very definite geological evidence against the
fault interpretation there is also physiographical evidence, little less
definite. Reynolds Creek, rising in the Main Range runs a very con-
sistent course throughout its journey to join Warril Creek and the
Bremer River. After about 12 miles in moderately hilly country
it comes to Mount Edwards, a trachyte mass situated right in its path.
This it cuts through in a narrow gorge. So little effect does a trachyte
mountain 2,300 feet high have on the course of the creek that one
could not pick out the position of the gorge on a map which did not
indicate the mountain.

It is plain that the mountain is a residual and owes its present
contrast with the surrounding country to differential weathering
for it could scarcely be seriously suggested that it was thrust up through
the strata so slowly as not to divert the creek. It is I think accepted
that these trachyte plugs were the cores, if not the pipes of some sort
of volcano, and we know that the hard trachyte is very resistant to
weathering. Whether as a volcano, or as subsequently denuded,
we can quite confidently say that the trachyte would not form a valley,
but a prominence. Yet we know that when Reynolds Creek started
its career it must have started in a depression of some sort. For it
to have started its regular course in the position it has it is clear that
the trachyte, be it volcano or core, must have been covered by some
subsequent deposit. We are not aware of any sedimentary deposits
that could have done this, but we do know that basalts cover the acidic
rocks in the Main Range and other places. If physiographic reasoning
has any value, we are in a position to say with considerable confidence
that Reynolds Creek started its career on the top of the basalt flows,
which extended (as would be expected from their thickness) much
further east than their present limit. As denudation proceeded the
trachyte became exposed.

The present level of Mount Edwards is comparable with that of
the gaps in the Main Range. Reynolds Creek has certainly lowered
itself by this amount, and probably much more, merely by denudation,
so that faulting would require that originally Reynolds Creek was
higher than the present western drainage by at least the amount of
the fault.

The most important evidence put forward by its advocates in
favour of the fault hypothesis has been the appearance of the scarp
and the air gaps. In regard to the first, if we follow the range to the
south towards Wilson’s Peak there are high mountains to the east of
it, and the appearance is very much less like faulting than ordinary
denudational effects. Indeed we get mountains approaching or
exceeding 4,000 feet east to the National Park. If we follow the Main
Range north we find Mount Castle standing out somewhat in front
of the line. From this on everyone seems to have regarded the Little
Liverpool Range as the continuation of the scarp, but to the west of

148 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

it, separated by the narrow Laidley Creek valley, Mount Mistake
tableland is much higher than the Little Liverpool and from the east
looks as if it is the Main Range, for which it was at one time mistaken.

From Mount Mistake one looks across the narrow ridge of the
Little Liverpool and sees further out a similar but much lower divide
from which rises the Mount Walker residual and which also radiates
from Mount Castle. They give the impression of being, and are most
simply interpreted as the result of different stages of denudation.

Certainly the alleged fault-scarp is straight, but other causes
than faulting can produce a straight scarp, and one of these is a
straight divide. When as in the present case the streams on one side
have a much lower base level than on the other, a level below the base
of the volcanic rocks there is not wanting a physical reason for the
great difference in the amount of denudation on the two sides of the
divide.

Besides the appearance of a scarp, the “ air gaps ” have greatly
influenced physiographers in favour of the fault hypothesis. Text
book descriptions of air gaps with inferences as to former stream
courses through them seem part of the orthodox physiographical
teaching and appear to have influenced the physiographers so that
they have not really discussed these particular gaps on their own
merits. One would not of course suggest that air gaps are not often
disused river valleys, but there are other explanations possible in many
cases as in the present instance.

We have a series of parallel streams flowing westward from the
edge of the divide scarp. These have cut down their valleys leaving
high ridges between them, ridges which run up to the scarp and around
the heads of the valleys. As denudation progresses the ridges also
get lowered, according to the slope of the valley sides and the branch
gullies joining from the sides of the intervening ridges. The slope
depends on the depth to which the stream is cut and this on the power
of the stream. In other words the depth to which the valley is cut
depends on the area draining into the stream at that point and on the
nature of the rock. The area depends again on the width of the valley.

These factors must decide whether the intervening ridges or the
ridge round the head of the stream, that is the main divide, will first
be lowered and the extent of the difference. When we remember
that the main divide in this instance is such a high escarpment on the
other side of it the reduction of the divide into “ gaps 55 at the heads
of some of the streams is only what would be expected. There does
not seem to be the slightest ground for “ postulating ” a former river.

Coastal Movements.

In the coastal part of the area we get some evidence of changes
in elevation relative to the sea. Moreton and Stradbroke Islands,
consisting almost entirely of wonderful ranges of sand dunes, up to
900 feet in height, only have a bearing on the question by virtue of
the few small occurrences of solid rock, at Cape Moreton, Dunwich,
Point Lookout and Canaipa. These with the other islands inside the
Bay indicate that Moreton Bay is the result of a drowning of a former
valley. The great distance from their mouths to which the tidal
waters extends also suggests a sinking. The Bremer, for instance,
is tidal at Ipswich some 60 miles by water from the sea, and the

OBSERVATIONS ON THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF BRISBANE RIVER. 149

foundations of the new bridge in Brisbane showed rock bottom to be
about 100 feet below water level. This would hardly be expected
in the ordinary development of a river out of solid rock, whatever
might happen in alluvium.

A well-marked terrace occurs along most of the stream suggesting
that the most recent movement has been a slight uplift, of about
20 feet. One would however have expected this to show up around
the shores of the Bay in the form of wave-cut platforms. Not doing
so, the meaning of the terraces must still remain in doubt.

Conclusions.

These observations are inadequate to piece together into any sort
of connected story what seems to have been a very complicated
physiographical history. We may however summarise the little that
is ascertainable while hoping that further work will elucidate more.

The present drainage system, or the present “ cycle ” of erosion
appears to have originated, at least in the south, west and north-east
on the surface of basaltic flows which probably covered the greater
part of the area. This surface may have been a peneplain, reduced
thereto by denudation, or it may have been a lava plain, the latter
being the more probable. That it was probably a fairly even surface
is shown by the regularity of the streams in maintaining their general
directions in certain groups away from the divides. Whether this
regularity of the streams and divides is due to volcanic action or to
subsequent tectonic warping is not clear but the latter seems more
likely in the Main Range and in the D’Aguilar Range is almost certain

In the southern and western part of the area there is no evidence
at all of the alleged Tertiary peneplain, in fact any evidence we have
is against its existence.

The Blackall Range and Mount Mee appear to be remnants of a
peneplain formed after the lava flow. Mount Glorious and other
summits of the D’Aguilar Range may also be remnants of the same
old land surface, raised to different elevations. The age and former
extension of this is quite unknown, or the elevation at which it was
formed and the reason for its survival. Much information is
required before any opinion can be formed.

The D’Aguilar-Blackall divide formed the axis of an anticlinal
or monoclinal warp down the eastern slope of which a well-marked
group of streams resulted.

The upper Brisbane River appears to have had its course deter-
mined by a new movement along an old fault line, for it is the depres-
sion into which the streams flow at right angles from the straight
ridge on the basalt forming the Main Divide.

The lower Brisbane also seems to have had some relationship
with the structural geology, namely the boundary of the schists and
Ipswich formations. The nature of it is not clear and may be a mere
coincidence.

All the other streams and the divides seem to have no relation-
ship to the pre- volcanic geology.

150 PROCEEDINGS OE THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Differential denudation is very marked throughout the area
and entirely over-rides any suggestions of relative movement except
of a minor nature. It accounts for, or can account for, all the major
differences. The alleged block-faulting at the Main Range is
definitely discounted.

That elevation has taken place is indicated by the present heights
at which sedimentary rocks are found. There is nothing to indicate
what the height was at any time in the complicated history of faulting,
folding, vulcanism and denudation prior to the effusion of the upper
basalts, nor indication of subsequent elevation for that reason.

On the other hand there has been a depression at least in the
coastal region, apart from the significance (not yet clearly under-
stood) of the occurrence of basalts in two bores to a depth of 800 feet
below sea level.

In trying to collect together in one purview the results of incom-
plete and scattered observations and ideas, full and free use has been
made of previous publications other than those referred to in the text.

The writer desires to thank Professor H. C. Richards and Dr.
W. H. Bryan for their interest and suggested modifications.

■"C7

i

t

K,

Vol. XLTV., No. 10.

151

Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora.

Part V. — Eriostemon glasshousiensis.

By T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I.

( Tabled before the Royal Society of Queensland , 28 th November , 1932).

Eriostemon glasshousiensis is a small rutaceous shrub growing*
on some of the higher parts of the Glasshouse Mountains, South-
eastern Queensland, and so far has not been collected in any other
locality. Though first collected many years ago by F. M. Bailey
it was not referred to by him in his Queensland Flora as it was included
there under the widely distributed and rather variable E. myopo-
roides DC.

It was first described by the Czecho- Slovakian botanist Dr. K.
Domin in his general work on the flora and plant geography of Aus-
tralia in the Bibliotheca Botanica Vol. 89, Part III., page 840 (1926).
It has sessile, oblong or oblong-lanceolate, rather thick leaves averaging
about 5 cm. long and 8 cm. broad. The flowers are borne singly
in the axil on peduncles about 5 mm. long. The flowers themselves
are about 1 cm. in diameter.

Of previously described Australian species it comes closest to
E. intermedins Hook., a species found in Queensland in the neighbour-
hood of Stanthorpe.

A small plant collected and transferred to the author’s garden
in Brisbane has during two years grown exceedingly well, and com-
pares very favourably with shrubs growing in the more favoured
spots on the Glasshouse Mountains.

Owing to the somewhat limited distribution of the plant and its
general inaccessibility, supplies of leaves were difficult to obtain
and the amount of oil, necessarily small, has not permitted of its com-
plete examination. As, however, it is unlikely that larger supplies
can be procured from the area it has been thought advisable to place
on record the results obtained from examination of the small amount
of oil available.

Supplies were collected mainly on Ngun Ngun Mountain, 281bs.
on 29th September, 1929, yielding 21 ccs. of oil, while 701bs. collected
on 27th April, 1930, yielded only 30 ccs. of oil. In the latter case
the leaves were stripped from all the shrubs that could be found on
mountain. The oil had a pleasant odour and was slightly fluorescent.
The contents for both samples showed little variation and for the
mixed sample were recorded as follows : —

d

n

15.5

D

20

Md

Ester Value
Acetyl Value

.8676

1.4682

+40

Nil

6

152 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Aldehydes, phenols, and acids were absent. Forty ccs. of oil
were submitted to fractional distillation at 7mms. pressure, but the
greater portion of the oil (35 ccs.) distilled between 35° and 37 °C.
and this fraction possessed the following constants : —

d15.5

.8646

n?o

1.465

Md

+45

b.p.

155-157°C.

Identity with dextro rotatory

a-pinene was established by

oxidation to pinonic acid (semicarbazone M.P. 204 C.) and there is
no doubt that this terpene comprises from 80-90% of the oil. A small
percentage of ocimene, however, appeared also to be present, although
the isolation of this constituent in sufficient amount for characterisa-
tion was impossible.

The faint fluorescence of the original oil suggested the presence
of methyl anthranilate, a minor constituent of the oil of E. myoporoides1 .

The small residue (5 ccs.) left after removal of the pinene fraction
possessed a variable boiling point and no doubt contained other
constituents, presumably alcoholic, in small amount.

It appears, therefore, that the essential oil of E. glasshousiensis
consists primarily of a-pinene with minor constituents unidentified
amongst which ocimene and methyl anthranilate seem very probable.
There is thus resemblance to the oil of E. myoporoides.

The author is much indebted to Mr. M. White, M.Sc. for assistance
in collecting the leaves and to Mr. C. T. White for botanical assistance.

REFERENCE.

1. Penfold, A. R., Royal Society of N.S.W., 1925, LIX., p. 206.

Vol. XLTV., No. 11.

153

On the Presence of Glendonites in the Dawson Valley

By Dr. F. W. Whitehouse (Department of Geology, University of

Queensland).

Plate VI., and one Text Figure.

(Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 28 th November, 1932).

Introduction.

In 1849 J. D. Dana1 described from the village of Glendon in
New South Wales some peculiar mineral forms that subsequently
liave attracted considerable attention among Australian geologists.
These interesting objects later were named “ Glendonites ” by David
and Taylor ; and evidence then was advanced by David, Taylor,
Woolnough and Foxall2 to show that they were carbonate pseudo-
imorphs after glauberite.

Glendonites now have been found on many horizons of the Permo-
Carboniferous (Kamilaroi) sequence in New South Wales, and also
have been described from similar beds in Tasmania. Hitherto they
have not been found in Queensland ; but the present record of an
abundant development of glendonites in the Dawson Valley of
Queensland extends considerably the geographical range of these forms.

Previous Work on Glendonites.

The very thorough work of David, Taylor, Woolnough and
Foxall already quoted gives a resume of all literature and all views
upon the subject until that date (1905). Two subsequent papers,
one by Walkom3 and the other by Brown4, summarise later records.

Glendonites now have been obtained from many horizons and
from many localities in New South Wales, all of them from beds of
Permo-Carboniferous age. Always they have been found in soft,
marine mudstones (usually richly fossiliferous) and almost invariably
evidence has been forthcoming (by growth around shell fragments
and pebbles) to show that the original mineral of the glendonites has
grown in the muds and has not merely been laid down on successive
bedding planes in the process of deposition.

All known glendonites are calcareous pseudomorphs, usually
now in the form of calcite with a considerable quantity of iron
carbonate. Crystallographic work has shown them to be pseudo-
morphs of a monoclinic mineral agreeing perfectly with glauberite
(Na^SO^CaSOQ. As David, Taylor, Woolnough and Foxall have
pointed out the mineral glauberite has not yet been prepared by a
wet process so that their occurrence in marine muds suggests some
special process of formation. Many of the glendonite beds in the
.southern States have been shown to have been laid down under
glacial or sub-glacial conditions. Thus the theory was advanced that
their growth in the muds has been controlled by very cold temperature.
So far no experimental work has been done and no observations have
been made upon muds forming at present in polar latitudes to check
4his suggestion.

154 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The Queensland Record.

i. Locality : The specimens now described from Queensland
were collected on the western portion of Walloon Station in the Dawson
Valley, at a point nine miles N.N.E. of the centre of the township
of Theodore and about one mile east of the western boundary fence
of the station property. There they occur in a soft, yellowish mud-
stone through which the glendonites are abundantly scattered. My
attention was drawn to this occurrence by Mr. J. R. May, manager
of Walloon Station, and Messrs. R. and M. Sollitt, stockmen on the
property.

ii. Geology : The rocks of Walloon Station consist of members
of the Bowen Formation of Permo-Carboniferous age. The lower
members form a , thick series of volcanic rocks (the Lower Bowen
Volcanics), consisting mainly of andesites and rhyolites, both flows
and tuffs being developed. These beds strike north and south and
dip at a slight but unestimated angle to the west. The latest flow
was a trachyte, perhaps 300 feet in thickness, forming a very prominent
ridge beside the station homestead and extending for several miles
north. The eastern and lower members of this volcanic suite are
intruded by granites and granodiorites.

Above the volcanic rocks lie marine fossiliferous sediments- —
mainly sandstone and shale of a dominantly yellowish or brownish
colour. It is in the lower portion of this marine stage that the glen-
donites occur. With them in the bed were found species of Trachypora>
Spirifer (three species) and Plerophyllum (?), all of the forms being
species not yet described. The general aspect of this fauna rather
suggests a high horizon in what recently has been called the Lower
Bowen Series5 (the Monilopora-Taenioihaerus faunal stage.) More
fossils are needed to establish this point.

iii. The Glendonites : The glendonites, which are preserved in
the condition of crystalline, ferruginous calcite, occur with their long
axes sub -parallel or slightly inclined to the bedding planes in a bed
of soft yellowish mudstone. The largest specimen collected (plate
VI., fig. 1) is six inches long. The majority of the specimens are
pseudomorphs of individual crystals of the usual cigar-shape. Inter -

Text-Figtjre ]. — Glendonites in situ, Walloon Station.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLIV.

Plate VI,

GLENDONITES FROM WALLOON STATION, DAWSON VALLEY.

(Figures natural size.)

PRESENCE OF GLENDONITES IN THE DAWSON VALLEY.

155

penetrated groups, however, are very common (plate VI., figs. 4, 5)
while parallel growths also are found (plate VI., fig. 2). They are very
abundant at this locality, the concentration being approximately
of the order of one or two individuals per square yard.

Some forms still retain fairly sharp angles ; but in the majority
of forms these angles are rather rounded and the surface is finely
pitted suggesting that a certain amount of corrosion has affected the
crystals since they were formed. None of the Queensland specimens
has such very sharp angles and regular faces as shown, for example,
on the Husskison specimens described by David and others. Some
forms, e.g. the specimen shown on plate VI., fig 3, develop shallow
transverse flutings on the sides, in the position of the striations
described by Walkom (op. cit. p. 166) on the New South Wales forms.
Because of these flutings on adjacent sides the edges of such forms
frequently are crenulated.

A few forms were noticed in which during growth the crystal
had enveloped fragments of brachiopod shells.

iv. General : No evidence is available to determine the climatic
conditions under which the glendonites were formed. No erratics,
such as occur in many of the glendonite beds of New South Wales,
were noticed in the bed. The occurrence of the glendonites at a con-
siderable distance below the top of the marine shales agrees with the
observations made by Dr. Brown (loc. cit. p. 31) upon the Ulladulla
forms, and is an exception to the generalisation of David, Taylor,
Woolnough and Foxall that glendonites occur usually near the top of
r series of marine beds.

REFERENCES.

1. Dana, J. D. “Geology of the United States Exploring Expedition during the
years 1838-1842 under the command of Charles Wilkes, U.S.N.,” Quarto, New York
1849.

2. David, Taylor, Woolnough and Foxall : “ Occurrence of the Pseudomorph
'Glendonite in New South Wales.” Rees. Geol. Surv. N.S. Wales, vol. 8, 1905, pp. 161-179.

3. Walkom, A. B. “ Notes on some recently discovered Occurrences of the
Pseudomorph Glendonite.” Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, vol. 38, 1913, pp. 160-168.

4. Brown, Ida A. “ Notes on the Occurrence of Glendonites and Glacial Erratics
in Upper Marine Beds at Ulladulla, N.S.W.” Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. vol. 50, Pt. 2.
1925, pp. 25-31.

5. There is considerable variation in the usage of the term “ Lower Bowen Series.”
Originally the name was intended for the volcanic rocks and interbedded sediments
that form the basal members of the Permo-Carboniferous succession in the eastern limb
of the great Bowen-Dawson syncline. Recently, however, there has been a tendency
to make it equivalent to the beds in this basin with elements of the Monilopora- Taenio-
ihaerus fauna, some of which, as at Cracow, Theodore and Mt. Britton, occur above the
■volcanic stage, i.e., in part of the original “ Middle Bowen Series.”

The Royal Society of Queensland

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR 1931.

To the Members of the Royal Society of Queensland.

Your Council has pleasure in submitting its Report for the year
1931.

Fourteen original papers were read before the Society, and
published during the year. On the 25th May, Dr. T. G. H. Jones
delivered a short lecture on “ Essential Oils ” ; on the 29th June,
Mr. F. W. Moorhouse gave an address on “ Recent Marine Biological
Work on the Barrier Reef ” ; on the 31st August the evening was
devoted to the celebration of the Michael Faraday centenary,
addresses being given by Mr. H. A. Longman, Prof. T. Parnell, Prof.
L. S. Bagster, and Mr. J. S. Just ; on the 26th October, a lecture
was given by Dr. F. W. Whitehouse on “ Some Problems of
Queensland Palaeo-botany.”

The Council wishes to express its appreciation to the University
of Queensland for housing the library and providing accommodation
for meetings.

Again the Council reminds members that the Government subsidy
has been withdrawn, and that the only source of income is from
subscriptions. Practically the whole of this income is utilised in the
publication and distribution of the Proceedings. At a time like this
there is a tendency for members to meet a dwindling private income
by dropping their subscription. Fortunately, so far, only a few have
felt this course to be necessary, and we trust that few others will
follow suit. There are many people in Queensland, who, if they
knew of the need for help towards publishing in Queensland the scientific
work of Queenslanders, would readily assist by giving the small annual
subsidy which we ask for membership. Your Council trusts that all
members, realising the difficult position the Society is in, will strive
during this year to get as many new members as possible, particularly
from among professional workers who depend for their livelihood
on a knowledge of science and scientific methods.

During the year the Soil Investigation Committee held a number
of meetings, and decided upon a plan of action. In accordance with
this plan, the Committee is endeavouring, in the first place, to collate
the data already existant on Queensland soils. To facilitate this,
a deputation waited on the Under Secretary of the Department of
Agriculture and Stock, and brought before his notice a scheme drawn
up by the Committee of converting the present departmental records
into a more readily available form. After due consideration, the
Minister for Agriculture and Stock has given his general approval
to the scheme, which should prove mutually advantageous to the
Department concerned and the Soil Investigation Committee.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

V.

The work of arranging the Library was continued during the year.
The progress made in this direction is due to the labours of Dr. Bryan,
Mr. Hitchcock, Mr. Perkins, Dr. Herbert and Mr. Hines, each of whom
devoted a considerable amount of time to a section of the Library.
Dr. Bryan has in hand the American publications, and it is pleasing
to report that the very large number of these publications is now
almost in order. This has entailed a large amount of concentrated
work on Dr. Bryan’s part. In the Asiatic section, Mr. Hitchcock’s
work is i evident from the large number of periodicals which he has
arranged. Mr. Perkins and Dr. Herbert have the Australian portion
well in hand, and Mr. Hines has arranged the English periodicals.

It is to be hoped that these gentlemen can be prevailed upon to
continue their valuable work in the present year, although it is
recognised that it entails the sacrifice of much time on their part.

Among the acquisitions during the year is a complete set of the
Reports of the Princeton University Expeditions to Patagonia. These
were obtained in exchange for a set of our Proceedings. Numerous
requests from libraries abroad for missing numbers of our Proceedings
have been attended to.

The Society is indebted to the Assistant Librarian of the
University, Miss Mclver, for superintending the lending of periodicals
from the Library.

The membership roll consists of 4 corresponding members, 7 life
members, 172 ordinary members, and 2 associate members. During
the year there were 6 resignations, four names were removed from
the list under Rule 13, and sixteen new members were elected. It
is with deep regret that the death is reported of Prof. H. J. Priestley,
M.A., a past president of the Society, and Hon. Auditor for many
years ; and of Mr. C. W. Bundock, B.A., one of the oldest members
of the Society.

There were ten meetings of the Council during the year, the
attendance being as follows : — E. W. Bick, 10 : W. H. Bryan, 8 ;
R. W. Cilento, 0 ; W. D. Francis, 6 ; J. B. Henderson, 4 ; D. A. Herbert,
10 ; T. G. H. Jones, 7 ; J. S. Just, 2 ; H. A. Longman, 2 ; E. O. Marks,
9 ; F. A. Perkins, 9 : H. C. Richards, 7 ; and C. T. White, 8.

D, A. HERBERT, President.

F. A. PERKINS, Hon. Secretary.

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

STATEMENT OF RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE FOR YEAR ENDING 31st DECEMBER, 1931.

VI.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

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Checked with books and found correct.

JOHN S. JUST, E- W- BICE:,

Acting Hon. Auditor. Bo

1st March, 1932.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. vii.

Abstract of Proceedings, 29th March, 1932.

The Annual Meeting of the Society was held in the Geology Lecture
Theatre of the University at 8 p.m., on Tuesday, 29th March, 1932.
The President, Dr. D. A. Herbert, occupied the chair and about thirty
members and visitors were present. Apologies for absence- were
received from His Excellency the Governor, Professors Goddard and
Lowson, and Mr. Kyle. The minutes of the previous meeting were
read and confirmed. The following were proposed for ordinary
membership : — Mr. E. L. D. White, B.E., by Messrs. Hines and
Perkins ; and Dr. J. Vickery, M.Sc., by Professor Richards and Dr.
Herbert. The Annual Report and Balance Sheet were adopted.

The following officers were elected for 1932 : — President, Dr.
T. G. H. Jones ; Vice-Presidents, Dr. D. A. Herbert (ex officio), and
Dr. R. W. Cilento ; Hon. Secretary, Mr. F. A. Perkins, B.Sc.Agr. ;
Hon. Treasurer, Mr. E. W. Bick ; Hon. Librarian, Mr. W. D. Francis ;
Hon. Editors, Dr. W. H. Bryan, M.C., and Mr. L. F. Hitchcock, M.Sc.;
Hon. Auditor, Mr. J. S. Just, M.I.M.E. ; Members of Council, Mr. J. B.
Henderson, F.I.C., Mr. J. S. Just, M.I.M.E., Dr. E. 0. Marks, Professor
H. C. Richards, D.Sc., and Mr. C. T. White.

Dr. D. A. Herbert delivered his Presidential Address entitled,
The Relationships of the Queensland Flora.”

Any study of the relationships of the Queensland Flora must
commence by the recognition of two facts revealed by the fossil record,
the existence of angiospermous types at least as early as the Triassic,
and the existence of well differentiated modern types, undoubtedly
referable to living genera, in the early Tertiary. The leaf impressions
from Eastern Australia are of types found in both open and rain forest,
and of types of sub-antarctic palaeotropic and autochthonian affinity,
so that already in Eocene or Miocene times the flora was one of con-
siderable complexity. The present distribution of these types
indicates that geological and climatic changes have modified con-
siderably their original geographical distribution.

A detailed examination of the main associations shows that the
Queensland plant populations of to-day are strictly controlled by
climatic and geographical factors. In general, types whose affinities
are with those at present dominant in Malaysia, occupy the warmer
parts of the continent where rainfall exceeds about 35 inches. Types
of sub-antarctic affinity, common in Tasmania, are found in Queens-
land in the higher mountains, often, but not necessarily, in
characteristic associations. The ecological conditions are, or have
been, widespread over sufficiently continuous land masses, and both
elements may be regarded as the ancient occupants of their own type
of habitat in palaeotropic and sub-antarctic countries respectively.

The palaeotropic element in Queensland is part of the original
widespread palaeotropic flora which, differentiated by geological and
climatic isolation, has developed along somewhat different lines in
Western Malaysia, Eastern Malaysia, North Queensland, South
Queensland, Polynesia, and other centres. Here, as elsewhere, it has
been enriched by the incorporation of certain plants characteristic of
palaeotropic communities generally, e.g., Grevillea.

Vlll.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

The sub-antarctic element is also portion of the great sub-
antarctic flora, but here the area with ecological conditions suitable
for its development is relatively small. We find, however, as with the
palaeotropic element, a floristic backbone of types widespread from
South America to Australia, some of them apparently South American,
others apparently Australian, and yet others apparently Zelandic,
but now widespread. With them, however, are interwoven local types
in all the countries concerned, as must be expected in a widespread
flora where homogeneity is impossible.

The autochthonous element is more localised in its distribution
than the palaeotropic or the sub-arctic. It is for the most part a
flora of open formations and is not well adapted to cold conditions ;
nor does it reach its best development in the tropics even where open
formations are the natural type of vegetation. Such types as
Dracophyllum and Lomatia have been successful in sub -antarctic
countries, and such types as StacJchousia and Pimelea occupy suitable
territory in Malaysia, but for the great majority circumscription by
unsuitable territory has resulted in isolation and consequent marked
localised development. It is a quantitative and not a qualitative
distinction which has led to the designation of this type as the
Australian element.

A vote of thanks to the retiring President, moved by Mr. White
and Professor Bagster, was carried by acclamation.

Abstract of Proceedings, 26th April, 1932.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the University at 8 p.m. on Tuesday, 26th
April, 1932. The President, Dr. T. G. H. Jones, occupied the chair,
and about seventy members and visitors were present. Apologies
for absence were received from Messrs. Kemp and Kyle. The
minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Dr. E. F.
Simonds was proposed for ordinary membership by Messrs. Perkins
and Hines. Dr. J. Vickery, M.Sc., and Mr. E. L. D. White, B.E.,
were unanimously elected ordinary members of the Society.

The main business of the evening was a lecture by Mr. W. Davies,
M.Sc., entitled “ Pasture Studies.”

The importance of grassland is emphasised by the fact that of
Australia’s total exports of all kinds 60% approximately are direct
products from grassland, and these include meat, wool and dairy
produce. The comparable figure for New Zealand is 94%, for South
Africa about 45% and for Canada nearly 20%.

Agrostology is the study of grassland problems, particularly as
they effect economic production from pasture lands. Until recently
pastures have not been given the study and investigation which has
been afforded to fodder crops and cereal crops. It may be said that
whereas the 19th century was marked by big progressive strides in
respect of improvement in breeds of live stock and in producing
varieties of cereals, the 20th century is likely to be equally important
in regard to improvements brought about in our grasslands. The whole

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

IX.

world has at last realised the importance of pastures to the economic
life of every nation and it is in the interests of every nation to keep
abreast of the times and to know not only how to improve its grass-
lands but also how to produce that grass at the lowest possible cost.
The primary producer who can the better withstand periods of low
prices is he that knows how to produce cheaply, and so it is with nations.

The modern study of grassland is young and therefore a vast
number of big problems confront us. These problems require careful
observation and research before they can be solved.

The fundamental principles underlying modern grassland
technique may be divided into four major groups, namely : —

(a) Those problems connected with the introduction and trial of new

pasture plants. The importance of this section is emphasised by
the fact that the Commonwealth Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research has a whole division which deals with plants
introduced into Australia for trial.

( b ) Problems connected with strain in pasture plants. Plants vary

within their own groups just as animals show variation from one
individual to another. It is the aim of the plant breeder to
select the best forms and to use them as a basis for providing even
better and more desirable forms which can be used by the practical
grazier for improving the carrying capacity of his grasslands. This
line of investigation is being given particular prominence at the
Welsh Plant Breeding Station at Aberystwyth (Wales) and, in
so far as the grasslands of Britain and New Zealand are concerned,
promises to be one of the most important developments connected
with our pastures.

(c) Problems concerning the use of artificial manures on our grasslands.

The grass crop, just as any other form of crop, requires to be
manured. The main elements of plant food required, and which
are often deficient in soils, are phosphoric acid, nitrogen, lime and
potash. Each are essential elements and every crop tends to
deplete the soil of these valuable food substances, to quite an
appreciable extent. The soil, therefore, has to be replenished by
the fertiliser ingredients so depleted. The upkeep of soil
fertility is an important principle in grassland investigational
work.

(d) Problems connected with the proper management of our grass-

lands. This involves the utilisation of the grass that grows at
the stages when the product is at its most nutritious stage and when
the grazing animal can make the most of it. It is found by experi-
ment that young leafy grass is more valuable than old over-
matured grass. This finding has caused us to look for a sound,
practical method of grazing our stock on short grass. The
system involves the use of relatively small paddocks, changing the
stock around from paddock to paddock in rotation so that as the
grass in one paddock is grazed down the stock go in on to fresh
grass in the next paddock, and so on.

The mechanical cultivation of our grasslands is an important
section of pasture management. This includes the renovation of
Paspalum pastures, which is of paramount importance to the east coast
of Australia.

X.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Finally, conservation of grass (grown at periods of the year when
feed is over-abundant) is very important and probably fundamental
in areas of periodic drought such as Australia. Conservation of fodder
for use in dry periods is probably the very best form of insurance
against drought on pastures.

Messrs. Gurney, Bennett, and Henderson took part in the dis-
cussion which ensued. A vote of thanks moved by Professor Richards
and Mr. W. Bryan, was carried by acclamation.

Abstract of Proceedings, 30th May, 1932.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the University at 8 p.m. on Monday, 30th
May, 1932. The President, Dr. T. G. H. Jones, occupied the chair,
and about forty members and visitors were present. Apologies were
received from Dr. Herbert and Mr. Hines. The minutes of the previous
meeting were read and confirmed. Dr. E. F. Simonds was unani-
mously elected a member of the Society.

Mr. C. A. Sussmilch delivered a very interesting lecture entitled
“ The Evolution of the Highlands of Eastern Australia.” The lecture
was illustrated by a very fine set of lantern slides.

A vote of thanks to the lecturer, moved by Professor Richards,
supported by Dr. Marks, Dr. Bryan, and Mr. Inigo Jones, was carried
by acclamation.

Abstract of Proceedings, 27th June, 1932.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the University at 8 p.m., on Monday,
27th June, 1932. The President, Dr. T. G. H. Jones, occupied the
chair, and about thirty-five members and visitors were present.
Apologies for absence were received from Messrs. Kyle, Lewcock,
and Longman. The Minutes of the previous meeting were read and
confirmed. Messrs. E. R. Gross and C. Elliott, and Dr. W. N.
Robertson were proposed for ordinary membership by Prof. Richards
and Dr. Bryan.

Professor H. C. Richards exhibited the following : —

(i) Pink granodiorite from Upper Cedar Creek, on the south
western flanks of Mt. Samson, showing small rosette-shaped
masses of molybdenite developed along a joint plane.
The granite rock is at present being worked to provide stone
for the A.M.P. building in Brisbane. Both pink and grey
phases occur in the Cedar Creek granitic mass as in the
Enoggera mass, and it is interesting to note that from the
pink marginal phase of the latter near the Summit, on Taylor
Range, molybdenite has been found frequently.

The Samford granitic mass occurs between the above
two bosses, and near its margin at Camp Mountain, has
yielded molybdenite from the quarry which supplied the
grey granitic stone for the base of the Brisbane City Hall.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XI,

(ii) Additional specimens showing the pseudograptolitic
character of the hydrated and oxidised marcasite crystals
on the joint planes and bedding planes of the country rock
associated with the Rio Grande silver lead lode at Mt. Isa.
A specimen of a bore core from depth showed the original
pyritic character of the long, slender, and occasionally plate-
like crystals very well, and serves to explain more clearly
the true nature of the graptolite-like markings.

(iii) Specimens of a thick series of highly tilted sedimentary
rocks from the eastern flanks of Mt. Barney. Associated
with these were marine fossils of Carboniferous age as
determined by Dr. Whitehouse.

Dr. F. W. Whitehouse commented on this exhibit.

Mr. W. D. Francis read a paper entitled “ The Production of Pro-
tein from Inorganic Material : Evidence suggestive of the Generation
of Life.” Iron, mostly in the form of wire, was suspended in a very
dilute solution containing ammonium sulphate, potassium chloride,
magnesium sulphate, potassium phosphate and calcium nitrate. After
the lapse of several days the ferruginous material adhering to the
iron wire was found to contain protein bodies of microscopic size.
Precautions were taken to ensure sterilisation. The protein bodies
were not produced when the air was freed of carbon dioxide. It is
suggested that life may be generated from mineral compounds in a
reduced state in the rocks and soils of the earth. The oxidation and
hydration of ferrous hydroxide, on account of the special properties
of this compound, are particularly mentioned as a possible starting
point for the evolution of life.

Dr. T. G. H. Jones and Prof. Bagster, who took part in the dis-
cussion following the reading of the paper, expressed doubt as to the
correctness of the conclusions drawn by Mr. Francis. They con-
sidered that the results were exceedingly unlikely on theoretical
grounds, while the experimental procedure seemed to offer many
possibilities for mistake and uncertainty.

Dr. Vickery, Dr. Marks and Mr. Hines also took part in the dis-
cussion.

A paper by Mr. G. H. Hardy entitled “ Notes on Australian
Stratiomyiidae,” was laid on the table.

This paper gives the relationship of certain genera, some of which
had been misallied. A key to subfamilies and to the species in certain
genera are given, seven new species being described. Two names are
reduced to synonmy, one being generic, the other specific. Other
notes are also given.

Mr. 0. A. Jones, M.Sc., read a paper entitled A Revision of the
Australian Species of the Coral Genera Spongophyllum E. and H., and
Endoplnyllum E. and H., with a note on Aphrophyllam Smith.

This paper was commented on by Dr. Bryan and Dr. Whitehouse.

Abstract of Proceedings, 25th July, 1932.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the University at 8 p.m., on Monday,
25th July, 1932. The President, Dr. T. G. H. Jones, occupied the

£11.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

chair, and about forty members and visitors were present. Apologies
for absence were received from Professor Bagster, Dr. Herbert, and Mr.
Hines. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.
Mr. E. R. Gross, Dr. W. N. Robertson, and Mr. C. Elliott were unani-
mously elected ordinary members of the Society.

The main business of the evening was a symposium on the history,
botany, and geology of Mt. Barney.

Professor Cumbrae-Stewart said that Mt. Barney was first ascended
by Captain Logan, 57th Foot, the Commandant at Moreton Bay, the
discoverer of the Logan River. Captain Logan, Allan Cunningham
and Charles Fraser wepe on the mountain on 3rd August, 1828,
but Captain Logan alone succeeded in reaching the summit. There
were two accounts of this, one, Allan Cunningham’s official report
to Governor Darling, extracts from which, together with his map,
were published in Ida Lee’s “Early Explorers in Australia,” and
Fraser’s journal of a two month’s residence, published in Hooker’s
Botanical Miscellany (1830) Vol. I., pp. 239-599. This is in the library
of the Curator of the Botanic Gardens, Brisbane. Mt. Barney was
originally named Mt. Lindesay, after Colonel Patrick Lindesay, com-
manding the 39th Foot, stationed at the time in Sydney. As such it
appears on Allan Cunningham’s map. On this, however, is shown a
Mt. Barney considerably to the eastward. Mr. R. Dixon, the chief of
the first survey at Moreton Bay, published a map in 1845, now at
Camden (Port), N.S.W. in which the name of Mt. Barney is attached to
the original Mt. Lindesay, and this error has been perpetuated. What
Cunningham named Mt. Hooker now figures as Mt. Lindesay and the
original Mt. Barney is probably the modern Mt. Gipps. Mt. Barney
was called after Colonel Barney, R.E., afterwards Surveyor General of
New South Wales. Cunningham’s map shows the Richmond River
(discovered a few days afterwards from the sea by Captain Rous,
H.M.S. Rainbow), as seen by Captain Logan from the top of Mt.
Lindesay. It was certain that he saw the country through which the
Clarence flowed in the plains to the south-west, described by Fraser as
“ the Shoal Bay Country.”

Near Mt. Lindesay W. G. Chetwynd Stapylton was murdered by
blacks in June, 1840, when engaged in tracing the Richmond down to
the sea. Captain Logan should not be forgotten. He was the earliest
land explorer of Moreton Bay. He too was murdered by blacks. This
took place on the upper Brisbane in October, 1830. Captain Logan’s
son, Colonel R. A. Logan, C.B., commanded the 57th about 60 years
ago. Colonel Barney’s brother, Captain Barney, 97th Foot, was buried
in the old Milton Cemetery. His tombstone is still to be seen.

Mr. C. T. White exhibited a collection of plants from Mt. Barney
made by Dr. D. A. Herbert and himself in August, 1931. Among the
plants collected was Hibbertia sericea Benth., a new record for the
State. It was found as a shrub or subshrub 1 foot high, the
stems procumbent or scrambling over rocks at an altitude of
about 4,000 feet. Other very interesting finds were Syncarpia
Hillii F. M. Bailey found growing in a rocky gorge at about
2,000 feet altitude, Leptospermum microcarpum Cheel and Leptosper-
mum citratvm Challinor, Cheel and Penfold, both common in rock
crevices at about 2,000 feet altitude, Keraudrenia Hillii F. v. M.
common at from 2,000 to 4,000 feet altitude. Two forms were present,

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Xlll,

one with white, the other with purple flowers. Leucopogon melaleu-
coides, an upright bush covered with white flowers and found on rocky
cliffs at about 3,000 feet altitude, and Casuarina distyla Vent., a She
Oak forming shrubs of upright growth about 2m. high on cliff faces
at about 3,000 feet altitude. The flora of the mountain was found
interesting as having a mixture of some coastal and some inland
species.

Professor Richards and Drs. Bryan and Whitehouse read a paper
entitled 44 A Preliminary Note on the Geology of Mount Barney.”
The paper was the result of an excursion made to Mount Barney for the
purpose of investigating the possible occurrence of late Palaeozoic
rocks reported from the area by the late Mr. R. A. Wearne. As a
result of several traverses made on the eastern flanks of Mount Barney
the presence of a considerable mass of Carboniferous sediments was
proved. These sediments were largely marine in nature and contained
fossil remains of Bryozoa, Brachiopods, Gastropods, Lamellibranchs
and Crinoids. The Carboniferous beds were traced to a height of
2,000 feet up the mountain. They are disposed almost vertically and
are separated by a strongly marked fault from fossiliferous fresh water
strata of the Walloon Series on the east. Two vertical sills were noted
within the Carboniferous series, the larger of which, measuring 200 feet
in thickness, was closely adjacent to the fault. Microscopical examina-
tion of specimens from these sills showed that they were composed of
an acid rhyolitic material with a micrographic base and were similar
to small dykes found invading the Walloon strata and to the grano-
phyric rock which forms the upper part of Mt. Barney and which is
supposed to be of Tertiary age.

Messrs. F. Bennett and Salmon, Prof. Richards, and Dr. E. O.
Marks took part in the discussion which ensued.

Abstract of Proceedings, 29th August, 1932.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the University at 8 p.m. on Monday,
29th August, 1932. The President, Dr. T. G. H. Jones, occupied the
chair, and about forty members and visitors were present. An
apology was received from the Minister for Agriculture, Mr. F. W.
Bulcock. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and con-
firmed.

A paper by Dr. W. H. Bryan entitled “ A Note on the Strati-
graphical Significance of Monilopora nicholsoni ” was laid on the table.

This paper purported to show that : (1) The stratigraphical
position of M. nicholsoni in the type area is not known with certainty,
(2) The fossil corals in Eastern Australia referred to M , nicholsoni
embrace several distinct forms, none of which may be specifically
identical with the type. (3) That the comprehensive group formed of
those Eastern Australian fossils assigned to M. nicholsoni covers such
a great vertical range that the stratigraphical value of the group as
such is negligible.

In view of these facts the author is of the opinion that at present,
the genus Monilopora appears to be of little value for the purpose of
the precise correlation of our late Palaeozoic strata.

XIV.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

The main business of the evening was a lecture by Dr. J. Vickery
entitled “ The Application of Scientific Methods to the Preservation
and Transport of Meat.”

Australia has lost her frozen beef trade. It was restricted more
and more to naval and military contracts and supplies to institutions, j
and if it was not to stagnate entirely means of chilling would have to
be devised.

There had been a lot of loose talk lately about chilled and frozen
meat, said the lecturer. Many of the optimistic reports probably
were only 10 per cent, correct. It served nevertheless to bring to
notice the scientific aspects of the control of the wastage in meat. The
happy co-operation of scientific and industrial interests averted that
time lag between the success of the scientific experiment and its appli-
cation to industry. It was his privilege, said Dr. Vickery, to study
the changes in dead tissue. The saying “ as dead as last week’s
mutton,” brought up visions of chops and steaks ; but meat was far
from being the uninteresting thing that it appeared. It was only 50
years since the regular shipment of frozen meat had commenced from
the Southern Hemisphere, and it had become increasingly apparent
that the aid of science must be sought. So far the engineer had con-
trolled the process, but the era of the biologist was definitely coming.
On the biological side the industry was yet in its infancy. Cold
storage science would be complete only when the biologist was able to
state the condition of the meat for the guidance of the engineer.

Dr. Vickery discussed the nature of meat, aided by lantern slides,
the post mortem immediate changes in meat — which was not yet
understood ; the immediate increase in temperature after killing, bone
taint, desiccation, and loss of “ bloom ” or change in colour after cold
storage, brought about by the activity of micro-organisms. There
was no known case of a micro-organism growing below a temperature
of 19 degrees Fahr. It was, therefore, apparent that the growth
of micro-organisms might be controlled by sufficiently low temperature.
Preservatives such as formalin might be used, but they were looked
upon by health officers as injurious to human beings. Chilled beef
should resemble as closely as possible freshly-killed meat, but the chief
difficulty to be encountered by Australia was the long voyage. Even
with the shorter voyage from South America to Great Britain there
was little margin of safety. If there was a delay of a week the engineers
had to freeze the beef. Throughout the voyage they maintained a
temperature of from 28 degrees to 35.5 degrees Fahr., and 60 or
70 per cent, of the so-called chilled beef arrived partly frozen. The
engineers on the South American boats had to steer a course between
attack by organisms and freezing.

A vote of thanks to the lecturer by Prof. Goddard and seconded by
Mr. J. B. Henderson, was carried by acclamation.

Abstract of Proceedings, 26th September, 1932.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the University at 8 p.m., on Monday,
26th September 1932. The President, Dr. T. G. H. Jones, occupied
the chair, and about forty members and visitors were present. The
minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XV.

Mr. H. A. Longman, Director of the Queensland Museum, exhibited
the following specimens : — (1) Astrotia stolcesii Gray. Giant sea snake,
caught at Morey Reef, Port Douglas, and presented to the Queensland
Museum by Mr.E. J. Whelan, Harbour Master, Port Douglas. This
very bulky species, which was named after Captain Stokes, of H.M.S.
“ Beagle,” ranges from Chinese and Indian seas to Australia. The
specimen exhibited was seventy-three inches in length, with a maximum
girth of twelve inches, and appeared to be the largest on record. The
colour was uniform olive brown. (2) Voluta Bednalli Brazier. A fine
specimenof this rare shell, found by a diver in deep water near Thurs-
day Island, which had been received on loan from Mr. R. W. Millard.

Professor L. S. Bagster, D.Sc., exhibited some very interesting
lantern slides illustrating the modern applications of the X-Ray.

Mr. S. B. Watkins exhibited specimens of grits and conglomerates
taken from outcrop behind the Moogerah State School. The outcrop
occurs as a narrow belt of coarse sandstone, grit and conglomerate
running north-east — south-west and standing vertically. It can be
seen from the main Moogerah Road at a point north of the State
School and occupies the top of a crest at the rear of the State School.
The strata close to the road hereabouts are gently dipping Walloon coal
shales of a grey to dark colour, dipping about 8 degrees south-west.
The strata were examined in a newly sunken well adjacent to the road.
On approaching the outcrop, typically Walloon, ferruginous concretion-
ary material and clay shales are crossed. Through these beds a number
of acid dykes intrude and run in parallel lines of outcrop across the
country. These acid dykes strike in the same direction as the out-
crop in question. On close- examination pieces of volcanic material
are found included in the sandstone and in the grits.

Dr. D. A. Herbert exhibited — (1) Specimens of Myrtus Hillii
which had grown over a liana coiled round its trunk so that the liana
was at one point embedded in wood half an inch below the surface.
(2) Specimens of Cordyceps Gunnii, the Vegetable Caterpillar from
Roberts Plateau, National Park, collected by Mr. J. E. Young, and of
the same species collected in the neighbourhood of Sydney by Dr. J.
McLuckie.

Mr. C. T. White exhibited — (1) Specimens of some undescribed or
little known plants from North Queensland collected by Mr. S. F.
Kajewski on behalf of the Arnold Arboretum (Harvard University).
(2) Specimens of Sterculia foetida collected at Port Douglas by Mr.
C. Allen. Only the one tree was known in the district. This was
growing a little above the tide mark but it was not clear as to whether
the tree had been planted or was growing wild.

Mr. F. A. Perkins exhibited two boxes of beetles belonging to the
families Buprestidae and Cerambycidae. These specimens form part
of a collection made by the late Mr. Rowland Illidge, which has been
presented to the University by his sons.

Miss N. M. Holdsworth exhibited a specimen of Coralline Algae,
cf. Lithothamnion sp., from Muckadilla, Queensland, presented to the
Queensland Museum by Mr. F. W. Hacker. This is, apparently, the
first record for this plant from Queensland Cretaceous rocks
Archaeolithothamnion has been recorded from Cretaceous beds in
Southern India (see Nature, Vol. 128, 1931, p. 225).

XVI.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Dr. J. V. Duhig exhibited a Malignant Newgrowth growing from
the Skin of a Fish. The tumor growing from the lower lip of a sea
bream is generally rounded in form and resembles a large wart. To
the touch it is very firm and is cartilaginous in appearance, being of a
faint translucency. Its long and short axes measure 3.5 c.m. and 2.0
c.m. respectively. Microscopic section shows the growth to be a
squamous epithelioma, of a spindle cell type. It is infiltrating in
broad columns through the centre of which run a loose vascular core of
connective tissue. The fibro-cartilaginous substance of the lower jaw
of the fish has been eroded diffusely, though it is this tissue which forms
the marrix of the growth and has been stimulated to proliferation as
the parasitic stroma of the growth. It is this which give solidity and
translucency to the mass. Tumors are not uncommon in domestic
animals though they are said to be rare in wild animals. Though
bony growths are very common in fish in the natural state, my know-
ledge does not allow me to state whether a tumor of this kind has been
reported before. I should think it would be very rare.

Professor H. C. Richards, D.Sc., showed a number of micro-
photographs of rock specimens from typical geological formations in
Southern Queensland.

Messrs. Bennett and Longman, Dr. Duhig and Professor Richards
commented on the exhibits.

Abstract of Proceedings, 31st October, 1932.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the University at 8 p.m., on Monday,
31st October, 1932. Dr. D. A. Herbert occupied the chair, and about
twelve members and visitors were present. Apologies were received
from Prof. Richards, Dr. Jones and Messrs. Longman and Bick. The
minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Mr. E. C.
Barton was proposed for Corresponding membership by the Council.

On behalf of the delegates from the Society, Dr. W. H. Bryan
gave a verbal report of the main features of the recent Science Con-
gress in Sydney.

Mr. Perkins exhibited a case of insects belonging to the order
Neuroptera, and gave a short account of the habits and life history
of some of the more interesting families.

Dr. Herbert exhibited a section of a branch of a tree of Ficus
hispida , sixty years old, showing 284 rings in the wood.

Dr. F. W. Whitehouse exhibited a number of palaeczoic fossil
plants fron various localities in Queensland, each being a new locality
record and most of them new generic or specific records for the State.
They were : —

(1) A collection of fossil plants apparently of Middle Devonian
age, sent by Mr. F. G. de V. Gipps from Gilberton. In this were some
excellently preserved specimens of Leptophloeum aff australe (McCoy)
in all states and with the root (stigmarian) processes also present.
Associated with them were Cyclostigma (?) sp. and impressions of
psilophytalids of various types. One of these has all the features of
Hostimella, but is very much larger than any described species of that
genus.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XVII.

(2) Stigmaria (?) sp. from beds at the top of the lower Carboni-
ferous (Neerkol Stage) at Mt. Barney.

(3) Rhacopteris sp. from a new series at Mt. Barney.

(4) Permo-Carboniferous plants making new records for the
State. These were: Taeniopteris sp. from Galah Gorge; Schizoneura
gondwanensis Feist, from Mt. Mulligan ; Thinnfeldia hughesi (Feist.)
and T. feistmanteli Johnst. from Jericho ; Emplectopteris sp. from
Theodore. The last named form was represented by specimens
including one fertile frond. It is probably identical with the widely
distributed Sphenopteris lobifolia Morris.

Dr. Marks, Dr. Bryan and Mr. Bennett commented on this
exhibit.

Abstract of Proceedings, 28th November, 1932.

The Ordinary Monthly meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the University at 8.15 p.m., on Monday,
28th November, 1932. Dr. Jones occupied the chair, and about
thirty members and visitors were present. Apologies were received
from Messrs. Henderson, Bailey, Miss Holdsworth, and Dr. Bagster.
The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Mr.
E. C. Barton was unanimously elected a Corresponding Member of
the Society.

Prof. H. C. Richards communicated a paper by Mr. C. A. Sussmilch
on “ The Geomorphology of the Moreton District, Queensland.”

Dr. E. O. Marks read a paper entitled “ Some Observations on
the Physiography of the Brisbane River and Neighbouring Water-
sheds.”

A paper by Dr. T. G. H. Jones on “ Essentail Oils from the Queens-
land Flora, Part V. : Eriostemon glasshousiensis ” was laid on the table.

Dr. F. W. Whitehouse read a paper on “ The Presence of Glen-
donites in the Dawson Valley.”

Dr. D. A. Herbert exhibited specimens of Albugo bliti a white
rust on Amaranthus viridis collected in Brisbane, November, 1932.

A Special Meeting of the Society was held in the Geology Lecture
Theatre of the University at 8 p.m., on Monday, 28th November, 1932.

The business of the meeting was the alteration of Rule 2, and the
addition of two rules. These amendments were proposed by the
Council and were carried unanimously. They were as follows : —

Rule 2. The insertion Of the words “Honorary Life Members' 9
after the word ££ of”

The addition Of the following Rules — Honorary Life Members are
those who, having performed valuable scientific work, or meritorious
work in the interests of the Society, have been elected by ballot at an
Ordinary Meeting on the nomination of the Council; and

Donations and Life Members' subscriptions shall be treated as capital
funds.

XVIII.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

Publications hav« been received from the following Institutions, Societies, etc., and
are hereby gratefully acknowledged —

Algeria —

Societie de Geographie et d’Archaeologia
d’Oran.

Argentine —

Universidad Nacional de la Plata.
Australia —

Commonwealth Bureau of Census and
Statistics, Canberra.

Department of Agriculture, Melbourne.
Department of Mines, Melbourne.

Royal Society of Victoria.

Field Naturalists’ Club, Melbourne.
Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, Melbourne.

Department of Mines, Adelaide.

Waite Agricultural Research Institute,
Glen Osmond.

Royal Society of South Australia.

Royal Geographical Society of Australasia,
Adelaide.

Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery,
Adelaide.

University of Adelaide.

Standards Association of Australia,
Sydney.

Naturalists’ Society of New South Wales.
Department of Agriculture, Sydney.
Department of Mines, Sydney.

Royal Society of New South Wales.
Linnean Society of New South Wales.
Australian Museum, Sydney.

Public Library, Sydney.

University of Sydney.

Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

Australian Veterinary Society, Sydney.
Field Naturalists’ Club, Brisbane.
Department of Mines, Brisbane.
Queensland Museum, Brisbane.
Department of Agriculture, Brisbane.
Registrar-General’s Department, Brisbane.
Royal Geographical Society of Austra-
lasia (Queensland), Brisbane.

Field Naturalists’ Club, Hobart.

Royal Society of Tasmania.

Mines Department, Hobart.

Mines Department, Perth.

Royal Society of Western Australia.

Austria —

Naturhistorische Museum, Vienna.
Belgium —

Academie Royale de Belgique.

Societe Royale de Botanique de Belgique.
Societe Royale Zoologique de Belgique.

Brazil —

Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janerio.
Ministerio de Agricultura Industria y
Commercio, Rio de Janerio.

British Isles —

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

British Museum (Natural History), London
Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Literary and Philosophical Society, Man-
chester.

Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society
Royal Society, London.

Conchological Society of Great Britain
and Ireland, Manchester.

Royal Empire Society, London.

The Bristol Museum and Art Gallery.
Imperial Bureau of Entomology, London.
Imperial Agricultural Bureau, Aberysth-
wyth.

Royal Society of Edinburgh.

Botanical Society of Edinburgh.

Royal Dublin Society.

Royal Irish Academy, Dublin.

Canada —

Department of Mines, Ottawa.

Royal Astronomical Society of Canada.
Royal Society of Canada.

Royal Canadian Institute.

Nova Scotian Institute of Science.
Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.

Ceylon —

Colombo Museum.

• Cuba —

Sociedad Geografica de Cuba, Habana
Denmark —

The University, Copenhagen.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED .

XIX.

France —

Station Zoologique de Cette.

Societe des Sciences Naturelles de l’Ouest.
Museum d’Historie Natural, Paris
Societe Botanique de France
Societe Geologique et Mineralogique de
Bretagne

Societe de Geographie de Rochefort.
Germany —

Zoologische Museum, Berlin.

Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde Berlin.
Deutsche Geologische Gesellschaft, Berlin.
Naturhistorischer Verein der preus Rhein-
land und Westfalens, Bonn.
Naturwissenschaftlichen Verein zu Bremen.
Senckenbergischen Bibliothek, Frankfurt
a. Main

Kaiserlich Deutsche Akademie der Natur-
forscher, Halle.

Zoologischen Museum, Hamburg.
Naturhistorisch-Medizinischen V ereins>

Heidelberg.

Akademie der Wissenschaften, Leipzig.
Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Munich.

Centralblatt fur Bakteriologie.

Hawaii —

Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu.
Holland —

Technische Hoogeschool, Delft.

Italy —

Instituto di Bologna.

Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Pisa.
Societa Africana d’ltalia, Naples.

Museo Civico, Genova.

India —

Geological Survey of India.

Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa.

Japan —

Imperial University, Kyoto.

Imperial University, Tokyo.

National Research Council of Japan,
Tokyo.

Java —

Koninklijk Naturkundige Vereinginig,
Weltvrenden.

Department van Landbouw, Buitenzorg.

Mexico —

Instituto Geologico de Mexico.

Sociedad Cientifica “ Anatonio Alzate,”
Mexico.

Secretario de Agriculture y fomento,
Mexico.

Observatorio Meterorologico Central,
Tacaibaya.

New Zealand —

Dominion Museum, Wellington.

New Zealand Institute, Wellington.
Auckland Institute and Museum.
Dominion Laboratory, Wellington.
Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, Wellington.

Geological Survey of New Zealand.

Peru —

Sociedad Geologica del Peru, Lima.

Philippines —

Bureau of Science, Manila.

Poland —

Polskie Towarzystwo Przyrodnikow im
Kopernika, Lwow.

University of Poland.

Societes Savantes Polonaises.

Portugal —

Academia Polytechnicada, Oporto.
Sociedade Broteriana, Coimbra.

Institute Botanico, Coimbra.

Russia —

Akademie des Sciences Russie, Leningrad.
Bureau of Applied Entomology, Leningrad

Spain —

Real Academia de Ciencias y Artes de
Barcelona.

Real Academia de Ciencias, Madrid.
Museo de Historia Natural, Valencia.
Academia de Ciencias de Zaragoza.

Sweden —

Geological Institute of Upsaia.
Switzerland —

Societe de Physique et d’Historie Natural,
Geneve.

Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, Zurich.
The League of Nations, Geneva.

South Africa —

Geological Society of South Africa,
Johannesburg.

South African Museum, Capetown.
Durban Museum, Natal.

Transvaal Museum, Pretoria.

XX

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

United States of America—

United States Geological Survey, Washing-
ton.

Natural History Survey, Illinois.

Lloyd Library, Cincinnati.

Wisconsin Academy of Arts, Science and
Letters, Madison.

California Academy of Sciences.

Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.
University of Minnesota.

University of California.

Library of Congress, Washington.

Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.
American Museum of Natural History,
New York.

Buffalo Society of Natural History.
Boston Society of Natural History.
American Philosophical Society, Phila-
delphia.

American Geographical Society, New
York.

Smithsonian Institute, Washington.
Carnegie Institute, Washington.

United States Department of Agriculture,
Washington.

Oberlin College, Ohio.

National Academy of Science, Washington.
Rochester Academy of Sciences.
Academy of Natural Sciences. Phila-
delphia.

New York Academy of Science.

Indiana Academy of Science.

American Academy of Science and Arts,
Boston.

Institute of Biological Research, Balti-
more.

John Crerar Library, Chicago.

Ohio Academy of Science, Columbus.
Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plains.
Michigan Academy of Arts, Science, and
Letters.

University of Michigan.

Minnesota Geological Survey.

New York Zoological Society.

Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology,
Philadelphia.

Portland Society of Natural History.

San Diego Society of Natural History.
Puget Sound Biological Station, Seattle
Missouri Botanic Gardens, St. Louis.
University of Illinois, Urbana.

State College of Washington, Pullman.
Bureau of Standards, Washington.
National Research Council, Washington.
United States National Museum, Washing-
ton.

Public Health Service, Washington.
Peabody Museum of Natural History,
Yale.

Lawde Observatory, Arizona.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

XXI.

List of Members.

Corresponding Members.

Barton, E. C., A.M.I.C.E.

David, Professor, Sir T. W. E.
♦Domin, Dr. K.

* Maitland, A. Gibb, F.G.S.
♦Skeats, Professor E. W.

Ordi

Atherton, D. 0., B.Sc.Agr.
Miss F., M.Sc.

tBagster, L. S., Prof., D.Sc.

*f Bailey, J. F. . .

Ball, L. C., B.E

♦fBancroft, T. L., M.B.

Barker, Miss E., B.A.

Barker, F. . .

Barr, L. L. S., B.Sc.Agr.

Beckman, G. H., B.Sc. .
♦Bennett, F., B.Sc.

Bennett, F. C., B.Sc.

Bick, E. W.

Blumberg, B., B.Sc.

Bostock, J., M.D., B.S., D.P.M
M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.

Brigden, J. B., M.A.

Briggs, Mrs. C.

Brown, Jas., B.A., M.D., Ch.B. (Edin
D.Ph. (Cambridge)

♦Bryan, W. H., M.C., D.Sc.

Bryan, W. W., B.Sc.Agr.

Brydon, Mrs.

♦Buhot, E. W

Butler-Wood, F., D.D.S.

Buzacott, J. H.

Cameron, Colonel Sir Donald, C.M.G.
D.S.O

. . . c/o Decimal Assoc., Finsbury Pavement

House, Moorgate, London, E.C. 2.

F.R.S. The University, Sydney, N.S.W.

Czech University, Prague
Melville Place, S. Perth, W.A.

The University, Melbourne, Vic.

Members, Etc.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Court House, Cairns.

Women’s College, Kangaroo Point, Bris-
bane

The University, Brisbane.

Maynard Street, Woolloongabba, S. Bris-
bane

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane
Walla Villa, via Bundaberg
Infants’ School, Fortitude Valley, Brisbane
Railway Audit Office, Brisbane

Edgecliffe, River Terrace, Kangaroo Point,
Brisbane

Crook Street, Northgate, Brisbane
State School, Toowong, Brisbane
Pharmacy College, Brisbane
Botanic Gardens, Brisbane
Inkerman Street, South Brisbane

Wickham House, Wickham Terrace, Bris-
bane

Department of Labour and Industry,
Brisbane

First Avenue, Eagle Junction, Brisbane

“ Widmoorene,” Margaret Street, Too-
woomba

The University, Brisbane
Gatton College, T.P.O., South
Department of Public Instruction, Brisbane
Department of Health, Brisbane

Permanent Chambers, Adelaide Street,
Brisbane

London Road, Clayfield
Brisbane

fLife Members.

♦Members who have contributed papers to the Society

XXII.

LIST OF ME MB EftS.

Cameron, W. E., B.A.

Carson-Cooling, Geo., M.Sc.

Cayzer, A., B.Sc.

Chamberlain, W. J,, M.Sc.

Cilento, R. W., M.D., B.S.

Colvin, J. . .

Cottrell- Dormer, W., B.Sc.Agr.
Crawford, Miss L.

Croll, Gifford, M.B

Cue, Miss J., B.Sc.

Cum brae- Stewart, Professor F. W. S.,
D.C.L., K.C.

♦Denmead, A. K., M.Sc.

Dixon, G. P., C.B.E., M.B., Ch.M. .
♦Dodd, Alan P.

Drew, J. G., M.B

Duncan, Miss E., B.Sc.

♦Duhig, J. V., M.B

Dunstan, B.

Elliott, C. E. (Senr.)

Epps, A. P.

Evans, C. K., M.Sc.

Fisher, N., B.Sc.

Fison, D. G., B.Sc.

Ferricks, Miss E. M.

Fitzgerald, Miss M., B.Sc.

Ford, F. Campbell

Fortescue, L.

♦Francis, W. D.

Freeman, C. B.

Frew, A. E. Harding, B.E.

Gibson, J. Lockhart, M.D.

♦Gillies, C. D., M.B., B.S., M.Sc.
♦Goddard, Prof. E. J., B.A., D.Sc.

Graff, R., M.B., B.S

♦Grey, Mrs. B. B., F.L.S.

Greene, Miss A. . .

Gross, E. R.

♦Gurney, E. H.

♦Hamlyn-Harris, R., D.Sc.

Hardie, Sir David, M.D., M.S.

Tatong, via Benalla, Victoria
Boys’ Grammar School, Brisbane
The University, Brisbane

Water Supply and Sewerage Department,
Brisbane City Council

Steamship Chambers, Eagle Street, Brisbane
Central Technical College, Brisbane

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane

Children’s Hospital, Brisbane
Sherwood, Brisbane

“ Le Jardin,” Westbourne Street, Dutton
Park, S. Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane

Geological Survey, Edward Street, Brisbane
Wickham Terrace, Brisbane

Prickly- Pear Laboratory, Sherwood, Bris-
bane

Health Department, Brisbane
Girls’ Grammar School, Brisbane
Wickham Terrace, Brisbane
Franklin Street, Annerley, Brisbane
356 Queen Street, Brisbane
Sugar Refinery, New Farm
Ipswich Technical College, Ipswich
Staff Quarters, Mt. Isa Mines Ltd., Mt. Isa
O’Connell Street, Kangaroo Pt., Brisbane
Old Sandgate Rd., Eagle Junction, Brisbane
Children’s Hospital, Brisbane

“ Stanford,” Kennedy Terrace, Red Hill
Brisbane

New Zealand Chambers, 334 Queen St.,
Brisbane

Botanic Gardens, Brisbane

City Buildings, Edward Street, Brisbane

T. and G. Buildings, Queen St., Brisbane

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane

Ridge Street, Northgate

The University, Brisbane

District Hospital, Alpha

Union Bank of Australasia, Broome,
Western Australia

High School, Wynnum

Manager, W. D. and H. 0. Wills Ltd.,
Ann Street, Brisbane

Agricultural Chemist’s Laboratory, William
Street, Brisbane

Town Hall, Brisbane
“ Blythsdale,”’ Hamilton, Brisbane

fLife Members.

♦Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

XXIII.

♦Hardy, G. H.

Harris, V. E. G., B.Sc

♦Hawken, Professor R. W., B.A., M.E.,

M.Inst.C.E

1 * Henderson, J. B., F.I.C.

* Herbert, D. A., D.Sc

Herdsman, L. P. . .

*Hill, Miss D., M.Sc

* Hines, H. J., B.Sc

Holds worth, Miss N. M., B.Sc.

Hitchcock, L. F., M.Sc

Hirschfield, 0. S., M.B.

Hossfeld, P. S., M.Sc

fHulsen, R.

Jack, Thos.

Jackson, A. G.

♦Jensen, H. I., D.Sc.

Jones, Miss G.

Jones, A. J., M.L.A.

Jones, Inigo

♦Jones, Owen, M.Sc.

♦Jones, T. G. H., D.Sc., A.A.C.I,

Jorgensen, G. H. . .

Just, J. S.

Kelly, N. L., B.Sc

Kemp, J. R.

Kerr, W. H., Ph.D., M.Sc

Kyle, W. M., M.A

♦Lambert, C. A.

♦Legg, J. D. V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S

L’Estrange, W. M.

Lethbridge, Miss M. E. . .

Lewcock, H. K., M.Sc.

♦Longman, H. A., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S.

♦Love, W., M.B., Ch.M

Lowson, Professor J. P., M.A., M.D. . .
Lydon, R. J.

♦Mackerras, Mrs. Ian, M.B.

Mandelson, L. F., B.Sc.Agr.

Marks, Hon. Dr.

Biology Department, University, Brisbane
The Southport School, Southport
The University, Brisbane

Government Analyst, Brisbane

Biology Department, University, Brisbane

Government Printing Office, George St.,
Brisbane

Newnham College, Cambridge
The University, Brisbane
Queensland Museum, Brisbane
Kedron Park Road, Wooloowin
Wickham Terrace, Brisbane
Department of Home Affairs, Canberra.
Valley Corner, Brisbane
Cunningham Street, Dalby
Synchronome Co., Elizabeth St., Brisbane
Attewell Street, Nundah
Children’s Hospital
Parliament House, Brisbane

Bower Street, off Gladstone Road, South
Brisbane

Sydney Street, Eagle Junction, Brisbane

Chemistry Department, The University,
Brisbane

care of Australian Chemical Co, Grey St.,
South Brisbane

Box 1067N., G.P.O., Brisbane

care of Department of Agriculture and
Stock, Brisbane

Main Roads Commission, Albert Street,
Brisbane

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane

University, Brisbane

care of Bank of N.S.W., Melbo urne, Vic

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Townsville

Box 546 H, G.P.O., Brisbane
Children’s Hospital, Brisbane
Department of Agriculture, Brisbane
Queensland Museum, Brisbane
1 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane
“ Inchcolm,” Wickham Terrace, Brisbane
Central Technical College, Brisbane
Box 109, Canberra, F.C.T.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane

101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane

fLife Members.

♦Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

XXIV.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Marks, A. H., C.B.E., D.S.O., M.D. . .
♦Marks, E. 0., M.D., B.A., B.E.

♦Massey, Rev. C. H.

Mathewson, J. H. R., M.B., Ch.B.

McDonald, S. F., M.D., M.R.C.P.

McDougall, W. A., B.Sc

McDowall, Val., M.D

McKenzie, A. D., M.B., Ch.M.

Meyers, E. S., M.B.

Michael, Rev. N. . .

Moorhouse, F. W., M.Sc.

Morris, L. C., A.M.I.C.E

Morton, C. C., A.C.T.S.M

Morwood, R. B., M.Sc. . .

Muir, Miss E., B.Sc.

Murphy, Ellis, M.D.

♦Murray, Professor J. K., B.A., B.Sc.Agr.

O’Connor, E. A., M.Sc.

Ogilvie, C., B.E.

Parker, Geo., L.D.S. (Eng^, H.D.D.
R.C.S. (Edin.)

Parker, W. R., L.D.S

♦Parnell, Professor T., M.A.

Payne, W. L.

♦Pearce, Mrs. T. R., M.Sc.

Perkins, F. A., B.Sc.Agr.

Phillips, T. J

♦Pound, C. J., F.R.M.S

Preston, G.

Price, T. A., M.B., B.S.

♦Reid, J. H

Reye, A. J., M.B.

♦Richards, Professor H. C., D.Sc.

f Riddell, R. M

Ridgeway, J. E. . .

Rimmer, T., M.Sc.

Robertson, W. N., M.B...

Russell, E., M.B., Ch.M

Schindler, C., B.Sc.,Agr.

Scott, Miss F. E.

Sharp, A. F., B.E.

Shaw, B. E., A.M.I.E

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane
101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane
Ekebin, Brisbane

Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace,
Brisbane

“ Fancourt,” Wickham Terrace, Brisbane
Department of Agriculture, Mackay
Preston House, Queen Street, Brisbane
Russell Street, Toowoomba

Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace,
Brisbane

The Rectory, Ayr, North Queensland
Marine Department, Brisbane

Department of Public Instruction, George
Street, Brisbane

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane

Girls’ High School, Gympie
97 Wickham Street, Brisbane

Agricultural High School and College,
Gatton

The University, Brisbane
District Engineer, Winton
Derby Street, Highgate Hill, Brisbane

185 Edward Street, Brisbane

The University, Brisbane

Lands Department, Brisbane

Box 487, P.O., Townsville

The University, Brisbane

care of Daily Mail, Queen Street, Brisbane

Bacteriological Institute, Yeerongpilly

Gregory Terrace, Brisbane

Toowoomba

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane

97 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane

The University, Brisbane

Department of Public Instruction, Brisbane

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane

University, Brisbane

“ Craigston,” 217 Wickham Terrace,
Brisbane

63 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane
Agric. College, Gatton
Scott Road, Herston

Irrigation Commission, College Road, Bris-
bane

Irrigation Commission, College Road, Bris-
bane

fLife Members.

♦Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

XXV.

Shepherd, E. M., B.E.

Shepherd, S. R. L.

Simmonds, J. H., M.Sc.

Simmonds, J. H., senr.

Simonds, Prof. E. F., M.A., B.Sc., Ph.D.

♦Smith, F. B., B.Sc., F.I.C

Smith, J. H., M Sc.

Steel, W. H., M.B

Steele, Professor B. D.. D.Sc., F.R.S.
Stephenson, S., M.A.

Stoney, A. J., B.E.E.

Sylow, Paul

Taylor, G. C., M.B., Ch.M

Theodore, Hon. E. G.

Thompson, C. L., B.D.Sc.

♦Tibbits, P. C

t Tilling, H. W., M.R.C.S. (Eng.), L.R.C.T.
(Lond.)

Tommerup, E. C., B.Sc...

♦Tryon, H. . .

♦Turner, A. J., M.D., F.E.S.

Veitch, R., B.Sc

Vickery, J., Ph.D.

Waddle, I., M.Sc.

Wadley, J. B

fWalkom, A. B., D.Sc.

Watkins, S. B., M.Sc.

Wells, W. G

♦White, C. T., F.L.S

White, E. L. D., B.E

White, M., M.Sc.

♦Whitehouse, F. W., Ph.D., M.Sc.

Wilson, R.

Wood, E. J. Ferguson, M.Sc.

Irrigation Commission, College Road, Bris-
bane

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane

Department of Agriculture and Stock
Brisbane

Hillsdon Road, Taringa, Brisbane
University, Brisbane.

Hutton’s Factory, Zillmere

Court House, Cairns

Rosemount Hospital, Windsor

The University, Brisbane

Boys’ Grammar School, Brisbane

The University, Brisbane

Angus Street, Bardon

Children’s Hospital, Brisbane

Commonwealth Offices, Sydney

Club Chambers, Creek Street, Brisbane

Irrigation Commission, College Road, Bris-
bane

Town Hall, Brisbane

Regent Estate, Batang Malaka, Negri
Sembilam, Fed. Malay States

Gladstone Road, Highgate Hill, Brisbane
131 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane

c/o C.S.I.R., Edward Street, Brisbane

Brisbane State High School, Musgrave
Park, Brisbane

State School, Severnlea

Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney

Central Technical College, Brisbane

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane

Government Botanist, Botanic Gardens,
Brisbane

St. John’s College, Kangaroo Pt., Brisbane

Dept, of Biochemistry, University College,
London

Geological Department, University,
Brisbane

Kirkland Avenue, Coorparoo
Scot’s College, Warwick

tLife Members.

♦Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

CONTENTS

VOLUME XLIV.

No. 1. — Presidential Address : By D, A. Herbert , D.Sc. Issued 18th
July, 1932 .. .. .. ..

No. 2. — The Production of Protein by Inorganic Material : Evidence
Suggestive of the Generation of Life : By W. D. Francis.
Issued 8th August, 1932 . . . . , ,

No. 3. — Notes on Australian Stratiomyiidae : By G. H. Hardy.

Issued 13th September, 1932

No. 4. — A Revision of the Australian Species of the Coral Genera
Spongophyllum E. & H. and Endophyllum E. & H. with A
Note on Aprophyllum Smith: By 0. A. Jones , M.Sc., F.G.8.
Issued 24th September, 1932

No. 5. — Preliminary Note on the Geology of Mount Barney : By

Professor H. C. Richards, D.Sc., W. H. Bryan, D.Sc., and F. W.
Whitehouse , Ph.D. Issued 28th September, 1932

No. 6. — Note on the Stratigraphical Significance of Monilopora
Nicholsoni: By W. H. Bryan, M.C., D.Sc. Issued 4th

October, 1932

No. 7. — The Australian Species of Macroteleia and Prosapegus
(Scelionidae) Hymenoptera : By Alan P. Dodd. Issued 7th

February, 1933

No. 8.— The Geomorphology of the Moreton District, Queensland :
An Interpretation : By C. A. Sussmilch, F.G.S. Issued 15th

February, 1933 .. .. .. .. .. . .

No. 9. — Some Observations on the Physiography of the Brisbane
River and Neighbouring Watersheds : By E. O. Marks,

B.E., M.D. Issued 20th February, 1933

No. 10. — Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora. Part V.

Eriostemon Glasshousiensis : By T. G. H . Jones, D.Sc.,

A.A.C.I. Issued 1st March, 1933

No. 11— On the Presence of Glendonites in the Dawson Valley : By
F. W. Whitehouse, Ph.D., M.Sc. Issued 17th March, 1933 . .

Report of the Council . . .. .. ..

Abstract of Proceedings

List of Library Exchanges

Pages

1-22

23-40

> Ktt? |

41-49

50-63

64-70

||

71-74

75-103

104-131

132-150

151-152

153-155

iv-vi.

VII.-XVIL

XVIII.-XX.

List of Members

XXI.-XXV.

QUEENSLAND

FOR 1933.

VOL XLV.

The authors of the severed papers are individually responsible
for the statements made therein.

ISSUED 6th JUNE, 1954.

PRICE FIFTEEN SHILLINGS

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Keilin, D. (1929) Proc. Roy. Soc. B, vol. 104, p. 207.

Lesage, P. (1895) Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot., vol. 1, p. 309.

The corresponding references in the text should be :

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PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

QUEENSLAND

FOR 1933.

VOL XLV.

The authors of the several papers are individually responsible
for the statements made therein.

ISSUED 6th TUNE, 1934.

PRICE FIFTEEN SHILLINGS

Printed for the Society
by

H. POLE & CO. PTY. LTD., Printers, Elizabeth Street, Brisbane

The Royal Society of Queensland.

Patron :

HIS EXCELLENCY, LIEUTENANT-COLONEL THE RIGHT HON. SIR LESLIE
ORME WILSON, G.C.S.I., G.C.I.E., P.C., C.M.G., D.S.O.

OFFICERS, 1933-1934.

President :

R. W. CILENTO, M.D., B.S.

Vice-Presidents :

T. G. H. JONES, D.Sc., A.A.C.I.
J. S. JUST, M.I.M.E.

Hon. Treasurer :
E. W. BICK.

Hon. Secretary :

F. A. PERKINS, B.Sc., Agr.

Hon. Librarian :

W. D. FRANCIS.

Hon. Editors :

W. H. BRYAN, M.C., D.Sc.
L. F. HITCHCOCK, M.Sc.

Members of the Council :

D. A. HERBERT, D.Sc., H. A. LONGMAN, F.L.S., E. 0. MARKS, B.A., M.D.,
H. C. RICHARDS, D.Sc., C. T. WHITE, F.L.S.

Trustees :

F. BENNETT, B.Sc., J. B. HENDERSON, F.I.C., A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D.

Hon. Auditor :

J. S. JUST, M.I.M.E.

Bankers :

COMMONWEALTH BANK OF AUSTRALIA.

CONTENTS.

VOLUME XLV.

No. 1. — Presidential Address: By T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I.

Pages

Issued 4th July, 1933

1-11

No. 2. — Notes on Australian Syrphinae (Diptera) : By G. H. Hardy .
Issued 15th August, 1933

12-19

No. 3. — Serum Inhibition of Haemolysis : By J. V. Duhig, M.B .
Issued 6th September, 1933

20-22

No. 4. — Two Australian Pandani : By Professor U. Martelli. Issued
22nd November, 1933

23-26

No. 5. — The Genus Pleiogynium in Papua : By C. T. White. Issued
22nd November, 1933

27-28

No. 6. — A Note on Some Preliminary Experiments with Ammonia as
a Lure for the Queensland Fruit Fly : By F. A. Perkins,
B.Sc., Agr., and H. J. G. Hines, B.Sc. Issued 28th Decem-
ber, 1933 ..

29-

No. 7. — Notes on Australian Muscoidea ( Calyptrata) : By G. H. Hardy.
Issued 6th February, 1934

30-37

No. 8. — The Constitution of Campnospermonol : By Thomas Gilbert
Henry Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I. Issued 20th February, 1934..

38-40

No. 9. — New Australian Trypetidae with Notes on Previously
Described Species : By F. A. Perkins, B.Sc. Agr. Issued 22nd

February, 1934 . . . . . . . . . . . .

41-^4

No. 10. — Reactions of Tagetone. Part I : By Thomas Gilbert Henry
Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I. Issued 27th February, 1934 ..

45-49

No. 11. — The Problem of the Brisbane Tuff: By Professor H. C.

Richards, D.Sc., and W. C. Bryan, D.Sc. Issued 13th March,
1934.. ..

50-62

No. 12. — The Lower Carboniferous Corals of Australia : By Dorothy
Hill, M.Sc., Ph.D. Issued 25th May, 1934

63-115

Report of the Council

iv.-vi.

Abstract of Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vn.-xiv.

List of Library Exchanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv.-xvii.

. . xviii.-xxii.

List of Members

Vol. XLV., No. 1.

1

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS

By T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I., Department of Chemistry, Univer-
sity of Queensland.

( Delivered before the Royal Society of Queensland , 27 th March , 1933).

The report of the Council of the Society as presented this evening
has placed the present position before you and it is scarcely necessary
for me to enlarge upon it. The number of papers published has been
well up to standard and the proceedings to be issued will not suffer
by comparison with previous years. I must confess, however, to some
little anxiety regarding the finances of the Society as our balance
sheet shows only a small surplus ; considerably less than that of last
year. The effect of the withdrawal of the Government subsidy is
probably beginning to show itself and it will be necessary for the
incoming Council to keep a careful eye on expenditure. There is
also the obligation upon members of meeting their annual subscription
at an early date and also of introducing new members, while at the
same time persuading those who may be contemplating severing their
connection with the Society to refrain from doing so. It is only by
the loyal co-operation of all those who have the welfare of our Society
at heart that we can overcome our difficulties and not lower our
standard.

During the period under review the Society has sustained the
loss of two members in the deaths of Mr. G. J. Saunders and Dr. Wilton
Love. Mr. Saunders, a graduate of our University, at the time of his
death was Principal of the Ipswich Technical College and was well
known in scientific circles in Queensland.

Dr. Wilton Love laboured long and well at his profession and
during his many years of association with the Royal Society had shown
a close interest in scientific work and contributed to our proceedings.

We deeply regret the deaths of these two and the Society is the
poorer by their passing.

The Elements and their Relationship

A former President of this Society whose interests are chemical
expressed the view that some later President might find it convenient
to discuss in his address the progress that has been made in Chemical
Science during the twentieth century. The magnitude of such a task
is self evident to any one who has followed the development of chemical
science during the last thirty years and I have selected, inconsequence,
a subject which, while conforming to the idea of a review of progress
made, nevertheless narrows down that review to a reasonable scope.
The endeavour will be made not only to focus attention on fundamental
advances affecting the subject as a whole rather than those of specific
sections, but also to present those advances in simple and, I trust,
readily understandable language, unobscured by the symbols which
are apt to deter the non-chemist.

2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

It can no d'oubt be said with some truth that the ultimate aim of
scientific thought has always been the reduction of physical relation-
ships to a purely mathematical basis. This purpose manifested itself
even in remote times in the answer given by the school of Pythagoras
to the fundamental problem- — the nature of the primordial substance.
One school of Greek thought claimed to recognize the elementary
principle in empirically known substances, such as earth, fire, air and
water. Another school identified it with abstract metaphysical
conceptions such as the Infinite Being. The Pythagoreans, however,
regarded Number as the Universal basis and thus foreshadowed in a
curious way the development which has led to the present day theory
of the elements. The crowning point of this development may be
seen in the enormous advances in atomic theory between 1920 and the
present day, which reduce the system of the chemical elements to a
series of comparatively simple arithmetical relationships.

The earlier history of this great discovery dates back to the year
1869 when it was independently established by Lothar Meyer and by
Mendeleeff that the elements, when arranged in increasing order of
atomic weights, showed a regular recurring periodicity in their
characteristic chemical and physical properties. Mendeleeff gave us
the periodic system of classification of the chemical elements, which
has since remained as the only rational basis for their chemical study.

Most of the scientists of the present day have grown up in a science
wherein radioactivity, X-rays, electrons, etc., are taken for granted.
If asked to name the most important scientific discovery of modern
times most of us would no doubt at once reply “ the discovery of
radium.” It is certain that the discovery of radium and the almost
simultaneous discovery of X-rays have exercised a very profound,
almost revolutionary influence on most branches of science, chemistry
and physics in particular, and it may not be uninteresting to go back
prior to that time and glance at the ideas then in evidence.

The conception of the atom held by the chemist of a generation
or so ago was that of a homogeneous, incompressible particle, probably
spherical in form and certainly indivisible into anything finer. This
particle was assumed to have existed unchanged throughout the past
and it wa£ believed that it would persist in the same unaltered state
through all time to be. Chemical compounds might crumble and
decay but the atomic particles were endowed with eternal permanence.
The atom, too, was a purely hypothetical thing ; no direct proof of the
existence of the atoms could be produced although the evidence in
favour of the atomic theory was sufficiently convincing for most
chemists.

The original definition of an element due to Boyle was a purely
empirical one. An element was something impossible to break up
by any available means. This definition did not remain unqualified,
any 44 available means ” being translated into any chemical means.
Chemical analysis became the ultimate court of appeal in the problem
of the elements, and the term £t element ” came to suggest a material
endowed with chemical character which differentiated it from all other
elemental matter and permitted of its isolation from other elements
by purely chemical methods.

There was likewise the further idea that the relative weights of
atoms could be determined by purely chemical methods and hence the

THE ELEMENTS AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP

3

conception of the chemical element became associated with that of its
atomic weight.

With the coming of Dalton’s atomic theory, the older conception
of the element was re-stated in atomic terms and it became an accepted
theory that the chemical element could only be a material composed
of atoms, all of which had the same chemical character.

From the time of Newlands (1863) up to 1913 the periodic system
of classification of the elements rested upon the basis of chemical
atomic weights. The places in the periodic system of classification
clearly represented a series of detached forms of matter. Certain
anomalies there were, which were well known, namely, the positions
of argon and potassium, iodine and tellurium, cobalt and nickel, in
which cases the chemical sequence Was different from that inferred
from the atmoic weight.

The discovery of the inert gases of the atmosphere by Rayleigh
and Ramsay in the years 1894-1905 not only gave to the periodic
system a symmetry which it previously lacked but, in addition, dis-
closed a novel form of matter with no chemical properties.

In 1888 Crookes predicted that “ an absence of absolute homo-
geneity may possibly yet be traced in many of the elements ” so that
under the name element it would be necessary to include a mixed

material.

The periodic system of classification as devised by Mendeleeff
and subsequently amended by the insertion of the rare gases and the
discovery of new elements could be accurately described before 1910,
at all events, as “ a completely unsolved riddle, the meaning of which
seems scarcely hidden beneath the surface and yet perpetually eludes
the grasp.”

I have already referred to the discovery of radium and the X-
rays as being the most notable discoveries during comparatively
recent times and it is to them that we owe the remarkable advances
that have materially helped to solve the “ unsolved riddle of the
periodic system of classification.”

In 1913 a fresh time of research was opened up which threw light
upon the problem of the elements from a new angle.

Moseley in his investigation of the X-ray spectra of the elements
brought out a direct relationship between this physical property and
the sequence of the elements in the periodic system and further work
proved that all forms of matter which could be represented by a single
place in the table emitted the same X-ray spectrum. This gave an
entirely new criterion wherewith to judge the claim of a form of matter
to a place in the table.

Moseley found that the X-ray spectra discovered by him contained
line series which, while differing in wave-lengths for the various lines,
were all of the same type. He further made the surprising discovery
that the chemical elements could be arranged in a numerical series
in such a way that the lines shifted with great regularity from element
to element as the series was traversed. The displacement occurs with
such precision that any gap in the series is immediately indicated by
an excessive displacement.

If we construct the so called “ natural sequence of the elements ”
on the basis of the X-ray spectra we find that it is in essential agree-

4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

ment with the series arranged in increasing order of atomic weights,
but nevertheless Moseley’s discovery first made possible an accurate
representation of the periodic system and enabled apparent anomalies
to be understood. Moseley was able to assign to every element its
atomic number, that is to say, its number in direct “ sequence ” com-
mencing with hydrogen as 1 and ending with uranium which was 92.
This definitely fixed the number of elements below uranium and indi-
cated how many unknown elements were to be expected.

Before Moseley’s work had been carried out it had already been
pointed out by Soddy in 1910 that certain members of the radioactive
group of elements exhibited a complete identity of chemical be-
haviour and were thus entitled to be placed in the same position in the
periodic system of classification and in order to express the idea Soddy
coined the word “ isotopes,” that is to say, a group of two or more
elements occupying the same place in the periodic system of classifi-
cation ; chemically identical and non-separable.

It was soon recognised that isotopic forms might not however,
belong exclusively to the radioactive elements and as a matter of
fact the first discovery of isotopes was made by means of positive ray
analysis in the case of two forms of neon but the meaning of the experi-
mental result was not then grasped. It became clear that Crookes’
general idea of the absence of complete homogeneity was true.

Tne work of Sir J. J. Thomson on positive rays followed by Aston
with the mass spectrograph has placed the existence of the isotopes
beyond all doubt and has substantially altered our views regarding
“ chemical atomic weights.”

A very large number of the elements has been shown by Aston to
be heterogeneous, atoms chemically inseparable, but of different
weights and with the aid of the mass spectrograph Aston was able to
analyse different elements and not only produce information regarding
the existence of the isotopes, but also to measure their masses as well.
In an incredibly short space of time Aston determined more atomic
weights than all the other workers on the subject combined.

The atomic weights as determined by ordinary methods thus
represent an average value of the various isotopic atoms making up
the heterogeneous element.

If we may quote from Aston’s work, element neon consists of three
isotopes of masses 20, 22, and 21. Zinc consists of seven isotopes of
masses 64, 66, 68, 67, 65, 70 and 69. Tin consists of no less than
eleven isotopes of masses 120, 118, 116, 124, 119, 117, 122, 121, 112,
114, 115. Xenon consists of nine. Mercury of seven and lead four of
masses 208, 206, 207, 209. (The masses in these cases are quoted in
order of intensities). Other examples are numerous and complete
lists for the first forty examples are now available. In most cases the
numbers determined are whole numbers without fractional parts, thus
vindicating to some extent Prout’s idea of one hundred years ago that
the elements were built up by the combination of hydrogen atoms,
their atomic weights in consequence being integers.

The accuracy with which Aston could work with the mass spec-
trograph was limited to about 1 part in 10,000 so that, if the proportion
of one isotope fell below that ratio it could not be detected by the
mass spectrograph. Certain elements which in his results appeared
to be homogeneous have, however, during the last year or two, been
shown to be heterogeneous by entirely different methods.

THE ELEMENTS AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP

5

It was originally suggested by R. S. Mulliken that new isotopes
might be detected by examining isotopic lines in band spectra and the
study resulted in the discovery of two new isotopes of oxygen, one of
carbon, one of nitrogen and possibly one of beryllium. In the case of
oxygen, isotopes of atomic weights 17 and 18 additional to the ordinary
16 have been discovered and the proportions in the ratio 16 : 18 : 17
are 10,000, 8 and 1. An isotype of carbon with atomic weight 13
additional to the ordinary 12 has also been discovered but the propor-
tion is very small and impossible of detection by the mass spectrograph.
An isotope of nitrogen with an atomic weight of 15 additional to the
ordinary 14 has been discovered, the proportions being about 1 to 800.

Thus elements such as carbon and oxygen formerly considered
quite homogeneous have now been shown to consist of mixtures of
atoms of different masses. There is the added interest in the case of
oxygen that the mass 16 has been chosen as the standard for atomic
weights but actually the mass is a little greater than the mass of its
main constituent O16 by about 1.25 parts per 10,000. This quantity
is of little significance to chemists partly because it is very small and
partly because the ratio of the isotopes is probably invariable but
physicists aiming at an accuracy in the masses of atoms of 1 part in
100,000 must find the chemical unit unsuitable.

In the light of these results it is therefore clear that the spaces in
the periodic system of classification do not represent the positions of
homogeneous material but in most cases mixtures of atoms of
different masses which are chemically indistinguishable. The border
line between the elements must therefore definitely remain for the
present at any rate as one of chemical analysis.

We will next proceed to deal with the relationship of the elements
with each other. That the elements are related to one another in
some way must have been assumed even if unconsciously by the
alchemists as otherwise there could have been little basis for their work
in attempting transmutation and the very fact of the existence of the
periodic system of classification further suggests some relationship.

Little progress was possible in connection with this problem until
the knowledge of radioactive changes and transformations was made
as complete as possible and the spontaneous change of one element
into another such as occurs in these series recognised as being some-
thing which required a definite scheme of atomic structures.

Many hypothetical structures have been proposed from time to
time but practically none have survived apart from what is known as
the Rutherford atom. The present day view of the atom postulates
a nucleus wherein the whole mass of the atom is concentrated and
experiments suggest a diameter for this mucleus in heavy atoms of
4 x 10~12cms. or about of the whole of the atom diameter.
This nucleus probably contains protons (hydrogen nuclei) equal in
number to the mass number of the element and as each of these protons
carries one positive charge the total number of positive charges in the
nucleus is equal to the mass number of the atom under consideration.
Closely associated with these protons is a group of electrons and the
number of these electrons is found by subtracting the atomic number
of the element from the mass number of the element in question.

6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

This arrangement yields a nucleus having a surplus positive charge
numerically equal to the atomic number of the element. The atomic
number of an element corresponds to the positive charge on the
nucleus of an atom and it was this charge which Moseley actually
determined in his work on atomic numbers.

We may take the element lithium as an example. Its atomic
number is 3 and Aston has determined masses of 6 and 7 for the element.
In the nucleus therefore of one lithium atom there must be 6 protons
and 3 electrons, while in another (the isotope) 7 protons and 4 electrons,
leaving in both cases a surplus charge of 3.

This gives us a clear idea of the meaning of isotopes, merely atoms
with the same charge on the nucleus irrespective of their mass.
Theoretically an infinite number of isotopes is possible for any element
— we may take uranium as an example with a nuclear charge of 92.
If by some means we could introduce 91 more electrons into its nucleus,
thus reducing its charge to 1, we would have an isotype of hydrogen
with the mass of uranium.

Since an atom is electrically neutral, surrounding the nucleus
there must be a series of electrons corresponding in number to the
atomic number of the element. Thus, as we progress through the
periodic table we increase the nuclear charge by one as we move from
element to element and therefore the electrons surrounding the nucleus
commences with 1 for hydrogen, 2 for helium and so on up to 92 for
uranium.

The individuality of an atom resides in the nucleus, and since
chemical analysis has in no case changed one element into another,
it is clear that no chemical reaction has any effect on the nucleus.
Spontaneous change in the nucleus of certain radioactive atoms is
continually going on but it is as yet beyond our control and not subject
to chemical influence. Although it is clear that the nucleus of an
atom must have a special structure, that particular structure appears
as yet to be of little concern to the chemist, but it is a problem of major
interest to physicists. Recent theories regarding the structure of the
nucleus may be found discussed by Rutherford (1932). Papers dealing
with the existence of what is known as a neutron have also appeared,
Chadwick (1932). Some work has been carried out also, in the actual
transformation of certain elements into others.

Thus using the a-particle from radioactive sources as a projectile
(and this projectile mass for mass has an energy 400 millions times as
great as a rifle bullet), Rutherford and others have succeeded in
shattering a very small proportion of the nuclei of certain atoms with
the production of others. In this way bombardment of the nitrogen
atom by the a-particle has resulted in the elimination of a proton
from the nitrogen nucleus, while the a-particle is captured. The result
is an atom with a mass of 14 -f- 4 — 1 ■ 17, while the nuclear

charge has increased by 1, that is an isotope of oxygen with mass 17.
As already mentioned an isotope of mass 17 has been discovered for
oxygen and it may have been produced in this way in nature. Many
other elements, such as neon, magnesium, silicon, sulphur, chlorine,
aluminium, argon and potassium behave in the same way ; the nucleus

THE ELEMENTS AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP

7

suffers disruption if a favourable collision with the powerful a-particle
projectile takes place and in most cases one proton is ejected. This
must constitute a transmutation of the elements on an infinitesimal
scale.

More recently interesting new experiments have been made
particularly in the Cavendish Laboratory with an apparatus designed
to give 600-800 thousand volts.

Protons produced in an auxiliary discharge tube were accelerated
by this high potential in a discharge tube and this steady stream of
swift protons used to bombard a number of elements. Lithium was
the first element examined and it is believed that the lithium atom
of mass 7 captures one proton making the total mass 8 and the result-
ing nucleus breaks up into two a-particles. Other elements such as
boron, flourine, aluminium, carbon and nitrogen appear to behave
similarly and give rise to a-particles.

It is obvious that much further work is needed in this field and it
is being undertaken by Rutherford and his co-workers.

It is probable as we proceed from element to element in the periodic
system some change in structure in the nucleus of a regular character
occurs and the real relationship of the elements to each other would
be found in this particular change. But to the chemist the change in
chemical character as we pass from element to element is of funda-
mental concern, and it is the arrangement of electrons around the
nucleus which interests him most. For chemical change seems to be
the result of the removal or utilisations of these outer electrons by forces
such as one can regulate in the laboratory. Much attention has there-
fore been given to .the particular arrangement of what are known as
the planetary electrons around the atomic nucleus. We have 92 such
electrons starting with one for hydrogen and progressively increasing
by one as we climb the table. How are these arranged around the
nucleus ? The answer has been supplied during recent years and
enables us to understand — if not entirely, the periodic system of
classification from a new angle.

It is here as stated in the earlier portion of this address that re-
duction to a purely arithmetical basis has been effected.

It has been found that four (so called quantum) numbers are
necessary to afford a complete picture of the electronic motions. This
is readily understandable from the fact that the movement of an
electron requires 3 degrees of freedom while a fourth arises from the
spin of the electron on its own axis. These four numbers have been
called the principal, subordinate, magnetic and spin quantum numbers
and are all expressed by simple arithmetical terms.

Thus the principal quantum called large N runs from 1 upwards,
each corresponding to a period in the periodic system. Thus there are
7 such numbers required 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. The subordinate quantum
number l possesses N values for each particular value of N and is
numbered from 0 upwards 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. The magnetic quantum
number m possesses 21 -f- 1 values for each value of the subordinate
number and may thus be any integer from — l to +' l. Thus if Z is 3
the values for m are — 3, — 2, — 1, 0, +1, +2, +3, i.e., 21 -f- 1 or 7
values. The fourth spin quantum number can only have two values
corresponding to its spin and these are given values of +J and — J.

8

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Thus we arrive at the following table : —

Combination of the principal, subordinate and magnetic quantum
numbers.

N #;

1

l = 0

m =

0

N =

2

l 1 0

m =

0

N =

2

l = 1

m =

— 1, o,

+1

N =

O

l = 0

m =

0

N =

3

l = 1

m —

-1, 0,

+1

N =

3

l = 2

m =

2,

— 1, 0,

+ 1 5 +2

N =

4

l || 0

m —

0

N =

4

l = 1

m —

—1, 0,

gbl

N =

4

l = 2

m =

2,

-1, 0,

N =

4

l - 3

m =

-3,-2,

—i, o,

+ W.+2,

+ 3

In 1925 the key to the understanding of the periodic system was
discovered by Pauli in the principle according to which two electrons
in a single atom can never coincide in all four quantum numbers. Thus
according to this so called Exclusion Principle each of the combina-
tions given in the table can be realised by two electrons at most in the
same atom.

Thus when N = 1 we have the two following possibilities only

1, 0, 0 + i 1, 0, 0 —i

When N — 2 we have the following possibilities :■ —

2, 0, 0, §9 2, 0, 0 —b

2, 1, —1, -fj 2, 1, —1, —i

2, 1, 0 +i 2, 1, 0, — i

2, 1, +1, -}- 1 2, 1, — (— 1 , — \

making 8 altogether or 4 pairs.

When N = 3 the number is obviously in the same way 16 and
when N = 4 the number is obviously 32.

When there is agreement in the first three numbers and difference
only in the fourth (or spin quantum number) the electrons are said
to be paired.

From these considerations it follows that the first quantum group
can only hold 2 electrons, the second quantum group 8, the third 16,
the fourth 32 and so on.

Now in considering the relationships of the elements we are struck
by the unique position of the rare gases. In their electronic arrange-
ments conditions of great stability obtain as is obvious from their chemi-
cal inertness which means that the electrons are not easily removable.
It is clear too that when a rare gas is reached as we proceed along the

THE ELEMENTS AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP

9

table, it coincides with the completion of an addition of 8 electrons
to the outermost group and with the rare gases the outermost group
of electrons is always 8 (excepting helium).

: have

the development :

: —

He

2

Ne

2, 8

Ar

2, 8,

8

Kr

2, 8,

18,

8

Xe

2 8
"5 U)

18,

18,

8

Nt

2 8
^ , u;

18,

32,

18, 8

Krypton is not 2, 8, 8, 18 as we might at first sight suppose.

We are now in a position to understand the reason why there is a
recurrence of chemical properties as we proceed along the periodic
system. Take the alkalies as an example : —

Li

is

2,

1

Na

is

2,

8,

1

K

is

2,

8,

8, 1

Bb

is

2,

8,

18, 8, 1

Cs

is

2

8,

18, 18,

In every case there is one electron over the stable arrangement of
the inert gas and this accounts for the resemblance of the alkalies as
this 1 electron is available for chemical reactions. A similar state of
affairs will be found with the halogens.

We have, F
Cl
Br
I

2, 7
2, 8, 7
2, 8, 18, 7
2, 8, 18, 18, 7

In the outermost group we have 7 electrons — one less than the
stable arrangement 8 and the great resemblance of the halogens follows
from this resemblance in electronic groupings.

We may quote one more example — an interesting one, the rare
earth elements.

Lanthanum with an atomic number 57 has the arrangement —
2, 8, 18, 18, 8 + 1, 2

The next rare earth cerium has the arrangement —

2, 8, 18, 18, + 1, 8 + 1, 2

and we proceed through the series of rare earth elements by adding
one electron at a time to the fourth group, thus,

2, 8, 18, 18 + 2, 8 + 1, 2
2, 8, 18, 18 + 3, 8 + 1, 2

2, 8, 18, 18 -f* 14, 8 + 1, 2

When 14 electrons have been added to this group the total number is
32 and reference to the table indicates that that is the maximum
number possible for the group.

The next element hafnium then has the arrangement —

2, 8, 18, 32, 8 -f 2, 2
and is obviously not a rare earth element.

10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The great similarity of the rare earths is to be found in the
identity of the two outermost shells 8 + 1, and 2.

The relationship of all the elements to one another, at all events
chemical relationship, can be seen by examining the particular arrange-
ment of the electrons for each element in a similar fashion to those
examples just quoted.

It must however be pointed out that these structures are those
of “ normal ” atoms, that is, an isolated atom of the element at a
temperature low enough for it not to radiate energy and to have its
electrons in the most stable orbits possible. In most cases these
“normal atoms” are highly unstable -but a knowledge of the structures
gives us valuable information as to the chemical behaviour of the
element.

In the table previously mentioned it has been shown that the
electrons may be paired, that is to say have the same numbers for the
first three quantum numbers, but have different spins. Now in any
atom, say hydrogen with only one electron, there cannot be a fellow
with which to pair, it is only with helium that the second one is
introduced. With lithium 2, 1, impairing is again introduced, but
with the inert gases pairing of electrons is complete.

In this pairing of electrons we have a possible explanation of
chemical reaction. London, in 1927, suggested that chemical com-
bination was to be regarded as the pairing of unpaired electrons in
different atoms. Thus the hydrogen molecule is formed by the pair-
ing of electrons of opposite spins from two hydrogen atoms. The inert
gases are inert because in their electron groupings all the electrons
are paired.

Time does not permit me to do any other than mention this
interesting theory and to add that a similar state of affairs may be
possible with the protons of the atomic nucleus. In the hydrogen
molecule, apart from the paired electrons we have just discussed, it
is possible that the two protons of the nuclei may have opposite or
identical spins. In 1927, Dennison arrived at the conclusion that
hydrogen must consist of a mixture of two different kinds of molecule.
In one kind known as ortho hydrogen, the two nuclei rotate in the
same direction, in the other known as para hydrogen, the two nuclei
rotate in the reverse sense.

This conclusion has since been verified by experiment and prac-
tically pure para hydrogen has been obtained.

It has been demonstrated that at the absolute zero, hydrogen
would revert completely but very slowly to the symmetrical form,
the change being accelerated by the use of wood charcoal as a catalyst
and by the application of high pressure.

It is believed also that nitrogen and iodine molecules also exist
in symmetrical and anti-symmetrical modes and also the compound
acetylene.

The last word does not appear to have been said with regard to
hydrogen in so far as the existence of an isotope is concerned.

Recent issues of Nature (1932), make reference to the detection of
an isotope of mass 2. Evaporation oi liquid hydrogen would result

THE ELEMENTS AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP

11

in the relative enrichment in the remaining liquid of this isotope and
evidence of the existence of the isotope has been obtained by means
of the mass spectrograph.

The mass found was 2.01351 £ .00018 [016 = 16].

Examination of ordinary hydrogen chloride showed that H2C1
was present to the extent of 1 part in 35,000. Further results will
be awaited with interest, especially as it is highly desirable that we
should know all that is to be known regarding the first element hydrogen
of atomic number 1, rightly or wrongly suggested by Prout over a
century ago as the primitive material from which all elements are built
up and therefore probably holding a unique position in the relation-
ship of the elements.

REFERENCES.

Rutherford, Sir E. (1932) Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. A, Vol. 136, No. 830, p. 735.
Chadwick, J. (1932) Ibid, p. 692.

Nature (1932) December 3rd.

12

Vol. XLV., No. 2.

Notes on Australian Syrphinae (Diptera)

By G. H. Hardy.

(Walter & Eliza Hall Fellow in Economic Entomology, Queensland
University, Brisbane).

(Tabled before the Royal Society of Queensland, 26th June, 1933).

The majority of the Syrphidae that are of economic importance,
come within the subfamily Syrphinae which was not incorporated in
the revision of the family given by the late E. W. Ferguson. There
is, however, an incomplete manuscript in the hands of Dr. I. M.
Mackerras which I have not seen and there, will be found the descrip-
tions of a number of manuscript names applied to specimens in various
collections. A study of the material named, leads me to the conclusion
that Ferguson intended to revise the genus on the plan found in
Brunetti’s paper : inserting the Australian genera that are foreign
to the Indian element. I cannot see how he intended to treat Emmyia,
Chilosia and Hemilampria, for he evidently did not recognise and
name these ; nor can I see any improvement contemplated in regard
to the treatment of species that had been placed under Melanostoma ;
nevertheless, I credit to the effort of Ferguson, the identity of most
species whether they be obvious or not. Some of the names were
applied before Ferguson began his revision.

I am indebted for the loan of some exotic genera to Dr. W. Horn,
Director of the ££ Deutscher Entomologisches Institut,” these genera
being somewhat akin to the Psilota element. It would seem that
Brunetti, Ferguson, Klocker and myself, were all a little confused in
regard to the limits of Psilota, but the study of the typical form and
other genera has now allowed me to suggest an improvement in its
treatment, making two subgenera, of which one could be raised to
generic rank if desired. As at present constituted, the genus Psilota
forms the largest unit represented in Australia, for there are many
undescribed species.

Besides my own, other collections which I have seen when com-
piling these notes, are those of the Queensland and Australian Museums,
the Ferguson collection in the School of Tropical Medicine, Sydney,
and that of Mr. F. A. Perkins. All of these contain specimens identified
under manuscript names and doubtless will be found as species des-
cribed in the Ferguson manuscripts.

Key to the genera of Syrphinae.

1 . Face with a central knob in both sexes . . . . . .

Face with a central knob on male only

Face without a central knob in either sex

2. Seen in profile, face with a conspicuous concave line between the

antennae and tubercle, or if only slightly concave, then a
bright yellow and black species . . . .

Face hardly concave between the antennae and tubercle. Dark
species, at most with yellow on only, part of the face and
scutellum

3. Abdomen very long and ‘slender, usually clubformed, and the

second segment reaching to about one third of the abdomen
Abdomen not so formed, and if slender the second segment reach-
ing not beyond one quarter of the length of the abdomen

4. Face and scutellum black

Face or scutellum at least partly yellow . .

2

11

9

3

Paragus

Baccha

4

Melanostoma

5

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN SYRPHINAE (DIPTERA)

13

6.

7.

8.

9.

Thorax with conspicuous yellow lateral margins on the dorsum,

and also the pleura with yellow parts . . . . . . 6

Thorax without, or at least with inconspicuous yellow lateral

margins and the pleurae never with yellow parts .... 8

Hind trochanter with a conspicuous spine-like process, a character

that is unique to the genus . . . . . . . . . . Ischiodon

Hind trochanters simple . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Abdomen rounded at the lateral border and without a depression

marking it off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sphaerophoria

Abdomen very flattened, the sides having an edge marked off

by a depression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~K.anthogramma,

Ocellar triangle placed well back on the head so that it is no
further than its own length, away from a line joining the

posterior border of the two eyes . . . . . . . . Syrphus

Ocellar triangle placed well forward so that it is further away
by twice its own length, from a line joining the posterior
border of the two eyes . . . . . . . . . . Asarkina

Abdomen with the third and second segments longer than wide,
and other segments inconspicuous by comparison. The
enlargement of this region is unique to the genus . . . . Triglyphus

Abdomen with the second, third and fourth segments subequal

in size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

10

Cyphipelta

Psilota

Chilosia

Head produced so that seen in profile, the antennae are as far
away from the eye as the width of the eye ; thence the face
is very concave to the oral margin which again reaches as
far from the eye

Head normal. Typically with the face long and straight and
the mouth border more or less produced forwardly ; the face,
however, may be short with a much enlarged prominence at
the mouth border, making the face concave apparently for
its whole length . All grades are found in these face characters
11. Median vein meeting the fifth radial at an acute angle, and
running parallel with the wing margin. (Besides the form
placed here, the male of which has hairy eyes, Plesia analis
Macq. runs here, too, but it can hardly be congeneric)

Median vein running into the fifth radial at right angles and

remote from the wing border . . . . Hemilampra and Chrysogaster

The following notes on the species gives the original generic name
applied by the author to the species, but are arranged under the
generic name in which they are now placed.

Genus Paragus Latrielle.

Mulio serratus Fabricius 1805, is a widely distributed form re-
corded from New Guinea, but not hitherto from Australia. It is rather
plentiful in northern Queensland and two females are from Palm
Island, May 1925, these bearing Ferguson’s identification label. It
is readily recognised by the apical half of the abdomen being yellow
with serrations along its border.

Pipiza tibialis Fall. 1817, is a species of the northern hemisphere,
but Ferguson identified one in the Queensland Museum (Brisbane,
3.ii.l914, H. Hacker) under a synonym, P. rufiventris Brunetti. This
form has the third and subsequent abdominal segments red.
Except for the face and legs which are partly yellow, there is an entirely
black specimen in my collection from Brisbane, April 1928. The
species is evidently introduced.

Genus Melanostoma Schiner.

Syrphus agrolas Walker 1849, S. expositus Walker 1852, and
possibly S. propinquus Macquart 1849, all described from Tasmania,
are names belonging to the species to which Ferguson attached
Walker’s first specific name. It is very abundant in Tasmania and

14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

the four large spots of the abdomen, together with the black face and
scutellum, makes the species readily determined. There is a close
ally with an entirely black abdomen, in the Queensland Museum.

Syrphus univittatum Wiedemann 1824, is the name applied to a
species formerly known as Syrphus planifacies Macquart 1848, in
Australia. It is the small species abundant in swamps during spring
and is represented in most collections. The tubercle of the face is
sometimes difficult to make out and at other times appears like an
obscure pair of adjacent tubercles.

Klocker’s determination of Melanostoma apicale Bigot, does not
belong here, but is referred below under Plesia analis Macquart, which
may belong to a new genus.

Genus Ischiodon Sack.

Scaeva scutellare Fabricius 1805, has many synonyms and it may
have been described from Australia under a name not yet recognised.
It is not uncommon in northern Queensland where it has been bred
by Mr. W. A. McDougal who found it infesting sugar cane aphides,
it also occurs in Brisbane. Under the name Xanthogramma scutellaris,
Ferguson has labelled specimens that may be this species, but they
miss the spine on the trochanters, whilst another specimen, is queried
as belonging to this genus and is given the same specific name. It
requires Ferguson’s manuscripts to disentangle this matter, for he does
not seem to be consistent in applying the name.

Genus Sphaerophoria St. Farg. & Serv.

Syrphus javana Wiedemann 1824, is a species with a wide range
and reaches Australia ; Melithreptus australensis Schiner 1868, is a
synonym and there may be others not recognised as belonging here.

Sphaerophoria kerteszi Klocker 1924, has more recently been
described, but Ferguson has labelled it as being S. menthastri Linnaeus
1758, the typical form of the genus. The specimens I have seen do
not agree with the description of the latter, which however, is said
to be very variable.

Genus Xanthogramma Schiner.

Syrphus grandicorne Macquart 1842, described from Port Jackson,
is perhaps the most abuntant fly of the family in Australia, occurs
abundantly in all States and has been reared from aphides in most of
them. It is also considered to be capable of feeding on scale insects
but I have seen none rearecl in this manner. It is the most dominant
species, and its wide range suggests it could be introduced into most
parts of the world.

In the manuscripts of Arthur White, it was suggested that Syrphus
pusilla Macquart 1847, is a synonym. Syrphus Sydney ensis Macquart
1846, S. pallidus Bigot 1884, and S. macrogaster Thomson 1868, none
of which have been recognised in Australia, may also be synonyms.

Genus Syrphus Fabricius.

Six species belonging to this genus and commonly met with in
collections, may be distinguished by the following key : —

Key to species of genus Syrphus.

1. Face entirely yellow ; abdomen with broad yellow bands, that on

the second segment being interrupted ...... 2

Face not entirely yellow . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN SYRPHINAE (DIPTERA)

15

2.

3.

4.

6.

Abdomen very broad and flat, the lateral margins being marked
off by a depression

Abdomen less broad and the lateral margins not marked off by a
depression

Third abdominal segment with a narrow discal black band
Third abdominal segment with bands only along the segmen-
tations, none on the discal area
Fourth abdominal segment with a discal band
Fourth abdominal segment without a discal band
Face yellow with the tubercle and oral margins black. All yellow
bands of the abdomen interrupted
Face entirely black, at most with a grey pulverulent covering
over part of the area
Abdomen black with narrow light bands

Abdomen black with interrupted light bands that appear as
semilunar spots

conf rater Wied.

3

4

sellenyi Sch.
balteatus Deg.

sp.

viridiceps Macq.

6

serarius Wied.
ortas Walk

Syrphus conf rater Wiedemann 1830, is recorded from Asia to New
Guinea and is also a well known Australian species.

Syrphus sellenyi Schiner 1868, has a slender abdomen with simple
black bands somewhat like those of the prior species. Two males
from Brisbane are before me.

Musca balteatus Degeer 1776, is the name usually applied to a
form recorded from Australia by Macquart as Syrphus alternans
Macquart 1842, from India. Brunetti elucidated the position for
India for that variable form, but in Australia the species which goes
under this name varies very little. I do not know if the species in
Australia is truely S. balteatus ; the matter requires investigation.

Syrphus sp. I have no name for this form which is somewhat
like S. balteatus in markings, but has the face covered by a light
pulverulent overlay ; the abdominal bands especially on the apical
segments are much wider.

Syrphus viridiceps Macquart 1847, has the central area of the face
black and the scutellum may be largely black, whilst the bands of the
abdomen may be broken up into six large yellow spots with traces of
another pair at the apex. This very common species may have been
described under two other names, S. collatus Walker, 1852, and S.
jacksoni Bigot 1884.

Syrphus ortas Walker 1849, was originally described from New
Zealand, and this species would seem to be identical with a common
Tasmanian form that is very dark ; the yellow bands of the abdomen
being often obscure, each being interrupted and reduced to two
semilunate spots ; also these spots may be covered with an overlay
that shines yellow or grey in accordance with the incidence of the light
reflected. Syrphus ambusta Walker 1852, may belong here.

Syrphus serarius Wiedemann 1830, is a name applied by Ferguson
to a black species with three linear pulverulent covered bands that
traverse the abdomen. The form is apparently not previously recorded
from Australia but is to be met with in Brisbane and perhaps more
frequently in scrub areas.

Two species placed here have not been recognised. Syrphus
rufiventris Macquart 1849, and Scaeva damastor Walker 1849. It is
not yet possible to suggest their generic position.

Genus Asarkina Macquart.

Two species are known to me in this genus, but Ferguson has
labelled specimens with two other names attributing them to Bezzi.

16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

As I have failed to trace these in literature, I suspect them of being
manuscript names and so omit them here.

Eristalis aegrota Fabricius 1805, has a black area across the central
part of the wing, occupying about a third of the length.

Syrphus ericetorum Fabricius 1781, has hyaline wings. Both of
these species are common in the northern parts of Queensland and the
former reaches Brisbane ; some years being rather plentiful at Sunny -
bank.

Genus Triglyphus Loew.

Triglyphus fulvicornis Bigot 1884, is known from Stanthorpe in
Queensland, to Tasmania.

Genus Baccha Fabricius.

This well known genus is well represented in Australia, several
species being bred from aphides. Two species are described, B
monobia Terry, and B. siphanticida Terry 1905 ; both are from north
Queensland. Ferguson does not seem to have identified either.

Genus Cyphipelta Bigot.

Brachyopa rufocyanea Walker 1835, a species to which the names
Eristalis vesicularis Erichson 1842, and Cyphipelta conifrons Bitgo
1859, also apply. It is not common but Mr. F. A. Perkins took
a series at Stanthorpe, and I have one from Brisbane (August 1920).
It is also known from Sydney and Bigot’s record from Tasmania needs
confirmation.

Genus Chrysog aster Meig.

There are several groups that are placed under the generic name
Chrysogaster and it seems advisable to incorporate Hemilampra
australis Macquart 1849, in this position, as it is probably congeneric
with the other forms already placed here. Chrysogaster cuproeus
Macquart 1849, and C. australis Macquart 1854, are not recognised.
Chrysogaster rectinervis deMeijere 1908, and C. rufonasus Curran &
Bryan 1926, are not certainly recognised as there seems to be a series
of species which comes near each of them.

Genus Chilosia Meigen.

Chilosia australis Macquart is a common Brisbane species having
rather dissimilar sexes. I have not seen any illustration that has such
a small area forming the eye-margins, on which character it might be
excluded from the genus, but on the other hand all the other
characters seem to indicate its alliance with the genus Chilosia in
which position it is retained.

Genus Psilota Meigen.

Numerously represented in Australia, but poorly so in other parts
of the world ; this genus has had no defined limits. Quite a number
of subsidiary groups could be made out of it but it would appear that
only two are at present worthy of recognition, the typical group having
the posterior femora without the flange, the other with it. The genus
Emmyia Klocker 1924, is but little different from the typical form, P.
anchracina of Europe and hence it is regarded as being congeneric.
Two species have not been recognised in Australian collections, but
enough is given in their descriptions to indicate their probable position
and hence are incorporated in the key.

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN SYRPHINAE (MPTERA)

17

Key to species of Psilota.

1. Hind femora, on the posterior side, indented and with a ventral

flange just before the apex . . . . . . . . . . 6

Hind femora simple and without a flange . . . . . . 2

'2. Entirely black and blue-black species (hairs excepted) . . 3

Species with the abdomen red or mainly so . . . . . . rubra Klock

3. With a golden-red pile over the apical portion of the abdomen auricaudata C. & B.

Without such pile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

4. Cross vein at apex of wing practically straight ...... 5

Crossvein at apex of wing conspicuously bent. Large species

with the crossvein sinuous . . . . . . . . queenslandica Klock

5. Abdomen hairy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hirta Klock.

Abdomen practically bare . . . . . . . . . . . . tristis Klock.

Key to species of Parapsilota.

6. Dark blue-black and steel-blue species
Vivid blue-green species

7. Abdomen blue-black
Abdomen reddish (? discoloured)

8. Hair on face bright yellow and longer than usual
Hair on face whitish . .

9. In profile the line of the face from antennae to oral margin is

approximately the same in both sexes, the oral protuberance
being of equal prominence . . . . . . . .

Face dissimilar in the sexes, the female having the oral margin
more protruding and the face apparently concave

7

8

. . femoralis Schin.
erethrogaster C. & B.
. . coerulea Macq.

9

viridis Macq.
victoria Curran

Subgenus Psilota.

Psilota rubra Klocker 1924, has the abdomen genuinely red, and
not discolured as sometimes happens with species that are normally
black. The flies belonging to this series (for there seem to be several)
fly along logs in company with a bee which also has a red abdomen
I have seen this in Queensland and Tasmania. The male is not known

Psilota auricaudata Curran & Bryan 1926, is commonly found
flying around dead upstanding trees, but the male has not yet been
discovered.

Psilota tristis Klocker, is also only known from the female, but
there is a species very closely allied in which both sexes are before me.
This second form is more strongly metallic, having a green thorax
and violet abdomen instead of blue-black and black respectively.

Psilota queenslandica Klocker, the typical form of genus Emmyia ,
is only known from the male, several being in various collections.
Klocker ’s figure is very faulty, judging from the specimen he identified
under the name and which fits the description exactty.

Psilota hirta Klocker, is perhaps the commonest species in Bris-
bane, the male being specially noticeable, sometimes hovering around
trees in countless numbers. There is only one female before me, and
some specimens from Tasmania seem to be conspecific though larger
in size.

Subgenus Parapsilota n. subg.

Psilota victoria Curran 1925, was a name given to replace Psilota
cyanea Hill (nec. Brunetti 1921). The specimens identified by Curran
under the name, however, probably belong to another species,
perhaps P. viridis Macquart. Hill’s figures are very accurate, but he
gave the lateral view of only the female head.

Psilota viridis Macquart 1847, is evidently the common Victorian
species which I have selected to be the type of the subgenus.

18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Psilota coerulea Macqiiart 1846, is another form that seems easily
identified but less common.

Psilota femoralis Schiner 1868, undoubtedly comes into this
position as the author mentions the femoral character, but Psilota
erethrog aster C. & B. does not have the character mentioned, neverthe-
less it would seem to belong here.

All of the above species under Parapsilota and others, have in
common an indentation on the posterior side of the hind femora,
below which is a ventral flange situated just before the apex. The
character is very consistent and no apparent grades exist between this
and the simple femora of species placed under the subgenus Psilota .
In addition to this it seems strikingly obvious that all the forms that
deviate away from the typical form to any extent, belong to this sub-
genus, but all the characters yet studied seem to show gradations in
Parapsilota to that of Psilota. There are some very apparent smaller
divisions existing under both subgenera but material does not permit
me to make the necessary groups to illustrate this. Most of the
species have yet to be described and presumably many more are to be
found. Psilota, and its allies occur during the spring and in Brisbane
at least their occurrence is irregular, some years they occur in
abundance and in others are very difficult to find.

Species not relegated to a generic position.

Plesia analis Macquart 1849, and Melanostoma apicale Bigot.
1884 (Klocker in 1924, identified it under the latter name), refer to
the male of a very abundant species. The female, however, has a
concave face without a knob and does not conform to genus
Melanostoma. The characters bring this Species in the key given above
to Chilosia but it does not belong there and it is not congeneric with
C. australis , nor is it related to the Chrysogaster group. There is
another but smaller species that is congeneric with this one and is
found on tea-tree ( Melaleuca ) and on marshes in association with it.
The two species are liable to be confused.

List of Works.

The following' list contains those works which record species of
Syrphinae from Australia and the original descriptions of such species ;
the list being limited to those of taxonomic value. In economic
literature there are many references, the species not always being
identified, or sometimes faultily so.

Austen. . .
Bigot.

Brunetti.

Curran. Amer. . .

Curran & Bryan.
Degeer.
de Meijere.
Erischson.
Fabricius.

Fallen

Ferguson.

Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. i. 1893, 163.

Rev. Mag. Zool. ii. 1859, 307.

Bull. Soc. Ent. France, 1882, lxviii.

Ann. Soc. Ent. France (6) iv. 1884.

Faun. Brit. Ind. iii. 1923.

Mus. Novitates, No. 176, 1925, 7.

(In same periodical No. 200, is Cerioides victoria, a
description overlooked by Ferguson).

Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales, li. 1926, 129-133.

Mem. pour serv. l’Hist. d. Ins. vi. 1776.

Tidj. v. Ent. li. 1908, 191-332.

Arch. f. Naturg. viii. 1842.

Spec. Ins. 1781.

Syst. Ant. 1805.

Dipt. Sueciae, 1817.

Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales, li. 1926, 137-183, 515-544.
(Partial revision of the Syrphidae).

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN SYRPHINAE (DIPTEEA)

19

Grimshaw.

Hill.

Klocker.

Linnaeus.

Macquart

Roder. .

SCHINER. . .
■SfflRAKI. . .

Terry. . .

Thomson.

Walker

Wiedemann

Fauna Hawaiiensis iii. 1901.

Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales, xlvi. 1921, 216-220.
Mem. Queensland Mus. viii. 1924, 53-60.

, Syst. Nat. Ed. x. 1758. .

Dipt. Exot. 1838-55.

Wien Ent. Zeit. i. 1882, 61-2.

Reise Novara Dipt. 1868.

Mem. Fac. Sci. Agr. Taikoku Univ. Formosa. 1930.
Bull. Exp. Stat. Hawaii, i. 1905, 177-9.

Eugenies Resa 1868, 501.

Ent. Mag. ii. 1835, 472.

List Dipt. B.Mus. iii. 1849.

Ins. Saund. Dipt. i. 1852.

Dipt. Exot. 1824.

Auss. Zweifl. Ins. 1830.

20

Vol. XLV., No. 3.

Serum Inhibition of Haemolysis.

By J. V. Duhig, M.B.

(Two Text Figures)

( Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 31st July, 1933).

In a previous paper (Duhig and Jones, 1928), I concluded from
observations of the haemolytic action of a certain fish venom, that the
protective action of serum against haemolysis was to some extent
species-specific. It was found, for example, that guinea-pig serum was
more potent in inhibiting haemolysis of guinea-pig red cells than was
human serum and, vice-versa, guinea-pig serum did not protect human
cells from the action of the haemolytic agent as well as did human
serum.

In the experiments described, I have proceeded to test these
findings by the use of a haemolytic substance of known activity : a
solution of pure white saponin in 0.85 per cent sodium chloride solution.

To obtain strictly comparable results when working with the
cells of different animal species, cell suspensions of as nearly equal
surface area as possible were used. The casual use of the percentage
suspensions commonly employed in serology is obviously fallacious
when we remember that the surface area of an average red cell of any
given species is different from that of an average cell of another species.
The surface area of the red cells of the human, guinea-pig and sheep
was calculated according to the formula of Ponder (1927),

A = 2nA2 + 2ttAB (0.6)

where A and B are the major and minor axes of the cells respectively
and 0.6 a factor which Ponder finds to be “ remarkably constant for
all cells of mammalia.” I estimated by the camera lucida method
at a magnification of about x800 the major and minor axes of 100
cells suspended in plasma of three animal species.

The results were,

human cells, A = 61.0/i2, ratio 1.0
guinea-pig ,, A = 48.8 yJ, ,, 0.8

sheep ,, A = 41.5/i2, ,, 0.68

These figures agree well with those given by Ponder (loc. cit.).

In work of this kind, account must be also taken of the difference
which may exist in the total red cell counts of the species studied. I
worked with human and guinea-pig cells in the final tests, and since
the total counts of these species are the same, this factor was negligible.

In accordance with the ratios of cell surface determined, 5 per cent,
cell suspensions of as nearly equal surface area as possible were pre-
pared and mixed with equal volumes of serial dilutions of a primary
dilution of 1 in 1000 of pure white saponin in 0.85 per cent, saline.

Owing to the rapidity of action of the saponin in the lower
dilutions, the mixtures were made in separate operations for each
tube, quickly mixed by inversion and placed in a water bath at 37°C.
The time for complete haemolysis to occur was taken by a stop watch
and read in whole seconds. For each species, three sets of observa-

SERUM INHIBITION OF HAEMOLYSIS

21

tions were made, namely : —

(1), human cells plus saponin ; (2), human cells plus saponin
plus human serum ; (3), human cells plus saponin plus guinea-pig
serum ; (4), guinea-pig cells plus saponin ; (5), guinea-pig cells
plus saponin plus guinea-pig serum ; (6), guinea-pig cells plus
saponin plus human serum.

Fig. 1. Curves A, human cells alone ; B, with Guinea
Pig serum ; C, with human serum.

Fig. 2. Curves A, Guinea Pig cells alone ; B, with
human serum ; C, with Guinea Pig serum.

22

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

The whole of the tests were repeated and the second set of results
were found to be in substantial agreement with the first.

The sera, the protective action of which was being studied, were
used in an arbitrary dilution of 1 in 10, which figure was arrived at as
that most likely to show best in a graphic manner the kind of phe-
nomenon studied. Outside that dilution, the effect of the saponin
was progressively too fast or too slow for accurate observation.

The curves show the kind of result obtained ; the dilution of
saponin being plotted along the abscissa and the times taken for com-
plete haemolysis along the ordinate.

A glance at these curves shows that haemolysis of the cells of
either species is more rapid in the absence of serum and slowest when
the serum used is that of the Same species as the cells, while a hetero-
logous serum gives a time series intermediate between fhe two.

Conclusions.

1. Serum inhibits the action of haemolytic agents, “ in vitro ”

2. The inhibitory power of serum in this respect is greater when the

serum is of the same species as the cells protected.

I have to thank my assistant, Miss Gwen Jones, for her valuable
technical aid.

REFERENCES.

Duhig, J. V., and Jones, Gwen., 1928, Aust. Jl. Exptl. Biol, and Med. Sci., 5, 173.
Pondek, E., 1927, Biochemical Journal, 21, 56.

(Note. — Just after this paper went to press, Kellaway and Williams reported serum in-
hibition of haemolysis by snake venom. Their paper in the Aust. Jl. Exptl.
Biol, and Med. Sci., 1933, 11, 2, 81, gives a full discussion of the whole subject)

Vol. XLV., No. 4.

23

Two Australian Pandani

By Professor U. Martelli
Director Botanical Gardens, University of Pisa, Italy.

Plates I. and II.

( Communicated by C. T. White, Government Botanist, Brisbane, to
the Royal Society of Queensland, 31st July, 1933).

Mr. C. T. White, Government Botanist, Brisbane, sent me for
identification last autumn, some beautiful sheets of two Australian
species of Pandanus. One proved to be Pandanus Copelandii Merr.,
very interesting from a geographical aspect, The second was a new
form of the group of Pandanus spiralis R. Brown, of the subgenus
Keura. It belongs to an Australian group not known elsewhere,
because the Pandanus fanningensis Mart. (Univ. of Calif. Publ. VoL
13, No. 7, page 145, plate 12), which I consider belonging to it, was
found on the sandy shore of Panning Island, but only a phalange
washed up by the waves, probably conveyed by currents.

I think a few observations about these two species will not be
without interest.

Pandanus spiralis Brown.

This plant was described by R. Brown in 1810, in his “ Prodr.
Florae Novae Holandiae,” with this brief, but rather clear diagnosis :
“ Caudice stolonibus carente, phalangibus druparum 9-20 locularis,
apice depresso, tesselato, basi obtusissima.” A figure of the species
I reproduced in my “ Enumerazione delle Pandanaceae ” Webbia,
Vol. IV. Parte 1., tav. 13, fig. 1-2.

The specific name spiralis was used by other authors for a
Pandanus quite different from the one described by R. Brown. We
have a P. spiralis Blanco, FI. Filippin, 1897, p. 777, growing in the
Philippines ; I judge this, from the description, to be referable, pro
parte, to P. odoratissimus variety, which I distinguish with the name
var. spiralis (Martelli, Philip, species of Pandanus, in Webbia, tav. 8
fig. 1-2 ; tav. 9 fig. 1 ; tav. 12 fig. 8), and, pro parte, to a not identi-
fiable species. Ouden, in Sieb. et de Vriese, FI. Jard. Pays Bas. V.
1862, p. 81, fig. A.B. used the name spiralis for a Pandanus which
should be ascribed to P. utilis Bory, of Reunion. At last, the name
spiralis was also noted by Wendland, Index Palm. 1854, p. 47 without
any description, it is then a “ nomen nudum ” of an unknown species.

Robert Brown indicates, very vaguely, the native country of his
P. spiralis ; “ Nova Hollandia, intra circulos tropicos,” and the
specimen at the British Museum bears no more precise indication.
Bentham, Flora Australiensis VII, page 148, sub P. odoratissimo,
describes Brown’s species and indicates some localities, all in north
Australia ; e.g., Port Darwin, Arnhem’s Land, Islands of Gulf of Car-
pentaria, Escape Cliff, King’s Sound. In the carpological collection
of the Museum de Paris I saw two phalanges of this species sent by

24 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

Baron F. von Mueller in 1874, collected at Escape Cliff, probably by
Mr. Hulse. In the carpological collection at the British Museum
there are beautiful phalanges of this species from Escape Cliff. I
have tried more than once to get people living in Australia to search
for the species, but without any result. I was more fortunate when I
addressed myself to Mr. C. T. White, of Brisbane, who eagerly
interested himself in the matter and succeeded in obtaining from one
of his acquaintances some specimens of it. He was so kind as to
forward them to me and I here express my gratitude to him, not only
for these, but also for many other Australian specimens of Pandanus
he has had the kindness to send me for my studies.

Pandanus spiralis R. Br. seems to be an inhabitant of the northern
Australian lands only, though some forms like it have been found here
and there elsewhere.

Some years ago, in 1922, an analogous form, but specifically
different, was discovered by Mr. White in low savannah forest country
near Townsville, and I called it P. Whitei ; and had the pleasure of
publishing a description in the Proceedings of the Roy. Soc. of
Queensland Vol. XXXVI n. 9. Mr. Allen in 1927 collected the same
species near Darwin, Northern Territory. In 1928 Mr. Tandy collected
on the Western side of South Brooke Island in Whitsunday Passage,
another form belonging to the same group of Pandanus spiralis and
Whitei, but specifically different from them. I was able to observe
the specimen by the kindness of Mr. White and I distinguished the
form with the name of P. Brookei, but never described it. Last
autumn Mr. White forwarded to me again a syncarp and its photo-
graph, the same reproduced here, of P. Brookei, collected by him in
August, 1931, in coastal savannah forests at Farnborough near
Yeppoon, Queensland (White No. 8195). Specifically they are distinct
forms, but all of what I may call the regional type. I observed the
same thing in P. pedunculatus and even in P. Cookii and P. Damannii.
Are these forms the result of hybridisation ? I doubt it, but I cannot
say anything on this question.

Pandanus ( Acrostigma ) .Copelandii Merrill.

This plant was first described by Dr. E. D. Merrill in his paper “ New
or noteworthy Philippine plants, P. 11,” published in Govt. Labor.
(Philip.) Publ. No. 17 (1904) p. 7. and is the other species forwarded to
me by Mr. C. T. White. It belongs to the subgenus Acrostigma and
not to Rykia as says Prof. Merrill in the description l.c. — of which in
Australia previously only Pandanus monticola Mueller was known.
Pandanus Copelandii was originally described by Dr. Merrill on a
specimen gathered at Gimagon River, Negros Island, one of the
Philippines, and nowhere else. It was then a great surprise for me
when I received the Australian sheets from Mr. White with a fine
photograph of a portion of the spadix accompanied by information on
the locality and on the appearance of the plant : ‘‘It is there com-
paratively rare, the trees attain 4-5 m. in height and are surrounded
by dense clumps of young trees, these latter bearing syncarps when
only about 1m. high. The Filipino boatmen, who were with Mr.
Hockings, the collector, stated that they recognised the species as one
that grew in their own country and the leaves of which they used to
make baskets.” (C. T. White, inlitteris). The presence of this Phil-
ippine species on the Australian continent, in its most northern

TWO AUSTRALIAN PANDANI

25

regions, is an important fact that I am not able to explain nor to
give a plausible hypothesis ; it is interesting on account of geographic
botany.

The species of Pandanus are circumscribed in a limited territory,
and it is a very rare case that the same species be diffused at such a
great distance. I ascertained once that a microspecies of Pandanus
odoratissimus (type), also of the Philippines (which is important), was
found by Mr. C. Hedley in 1924 and communicated to me by Mr. C. T.
White, growing on Northwest Island, one of the Capricorn group. It
is true that the microspecies belongs to the subgenus Keura which
species have more or less large phalanges that may float easily for a
long time. However, I ask myself, if it is possible for phalanges to be
conveyed by currents from the Philippines to coastal Queensland,
along an ocean spread with such numerous islands. Pandanus Cope-
landii does not belong to the subgenus Keura but to Acrostigma,
the species of which have not phalanges but small drupes which easily
separate from the axis, so that I can admit, with great reserve, the
possibility of their buoyancy for a long time. The drupes, when ripe,
commonly remain assembled in the syncarp for a short time, and very
soon fall down, sooner still if the syncarp is plunged in water. Once
separated, the drupes, I think, may remain buoyant only for a
relatively short time, after which they sink, because full of water.

On account of the hard spineseent character of the drupes I exclude
the spreading by migratory birds. I do not know, after all, whether
this migration, between the Philippines and Australia, does take place ;
it does not seem probable to me. I cannot admit, on account of the
great distance and numerous islands between the Philippines and
Australia, the possibility of living trees or portions of them being
carried along waves from the Philippines and succeeding in landing on
Australian shores. The only supposition remaining to my mind is
the introduction by man. The species being rather scarce on the
banks of the Jardine River, as Mr. Hockings informs us would show
that the species is there not “ ab antiquo,” and we may suppose a
comparatively recent introduction. An ethnographer on the place
should be more able to examine the question and find a satisfactory
answer.

Pandanus Copelandii Merrill, “New or noteworthy Philippine
plants 11” in Govt. Labor. (Philip.) Publ. No. 17 (1904). An erect,
unbranched plant of about 2m. high. Leaves 1 to 1.5m. long, 5.5 to
6cm. wide, glabrous, shining above, glabrous beneath, the margins
and the midrib beneath spinously toothed, the teeth pale, coarse
below, 3 to 4mm. long, the marginal teeth antrorse throughout, those
on the midrib retrorse below, antrorse above, at a point 6 or 7cm. from
the apex of the leaf the leaf is 3.5cm. wide, and from this point it
tapers abruptly to the acute, not acuminate, apex, the midnerve and
margins of the apex finely and densely serrate. Flowers unknown.
Rachis triangular, 1.5cm. thick, 50cm. long. Fruits solitary or
racemed, nearly sessile, elliptical or subspherical, 7 to 9cm. long,
5 to 6cm. in diameter, red when mature. Drupes very numerous,
14mm. long, 3 to 4mm. in diameter, the apex conical, 10mm. long,
the slender style proper, 5 to 6mm. long, entire curved upward ;
endocarp 8 mm. long.

Habitat : Philippines ; on Gimagon River, Negros, January 1904,
Copeland. Growing in forests at an elevation (Merrill, l.c.)

26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

Pandanus ( Keura ) BrooJcei Martelli.

1 Syncarpium solitarium , cernuum, oblongum , subrectangulare, ad
vertices rotundatum, circiter 20 cent, longum, 1 1 cent, diam., a plurimis phal-
angibus constitutum. Phalanges subponder osae, sub globoso-angulosae, 4J-6
cent, (in medio ) latae, 4-4J cent, long ae, fere in dimidia inferiori parte
inter se connatae et (in sicco) fibrosae, cuneatae, sed in basi lata vel
latiuscula terminatae ; in fere dimidia superiori parte liberae, rotundatae,
superne piano -convexsiusculae ; lateribus latis, plus minusve angulosis
et sinuosis, secuus suturas loculorum anguste sulcatis non rugoso-
costulatis ; loculis 6-13, subaequalibus , latis, inter dum plus -quam pollicem,
subirregularibus, convexis vel rotundatis, vel in pyramidem elevatis , a
sulcis plusminusve profunde separatis, angulosis, laeviter costulatis.
Stigma ad verticem loculorum, prominente et robustum. Endocarpium
osseum, infra medio situm, totam latitudinem phalangis occupans, in
sectione longitudinali , fascif or m -lenticular e, 1J cent, circiter spissum.
Mesocarpium superum dense fibroso-medullosum, cum cavernis
elongatis ; inferum fibrosum, breve circiter 1 cent.

Habitat : Australia ; Central Queensland ; Western side of South
Brooke Island in Whitsunday Passage ; legit Tandy 1928. — Keppel
Bay at Farnborough near Yeppoon ; legit C. T. White Aug. 1932
(No. 8195).

This Pandanus is of the same type as P. spiralis R. Br. (non alior)
and P. Whitei Mart. I think it a southern form of them. From P.
spiralis, it differs in the smaller size of its phalanges, in the locules
always more prominent, which does not all correspond to the character
“ apice tessellato ” as Brown rightly indicates for P. spiralis. P.
BrooJcei looks like P. Whitei Mart., but, although similar in type, it
differs in its locules, not so prominent and not being at all “ rugoso
costulatis ” along its sides. P. Whitei by this character is rather like
P. Damannii Warb. Another peculiarity in P. BrooJcei is the shape of
its syncarp, which in other Keura is generally globose or oblong, more
seldom pyriform ; here instead the syncarp is very elongated and almost
rectangular, rounded at the bottom. Mr. White informed me that all
syncarps he saw on different plants of that species have the same shape.
It is not then an occasional shape but a characteristic one ; the syncarps
of P. spiralis and P. Whitei are globose, as I may judge by a photo-
graph kindly forwarded to me by Mr. C. E. F. Allen collected near
Darwin, Northern Territory of Australia.

Ror. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLV.

Plate I

3L in.

Pandanus Brookei Martelli (from Farmborough near Yeppoon)

Photo Department Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane

Ioy.Soc. Q’land. Vol. XLV

Plate II

IHhh

WMm

Pandanus Copdandii Merrill (from Jardine River)

Photo Department Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane

Vol. XLV., No. 5.

27

The Genus Pleiogynium in Papua

By C. T. White
Government Botanist, Brisbane.

Plate III

( Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 28 th August, 1933).

In his “ Forest Resources of the Territories of Papua and New
Guinea ” (Government Printer, Melbourne, 1925) C. E. Lane -Poole
records Pleiogynium Solandri Engl., the “ Burdekin Plum” of Queens-
land, as growing at Aroa, Papua. These specimens were listed in the
systematic account of Lane-Poole’s collections by White and Francis
(these Proceedings Vol. XXXVIII, p. 237). They consisted of a few
leafy branches with female inflorescences and detached seeds. They
agree well with Queensland material, except that the seeds are
markedly smaller than in any Queensland specimens observed by me.

Early this year the Rev. A. H. Lambton brought me specimens
of a Pleiogynium from the mountains near Goodenough Bay, Terri-
tory of Papua. These, unfortunately, in addition to timber and bark,
consisted only of leafy branches bearing male inflorescences with the
flowers in bud only.

Whether the specimen from Aroa and those from Goodenough
Bay represent the same species or not, can only be told from more
complete material, e.g., male flowers in the former, and female flowers
and fruit in the latter case. Personally, I regard the tree growing at
Aroa as identical with the Queensland one, and the one growing at
Goodenough Bay as distinct from it. Aroa in the west and Good-
enough Bay in the east are opposite ends of the Territory of Papua,
and though the material is fragmentary, the Rev. Lambton’s specimens
show distinct differences from Queensland ones ; and as the flora of
the south and west of the Territory of Papua is more Australian than
that of the east, I have decided to name his specimens as a new species
and offer a description herewith.

Pleiogynium papuanum sp. nov.

Arbor mediocris, partibus novellis pubescentibus mox glabris,
cortice atro ca. 1.5 cm. crasso, ligno atro-castaneo. Folia impari-
pinnata, 3A-juga, rhachide 8-20 cm. longo, interstitiis inter jugalibus
2-3.5 cm. longis ; foliola petiolulo 2 mm. suffulta, oblonga, breviter
acuminata 6-8 cm. longa, 2.5Acm. lata, saepe latere superiore quam
inferius paullum latiore, nervis lateralibus 9-11 in utroque latere, subtus
prominulis. Paniculae masculae axillares, densiflorae, ad. 15cm.
longae, ramulis secundariis horizontaler patentibus, infimis ca.Scm.
longis, tertiariis 0.5cm. longis, rhachide ramulis albo-furfuraceis
pedicellis robustis brevis, cum calyce 1.5mm. longis. Calyx 5-lobatus.
Petala oblonga, 1.5mm. longa, alba ; stamina 10 ; filamentis 1mm.
longis, levtier applanatis. Ovarium abortivum pyramidatum ; stylis
liberis 2-4 ( plerumque 3). Flores feminei ignoti. Drupa ignota.

28

THE GENUS PLEIOGYNIUM IN PAPUA

In mountains near Goodenough Bay, altitude 500 feet, Territory
of Papua. Rev. A. H. Lambton.

Native names : — Wedan Language — Daraia. Daga Language — •
Kwa-ma-ma-tua.

Type : — Herbarium, Brisbane. Co-type material at Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew; Botanic Gardens and Museum, Berlin ; Arnold
Arboretum, Boston ; Botanic Gardens, Buitenzorg.

Differs from P. Solandri Engl., the only previously known species,
in possessing smaller male flowers, all pedicellate, more numerous in
the panicle and in the rhachis and branches being covered with a grey
scurfy tomentum. When female flowers and fruits are known probably
other differences will be shown. The wood is softer than that of P.
Solandri Engl., but like it, turns with a beautiful figure as shown by
some examples of turnery made by Mr. Lambton.

Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLV.

Plate III.

Pleioyyniurn pvp anum (Sp. Nov.)

Photo Department Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane

I

Vol. XLV., No. 6.

29

A Note on Some Preliminary Experiments with Ammonia
as a Lure for the Queensland Fruit Fly
(Chaetodacus tryoni Frogg.)

By F. A. Perkins, B.Sc. Agr., and H. J. Hines, B.Sc.,

(Of the University of Queensland)

( Read before the Royal Society of Queensland , 30 th October, 1933).

Examination of a number of lures in use for the attraction of the
Queensland Fruit Fly (C. tryoni Frogg.) showed that without excep-
tion they were composed of a dilute solution of ammonia plus some
odoriferous substance or substances. An open formula was pub-
lished by Jarvis (1931), synthetic essence of vanilla (vanillin) being
the added odorant. Some preliminary experiments with glass traps
showed that ammonia alone was attractive to fruit flies, and that the
addition of other odorous substances appeared to have little or no
effect.

In a number of trials, ammonia only, ammonia plus vanillin, and
vanillin only, were tested in citrus trees during September, October,
and November, 1932. The solutions were frequently and regularly
renewed, and precautions were taken to eliminate effects due to varia-
tion in the position of the traps.

The results indicated that there was no marked difference between
the attractiveness of ammonia only and ammonia plus vanillin.
Vanillin alone did not attract.

It is interesting to note that Ripley and Hepburn (1931) state
that ammonia is a repellent to the Natal Fruit Fly ( Pterandrus rosa ).

As a result of the above experiments a modified form of the
ordinary fly trap was constructed and tested in the field. The trap
is modified by attaching to the upper opening a small bottle con-
taining solid ammonium carbonate. A clear solution of soap and water
is poured into the trap in the space usually occupied by the lure, in
order to catch and retain the flies attracted by the ammonia. By
the thermal dissociation of the ammonium carbonate, ammonia gas
is continuously liberated and the only charging necessary is that of
replacing the soapy water. In so far as these experiments went this
device proved effective. It is proposed to repeat these experiments
on a larger scale during the spring of 1933.

REFERENCES.

Jarvis, H., 1931, Queensland Agricultural Journal, 485

Ripley, L. B. and Hepburn, G. A., 1931, Dept, of Agric., South Africa. Entomology
Memoirs, No. 7.

30

Vol. XLV., No. 7.

Notes on Australian Muscoidea (Calyptrata).

By G. H. Hardy.

(Walter and Eliza Hall Fellow in Economic Biology, University of

Queensland).

( Tabled before the Royal Society of Queensland , 27 th November , 1933).

As the Muscoidea Calyjptrata is an important section of the eco-
nomic Diptera, it is essential to have a sound classification of its various
constituent parts. In the 44 Insects of Australia and New Zealand,”
R. J. Tillyard has incorporated the view that the Sarcophagidae are
true Tachinids morphologically (p. 373), and the Calliphorinae are
true Muscids (p. 374). This is certainly disputable, nevertheless it
is typical of the confusion of thought concerning the value of the
various characters responsible for such views ; it also entirely ignores
biological considerations. In the present notes the value of families
and subfamilies is arbitrary but it is essential to use the terms in order
to give some relative value to the groups as they are defined and found
to be biological units. Moreover, the main consideration given in
this treatment lies fundamentally in a study of the genital complex
of the male, which hitherto seems to have been neglected but is now
found to yield values of real phylogenetic significance. Special
attention is drawn to this factor where it is inconsistent with accepted
classifications.

The four families given below and the subfamilies of the Calli-
phorinae are all well recognised sections.

1.

2.

3.

Key to the families of the Muscoidea Calyptrata.

With mouth-parts vestigial. .

With mouth-parts functional and normally developed . .
Lower squama always larger and longer than upper squama.
Hypopleura with bristles. Sternopleural bristles, when
three present, arranged 2 : 1 or 1 : 1 : 1
Lower squama sometimes very small. Hypopleura never with
bristles (or rarely so in exotic forms). Sternopleural
bristles, when three present, arranged 1:2
Postscutellum, in.profile, showing a more or less sinuous line,
the upper part being concave and without a protruding
surface there. Or failing this, the upper concave part
may be absent, the lower convex part being joined direct to
the underside of the scutellum

Postscutellum always with a protruding convex surface on
upper part. This may be in the form of a small pro-
tuberance leaving much of the convex surface to view, or
it may be any larger size until the whole of the convex
area is occupied by it, thus showing two large
convex areas below scutellum

Oestridae

2

3

Muscidae

Calliphoridae

Tachinidae

Family MUSCIDAE.

Key to the subfamilies of Muscidae.

1. Lower squama broad, the inner margin lying below the scutellum.

The first median vein strongly bent upwards and usually
reaching the costa well above the apex of the wing . . Muscinae

Lower squama narrower, the inner margin lying remote from
the scutellum. The first median vein meeting the costa
usually below the apex of the wing, rarely at apex . . 2

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOIDEA (CALYPTRATA) .

31

2. Proboscis permanently projecting and long ; blood-sucking flies
Proboscis retractile

3. Palpi strongly expanding at apex
Palpi normal

4. Anal vein very short, reaching less than hah way between anal

cell and wing border

Anal vein longer, reaching over half way between anal cell
and wing border

5. Anal vein not traceable to wing border
Anal vein traceable -to wing border . .

Stomoxydinae

3

Lispinae

4

Fcmniinae

5

Phaoniinae

Anthomyiinae

The Coenosiinae , a very small subfamily, has been too ill defined
to permit its acceptance at present as a separate unit, and is best
included under Phaoniinae which is a very large subfamily, well
represented by numerous species in Australia, and capable of tribal
subdivision.

Family CALLIPHORIDAE.

Key to subfamilies of the Calliphoridae.

1. Postscutellum with the upper portion (normally indicated by a

convex area) eliminated by reduction, the convex lower
portion becoming adjacent to the scutellum. If not quite
reaching this stage, then most sternites being hidden by
the tergites meeting along the ventral line will indicate
this group as all others have the sternites broadly visible
Postscutellum conspicuously concave on its upper part and
normal

2. Palpi flat and very broad, or if narrow and compressed

( Metallia ) then with abundant long bristles on thorax
Palpi cylindrical, club-shaped, or if compressed provided with
short, scanty and unnoticeable bristles on thorax

3. External posthumeral bristle placed nearer the median line, or

more or less in a line with the presutural bristle. Always
grey species with tessellated abdomen
External posthumeral bristle placed very much further away
from the median line than the presutural bristle

4. Palpi flattened, and bristles of thorax scanty

Palpi always cylindrical and more or less clubshaped. Bristles
of thorax plentiful and long

Metopiinae

2

Rhiniinae

3

Sarcophaginae

4

Chrysomyiinae

Calliphorinae

It is customary to place the Metopiinae as part of the Sarco-
phaginae, but structurally and biologically they stand quite apart,
hence are best separated. The Calliphorinae, Chrysomyiinae and genus
Metallea of the Rhyniinae form another unit, perhaps of the same
catagory, whilst the more typical Rhiniini form yet another unit, one
having features approaching the Muscidae and found nowhere else in
the Calliphoridae. Also, some of the males are found hovering in
the air, a habit the group shares with certain Muscidae and is other-
wise foreign to the Calliphorine element.

In no case have I found the absence of a large superstructure
surrounding the gonopore in the subfamily Sarcophaginae and the
nature seems to be limited to the group. In all other Calliphoridae
examined, the gonopore lies at the end of a central tube which has a
more or less funnel-shaped apex, and is supported by a pair of lateral
struts. The nature of the tube and struts is confined to the basal
section in Sarcophaginae and the superstructure has become the
dominant feature of the aedeagus.

Family TACHINIDAE.

In Australia this family is usually divided roughly into three
main sections, but it is essential to add a fourth in order to clarify
the classification. Clear definitions of these divisions and those of
tribal value have not been given, for the limits are not ascertained,

32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

nevertheless, the following will enable about 95 per cent, of those
collected to be relegated to their correct position. Hitherto, no
account has been given to show the part the genital complex can play
in forming these divisions, although there are some very important
phylogenetic considerations to be derived from their study. In this
respect an advance has been made here by limiting one of these sub-
families to genera in which a definite and outstanding form occurs.

Key to subfamilies of the Tachinidae.

1 . With sternites broadly visible
With sternites much reduced, at least some being concealed by

the tergites meeting ventrally

2. Abdomen without bristles, usually rather broad and dull

coloured, but if bright red, a carina may occur, never
otherwise. Arista always bare. Small species
Abdomen with bristles. Carina present or absent. Arista
bare to plumose. Mostly large and medium sized showy
flies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...

3. Aedeagus* in two parts, the apical section being hinged to and

articulates with the basal part. Carina usually present,
but if absent, the arista is usually plumose or pubescent,
rarely bare

Aedeagus otherwise formed. Carina almost invariably absent,
but if present the wings are heavily marked with a dark
pattern. Arista usually bare but varies to long pubescent
and some with plumosa arista (hitherto placed in Dexiini)
may belong here too

Subfamily Dexiinae.*

This subfamily is to be restricted to all those genera that contain
species with the aedeagus of a definite type. This consists of a stiff
slender basal part and a well defined apical part that is hinged to the
basal and articulates with it. This apical part may be short or long,
and in the latter case very flexible, like a very supple cane. It occurs
in a large number of genera of which Butilia and Prosena form two,
well represented in Australia. There are certain genera without a
carina that may have to be removed and two are now definitely
ascertained to be Tachinincte, namely, Sumpigaster and Zosteromyia.
These genera are dealt with in the following key : —

Key to genera hitherto incorporated under Dexiini , Section 2.

1. With a large flat facial carina between antennae.

Section 1. Prosena and allied genera.

Without a carina. Section 2

2. First and fifth radial veins with a series of bristles on upper

side

At most only the fifth radial vein with a series of bristles on
upper side

3. Abdomen stoutly conical, almost contiguous with hind coxae

at base

Abdomen slender and much more remote from hind coxae at base

4. Arista long-plumose ; parafacial and parafrontal region with

hairs ; palpi well developed and clubformed
Arista long-plumose ; only parafrons hairy ; palpi rather short,

- not clubformed . . . . . . ....

Arista pubescent but may appear bare. Parafacial and
parafrontal region without hairs ; palpi well formed and
clubform

*1 do not know if genus Dexia has the character cited here, and if not the group
will need another name.

Therairia Desv.

3

4
6

Apatemyia Macq.
gen.

2

3

Phasiinae

Ameniinae

Dexiinae

Tachininae

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOIDEA (CALYPTRATA). 33

5. Propleura bare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heterometopia Macq.

Propleura hairy (a unique character in this section) . . . . ? Toxonemis Macq.

6. First abdominal segment without bristles . . . . Sumpigaster Macq.

First abdominal segment with a pair of long strong median

marginal bristles . . . . . . . . . . Zosteromyia B. & B.

Presumably genus Hobartia Malloch, also comes within this

second section, but it is very indefinitely described.

Genus Therairia Desvoidy.

Three species are before me, one probably T. australis Walker.
It may be a more primitive form than the usual Dexiinae , for it has
been variously treated by authors, nevertheless, a specimen with the
genitalia extracted shows that the aedeagus has the two hinged parts.

Genus Apatemyia Mac quart.

Macquart, Dipt. Exot. suppl. 1, 197 ; PI. 17, f. 4, 1846.

This was originally placed by Macquart amongst the Calliphoridae ,
but there can be no doubt that its affinities are with the Tachinidae,
bding one of perhaps five genera that have many characters in common.
Its position amongst the Dexiinae requires confirmation. There is
only one described species, but two others are known to me, all being
rare in collections.

Apatemyia longipes Macquart.

Head : seen laterally, the line of the frons runs very straight to
the base of the antennae, forming there a right angle with the line of
the face ; the latter curves outwards to the oral margin. The carina
is not developed and the first two segments of the antennae are about
equal in length, very short, and the third is long, reaching nearly
to the line joining the vibrissae. The arista is abundantly provided
with long hairs, the proboscis is short, and when fully extended its
apical part is about equal to its bakal part, the whole being hardly
longer than the depth of the head. The palpi are long, slender and
club-shaped, about as long as the apical part of the proboscis. ' The
cheeks are well pronounced and formed as in Heterometopia, but the
whole outline of the head is more trapezoidal in shape than in that
genus. There are no marked bristles on the yellow head other than
those bordering the frontal stripe and those associated with the
vibrissa, the two pair of verticles and the postoculars. Hairs are
plentiful on the dark frons, down each side of the face to near the level
of the lower margin of the eye, where there is a short bare space
followed by more black hairs that give place to the yellow hairs that
abound behind the eyes.

The whole dorsal area of the thorax is black with faint indications
of striae ; the lateral border of the dorsum is thickly covered with
a pulverulent grey that permeates the whole of the pleura, which is
otherwise also black ; the dorsal hairs are rather long and most of the
bristles are slender and hence some are not easily detected, those seen
being : — 3 presutural, 4 postsutural acrostichals, and a similar number
of dorsocentrals ; 4 humeral, 3 posthumeral, 2 notopleural, the
presutural not detected, 3 supra-alar, 4 intraalar and 2 postalar. Two
pairs of scutellar bristles are widely separated along the margin, and
between them one pair of slender submarginals, much weaker but
nearly as long. On the pleura there are four strong bristles immedi-
ately above the anterior coxae and some weaker ones ; the mesopleura

34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

lias the usual row near the base of the wing well developed and another
bristle not far from the anterior spiracle ; on the sternopleura the
bristles are arranged 2:1; the hypopleural row is well developed and
there are no bristles or hairs on the sclerite above the posterior spiracle.

The abdomen is yellow with a more or less interrupted uneven
black stripe, broad at the base immediately behind the scutellum, the
outline being concave to the apical margin of the first segment, the
black occupying a third of the width there seen from above ; on
second segment a little narrowed at base, widening slightly to apex,
very much narrower at base of third segment, but widening sharply
to occupy the whole width visible from above at the apical margin ;
the fourth tergite almost wholely black, leaving an apical edge and the
sides yellow, but this ground colour is overlaid by a pulverulent yellow.
The sides of the tergites meet below so that only the basal sternite
is exposed, but small, and all the abdominal hairs are black.

The abdominal bristles are : — 3 pair of lateral bristles on apical
margin of first segment, 1 median pair and 3 laterals on margin of
second segment, third segment similar to second, but another pair
placed half-way between median and laterals ; fourth segment with a
fringe of apicals. Also there are some loiig weak lateral bristles placed
more basally amongst the long hairs of the two last segments, and these
are repeated on two undescribed species and therefore may have
some generic significance.

The legs are yellow with tarsi more or less black, the wings are
hyaline, the venation being like that of Heterometopia but the fourth
vein is well separated from the third which has three setae at its base
on the upper side and one below. The anal vein is reduced to a very
short stump.

Hab. — Tasmania : Hobart, 15th October, 1916, 1 male upon
which the above description is based. Geeveston, 24th December,
1914, a male having a more slender stripe on abdomen. Allied to this
are two more species, one from Victoria and one from Queensland.

Genus Zosteromyia B. & B.

Brauer & Bergamstamm, Denk. Akad. Wiss. Wien, lviii. 189f,
pp. 376, 406 and 425 ; lx. 1903, 130.

This genus and Sumpigaster Macq. are clearly not Dexiinae, but
should be relegated to the Tachininae. All the species described below
are either black or black and brown forms that have silvery or golden
transverse bars across thorax, one adjacent to the transverse suture
and the other to the scutellum, making them readily picked out.
Other species having this, contain also the first median vein running
into the lowest radial vein before the wing margin, whereas in the
present case these veins run separately to the wing margin or else the
abdomen is almost contiguous with the hind coxae, not remote from
them. These are well known bush and garden flies that frequent
broad leaves over the surface of which they move quite actively and
the peculiarity of their markings makes them especially noticeable.

Key to species of Zosteromyia.

1 . Arista long pubescent ; abdomen black with silvery bars at

segmentations . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Arista bare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOIDEA (CALYPTRATA) .

35

2. Summit of frons on male one-sixth head- width. On female, eye

margins strongly bowed, the face being much narrower
than the frons. Silver fascia of abdomen narrow, never
reaching discal bristles

Summit of frons on male one-quarter head- width. On female,
eye margins hardly bowed, the face being as wide or wider
than frons. Silver fascia of abdomen wide, reaching
discal bristles . .

3. Face and antennae short, the third antennal segment being less

than twice the length of the two basal segments. Female
with eye margins diverging along frons, but contracting
somewhat on face. Abdomen largely brown
Face and antennae long, the third segment being three or four
times the length of the basal ones. Female not known

4. Summit of frons on male broad, one-quarter head- width.

Antennae inserted at half eye -depth
Summit of frons on male narrow. Antennae inserted higher . .

5. Abdomen black
Abdomen largely brown

cingulata Macq .

fasciata n. sp.

brevifacies n. sp.

4

longicornis n. sp.

5

minor n. sp.
morgani n. sp.

Zosteromyia cingulata Macquart.

Myobia cingulata Macquart, Dipt. Exot. suppl. 4, 1849, 206 ;
PI. 19, fig. 1.

On male the summit of frons is one sixth the head-width and the
arista long pubescent. The eye margins from summit to quarter the
frons, somewhat converging, then diverging to base of antennae from
where they still diverge down face but at a lesser angle. The antennae,
inserted at two thirds eye depth, reach a little way beyond half the
distance to the oral margin where the face width is equal to its length.

A black species with silvery white parafrons, face and occiput,
a similarly coloured presutural bar that extends on to the pleura
right round thorax, and a similar prescutellar bar. Narrow silvery
basal bands occur on the second, third and fourth abdominal segments.
Legs deep brown or black.

Female similar but eyes much wider apart at summit, thence
bowed but coming nearer together across face where they are noticeably
closer together than at the summit.

Hab Queensland and New South Wales. Although a very
abundant well known fly, about a dozen specimens only are before me
and are dated from August to December ; it is, however, to be met
with most months of the year.

Zosteromyia fasciata n.sp.

On the male the summit of the frons is one quarter the head-width
and the arista long pubescent. Eye margins about parallel for about
two thirds frons then diverging abruptly till level with antennae, thence
diverging to a lesser degree. The antennae, inserted at two thirds the
eye depth, reach to two-thirds the way towards the oral margin where
the face is as broad as long.

Markings as in Z. cingulata , but the silvery bars on thorax are
tinged with yellow, and those on the abdomen are much broader,
covering half the second and third segments and almost the entire
fourth.

The female is similar, but at the summit the eyes are very wide
apart, the margins run parallel to near the oral margin where they tend
to come closer together.

36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Hab. — Tasmania : Hobart, Mt. Wellington. Very abundant in
the island, but only three males and one female are in the type series.
Victoria : Melbourne, 1 female.

Zosteromyia brevi facies n.sp.

On male the summit of frons is one sixth the head width and the
arista bare. The eye margins are as in Z. cingulata but the face is
wider than long.

Markings as on Z cingulata, but those of the thorax dorsally are
golden, and the pleura is covered with a pulverulent white so that the
anterior bar does not stand conspicuous there. The abdomen and
at least part of the legs are brown. On the former black markings
occur dorsally, being in the form of a more or less triangular spot
on each of the two basal segments and an apical black bar on the third,
but these markings may be more or less diffused.

Female similar, but eye margins bowed similar to those of Z.
cingulata and the width across the face is noticeably wider than the
width at summit.

Hab. — Tasmania ; Mt. Wellington, 2 males, 1 female, January,
1924. New South Wales : Tooloom, January 1926, 1 female (F. A.
Perkins) which seems to be identical.

Zosteromyia longicornis n.sp.

On male the summit of frons is one quarter the head width and the
arista bare. The eye margins are parallel to half frons length, thence
diverging without further alteration towards lower eye border. The
antennae, inserted at half the eye depth are long and reach two thirds
towards the oral margin where the face is as wide as long.

Markings on the thorax as on Z. cingulata , but the abdomen is
brown with a broad uneven black stripe that extends on to the fourth
segment. The legs are black and the wings rather heavily suffused
with black.

Hab. — Queensland : Brisbane and Mt. Glorious, January to
April, 1930, 1932. 3 males, two being in the collection of Mr. F. A.

Perkins.

Note . — From Tasmania comes a similar form represented by a
single specimen in rather poor condition, with a frons even wider
than the present one and evidently related.

Zosteromyia minor n.sp.

A very small species, barely 5 mm. long (other species go up to
8 mm), and the male has its summit of frons only one seventh the head
width. The arista is bare. The eye borders slightly diverge to one
third the frons, thence diverge to a greater extent to lower eye border
without further alteration. Antennae, inserted above half eye depth,
are as long as half the head depth and reach practically to the oral
margin where the face is less broad than long.

Markings as on Z. cingulata, but narrower and the pleura is more
or less covered with a pulverulent grey.

Hab. — Tasmania : Strahan, February, 1924. 4 males.

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOIDEA (CALYPTRATA). 37

Zosteromyia morgani n.sp.

On male the summit of frons is one fifth the head width, otherwise
the head characters are as on Z. minor .

The markings and colours are also similar, except the abdomen is
brown, not black, and with a narrow median black stripe on all seg-
ments, widening from a point at base towards apex and on the last two
segments there is an apical black bar. The golden bands at base of
the segments are lost in the general brown colour.

Hab. — New South Wales. Three males bear the following in-
formation on the label. — “ bred from Aulacophorus hilaris adult,
Coll. Binniguy, 22.2.30, W.L.M.” Another male is similarly labelled
but the latter part has substituted “Coll. Worara, 11.11.30, W. L.
Morgan.” Three of these contain the puparium and all were submitted
for identification by the Department of Agriculture, Sydney.

It has long been suspected that Z.fasciata, on account of its habits
and abundance, is parasitic on beetles of genus Paropsis , and the same
may apply to Z. cingulata. The present record of a species being
bred from another Chrysomellid beetle is therefore of special interest.

38

Vol. XLV., No. 8.

The Constitution of Campnospermonol.

By Thomas Gilbert Henry Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I.

Department of Chemistry, University of Queensland.

{Tabled before the Royal Society of Queensland , 21th November , 1933).

The examination of the oily exudate from Campnospermum
brevipetiolatum a large tree endemic in the Sepik River district, Man-
dated Territory of New Guinea, was undertaken by Jones and Smith
and the result of their investigation published in the Journal of the
Chemical Society in 1928. It was shown, as a result of that investi-
gation, that the principal constituent of the exudate was a ke tonic
phenol to which the name, campnospermonol, was given and a tenta-
tive formula was suggested for this substance. The investigation
has now been continued by the present author, further supplies of the
exudate having become available through the courtesy of Father
Kirschbaum of the Sepik River Mission Station. It has been found
possible to assign a definite constitution to the substance and it is
to be represented as of molecular composition, C25H40O2, with the
following constitution —

HO | CH2C0(CH2)7CH:CH(CH2)7CH:

a — irt — hydroxyphenyl — — nonadecen — ft — one .

This constitution differs from that originally proposed by Jones and
Smith from the incomplete data at their disposal, in containing only
one double linkage and in molecular composition, C27H42O0, or
C28H4402, being originally proposed.

As recorded in the original paper, accidental loss of the nitrile
portion resulting from the decomposition of oximinohydro-
campnospermonyl methyl ether with phosphorus pentachloride, pre-
vented determination of the constitution of this nitrile which, along
with data already obtained, furnished the key to the structure of the
phenolic ketone. This nitrile has now been obtained and proved to
be m-methoxy phenyl cyanide, the acid derived from it on hydrolysis
being m-methoxy benzoic acid. The products obtained from the
above decomposition are m-methoxy phenyl cyanide and stearic acid
whence it follows that hydrocampnospermonyl methyl ether is to be

THE CONSTITUTION OF CAMPNOSPERMONOL.

39

represented as ;

CHbO

A

V

CH2CO(CH2)16.CH3

with campnospermonyl methyl ether represented by,

CH3Oj |CH2 CO (CH2)7CH:CH (CH2)7CH3

V

As a further confirmation, the oximino derivative of campnos-
permonyl methyl ether itself has been prepared and similarly
decomposed with phosphorus pentachloride, the products in this case
being m-methoxy phenyl cyanide and oleic acid.

A careful determination of the iodine value of campnospermonyl
methyl ether and campnospermonyl acetate purified as far as possible,
gave values 80 and 66 respectively. The theoretical values for one
double bond are 65 and 60 and it is clear that the value 80 is some-
what high. No explanation of this inconsistency in the values of the
methyl ether and acetate is apparent but it is probably to be found
in the presence of some substance or substances occurring along with
the campnospermonol in the oil, possibly the small amount of acid
indicated by the acid number 17 of the original exudate.

Analyses of the methyl ether, the hydro-methyl ether and the
alcohol obtained by reducing the ketone group in the hydro-methyl
ether have been again carried out with results consistent with the
respective formulae now suggested for these substances. The oxida-
tion products of campnospermonyl methyl ether have been again
examined and suberic acid isolated as a product additional to those
already reported, namely, azelaic, nonoic and m-methoxy benzoic
acids. It also seems clear that the oxidation product of hydrocamp-
nospermonyl methyl ether previously described as margaric acid, is
really a mixture of that acid with some stearic acid, a result in
accordance with the constitution assigned.

It is hoped to publish an account of further derivatives of camp-
nospermonol at a later date.

Experimental.

Combustion results.

Campnospermonyl methyl ether.

Found C = 80.6, H = 10.7.

(C26H4202 requires C = 80.8. H = 10.8).

Hydrocampnospermonyl methyl ether.

Found C = 80.4. H = 11.4.

(C26H4402 requires C = 80.4 H = 11.5).

Hydrocampnospermonyl methyl ether.

Found C = 79.9. *H = 11.6.

(C26H4g02 requires C = 80.0. H = 11.8).

Reaction of oximino campnospermonyl methyl ether with phosphorus
pentachloride.

40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Fifty grammes of campnospermonyl methyl ether were added to
200 ccs. absolute alcohol in which 3 grammes of sodium had been dis-
solved and after cooling to 0°C, 20 ccs. of amyl nitrite were slowly added
and the mixture maintained at 0°C for 4 hours. The liquid was then
diluted with water and extracted thoroughly with petroleum ether.
The alkaline extract remaining, was acidified with dilute sulphuric
acid and the oximino derivative which separated, isolated by ether
extraction. It was then dissolved in dry chloroform, cooled to 0°C
and finely powdered phosphorus pentachloride slowly added till no
further reaction took place. Ice was then added and the chloroform
solution removed. Evaporation of the chloroform gave a liquid
which was separated into (a) a nitrile, ( b ) an acid, by treatment with
dilute sodium hydroxide and ether extraction.

(а) The nitrile was distilled in vacuo and the distillate solidified
on cooling. Hydrolysis gave a good yield of m-methoxy benzoic
acid M.P. 106.5°C.

Found C = 62.9. H = 5.1.

(CgHgO^ requires C = 63.1. H — 5.2).

(б) The acid was converted into its methyl ester and fractionated.
The iodine value for the distilled ester was 85. (Theor. for methyl
oleate = 87).

Identity with methyl oleate was confirmed by oxidation with
permanganate in acetone solution. Nonoic and azelaic acids being
identified as the products.

In a similar reaction with hydrocampnospermonyl methyl ether,
m-methoxy benzoic acid and stearic acid were obtained.

Oxidation of hydrocampnospermonyl methyl ether.

Examination of the ethyl esters obtained in this oxidation by
methods already described ( loc . cit .) resulted in the isolation of a small
fraction of ethyl suberate as a fraction boiling a little below that of
the main fraction, ethyl azelate, obtained on fractionation.

Hydrolysis gave suberic acid M.P. 132°C.

Found C == 54.8. H 8.1.

Acid Number == 635.

(C«H1404 requires C = 55.1. H — 8.1).

Oxidation of hydrocampnospermonyl methyl ether.

The fatty acid isolated in this oxidation and previously described
as margaric acid was again examined. The acid number was care-
fully determined and the molecular weight calculated, the value 274
being obtained as a result of several determinations. The molecular
weight of margaric acid is 270 and that of stearic acid 284 and it is
clear that margaric acid is the principal product but mixed with about
30% stearic acid. The melting point of the sample was determined
as 57.5°C.

REFERENCE

Jones, T. G. H., and Smith, T. B. (1928), J. C. S., pp. 65-70

Vol. XLV., No. 9.

41

New Australian Trypetidae with notes on Previously
Described species

By F. A. Perkins, B.Sc., Agr.

Lecturer in Economic Entomology, University of Queensland.
{Tabled before the Royal Society of Queensland , 21th November , 1933).

In connection with experiments on the biology of Australian
Trypetidae , several undescribed species have been discovered, and, as
it will be necessary to refer to them in future reports, they have been
named and the following descriptions prepared.

Chaetodacus gurneyi sp. nov.

Male and Female. — Length of body 6. 5-7. 5 mm. ; of wing 6. 0-6. 5

mm.

Head. — General colour brownish yellow. Frons nearly twice as
long as wide, with a dark, slightly raised blunt tubercle covered with
long black hairs situated just above the lunule ; black spots at the base
of the or. bristles. Ocellar triangle and lunule shining black.
Antennae longer than the face ; second segment bearing a short black
dorsal bristle ; third segment nearly three times as long as second,
and dark on the outer sides ; terminal part of arista black. Two top
shaped facial spots. Genal spot present. Chaetotaxy vt. 2, pvt.
{weak and divergent), s. or. 1, i. or. 2, genal bristle, and occipital row
7.

Thorax. — General colour dark yellowish brown (bred specimens
much paler), punctulate, with short pale pubescence, and the following
black markings : — two short central bands extending from the
.anterior margin to about the middle of the mesonotum, two lateral
curved narrow bands extending from the humeral calli to the antero-
lateral corners of the scutellum, a band in front of the mesopleural
stripe, the posterior part of the pteropleurae, practically the whole of
the sternopleurae, postscutellum, and mesophragma ; and with the
following yellow markings : — humeral calli ; notopleural calli ; on each
side a parallel sided mesopleural stripe equal to the notopleural callus
in width, the anterior border straight and cutting the mesopleural
suture at one quarter of its length from the sternopleural suture, the
lower border extending on to the sternopleuron ; two short lateral
stripes commencing at the suture and ending well before the upper
p. sa. bristle ; practically the whole of the upper and the anterior four-
fifths of the lower hypopleural calli. Scutellum yellow with a large
brown triangular patch occupying nearly the whole of the dorsal
surface. Halteres nearly white. Chaetotaxy scp. 4, 7i.pl. 2, a. sa. 1,
p.sa. 2, mpl. 1 , pt. 1, prsc. 2, set. 2 (apical), all dark brown or black.
Legs brownish yellow with the hind tibiae slightly darker. Wings
very similar to those of C. tryoni, hyaline with a dark brown costal
band extending a little past the end of the third longitudinal vein,
and an anal streak ; costal cell pale brown ; wing veins dark brown,
last portion of the fourth longitudinal distinctly curved, anterior cross

42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

vein oblique and a little beyond the centre of the discoidal cell ;
prolongation of the anal cell about twice as long in the male, and about
as long in the female, as the last portion of the sixth longitudinal vein.

Abdomen. — General colour dark brown with the first and second
tergites pale brownish yellow ; a faint mid dorsal longitudinal dark
line ; two very distinct large shining black spots on the fifth tergite,
one on either side of the mid dorsal line. Third segment of male
ciliated. Described from 9 males and 10 females.

Host plants.

Acronychia laevis, Forst. (Cheesewood) Narara, N.S.W., 1910
(W. B. Gurney) and Tooloom, N.S.W., 1924 (F. A. Perkins).

Melodorum Leichhardtii, Benth. Acacia Ck., N.S.W., May. 1925
(F. A. Perkins).

Ficus glomerata, Wild. Brisbane, June, 1933 (F. A. Perkins).

This species is distinguished from other species of Australian
Dacinae by the black spots on the fifth abdominal tergite, brown
marking on the scutellum, and the shape of the mesopleural stripe and
facial spots. It has been confused with C. tryoni in the past and many
of the host records for G. tryoni really belong to this species. It has
been named after Mr. W. B. Gurney, Government Entomologist of
Y.S.W., who was the first to breed it from native fruits.

Chaetodacus humeialis sp. nov.

Male and Female. — Length of body 6. 5-7. 5 mm ; of wing 6. 0-6. 5

mm.

Head. — General colour reddish yellow. Frons nearly twice as
long as wide, with a black central slightly raised tubercle, and black
spots at the base of the or. bristles. Ocellar triangle and lunule shining
black. Antennae longer than the face ; second segment bearing a
short black dorsal bristle ; third segment nearly three times as long as
the second, the outer sides black and the inner dark brown ; arista
pale at the base, the remainder being black. Face, palps, and proboscis
orange yellow, the face with two irregularly shaped black spots. Genal
spot very distinct. Chaetotaxy vt. 2, s. or. 1, i. or. 2, genal bristle and
occipital row 7.

Thorax. — General colour dark reddish brown ; punctulate, with
short pale pubescence ; a broad central greyish area, bordered on each
side by two parallel narrow black lines which terminate about half-
way between the suture and the scutellum ; a triangular area in front
of the suture, short bars on both sides of the posterior part of the
lateral yellow stripes, and practically the whole of the ventral part
of the thorax black. Humeral calli dark brown. Yellow marking as
follows : — notopleural calli ; on each side a sub triangular spot on the
mesopleuron the base extending along the notopleural suture, and as
long as the notopleural callus, and the apex terminating on the upper
part of the sternopleuron ; two short lateral stripes commencing at
the suture and ending before the upper p.sa. bristle ; practically the
whole of the upper and the anterior four-fifths of the lower hypopleural
calli. Post scutellum and mesophragma black. Scutellum bright
yellow. Chaetotaxy scp. 4 (pale and weak), n. pi. 2, a. sa. 1, p. sa. 2,

NEW AUSTRALIAN TRYPETIDAE

43

mpl. 1 , pt. 1, prsc. 2, set. 2 (apical), all dark brown or black. Halteres
pale yellow. Legs pale yellow, with the distal portion of the femora,
and the distal tarsal segments brown, and the coxae and hind tibiae
very dark brown or black. Wings practically identical with C. tryoni.
Costal band extending slightly beyond the end of the third longitudinal
vein. Costal cell brown.

Abdomen. — General colour very dark brown or black. A short
transverse pale yellow band on the anterior margin of the second
tergite, and a larger pale yellow band occupying the posterior half of
the same tergite ; the anterior margin of the larger yellow band
sinuous. Third segment of male ciliated. Ovipositor yellowish
brown. Described from 5 males and 10 females.

Host plants.

Mandarins, Cairns, July, 1933 (F. A. Perkins).

Passiflora suberosa Mackay, Q., June, 1933 (W. A. McDougall).

This species is closest to C. tryoni from which it can be distin-
guished by the brown humeral calli, and the thoracic and abdominal
markings. Apparently it is of definite economic importance as a
citrus pest in the northern part of the State.

Chaetodacus strigatus sp. nov.

Male and Female. — Length of body 6. 5-7. 5 mm. ; of wing 5-5. 5mm.

Head. — General colour brownish yellow. Frons nearly twice as
long as wide, with a dark central sub -rectangular spot, and black spots
at the base of the s. or. bristles. Ocellar triangle and lunule shining
black. Antennae longer than the face, second segment bearing a
short black dorsal bristle, third segment more than twice as long as
second. Face, palps, and proboscis paler than the rest of the head,
face unspotted. Chaetotaxy vt. 2, s. or. 1, i. or. 3, all black.

Thorax. — General colour dark brown ; punctulate ; with short
pale pubescence ; two broad greyish parallel fascia, one on each side of
the mid dorsal line of the mesonotum. Yellow markings as follows : —
humeral calli ; on each side a sub -triangular spot on the mesopleuron
the base extending along the notopleural suture, and the apex not
reaching the sternopleuron ; two very short lateral stripes commencing
at the suture, and ending well before the upper p. sa. bristle ; nearly
all the anterior part of the upper, and the anterior two thirds of the
lower hypopleural calli. Posterior part of the pteropleurae, and the
lateral part of the post scutellum and mesophragma black. Scutellum
yellow. Chaetotaxy scp. 4 (weak), npl. 2, a. sa. 1, p. sa. 2, mpl. 1,
pt. 1, prsc. 2, set. 2 (apical), all black. Halteres pale yellowish brown.
Legs pale yellowish brown, hind tibiae dark brown. Wings hyaline
with dark brown veins ; anterior cross vein oblique, and less than its
own length from the posterior cross vein ; third longitudinal vein
slightly sinuous near the outer margin ; costal cell hyaline ; stigma
dark brown ; a narrow brown costal band terminating at the end of the
fourth longitudinal vein ; a narrow transverse slightly angulated brown
band leaving the costal band below the termination of the first longi-
tudinal vein, then following the courses of the cross veins, and ending
on the wing margin at the end of the fifth longitudinal vein ; anal

44

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

streak present ; the first basal cell pale brown as far as the basal cross
vein ; the coloured portion of the first basal cell is connected to the
anal streak by a short narrow band which surrounds the basal cross
gein.

Abdomen. — General colour dark brown ; punctulate ; with long
golden pubescence ; short narrow median longitudinal black markings
on the posterior part of the fourth and fifth segments. Third segment
of male ciliated. Described from 1 male and 4 females.

Habitat.— Stanthorpe, Q., October, 1924 (caught in traps).

This species is distinguished from other species of Australian
Dacinae by the approximation of the cross veins, the transverse brown
band on the wings, and by the brown notopleural calli.

Rioxa pornia, Walker.

Synonymy

Trypeta pornia , Walker, 1849 (List. Dipt. Brit. Mus., iv., 1039).

Trypeta musae, Froggatt, 1899 (Agric. Gaz., N.S.W., 501).

Tephritis psidii, (Frogg.) Tryon, 1904-5 (An. Rep. Entom. 71).

Dacus musae, (Frogg.) Gurney, 1912 (Agric. Gaz. N.S.W., 75).

Rioxa musae, (Frogg.) Tryon, 1927 (Proc. Roy. Soc. Queens.,
xxxviii, 216).

As a result of a careful study of Walker’s description of Trypeta
pornia the above synonymy was suspected, and, in order to verify
the suspicion, a typical specimen of the so-called Rioxa musae was sent
to Sir Guy Marshall of the British Museum. He compared it with the
type and reported as follows : — 44 1 have compared Trypeta pornia
with Walker’s type, and there is no doubt that your specimen belongs
to that species.” I would like to take this opportunity of acknow-
ledging the assistance rendered by Sir Guy Marshall.

Calantra aequalis Coq.

Synonymy.

Dacus aequalis, Coq., 1909 (Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., xxxiii, 794).

Chaetodacus aequalis, (Coq.) Tryon, 1927 (Proc. Roy. Soc. Queens.,
xxxviii., 191).

In the original description and in subsequent descriptions by
Froggatt and Tryon no mention has been made of the chaetotaxy
which is as follows : —

Head.— Vt. 2, pvt. (divergent), s. or. 1, i. or. 2, genal bristle,
and occipital row about 8 (very weak).

Thorax. — Npl. 2, p. sa. 2, mpl. 1, pt. 1, set. (apical pair). There
are no a. sa. nor prsc.

Abdomen. — Third segment of male ciliated.

Vol. XLV., No. 10.

45

Reactions of Tagetone. Part h

By Thomas Gilbert Henry Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I.

Lecturer in Chemistry, University of Queensland.

(Tabled before the Royal Society of Queensland, 21th November, 1933).

The essential oil of Tagetes glandulifera was shown by Jones and
Smith to contain two ketones of the olefinie terpene class to which the
following constitutions were assigned : —

(CH3)2:CHCH2COCH2CH(CH3)CH:CH2 I.

(CH3)2:CHCH2COCH2C(:CH2)CH:CH2 II.

The name of tagetone was given to II. owing to its comparative
abundance in the oil, while the more systematic name dimethyl /\a
octen-e-one was adopted for I.

Subsequently the formula for tagetone was slightly modified by
Jones and the ketone was represented as comprising the tautomeric
systems,

•COUH2C(:CH2)CH:CH2->C(OH):CHC(:CH2)UH:CH2->

->C0CH:C(CH3)-CH:CH2,

in which case tagetone would be expected to act as an afl unsaturated
ketone. The action of reducing agents on tagetone has therefore been
examined and the expectation verified. Owing to the instability of
tagetone, its isolation in a state of purity by fractional distillation is
rendered difficult without undue loss of material and consequently
some uncertainty must be attached to the purity of products obtained
from it. This was the case in connection with experiments on the
reduction of tagetone already described ( loc . cit.) and it is now clear
that the alcohol described as tagetol C10HlgO, must be regarded as
dihydro -tagetol C10H20O. This has been demonstrated by purifi-
cation of this alcohol by means of its acid phthalate derivative. It
has been found possible to prepare this alcohol in moderate yield
by reduction of tagetone with sodium and alcohol provided the
solution is maintained as cold as practicable during the reduction.
The density of the alcohol .8464, shows it to be somewhat higher
than that of dimethyl ^aocten-£-ol .8305, and the two cannot therefore
be identical.

A convenient reducing agent for tagetone confirming its a/5 un-
saturated character, has been found in zinc dust and ammonium
chloride with alcohol as solvent — the principal product being a dihydro-
tagetone C10HlgO, resulting from the addition of two atoms of hydrogen
to tagetone, together with smaller quantities of higher boiling substances
containing twenty carbon atoms. The dihydro -tagetone obtained in
this way is apparently not homogeneous, as its semicarbazone does
not readily crystallise and invariably separates from solution as an
oil which slowly crystallises. Examination of its oxidation products

46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

confirmed this view as there was obtained in addition to the expected
isovaleric acid, a small quantity of the ketonic acid C9H1603. which
is the characteristic oxidation product of I.

The constitution indicated for dihydro-tagetone in view of these
results is to be represented as,

(CH3)2:CHCH2COCH2C(CH3):CHCH3 III.

with some admixture with ketone I. with which it is isomeric, differing
only in the position of the unsaturated linkage.

The density of dihydro-tagetone was determined as .8441, which
is somewhat higher than that of ketone I. .8354.

As already stated the dihydro-tagetone was not the sole product
of this reduction of tagetone with zinc dust and ammonium chloride.
It was found possible to isolate two higher boiling substances of mole-
cular compositions C2o^32^ anc^ L20H34O2. Loss of water had
evidently occurred in the formation of the first of these substances
and some analogy with the behaviour of mesityl oxide on electrolytic
reduction is apparent. While it is not as yet possible to assign a
definite constitution, it is likely that a system analogous to desoxy-
mesityl oxide is present in the first and that the second represents
the usual type of pinacone.

The reduction products of tagetone with zinc dust and alcoholic
sodium hydroxide have been further investigated and two products
isolated, both apparently of molecular composition C9()H3402. One
however, appears to possess only one carbonyl group, as in reaction
with hydroxylamine a mono-oxime results, the other giving a dioxime.

Consideration of the physical constants of these pinacone bodies
suggests that neither is identical with that obtained in the ammonium
chloride, zinc dust reduction.

Pinacol bodies are obtained from tagetone when sodium amalgam
and alcohol or aluminium amalgam and moist ether, are used as
reducing agents, but owing to the higher boiling points, separation
is difficult and was not effected with the small amount of reduction
product available.

Tagetone readily reacts when hydrogen sulphide is passed into
a well cooled ammoniacal solution in alcohol and the solution becomes
finally colorless. Fractional distillation indicated that primarily,
complex substances of high boiling points, containing sulphur, had been
formed but a small amount of an unpleasant smelling liquid contain-
ing sulphur, of boiling point 90°C at 4 mms. was obtained. This
however, resinified before analysis, having become solid in a few days
and insufficient material was available for further investigation.

In reaction with hydroxylamine, tagetone gave further evidence
of ap unsaturated character. The normal oxime already described
was, under the prescribed conditions, accompanied by an oximino
ketone. The oximino ketone was separated by solution in acid and
readily reduced Fehling’s solution on warming.

Hydrolysis of tagetone with saturated methyl alcoholic barium
hydroxide gave in addition to a small yield of isobutyl ketone, a
ketone alcohol C10HlgOo, formed by addition of water to the un-
saturated system.

BE ACTIONS OF TAGETONE. PABT I.

47

Tagetone reacts vigorously with the Grignard reagent CHgMgI,
but considerable polymerisation results and only a small amount of
C10 substance can be isolated. This possessed d15.5 .8559 and in
reaction with semicarbazide gave evidence of ketonic character,
although admixture with the expected tertiary alcohol seemed
probable.

Distillation of the resin produced during distillation of tagetone
at low pressure, always gave a dark colored liquid of very unpleasant
odour and capable of separation by distillation into two fractions
which evidently represent dimers of tagetone.

It is hoped, as opportunity offers to continue the investigation of
the reactions of tagetone.

Expebimental.

Reduction of tagetone with zinc dust and ammonium chloride.

To 100 ccs. of tagetone dissolved in alcohol there were added
several ccs. of a saturated ammonium chloride solution followed by
gradual addition of zinc dust. Much heat was developed and the
flask was kept cold with ice water. Additional ammonium chloride
and zinc dust were added until no further heat was developed. The
product was then extracted with ether and on isolation submitted to
fractional distillation.

Three fractions described below as (a), ( b ), (c), were eventually
obtained.

Fraction (a), 56 ccs., readily reacted with semicarbazide acetate
but the semicarbazone only slowly solidified and crystallised . All
attempts to obtain it pure by crystallisation from various organic
solvents (in which it is readily soluble) were fruitless, an oil invariably
separating. For the ketone regenerated from the semicarbazone, the
following constants were obtained : —

d15.5=.844; Kfo-l.4350; b.p. = 186-190°C.

Found C=77.7, H=11.5.

(C10HlgO requires C=77.9, H=11.7).

Oxidation with acetone permanganate gave as products, isovaleric
acid and ft isovaleryl a methyl propionic acid. Only small amounts of
the latter acid were obtained and the oxidation results would indicate
some admixture of a principal product, presumably ketone III. with
ketone I.

The alcohol C10H20O, obtained on reduction with Na and alcohol
possessed constants : d15>5 = .8512 ; N^0 = 1.4420 ; b.p. = 197°C.

Fraction (6) 25 ccs., fractionated as far as possible, possessed the
following constants : —

d15.5 B .8940; N|° =g 1.4850; b.p. = 115-120°C. (4mms).

Found C = 82.8, H = 10.7.

(C20H32° squires C = 83.3, H = 11.1).

Iodine value 305 indicating 3 double bonds.

No constitution has been assigned to this substance, though by
analogy with similar bodies produced by reducing mesityl oxide there

48

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

are several possibilities including that of the system analogous to
desoxy- mesityl oxide.

Fraction (c) possessed the following constants : —

^15 5 = -9094 ; b.p. = 140-150°C (4mms.)

Found C = 78.6, H = 10.8.

(C2QH3402 requires C = 78.4, H = 11.1).

Iodine value 302.

Only a small quantity of (c) was produced.

Reduction of tagetone with sodium and cold alcohol.

By reduction in the cold, 50 ccs. tagetone gave 25 ccs. of a pleasant
smelling alcoholic body. After purification by means of the acid
phthalate it possessed the following constants : —

d15.5 = .8512 ; N2° = 1.4420 ; b.p. = 197°C (760 mms.).

Found C ■-= 76.5, H M 12.7.

(C10HO()O requires C = 76.9, H = 12.8).

These constants agree with those given for dihydro -tagetol.

Reduction of tagetol with zinc dust and alcoholic sodium hydroxide.

Zinc dust was added slowly to 100 ccs. of tagetone dissolved in
alcoholic sodium hydroxide (400 ccs.) until no further heat was
developed. The flask was then heated under reflux for 3 hours and
the reaction products isolated by ether extraction.

Separation by fractional distillation at 3 mm. pressure gave two
substances of molecular composition C20H34O2, together with a
small fraction of a lower boiling point liquid which readily gave a
crystalline semicarbazone M.P. 92.5°C and therefore ketone I., was
presumably present in the original tagetone.

The constants of the higher boiling liquids were determined as
follows : —

(a)

d15'5 = -9405

b.p.

= 140-150°C.

(4 mms.)

Iodine value 191.

(6)

d ■ .9399

15'5

b.p.

= 160-170°C.

(4 mms.)

Iodine value 214.

Fraction (a) gave with hydroxylamine an oxime containing 6.9% of
nitrogen, while in the case of ( b ) the oxime contained 3.9% of N. The
percentage of nitrogen for one oxime group is 4.3% and it is con-
cluded that fraction ( b ) contained two ketone groups while (a) con-
tained only one.

Hydrolysis of tagetone with barium hydroxide solution.

Twenty grammes of tagetone were heated under reflux with
200 ccs. methyl alcohol saturated with barium hydroxide for three
hours and the products isolated by steam distillation and fraction-
ation.

The principal product, isolated in addition to a small amount of
methyl isobutyl ketone was found to possess the following constants —

d15.5 - .9046 ; Ng> = 1.4640 ; B.p. = 75-80°C. (4 mms.)

Found C = 71.9, H = 10.9.

C10HlgO2 requires C = 70, H = 10.6).

REACTIONS OF TAGETONE. PART I.

49

The combustion results were not altogether in satisfactory
agreement with the formula C10H18O2, but there is no doubt that the
product can only be accounted for by such a formula. Addition of
water to the unsaturated system had evidently taken place but the
yield was small owing to resinification.

Reaction of tagetone with the Grignard reagent MgCH3I.

Twenty-five grammes of tagetone were slowly added to the
theoretical quantity of MgCH3I, when a vigorous reaction occurred.

From the reaction product a small amount of liquid of b.p. 66°C.
(3 mms.) was isolated possessing the following constants : —

d- r • r = .8559; N2? ■ 1.4520.

15 5 D

This was separated into two portions by reaction with semicarbazide
and it is likely that the reaction had followed the normal course with
substances of the tagetone type, giving a ketone and a tertiary alcohol.

The greater portion of the tagetone was however converted into
products with high boiling points, indicating polymerisation during
the reaction.

Polymers of tagetone.

The constants determined for the two fractions isolated from the
resinified material always resulting in the fractionation and distilla-
tion of tagetone were as follows : —

(а) d15.5 ==? .9786 ; b.p. = 130-140°C. (4 mms.)

(б) d15.g = .9750 ; b.p. = 150-160°C. (4 mms.)

In both cases combustion results indicated C20H32O2.

Only a small proportion of the resin is however distillable.

Reaction of tagetone with hydroxylamine.

From the reaction of tagetone with hydroxylamine in alkaline
solution, in addition to the oxime already described ( loc.cit .) it was
found possible to isolate an oximino ketone. This was effected by
solution in dilute sulphuric acid. For the recovered oximino ketone
the following constants were obtained —

d15.5 — .969 ; N20 = 1.4720 ; b.p. '== 100-102°C (4 mms.)

Found N = 7.9%,

(C10H19NO2 re9uires 7-6%).

The oximino ketone readily reduced Fehlings solution on warming
and gave all the reactions of such a body.

REFERENCES

1. Law, H. D. (1912), J.C.S., pp. 1017-1022.

2. Jones, T. G. H., and F. B. Smith (1925), J.C.S., pp. 2530-2539.

3. Jones, T. G. H. (1926), J.C.S., pp. 2767-2770.

50

Vol. XLV., No. 11.

The Problem of the Brisbane Tuff.

By Professor H. C. Richards, D.Sc., and W. H. Bryan, D.Sc.

(Department of Geology, University of Queensland).

Plates IV. -VI.

( Accepted for publication by the Royal Society of Queensland , 30th

November , 1933).

1. Introduction.

The following paper records an attempt to discover the origin,
and explain the mode of formation of the rock now known as the
Brisbane Tuff. While the authors long ago realised that this rock
possessed a number of unusual features, their doubts as to its true
nature were revived and strengthened when a section showing well-
developed columnar structure was exposed in the municipal quarry
at Windsor some three miles north of the centre of the city of Brisbane.
A more detailed examination disclosed other anomalous features, but
a search of the literature showed that the characters displayed by the
Brisbane Tuff, although rare, were not unique but could be closely
paralleled in the “ Great Hot Sand Flow ” of Alaska and in the
“ Ignimbrites ” of New Zealand, while they also resembled in certain
respects the c‘ Nuees ar dentes ” of Mt. Pelee.

In the pages which follow only those features that have a direct
bearing on the origin and nature of the Brisbane Tuff will be con-
sidered. For a more general account the reader is referred to the
paper by Mrs. C. Briggs (1928) published in these proceedings.

2. Earlier Views as to Origin and Mode of Formation.

The rock which is now known as the Brisbane Tuff was first described
by Leichhardt (1855) who examined the rock on his visit to Brisbane
in 1844. The publication in which his account occurs is in German,
a free translation of which reads as follows : —

“ Forming the steep bank of the Brisbane River opposite the
Government Gardens and between Petrie’s Bight and New Farm
there occurs a rock of pale violet colour which furnishes an
excellent building stone. It encloses pieces of talc -schist but one
notices felspar crystals too and these reveal the true nature of
the rock. I consider it a Domite although, since it has broken
through the talc-schist and so included many fragments of that
rock, one is inclined at first to regard it as a conglomerate.”

The next observer was Wilson (1856) who described the formation
as “a large dyke of flesh-coloured porphyry, containing crystals of
quartz and felspar and many fragments of the slate-rock through
which it has been erupted. These fragments showT no indication of
having been fused or altered.”

A. C. Gregory (1879) also regarded the rock as an intrusive por-
phyry containing fragments of “ slate.” He pointed out that “ por-
tions of silicified wood are embedded in the lower surface of the
erupted mass.”

Rands (1887) disagreed with the earlier workers and described
the rock as a “ Volcanic Ashy Sandstone ” for the following reasons :
£t Taking: nto consideration the nature of the rock, its being full of
angular pieces of other rocks, the absence of any change in the sur-

THE PROBLEM OF THE BRISBANE TUFF

51

rounding schists and lastly its position in relation to the other forma-
tions .... I have come to the conclusion that it is a £ volcanic ash 5
and not a porphyry, and that it lies at or near the base of the Ipswich
beds.” . Rands also stated that the included fragments attain the size
of pebbles or boulders towards the base and that ££ It has also near its
base pieces of silicified and also of carbonised wood.”

As a result of Rands’ work the pyroclastic origin of the rock was
generally accepted and it became known as the " Brisbane Tuff” a
name which it still bears in geological nomenclature, although the
earlier term “ Porphyry ” is still used by local engineers and those
engaged in quarrying the stone.

That some uncertainty yet lingered in the minds of geologists as
to the nature and origin of the rock is shown by Walkom’s (1918)
cautious statement that it was “ probably of volcanic origin (though
there is no indication of its source) resulting from the deposition of
volcanic ash .....”

Dunstan (1920) although he expressed no opinion as to the position
of the focus of volcanic activity had definite views as to the nature
of the eruption which he expressed as follows : “ Volcanic outbursts
at the beginning of the Triassic period formed a very thick deposit
of dust or ash over the hills and valleys in the Brisbane district, and
the timber growing on the shales and schists at that time was enveloped
and destroyed by a great thickness of this dust. The deposits evidently
were not laid down as mud, as the tops of the hills were as thickly
covered as the bottoms of the valleys, while in addition the presence
of charcoal at the base of the tuffs, quite unchanged even after the
lapse of such a length of time, gives evidence of the burning of some
of the timber while its envelopment was taking place.”

Ball (1920) called attention to the possible relationship of the
Brisbane Tuff with the acid intrusions of the Indooroopilly area.

Richards (1924) suggested that £'it is not unlikely that the
source of the activity was to the East or South-east of Brisbane in a
region now foundered below sea-leveh” while a few years later the
present authors (1927) considered the possibility of Castra (twelve
miles east-south-east of Brisbane) marking one focus of activity.

The most recent study of the Brisbane Tuff is that of Mrs. C.
Briggs (1928) who concluded that “ the tuff was laid down on land
surface, the continuity of which was broken by a series of small fresh-
water lakes ” but that There is no direct indication of the centre
of eruption of this tuffaceous material within a reasonable distance of
its outcrops.” This authoress also suggested that there might be some
genetic relationship between the Brisbane Tuff, the Indooroopilly
Intrusives and the Enoggera Granite which chemically and minera-
logically have much in common.

3. Observations.

(a) In the Field. ( See Plates V. and VI.).

The Brisbane Tuff occurs almost at the base of the Ipswich Coal
Measures of Triassic age which overlie with a marked unconformity
the Brisbane Schists of early Palaeozoic age.

At the present time outcrops which can with reasonable certainty
be correlated with the Tuff as typically developed are scattered over
an area measuring 34 miles by 9 miles, with a decided concentration

52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

in and about the city of Brisbane where the principal outcrop takes
the form of an elongate mass measuring about 12 miles in a N.N.W.-
S.S.E. direction. To the west of this principal outcrop lie the Bris-
bane Schists. Within the schists and forming an intrusive suite
roughly parallel with and some two or three miles west of the main
mass of Tuff is the major intrusion known as the Enoggera Granite
and a host of minor intrusions of an acid nature which have been called
the Intrusive Rhyolites. The granite occupies the northern part of
this intrusive belt while the Intrusive Rhyolites are for the most part
concentrated in the south. To the east of the principal outcrop of
Tuff there lies a geological complex consisting in part of inliers of
Brisbane Schist, in part of more or less isolated outcrops of Tuff, and
in part of younger beds of the Ipswich Series.

The present discontinuity of the Tuff may represent an original
condition due to accumulation on the lower portions of an uneven
surface, for the junction of the Ipswich Series and Brisbane Schists
is, as pointed out by Marks (1910), an exceedingly irregular one.
Indeed the relationship between the two series appears to be a typical
“ buried landscape ” unconformity. Nevertheless the present distri-
bution may be in part due to erosion. The fact that the Tuff has
(with the remainder of the Ipswich Series) been subjected to moderate
folding seems to have had little influence on the matter owing possibly
to the coincidence of synclinal areas with original depressions.

The basement on which the Tuff rests usually consists either of a
coarse rubble breccia made up of large angular fragments of the
underlying schist and suggestive of a consolidated scree, or of a fissile
mudstone containing numerous plant remains. The latter when
present is never more than a few feet thick and may rest directly
upon the Brisbane Schists or be separated from them by varying
thicknesses of the rubble breccia. In one locality, however, the
fossiliferous mudstone is represented by a thin band actually within
but almost at the top of the breccia. In some places the rubble
breccia grades laterally into coarse basal conglomerates and other
shallow water deposits. A very striking feature associated with the
base of the Tuff is the great number of fossil trees some of them over
two feet in diameter. These are not in position of growth but appear
to lie upon the bed of the Triassic lake and on the surrounding shores.

Although the data are not available on which reliable estimates
of the maximum thickness of the Brisbane Tuff can be based it is cer-
tainly of the order of hundreds of feet. Thicknesses of from 200 to
300 feet have been definitely established but it seems probable that at
its greatest the Tuff was more than 500 feet thick. Although the
thickness certainly varies considerably and in particular appears to
decrease to the east the Brisbane Tuff forms a stratigraphical unit in
a sedimentary series.

In those places where the lower part of the Tuff has been con-
siderably weathered it usually has the appearance of a stratified deposit
owing to the more resistant nature of one or more hard bands. One
such band in particular is seen in certain exposures to form the very
base of the Tuff. This is from one to three feet in thickness and is
clearly differentiated from the overlying Tuff owing to its superior
hardness and compactness. That something in the nature of bedding
is present is also suggested by the fact that even in the more massive

THE PROBLEM OF THE BRISBANE TUFF

53

portions stone-masons find that the Tuff “ works ” more readily
along what would correspond to the bedding planes.

But apart from the features noted in the last paragraph there is
a notable absence of stratification. The Brisbane Tuff as seen in a
cliff face or a quarry wall presents a most striking appearance. In
such positions it stands as vertical walls of massive rock with no sign
of stratification even in those portions immediately underlying the
shallow soil, but with strongly developed joints which are the more
noticeable since they are absent from both the immediately underlying
and overlying rocks. The joint planes as typically developed are
widely spaced and at right angles to each other but closely spaced and
curved joint planes are also met with. Sometimes the vertical joints
are much more strongly developed than the others and a roughly
prismatic structure results, but the most striking system of joints is
that found in the municipal quarry at Windsor where there is
developed a very pronounced columnar structure (see Plate VI.,
Fig. 2).

In its general appearance as in its detailed arrangement this
columnar jointing is closely comparable with that frequently met with
in lavas and equally distinct from the prismatic jointing occasionally
found in sediments. A comparison of Plate VI.,, Fig. 2 with the
figures of Iddings (1909 Figs. 13, 17) illustrating the columnar basalt
of Orange Mountain, New Jersey, is instructive in this respect.

The columns are tolerably uniform in size with an average diameter
of approximately twelve inches. The sides vary from nearly straight
to somewhat undulate. About two-thirds are pentagonal, the majority
of the remainder being six-sided or four sided. Ball-and-socket
jointing is not developed and there is no pronounced tapering of the
columns. The columns as a whole are neither horizontal nor vertical,,
the arrangement being somewhat irregular but including certain
regularly divergent and convergent structures. In so far as one may
generalise the principal structure appears to consist of a collection of
approximately vertical columns in the heart of the structure forming
a nub from which other curved columns diverge to form a basin-like
arrangement.

The upper ends of many of the .columns appear to be continuous
with as if welded into the overlying massive non-columnar Tuff.

These features show the structure to be typical of that formed
in igneous rocks by thermal contraction as distinct from the pris-
matic structures due to convectional circulation or to internal
expansion (see Sosman, 1916).

The shales immediately below the columnar Tuff are unusual in
that they have been considerably contorted and even in places brec-
ciated and indurated.

In certain localities the Brisbane Tuff shows features closely re-
sembling some of the fluxion structures seen in acid lavas. These may
take the form of continuous lines or of a streaky distribution of materials
of different hardness or colour which is emphasized by weathering.

A notable feature is the compactness of the rock which has re-
sulted in its use as a local building stone (see Richards 1918).

54 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

One of the most striking characters of the Brisbane Tuff is the
presence of very numerous fragments of the underlying Brisbane
Schists. These fragments seldom exceed a few inches in diameter
and are very angular. Although many of these appear indurated
others show no obvious sign of metamorphism but in view cf their
original obdurate nature this may not be very significant. Fragments
of rhyolite, usually of small size, also occur as inclusions but these are
not so common or conspicuous. Of particular interest are the inclus-
ions of fossil wood within the Tuff. These are usually of the nature
of silicified petrifactions, but there also occur fragments of carbonised
wood and natural charal, coespecially in the lower part of the Tuff.

In the heart of one of the columns of the Tuff at Windsor there
was discovered by the authors a fragment of graphite, irregular in
shape and about one inch in length and showing all the appearances
of having been fused (see Plate VI., Fig. 1). The graphite fragment
is enveloped by an area of Tuff throughout which there are disseminated
minute particles of graphite. This graphitic halo is not concentrically
arranged with regard to the fragment but is far wider on one side
than the other suggesting that the material that gave rise to the halo
had moved steadily in that direction.

Of all the inclusions whatever their nature, it may be said that
they commonly show no sign of orientation, but that when a definite
arrangement is developed as sometimes occurs in the more massive
variety it is roughly parallel with the base of the Tuff.

An unusual development of the Brisbane Tuff has been described
by the authors (1927) from Castra where volcanic mud balls or
“ accretionary lapilli ” (see Wentworth and Williams 1932) are well
developed in an extremely fine-grained variety of Tuff. Similar
structures in a similar base have since been found at Aspley. These
occurrences represent the northerly and easterly limits respectively
of the Brisbane Tuff proper.

(6) Under the Microscope (see Plate IV.).

Although when judged by hand-specimens alone the Brisbane
Tuff appears to be a tolerably uniform and easily recognisable rock
(its most variable feature being its colour), yet under the microscope
a considerable variety is to be seen. The most notable feature in this
variety is that the bedded material from the base of the Tuff shows
nothing but clastic structures and could be described as a typical
rhyolitic vitric tuff whereas specimens from the overlying massive
Tuff lack the normal tuffaceous characters and are more or less domin-
ated by plastic or fluidal structures.

As typically developed the bedded Tuff is closely comparable
with that figured by Pirsson (1915 Fig. 2) except that the glass shards
have been devitrified and silicified as have also the more minute frag-
ments of glass dust which originally constituted the base. Embedded
in this vitroclastic material are a few comparatively large crystals of
quartz showing idiomorphic or broken outlines with an occasional
crystal of felspar.

The microslides obtained from the massive Tuff although they
exhibit much greater variety nevertheless form a natural group in
that they are all influenced by the development of fluidal structures
comparable with those seen in lavas.

THE PROBLEM OF THE BRISBANE TIJFF

55

The most extreme variety of this second group ( see Plate IV.
Fig. 5) resembles the “ welded pumice ” figured by Iddings (1909
Fig. 22) from the Yellowstone National Park. The other extreme
of this group is found in a markedly brecciated rock in which angular
fragments of “ welded pumice ” are a striking feature. Intermediate
between these extremes and perhaps more typical of the group as a
whole are those rocks in which streaks of the more plastic material are
welded into a rock made up of material comparable with the “ collapsed
pumice ” of Iddings (1909 Fig. 21) the whole suggesting “ eutaxitic
structure.”

All of the varieties of this second group commonly contain a con-
siderable number of quartz “ phenocrysts ” a characteristic feature of
which is their deep embayment. Felspar “ phenocrysts ” are also
common but these are usually idiomorphic although occasionally
embayed.

4. Summary and Inferences.

The observations recorded above show that in the Brisbane Tuff
one finds what at first sight appears to be a curious mixture of
tuffaceous and non-tuffaceous characters so that it is not surprising
that in the past it has been variously regarded as a lava flow, as an
intrusion and as a tuff. An analysis of the relevant data, however,
shows that the normal and abnormal characters are by no means
indiscriminately mixed for, although it is true that certain characters
are found throughout the Tuff, others are definitely restricted, while
several are limited to a single occurrence.

A consideration of the various features present and their distribu-
tion suggests that the Brisbane Tuff should be regarded as made up of
two types, each of which has its own varieties. These types may be
called the Stratified Type and the Massive Type respectively.

The Stratified Type when present is restricted to the lowest
portion of the Brisbane Tuff. It is definitely stratified and. is weakly
jointed. At its base are found numerous petrified trees. The many
inclusions of Brisbane Schist show little or no sign of metamorphism.
In microstructure the rock is typically vitroclastic.

The marginal occurrences at Castra and Aspley containing accre-
tionary lapilli may be regarded as a special development of the type.

The Stratified Type of the Brisbane Tuff combines so many normal
tuffaceous characters that it at least may be true to name. Never-
theless there are several features which are somewhat unusual. The
first of these is the presence of fragments of natural charcoal (a feature
which the Stratified Type shares with the Massive Type). These at
first seem to imply a temperature in the enclosing material greater
than that expected of a volcanic ash. Indeed Fenner (1920, p. 578)
uses similar carbonized fragments as one of the criteria for dis-
tinguishing the “ great hot sand-flow ” of the Katmai region from the
associated ash falls.

On the other hand Grange (1931, p. 229) has described from the
north island of New Zealand, charred wood in a layer of volcanic ash
less than six inches thick, fifty miles from the supposed source at
Taupo. He considers that this and other carbonized fragments
common in the area were “ charred by the hot ashes ” and that “ the
carbonized wood is similar in composition to that of charcoal formed
by destructive distillation at 250°C.”

56 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

A second unusual feature consists in the strangely uneven base
of the Stratified Type. This unevenness appears to be due not to
original depressions in the underlying surface but to downward pro-
tuberances from the base of the Tuff. ( see Plate V., Fig. 1).

The Massive Type of the Brisbane Tuff overlies the Stratified
Type and is over 200 feet in thickness. It shows no sign of stratifi-
cation but is strongly jointed. Many inclusions lie parallel to the
base and show definite signs of metamorphism. Under the microscope
the rock is seen to be dominated by plastic and fluidal structures.

The occurrence at Windsor where columnar structure is associated
with the development of graphite and where the underlying Ipswich
shales are locally disturbed and indurated is thought to represent an
extreme development of the Massive Type, the presence of which may
be connected with its position in what appears to have been a small
lateral embayment of the main valley.

The Massive Type of the Brisbane Tuff combines so many non-
tuff aceous characters that the word Tuff must be regarded as mislead-
ing. All the evidence points to such very high temperatures at the
time of its formation that much of the material composing it was vir-
tually plastic if not actually fluidal. Since rhyolitic glass becomes
plastic only when the temperature approaches 1000°C. the Massive
Type can hardly be explained as a solidified ash. Indeed many micro-
sections appear remarkably like de vitrified and silicified glassy lavas.
In particular the columnar material at Windsor which in other respects
is quite typical of the Massive Type shows evidence of very high
temperatures, for here in addition to the other evidence we have the
presence of the columns themselves and the included fragment of
graphite both of which indicate temperatures more characteristic of a
lava flow than an ash fall.

In spite of the differences noted above the Stratified Type and the
Massive Type have so many factors in common, including chemical
composition and geographical distribution that it is reasonable to
conclude that both types came from the same volcanic centre, but
their differences are so notable that a separate modus operandi is
needed for the formation of each type.

It appears that while the earlier formed Stratified Type (and more
particularly that containing the accretionary lapilli) might be
explained as due to a series of violent volcanic explosions followed by
the deposition of showers of ash about the shores and within the
waters of a series of small lakes, such an explanation is hopelessly
inadequate to account for the Massive Type and especially so for the
columnar material at Windsor. To explain the Massive Type one needs
to account for : 1. An initial fragmentation of igneous material to-
gether with much foreign material ; 2. The conversion of this frag-

mental material into a plastic largely welded mass.

The absence of any known source of the Brisbane Tuff has long
mystified geologists and led Bichards (1924, p. 286) to suggest that the
centre of activity may have been somewhere to the east or south-east
in a region now below the sea.

The present authors (1927, p. 60) in discussing the origin of the
wolcanic mud balls (“ accretionary lapilli ”) at Castra wrote “It might
be thought that the presence of mud balls at Castra could serve as an
indication of the proximity of one of the centres of eruption which

THE PROBLEM OF THE BRISBANE TUFF

57

ejected the Brisbane Tuff . . . but “ The evidence from Luzon
(Phillipine Islands) does not lend much support to the idea that these
balls indicate the centre of eruption.”

Mrs. Briggs (1929, p. 158) was unable to find any indication as to
the centre of eruption but was of the opinion that “ The uniformity
of the material suggests that the source of origin was approximately
at the same distance from all points on the outcrop. This, together
with the fineness of the material and the absence of coarse volcanic
ejectamenta would suggest that the source was not very close to the
present outcrop.”

At Upper Brookfield some twelve miles south-west of Biisbane
there occurs a coarse volcanic agglomerate with fragments of rhyolite
up to twelve inches in diameter which may well mark the site of an
ancient volcano, but except that it is later than the Brisbane Schists
the age of this volcanic series is unknown. Although it is possible that
the agglomerate and associated tuffaceous rocks may be coeval with
the Brisbane Tuff they are lithologically so different including as they
do andesitic and other relatively basic tuffs that the authors do not
suggest this point as the possible centre of eruption.

In view of the fact that the columnar Tuff at Windsor combined
evidence of very high temperature with local disturbance of the under-
lying shales the authors considered the possibility of this point marking
an actual focus of eruption. To test this hypothesis they arranged
through the courtesy of Mr. E. F. Gilchrist, B.C.E., City Engineer, to
have a bore put down at the point. This was done, but the Tuff was
found to extend only 43 feet below the quarry floor which was the
depth to be expected if the Tuff merely occupied a basin shaped
depression.

The authors have been unable to establish any normal centre of
volcanic activity and are forced to the conclusion either that it is hidden
from sight by the Tuff itself or that the Tuff originated in some unusual
manner possibly from a series of fissures. In the latter case the swarm
of rhyolitic intrusives in the Indooroopilly area may represent the
denuded remnants of the dykes which acted as feeders.

With regard to the mode of emplacement of the Massive Tuff the
combination of clastic and plastic phenomena seems to necessitate a
type of volcanic action intermediate between an outpouring and an
explosion.

Having arrived at these conclusions on the internal evidence pre-
sented by the Brisbane Tuff itself, let us now turn to similar develop-
ments elsewhere in the hope that they may shed light on the local
problem.

5. Comparison with Other Areas.

Since the beginning of the present century evidence has been
accumulating to show that, especially as regards the more siliceous
material, volcanic activity is not restricted to simple effusions of lava
and violent expulsions of ashes, but that there are other modes of
extrusion intermediate between these extremes which combine in
varying degree the clastic and fragmental qualities of a tuff with the
plastic and fluidal qualities of a lava. This conclusion which has been
founded on actual observations of volcanic eruptions is supported by
the petrological nature and field occurrence of volcanic rocks of many

58 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

ages from many parts of the world. Thus there is every reason t©
believe that many volcanic rocks which have given rise to considerable
controversy in the past may be explained in terms of these special
phases of igneous activity.

(a) The Incandescent Avalanches ( Nuees Ardentes) of Mont Pelee

and La Soufriere.

Anderson and Flett (1903, p. 500 et seq) point out that the climax
of a Pelean eruption is manifested by the appearance of an avalanche
of incandescent sand and the passage of a great black cloud. The out-
burst never appears in the form of molten lava but always “in the
form of a cloud which rises to a certain height and then flows over the
surface of the ground/' ' The mixture of dust and gases is so heavy
that it courses down the slopes like a torrent in a river, clinging to all
the valley bottoms, ever availing itself of the steepest descents and
deflected by the projections and irregularities of the ground.” As a
result of such an eruption there accumulates a foot or two of un-
stratified Tuff made up almost wholly of fragmental crystals, the whole
rock having the chemical composition of an andesite.

Lacroix (1904) who has made a close study of the matter does
not regard these eruptions of the nuee ardente type as unique. On
the contrary he has classed with them the eruption of Vesuvius that
was responsible for the destruction of Pompeii in 79 A.D. and similar
outbursts in Java, Japan and the Azores.

(b) The Great Hot Sand- Flow of the Valley of Ten Thousand

Smokes. •

At the same time as the great eruption of the Alaskan volcano
Katmai in 1912 the floor of a neighbouring valley was, in the words of
Fenner (1920, p. 576) “ covered with a thick deposit of ash and pumice,
which in most places has buried every detail of the former topography,
and whose surface now forms a gently sloping plain. Thousands of
fumaroles have found vent through this deposit and are sending out
exhalations of hot gases and vapours .... This ashy deposit covers
the old floor of the valley to a great d^pth (possibly several hundred
feet in certain areas) . . .”

Griggs (1918, p. 117) was the first to recognise the unusual nature
of this volcanic material and supposed it to have been a “ Great Hot
Mud Flow ” which had been forced out of fractures in the valley floor.
Fenner (1920) while agreeing with Griggs that the material Originated
-from numerous dykes within the valley itself, regarded the Tuff as
having been “ a dry, highly heated mass of sand and pumice rather
than a water-bearing mud.” The same author points out that “ Obser-
vations show plainly that, in the first place, this material was not
thrown violently into the air to descend over the general landscape,
but that it was restricted very definitely to topographic depressions . . .
The thorough manner in which vegetable material engulfed by it was
carbonized and the indications of brush fires started by it can hardly
be explained except on the supposition that it possessed a high temper-
ature, probably near incandescence. In many places adjacent to it
but beyond its borders, fallen trees lie as if overthrown by a violent
wind accompanying it.” “ Considering further the origin of the sand
flow, we suppose that rhyolitic magma, charged with dissolved gases,
rose to the surface in the newly formed vents . . . and produced by
moderately forcible disruption, an outward spreading and forward

THE PROBLEM OF THE BRISBANE TUFF

59

moving torrent of incandescent sand and pumice, each particle of which
was surrounded by and partially suspended in gases which it continued
to give forth during its impetuous flow.”

Lacroix agrees with the above interpretation and refers to the
eruption as “ nuee ardente Katmaienne.”

In a later publication Fenner (1923, p. 67) drew attention to Wolf’s
description of the eruption of Cotopaxi in 1877 and showed how most of
the unusual features that puzzled Wolf could be explained as due to
an eruption of the then unknown ‘ ‘ nuee ardente type ” — “the black
mass suddenly boiling up and overflowing the rim of the crater on all
sides, the prodigious speed with which it precipitated itself down the
slopes, the great mass and short duration of the flow, the heavy clouds
concealing the mountain within a few minutes, the rain of ashes
immediately afterwards, the carbonization of tree trunks, the lack of
coherent lava flows, the forcible manner in which the outburst spread
over valleys and ridges on the upper part of the cone and later flowed
down gulches in a more collected form— these point almost irresistibly
to this form of eruption.”

( c ) The Ignimbrites of the North Island of New Zealand.

Marshall (1932, p. 198) has suggested the name “ Ignimbrite ”
for a type of rock which has a wide occurrence over 10,000 square
miles in the North Island of New Zealand. In the past the rock has
been variously regarded as a tuff, as a lava, and as a flowbreccia, but
Marshall compares it with the material of Mont Pelee and Katmai
and deduces a similar origin. He points out in an unpublished paper,
which the authors have been privileged to see, that Ignimbrites differ
from ordinary rhyolitic tuffs in their uniform and normally fine texture,
the absence of bedding, the pronounced prismatic jointing, their co-
herence and effective solidity and in the “flow structures” to be
seen under the microscope. On the other hand they may be distin-
guished from normal rhyolitic lavas in their great horizontal extension,
the absence of glassy selvages and scoriaceous surfaces and their low
specific gravity. Further, a thin bed of extremely fine glass dust
often occurs below the formation. There is an increase in the specific
gravity from the top to the bottom and there is no indication of mass
flow. Finally Marshall points out that “ There are no volcanoes in
the district from which rhyolite lavas could have flowed.”

Petrologically Marshall regards the Ignimbrites as divisible into
three classes : Pulverulites composed of fine dust-like shreds of glass
surrounding crystal grains. Lenticulites with conspicuous lenses of
dark material often drawn out and embedded in fine glassy shreds with .
some crystals. Lapidites with fragments of rock embedded in fine
material composed mainly of glassy shreds.

(d) The Giant Columnar Pillows of Auckland.

Structures which are closely analogous in some respects to the,
columnar Tuff of Windsor have been described by Bartrum (1930)
from Muriwai, Auckland, New Zealand, where “the sea cliffs exhibit
remarkable columnar structures in andesitic lavas of mid-Tertiary
age . . . .” These lavas have developed pillow-shaped structures up
to 80 feet in diameter. “ They undoubtedly are submarine in origin,
for, in addition to the pillow form, in some places they in-
clude marine fossils in tuffaceous debris between the pillows whilst
they rest on tuffs with similar fossils. The seas into which they \^ere

60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

poured were very shallow . . . .” With regard to the origin of these
unusual structures Bartrum concludes that “ the large radially columnar
spheriodal masses .... represent large pillows formed by the out-
pouring of small quantities of liquid rock from dyke-fissures that
reached the floor of a shallow sea in which thick beds of tuff were being
laid down.”

(e) Comparisons and Contrasts.

Although, with the exception of the last, all of the occurrences
noted have been referred to eruptions of the one type, for all
have points in common, they nevertheless show considerable
variation in such important points as chemical composition,
lithological nature and quantity of material erupted.

Consequently, it is not to be surprised that the Brisbane Tuff, while
generally similar to them all, presents points of difference from each.

The Brisbane Tuff differs from the nuees ardentes of the West
Indies in its more siliceous composition, and in the much larger pro-
portion of glassy fragments, in its plastic characters, and in the
enormously greater amount of material.

The Brisbane Tuff resembles the hot sand flow of the Valley of Ten
Thousand Smokes in chemical composition, in the proportion of glassy
to crystalline material, in thickness and extent. The chief differences
are that the local rock is more compact and exhibits welded and
fluidal structure in a more marked degree.

The Brisbane Tuff resembles the Ignimbrites of New Zealand more
closely than any of the other occurrences with which it has been com-
pared. The authors have been very fortunate in that they have both
enjoyed personal discussions with Dr. Marshall on the nature of Ignim-
brites and have, through his courtesy, been able to examine many micro-
;sections of typical material. In addition one of them has recently
visited New Zealand and studied the Ignimbrites in the field. The
features which most closely unite the Brisbane Tuff with the New
Zealand Ignimbrite and which appear to mark them off from the West
Indian and Alaskan rocks are their lava-like characters. These are
shown by their strongly welded nature, by an approach to fluxion
phenomena and by the development of columnar jointing.

Features which the Brisbane, New Zealand and Katmai occur-
rences have in common are enormous bulk, rhyolitic nature, high glass
content and absence of any normal centre of eruption.

While the columnar pillows of Muriwai have several features in
common with the columnar Tuff at Windsor, they differ in that although
they are set in tuffaceous material, they themselves are definitely lava
forms.

6. Conclusions.

As a result of their observations in the field and under the micro-
scope, and after comparisons with similar rocks in other parts of the
world the authors have come to the following conclusions : —

1. The Brisbane Tuff although a stratigraphical unit is made up of
two distinct petrological types.

2. Of these the lower or Stratified Type is sufficiently normal in its
characters to call for no special hypothesis of origin.

3. The upper or Massive Type has so many non-tuffaceous characters
that it is unlikely that it represents a solidified ash fall.

THE PROBLEM OF THE BRISBANE TUFF

61

4. The combination of tuffaceous and non-tuffaceous characters
presented by the Massive Tuff could be most readily explained
as due to an enormous eruption of the incandescent avalanche
type.

5. In particular the material at Windsor, as a result possibly of
its location in an embayment of the valley wall or possibly on
account of its proximity to a hidden source became welded into
what was virtually a rhyolitic lava which on cooling gave rise to
columnar structure.

6. No centre for this volcanic activity has been established, but it
seems possible that the numerous rhyolitic intrusives lying to the
west of the Tuff represent the somewhat deeply eroded repre-
sentatives of the dykes which acted as feeders. Again the
volcanic centres may lie buried beneath the Tuff itself.

7. The Massive Type of the Brisbane Tuff presents many features
closely analogous with those of the Ignimbrites of New Zealand
and has also much in common with the Hot Sand Flow of Alaska.

REFERENCES.

Anderson, T. and Flett, J. S. (1903) — Proc. Roy. Soc. London, Series A, Vol. 200.
Ball, L. C. (1920) — Qld. Govt. Min. Jrnl., Vol. 21, p. 266.

Bartrum, J. A. (1930) — Jour, of Geol., Vol. 38, p. 447.

Briggs, C., (1929)— Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., Vol. 40, p. 147.

Dunstan, B. D. (1920) — Introduction to Qld. Geol. Surv. Pub. No. 267, p. 5.

Fenner, C. N. (1920)— Jour, of Geol. Vol. 28, p. 569.

Fenner, C. N. (1923)— National Geographic Society, Contributed Technical Papers,
Katmai Series, No. 1.

Grange, L. J. (1931) — New Zealand Jrnl. Sci. and Tech., Vol. 12.

Gregory, A. C. (1879) — “Geological Features of the South-eastern Districts of Queens-
land,” Legislative Assembly Papers.

Griggs, R. F. (1918)— Ohio Jrnl. of Science, Vol. 19, No. 2, p. 117.

Iddings, J. P. (1909)—“ Igneous Rocks,” Vol. 1.

Lacroix. A. (1904) — “ La Montagne Pelee et ses Eruptions,” p. 363.

Leichhardf (1855) — “ Beitrage zur Geologie von Australian,” Halle, p. 53.

Marks, E. O. (1910)— Qld. Geol. Surv. Pub. No. 225, p. 8.

Marshall, P. (1932) — New Zealand Jrnl. Sci. and Tech., Vol. 13.

Pirsson, L. V. (1915)— Am. Jrnl. Sci., Vol. 40, p. 191.

Rands, W. H. (1887)— Qld Geol. Surv. Pub. No. 34, p. 1.

Richards, H. C. (1924) — Aus. Ass. Adv. Sci., Vol. 17, p. 286.

Richards, H. C. and Bryan, W. H. (1927) — Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld.. Vol. 39, p. 60.
Sosman, R. B. (1916)— Jour, of Geol., Vol. 24, p. 224.

Walkom, A. B. (1918)— Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Vol. 43, Pt. L p. 48.

Wentworth, C. K. and Williams, H. (1932) — Bull. Nat. Res. Cncl. U.S.A., No. 89, p. 45
Wilson, J. S. (1856)— Q.J.G.S., Vol. 12, p. 288.

62

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

THE PROBLEM OE THE BRISBANE TUFF.

DESCRIPTIONS OF PLATES.

Plate IV.

Microphotographs of specimens of the Brisbane Tuff taken in ordinary light. Mag-
nification ca. 25.

Figure 1. — Denitrified and silicified fine vitroclastic tuff of the Stratified Type from the
base of the formation at Leichhardt Street Quarry(see Plate V, Fig. 1).

Figure 2. — Similar to Figure 1 and showing larger fragment of charred wood. From
Collin’s Wharf Quarry.

Figure 3. — Example of the Massive Type used locally as a building stone. Bowser and
Lever’s Quarry.

Figure 4. — Extreme example of the Massive Type showing fluidal structures closely
simulating those of Rhyolite. Municipal Quarry, St. Lucia.

Figure 5. — “ Welded Pumice” from the Massive Type. Municipal Quarry, Morningside.
(Compare Iddings, 1909, Fig. 20).

Figure 6. — Specimen showing fluidal structures from the columnar variety of the Massive
Type (see Plate Vi,). Municipal Quarry, Windsor.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLV.

Plate IV.

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

Fi :ure 4

Figure 5

Figure 6

Pkoc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLV.

Plate V .

Figure 1.

Stratified Type of Brisbane Tuff (light) overlying rubble-breccias and shales (dark)
which form base of Ipswich Series. Leichhardt Street Quarry.

Figure 2.

Massive Type of Brisbane Tuff showing absence of bedding and well developed
j ointing. Kangaroo Point.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q.’land, Vol. XLV.

Plate VI.

Figure 1 .

Graphitised wood-fragment in columnar variety of Massive Type of Brisbane Tuff
X2. Municipal Quarry, Windsor.

Figure 2 .

Development of columnar variety of Massive Type of Brisbane Tuff (see Plate IV.,)
Figure 6). Municipal Quarry, Windsor.

Vol. XLV., No. 12.

63

The Lower Carboniferous Corals of Australia

By Dorothy Hill, M.Sc. (Queensland)^ Ph.D. (Cantab).

Plates VII. -XI. and Seven Text -Figures.

( Accepted for publication by the Royal Society of Queensland , c6Qih

November , 1933).

CONTENTS.

Page

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Genus Symplectophyllum gen. nov. . . . . ■ . . . . . . . . . . 64

Genus Amygdalophyllum Dun and Benson . . . . . . . . . . 67

Genus Aphrophyllum Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

The Expression of a Trend towards Septal Modification in certain Rugose 76

Corals . . . . . . . . . . . .

Skeletal Malformation in an Australian Carboniferous Coral . . . . . . 78

Genus Carcinophyllum Thomson . . ..... . . . . . . . . 80

Genus Lithostrotion Fleming . . . . .... . . . . . . . . 81

Genomorph ( Diphyphyllum Lonsdale) . . . .. .. .. .. 88

Genomorph (Diphystrotion Smith and Lang) .. .. .. .. 89

Genus Cionodendron Benson and Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Genus Orionastraea Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Genus Aulina Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Variation in Rugose Coral Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Genus Michelinia de Koninck . . . . . . . . . . •. . . . 97

Genus Syringopora Goldfuss . . ... . . . . . . 99

Genus Palaeacis Haime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Notes on the Ages of Coral-bearing Limestones in the Lower Carboniferous

(Dinantian) of Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

List of Works to which Reference is made .. .. .. .. .. 110

Explanation of Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 112

Appendix: Australian Lower Carboniferous Coral Types in British Museums 115

INTRODUCTION.

This paper revises, where possible, those species of Australian
Lower Carboniferous corals already erected, and describes several
new species collected by the author. It deals with the :cNaosr’
modification of septa in these and other Rugose corals ; and describes
skeletal malformation in an Australian Visean coral. It also gives
a brief summary of our present knowledge of the Lower Carboniferous
stratigraphy of Australia, and a note on variation in Rugose coral
species.

The work was begun at the University of Queensland, and com-
pleted at the Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge, by the author while she
held consecutively the Open Scholarship for Scientific Research and
the Foundation Travelling Scholarship of the University of Queensland,
and the Old Students’ Research Fellowship of Newnham College, Cam-
bridge. She wishes to record her gratitude to the authorities concerned
in these awards, and to thank Miss G. L. Elies, Dr. Stanley Smith,
Dr. W. D. Lang, Mr. A. G. Brighton, Dr. H. D. Thomas, Dr. F. W.
Whitehouse, Dr. W. H. Bryan, Mr. W. S. Dun and Mr. J. S. Fletcher
for a great deal of assistance.' She is glad to state that publication
was made possible by grants from the Commonwealth of Australia

64 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND'!

Scientific Publications Committee, the Council of the Royal Society
of Queensland, and the Stuart Research Endowment Fund of Newnham
College.

Genus SYMPLECTOPHYLLUM gen. nov.

Symplectophyllum, from avpTtXexTOQ, woven; (pi^og, a leaf, that is a septum.

Genotype. — Symplectophyllum mutatum sp. nov. from the Upper Visean Riverleigh
limestone on Latza’s farm, Portions 21 and 22, Parish of Malmoe, County of
Yarrol, near Mundubbera, Queensland.

Diagnosis. — Simple Rugose corals with a very variable axial
structure involving septa and tabulae. The septa are dilated in their
early stage, but later the median part may become cavernous, and tho
peripheral breaks down into horizontal tissue and consists of long
narrow convex plates connected by granules of stereome. The tabulae,
although sometimes complete, are usually incomplete.* The dissepi-
ments are small, and rather elongated, but do not enter the periphery
of the coral. Stereome is irregularly developed.

Remarks.-^- The genus is interesting for two reasons ; first, it shows
a type of septal modification like that seen in the Silurian genus Naos
Lang (1926, p. 428), and permits an explanation of such a structure ;
second, amongst the varying expressions of its axial structure it shows
patterns reminiscent of those which Thomson (1883, pp. 436 seq.)
regarded as diagnostic for his Scottish Visean genera Rhodophyllum,
A spidiophyllum , Dibunophyllum , Kumatiophyllum , Centrephyllum and
Carcinophyllum, .

i

Symplectophyllum mutatum sp. nov. (Plate VII.)

Holotype : — F 2943, consisting of 8 slides and 4 pieces ; in the University of Queens-
land Collection. (Plate I., figs. 1-6.)

Diagnosis. — As for genus.

Description. — External characters : Large simple corals usually

with a long conico-cylindrical adult stage, sometimes turbinate. The
largest specimen (broken at both ends) was 13 cm. long with a maximum
diameter of 3 cm. The average adult diameter is 2.5 cm. The
epitheca is thick, with faint annulations and striations.

Internal structures — Immature stage : Transverse sections of

immature stages were obtained from only four corals. These, illus-
trated in Plate VII., figs. 6, 9, 16, and 27, show similarity in septal
characters, diversity in the structure of the large axial area, and
diversity in the amount of stereome present. The septa are dilated1
and crowded. (Plate VII., fig. 27 shows 24 of each order at a diameter
of 7 mm.). The minor septa are from half to two-thirds as long as
the major, which usually attain a length of only one-third the diameter
of the corallite, since they are very seldom continuous with the septal
lamellae of the axial structure. Septal dilation2 always occurs ; in
one section (fig. 27) it is so pronounced that the interseptal loculi are
closed. Dissepiments are already present in these sections, although
in fig. 27 they are entirely masked by stereome dilating the septa.
The axial area , whose diameter is about one-third that of the corallite,
may have its component plates entirely masked by stereome (fig. 27),

P) Seen microscopically, the septa are pinnately fibrous.

(2) Whilst the septa when examined by a lens appear well defined and separate from the

darker investing stereome which may fill the interseptal loculi, under the micro-
scope they and the darker stereome are seen to merge into one another and their

fibres are optically continuous.

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA

65

diameter 7 mm.) ; it is known from transverse section only and may
show sections of tabulae and dilated, discrete septal ends, variously
arranged, with much (fig. 9, diamater 7 mm.) or little (fig. 6, diameter
12 mm.) stereome ; or it may be occupied only by one or two semi*
circular sections of tabulae about a dilated median lamella continuous
with two opposite septa (fig. 16, diameter 6 mm.). The nature of the
tabulae at these stages is unknown.

Adult stage : At a diameter of about 2 cm. the coral is mature.
The septal characters are diagnostic, but the structure of the axial
area whose diameter is 0.25 to 0.35 that of the corallite, is very variable.

The septa are crowded and dilated with stereome. They are
pinnately fibrous, and though when examined by a lens they appear
well defined and separate from the darker investing stereome which
may fill the interseptal loculi, under the microscope they and the
darker stereome are seen to merge into one another and their fibres
are optically continuous. The major septa are usually discontinuous
with the septal lamellae of the axial area, and the minor septa are
0.5 to 0.75 as long as the major. Axially both orders of septa are normal,
and evenly thickened. In the median parts of the more dilated septa
there seems to have been a tendency for the irregular deposition of the
septal stereome, for caverns of irregular outline are left in the septum
(see Plate I., figs. 28 and 30). When these are left along the plane of
the septum it appears split, and in them dissepiments may arise.
The boundary between the median parts of the septa and the investing
stereome is often very irregular. Peripherally the dilated contiguous
septa (which are essentially the vertical elements of the coral skeleton)
break down into tissue with the character of horizontal skeletal ele-
ments.1 The horizontal nature of this tissue is best seen in vertical
section (Plate I., figs. 2, 11, 13, 22 and 25). In each septum this tissue
consists of a large number of thin closely packed transverse plates,
very long in the direction of elongation of the dissepiments ; i.e ., they
have been deposited at successive levels of the peripheral calical floor.
Some of them are axially continuous with dissepiments. They are
thin and evenly arched upwards, and are sparsely and irregularly
connected one to another by granules of stereome, which may some-
times unite to form short rods2 piercing a few plates at right angles
(Plate I., fig. 8). Since peripherally each septum was so dilated in
the young stage as to be in contact with its neighbours, the equivalent
series of plates in the adult stage are also in contact. Some of the
plates of a series are grouped, and these groups are continuous with
groups from the next series. Sometimes the relics of the median part
of a septum are seen buttressing or even piercing the inner plates of a
series, but usually the two zones of septal modification are discon-
tinuous and a ring of coarse dissepiments is developed between them
(Plate I., figs. 1, 10 and 14). Rarely, at points of septal insertion, one
short major and two short minor septa are developed in the place of
one minor septum. All three correspond to only one peripheral series
of transverse plates, so that this septal modification had occurred be-
fore septal insertion had been completed (See septa at A, Plate I.,
fig. i).

P) The horizontal nature of this tissue was first pointed out to me by Dr. Stanley Smith.
(*) These represent the vertical rods described in the Silurian Naos by W. D. Lang
(1926).

66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Stereome is always present, varying in amount and position.
Plates originating as vertical tissue, i.e., the septa and the septal
lamellae of the axial structure are usually much dilated by the growth
of all their pinnately arranged fibres into the interseptal loculi, so that
the latter may become closed. Although the fibres of the septa and
of the dilating stereome are continuous, there is a change in the
direction of their deposition at the boundary of the septa, so that due
to refraction of transmitted light the boundary of the septum appears
as a dark line, and the dilating or investing stereome appears darker
than the septa themselves. In the case of horizontal tissue, i.e.r
dissepiments and tabulae, stereome may be deposited between the
vertical elements (sometimes continuous with the fibres of the latter)
on the upper surfaces and upper surfaces only of a series of dissepiments
and tabulae representing all or part of a particular calical floor ; and
such deposition may be recurrent.

Dissepiments are numerous, small, rather elongate and steeply
inclined ; they do not occur between the septal modifications at the
periphery but where the septa fail immediately within this peripheral
zone one or two more or less continuous rings of large dissepiments
may be developed. (Plate I, figs. 1, 10 and 14).

The tabulae form with the septal lamellae a very variable axial
structure. The septal lamellae, which are usually twisted and discon-
tinuous with the septa proper, are variously developed ; and on this
variation depends the nature of the tabulae and the pattern of the
axial structure. If the lamellae are few, they are usually irregular
in course and discontinuous vertically ; and the tabulae then tend to
be complete and broadly domed. Axial structures reminiscent in
transverse section of those Thomson (1883, pp. 463-83) considered
diagnostic of Aspidiophyllum, Kumatiophyllum, Centrephyllum and
j Rhodophyllum result (Plate I., figs. 1-13 and 19). But the few lamellae
may attain a rough dibunophylloid arrangement, and the tabulae are
then more steeply domed and less complete (Plate I., figs. 15-18).
When the lamellae are more numerous they are usually strongly twisted
and continuous vertically. The tabulae are then incomplete and the
arrangement is histiophylloid. (Plate I., figs. 14 and 26). Stereome
is common in the axial structure (see Plate I., figs. 20-26), and is
usually developed when numerous lamellae are present, and the pattern
is then carcinophylloid. All these, and intermediate patterns may
occur in the one individual, as a study of Plate I. shows, but usually
one type is predominant.

Remarks.— The material used in this study consisted of 20 indi-
viduals all from the same locality and horizon, and from which over
100 slides and surfaces have been cut. The corals appear to have
grown in place, and are encrusted by fine growths of calcareous algae.
Owing to the massive unweathered nature of the fine grained grey
limestone matrix, no individuals with tips were collected, and no
photographs of external form could be made.

The species is a variable one, and variation occurs in shape, amount
of stereome present, pattern of the axial structure, the occurrence of
caverns in the median parts of the septa, and the degree of development
of the peripheral modification of the septa into transverse tissue.
Variation in shape cannot be correlated with any other character,
Gerth (1921) in his studies on the Permian corals of Timor showed that

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA

67

there long thin forms were comparatively free from stereome, while
the short stout forms were very stereoplasmid'; but in these Queens-
land Visean corals there is no such connection.

Variation in the amount of stereome present is most striking in
this species, and all other variations except that in shape appear to
be in some degree dependent on it. The young corallite is very stereo-
plasmid, but becomes less so with growth. After such a disappearance
stereome may again be deposited at one or more horizons, varying in
amount and position (Plate VII., figs. 2, 22 and 25). The holotype is
not very stereoplasmid, but F 2511 is a typical example (Plate VII.,
figs. 21-23). This discontinuous deposition cannot be correlated with
any change in diameter of the coral, such as might be expected were it
a rejuvenescence character.

Variation in the pattern of the axial structure is extreme as des-
cribed above, and is dependent on the amount of stereome present and
the development of the septal lamellae. A consideration of all slides
and surfaces shows that there is no progressive transition from one
type to another ; such changes as occur do so suddenly, and with the
possibility of reversion, so that no particular pattern is of specific
value.

Caverns occur in the median parts of the septa only if the septa
concerned were previously dilated.

Peripheral dilation of the septa seems to be necessary before the
peripheral series of transverse plates can be developed ; but when
stereome has dwindled from the corallite these series can still be seen
developed to the width of the earlier dilation of the septa ; their
derivation from the vertical elements is not then obvious, and they
look like modifications of the dissepimental tissue (Plate VII., fig. 10).
Septa are secreted in invaginations in the base of the polyp, and the
floor tissue (tabulae and dissepiments) by the flatter parts of the base.
Should the invaginations become wide enough and shallow enough,
the tissues they secrete will resemble floor tissue. This seems adequate
as an explanation of the Naos type of modification. The connecting
granules of stereome probably represent secretions from the more
active points of calcification in the invagination. The rods seen in
Naos and occasionally in Symplectophyllum represent the simple
trabeculae secreted behind such active points of calcification.

Genus AMYGDALOPHYLLUM Dun and Benson.
Amygdalophyllum Dun and Benson, 1920, pp. 339-341.

Genotype. — Amygdalophyllum etheridgei Dun and Benson, 1920, pp. 339-341,
PI. xviii, figs. 2-6 non fig. I1.

Diagnosis. — Simple, conical or cornute Rugose corals with a wide
fine-tissued dissepimental area, and typically with numerous long
straight septa, a remarkably large solid columella, and incomplete
tabulae. Rare diphymorphic2 individuals may occur.

P) Benson and Smith (1923, footnote p. 161) state that the original of fig. 1 proved
when cut to be a specimen of Zaphrentis sumphuens Etheridge fils., which extern-
ally resembles A. etheridgei.

(2) A diphymorph (see Smith and Lang 1930) of a columellate coral is a group of indi-
viduals in which the columella fails, the septa retreat from the axis, and the tabulae
flatten or become distally arched. The phaceloid forms have parricidal gemmation.

68 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Remarks. — As so defined the genus is known only from the Lower
Carboniferous (Visean) of South Eastern Queensland and North
Eastern New South Wales ; but its relations with the British Lower
Carboniferous Koninckophyllum magnifivum Thomson are being
investigated. Each species of Amygdalophyllum shows a superabund-
ant secretion of calcium carbonate, seen in the large solid columella
and the dilated septa. When the septa are so dilated peripherally
as to be in contact, they sometimes show the interesting type of modi-
fication to horizontal tissue typical of Symplectophyllum. But in
Amygdalophyllum this modification is not seen in all the possible
septa of one individual, nor in all the individuals of one species, nor
in all the species of the genus. The genus therefore sheds light on how
a trend in septal modification may be expressed.

Amygdalophyllum etheridgei Dun and Benson.

Amygdalophyllum etheridgei Dun and Benson, 1920, pp, 339-341 and PI. xviii,
figs. 2-6 non fig. I1.

Amygdalophyllum etheridgei Dun and Benson ; Benson and Smith 1923, pp. 161-5 ;
PI. viii, figs. 1-3 ; PI. ix, fig. 2.

Holotype — A.M. 1311 (figured Benson and Smith, pi. ix, fig. 2) and syntypes A.M,
1132 and A.M. 1133 (Benson and Smith, pi. viii, fig. 3) in the collection of the
Australian Museum, Sydney, Sections R22072 from the holotype and R21997
from a syntype, in the British Museum.

Diagnosis. — Large Amygdalophyllum with very numerous

dilated septa ; major septa confluent with the columella ; minor septa
unusually long ; columella extremely large, fibrous, elliptical and
cuspidate in section ; tabellae small, sub-equal.

Remarks. — The species is known only from the original locality
in mudstones of the Burindi Series (Visean) at Babbinboon, N.S.W,
For adequate description, see Benson and Smith, 1923, pp. 161-5.
PI. viii., figs. 1-3 ; PI. ix., fig. 2.

Amygdalophyllum inopinatum (Etheridge fil.)

(Plate VIII., figs. 1-8).

Koninckophyllum inopinatum Etheridge fil., 1800, pp. 20-21, PI. 1, fig. 2 ; PI. ii,
figs. 9 and 10.

Koninckophyllum inopinatum Etheridge fil. : Benson and Smith 1923, p. 161.

Lectotype. — (Here chosen) F 1606 in the collection of the Geological Survey of
Queensland, the original of Etheridge’s PI. ii, fig. 9, from the Upper Visean
limestone of Lion Ck., Stanwell, near Rockhampton, Queensland 2

Diagnosis. — Large Amygdalophyllum with very numerous septa ;
major septa reaching almost to the columella, but not confluent with
it ; columella lenticular cupsidate in section, narrower than in A .
etheridgei.

Description . — The corallum is robust, conical or turbinate, straight,
sometimes with a slightly curved and flattened or spreading base of
attachment (see Plate VIII., fig. 8). Average dimensions of type
material : height 3.5 cm., diameter 3 cm. of Biverleigh specimens
height 4 cm., diameter 3 cm., with a large3 individual, incomplete, 7
cm. in height,

( 1 ) See footnote 1, p. 67.

(2) This specimen was the only one of Etheridge’s syntypes that I was able to find in

August, 1932.

(3) Under constant favourable conditions there would seem to be no limit to the size

attainable by any corallum ; for the skeleton is formed by accretion from the polyp,

which has unlimited growth ; i.e., it continues growing though usually at a con«

stantly diminishing rate until it dies or, if a sexually reproducing, divides.

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA

69

and 4.5 cm. in maximum diameter. Calice with a round everted
margin, probably shallow. Epitheca thin, annulate.

The septa are very numerous and vary in number in different
individuals. Specimens from the type locality show a variation
between 42 and 99 septa of each order, and the Riverleigh specimens
between 52 and 64. In the Riverleigh specimens the septa also vary
in strength of development, e.g ., they may be dilated in the tabulate
area ( see Plate VIII., fig. 1). The major septa extend almost to the
columella where their axial edges may be turned aside. They are
seldom if ever confluent with it. In specimen E 2952 from Riverleigh
this incipient diphymorphism has progressed to further withdrawal
of the septa from the axis and discontinuity in the columella. The
minor septa are seldom more than half the length of the major and
are thinner. Indeed in F 2491 from Riverleigh in which the septa are
very tenuous, the minor septa occasionally fail leaving the dissepi-
ments between the major septa arranged in an irregular herring-bone
pattern (Plate VIII., fig. 4). This specimen shows a weak development
of the Naos 1 trend in that the septa and dissepiments in parts of the
periphery are replaced by continuous series of Ados-like horizontal
tissue of closely packed plates, but these are not connected by granules
of stereo me.

Dissepiments are numerous ; those near the tabulae are small
and steeply inclined but towards the periphery they become less steeply
inclined and rather elongate. Discontinuity in the septa (usually
the minor) of some Riverleigh specimens is complementary to the
development of large dissepiments on which the septa are represented
as crests. As the discontinuity is peripheral it is regarded as a weak
expression of the lonsdaleoid2 trend. The tabulae are incomplete and
domed. The axial tabellae are large and broadly arched upwards and
outwards and are supplemented near the dissepimental zone by smaller
plates concave upwards and outwards.

The columella is oval and extends the entire length of the corallite
in the Stanwell forms, but in the Riverleigh specimens it is usually
less strongly developed and may be oval, elliptical or plate-like in
section, or rarely, discontinuous vertically.

Distribution. — The species is known only in South Eastern Queens-
land, from the Upper Visean limestones. In addition to the type
locality (supra) it occurs in the Riverleigh limestone on Latza’s Farm,
Portions 21 and 22, Parish of Malmoe, County of Yarrol, near Mun-
dubbera.

Remarks. — Structurally this species might be regarded as A.
etheridgei in which an incipient expression of the diphyphylloid trend
has resulted in the comparative withdrawal of both orders of septa
from the axis, and in the weaker development of the columella. On
the other hand it is quite possible that a strongly columellate form like
A. etheridgei could be derived from one less strongly columellate. The
two species are widely separated geographically. Variation in A.

(l) The Naos trend is here defined as a tendency for stereome dilated septa to break \f
down peripherally into horizontal tissue in the form of numerous fine convex
plates transverse to each septum, the plates being connected by granules of stereome
whose perfect arrangement is in rods normal to the plates. But for a full descrip-
tion of this trend and its expression see pp. 76-78.

(a) The lonsdaleoid trend is one in which the septa withdraw from the periphery.

70 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

inopinatum is great, especially in the Riverleigh specimens, as seen
above, in size, number of septa, dilation of septa and amount of
modification due to the very weak and sporadic expression of the
diphyphylloid, lonsdaleoid and Naos trends.

Amygdalophyllum conicum sp. nov.

(Plate II., figs. 14-48 and Text-fig. 1).

Holotype. — A slide on which are mounted 8 sections of E 36 (Plate II., figs. 14-21).

Text-Figure 1.

Amygdalophyllum conicum sp. nov.

Paratype F2435 in the University of Queensland collection. Natural size.

Paratypes. — F 2445 (4 slides and 1 piece) shows (Plate II, figs. 37-40) the maximum
development of Trend (1) (vide infra).

F 2942 (8 slides) shows (Plate II, figs. 41-48) the maximum development of Trend
(2) (vide infra).

F 2437 (4 slides with 10 serial sections, and 1 piece) shows (Plate II, figs. 22-31)
the same of Trend (3) (vide infra).

All types are in the University of Queensland Collection, from the Upper Visean
Riverleigh limestone of Latza’s Farm, Portions 21 and 22, Parish of Malmoe,
County of Yarrol, Queensland.

Diagnosis. — Short straight conical Amygdalophyllum with deep
conical calyx and small columella. Before dissepiments arise, the
major septa are straight, confluent with the columella, and slightly
and evenly dilated. Adult appearance is variable due to the differ-
ential expression of three common trends ; (1) septal dilation, chiefly

peripheral, (2) peripheral modification of these dilated septa to hori-
zontal tissue, and (3) withdrawal of the septa fron the periphery.

Description. — External characters : The corallum is a straight
cone (Text-fig. 1) or subturbinate ; the adult individuals show great
constancy in size — height about 4 cm., and diameter about 2 cm. ; the
conical calyx is from 1 to 2 cm. deep. When the septa are dilated or
modified to transverse tissue, they form flat stripes on the calical
floor widening towards the periphery. Otherwise they rise from the
floors as thin bars. Epitheca faintly striated, thick, and irregularly
annulate.

Internal structures : In the youngest stage observed, diameter
2 mm., the septa are arranged pinnately, coalescing at the centre ;
the cardinal f ossula is very large, and the transverse tissue is represented
by simple tabulae only (Plate II., fig. 41). This pinnate stage has been
called in other corals the zaphrentoid. With the appearance of rudi-
mentary minor septa, the pinnate symmetry gives place to radial,
and the well developed major septa coalesce axially with a distinguish-
able columella. The minor septa then lengthen and dissepimental
tissue arises. This is the last stage in which all the individuals are
identical.

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA

71

In fully mature corals some characters are common to all indi-
viduals, but there is variation due to the sporadic expression of three
common trends. Common characters are these : There are about
30 septa of each order, the minor septa being about half the length
of the major, which show a tendency to withdraw from contact with
the columella (Plate II., figs. 16-21). The columella is small but
continuous vertically, and lenticular or ellipsoidal in section. The
tabulate are incomplete, and slope up towards the columella ; the
tabellae are convex upwards and outwards and of unequal size, those
abutting on to the columella being larger. When the septa are with-
drawn from the columella the tabellae tend to become flat. Super-
imposed on these common characters are the modifications due to the
sporadic expression of three trends. The first of these is the dilation
of the septa ; this may be peripheral so that the septa are in contact
there (Plate II., figs. 37-40), or in the tabulate area (Plate II., fig. 33).
The second, the Naos trend, is expressed by the modification of some of
the dilated septa which are in contact peripherally, into horizontal
tissue. In each septum this consists of numbers of fine convex trans-
verse plates connected by granules of stereome or vertical relics of the
septa. The transverse plates of one septum may be continuous with
those of the next (Plate II., figs. 46-48). The third, the lonsdaleoid
trend, is expressed by the withdrawal first of the minor, and later of
the major septa also, from the epitheca, the septa being represented
as crests on the dissepiments (see Plate II., figs. 22-24, 33, 36, 40,
46-47). These three trends may be expressed in different degrees in
the same individual.

Remarks. — The 66 slides from 22 specimens, all from the same
locality and horizon (supra) form a very complete and very convinc-
ing example of the extreme variation possible in individuals of one
species due to the differential expression of common trends. Such a
species may be called a variable species.

Amygdalophyllum sp. near conicum Hill.

(Plate II., figs. 49-50).

Specimen F 2449 (2 slides and 4 pieces) in the collection of the
University of Queensland from the Upper Visean Riverleigh limestone
of Latza’s Farm, Portions 21 and 22, Parish of Malmoe, County of
Yarrol, near Mundubbera, Queensland, probably represents a forma
of Amygdalophyllum conicum , which is abundant at the same locality
and horizon.

Description. — External characters : The specimen consists of a
large hysterocorallite or rejuvenescence bud arising centrally from a
broken mature calyx, the diameter of the bud at origin being 15 mm.,
while that of the parent is 25 mm. The bud continues for 4 cm., where
it is broken across. It is then of oval section, the longer diameter being
25 mm., and the smaller 20 mm. The bud of this individual is thus
larger than the average mature individual of A. conicum. The
epitheca is thin and probably discontinuous.

Internal structures : The septa are of two orders, 30 in each cycle.
The major septa are usually in contact with the columella and the minor
septa are half their length. Both orders are dilated to the shape of a
wedge, and in contact peripherally. The Naos trend is strongly
developed, for where the septa are in contact they often become modi-

72 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

fied into horizontal tissue consisting of numbers of thin convex plates
as wide as the septum, in contact or continuous with others from the
neighbouring septum. In each septum these plates are connected by-
granules of stereome, irregular in position or in series forming rods
normal to the plates, or by vertical relics of the septum. Not all the
dilated septa are so modified. In vertical section these transverse
modifications are seen to be continuous axially with dissepiments.
Dissepiments are developed between major and minor septa where
these are not in contact. They are of moderate size, very elongate,
and the steepness of their inclination increases with their distance from
the periphery. They may become very large and strongly developed
when the septa (whether modified or not) become discontinuous. The
tabulae are incomplete ; the tabellae immediately about the columella
tend to be flattened and larger than the rest which are irregular
in size and inclination. Most of the tabellae seem crushed and broken.
The columella is very irregular in outline, of variable strength of de-
velopment, but usually small, and may fail completely.

Remarks. — This corallite differs from A. conicum only in its
rejuvenescence, its larger size and the stronger development of the
Naos trend.

Amygdalophyllum vallum sp. nov. (Plate II, figs. 9-13).

Holotype. — F 2950 (4 slides and 2 pieces) from the Upper Visean Riverleigh lime-
stone of Latza’s Farm, Portions 21 and 22, Parish of Nalmoe, County of Yarrol,
near Mundubbera, Queensland, in the collection of the University of Queens-
land. (Plate II, figs. 9-11).

Diagnosis — Small trochoid Amygdalophyllum with regularly
dilated short1 septa, fine regular dissepiments, wide tabulate area and
strong oval fibrous columella.

Description . — The corallum is robust, straight and conical, height
and diameter each about 20mm. The epitheca is thin and annulate.
The septa are of two orders, straight and regularly dilated so that they
are approximately equal in width to the interseptal loculi, slightly
tapering axially. The major septa are short, extending little over
half way towards the axis ; the minor septa are about half this length.
The dissepiments are very small, regularly arranged in thin concentric
rings, steeply inclined. The tabulae are incomplete, with tabellae of
two series of equal radius ; the inner series consists of large plates only
slightly inclined upwards and outwards over most of their course ;
but at the columella they arch vertically to take part in its construc-
tion, and at their peripheral edges they bend sharply downwards ;
they may occasionally reach the dissepiments, but usually the small
more highly arched outer tabellae separate them from the dissepiments.
The columella is widely oval, solid, an independent rod not buttressed
by axial septal ends, and is formed by the coalescence of the up-arched
edges of the inner tabellae.

Remarks. — The interest of this species lies in the septa being short
while the columella remains very strongly developed ; and in the
columella being formed by the up-arched axial edges of the inner
tabellae. The shortness of the septa is obviously not due to lack of
available calcium carbonate, for the septa themselves are dilated.
Three specimens only are known, all from the type locality.

(*) Short septa are those which have withdrawn from the axis.

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA

73

Genus APHROPHYLLUM Smith.

Aphrophyllum Smith, 1920, pp. 53-55.

Genotype. — Aphrophyllum hallense Smith, 1920, pp. 53-55, PI. ii, figs. 1-5.

Diagnosis. — Large Rugose corals, either compound (massive with
imperfectly contiguous corallites), or growing in groups which might
not be true colonies. The corallites are usually laterally compressed
with long major septa which reach or nearly reach the axis. At
maturity the septa withdraw from the periphery. The tabulae are
broadly domed and incomplete.

Remarks. — The genus is known only from the Visean of South
Eastern Queensland and North Eastern New South Wales.

Aphrophyllum hallense Smith (Plate IX, figs. 3-5).

Aphrophyllum hallense Smith, 1920, pp. 53-55, PI. ii, figs. 1-5.

Holotype. — A.M. 1038 from F 17648 from the Visean Burindi Series of the Parish
of Hall, 16 miles south of Bingara, New South Wales, in the Australian
Museum, Sydney ; figured Smith 1920, Plate ii, figs. 1, 3-5 ; part of the holo-
type is A 5051 in the Sedgwick Museum.

Diagnosis . — Massive Aphrophyllum , corallites imperfectly con-
tiguous, turbinate, with average diameter 15 mm. ; septa not crowded ;
peripheral zone of dissepiments up to one third the radius of the
corallite, inconstant.

Description. — The corallum is compound, massive. The corallites
are imperfectly contiguous, partly rounded or imperfectly polygonal
turbinate and laterally compressed. The largest corallite has a diameter
of 20 mm. ; the average diameter is 15 mm. Gemmation is lateral.
The septa rarely show a radial arrangement since the corallites are
laterally compressed. They are dilated and wedge-shaped, varying
in number between 20 and 32 of each order. The major septa reach or
nearly reach the axis ; their axial edges are sometimes turned aside or
may be twisted together to form an axial structure. The minor septa
are seldom more than half the length of the major. The dissepiments
of the interseptal loculi are small, regular and steeply inclined ; but the
horizontal tissue which frequently separates a group of the septa from
the epitheca is less steeply inclined, and consists usually of coarse
dissepiments convex upwards and inwards, but sometimes of broad
flat close-lying platforms. These are thin and very wide, each being
continuous transversely for some distance round the corallite, and
continuous axially with ordinary interseptal dissepiments. The
peripheral zone of transverse tissue need not extend all round the
corallite ; frequently only one half or one quarter of any given trans-
verse section is affected by the peripheral failure of the septa. It is
often crushed. The tabulae are broadly domed, thin, and very
numerous ; as many as 30 have been counted in 1 cm. They are
irregularly interrupted by axial septal ends and are consequently
usually incomplete. They may be supplemented1 by smaller plates
at the dissepiment al wall. Layers of stereome may be deposited on
the upper surface of the horizontal tissue, especially at the junction of
the dissepiments with the tabulae.

Distribution. — The species is known only from New South Wales,
where in addition to the type locality it occurs in the Visean Burindi
limestones in a quarry at Taree.

P) Jones (1932, p. 60) distinguishes two series of tabellae. I do not consider his outer

series, constant or characteristic enough to be diagnostic.

74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Remarks. — The resemblance of the species to Endophyllum
abditum Edwards and Haime has been noted by Smith (1920, p. 55) and
Jones (1932, p. 60). The occurrence in it of the thin, closely packed
and very wide peripheral platforms is probably an expression of the
Naos trend, although here this transverse tissue has not been traced
back to prove modification of dilated septa. Similar tissue occurs in
the other species of this genus, and there it can be shown to have
arisen from iVaos-like modifications of the septa.

Aphrophyllum foliaceum sp. nov. (Plate IX, figs. 6-16, text-fig. 2).

“Palaeosmilia, retiformis Eth. fil. MS” F. W. Whitehouse MS, quoted J. H. Reid
1930, p. 35.

Holotype. — F 2430 in the collection of the University of Queensland, from the
Upper Visean Riverleigh limestone on Latza’s farm, Portions 21 and 22, Parish
of Malmoe, County of Yarrol, near Mundubbera, Queensland ; text-fig. 2.

Tbxt-Figtjre 2.

Aphrophyllum foliaceum sp. nov.

Holotype F2430 in the University of Queensland collection. diameter.

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA

75

Diagnosis. — Large Aphrophyllum probably compound but possibly
only very gregarious simple corals ; peripheral zone of dissepiments
very wide, up to two-thirds the radius of the corallite.

Description. — External characters : The corallites occur in large
numbers close together and may be imperfectly contiguous ; they are
probably compound, but no budding has been observed. The
corallites are large, very rapidly expanding to a diameter of 60 to
80 mm. (text-fig. 2, Plate III, figs. 6-8) ; they may remain squat and
broadly turbinate, or grow to a great height, the maximum height
observed being 240 mm. The tall weathered out specimens give the
appearance of a number of funnels of nearly equal diameters placed in
a concentric series at irregular distances apart, owing to the discon-
tinuous development of the peripheral zone of dissepiments. The calyx
is deep, with domed floor and everted margin (see Plate III, fig. 16).
Epitheca is usually not preserved, thin.

Internal structures : Immature stages : A series of surfaces obtained
by grinding down a tip showed that septal insertion occurs in the usual
four positions, but is accelerated in the counter quadrants. The in-
sertion of minor septa is according to the plan described by S. Smith
(1913, p. 62) for Aulophyllum. The outline of the immature stages is
usually, but not always, ellipsoidal. The plane of elongation always
coincides with the cardinal and counter septa ; but the halves so
divided are not mirror images, even in the number of the septa. The
septa are pinnately fibrous in microscopic structure and are only
slightly and evenly thickened. The major septa extend from the
periphery towards the plane of elongation ; and in the more com-
pressed corallites their axial edges may be inclined towards the cardinal
and counter septa. The minor septa remain very short.

Adult stages : The corallite matures when its peripheral zone of
coarse dissepiments arises. Its outline becomes more nearly circular,
but the septate area remains faintly elongate in the plane of the cardinal
and counter septa. The major septa are of unequal length, and extend
straight towards the axis, their arrangement being thus more radial
than in the young stages. Opposite their axial edges short lamellae
which in transverse section resemble small paliform lobes may arise ;
or the edges may be turned aside, or twisted together to form an in-
constant axial structure. The minor septa.are usually half as long as
the major, but rarely and sporadically the two orders become almost
equal in length (Plate III, fig. 12). The septa may be continued to-
wards the epitheca as crests on the coarse peripheral dissepiments.
They may sometimes be dilated, and the dilation may be regular, or
rarely so irregular that they no longer have plane sides (Plate III,
fig. 12). In parts of two specimens, a Aaos-like modification of
peripherally dilated septa has occurred, and in vertical sections the
peripheral transverse tissue is seen to consist of numbers of closely
packed platforms, continuous transversely, but which still indicate
their derivation from the septa by the curves opposite the parent septa.
They are however unconnected vertically by stereome (Plate III.,
figs. 6, 7, and 13).

The dissepiments of the interseptal loculi are small and steeply
inclined, but those of the peripheral zone are usually very large and
elongated in planes approaching the horizontal. This tissue is developed
in alternately wide and narrow zones as if by rejuvenescence. The

76 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

strong basal platform of each wide zone is possibly epitheca and grows
out from the septate area at a uniformly widening angle. On it smaller
elongate dissepiments are laid down till a horizontal surface is attained,
when the process begins again. At times these coarse dissepiments
are replaced by transverse tissue derived by Ados-like modification
of the septa, as described above. The tabulae are broadly domed but
incomplete, being interrupted by the axial ends of the major septa ;
they may also be reinforced centrally by smaller domed tabellae. They
are closely packed, as many as 20 being counted in 1 cm.

Distribution. — About 20 specimens were collected from the type
locality. The species is also represented by three rolled and broken
specimens from the Upper Visean Lion Ck. limestone, Stanwell, near
Rockhampton, and possibly one from Old Cannindah Homestead, near
Monto, Queensland.

Remarks . — In the strong lateral compression of the area with
septa and in the wide peripheral zone of dissepiments, this species is
reminiscent of Humboldtia Stuckenberg (1895, p. 224) and Keyset -
lingophyllum Stuckenberg (1895, p. 219) from the Dinantian of Russia.
But the types of these genera are inaccessible so that a discussion of
their relations with Aphrophyllum is not possible. The species is of
interest in the acceleration of septal insertion in the counter quadrants,
and in the sporadic expression of the Naos trend.

While what are probably paliform lobes are common in two of
the three Lion Ck. specimens and infrequent in the Riverleigh speci-
mens, the character is not considered of specific value, since some
individuals in a corallum of the compound A. hallense show such lobes
while others do not.

The Expression of a Trend towards Septal Modification in
Certain Rugose Corals.

(Plates I, II, and III).

Certain Rugose coral individuals which occur in the Upper
Visean limestone of Riverleigh1 in Queensland have in common a
particular modification of their septa. This is a peripheral modifica-
tion of septa which have been very much dilated by stereome, particu-
larly where such dilation has caused the peripheral closing of inter-
septal loculi. The replacing tissue in each septum consists of a stack of
thin plates convex upwards and inwards, as wide as the septum was
thick. They are elongated parallel to the peripheral part of the calical
floor, i.e., parallel to the inclination of true dissepiment al tissue. This
character suggests that they represent horizontal tissue, and when it
is seen, that axially groups of them are continuous with dissepiments,
and that laterally also groups are either continuous with groups in
neighbouring septa directly, or rarely through a narrow dissepiment,
there can be no doubt that they are horizontal tissue replacing the
dilated vertical septum. Vertical continuity is attained by granules
of stereome connecting two successive plates and not by rods at right
angles to the plates ; though very rarely, these granules may be
arranged one above the other so that extremely short rods are formed.
In explanation of the origin of this modification we may note that

(1) On Latza’s farm Portions 21 and 22, Parish of Malmoe, County of Yarrol, near
Mundubbera, Queensland.

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA

77

peripheral dilation of the septa till they are almost or quite in contact
seems to be necessary before the peripheral series of plates can be
developed. Septa are secreted in invaginations in the base of the
polyp, and the floor tissue (tabulae and dissepiments) by the flatter
parts of the base. Should the invaginations become wide enough
and shallow enough, the tissue they secrete will resemble floor tissue ;
and this seems adequate explanation. The connecting granules of
stereome probably represent secretions from the more active points
of calcification in the invagination. Any rods would represent the
simple trabeculae secreted behind almost normally active points of
calcification.

Such a modification can be used as a generic character in Symplec-
tophyllum Hill since it affects in varying degree some or all of the
septa at maturity. In this genus the median parts of the dilated septa
may become cavernous ; but this phenomenon cannot be seen to have
any causal connection with the peripheral modification to horizontal
tissue (Plate I).

This modification is also known as Amygdalophyllum Dun and
Benson. But here it is known in only two of the four species, and in
neither is it diagnostic, since it occurs sporadically at maturity in only
two individuals of A. conicum Hill and one of A. inopinatum
(Etheridge). In A. conicum it arises in dilated contiguous septa
(Plate II) ; but whether this is so in A. inopinatum cannot be ascer-
tained, since the earlier parts of the corallite are broken off. In the
former the details are clear and well executed ; but in the latter the
execution seems to have been much rougher.

The third genus occurring at this locality and showing this modifi-
cation is Aphrophyllum Smith. Two of about 20 individuals of A.
joliaceum Hill show it sporadically in dilated septa not quite in contact
(Plate III). None of the remaining genera occurring at this locality
show the trend, although septal dilation does occur in them.

It is seen in a third individual of A. foliaceum occurring at a
different locality on the same horizon — the Lion Ck. limestone at Stan-
well, Queensland, while the New South Wales species of Aphrophyllum ,
A. hallense Smith, occurring in two localities1, also shows this modi-
fication. In the New South Wales species, however, the plates of
neighbouring septa are continuous in platforms, and curves denoting
each septum in these continuous platforms are flattened out, while
the connecting stereome granules disappear. The appearance of
finished craftsmanship is thus lost, and the details appear only roughly
sketched.

Thus there is in Carboniferous corals at various localities in Eastern
Australia a tendency or trend for dilated septa to become modified
peripherally in mature parts of the corallum into horizontal tissues ver-
tically connected by stereome granules. The expression of the trend
can in one case be used as a generic character, but is otherwise quite
sporadic, and may be found with much minuteness and exactness of
detail or only roughly sketched out. While the septa affected are always
strongly dilated, it does not seem absolutely necessary that they should
be in contact. In their unmodified condition these septa were pin-
nately fibrous. The above corals are the only ones known to me to

i1) 16 miles south of Bingara, Parish of Hall. N.S.W. ; and Quarry at Taree, N.S.W.

78 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

show this curious modification in the Carboniferous. Nagatophyllum
Ozawa (1925, pp. 78-80, Pl. xii, figs. 1-5) from the Dinantian of Japan
would seem from the figures to have septa peripherally modified into
similar stacks of transverse plates, but without examination of the
actual material I cannot be sure.

In the Middle Devonian of Torquay, England, ‘Chonophyllum
perfoliatum ’ auctt. shows sporadically a somewhat similar peripheral
modification of dilated septa into horizontal tissue. Here the zone
affected is very wide, and the septa are not always in contact ; the
stacks of plates formed are kept in vertical continuity by short rods
at right angles to the horizontal tissue. In this species the structure is
often masked by thin smears of the stereome of the dilated septa
remaining unmodified (Plate III, figs, 17-19). French’s figure of
Cyathophyllum tinocystis (1885, p. 28, PI. i, fig. 1), from the lower
Upper Devonian of Grund, shows this type of modification. The forms
from the Lower Devonian of Bohemia which were placed by Pocta
(1902, p. Ill) in the genus Chonophyllum show similar modifications.
In America (Canada West) this modification in the Devonian species
Naos magnificus (Billings) has been described by Scherzer (1892, pp.
259-62, PI. viii, fig. 5).

In the Silurian (Niagaran) of Arctic America, the genus Naos
Lang (1926, p. 428) shows a perfect development. Here the hori-
zontal tissue is widely spaced and replaces dilated septa separated by
narrow dissepimental alleys, and vertical continuity is attained by
long strong vertical rods at right angles to the transverse tissue (well
figured by Lang op. cit. PI. xxx, figs. 1-3). Since this genus shows the
most perfect development of the modification (for in later occurrences
the highly developed vertical rods tend to be represented by granules
of stereome), the trend might be called the Naos trend.

In its sporadic occurrence and varying degree of perfection it
resembles any other trend in corals, whether such a trend affects only
vertical or horizontal elements or both. The sporadic development
of this septal structural trend deserves emphasis.. The governing
factor seems to be neither chronological nor systematic ; and although
the septa must be strongly dilated before the modification can arise,
it is not a necessary result of such dilation. The unmodified septa are
of the ordinary pinnately fibrous type in Symplectophyllum, the only
one where the microscopic structure is known.

Skeletal Malformation in an Australian Carboniferous Coral.

Plate III, figs. 1-2.

A fragment1 of a large simple Rugose coral from the Upper Visean
limestone of Riverleigh2 in Queensland shows undoubted skeletal
malformation. This obscures the tissue of the axial area and affects
groups of septa in increasing degree. Because of its malformation
it is impossible to say with certainty to which species the coral belongs,
but its septal, dissepimental and outer tabulate structures are like
those of Amygdalophyllum inopinatum (Etheridge), which is common
at the same locality.

p) F 2465 in the University of Queensland Collection; a part of this is A 5064 in the
Segdwick Museum.

(2) Latza’s farm, Portions 21 and 22‘, Parish of Malmoe, County of Yarrol, near Mun~
dubbera, Queensland.

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA

79

Description. — The fragrant of corallite was slightly curved, about
8 cm. long, expanding from a diameter of about 3.5 cm at the bottom
to 4.5 cm at the top, where it was slightly compressed.

The unaffected parts of the corallite show the following internal
structures. The septa are thin, leaf-like and crowded, about 66 of
each order. The major septa are long, extending into the axial area,
where they are masked by malformation. The minor septa attain
half this length. The dissepiments are numerous, elongate, and not
very regular ; the inner ones are smaller and more steeply inclined
than the outer. Only a little of the outer part of the tabulate area
is not malformed, but it can be seen that the tabulae are incomplete
and that often two series of plates, an inner and an outer, are pre-
sent. The outer series consists of numerous flat-lying concave plates.
It is absent when the inner dissepiments are so steeply inclined as to be
almost vertical and thus to form a wall on to which the tabellae of the
inner series then abut directly. These are large, convex and steeply
arched upwards towards the axis. It is impossible to say whether they
abutted originally on to a columella, or merely formed a dome as in
Palaeosmilia.

Malformation affects an increasing area in the corallite. In the
lowest part of the fragment it is pronounced in the axial area and in
a group of septa forming a segment 6 mm. in width at the epitheca ;
a second, smaller group in which five septa are malformed extends from
the axial area not quite to the epitheca. The area of these two
affected sepments increases with the age of the corallite, while a third
group of septa also becomes involved, the malformation rapidly
spreading outwards from the axial area to the epitheca. On the upper
surface of the fragment, fully half of the corallite is malformed. The
malformed structures and also the adjacent normally developed ele-
ments are often macerated.

In each of the affected areas normal development of the vertical
and horizontal elements of the coral skeleton no longer takes place.
The first stage is the dilation of the septa with stereome starting from
the axial ends until interseptal loculi are practically absent. Then
these dilated vertical elements become discontinuous, or extremely
tortuous in course, or even suppressed altogether. The normal hori-
zontal tissue is entirely suppressed, but in the irregular loculi formed
by the discontinuity or suppression of the dilated vertical elements,
widely spaced uncurved plates may arise, which may or may not be
horizontal.

The stereome is deposited as a lining to the septa (usually on both
surfaces but sometimes on one only) and occasionally on the upper
surface of horizontal tissue. Microscopic investigation of the stereome
rarely shows traces of fibrosity such as one associates with the normal
deposition of a coral skeleton. Mostly it appears granular or non-
fibrous ; but as frequently in normally formed dilated septa the fibrosity
is masked by the state of preservation, it cannot be assumed that this
stereome differs in any way from that which dilates normal septa.
Bands of dark spots may be discerned running parallel to the surface
which the stereome is lining. This is a common condition in Caninia.

Remarks. — It is idle to speculate on the nature of the adverse con-
ditions causing the malformation ; but it is important to note that here
the deposition of stereome linings is without doubt due to adverse con.

80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

ditions. Whether stereome deposited in adverse conditions differs
in structure from that deposited under normal conditions is not
arguable on the ambiguous evidence given by this specimen. A
series of experiments on and subsequent sections of modern corals
would give the best approach to this problem. I hope to undertake
work on these lines in the future.

Genus CARCINOPHYLLUM Thomson.

Carcinophyllum Thomson 1881, pp. 241-244.

Genotype. — Carcinophyllum kirsopianum Thomson1 1881, pp. 243-4; text-fig. 3
on p. 241, and PI. ii, figs. 7, 7a, and 7 b, from the Lower Carboniferous of
Arbigland, Dumfries, Scotland.

Diagnosis. — Simple or dendroid Rugose corals, with a central
column in which the septal lamellae are dilated, irregular, and
anastomosing, and a mesial plate is present. The septa dilate towards
the periphery of the corallum, and form a stereozone ; but through
most of the corallum they are separated from the epitheca by coarse
dissepiments. The tabulae between the central column and the
dissepiments are widely spaced, and are flat or sagging.

Remarks. — In the British representatives of this genus, the peri-
pheral stereozone is scarcely ever perfect owing to the excessive develop-
ment of the lonsdaleoid trend ; but in the Australian species the stereo-
zone is infrequently broken through, and that at maturity only.

Carcinophyllum patellum sp. nov. (Plate IV, figs. 1-17).

Eolotype. — F 2534 (2 slides and 3 pieces) in the University of Queensland collec-
tion, from the Upper Visean Riverleigh limestone on Latza’s farm, Portions
21 and 22, Parish of Malmoe, County of Yarrol, near Mundubbera, Queensland,
Plave IV., figs. 1-2.

Diagnosis. — Small simple or dendroid Carcinophyllum ; the

central column is dibunophylloid and dense with stereome; the stereo-
zone is wide and only infrequently interrupted by coarse dissepiments.
Gemmation is calicular.

Description. — The corals when simple are slenderly conical attain-
ing a maximum diameter of 13 mm. The average diameter is 10 mm.
at a height of 40 mm. The dendroid forms arise by calicular budding,
three or four hystero-corallites being given off from the parent calyx.
The epitheca shows wide arched interseptal ridges, with deep narrow
septal grooves. The septa are of two orders, usually about 24 of each,
but there may be as many as 30. They are pinnately fibrous and
thick, being lined or invested with fibrous stereome. The major
septa are usually discontinuous with the lamellae of the central column.
The minor septa are short, and the peripheral stereozone is as wide as
the length of the minor septa. Its continuity is usually due to the
major and minor septa being so thick as to be in contact, but any
interseptal loculi may be filled by fibrous stereome resting on hori-
zontal tissue and lining (investing) the already dilated septa. In mature
corallites the septa may withdraw from their bases at the epitheca and
large dissepiments convex upwards and inwards arise, on which the
septa may be represented as stout crests. Since loculi rarely occur
between the major and minor septa, fine dissepiments are usually
absent. Small thin concave tabulae occur between the central column
and the stereozone, widely spaced and seldom invested with stereome.

P) A neotype for this species is being described.

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA

81

The central column, whose diameter may be one third that of the
corallite, consists of a medial plate with a few sinuous vertical lamellae
abutting on to it, and long highly inclined tabellae ; the vertical ele-
ments may be so dilated and so much stereome may be deposited on
the upper surfaces of the tabellae that the column may be solid. In
rare instances it is free from stereome, and in this case it loses its
definition, the inner series of tabellae becomes continuous with the
outer, and the septa also are less dilated (Plate IV, figs. 14-17).

Distribution. — In addition to the type locality where it is common,
this species occurs in Visean limestones at Old Cannindah Homestead,
near Monto, Queensland.

Remarks. — This species is remarkable for its tendency to become
dendroid, and for its constant possession of a stereozone. The stereo -
zone, in that it is as wide as the minor septa are long, and in that it
may be formed by the dilated septa coming into contact, resembles
the stereozone of the Permian corals of Timor, such as ‘ Carcinophyllum1
wichmanni (Rothpletz). The consequent repression of interseptal
dissepiments is also characteristic of the Permian corals, but in the
latter the peripheral withdrawal of the septa, with the formation of
large dissepiments does not occur. Among the English representatives
of the genus, C. patellum resembles C. densum Ryder from the D2
zone the most closely.

Genus LITHOSTROTION Fleming.

Lithostrotion Fleming 1828, p. 508.

Genotype. — Lithostrotion striatum Fleming 1828, p. 508, = Lithostrotion sive Basaltes
minimus striatus et stellatus , Lhwyd, 1699, p. 124 ; PI. (xvi) ; 1760 Editio altera,
p. 125, PI. xxiii.1

Diagnosis. — ‘Phaceloid and cerioid Rugose Corals which have,
typically, a columella, long major septa, and large tent-shaped tabulae,
usually supplemented at the theca by smaller and nearly horizontal
tabulae. Dissepiments are well developed in the larger species, but
absent in the very small forms. Gemmation is nonparricidal. Diphy-
morphs of Lithostrotion have no columella, short septa, flat or distally
arched tabulae, and, in the phaceloid forms, parricidal gemmation.’1

Remarks. — The genus is very prolific in the lower Carboniferous
of Europe, Asia and Australia. The boundaries of both the genus
and its species are extremely difficult to define, since the individuals
of all species vary a great deal. The group is more easily dealt with
and understood if we postulate that the members of the genus
Lithostrotion Fleming all possess potentialities to follow definite develop-
mental trends2 ; i.e., characters potentially common to the group as a
whole may be expressed or suppressed in different individuals. The
common trends in Lithostrotion are : —

1. The progressive development in external form usual in Rugose

corals from dendroid forms through phaceloid and cerioid
to asteroid forms. In the last stage there is a correlative
change in internal structure.

2. The eridophylloid trend ; i.e., a tendency for neighbouring

corallites in dendroid and phaceloid forms to become united
by lateral outgrowths of extratabulate tissue.

(*) Smith and Lang, 1930, p. 178.

(a) See Lang, 1923, pp. 120-136.

82

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

3. Trends in structure in the axial region.

(a) The diphyphylloid trend ; the septa withdraw from the
axis, the columella disappears, and the tabulae become
flat or distally arched.1 Diphyphylloid individuals
(diphy morphs) have been separated off from the typical
Lithostrotions , i.e., those with long septa, by Smith and
Lang (1930, p. 179) as genomorphs of the genus. A
genomorph of Lithostrotion is understood to be a group
of individuals in which a trend common to all members
of the genus reaches an expression whereby the group
is well demarcated from typical Lithostrotion. Such
individuals may arise in any species of the genus. A
diphymorph is a genomorph in which the trend concerned
is the diphyphylloid trend.

(b) A clisioid trend ; the more or less complete tabulae of the

typical forms become replaced by small, incomplete
tabulae or tabellae, which may become arranged in an
axial and a periaxial series, the columella being retained.
Phaceloid and cerioid groups of individuals in which the
tabulae are replaced by tabellae (not arranged in axial
and periaxial series) have been separated off bySchinde-
^ wolf2 into the subgenera Cystidendron Schindewolf and
Cystistrotion Schindewolf. If the conception genomorph
be accepted, then these two might also logically be re-
garded as genomorphs.

(c) A cionoid trend ; in which the columella becomes very

large. It may be expressed independently of the clisioid
trend, or the same individuals might show both.
Cinoodendron Benson and Smith was erected to receive
two specimens which might be regarded as Lithostrotion
with abnormally large columellae.

4. The lonsdaleoid trend ; the septa retreat from the epitheca

leaving a coarse peripheral ring of dissepimental tissue, on
which they may be represented as crests. A cerioid group
showing this trend well developed has been separated off by
Yabe and Hayasaka (1915, p. 93) as a sub-genus Lithostro-
tionella Y. and H. This might also be regarded as a geno-
morph.

f1) In this connection it should be noted that amongst groups related to Lithostrotion
and at present recognised as distinct genera, the axial structure of Nemistium
Smith, and the long axial septum of Dorlodotia Salee and Thysanophyllum minus
Nicholson and Thomson possibly represent intermediate halted stages in the
development of the diphyphylloid trend, or may be quite independent developments.
In many cases it is uncertain whether forms without a columella have been derived
from columellate forms or vice versa. In Orionastraea lonsdaleoides nov., however,
the forward trend leading from cerioid to asteroid forms is accompanied by
columellate corallites becoming diphyphylloid ; the tabulae become flat and com-
plete, and not distally arched or divided into an inner and an outer series. No
corallites with a N emistium-like axial structure are seen, but the long axial septum
characteristic of T. minus is a frequent occurrence. ( Diphy strotion mutabile nov.)
gives no clue as to whether the non-columellate corallites are derived from
columellate or vice versa, but the same remarks may be made about its axial structures
as about those of 0. lonsdaleoides.

(2) Schindewolf (1928 pp. 148-51) also separated the columellate Lithostrotions with
complete tabulae and fine interseptal dissepiments into two subgenera ; Siphonoden -
dron M’Coy (phaceloid) and Lithostrotion Fleming (cerioid).

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA

83

Except where mutually exclusive, all these various trends may be
found in one and the same individual ; but usually only one is pro-
nounced ; and the individuals thus distinguished may be united in
genomorphic groups. As far as we know genomorphs may arise at
any period within the range of the genus.

It is to be noted that it is convenient to regard as a genus the
\ group of forms included in Orionastraea Smith, which differs from
typical Lithostrotion in the manifestation of two internal structural
trends in an advanced stage — that due to the change from cerioid to
asteroid form, and the diphyphylloid trend. Orionastraea merges
V into Lithostrotion in the species 0. ensifer. If the groups Dorlodotia
Salee and Thysanophyllum minus Thoms, and Nich. be derived from
Lithostrotion Fleming, then here also two trends have been concerned.

Remarks on the Australian species. — Three Australian species of
Lithostrotion Fleming, L. columnare , L. arundineum, and L. stan-
vellense have already been described by R. Etheridge Jr. (1900, p. 10),
who placed them provisionally in this genus, and their status was con-
firmed by Dr. Stanley Smith (1920, p. 61). Etheridge’s three species
are here redescribed on topotypic material and on specimens from other
localities in Queensland and New South Wales. Variation in the
Australian species seems to be caused by differences in the degree of
development of trends which all the individuals possess in common ;
and in such variation they agree with their European congeners.
Also, while in some localities a species is more or less variable, in other
places, more rarely, no variation is apparent, and the species may be
spoken of as having reached a stable expression ; i.e., in some localities
a particular expression is only one amongst a whole series, but in one
locality it is isolated. It is possible then, that sometimes the expres-
sion of a trend may be a function of the geography of the individual.

The Australian species “ agree in all essential characters with their
European congeners. Yet as a group they present certain distinctive
characters.”1. These differences may be summed up as follows : —

1. ‘Columella. This is usually much stouter than in British

species.

2. Tabulae. The tabulae in the Australian species are to a great

extent replaced by arched tabellae ;’2 ‘or are sharply bent, as
in Cionodendron.’3. In the case of L. columnare and L.
arundineum there is moreover a marked tendency for the
tabulae to become strongly differentiated into an axial and a
periaxial series, the inner series being strongly arched and
fairly uniform, and the outer irregularly disposed and on the
whole more widely separated, some being nearly flat and
horizontal, and others steeply inclined and more curved.

3. £ Septa. The septa exhibit a marked tendency to become

disunited from the epitheca in the adult stage.’3. Axially
the septa are typically grouped, and whether grouped or not,
confluent with the columella.

(!) S. Smith, 1920, p. 61.

(2) Because of this replacement Schindewolf (1928, p. 149) placed these species in his

subgenera Cystidendron and Cystistrotion.

(3) Benson and Smith, 1923, p. 169.

84 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

4. ‘Dissepiments. Dependent upon the disruption of the septa
from the epitheca, the external dissepiments (not being inter-
cepted by the septa) frequently form an outer zone entirely
built up of course dissepimental tissue as in Lonsdaleia.

It is the prevalence and combination of these characters, and not
the presence of any one of them, that distinguishes the Australian
from the British forms, since in the less typical examples among the
British species such features may occasionally be noted.’1 In other
words we may say that the British and Australian species possess in
common the same trends ; but certain of these tend to be expressed
more strongly in one continent than in the other,

Lithostrotion coltjmnare Etheridge. Plate X, figs. 18-25.

Lithostrotion (?) columnare Etheridge fil. 1900, p. 18 ; PI. i, fig. 1 ; PI. ii, figs. 1-5,

Lithostrotion columnare Eth. fil., S. Smith, 1920, p. 61 ; PI. v, figs. 1-2.

Cystistrotion columnare (Eth. fil.) Schindewolf, 1928, p. 149.

Lectotype. — (here chosen), F 1604 in the Queensland Geological Survey collection,
from the Upper Visean Lion Ck. Limestone, Stanwell, near Rockhampton,
Queensland, being the original of Etheridge’s PI. ii, fig. 1.

Diagnosis. — Large cerioid Lithostrotion comparable in size with
the British L. arachnoideum (M’Coy) showing great variation ; major
septa confluent with strong columnella ; minor septa long and dis-
sepimental tissue copious ; tabulae incomplete, variable.

Description. — The corallum is compound, large, cerioid or occas-
ionally partly asteroid. The corallites are long and straight with an
average diameter of 10 mm.2 The epitheca of each corallite is variably
developed, and may be thickened, or thin and irregular, or as a line of
vesicles filled with secondary deposit. There are 20 to 25 stout septa
of each order ; their peripheral edges are usually in contact with the
epitheca (Plate IV, fig. 18), but may sometimes withdraw and be
separated from it by dissepiments (Plate X, fig. 23, the lonsdaleoid
trend), or they are occasionally irregular in course and confluent
with those of contiguous corallites (Plate X. fig. 25, the asteroid trend).
The axial edges of the major septa are confluent with the columella,
either separately or conjoined in groups. The minor septa attain
two-thirds the length of the major. Dissepiments are small, numerous
(4 to 7 rings), and regular except at the epitheca where they may be
coarsely developed (Plate X, figs. 23-24), the lonsdaleoid trend ;
or they may be continuous with those of neighbouring corallites (Plate
X, fig. 25), the asteroid trend. The inner ring of dissepiments is
sporadically invested with stereome. The columella is styliform or
cylindrical in transverse section and usually thickened. The tabulae
are incomplete ; they are to a great extent replaced by strongly arched
tabellae, convex upwards and outwards and varying in size (Plate X,
figs. 19-20) ; or more rarely (and this is a constant character in River-
leigh specimens) they may be strongly differentiated into an axial and a
periaxial series, the tabellae of the inner series being strongly arched
and fairly uniform, and those of the outer irregularly disposed and on
the whole more widely separated, some being nearly flat and horizontal
and others steeply inclined and more curved (Plate X, figs. 20 and 22).
Gemmation is always intermural.

X1) Benson and Smith, 1923, p. 169.

(2) The Riverleigh individuals (Plate X, figs, 21-22) are much smaller, with a constant

diameter of 5 mm.

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA

85

Distribution. — In addition to the type locality the species occurs
at Horton R., between Eulowrie and Pal Lai, New South Wales, in
the Visean Burindi limestones, and in the Upper Visean Riverleigh
limestone on Latza’s farm, Portions 21 and 22, Parish of Malmoe,
County of Yarrol, near Mundubbera, Queensland.

Remarks. — Variation is very pronounced in the Lion Ck. and
Horton R. specimens ; but the Riverleigh corallites have a constant
expression, which however is seen in some Lion Ck. specimens. The
variation can be said to be due to sporadic weak expressions of the
lonsdaleoid and the asteroid trends, and of trends leading to incom-
pleteness of the tabulae and to the arrangement of the replacing tabellae
in axial and periaxial series. The only one of these trends expressed
in the Riverleigh specimens is the last, and the tabellae are always
arranged in axial and periaxial series. This material is also distin-
guished by the constant small size of its corallites (5 mm. diameter)
and correspondingly smaller number of septa. The reason of this
stabilization, whether difference of horizon or habitat or some other
cause, has not been ascertained. t |

Lithostrotion stanvellense Etheridge (Plate IV, figs. 26-33,

text-fig. 3).

Lithostrotion (?) stanvellensis (sic) Etheridge fil., 1900, p. 20; PI. i, fig. 5; PI. ii, figs.
7-8.

Lithostrotion stanvellense Eth. fil., S. Smith, 1920, p. 63 ; PI. iii, figs. 1 and 3-6 ; PI.
iv, figs. 1, la, and 3.

Cystidendron stanvellense (Eth. fil.), Schindewolf, 1928, p. 149.

Lectotype. — (here chosen) F 1603 in the Geological Survey of Queensland collection,
from the Upper Visean Lion Ck. limestone of Stanwell, near Rockhampton,
Queensland, being the original of Etheridge’s PI. i, fig. 5.

Diagnosis. — Large dendroid Lithostrotion comparable in size with
the British L. martini Edwards and Haime ; major septa confluent
with a strong columella ; minor septa short and dissepimental zone
narrow ; tabulae typically incomplete. Gemmation lateral. The
septa may withdraw from the columella and budding is then calicular.

Upper Visean Riverleigh Limestone on Latza’s farm, Portions 21 and 22, Parish of
Malmoe, County of Yarrol, near Mundubbera, Queensland. F. 2945 in the University
of Queensland collection. Natural size.

86 PROCEEDINGS OE THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Description. — The corallum is dendroid (text-fig. 3) or inclined
to caespitose, and large, and the corallites are then irregular in direction
of growth, long, and usually between 8 and 10 mm. in diameter, though
diameters of 5 mm. and 15 mm.1 are not' infrequent the epitheca shows
well-marked growth accretions and indistinct striae. A phaceloid
corallum is also known2, in which the corallites are close and parallel, .
and may attain the gigantic diameter of 22 mm. (Plate X, fig. 27),
the epitheca being regularly ornamented with both annulations and
striations.

The septa are straight, usually unthickened, and vary in number
according to the diameter of the corallite from 24 to 44 of each order.
Typically the axial edges of the major septa are grouped and the
resultant combined groups are confluent with the columella (Plate X.r
fig. 26) ; often3 however, the septa fail to make contact with the colu-
mella (Plate X, fig. 27) ; and in one corallum4 they are withdrawn so
far as to be little longer than the minor septa; this weakly diphym orphic
corallum shows the calicular budding typical of diphymorphs, al-
though the columella is present (Plate X, fig. 31). The minor septa
are short and attain little more than one third the length of the major.
The dissepimental zone is narrow and consists of two or three rows of
small irregular dissepiments, the innermost being sporadically invested
with stereome. Sporadically the peripheral ends of the septa may be
separated from the epitheca by large dissepiments (the lonsdaleoid
trend). The columella is thickened, and may be round, oval, fusiform
or radiate in transverse section. The tabulae are usually incomplete
(Plate X, fig. 29), being replaced by copious tabellae of various sizes,
convex upwards and outwards, sometimes with short horizontal plates
between them and the dissepiments ; but these latter are seldom so
numerous as to form a periaxial series. Gemmation is typically
lateral5, but in the weakly diphymorphic corallum mentioned above
it is calicular, and the relation between the neo — and atavo — tissues
is the same as described by Smith and Ryder (1927, p. 339) in Stauria
favosa ( Linnaeus ) .

Distribution. — In addition to the type locality the species occurs
in the Visean Burindi limestones of the Parish of Hall, at Hall Ck., near
Bingara, New South Wales ; in the Upper Visean Riverleigh limestone
on Latza’s farm, Portions 21 and 22, Parish of Malmoe, County of
Yarrol, near Mundubbera, Queensland ; in the Visean crystalline
limestone of Crinoid Mt., Diglum, Barmundoo Goldfield, near Glad-
stone, Queensland ; and it has been reported (Whitehouse, 1927, p.
189) from Old Cannindah Homestead, near Monto, Queensland.

Remarks.— The Stanwell specimens are typical, with a constant
expression, and are notable for the incompleteness of the tabulae and
the strength of the columella. The Bingarra and Riverleigh material
is however very variable. The Bingara corallites vary in size (Plate
X, fig. 32) from 5 to 11 mm., the tabulae are usually complete, the
lonsdaleoid trend is weakly expressed and there is much investment
by stereome of septa, columella and inner ring of dissepiments. In the

(x) Large forms are common in the Riverleigh limestone.

(2) From the Riverleigh limestone.

(3) Especially in the Riverleigh limestone.

(4) Also from the Riverleigh limestone.

(5) One case was observed in which the bud and parent had a common epitheca, but the

corallites were malformed at the contact (Plate X, fig. 28).

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA

87

Riverleigh limestone the species is very common and the coralla and
corallites are usually very large. One large phaceloid colony and one
weakly diphymorphic corallum with calicular budding have been
collected here. The locality is notable for the weak development of
the diphyphylloid trend, shown by the septa failing to make contact
with the columella ; the tabulae may be complete or incomplete, and
the lonsdaleoid trend is weakly expressed. The Barmundoo material
is referred to L. stanvellense by growth form only, since it is too crystal-
line to section.

Lithostrotion arundineum Etheridge (Plate X, figs. 34-38).

Lithostrotion (?) arundineum Etheridge fil. 1900, p. 19 ; Pl. i, figs. 3-4 ; PI. ii, fig. 6.

Lithostrotion arundineum Eth. fil., S. Smith, 1920, p. 63 ; PI. iv., figs, 2, 2a).

Cystidendron arundineum (Eth. fil.) Schindewolf, 1928, p. 149.

Lectotype. — (here chosen) F 1602 in the Geological Survey of Queensland collection

from the Upper Visean Lion Ck. limestone of Stanwell, near Rockhampton,

Queensland, being the original of Etheridge’s PI. i, fig. 3.

Diagnosis. — Phaceloid Lithostrotion comparable in size with the
British L. irregular e auctt. ; the major septa are typically confluent
with the strong columella ; the dissepimental zone is very narrow ;
dhe tabulae are incomplete, and the tabellae are typically arranged in
an axial and a periaxial series. Gemmation is lateral.

Description. — The corallum is phaceloid and large ; the corallites
are long, straight, parallel, close, often in contact, 4-5 mm. in diameter ;
they are thinly epithecate, with delicate growthrings and distinct
interseptal ridges. There are about 20 septa of each order, straight
and sometimes dilated. Typically the axial edges of the major septa
are confluent with the columella (Plate X, fig. 34), either previously
conjoined in groups or independently ; but they often fail to make
contact with the columella, abutting instead on the axial tabellae1.
The minor septa are short, less than half the length of the major.
Dissepiments are correspondingly few and are small and regular, the
inner ring being frequently invested with stereome. The strong
columella is cylindrical or styliform in transverse section, often much
thickened. The tabulae are incomplete2 and the replacing tabellae
are usually arranged in an axial series of strongly arched and fairly
uniform plates, and a periaxial series of irregularly disposed and rather
more widely separated plates, some being nearly flat and horizontal,
and others more steeply inclined (Plate X, fig. 35). Gemmation is
always lateral.

Distribution. — In addition to the type locality, the species is known
from Visean limestones at : —

1. Near the police station, Horton R., County Murchison, New

South Wales.

2. Between Eulowrie and Pal Lai, Horton R., Co. Murchison,

N.S.W.

3. Crinoid Mt., Diglum, Barmundoo Goldfield, near Glad-

stone, Q.

4. Mt. Grim, Gladstone District, Q.

5. Near Texas, South Queensland.

Remarks. — The Stanwell specimens are stable save for a frequent
slight expression of the diphyphylloid trend. This is also seen occas-

O At Stanwell and the Horton R.

(2) Except at Mt. Grim.

88 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

ionally in the Horton R. material which however is also notable for the
stereoplasmid thickening of the vertical elements, particularly the
columella (Plate X, figs. 36-38), which attains a size comparable with
that of Cionodendron columen Benson and Smith1 (Plate X, figs.
39-40). Probably some of these Horton R. specimens, e.g., figs. 37-38
should be regarded as C. columen. Work on this point is in progress.
The Barmundoo specimens are referred to L. arundineum on external
form only, since they are too crystalline to section. The Mt. Grim
specimen also is rather crystalline. In the few corallites in which the
structure is clear, all the septa reach the columella, and the tabulae are
complete. All that can be said of the sheared Texas specimen is that
it belongs to Lithostrotion more probably than to any other genus.
It resembles L. arundineum in size and form, and appears to have a
columella. If it be Lithostrotion then the ‘ Gympie Series ’ of the
Texas District includes Lower Carboniferous beds.

Lithostrotion, genomorph (Diphyphyllum Lonsdale).

Lithostrotion Fleming 1828, p. 508, genomorph ( Diphyphyllum Lonsdale) Smith
and Lang 1930, p. 180.

Oenomorphotype. — Diphyphyllum concinnum Lonsdale 1845, p. 624 ; PL A, fig. 4.
(Since the type of D. concinnum is lost. Smith and Lang, 1930, p. 180, base their
description of Diphyphyllum on D. lateseptatum M’Coy, 1849, which ‘if not con-
specific is certainly congeneric with D. concinnum ’).

Diagnosis. — £ Phaceloid Lithostrotion which have no columella,
or one which is reduced to spines on successive tabulae. The axial
tabulae may be flat or convex, but have downturned edges which either
meet the tabulae below them or extend to the dissepimental wall ; the
outer, smaller tabulae abut against the inner tabulae. The dissepi-
ments, which are small, are well developed in the larger forms.
Gemmation is parricidal.’2

Remarks. — The genomorph3 occurs in abundance in the Visean
limestones of Europe, usually in association with Lithostrotion. It is
possible that it contains representatives of a primitive stage of
Lithostrotion, and also forms derived from Lithostrotion by reversion.1

Lithostrotion sp. ( Diphyphyllum sp.). Plate XI, figs. 1-2.
Diphyphyllum sp. Benson and Smith 1923, p. 168.

Material. — No. 4510 or 4515 in the collection of the Geological Survey of New South
Wales, and sections R 20872 and R 21998 in the British Museum and A 5494
in the Sedgwick Museum ; from the Visean Burindi limestone of the Parish of
Moorawarra, near Somerton, New South Wales.

Description. — The material consists of a large number of broken
and isolated corallies. Each is about 5 mm. in diameter, and straight.
There are from 12 to 20 septa of each order. The major septa extend
about half-way towards the axis, and the minor septa are half this
length. The dissepiments are confined to one or two rings, and are
small and regular. The tabulae are of two series, the inner ones being
large and almost horizontal, and the outer small and sloping downwards
to the dissepiments.

(!) Were it not for the greater number of septa and the sharply bent tabulae, C. columen
might be regarded as L. arundineum in which the columella is even more strongly
developed than in the Horton R. specimens.

(a) Smith and Lang, 1930, p. 180.

(3) Smith and Lang (loc. cit.) * restrict the genomorphic name ( Diphyphyllum ) to the
diphymorphs of Lithostrotion , considering that in this group the diphymorph
structure is a condition due to other causes than normal phyletic development ;
and that a suitable stimulus may start any individual along this trend.’

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA

89

Remarks. — This is the only example of ( Diphyphyllum ) known
from Australia. The diameter of its corallites and the number of
septa suggest relation to L. arundineum Etheridge. It would not be
surprising however if further material showed that these specimens
should be placed under Aulina simplex sp. nov. The diphymorph
condition is extremely rare in Australian Lithostrotions ; even the slight
withdrawal of the septa from the columella is infrequent, whereas it
is usual in almost all British Lithostrotions , with the notable exception of
the Scottish forms described by Thomson (1883, pp. 397-406) which
compare with the Australian forms.

Lithostrotion genomorph ( Diphystrotion Smith and Lang).

Lithostrotion Fleming 1828, p. 508, genomorph ( Diphystrotion Smith and Lang)
1930, p. 184.

Oenomorphotype. — Stylastraea inconferta, Lonsdale, 1845, p. 621, PI. A, figs. 2, 2a-c.
Smith and Lang 1930, p. 184.

Diagnosis. — ‘ Cerioid Lithostrotion in which there is no columella,
or one which is reduced to spines on successive tabulae, and in which
the tabulae are slightly convex or flat and in most cases complete. The
dissepimental tissue is typically coarse. Parricidal gemmation has not
been observed.’ 1

Remarks. — The cerioid diphymorph is less common than the
phaceloid, and the individual corallites always show great variation.

Lithostrotion sp. ( Diphystrotion mutabile sp. nov.). (Plate V, figs. 3-4)

Holotype. — F 2387 and 4 slides cut from it, in the University of Queensland col-
lection from the Upper Visean Lion Ck. limestone, Stanwell, near Rockhamp-
ton, Queensland. Part of the Holotype is a 5492 in the Sedgwick Museum,
Cambridge. Plate V, figs. 3-4.

Diagnosis. — ( Diphystrotion ) with much thickened corallite walls,
and with dissepiments sparsely and sporadically developed.

Description. — The corallum is cerioid. The corallites are of
sinuous growth, with an average diameter of 4 mm. (Plate V, figs.
3-4. The epitheca of each always has a lining of stereome about
0.55 mm. thick. The internal structure varies sporadically in each
corallite, and from corallite to corallite. The septa are stout, rather
sinuous, and sometimes separated from the epitheca by dissepiments
on which they may leave crests. There are from 12 to 16 of each
order. The major septa are of variable length ; the axial edges of
3 to 5 (two being opposite), may very occasionally meet in the eentre
to form a columella ; or the major septa may be only half as long as
the radius of the corallite. Intermediate stages between these extremes
are more often seen, a frequent feature being the greater length of one,
or of two opposite septa. The minor septa are very short with an
average length of one third the radius of the corallite. Dissepiments
occur sporadically, usually as a single ring of rather large plates be-
tween the septa. They may be entirely lacking, and sometimes some
of the septa withdraw from the periphery, when a coarse dissepimental
tissue develops as in Lonsdaleia. The tabulae are usually complete
and almost horizontal ; but they may be broken or bent up by long
axial edges of septa, or by an occasional columella ; where no dissepi-
ments are present the tabulae extend to the epitheca. They are closely
spaced, 10 being counted in a space of 5 mm. The columella when

(a) Smith and Lang, 1930, p. 184.

90

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

present is discontinuous, or is represented by crests of axial septal
edges on the tabulae.

Remarks. — The type specimen is the only one known. It is
probably not the diphymorph of L. columnare Eth., the only cerioid
Lithostrotion found with it. Variation is extreme, sporadic, and not
at all progressive with growth, this applying even to the development
of dissepiments. The diphyphylloid trend is almost completely
expressed ; and the lonsdaleoid trend is expressed weakly and spor-
adically.

Genus CIONODENDRON Benson and Smith.

Cionodendron Benson and Smith 1923, p. 165.

Genotype. — Cionodendron columen Benson and Smith 1923, p. 165-7, PI. viii., figs-
4-5 ; PI. ix, figs. 4 and 7, from the Visean (Burindi) of New South Wales.

Diagnosis. — Phaceloid Rugose corals identical in general structure-
with Lithostrotion Fleming, and comparable in size with L. arundineum
Eth., but distinguished by the excessively large and well formed
columella, the dilated septa, and the sharply bent tabulae.

Remarks. — See below.

Cionodendron columen Benson and Smith. Plate IV, figs. 39-40.

Cionodendron columen Benson and Smith, 1923, pp. 165-7 ; PI. viii, figs. 4-5 ; PI. ix,
figs. 4 and 7.

Holotype. — No. 1464 in the Geological Survey of New South Wales collection, from
the Visean Burindi series of Slaughterhouse Ck., near Gravesend, N.S.W.
Sections from it have been placed in the British Museum, R 21999 and R 22000-
01. Plate IV, figs. 39-40. Also figured Benson and Smith 1923 PI. viii, figs.
4-5 ; PI. ix, figs. 4 and 7.

Diagnosis. — As for genus.

Description. — That given by Benson and Smith (1923, pp. 165-7)
is adequate and easy of reference.

Remarks. — In growth habit and size of corallites the species closely
resembles L. arundineum Eth., but is distinguished by the abnormally
strong columella, the constancy with which the major septa are con-
fluent with it, the greater number of septa (26 of each order as against
20), and the nature of the tabulae which “ for the greater part extend
from the theca to the columella, but are bent irregularly and at high
angles both towards the theca and the columella.” 1 Many corallites
called here L. arundineum from the Horton R., N.S.W, show
columellate-septate characters near those of C. columen, but have
tabellae arranged on the L. arundineum plan. ' (Plate IV, figs. 37-38).
Further work on these forms is in progress, and it is hoped will clarify
the relation between the two species.

In addition to the specimen from the type locality Benson and
Smith described (1923, p. 167) an isolated corallite associated with
(Diphyphyllum)1 in the Parish of Moorawarra near Somerton, N.S.W*

Genus ORIONASTRAEA Smith.

Orionastraea Smith 1916a, p. 2 ; 1917, p. 294.

Genotype. — Sarcinula phillipsi M’Coy 1849, p. 125 ; Smith 1917, p. 298, PI. xxiii*
figs. 1-2.

Diagnosis. — Asteroid or sometimes partly cerioid Rugose corals*
related to Lithostrotion, but with columella weakly developed or absent ;
with septa withdrawn from the axis, and sometimes also from the?
periphery.

(*) See p. 54.

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA

91

Remarks. — The genus is demarcated from the Lithostrotion group
in that the development of the diphyphylloid condition is constantly
accompanied by the Joss of the dividing epitheca and sometimes also
by the development of a lonsdaleoid condition. As above defined the
genus has probably arisen from different species of Lithostrotion and
( Diphystrotion ). In England it is characteristic of the uppermost
Visean. The one Australian species appears to have been derived from
the massive L. columnare Eth. by the three changes mentioned above,
since the two are found at the same locality and horizon, and these
three conditions are seen weakly and sporadically developed in L.
■columnare.

Orionastraea lonsdaleoides sp. nov. (Elate V., figs. 5-11).

Holotype. — F 2938 and slides in the University of Queensland collection from the
Upper Visean Riverleigh limestone on Latza’s farm, Portions 21 and 22, Parish
of Malmoe, County of Yarrol, near Mundubbera, Queensland. Part of the holo-
type has been placed in the Sedgwick Museum, No. A 5485, Plate V, figs. 6-8.

Diagnosis. — Orionastraea with the numerous septa of neighbour-
ing corallites separated by a wide development of coarse peripheral
dissepiments, with rare traces of epitheca ; a degenerate columella is
often present.

Description. — External characters : The corallum is asteroid,
spreading and large. The few calices observed show a central cone
rising from a deep narrow collar-like trough ribbed with septa, the
trough having a wide broadly domed rim formed by the broadly arched
dissepimental tissue between the septa of two neighbouring corallites.
The holotheca1 is thick, with well marked growth rings and longitudinal
striations.

Internal structures : — The corallites have an average diameter
of 10 mm. The septa of each are withdrawn from the periphery and
confined to a periaxial column about 5 mm. in diameter. They are
rather sinuous and thin, and there are from 16 to 18 of each order.
The major septa are of unequal lengths ; they may all be withdrawn
from the axis ; but usually one (or sometimes two) is longer than the
others, and has a thickened axial edge ; often the axial edges of a few
others unite with this thickened one, and a degenerate type of columella
is thus formed. The minor septa are also of unequal length, about half
as long as the maj or. Since the septa are withdrawn from the periphery,
each corallite has a peripheral zone of dissepiments about 2.5 mm.
wide, in which the original course of the septa may occasionally be
traced by crests. These dissepiments are very coarse and broadly
arched, and usually continuous with those of neighbouring corallites
since only rare traces of a dividing epitheca in the form of palisade -
like rods, occur. The dissepiments are arranged dome wise over the
position of the lost epitheca, and incline so steeply downwards towards
the tabulae that they form an almost continuous wall to the septal
columns. Small dissepiments are sometimes developed between the
major and minor septa. The tabulae are confined to the septal columns.
They are closely packed and usually complete and horizontal, but may
be broken and bent up by the axial edges of longer major septa, or by
a degenerate columella.

i1) Hudson 1929, footnote p. 442, ‘ the outer covering of the cerioid corallum and the

basal epitheca of the astraeoid corallum.’

92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND

Ontogeny : — Buds may arise calicularly (as in phaceloid diphy-
morphs) but are parricidal only when they are axial in origin. Non-
parricidal buds may also arise, more rarely, from the dissepiments above
the position of the lost epitheca ; this type of budding is probably a
relic of the mural budding characteristic of columellate Lithostrotions.
The initial stage in budding is the formation of a concavity in a small
area of the floor tissue, and in this the new structures are laid down,
rather thicker than the old. Vertical septal ridges, irregular in course,
grow in no set order, and there is very little difference between major
and minor septa. Occasionally one seems longer than the others,
or possibly two opposite ones join, but there is nothing definitely to
prove the presence in the embryo of a columella. But the buds are
hysterocorallites, and as such would not be expected to recapitulate
in ontogeny the phylogeny of the species. The septa next approach
radial regularity, one being longer than the rest, and major and minor
septa are distinct and alternate, but without dissepiments between
them. Meanwhile the external dissepimental tissue is growing
up as a coarse encircling tissue. The normal adult expression is
attained by the development between the outer parts of the septa
of small dissepiments, and a senile stage is reached by the breaking
away of these into the peripheral tissue, carrying on them the septal
crests.

Remarks. — This species, which is known only from the type
locality, is undoubtedly a transitional one ; for the loss of the epitheca
is not entire, and the corallum is not so spreading nor the dissepimental
tissue so flat as in typical species of Orionastraea ; while the imperfect
development of the diphyphylloid condition is seen in the presence of
a degenerate columella, and in the occurrence of both parricidal and
non-paricidal gemmation. The lonsdaleoid condition is the only one
fully developed. In its presumed derivation from L. columnare Eth.,
this species is an interesting example of parallel evolution in different
species of the same form group in places as far apart as Queensland and
England.

Genus AULINA Smith.

Aulina Smith 1916a, p. 2 ; 1917, p. 290.

Genotype. — Aulina rotiformis Smith 1916a, p.p. 2-3 ; 1917, pp. 290-4; PI. xxihfigs.

6-11, and text-figs. 3-4.

Diagnosis1. — Simple, phaceloid or asteroid Rugose corals in which
an inner tube or aulos is formed by the union of the deflectal axial
edges of the major septa. The aulos separates the inner larger tabulae,
which are flat, from the more numerous outer and smaller tabulae,
which slope outwards and downwards. If a dissepimental wall be
present all the septa are dilated at it.

Remarks. — Aulina, which occurs in the Upper Visean limestone
of the north of England, has been regarded (Smith 1925, p. 495 and
1928, p. 119) as representing an endpoint of a lineage from Litho -
strotion Fleming. The occurrence in Australia of a simple Aulina,
however, makes it more probable that the English compound species
have developed from some undescribed simple aulate form than from
( Diphyphyllum ft Smith). 1

(l) Amended from S Smith 1925 p. 486, and 1928 p. 114.

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA

93

Aulina simplex sp. nov. (Plate V., figs. 12-29, text-fig. 4).

Holotype. — 8 slides (F 2939) in the University of Queensland collected from the
Upper Visean Riverleigh limestone on Latza’s farm. Portions 21 and 22, Parish
of Malmoe, County of Yarrol, near Mundubbera, Queensland. Plate V, figs,
13-29.

Diagnosis. — Simple Aulina with very sparse dissepiments.

Description. — The eorallites are simple, elongately conicocylindrical
(text-fig. 4), and of irregular appearance due to short irregularities in
the direction of growth, and to growth constrictions and swellings. The
average diameter attained is about 5 mm. The epitheca is thick, with
indistinct striae. Root processes are often present.

Text-Figtje 4.

Aulina simplex sp. nov.

Paratype F 2940 in the University of Queensland collection. Natural size.

There are about 20 thin septa of each order, the minor septa being
extremely short and tooth like. The major septa are deflected axially
and unite to form the aulos or septal tube, the deflection beginning
about half way between the epitheca and the tube. The aulos thus
firmed is wide, about one third the diameter of the corallite. It shows
considerable variation. It may be perfectly curved ; rarely it may be
incomplete and horse-shoe shaped, while in some sections (Plate V,
fig. 14) it is absent, and the short amplexoid septa are straight. In
this latter case the tabulae are complete and horizontal (Plate V, fig.
12), of one series only. Usually the tabulae are well differentiated
into an inner and an outer series separated by the aulos. Those of the
inner series are horizontal, about 4 in a space of 3 mm. Those of the
outer series are thinner, and almost twice as numerous (Plate V, fig.
16), and incline steeply downwards to the epitheca, or dissepiments if
these are present. Dissepiments are but seldom developed, never well
enough to form a complete ring. They may separate the septa from
the epitheca (Plate V, fig. 14).

Ontogeny: Only two specimens were suitable for ontogenetic
study. The earliest stage of each examined (diameter 1 mm.) showed at
strong epitheca with straight septa meeting at the axis (Plate V, fig. 29).
In one (corallite A), the arrangement was pinnate ; but in the other,
the holotype (F ghi) it was approximately radial. Only the holotype
showed the formation of the aulos (Plate V, fig. 13-29), which appeared
at 1.5 mm. diameter as an open loop ; the axial ends of two septa
diverged, and met their similarly directed neighbouring septa so that
an open loop resulted. A root process then caused disturbance in the
arrangement, and at a diameter of 2 mm. the aulos was seen to be
complete. In corallite A, however, it was already complete at 1.5 mm.
diameter and it cannot be argued on the above evidence that the aulos
is first formed as an open loop, since in the holotype the presence of
the root process may have been responsible for such an origin. The
adult stage is attained by the cyclic insertion of very short minor
septa, and the sporadic appearance of dissepiments.

94 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Remarks. — The aulos is rather less perfectly developed than in
the English phaceloid and asteroid species.

Variation in Rugose CoRAh Species.

The description given above of the Lower Carboniferous Corals
of Australia may be said to demonstrate the great variation possible
in Rugose coral species.

That species are variable in a manner quite distinct from and
additional to ontogenetic changes, is more easily proved in compound
than in simple species, for differences between individual corallites in
a corallum are self-evident and striking. So much so that an investi-
gator working with the inelastic idea of the fixity of characters of a
coral species would have no hesitation in placing two such different
corallites, which might have been found broken from the corallum,
into two different species or even genera. Recent papers by English
authors (particularly Dr. Stanley Smith), on species of Lonsdaleia
M’Coy (Smith 1916) and Corwena Smith and Ryder (1926) in the Car-
boniferous, and of Stauria Edwards and Haime (Smith and Ryder,
1927), Xylodes Lang and Smith and Kodonophyllum Wedekind,
(Smith and Tremberth, 1929), and Acervularia Schweigger (Smith
and Lang, 1931) give excellent demonstrations of the variation possible
among individuals in a corallum.

That variation is equally great in simple species is not so evident,
but failure to recognise it has clouded the study of corals with endless
lists of synonymous species. In Great Britain the chief unfortunate
effect has been the host of species erected by the pioneer James
Thomson1 for the Scottish Lower Carboniferous corals. That the
principle of the fixity of minute characters in a coral species as used by
him is wrong is proved by the fact that later workers, have never been
able to apply his nomenclature, for no specimens could be found to fit
in with all the numerous fixed specific characters required. Thomson
was particularly unfortunate in that he based his genera and species
on the nature of the axial structure, for later work (chiefly by Dr.
Stanley Smith) has shown that this is the most variable part of the
corallum. The chief published papers illustrative of the variation
possible within a simple species are perhaps those on Aulophyllum
fungites (Fleming), (Smith, 1913), Hettonia fallax Hudson and
Anderson (1928), and Caninophyllum archaici (Ed. and Haime) (Lewis
1929). Some species are more variable than others.

Wide variation being recognised as possible in Rugose coral
species, the laws governing it should be sought for. A hypothesis
of variation which fits in with all facts known to me is put forward in
the following paragraphs.

It was seen in the description of Amygdalophyllum conicum Hill
that one of the chief differences between individuals was in the fre-
quency of the occurrence of septa which had withdrawn from the
periphery of the coral so that they were separated from the epitheca
or their bases at the epitheca by large dissepiments convex towards the
axis. While there was a tendency for the number of such septa to
increase towards the calyx, the incidence of the condition could not
be said to be due to age alone ; a few septa, chiefly minor, would be

P) For list of Thomson’s papers see Gregory 1917.

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA

95

affected in an early part of the corallite, while higher up they would
again be extending normally to the periphery, and others would have
withdrawn. It might with justice be said that the condition arises
sporadically and is ephemeral. Now when a number of neighbouring
septa are affected, and withdrawn a long way from the periphery, a
condition like that in Lonsdaleia is attained ; and if all the septa are
affected, a zone of dissepiments indistinguishable from that in Lonsdaleia
results. This last is never fully realised in any A. conicum known to
me. The tendency for the septa to withdraw from the periphery is
known as the lonsdaleoid trend1 ; and we might say that in A . conicum
the lonsdaleoid trend is weakly, sporadically, and ephemerally expressec ;
and it is this which is responsible for part of the variation in A. conicum .
It is likewise responsible for part of the variation in Symplectophyllum
mutatum Hill, Amygdalophyllum inopinatum (Etheridge), Car cine -
phyllum patellum Hill, the three Australian species of Liihostrotion
Fleming (Diphystrotion mutabile Hill) and Aulina simplex Hill.

In the species Aphrophyllum foliaceum Hill and Orionastraea
lonsdaleoides Hill, while there are parts of the corallites where some or
all of the septa extend to the periphery, the general condition is one
in which the septa are entirely withdrawn from the epitheca and lons-
daleoid border of dissepiments is present which is diagnostic of the
species.

Thus the Australian Lower Carboniferous Corals show that the
lonsdaleoid trend varies in the degree to which it finds expression ;
further, that if the trend is well expressed it tends to be constantly so,
and thus to be a diagnostic character ; but if it is ill expressed it tends
to operate only sporadically and ephemerally, and thus to be a cause
of variation in the species. But the same process has been at work
in both cases.

A study of British species leads to the same conclusions. From
published descriptions and figures it can be seen that the expression of
the lonsdaleoid trend is strong and almost constant and consequently
diagnostic in the Silurian Spongophylloides grayi (Edwards and Haime)
and Arachnophyllum M’Coy, and in the Lower Carboniferous Caninia
cylindrica Scouler, Lithostrotionella Yabe and Hayasaka (a Japanese
group), Thysanophyllum minus Mich, and Thoms., Dorlodotia Salee,
Lonsdaleia itself, and many others. It is weakly, sporadically, and
ephemerally expressed, and of variational significance only in
Liihostrotion , most clisiophyllids, Caninia auctt., Rylstonia bene-
compacta Hudson and Platt, Hettonia fallax, and many others. It is
impossible that all the forms in which it is observed, whether weakly
or strongly expressed, can be closely related. In fact it is known in
so many Rugose corals that one suspects that it is potential in all
Rugosa.

A second variation in A. conicum was the occasional slight
ephemeral withdrawal of the septa from the axis, with or without a
noticeable weakening of the columella. This was seen also in A.
inopinatum and the three species of Liihostrotion. Again, in Symplecto-
phyllum and Aphrophyllum Smith, neither of which have a columella r

(x) The word trend has come to mean a number of different things to as many different
people. I use it in the sense of the original definition of Lang (1923, p. 125) a trend
of development is a line along which “a character appears to carry out in its evolu-
tion a predetermined course.” A phenomenon such as the appearance in many
different lineages, by many different paths, of a columella in the Carboniferous
should not be referred to as a trend. It is an acme of homeomorphy.

96 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

the septa occasionally withdraw from the axis, there is a perceptible
weakening in the strength of any axial structure which may have been
present, and a flattening of the tabulae. In the two species Diphystrotion
mutabile and Orionastraealonsdaleoides , however, it is usual for the septa
to have withdrawn from the axis, for the columella to be but weakly
developed or absent, and for the tabulae to be flattened, although an
axial arrangement like that of typical Lithostrotion may occur. There
can be no doubt that the same trend is responsible in all these cases,
but that it varies in the degree of expression.

It can attain an even stronger expression in the English Lithostrotion
group. Here Smith and Lang (1930) observed that in a number of
individuals belonging to any species, irrespective of horizon, the
diphyphylloid condition could arise well expressed in only a few, most,
or all of the individuals of a corallum. For such a group of colonies
which is still within the genus, yet differs in a certain character from
typical members of the genus, they propose the term genomorph.
They recognise species within a genomorphic group, each species of
the genomorph ( Diphyphyllum ) for instance being the diphymorph
of its parent species of Lithostrotion. While the value of the conception
genomorph in systematics is problematical, it is of great use in
emphasizing the potentiality of all individuals of a genus to develop
in a certain direction.

The trend is also perfectly expressed and diagnostic in the Euro-
pean Silurian Acervularia brevisepta Weissermel. It is seen causing
variation in species by being but weakly and ephermerally expressed
in Xylodes , Kodonophylluni, Streptelasma Hall, Phaulactis Ryder,
Koninckophyllum Thomson and many others.

Thus a survey of the expression of this diphyphylloid trend leads
to the same conclusions as that of the lonsdaloid trend.

It has already been seen (pp. 76-78) that the Naos trend in septal
structure can be a cause of variation in species when it is weakly and
ephemerally expressed, or diagnostic in significance when well and
constantly expressed.

None of these three trends can be said to be confined to related
genera, or to one horizon or one locality ; but all of them may, so far
as one’s knowledge goes, be expressed in varying degree in any species
anywhere at any time.

Up to the present the phyletic aspect of trends of development
have received the emphasis in coral literature. But by studying their
weaker and more ephemeral expressions we may come nearer to an
understanding of variation. One trend of great phyletic significance
is the progressive change from simple corals through dendroid, phace-
loid, and cerioid forms to asteroid. It cannot be denied that develop-
ment along this line is potential to all corals. There is no reason to
suppose that trends in internal structure also are not potential to all
Rugose corals.

I consider it reasonable to state as a working hypothesis that in
Rugose coral species variation is the resultant of the differential weak
and ephemeral expression of trends which are potential to all. Further
these trends may be expressed in any species anywhere at any horizon.
By no means all of these trends have yet been defined.

We have no knowledge of the internal and external conditions
governing the expression of these trends, except the following observa-
tions. Trends which are mutually exclusive cannot find expression

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA

97

in the one individual at the same time. A trend dependent on a
certain condition in a coral, such as the Naos trend on the dilation of
the septa cannot be expressed unless that condition attains. Since
some species are variable in most localities, but have a stable expres-
sion in others (e.g., L. columnare Etheridge), and since also certain
trends appear characteristic of a genus in certain districts {e.g., the
diphyphylloid trend is well expressed in British Lithostrotion and very
weakly in Australian Lithostrotion) , one factor at least is dependent on
the geography.

Further work on variation in coral species, on trends of develop-
ment (particularly in septal structure), and on the conditions govern-
ing their expression, is in progress. The corals of the Wenlock lime-
stone of Wenlock Edge form a particular study.

Genus MICHELINIA de Koninck.

Michelinia de Koninck 1842, p. 29.

Qenotyjpe. — (genolectotype, see Edwards and Haime 1850, p. lx) Calamopora
tenuisepta Phillips 1836, p. 201, PI. ii, fig. 30, from the Lower Carboniferous of
Bolland and the Mendips.

Diagnosis. — Compound Tabulate corals, with a thick holotheca
wrinkled in horizontal swathes ; the corallites grow in bundles and each
has a thin epitheca thickly lined with stereome ; septal spines numerous,
sometimes very short and irregular ; mural pores very large and remote,
and tabulae well developed, complete or incomplete.

Remarks. — Specific differences in this group are chiefly those of
external form. In internal structure evolution seems to have been
particularly slow, and those of the late Devonian forms are very little
different from those of the late Permian forms. Belated groups are
the dendroid Rhizopora de Koninck, the phaceloid 4 Beaumontia 1
laxa (M’Coy), and Emmonsia parasitica (Phillips).

Michelinia dendroides sp. nov. (Plate V, figs. 30-35 ; text-fig. 5).

Holotype. — -F 2941 in the University of Queensland collection from the Upper Visean
Piverleigh limestone of Latza’s farm, Portions 21 and 22, Parish of Malmoe,
County of Yarrol, near Mundubbera, Queensland. A plaster cast of th®
holotype has been placed in the Sedgwick Museum, No. A 5491.

98 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Diagnosis. — Michelinia with thin corallites bundled together to
form a slender cylinder which is irregular in course, and occasionall ;
gives off stunted branches of the same diameter, which carry calicesy
the septal spines are very short and ragged, and pores are very scarce.

Description. — The corallum1 is elongate cylindrical with a diameter
of about 10 mm., and is inconstant in the direction of growth. It gives
off in different directions at distances of about 10 mm., stunted
branches whose length and diameter are approximately the same as
the diameter of the parent stem. The calices open at right angles to
the surface ; they are circular and deep, and their floors show neither
septal striae nor spines. They occur only sporadically on the parent
stem, but are grouped together in numbers on the distal parts of the
stunted branches. The stereome lining the walls between the calices
which open on these branches is very thick ; and on weathered surfaces
it appears pitted (Plate V, fig. 30) ; each calice is immediately sur-
rounded by a raised rim, and between two of these rims the stereome
is shallowly troughed. The holotheca covering the parent stem and
the proximal parts of the stunted branches is coarse, and shows,
corresponding to the corallites it covers, series of scallop-like wrinkles,
continuous laterally with neighbouring series (text-fig. 5).

The corallites are polygonal in section and have a diameter of 1.5
to 2 mm. ; they may attain a length of 8 mm., and are pipe-like and
not trumpet shaped as in Pachypora Lindstrom ; they grow parallel
with the parent stem and then turn outwards to open approximately
at right angles to the surface of the corallum. The buds, which arise
intermurally, attain adult diameter very rapidly. The corallite walls
have a thick lining of stereome, which increases in thickness towards
the calice. The stereome is not channelled as in Palaeacis Haime, nor
does it show the lamellae and concentric structure of Pachypora.
Mural pores are very scarce. Septa are developed as short spines ;
they are irregular and not easily made out, usually merely giving the
wall a ragged appearance. Both complete and incomplete tabulae
occur, widely spaced, about 0.5 mm. apart, and usually domed.

Remarks. — The species is interesting by reason of its scolecoid
corallum. There is considerable variation in length, the holotype being
the longest found. The scarcity of mural pores is worthy of note.

Michelinia sp. (Plate V, fig. 36).

Michelinia sp. Etheridge fil. 1900, p. 7.

Material. — The corallum described by Etheridge is E 1597 in the Geological Survey
of Queensland collection from the Upper Visean Lion Ck. limestone at Stan well,
near Rockhampton, Queensland. A further corallum (Plate V, fig. 36) from the
same horizon and locality is in the University of Queensland collection.

Description. — The corallum is depressed hemispherical of somewhat
irregular growth ; one specimen was 25 by 38 mm., the other about
50 by 40 mm. The corallites are prismatic and crowded and vary in
diameter between 2 and 4 mm. The walls have only a thin investment
of stereome. Mural pores are very scarce. The septa are developed
as vertical rows of tubercles or short spines, apparently not regularly
developed. Tabulae are very numerous, usually as anastomosing
tabellae ; a few are complete.

Remarks. — This material is insufficient for specific determination.
It differs from M. dendroides in its massive corallum, its thin walls,
and the scarcity of complete tabulae. It possibly belongs to the
M. tenuisepta (Phillips) group.

(!) The holotype is the only specimen showing the shape.

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA

99

Genus SYRINGOPORA Goldfuss.

Syringopora Goldfuss 1826, p.p. 75-76.

Genotype. — (Genolectotype, see Edwards and Haime 1850 p. lxii) Syringopora
ramulosa Goldfuss 1826, p. 76, Pl. xxv, fig. 7, from the Carboniferous of Oln©
in Limburg, Germany. “ Edwards and Haime give Syringopora as a synonym
of Harmodites Fischer 1828 (which however was published two years later)
and take S . ramulosa as the genotype of Harmodites, thereby implying that they
consider it the genotype of Syringopora.”1

Diagnosis. — Fasciculate tabulate corals with long thin parallel
to remotely diverging tubular corallites, connected by small approxi-
mately horizontal tubules containing extensions of the tabulae. Septa
may occur as small spinules. The tabulae are infundibuliform and
centrally connected to form a siphon which may be crossed by hori-
zontal plates. Gemmation lateral.

Remarks.- — I have been unable to examine the type species, but
the above diagnosis has been drawn up from characters observed
in Goldfuss’ figure, Pl. xxv, fig. 7.

Syringopora syrinx Etheridge (Plate XI, figs. 37-39, text-fig. 6).

Syringopora syrinx Etheridge fil. 1900 p. 6, Pl. i, figs. 6-9 ; Pl. ii, fig. 11.

Lectotype. — (here chosen) F 1595 in the Geological Survey of Queensland collection,
being the original of Etheridge’s Pl. i, figs. 6-9, from the Upper Visean Lion Ck.
limestone at Stanwell, near Rockhampton, Queensland.

Diagnosis. — Syringopora with sub-parallel corallites and

extremely rare connecting tubules ; the epitheca is heavily lined with
stereome which leaves free only the inner third of the corallite ; the rare
tabulae developed in this free space are more or less horizontal.

Description. — The corallum is large and fasciculate. The
corallites are long tubes about 2 mm. in diameter, distant, or sometimes
coalescent,2 parallel or slightly flexuous, and extremely rarely
connected by transverse tubules. The epitheca is thick and is orna-
mented by growth rings and slight swellings and constrictions. Gem-

Queensland. G.S.Q. collection. Natural size.

P) Lang and Smith MS.

(2) Mural pores have not been observed when two corallites are in contact.

100 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

mation is lateral. At the point of origin the new corallites, which
issue either horizontally or inclined upwards, are usually about half
the diameter of the parent ; they rapidly attain adult diameter and an
upright growth.

The epi theca is lined internally by a thick deposit of stereome,
which leaves free only the inner third of the tube. The septa are
irregularly developed as vertical series of long spines which are
embedded1 in the stereome lining. The spines are presumably
slightly inclined upwards, but the evidence on this point is not very
clear ; sometimes their apices project into the free axial space. When
perfectly developed, which is rare, tvie spines form twelve series. The
narrow median free space is crossed at unequal wide intervals by un-
thickened tabulae, which may be horizontal, concave, convex, or irregu-
lar. No traces of infundibuliform tabulae have been seen in the
stereome. The walls of the buds, and of the rare connecting processes
are also lined by stereome. The connecting processes are devoid of
tabulae.

Distribution.— In addition to the type locality, the species is known
from the Upper Visean Riverleigh limestone of Latza’s farm, Portions
21 and 22, Parish of Malmoe, County of Yarrol, near Mundubbera,
Queensland ; in Visean limestones at Pal Lai, County Murchison, New
South Wales, and Crinoid Mt., Diglum, Barmundoo Goldfield, near
Gladstone, Queensland ; and from Lower Carboniferous calcareous sedi-
ments on Station Ck., Mt. Morgan, near Rockhampton, Queensland
(F 1700, Queensland Museum collection).

Remarks. — In external appearance S. syrinx resembles S. ramulosa
Goldfuss. But the thick lining of stereome and the extreme rarity of
connecting tubules make the species very distinctive. It is possible
that the inner free space of S. syrinx represents the syphon of typical
Syringopora, and that the infundibuliform tabulae are masked in the
Australian species by the thick stereome lining, as are the spiniform
: septa ; but no traces of such plates have been observed in the stereome.

Genus PALAEACIS Haime.

Palaeacis Haime, in H. M. Edwards 1857, p. 9, explication des Planches ; 1860,
iii ; p. 171.

Genotype. — (by monotypy) Palaeacis cuneiformis Haime in H. M. Edwards 1857,
p. 9 Atlas, explication des Planches, PI. E 1, fig. 2 (a, b, c, d) ; 1860, iii, p. 171 ;
from the Lower Carboniferous of Spurgen Hill (Indiana), U.S.A.

L. B. Smyth (1929) states (p. 125) that “ the genus Palaeacis was founded in 1860
by Milne Edwards ” ; and he also names Milne Edwards (p. 133) as the author
of the type species, P. cuneiformis. But it is clear from Edwards’ text that
Haime was the author of the genus ; (“ Palaeacis, Haime, note inedite ” is
given as the original reference). Therefore under Article 21 of the International
Rules of Nomenclature2 it should be referred to as Palaeacis Haime. Milne
Edwards’ statement, p. 171, “ Nous donnerons ici la description de ces corps,
qui nous a ete remise par notre regrette collaborateur, peu de temps avant
sa mort ” is followed by the heading Palaeacis cuneiformis, and a description ;
and although there are no quotation marks, it seems clear that Haime was the
author of the specific name also in his note inedite. Also the genus should
date from 1857, when the name and figures appeared in the Atlas. (*)

(*) The course of the spines through the stereome may sometimes be traced in reflected
light.

■ (2) C. W. Stiles 1926, p. 80. “ The author of a scientific name is that person who first

publishes the name in connection with an indication, a definition, or a description,
unless it is clear from the contents of the publication that some other person is
responsible for said name and its indication, definition, or description.”

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA

10L

Smyth (loc. cit.) gives no diagnosis of the genus, and none is given
here, since the minute structure of the type species is unknown, and
may not be the same as that described for P. axinoides Smyth, although
the ornament and occurrence of pores suggests that it is, and the two
species are similar in form. Further it is uncertain whether the species
Hydnopora ? cyclostoma Phillips which was placed in the genus Palaeacis
by Etheridge and Nicholson (1878, p. 221), and in Microcyathus by
Hinde (1896, p. 447), and also the species P. humulis Hinde, which
differ in form from the type species, and in form and structure from P.
axinoides, are to be included in the genus Palaeacis.

A few imperfect specimens which have been found in Queensland
Jiave an identical internal structure with that described by Smyth
(loc. cit.) for P. axinoides, and if P. axinoides is correctly referred to
Palaeacis, then the Queensland species is also.

Palaeacis sp. cf. cuneiformis Haime. (Plate V, figs. 40-41).

External form.— With one exception the Queensland specimens
seem1 to be keeled and wedge shaped, and very flat, like P. cuneiformis
Haime. The exceptional specimen (Plate V, fig. 40), begins like the
wedge shaped forms as a pyramid of narrow rectangular cross section,,
but continues upwards as a flattened prism. The calices are confined
to the two narrower sides of the prism, and open directly outwards.
The top of the specimen is broken off. In specimens with the normal
semicircular margin, the calices are confined to this upper margin,
% where they are all in the one median plane, i.e., in the plane of flatten-
ing (as in P. cuneiformis), with the possible exception of one calice
partly hidden by matrix in the specimen figured Plate V, fig. 41. This
latter is the largest wedge shaped specimen, and is 20 mm. broad and
6 mm. from surface to surface. The elongate specimen was
10 mm. broad, 5 mm. from surface to surface, and 25 mm. high.

The apertures of the corallites are oval ; in the largest one the
longer diameter was 6 mm., and the shorter 3 mm. The calices are
funnel shaped, and the sides are marked by longitudinal granular
septal ridges ; the granules or spines are arranged in transverse rows.
The sides are perforated by pores between the septal ridges.

The ornament of the outer surface of the corallum consists of fine,
close set ridges, whose disposition is variable. Smyth’s description
(loc. cit. p. 127) of the ornament of P. axinoides applies exactly, and
may be repeated. The ridges “ may be fairly continuous for some
distance. But more often they are broken into short lengths, or even
consist of rows of granules. They may be fairly straight and parallel,
or sinuous, or may form a labyrinthine pattern, or a chaotic field of
granules and short ridges. A parallel arrangement often occurs near
the margin of an aperture and at right angles to that margin, and in
general is parallel to the axis of a corallite, and indicates its trend with-
in the corallum. When parallel there are from 4 to 6 ridges in 1 mm.”
Pores occur between the ridges, but can only be seen in tangential
section.

In thin section the calcareous tissue of the corallum is seen to be
of two kinds, as in P. axinoides : the one forming the lining of the calice,.
and the other the rest of the corallum. The lining tissue is finely

P) They are very imperfect.

102 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

fibrous at right angles to its surface. The tissue of the rest of the
corallum consists of closely placed plates each pinnately fibrous, and
each arranged at right angles to the surface. The surface ridges of
the corallum are the surface traces of these plates, and the surface
furrows represent the planes of contact of the plates.

A canal system pierces both tissues. The canals open at right
angles to the surface into the pores of the calice floor and surface of
the corallum, the pores of the lining tissue being larger. The canals
become irregular in course shortly below the surface of the corallum,
and are concentrated in the tissue between two calices. They are
excavated equally from two contiguous plates, and are usually as thick
as one plate.

Distribution. — Oolitic limestone (probably Upper Visean) on
Portion 193, Parish of Mundowran, County of Yarrol, near Mun-
dubbera, Queensland ; Upper Visean Lion Ck. limestone, Stanwell,
near Rockhampton, Queensland; and — reported by Dr. Whitehouse,
in Reid 1930, p. 32, as “ Gen. et. sp. nov. (a new genus of corals of un-
known affinities) ” — from the top limestone of Portions 37 and 38,
Parish of Cannindah, County of Yarrol, Queensland.

Remarks. — The structure of the Queensland individuals, their
ornament and their granular septal ridges are identical with those of
P. axinoides as described by Smyth ; but they differ from this species
by their greater flatness, their oval calicular apertures which are
arranged all in one plane, and their funnel shaped calical floors. In
their flat shape, the arrangement of their calices and their ornament
they resemble P. cuneiformis. The structure of the latter species is
however unknown, and until it is the specific position of the Queens-
land specimens will not be clear. The very elongate Queensland indi-
vidual mayor may not belong to the same species as the keeled wedge-
like ones ; further collecting will show the possible range of variation
in shape. Some specimens of P. cuneiformis from the type locality
are taller than they are broad.

Notes on the Ages of Coral bearing Limestones in the Lower
Carboniferous (Dinantian) of Australia.

In Australia Lower Carboniferous marine (Dinantian) strata have
been reported from the east coast Palaeozoic geosynclinal, and from the
Kimberley district iu Western Australia. They are known only from
a series of isolated outcrops, geological mapping being still in an early
reconnaisance stage.

In the east these outcrops are included in a strip of country 60 to
90 miles wide which runs south east inland from St. Helens (lat. 21°)
{see map) to Cannindah (lat. 25°) and south from Cannindah to Bab-
binboon (lat. 31°) whence it sweeps south south east again towards
the coast near Port Stephens (lat. 33°). These marine strata are
referred to the Rockhampton series in Queensland and to the Burindi
series in New South Wales. The Rockhampton series in its type dis-
trict is thought to be conformable with marine Upper Devonian ( vide
infra), but the Burindi series in its type locality is assumed to represent
only the Upper Dinantian or Visean, and succeeds without apparent
unconformity a fresh water series with Upper Devonian — Lower
Carboniferons plant remains known as the Barraba mudstones. The
Burindi series is succeeded by terrestrial sediments, the Kuttung

Queensland (Rockhampton District) New South Wales.

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA

103

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104 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

(? Moscovian) series of volcanic rocks and sediments with a Rhacopteris-
flora. No rocks which might be referred with certainty to the Kuttung
series are known above the Rockhampton series, but near Rockhamp-
ton mudstones and grits containing near the base brachiopods of an
Upper Dinantian and Lower Moscovian type1 are found immediately
above the limestones which are taken as the top of the Rockhampton
series. They are followed (relation uncertain) by the Dinner Ck.
series of non-marine sediments which contain a Glossopteris flora
probably of Uralian age.

The Rockhampton series is believed to be conformable with the
Upper Devonian of the district since there are 5000-6000 ft. of strata
(shales, cherts, grits, and pebble conglomerates, calcareous and often
tuffaceous) below the Lion Ck. limestone (D2 vide infra) striking along
the same line as the Upper Devonian ; and since the goniatites
Protocanites and Pseudarietites characteristic of the basal zone of the
European Carboniferous are recorded2 from “ Rockhampton District.”
The top of the Rockhampton series is taken at the base of a pebble
conglomerate overlying this D2 limestone. (Reid and Morton (1928,.
p. 386) postulate a non-sequence between the limestone and con-
glomerate and Reid (1930, p. 34) attempts to correlate with it certain
strata occurring at Cannindah. This non-sequence is denied by White-
house (1928, p. 441) on the grounds that this particular pebble con-
glomerate is no coarser than others in the Rockhampton series, and that
the brachiopod fauna of the mudstones and grits above it has Dinantian
as well as Moscovian affinities. Reid’s attempted correlation of 1725
ft. of strata at Cannindah with the postulated non-sequence is dis-
cussed below.)

Non-marine sediments which are probably Dinantian are known
in Queensland from isolated outcrops west and north of the belt of
marine Dinantian, and in the Drummond Ranges, Star R. basin,
Herberton and Pascoe R. districts ; these contain a Lepidodendron
and Rhacopteris flora, with in one case (Star R. basin) Phillipsia sp.
and brachiopods indicating a marine incursion.

The map appended shows the extent of these Carboniferous rocks r
and the localities mentioned.

Age as determined by the corals.

The corals examined for this paper and the localities where they
were collected are set forth in the accompanying table. They are all
Visean in character.

It is important to know the exact age of the Lion Ck. limestone,,
since it belongs to the type succession of the Rockhampton series.
Etheridge (1900, p. 5) who first described its fauna, said the corals
had a combined Carboniferous and Permo-Carboniferous facies, but
Whitehouse (1928, p. 441) gave its horizon as D2, and this horizon is
also suggested by the present work. The Lion Ck. fauna contains no
form which can fairly be used to fix its horizon to any zone smaller
than the Visean of the English succession, but more detailed correla-
tion may be made through the larger fauna from Riverleigh.

(x) Determinations by Whitehouse (1928, p. 441). He uses the term Lower Carboni-
ferous as synonymous with Dinantian, and Upper Carboniferous as meaning all
Carboniferous above the Dinantian.

(2) Whitehouse MS quoted Reid 1930, p. 35.

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA

105

At Riverleigh 1 the corals occur in a reef limestone above and below
which olive shales occur. Three and half miles away, nearer to Mun-
dubbera, a coarsely oolitic limestone contains Palaeacis sp. cf.
cuneiformis Haime, a species of Evactinopora and two species of lamelli-
branchs ; but owing to faulting, prickly pear and alluvium its relation
to the main and isolated Riverleigh horizon is unknown. The River-
leigh fauna can be correlated with a fair degree of precision with the
D2 fauna of England. The chief evidence for such a correlation is
given by Orionastraea lonsdaleoides Hill and Aulina simplex Hill.

In England a species transitional between Lithostrotion Fleming
and Orionastraea Smith ( 0 . ensifer (Edwards and Haime),) appears
in the D2 zone, and is common there. 0. lonsdaleoides is undoubtedly
such a transitional species, and therefore suggests the D2 zone. The
genus Aulina Smith is represented in the north of England by a
dendroid and an asteroid species, in limestones believed to be above
the D2 zone of the south of England, and as such referred to a Ds
zone, whose limits and relations are however very inaccurately known.
A simple species of a genus must, since there is no known example of
a compound form reverting to a simple state, be considered either on
the same horizon as or earlier than compound species of the same
genus. A. simplex this indicates a high D2 horizon.

The rest of the Riverleigh fauna gives general support to this
conclusion. Symplectophyllum Hill is a clisiophyllid genus whose
variable axial structure is reminiscent of the D clisiophyllids of Scot-
land and the north of England. Amygdalophyllum Dun and Benson
is without a representative in England unless it be the Upper Visean
Koninckophyllum Thomson. Aphrophyllum Smith also is not repre-
sented in England, but Carcinophyllum patellum Hill is very like C.
densum Ryder from zone D2. Lithostrotion is known throughout the
Visean, but according to Schindewolf (1928, p. 149) very incomplete
tabulae such as characterise the Riverleigh species of the genus are
diagnostic of the Upper Visean of D zone. The tabulate corals do not
assist in straightigraphical discussion. The whole fauna is thus un-
doubtedly Upper Visean or D in type, while 0. lonsdaleoides and A.
simplex indicate that it may be more minutely placed as homotaxial
with D2.

Lion Ck. limestone fauna : By reason of its close similarity the Lion
Ok. fauna may also be placed in D2. It may be slightly earlier than the
Riverleigh fauna, but there is not yet sufficient evidence for argument.

Mt. Grim and Diglum : Of these isolated fossiliferous limestones,
we can only say that they are Visean in age, probably Upper Visean.

Texas : Since the sheared coral from Texas is probably Litho-
strotion the possibility that the “ Gympie ” series of Texas contain
Visean strata must be considered.

Other Queensland Localities : In addition to the corals described
above, some collected by J. H. Reid from three localities in the Can-

(!) This new coral locality on Latza’s farm. Portions 21 and 22, Parish of Malmoe,

County of Yarrol, near Mundubbera, Queensland, was shown to me by Mr. F.

Mischlewski, a local resident. I collected from it and made reconnaisance surveys

first alone, then with a party from the University of Queensland, and later with Dr.

Whitehouse. The results were not sufficient for publication, but maps with some

details are placed in the University of Queensland Geology Department.

106 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

nindah district have been provisionally determined by Whitehouse
as follows : —

(а) From Old Cannindah Homestead, near Monto (Whitehouse

1927, p. 189)

Syringopora syrinx Eth. fil.

Amygdalophyllum inopinatum Eth. fil.

Lithostrotion cf. stanvellense Eth. fil.

Cionodendron (?) sp.

(б) From Splinter Ck., por. 20, par. of Cannindah, 9 miles north

of Old Cannindah Homestead (Whitehouse 1927, p. 189).

Syringopora syrinx Eth. fil., and Lithostrotion stanvellense

Eth. fil.

(c) From the top limestone in pors. 37 and 38, par. Cannindah,

3 miles N.E. of (6). (Reid, 1930, p. 32).

Palaeosmilia aff. retiformis (Eth. fil.)

Gen. et sp. nov. (a new genus of corals of unknown
affinities)1.

From Cania Reid lists (1930, p. 35) Whitehouse’s determinations

Cyathaxonia (?) sp.

Pleurophyllum spp. indet.

Lophophyllum (?) corniculum De Kon.

None of these corals have been sectioned, and although I was unable to
obtain them for examination I consider that no reliance should be
placed on the identifications. On this evidence Whitehouse assumed
(1927, p. 189) that the limestones (a) and (6) were “ plainly on the same
stratigraphical horizon,’5 that of the Lion Ck. limestone. So they may
be, if the identifications are correct and the “ stratigraphical horizon
be wide enough to include the whole of the Visean ; for the only genus
whose range is known is Lithostrotion , and it extends throughout the
Visean. Reid (1930, p. 34) finds his argument for a non-sequence
between the Lion Ck. limestone and the overlying basal pebble bed of
the Neerkol series strengthened by the exact correlation of (a) and ( b )
with the Lion Ck. limestone ; for he considers that 1725 ft. of strata
above (6) in the Cannindah area, containing Dinantian ( fide White-
house) brachiopods and,. at (c) corals, have no representatives in the
Stanwell section. But if ( b ) occurs towards the base of the Visean,
as is possible, while the Lion Ck. limestone is at the top, there would
be room for missing strata between the two.

In New South Wales the isolated coralliferous localities (usually
in impure or oolitic limestone) in the Burindi series of shales, cherts
and tuffs, all contain very few species, and their stratigraphical rela-
tions to one another are unknown. In each case however the coral
assemblage is unmistakably Visean ; but one is not justified in arguing
further. A few corals recorded in Benson’s lists (1921, pp. 18-24)
are not mentioned here since I was unable to examine them. A
paratype of Aulophyllum davidis Eth. fil. (1891, p. 23) has been cut,
however, and whatever else it is it is certainly not Aulophyllum
Edwards and Haime. The specimens seem badly crushed and are
probably referable to Caninia auctt.

P) Dr. Whitehouse has since informed me that this is the same as the species described
herein as Palaeacis sp. cf. cuneiformis Haime.

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA

107

In Western Australia the Geikie and Rough Range series of the
Kimberley are regarded as Visean. David and Sussmilch (1931, p, 513
and fig. 3) list the series as unconformable with the Devonian and
Permo-Carboniferous (Uralian), and report the occurrence in it at
Price’s Ck. of Lithostrotion affine and Syringopora. On writing for
specimens however I was informed that they could not be traced.
But the Geological Survey of Western Australia sent me a specimen
from the Freney Oil Area, Kimberley, labelled Lonsdaleia aff. flori-
formis (Glauert 1925, p. 45). This has been cut and is not referable to
Lonsdaleia M’Coy. It is probably a diphy morph of a cerioid Litho-
strotion, but it is too crystalline for accurate determination.

108 PROCEEDINGS OE THE ROYAL SOCIETY OE QUEENSLAND.

Queensland (Rockhampton Series). New South Wales (Burindi Series).

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA 109

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110 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

LIST OF WORKS TO WHICH REFERENCE IS MADE.

Benson, W. 1ST., 1921. “A Census and Index of the Lower Carboniferous Burindi
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Benson, W. N., & Smith, S., 1923. “ On some Rugose Corals from the Burindi Series

(Lower Carboniferous) of New South Wales ; together with a Short Account
of the Upper Palaeozoic Rocks of the Area in which they were collected.”
Q.J.G.S. vol. lxxix. pp. 156-71, pis. viii-ix.

David, T. W. E., & Sussmilch, C. A., 1931. “ Upper Palaeozoic Glaciations of Aus-
tralia.” Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. vol.. 42, pp. 481-522 ; 3 figs.

Dun, W. S., & Benson, W. N., 1920. Section B : — Palaeontology, in Benson, W. N.,
Dun, W. S., & Browne, W. R. “ The Geology, Palaeontology and Petro-
graphy of the Currabubula District, with notes on adjacent regions.” Proc.
Linn. Soc. N.S.W. vol. xlv. pp. 337-374, pis. xviii-xxiv.

Edwards, H. Milne, 1857-1860. ‘ Histoire Naturelle des Coralliaires, ou polypes

proprement dits.’ 3 vols., Atlas of 32 pis., 8vo., Paris, vol. i, 1857 ; vol. ii.,
1857 ; vol. iii., 1860 ; atlas et explication des planches, 1857.

Edwards, H. M., & Haime, J., 1850-54. ‘ A Monograph of the British Fossil Corals/

Palaeont. Soc., London.

Etheridge, R., Jr., 1891. ‘ A Monograph of the Carboniferous and Permo-Carboni-

ferous Invertebrata of New South Wales.’ Part I. Coelenterata. Mem. Geol.
Surv. N.S.W., Pal. No. 5, 64 pp., 9 pis.

— - — , 1900. ‘Corals from the Coral Limestone of Lion Creek, Stan-

well, near Rockhampton.’ Bull. No. 12, Geol. Surv. Q. pp. 5-24, pis. i.-ii.

Etheridge, R., Jr., & Nicholson, H. A., 1878. “ On the Genus Palaeacis , and the

Species occurring in British Carboniferous Rocks.” Ann & Mag. Nat. Hist.
(5) i. pp. 206-227, pi. xii.

Fischer de Waldheim, G., 1828. “ Notice sur les Polypiers Tubipores fossiles.”

Progr. Invit. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou ; 4to, Moscou, pp. 23 and 1 pi.

Fleming, J., 1828. ‘ A History of British Animals.’ 8vo, Edinburgh.

Frech, F., 1885. “ Die Korallenfauna des Oberdevons in Deutschland.” Zeits. der

deutsch. geol. Ges. vol. xxxvii. pp. 21-130, pis. i.-xi.

Gerth, H., 1921. ‘ Die Korallenfauna der Dyas von Timor.’ in Wanner, J.,

‘ Palaeontologie von Timor.’ Lief. ix. Abt. xvi. pp. 67-147, pis. cxlv.-cl.

Glatjert, F., 1925. ‘ Palaeontological Contributions to the Geology of Western Aus-

tralia, XV : — A List of Western Australian Fossils, Supplement No. 1,’ in
Bull. 88 Geol. Surv. W.A., 1926.

Gregory, J. W., 1917. “ Thomson’s Genera of Scottish Carboniferous Corals.” Trans.

Geol. Soc. Glasgow vol. xvi. pp. 220-243.

Goldeuss, G. A., 1826. ‘ Petrefacta Germaniae ’ vol. i. pt. 1, pp. 1-76, pis. i.-xxv.

Folio, Dusseldorf.

Hinde, G. J., 1896. “ Descriptions of New Fossils from the Carboniferous Limestone,

II. On Palaeacis humilis sp. nov., a new Perforate Coral, with Remarks on the
Genus.” Q.J.G.S. vol. Iii. pp. 440-447, pi. xxiii. figs. 1-18.

Hudson, R. G. S., 1929. “On the Lower Carboniferous Corals Orionastraea and its
Distribution in the North of England.” Proc. Leeds Phil. Soc. vol. i. pt. ix.
pp. 440-457, pis. i.-iv.

Hudson, R. G. S., & Anderson, F. W., 1928. “ On the Lower Carboniferous Corals.

Hettonia fallax , gen. et. sp. nov.” Proc. Leeds Phil. Soc. vol. i. pt. vii. pp.
335-340, pis. i.-ii.

Jones, O. A., 1932. “ A Revision of the Australian Species of the Coral Genera Spongo -

phyllum Ed. & H., and Endophyllum Ed. & H. with a Note on Aphrophyllum
Smith.” ''Proc. Roy. Soc. Q. vol. xliv. pp. 50-63, pis. iii.-iv.

Koninck, L. G. de, 1842. ‘ Description des Animaux Fossiles qui se trouvent dans le

terrain Carbonifere de Belgique.’ Liege 1842-44, 650 pp., pis. A-H and i.-lv.

Lang, W. D., 1923. “ Trends in British Carboniferous Corals.” Proc. Geol. Assoc*

vol. xxxiv. pp. 120-136.

— , 1926. “ Naos pagoda (Salter), the Type of a New Genus of Silurian

Corals.” Q.J.G.S. vol. lxxxii. pp. 428-35, pi. xxx.

Lewis, H. P., 1929. “ On the Avonian Coral Caninophyllum gen. nov., and C.

archiaci (Edwards and Haime).” Ann, Mag. Nat. Hist. (10) iii. pp. 456-468,
pis. xi. — xii.

Lhwyd, Edward, 1699. ‘ Lithophylacii Britannici Ichnographia,’ etc., 8vo. London

and Leipzig. 1760, Editio altera. Oxford.

Lonsdale, W., 1845 in Murchison, R. I. and others, ‘The Geology of Russia and the
Ural Mountains,’ vol. i. 4to. London and Paris.

M’Coy, F., 1849. “ On Some new Genera and Species of Palaeozoic Corals and Fora-

minifera.” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2)iii. pp., 1-20 119-136.

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA

111

Ozawa, Y., 1925. “ Palaeontological and Stratigraphical Studies on the Permo-

Carboniferous Limestone of Nagato, Pt. II : — Palaeontology.” Jour. Coll.
Sci. Imp. Univ. of Tokyo vol. xlv. pp. 1-90, 14 pis.

Phillips, J., 1836. ‘ The Geology of Yorkshire, Part II.’ xx. and 253 pp., pis. i. xxv.

Pocta, F., 1902. ‘ Anthozoaires and Alcyonaires,’ being tome 2 of vol. viii. in

Barrande, J., ‘ Systeme Silurien du Centre de la Boheme, pt. 1 : Recherches
Paleon tologiques,” Prague.

Reid, J. H., 1930. 1 The Queensland Upper Palaeozoic Succession.’ Queensland Geol,

Surv. Pub. No. 278, Brisbane.

Reid, J. H., & Morton, C. C., 1928. “ Central Queensland Geological Section.11

Q’l’d. Govt. Mining Jour. pp. 384-389.

Schindewolf, 0. H., 1928. “ Prinzipienfragen der biologischen Systematik.”

Palaeont. Zeit. ix. Bd. pp. 122-169.

Smith, S., 1913. “ On the Genus Aulophyllum .” Q.J.G.S. vol. lxix, pp. 51-77, pis.

v.— ix.

— — -, 1916. “ The Genus Lonsdaleia and Dibunophyllum rugosum (M’Coy).”

Q.J.G.S. vol. lxxi. (for 1915) pp. 218 — 272, pis. xvii. — xxi.

— — , 1916a. Abstract Proceedings Geol. Soc. London, No. 995.

, 1917. “ Aulina rotiformis, gen. et. sp. nov., Phillipsastraea hennahi (Lons-
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, 1920. “ On Aphrophyllum hallense gen. et. sp. nov. and Lithostrotion

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, 1931. “ Silurian Corals — The Genera Xiphelasma gen.

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Nat. Hist. (9) xvii. pp. 149-159, pis. v.-vi.

, 1927. “ On the Structure and Development of Stauria

favosa (Linnaeus).” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xx. pp. 337-43, pi. ix.

Smith, S., & Tremberth, R., 1929. “ On the Silurian Corals Madreporites articulatus

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Smythe, L. B., 1929. “ On the Structure of Palaeacis .” Scient. Proc. Roy. Dublin

Soc. vol. xix. (N.S.) pp. 125-138, pis. vi.-viii.

Stiles, C. W. (Sec. Int. Comm. Zool. Nomencl.) 1926. Internat. Rules. Proc. Biol.
Soc. Washington, vol. xxxix. pp. 75-104.

Stuckenberg, A., 1895. “ Korallen und Bryozoen der Steinkohlenablagerungen des

Ural und des Timan.” Mem. Com. Geol. vol. x. No. 3, 244 pp. and 24 pis.

Thomson, J., 1881. “ Contributions to our Knowledge of the Rugose Corals from the

Carboniferous Limestone of Scotland.” Proc. Phil. Soc. Glasgow vol. xii.
(for 1880) pp. 225-261, 3 pis.

, 1883. “ On the Development and Generic Relations of the Corals of the

Carboniferous System of Scotland.” Proc. Phil. Soc. Glasgow vol. xiv. pp.
296-520, pis. i.-xiv.

Whitehouse, F. W., 1927. “ Notes on Palaeozoic Fossils from the Cannindah District
(Upper Burnett), collected by Mr. J. H. Reid.” Q.G.M.J. 1927, p. 189.

, 1928. Q.G.M.J. 1928, p. 441.

Yabe, H., & Hayasaka, Y., 1915. “Palaeozoic Corals from Japan, Korea, and China,
Part III. — Lonsdaleia , Lithostrotion , Diphyphyllum , and Thysanophyllum. ’ 5
' Jour. Geol. Soc. Tokyo, vol. xxii. pp. 93-109, 127-142. No. pis. or figs.

112 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

PLATE VII.

Symplectophyllum mutatum sp. nov. from the Upper Visean Riverleigh Limestone of

Latza’s Farm, Portions 21 and 22, Parish of Malmoe, County of Yarrol, near Mundubbera,

Queensland. Specimens and slides in the University of Queensland Collection.

All figures natural size.

Eigs. 1-6. Sections from holotype F 2943. Septal lamellae few and discontinuous,
and stereome scanty. At A note point of insertion of new septa
(see p. 7). Fig. 4 shows a large root process. The Median Vertical
Sections show the haphazard occurrence of complete and incomplete
tabulae and stereoplasmid and non-stereoplasmid horizons.

Figs. 7-9. Sections from F 2946. Septal lamellae more numerous and twisted, with
more stereome.

Figs. 10-11. Sections from F 2385. A faulted specimen. The pseudo fossula at B is
due to injury. Stereome scanty. Note the rings of dissepiments.
See also figs. 31-33.

Figs. 12-13. Sections from F 2454. Very open axial structure. At C traces of trabe-
culae in vertical section of septa.

Fig. 14. Transverse section from F 2959. Non-stereoplasmid axial structure with

twisted but discontinuous axial lamellae. Both types of septal
modification well shown. Part of this specimen is A 5470 in the
Sedgwick Museum.

Fig. 15. Tr.S. from F 2451. Dibunophylloid axial structure.

Figs. 16-19. Tr. sections from F 2947. Dibunophylloid axial structure lost in highest
section fig. 19.

Fig. 20. Tr.S. from F 2512. Stereome abundant, septal structure well shown.

Figs. 21-23. Sections from F 2511. Stereome abundant, variable in amount.

Fig. 24. Tr.S. from F 2514. Stereome abundant.

Fig. 25. M.V.S. from F 2499. Stereome abundant.

Fig- 26. Tr.S. from F 2489. Stereome abundant, septal lamellae numerous,

continuous and twisted. See figs. 29 and 30.

Fig. 27. Tr.S. from young stage of F 2948, a stereoplasmid corallite.

Fig. 28. Part of fig. 20 to show the septal modifications in Tr. S.

Fig. 29. Tangential V.S. through the peripheral series of transverse plates between

the points D and E in fig. 26.

Fig. 30. Tangential V.S. through the median cavernous parts of the septa between

the points F and G in fig. 26.

Figs. 31-33. Tangential V.Ss. between the points H and J, K and L, M and N, respec-
tively in fig. 10, to show details in the arrangement of the peripheral
series of transverse plates.

PLATE VIII.

Amygdalophyllum from the Upper Visean Riverleigh limestone of Latza’s

farm, Portions 21 and 22, Parish of Malmoe, County of Yarrol, near Mundubbera,

Queensland. Specimens and slides in the University of Queensland collection.

All figures natural size.

Figs. 1-3. A. inopinatum (Etheridge fil.). Sections from F 2949. Fig. 1 is from
lower stage than fig. 2 ; note in it the septa dilated in the tabulate
area, and the withdrawal of the minor septa from the periphery.
Neither of these characters appear in fig. 2.

Fig. 4. A. inopinatum. Tr.S. from F 2491. Note Naos septal modification and

peripheral withdrawal of the septa. Part of this specimen is A 5065
in the Sedgwick Museum.

Fig. 5. A. inopinatum. Tr.S. from F 2493. Dilated septa thinning peripher-

ally.

Fig. 6 A. inopinatum. Tr.S. from F 2384. A small specimen.

Figs. 7-8. A. inopinatum. Sections from F 2482. Note basal outgrowth for
attachment in fig. 8.

Fig. 9-11. A. vallum sp. nov. Sections from the holotype F 2950. Note traces of the
formation of the columella from the tabulae in fig. 10.

Figs. 12-13. A. vallum. Sections from paratype F 2453. Fig. 12 is taken through the
bottom of the calyx.

Figs. 14-21. A. conicum sp. nov. Serial sections from the holotype F 2951. Nota
septa withdrawn from aixs in fig. 17 and from periphery in figs. 18
and 21.

Figs. 22-31. A. conicum. Serial sections from paratype F 2437. Note peripheral
withdrawal of septa. Fig. 22 is from a very thick section ; fig. 25
shows a slight development of the Naos trend, and fig. 28 a slight
axial withdrawal of the septa.

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA

113

Figs. 32-33.

A. conicum. Sections from paratype F 2498 showing dilation and peri-
pheral withdrawal of the septa.

Figs. 34-36.
Figs. 37-40.

A. conicum. Sections from paratype F 2436.

A. conicum. Sections from paratype F 2445 showing peripheral dila-
tion of the septa. Fig. 40 is through the calyx.

Figs. 41-48.

A. conicum. Sections from paratype F2942 showing the Naos trend well
developed. Figs. 47-48 are calical.

Figs. 49-50.

A. sp. near conicum. Sections from F 2449.

PLATE IX.

All figures natural size. Except where otherwise indicated specimens and slides
are in the University of Queensland collection.

Figs. 1-2. Amygdalophyllum inopinatum (Etheridge fil.), a diseased individual F 2465

Figs. 3-4.

from the Upper Visean Riverleigh limestone on Latza’s farm, Portions
21 and 22, Parish of Malmoe, County of Yarrol, near Mundubbera,
Queensland. See p. 32.

Aphrophyllum hallense Smith. Sections from F2953 from the Visean
Burindi limestones of the Parish of Hall, 16 miles south of Bingara,
New South Wales. Note the Naos-like modification of the septa.

Fig. 5.

A. hallense. R 29634, British Museum, from the Visean Burindi lime-
stones, Quarry at Taree, New South Wales.

Figs. 6-8.

Aphrophyllum foliaceum sp. nov. Sections from F 2954 from the
Upper Visean Lion Ck. limestone, Stanwell, near Rockhampton, Q.
Figs 6 and 8 are the upper and lower surfaces respectively of fig. 7.
Note paliform lobes (?) axial structure, and Naos septal modification.

Fig. 9.

A. foliaceum. Section along lower surface of fig. 16, from paratype
F 2955, from the Upper Visean Riverleigh limestone on Latza’s farm.
Portions 21 and 22, Parish of Malmoe, County of Yarrol, near Mun-
dubbera, Queensland. Most of the peripheral zone of dissepiments
is destroyed.

Fig. 10.

A. foliaceum. Tr.S. from F 2536. Horizon and Locality as for figs.
6-8. Note septal dilation and plaiform lobes (?). Periphery des-
troyed.

Fig. 11.
Fig. 12.

A. foliaceum. Tr.S. from young stage of paratype F 2956.

A. foliaceum. Tr.S. from paratype F 2957. Peripheral zone of dissepi-
ments partly preserved. Note uneven septal dilation and length of

Figs. 13-14.
Fig. 15.

minor septa.

A. foliaceum. Sections from paratype F 2502.

A. foliaceum. Tr.S. from paratype F 2958. Most of the peripheral zone
of dissepiments destroyed.

Fig. 16.
Figs. 17-19.

A. foliaceum. M.V.S. from paratype F 2955. See fig. 9.

“ Chonophyllum perfoliatum ” auctt. Tr.S., M.V.S. , and Tg. V.S. respec-
tively. A 5495b-d Sedgwick Museum, from the Middle Devonian,
of Ramsleigh Quarry, Torquay, Devon, showing well developed
Naos modification of the septa.

PLATE X.

All figures natural size. Except where otherwise indicated specimens and slides
are in the University of Queensland collection.

Figs. 1-2. Carcinophyllum patellum sp. nov. External view and Tr.S, of the holo-
type F 2534 from the Upper Visean Riverleigh limestone on Latza’s
farm, Portions 21 and 22, Parish of Malmoe, County of Yarrol, near
Mundubbera, Queensland.

Figs. 3-4. C. patellum. Sections from paratype F 2386.

Fig. 5. C. patellum. Tr.S. from paratype F 2432. Note budding.

Figs. 6-7. C. patellum. Sections from paratype F 2505, a very stereoplasmid

Figs. 8-11.

individual.

C. patellum. Sections from paratype F 2960. Note the lonsdaleoid dissepi-
ments.

Figs. 12-13.
Figs. 14-17.

C. patellum. Tr.Ss. from paratype F 2961.

C. patellum. Sections from paratype F 2460, a less stereoplasmid
individual.

Fig. 18

Lithostrotion columnare Etheridge fil. Tr.S. from topotype, A 5493 in the
Sedgwick Museum, from the Upper Visean Lion Ck. limestone, Stan-

Fig. 19.
Fig. 20

well, near Rockhampton, Queensland, showing typical aspect.

L. columnare. M.V.S. from topotype F 2962, showing typical aspect.
L. columnare. M.V.S. from topotype F 2538, showing tabellae in two
series.

114 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Fig. 23.

Fig. 24

Fig. 25.

Fig. 26.

Fig. 27.

Fig. 28.

Fig. 29.

Fig. 30.

Fig. 31.

Figs. 32-33.

Figs. 34-35.

Fig. 36.

Figs. 37-38.

Figs. 39-40.

L. columnar e. Sections from F 2521 from the Upper Visean Riverleigh
limestone on Latza’s farm, Portions 21 and 22, Parish of Malmoe,
County of Yarrol, near Mundubbera, Queensland, showing aspect
typical of this locality.

L. columnare. Tr.S. A.M. 331 from F 6543 in the Australian Museum,
from the Visean limestone of the Horton R., between Eulowrie and
Pal Lai, New South Wales, showing septa withdrawing from the
periphery.

L. columnare. M.V.S. A.M. 186 from F 6541 in the Australian Museum ;
horizon and locality as for fig. 23. Shows typical incomplete tabulae
in two series.

L. columnare. Tr.S. from topotype F 2962 {see fig. 19) showing dis-
appearance of epitheca between corallites.

Lithostrotion stanvellense Etheridge fil. Tr.S. from F 2963 ; horizon and
locality as for figs. 21-22, showing septa typically in contact with the
columella.

L. stanvellense . Tr.S. A 5061 in the Sedgwick Museum ; horizon and
locality as for figs. 21-22. Septa not confluent with columella, and
individual of large size.

L. stanvellense. Tr.S. from F 2391 ; horizon and locality as for figs. 21-22.
Bud and parent have a common epitheca.

L. stanvellense. M.V.S. from F 2964 ; horizon and locality as for figs.
21-22. Shows typical incomplete tabulae.

L. stanvellense. M.V.S. from large phaceloid corallum F 2383 ; horizon
and locality as for figs. 21-22 ; fig. 27 is also from this corallum.

L. stanvellense. Tr.S. from F 2965 ; horizon and locality as for figs. 21-22 ;
note the beginning of the diphyphylloid trend in the withdrawal of
the septa from the axis, and the associated parricidal gemmation.

L. stanvellense. Sections F 2966, from the Visean Burindi limestone of
Hall’s Ck., Parish of Hall, near Bingara, N.S.W. Shows much,
stereome.

Lithostrotion arundineum Etheridge fil. Sections from topotype F 2967 ;
horizon and locality as for fig. 18 ; shows septa both confluent with
and withdrawn from the columella, and tabellae in two series.

L. arundineum. Tr.S. A.M. 184 from F 6546 in the Australian Museum,
from the Visean Burindi limestone near Eulowrie, N.S.W; Note
peripheral withdrawl of minor septa.

L. arundineum near Cionodendron columen Benson and Smith. Sections
A.M. 565 from F 6544 in the Australian Museum ; horizon and locality
as for fig. 23. Note the dilation of septa and columella. Tabulae
as in L. arundineum.

Ciondendron columen Benson and Smith. Sections in the possession of
Dr. Stanley Smith from the holotype ; from Visean Burindi limestones
at Slaughterhouse Ck., near Gravesend, N.S.W.

PLATE XI.

All figures except 19-29 natural size. Except where otherwise stated, specimens

and slides are in the University of Queensland collection.

Figs. 1-2. Lithostrotion sp. ( Diphyphyllum sp.). Sections A 5494 in the Sedgwick
Museum, from specimen 4510 (or 4515) in the collection of the Geo-
logical Survey of New South Wales, from the Visean Burindi lime-
stone of the Parish of Moorawarra, near Somerton, N.S.W.

Figs. 3-4. Lithostrotion sp. {Diphystrotion mutabile sp. nov.) Sections from the holo-
type F 2387 from the Upper Visean Lion Ck. limestone, Stanwell,
near Rockhampton, Q. Note the sporadic nature of the variation.

Fig. 5. Orionastraea lonsdaleoides sp. nov. Weathered aspect of paratype F 2529

from the Upper Visean Riverleigh limestone on Latza’s farm, Portions
21 and 22, Parish of Malmoe, County of Yarrol, near Mundubbera, Q.

Figs. 6-8. 0. lonsdaleoides. Sections from the holotype F 2938 ; note frequent weak

columella and rare extension of septa to periphery. Specimen partly
macerated.

0. lonsdaleoides. V.S. from paratype F 2533.

11. 0. lonsdaleoides. Sections from paratype F 2524. Specimen transitional

from Lithostrotion columnare Eth. Note relics of epitheca and colu-
mella.

Aulina simplex sp. nov. M.V.S. from paratype A 5488 in the Sedgwick
Museum ; horizon and locality as for fig. 5 ; note rare dissepiments.

Figs. 13-29. A. simplex. Sections from holotype F 2939 ; figs. 19-29 x2 diameters ;

fig. 14 shows weak expression of londsdaleoid trend, and figs. 21-27
a root process.

Fig. 9.
Figs. 10-

Fig. 12.

Prog. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLY.

Plate VII.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLV.

Plate VIII.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLV.

Plate IX.

7

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’lamd, Vol. XLY.

Plate X.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLV.

Plate XI.

27

28

29

THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS CORALS OF AUSTRALIA

115

Fig. 30.

Fig. 31
Fig. 32
Fig. 33.
Fig. 34.
Fig. 35
Fig. 36.

Fig. 37.

Fig. 38.
Fig. 39.
Fig. 40.

Fig. 41.

Michelinia dendroides sp. nov. View of calices on stunted branch, para*
type F 2968. Note pitted stereome. Horizon and locality as for fig. 5.

M. dendroides. Tr.S. from paratype F 2969.

M. dendroides. V.S. from paratype F 2970.

M. dendroides. V.S. from paratype F 2971. Note septal spines.

M. dendroides. Tr.S. from paratype F 2972. . Note spines.

M. dendroides. Tg. V.S. from paratype F 2971. See fig. 33.

Michelinia sp. Section through F 2973 ; horizon and locality as for figs.
3-4. What appears in the drawing is all that can be made out from
the slide.

Syringopora syrinx Etheridge fil. Tr.S. from topotype F 2974 ; horizon
and locality as for figs. 3-4. See fig. 39.

S. syrinx. Section from F 2975 ; horizon and locality as for fig. 5.

S. syrinx. V.S. from topotype F 2974 ; see fig. 37.

Palaeacis sp. cf. cuneiformis Haime. External view of F 2976 from ? Visean
oolitic limestone in Portion 193, Parish of Mundowran, County of
Yarrol, near Mundubbera, Q. An abornmally large specimen.

P. sp. cf. cuneiformis. External view of F 2977 ; horizon and locality as
for fig. 40. A typically wedge shaped specimen.

APPENDIX.

Australian Lower Carboniferous Coral Types in British Museums.

B.M.= British Museum of Natural History, South Kensington, London. List
supplied by Dr. H. Dighton Thomas.

S.M. = Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge. List supplied by Mr. A. G. Brighton.
Type localities may be found by reference to the text.

Symplectophyllum mutatum Hill. Paratype, S.M. A 5470 ; metatypes, S.M. A 5469,
A 5471-3.

Amygdalophyllum etheridgei Dun and Benson. Part of holotype, B.M. R 22072 ; para-
type, B.M. R. 21997.

A. conicum Hill. Metatypes, S.M. A. 5474-6.

Aphrophyllum hallense Smith. Parts of holotype, B.M. R. 19747, S.M. A. 5051; para-
type, B.M. R. 19748.

A. foliaceum Hill. Metatypes. S.M. A. 5477-9.

Carcinophyllum patellum Hill. Metatypes, S.M. A. 5480-4.

Lithostrotion columnare Eth. fil. Topotypes, B.M. R. 19738-9, R. 19744, S.M. A. 5057-9
A 5493.

L. stanvellense Eth. fil. Topotypes, B.M. R. 19749, S.M. A. 5053.

L. arundineum Eth. fil. Topotypes, B.M. R. 19745, S.M. A. 5055.

Lithostrotion sp. Diphystrotion mutabile Hill. Part of holotype, S.M. A. 5492.
Cionodendron columen Benson and Smith. Sections of the holotype, B.M. R. 21999-
22001.

Orionastraea lonsdaleoides Hill. Part of the holotype, S.M. A. 5485 ; paratype, S.M
A. 5486.

Aulina simplex Hill. Paratype, S.M. A. 5488 ; metatype, S.M. A. 5487.

Michelinia dendroides Hill. Plaster cast of holotype, S.M. A. 5491 ; paratypes, S.M
A. 5489-90.

Syringopora syrinx Eth. fil. Topotypes, B.M. R. 20874-5, R. 20878-9, S.M. A. 5062.
Note . — In the Clarke collection in the Sedgwick Museum described by M’Coy (1847)
there are a few additional Lower Carboniferous Corals which are now being re-
described by the present author.

The Royal Society of Queensland

Report of the Council for 1932.

To the Members of the Royal Society of Queensland.

Your Council has pleasure in submitting its report for the year
1932.

Eleven original papers were read before the Society and published
during the year. On the 26th April, Mr. W. Davies, M.Sc., from the
Welsh Plant Breeding Station at Aberystwyth delivered a lecture on
“ Pasture Studies ” ; on the 30th May, Mr. C. A. Sussmilch, Director of
Technical Education, Sydney, gave an address on “ The Evolution
of the Highlands of Eastern Australia ” ; on the 29th August, Dr. J.
Vickery, Officer in Charge, C.S.I.R. Research Laboratories at the Bris-
bane Abattoir, gave a lecture on “ The Application of Scientific Methods
to the Preservation and Transport of Meat.”

On the 25th July, the evening was devoted to a discussion on the
history, botany, and geology of Mt. Barney, the leaders being Professor
Cumbrae Stewart, Mr. C. T. White, and Dr. Bryan. It was felt that
such an evening would interest most members of the Society in spite
of the fact that many specialise in one particular science. It was so
successful that it is the intention of the Council to hold one or two
evenings of a similar nature during 1933.

During the year the Australian and New Zealand Association for
the Advancement of Science met in Sydney, and was attended by
several members of the Society. Dr. Bryan and Mr. Bick represented
the Society and on their return gave a report of the main features
of the Congress.

A conference of representatives from the Royal Societies of Aus-
tralia was held in Sydney in August, Professor Richards and Dr. Her-
bert representing the Society. At this conference the following motion
was carried unanimously : “ That in the opinion of this meeting no
amalgamation of the Royal Societies is desirable at present but recom-
mends a loose confederation through the appointment of a representa-
tive of the Royal Societies and Linnean Society on the executive of
the A.N.R.C.”

Owing to the number and length of the papers read before the
Society, the cost of printing the Proceedings was rather high, with the
result that the funds available for printing in 1933 will be very limited.
Your Council trusts that all members, realising the difficult position
of the Society, will strive during the year to get as many new members
as possible, particularly from among professional workers who depend
for their livelihood on a knowledge of science and scientific methods.
It must be stressed that the only source of income is from the sub-
scriptions, and practically the whole of the income is utilised in the
publication and distribution of the Proceedings.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

y.

It is very pleasing to be able to report that, owing to a generous
donation of £15/15/- by Dr. J. V. Duhig, about 60 volumes of the Pro-
ceedings of the Royal Society of London have been bound.

The Council wishes to express its appreciation to the University
of Queensland for housing the library and providing accommodation
for meetings. The Society is indebted to the Assistant Librarian of
the University, Miss Mclver, for superintending the lending of
periodicals from the library.

The membership roll consists of 5 corresponding, 7 life members
and 170 ordinary members. During the year there were 6 resigna-
tions, 2 names were removed from the list under Rule 13, and 6 new
members were elected. It is with deep regret that the death is reported
of Mr. G. J. Saunders, M.Sc., B.E., Dr. W. Love, and Mr. R. A. Wearne,
B.A., all of whom were old and valued members of the Society.

There were eleven meetings of the Council during the year, the
attendance being as follows : — E. W. Bick, 9 ; W. H. Bryan, 10 ; R. W.
Cilento, 3 ; W. D. Francis, 8 ; J. B. Henderson, 7 ; D. A. Herbert, 10 ;
L. F. Hitchcock, 10 ; T. G. H. Jones, 10 ; J. S. Just, 6 ; E. O. Marks,
8 ; F. A. Perkins, 11 ; H. C. Richards, 11 : and C. T. White, 10.

T. G. H. JONES, President.

F. A. PERKINS, Hon. Secretary.

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

STATEMENT OF RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE FOR YEAR ENDING 31st DECEMBER, 1932.

VI.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

Examined and found correct.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

Vll.

Abstract of Proceedings, 27th March, 1933.

The Annual Meeting of the Society was held in the Geology Lecture
Theatre of the University at 8 p.m., on Monday, 27th March. The
President, Dr. T. G. H. Jones, occupied the chair, and about forty-
five members and visitors were present. Apologies were received
from His Excellency the Governor, Professor E. J. Goddard, Dr.
Vickery, and Messrs. Just, Hines, Bailey, and White. The minutes
of the previous Annual Meeting were read and confirmed. Mr. C.
Sankey Fraser was proposed for ordinary membership by Messrs.
Hulsen and Perkins. The Annual Report and Balance Sheet were
adopted.

The following officers were elected for 1933 : — President, Dr. R.
W. Cilento ; Vice-Presidents, Dr. T. G. H. Jones {ex officio), and Mr.
J. S. Just ; Hon. Secretary, Mr. F. A. Perkins ; Hon. Treasurer, Mr.
E. W. Bick ; Hon. Librarian, Mr. W. D. Francis ; Hon. Editors, Dr.
W. H. Bryan and Mr. L. F. Hitchcock ; Hon. Auditor, Mr. J. S. Just ;
Members of the Council, Mr. C. T. White, Professor H. C. Richards,
Mr. H. A. Longman, Dr. E. 0. Marks and Dr. D. A. Herbert.

Dr. T. G. H. Jones delivered his Presidential Address entitled
“ The Elements and their Relationships.”

A vote of thanks to the retiring President, moved by Professor
Bagster and Professor Richards, was carried by acclamation.

Abstract of Proceedings, 24th April, 1933.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the University at 8 p.m., on Monday,
24th April. The President, Dr. R. W. Cilento, occupied the chair,
and about eighty members and visitors were present. The minutes
of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Mr. C. Sankey
Fraser was unanimously elected an Ordinary Member of the Society.
The following were proposed for Ordinary Membership Mr. D.
Stewart, B.V.Sc., by Messrs. Hines and Perkins ; Mr. Wiley, B.Sc.,
by Dr. Jones and Mr. Hines ; Mr. F. 0. Bosworth, B.A., by Messrs.
Francis and Perkins. Mr. H. G. Cribb was proposed for Associate
Membership by Mr. Perkins and Dr. Herbert.

The main business of the evening was a series of short addresses
on the history, geology, botany, and zoology of the Glass Houses.

Professor Cumbrae Stewart said that the Glass Houses were dis-
covered by Captain Cook in May, 1770, and were named by him from
their resemblance to the shape of the buildings used for making glass.
They were examined in July, 1799, by Lieut. Flinders, R.N. Landing
in Pumice Stone Channel, Flinders walked towards a flat-topped
peak, considerably nearer than the highest Glass House, but seeing a
round mount with sloping sides still nearer, he climbed it, finding it
to be a pile of stones of all sizes, thickly covered with long but, rather
spindly grass. Near the top, the stones were mostly loose. From
the’ summit, he obtained an extensive view of the bay arid surrounding
country. Next day he proceeded to the flat-topped peak but was
unable to climb it, owing to its steep sides. This ended this examina-

Vlll

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

tion. In November, 1823, John Oxley made an examination of
Moreton Bay, which led to the establishment of the Penal Settlement
the following year. He noted the Glass Houses as a sea mark. In
1839, the Penal Settlement was broken up. A Trigonometrical survey
was then begun. On 13th July, 1839, Robert Dixon, of the Survey,
took the angles of the Glass Houses with the windmill from Mt. Petrie,
and made a sketch of their outline in his Field Book, preserved in the
Survey Office. A map by Dixon in the Survey Office, No. M33-3370,
dated November, 1840, shows a station on Beerwah, the highest
Glass House and bearings from it. In 1841, the station on the Upper
Stanley, Durundur and Kilcoy were formed, and a road made from them
over the Coast Range to Brisbane. Their road passed close to the
Glass Houses and rendered them accessible from Brisbane.

Dr. F. W. Whitehouse said that Leichhardt, the explorer, who
visited the area about the year 1844, was the first geologist to describe
the Glass Houses. His work, privately printed in Germany in 1855
(some time after his death), is very rare and has been overlooked by
later workers. It is interesting to note that his descriptions are moie
accurate than those of all later writers, until Dr. Jensen began to in-
vestigate the rocks by modern methods. Jensen’s work, published
in the years 1903, 1906, and 1909, is the last and the most important
work on the subject.

In the Glass Houses there are ten main peaks, varying in height
from 750 to 1760 feet above sea level, as well as a few minor hills.
They are composed of trachytes and alkali rhyolites and rise in sharp,
striking masses from the undulating plain. The plain, which has an
average height of from 100 to 150 feet above sea level, is composed of
sandstones of Lower Mesozoic age. In several places there is clear
evidence of the igneous rocks having been intruded through the
sandstones. They are volcanic necks but whether all of them repre-
sent the cores of old volcanoes, from which the fragmental masses of
the cones have worn away, or whether some of them are mamelons (i.e.y
masses of viscous lava forced out in bulk and solidifying at once) is
problematical. In addition to these peaks there are some other
exposures of similar rocks in the area that do not rise into hills. These
rocks vary considerably. Some (like those of Beerburrum and
Micketeebumulgrai) are prominently porphyritic, with striking tabular
phenocrysts of sanidine. Others are fine-grained. The largest mass
(that of Beerwah) tends to be holocrystalline and has fluxion structure.
The phenocrysts in the rocks are felspars (varieties of orthoclase),
quartz and the soda-rich amphiboles. Most excellent columnar joint-
ing characterises the rocks of many of the peaks, reaching its best
development in Conowrin. Jensen has called attention to the
arrangement of these peaks in roughly a lattice fashion and has sug-
gested that they may have been extruded at weak structural points
representing the intersections of two systems of faults, apparently at
right angles. Exposures of the sandstones are too rare to allow this
theory to be tested. Subsequent to this phase of volcanic activity
dacites were extruded, containing fragments of the trachytes. In the
north of the area are basalts that are later than the trachytes and are
probably the latest volcanic rocks of the area.

Mr. C. T. White showed mounted specimens of some of the out-
standing plants of the region. Three plants — Eriostemon glasshous-
iensis (a Wax Flower), Agonis Luehmannii (a Tea Tree), and Dodonaea

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

IX.

rupicola (a Hop Bush) — are, so far as known, not found outside the
Glass House Mountains area, though none is confined to any par-
ticular mountain. Vegetation, for the most part, is strictly Australian,
the families Tiliaceae, Rutaceae , Leguminosae , and Myrtaceae perhaps
predominating. The flat top of Ngun Ngun is covered with large mat
or carpet-like patches of the very interesting grass, Micraria subuli-
fnjia.

Mr. H. A. Longman said that the results of collecting in the dis-
trict had been meagre, but no intensive work had been done. The
vertebrate fauna, recorded in the Queensland Museum registers, had no
distinctive features, and all the species had a wide range and were well
known. There were records of fifteen species of marsupials, ten
species of snakes and twenty-one species of lizards. In the Queens-
land Naturalist, Vol. 1, No. 6, 1910, W. Weatherill listed thirty-five
birds, including the Blue- winged Kookaburra, a wide-ranging northern
species occasionally found south. The late Andrew Petrie recorded
that emus were common near the Glass Houses in early days.

A vote of thanks to the speakers, moved by Professor H. C.
Richards, was carried by acclamation.

Abstract of Proceedings, 29th May, 1933.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the University at 8 p.m., on Monday,
29th May. The President, Hr. R. W. Cilento, occupied the chair,
and about forty five members and visitors were present. Apologies
were received from Professor Bagster, Hr. Bryan, and Mr. Simmonds.
The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Messrs.
H. Stewart, W. Wiley, and F. O. Bosworth were elected Ordinary
Members of the Society, and Mr. H. G. Cribb was elected to Associate
Membership. The following were proposed for Ordinary Membership :
Hr. E. Hirschfield, by Messrs. White and Francis ; Mr. W. Ranger, by
Hr. Bagster and Mr. Perkins ; Hr. Phyllis Cilento, by Hrs. Cilento and
Marks. Mr. G. Hall was proposed for Associate Membership by Mr.
Perkins and Hr. Bryan.

Professor H. C. Richards exhibited (A) specimens of natural rock
glass from the Meteorite Craters at Henbury, Central Australia.
Associated with the meteoric craters at Henbury, Central Australia,
there have been found' fragments of a dull black natural glass which
Hr. L. J. Spencer, F.R.S., of the British Museum considers throw an
interesting light on the origin of Australites. The specimens exhibited
were obtained from Professor Kerr- Grant and Mr. C. T. Madigan of the
University of Adelaide and illustrated the different varieties of form
under which the glass occurs. It is believed that the glass is caused by
fusion of surface material following upon the impact of the meteorite.
(6) A specimen of Agate and Amethyst from Kungurri obtained
from Mr. Barenthien, which illustrated the crystallisation of quartz in
amethystine form around and about finger-like stalactites of light
coloured agate. (c) A nodule of Fluorspar from Mungana obtained
from Mr. Barker, which illustrated well the concentric arrangement
about a central nucleus.

X.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

Mr. H. A. Longman exhibited a microcephalic cranium of an
aboriginal found on the property of Mr. H. W. Kleidon at Brigalow,
which had been presented to the Museum through the Commissioner
of Police. It was that of an aged female, and the dimensions were
practically identical with those of the Jervois skull recorded by Sir
Colin Mackenzie. The specimen was very prognathous, and the teeth
showed unusual wear. It was one of three microcephalic crania in
the Museum the capacity of which was less than 1,000 cc.

Mr. F. A. Perkins exhibited several species of living fruit flies
which he had bred from native and cultivated fruit.

Mr. R. Veitch exhibited two show cases prepared by Mr. Helmsing,
which portrayed the life histories of Phylloxera vastatrix and the
Buffalo Ply ( Lyperosia exigua).

Dr. D. A. Herbert exhibited albino seedlings of Mandevillea
suaveolens raised in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, and kept alive by
being supplied with glucose solution.

Mr. J. H. Simmonds exhibited fruits of (a) White passion flower
( Passiflora alba) showing symptoms of a virus disease which is prob-
ably identical with that causing the woodiness disease of the cultivated
passion fruit. The presence of a possible alternate host as common as
the white passion flower greatly complicates the control of this
disease. (6) Sorghum attacked by covered smut ( Spacelotheca sorghi )
showing almost total replacement of seed by smut balls.

Mr. C. T. White exhibited examples of wood of Queensland
Sandalwood, Santalum lanceolatum R.Br., and Eremophila Mitchellii
Benth., collected in the neighbourhood of Dalby. Until recently it
was always understood that the wood of Santalum lanceolatum R.Br.
only developed a typical Sandalwood odour in the tropical parts of the
State. Several examples from the South and South-west of Queens-
land, however, have recently demonstrated that the heart-wood at
least of old trees in the more Southern parts of the State is just as
highly scented as that from the North. Eremophila Mitchellii Benth.,
is one of the commonest trees of Western Queensland. The wood is
rich in oil with a heavy “ oriental ” odour and may prove of consider-
able commercial value in the future. The oil has been investigated
by Mr. A. R. Penfold, in conjunction with Dr. A. E. Bradfield and
Professor J. L. Simonsen. Mr. White also exhibited specimens of
Homalocalyx polyandrus F.V.M., collected between Dalby and Tara,
where it was found to be very common. The plant was previously
only known from fragmentary material collected by Dr. Leichhardt.

Dr. J. Vickery exhibited the following micro-organisms which
were isolated at the Brisbane Abattoir from beef held for a period of
60 days at a temperature of -1 degree C. Each is capable of relatively
rapid growth at this temperature, chiefly on muscle and connective
tissue, and, to a lesser extent, on fat : — (a) Penicillium expansum , a
mould which, when mature, produces bluish-green colonies reaching
a diameter of 1.5cm. in 60 days. ( b ) Thamnidium chaetocladiodes ,

a mould, which, under favourable conditions, produces so-called
‘ ‘ whiskers,” duetto abundant growth of aerial hyphae. (c) Pseudomonas
(unnamed species), a slime producing bacterium which causes a sour
odour in affected areas, (d) Achromobacter (unnamed species), a
bacterium which multiplies very rapidly at a temperature of — 1 de-
gree C with the formation of superficial nodules.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

XI.

Mr. J. H. Reid exhibited specimens of auriferous plumbago shale
from Gympie and fibrous quartz, pseudomorphous after asbestos,
from Kilkivan. The plumbago formation is characteristic of the pro-
ductive goldmining areas of the Gympie field and has caused enrich-
ment of reefs where the latter intersect such beds. In the discussion
on the quartz pseudomorph Mr. A. K. Denmead pointed out the
similarity of occurrence to that of the mineral Crocidolite.

Abstract of Proceedings, 26th June, 1933,

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Biology Lecture Theatre of the University at 8 p.m., on Monday, 26th
June. The President, Dr. R. W. Cilento, occupied the chair, and
about 70 members and visitors were present. Apologies were received
from Dr. W. N. Robertson and Dr. T. G. Jones. The minutes of the
previous meeting were read and confirmed. Dr. E. Hirschfeld, Dr.
Phyllis Cilento, and Mr. W. Ranger were unanimously elected
Ordinary Members cf the Society, and Mr. G. Hall as an Associate
Member. Mr. L. J. Lynch was proposed for Associate Membership
by Mr. Perkins and Dr. Herbert.

Dr. D. A. Herbert exhibited a double Nasturtium of the Golden
Glow variety with the spur turned inside out, and with beads of nectar
on the surface of the column so produced.

A paper entitled “ Notes on Australian Syrphinae,” by G. H*
Hardy, was laid on the table.

Mr. C. T. White showed a series of lantern slides of the vegetation
of New Guinea and New Caledonia and photographs by means of the
epidiascope of the vegetation of the Solomon Islands. The photos
were taken by Messrs. F. Kajewski and L. Brass during botanical
explorations on behalf of the Arnold Arboretum (Harvard University)
during the years 1929-1932.

Dr. R. W. Cilento showed a series of very interesting slides illus-
trating the different types of native found in Melanesia, the evolution
of the Lakatoi, and several peculiar native customs.

A vote of thanks to the lecturers moved by Dr. Herbert was
carried by acclamation.

Abstract of Proceedings, 31st July, 1933.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting was held in the Geology Lecture
Theatre of the University at 8.15 p.m. on Monday, 31st July. Dr.
D. A. Herbert occupied the chair, and about 40 members and visitors
were present. Apologies were received from Professor Richards, Dr.
Cilento, Dr. Jones, Mr. Kyle, Dr. E. O. Marks, Mr. Try on, and Dr.
Bryan. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and con-
firmed. Mr. L. J. Lynch was unanimously elected an Associate
Member of the Society. The following were proposed for ordinary
membership : Mr. S. J. Kajewski, by Messrs. White and Francis, and
Dr, H. .A. Goldfinch by Messrs. Longman and Perkins. Mr. C. L.
Knight, was proposed for associate membership by Professor Richards
and Dr. Brvan.

Xll

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

Professor Cumbrae Stewart read copies of two letters which had
been sent to him by Mr. A. Archer. The letters were written by
Ludwig Leichhardt to Mr. Archer’s uncle on the 14th May and 19th
November, 1846.

A paper by Dr. J. V. Duhig on “ Serum Inhibition of Haemolysis ”
was laid on the table.

Mr. C. T. White communicated a paper by Professor U. Martelli
on “ Two Australian Species of Pandanus.”

The main business of the evening was a very interesting address
by Dr. E. Hirschfeld on “ Biological Problems in Western Queens-
land.” A vote of thanks moved by Mr. White and Mr. Henderson
and supported by Messrs. Hines, Jones and Longman was carried by
acclamation.

Abstract of Proceedings, 28th August, 1933.

The. Ordinary Monthly Meeting was held in the Geology Lecture
Theatre of the University at 8 p.m., on Monday, 28th August. Dr.
D. A. Herbert occupied the chair, and about 40 members and visitors
were present. An apology was received from Dr. Cilento. The
minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Mr. S. J.
Kajewski and Dr. H. A. Goldfinch were unanimously elected Ordinary
Members of the Society. Mr. C. L. Knight was elected an Associate
Member. Dr. W. M. Sinclair was proposed for Ordinary Membership
by Professor Bagster and Dr. Jones.

A paper entitled “ The Genus Pleiogynium in Papua ” by Mr.
C. T. White was laid on the table.

Dr. J. V. Duhig gave an account of the main features of his paper
on “ Serum Inhibition of Haemolysis.”

Mr. W. W. Bryan delivered a very interesting address on “Maize
Breeding in Queensland.”

In a brief discussion of plant breeding methods in general, under
the heads of introduction, selection, and hybridisation, it was pointed
out that in self-fertilised crops pure lines are rapidly and automatically
developed even following a cross between genetically diverse types,
while in cross-fertilised crops this is not the case, a definite and usually
large proportion of heterozygotes being present.

This necessitates the use of special methods in the improvement
of crossed crops such as maize, the method of selection within self-
fertilised lines followed by hybridisation being the most important.
This method was discussed in some detail, particular emphasis being
placed on the difficulty of determining upon which lines to concen-
trate in crossing programmes when a large number of homozygous
selfed lines are available.

The time aspect is important, 5-8 years being required to obtain
homozygous lines and another 6-7 years to set up and test crosses
between them. The various types of cross -single, double, and multiple
— were mentioned. The commercial possibility of raising large seed
stocks of crosses was indicated. Results were given from U.S. stations
and from Queensland to indicate the worth of methods in use in this
State.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

xiii.

A vote of thanks moved by Professor J. K. Murray, supported by
Messrs. White, Bennett, and Gurney, was carried by acclamation.

Abstract of Proceedings, 25th September, 1933.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting was held in the Geology Lecture
Theatre of the University at 8 p.m., on Monday, 25th September.
The President, Dr. R. W. Cilento, occupied the chair, and about 50
members and visitors were present. The minutes of the previous
meeting were read and confirmed. Dr. W. M. Sinclair was elected
an Ordinary Member of the Society.

Dr. E. Hirschfeld exhibited (a) specimens of Brigalow Grass and
(b) a Dew Gauge which was used by him in his experiments in
Western Queensland.

After a brief account of the known facts of colour-blindness, Mr.
Kvle exhibited apparatus for the psychological examination of the
phenomenon. The apparatus included the Holmgren Wool Test,
the Edridge- Green cards and colour-perception lantern, the Ishihara
test and the colour-mixer for the determination of colour equations.
Actual results of some of the tests given in the psychological laboratory
of the University were shown, mainly the wool test, and certain
matches of colour made by red-green blind subjects were exhibited.

Dr. Bryan, Dr. Cilento and Mr. Hulsen took part in the discussion
which ensued and Professor Richards moved a vote of thanks which
was carried by acclamation.

Abstract of Proceedings, 30th October, 1933.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting was held in the Geology Lecture
Theatre of the University at 8 p.m., on Monday, 30th October. Dr.
T. G. H. Jones occupied the chair, and about 40 members and visitors
were present. An apology was received from the President, Dr.
Cilento. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and con-
firmed.

Dr. D. A. Herbert exhibited (1) Peronospora effusci, a downy
mildew attacking Chenopodium album, collected at Gatton, October,
1933, and (2) the aecidial stage of a rust fungus referred to Puccinia
aucta by McAlpine, collected at Gatton, on Pratia erecta, October,
1933.

A paper by Messrs. F. A. Perkins and H. J. G. Hines, entitled
“ A Note on some Preliminary Experiments with Ammonia as a Lure
for the Queensland Fruit Fly (Chaetodacus tryoni ) ” was laid on the

table.

Mr. C. T. White delivered a very interesting address on Queens-
land Grasses which was followed by a discussion in which the following
took part : — Dr. Herbert, and Messrs: Gibson, Gurney, Bailey, Bennett,
Jones, and Bick.

A vote of thanks to Mr. White was carried by acclamation.

XIV.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

Abstract of Proceedings, 27th November, 1933.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting was held in the Geology Lecture
Theatre of the University at 8 p.m., on Monday, 27th November.
The President, Dr. R. W. Cilento, occupied the chair, and about 45
members and visitors were present. Apologies were receivedfrom Pro-
fessor Richards and Dr. Vickery. The minutes of the previous meet-
ing were read and confirmed. Mr. G. Roscoe, M.A., was proposed for
Ordinary Membership by Messrs. Kyle and Perkins, and Mr. L.
Thomas, M.Sc., by Messrs. Perkins and Herbert.

Dr. F. W. Whitehouse exhibited a very interesting collection of
rocks from West Queensland.

The following papers were laid on the Table : —

1. “ Reactions of Tagetone,” by T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc.

2. “ Notes on Australian Muscoidea (Calyptrata),” by G. H.

Hardy.

3. “ The Constitution of Campnospermonol,” by T. G. H.

Jones, D.Sc.

4. “ New Australian Trypetidae,” by F. A. Perkins, B.Sc.,

Agr.

The main business of the evening was an address by Dr. A. J.
Turner entitled “ Observations on the Nutrition of our Western Child-
ren.” The following took part in the discussion which ensued — Drs.
Hirschfeld, White and Duhig, and Messrs. Bennett, Hines and the
President. A vote of thanks to the lecturer was carried by acclama-
tion.

A Special Meeting of the Society was held in the Geology Lecture
Theatre of the University at 8 p.m., on Monday, 31st July, 1933.

The business of the meeting was the amendment of Rule 19, by
the addition of the following clause —

“ The Senior Ordinary Member of the Council shall retire
annually, and not be eligible to hold any office in the
Society for twelve months .”

The amendment was carried unanimously.

PUBLICATION S RECEIVED.

XV,

Publications have been received from the following Institutions, Societies, etc., and
are hereby gratefully acknowledged

Algeria —

Societe de Geographie et d’Archaeologia
d’Oran.

Argentine —

Universidad Nacional de la Plata.
Australia —

Commonwealth Bureau of Census and
Statistics, Canberra.

Department of Agriculture, Melbourne.
Department of Mines, Melbourne.

Royal Society of Victoria.

Field Naturalists’ Club, Melbourne.
Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, Melbourne.

Department of Mines, Adelaide.

Waite Agricultural Research Institute,
Glen Osmond.

Royal Society of South Australia.

Royal Geographical Society of Australasia,
Adelaide.

Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery,
Adelaide.

University of Adelaide.

Standards Association of Australia,
Sydney.

Naturalists’ Society of New South Wales. |
Department of Agriculture, Sydney.
Department of Mines, Sydney.

Royal Society of New South Wales.
Linnean Society of New South Wales.
Australian Museum, Sydney.

Public Library, Sydney.

University of Sydney.

Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

Australian Veterinary Society, Sydney.
Queensland Naturalists’ Club, Brisbane.
Department of Mines, Brisbane.
Queensland Museum, Brisbane.
Department of Agriculture, Brisbane.
Registrar-General’s Department, Brisbane,
Royal Geographical Society of Austra-
lasia (Queensland), Brisbane.

Field Naturalists’ Club, Hobart.

Royal Society of Tasmania.

Mines Department, Hobart.

Mines Department, Perth.

Royal Sooiety of Western Australia.

Austria —

Naturhistorische Museum, Vienna.
Belgium —

Academie Royale de Belgique.

Societe Royale de Botanique de Belgique.
Societe Royale Zoologique de Belgique.

Brazil —

Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro.
Ministerio de Agricultura Industrially
Commercio, Rio de Janerio.

British Isles — _

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

British Museum (Natural History), London
Cambridge Philosophical Society.

Literary and Philosophical Society, Man-
chester.

Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society
Royal Society, London,

Conchological Society of Great Britain
and Ireland, Manchester.

Royal Empire Society, London.

The Bristol Museum and Art Gallery.
Imperial Bureau of Entomology, London,
Imperial Agricultural Bureau, Aberyst-
wyth.

Royal Society of Edinburgh.

Botanical Society of Edinburgh.

Royal Dublin Society.

Royal Irish Academy, Dublin,

Canada —

Department of Mines, Ottawa.

Royal Astronomical Society of Canada,
Royal Society of Canada.

Royal Canadian Institute.

Nova Scotian Institute of Science.
Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.

Ceylon — -

Colombo Museum.

China — •

Sinensia, Nankin University, China.
Cuba —

Sociedad Geografica de Cuba, Ha ana
Denmark —

The University, Copenhagen.

XVI.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

Prance —

Station Zoologique de Cette.

Societe des Sciences Naturelles de l’Ouest.
Museum d’Historie Natural, Paris
Societe Botanique de France
Societe Geologique et Mineralogique de
Bretagne

Societe de Geographie de Rochefort.
Germany —

Zoologische Museum, Berlin.

Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde Berlin.
Deutsche Geologische Gesellschaft, Berlin.
Naturhistorischer Verein der preus Rhein-
land und Westfalens, Bonn.
Naturwissenschaftlichen Verein zu Bremen.
Senckenbergischen Bibliothek, Frankfurt
a. Main

Kaiserlich Deutsche Akademie der Natur-
forscher, Halle.

Zoologischen Museum, Hamburg.
Naturhistorisch-Medizinischen V ereins *

Heidelberg.

Akademie der Wissenschaften, Leipzig.
Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Munich.

Centralblatt fur Bakteriologie.

Hawaii —

Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu.
Holland —

Technische Hoogeschool, Delft.

Italy —

Institute di Bologna.

Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Pisa.
Societa Africana d’ltalia, Naples.

Museo Civico, Genova.

India —

Geological Survey of India.

Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa.

Japan —

Berichte der Ohara Institut, Kurashiki,
Japan

Imperial University, Kyoto.

Imperial University, Tokyo.

National Research Council of Japan,
Tokyo.

Korinklijk Naturkundige Vereinginig,
Weltvrenden.

Department van Landbouw, Buitonzorg.

Mexico —

Instituto Geologico de Mexico.

Sociedad Cientifica “ Antonio Alzate,'
Mexico.

Secretario de Agriculture y Fomento,
Mexico.

Observatorio Meterorologico Central,
Tacaibaya.

New Zealand —

Dominion Museum, Wellington.

New Zealand Institute, Wellington.
Auckland Institute and Museum.
Dominion Laboratory, Wellington.
Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, Wellington.

Geological Survey of New Zealand.

Peru —

Sociedad Geologica del Peru, Lima.

Philippines —

Bureau of Science, Manila.

Poland —

Polskie Towarzystwo Przyrodnikow im
Kopernika, Lwow.

University of Poland.

Societes Savantes Polonaises.

Portugal —

Academia Polytechnicada, Oporto.
Sociedade Broteriana, Coimbra.

Institut Botanico, Coimbra.

Russia —

Academie des Sciences Russie, Leningrad.
Bureau of Applied Entomology, Leningrad
Publications of the Institute of Plant
Industry, Leningrad.

Spain —

Real Academia de Ciencias y Artes de
Barcelona.

Real Academia de Ciencias, Madrid.
Museo de Historia Natural, Valencia.
Academia de Ciencias de Zaragoza.

Sweden —

Geological Institute of Upsaia.
Switzerland —

Societe de Physique et d’Historie Naturel,
Geneve.

Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, Zurich.
The League of Nations, Geneva.

South Africa —

Geological Society of South Africa,
Johannesburg.

South African Museum, Capetown.
Durban Museum, Natal.

Transvaal Museum, Pretoria.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

XVII,

United States of America —

United States Geological Survey, Washing-
ton.

Natural History Survey, Illinois.

Lloyd Library, Cincinnati.

Wisconsin Academy of Arts, Science and
Letters, Madison.

California Academy of Sciences.

Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.
University of Minnesota.

University of California.

Library of Congress, Washington.

Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.
American Museum of Natural History,
New York.

Buffalo Society of Natural History.
Boston Society of Natural History.
American Philosophical Society, Phila-
delphia.

American Geographical Society, New
York.

Smithsonian Institute, Washington.
Carnegie Institute, Washington.

United States Department of Agriculture,
Washington.

Oberlin College, Ohio.

National Academy of Science, Washington.
Rochester Academy of Sciences.
Academy of Natural Sciences. Phila
delphia.

New York Academy of Science.

Indiana Academy of Science.

American Academy of Science and Arts,
Boston.

Institute of Biological Research, Balti-
more.

John Crerar Library, Chicago.

Ohio Academy of Science, Columbus.
Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plains.
Michigan Academy of Arts, Science, and
Letters.

University of Michigan.

Minnesota Geological Survey.

New York Zoological Society.

Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology,
Philadelphia.

Portland Society of Natural History.

San Diego Society of Natural History.
Puget Sound Biological Station, Seattle
Missouri Botanic Gardens, St. Louis.
University of Illinois, Urbana.

State College of Washington, Pullman.
Bureau of Standards, Washington.
National Research Council, Washington.
United States National Museum, Washing-
ton.

Public Health Service, Washington.
Peabody Museum of Natural History,
Yale.

Lawde Observatory, Arizona.

The University of California, Los Angeles,
California.

xvui.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

List of Members.

Corresponding Members.

Barton, E. C., A.M.T.C.E.

David, Professor, Sir T. W. E., F.R.S

♦Domin, Dr. K

♦Maitland, A. Gibb, E.G.S.

♦Skeats, Professor E. W.

Ordi

NARY IV

Atherton, D. 0., B.Sc.Agr
Bage, Miss F., M.Sc.

fBagster, L. S., Prof., D.Se.
*f Bailey, J. F.

Ball, L. C., B.E. ..
Barker, F. . .

Barker, G. H.

Beckman, G. H., B.Sc.
♦Bennett, F., B.Sc.
Bennett, F. C., B.Sc.
Bick, E. W.

Blumberg, B., M.Sc.
Bostock, J., M.D., B.S.,
M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.

Brigden, J. B., M.A.

D.P.M

Briggs, Mrs. C.

Brown, Jas., B.A., M.D., Ch.B. (Ec
D.Ph. (Cambridge)

♦Bryan, W. H., M.C., D.Se.

Bryan, W. W., B.Sc., Agr.

Bosworth, F. 0., B.A. . .

Butler- Wood, F., D.D.S,

Buzacott, -J. H., B.Sc. ..

Cameron, Colonel Sir Donald, C.M.G.
D.S.O.

Cameron, W. E., B.A. . .
Carson-Cooling, Geo., M.Sc.

Cayzer, A., B.Sc.

c/o Decimal Assoc., Finsbury Pavement,
Moorgate, London, E.C. 2.

The University, Sydney, N.S.W.

Czech University, Prague
Melville Place, S. Perth, W.A.

The University, Melbourne, Vie.

embers, Etc.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Atherton

Women’s College, Kangaroo Point, Bris-
bane

The University, Brisbane.

Maynard Street, Woolloongabba, S. Bris-
bane

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane
Railway Audit Office, Brisbane
Adelaide Street, Brisbane.

Crook Street, Northgate, Brisbane
State School, Toowong, Brisbane
Pharmacy College, Brisbane
Botanic Gardens, Brisbane
Inkerman Street, South Brisbane

Wickham House, Wickham Terrace, Bris-
bane

Department of Labour and Industry,
Brisbane

First Avenue, Eagle Junction, Brisbane

“ Widmoorene,” Margaret Street, Too-
woomba

The University, Brisbane

Agric. High School and College, Gatton.

Agric. High School and College, Gatton.

Permanent Chambers, Adelaide Street,
Brisbane

Sugar Experiment Station, Meringa, via
Gordon Vale.

Cooksley Street, Hamilton, Brisbane.
Tattong, via Benalla, Victoria
Boys’ Grammar School, Brisbane
The University, Brisbane

fLife Members.

♦Members who have contributed papers to the Society-

LIST OF MEMBERS.

XIX.

Chamberlain, W. J., M.Sc.

Cilento, Phyllis, M.B., B.S.,

Cilento, R. W., M.D., B.S.

Cottrell- Dormer, W., B. Sc. Aar.

Crawford, Miss L.

Cribb, H. G

Croll, Gifford, M.B.

Cue, Miss J., M.Sc.

Cumbrae-Stewart, Professor F. W. S.,
D.C.L., K.C.

♦Denmead, A. K., M.Sc.

Dixon, G. P., C.B.E., M.B., Ch.M.

♦Dodd, Alan P.

Duncan, Miss E., B.Sc. . .

♦Duhig, J. V., M.B

Elliott, C. E. (Senr.)

Epps, A. P.

Evans, C. K., M.Sc.

Fisher, N., B.Sc.

Fison, D. G., B.Sc.

Ferricks, Miss E. M.

Fitzgerald, Miss M., B.Sc.

Ford, F. Campbell

Fortescue, L.

♦Francis, W. D.

Fraser, C. S.

Frew, A. E. Harding, B.E.

Gibson, J. Lockhart, M.D.

♦Gillies, C. D., M.B., B.S., M.Sc.
♦Goddard, Prof. E. J., B.A., D.Sc.
Goldfinch, H. A., D.D.S.

Graff, R., M.B., B.S

♦Grey, Mrs. B. B., F.L.S.

Greene, Miss A . . .

Gross, E. R.

♦Gurney, E. H.

Hall, G

♦Hamlyn-Harris, R., D.Sc.

Hardie, Sir David, M.D., M.S.

♦Hardy, G. H

Harris, V. E. G., B.Sc

Water Supply and Sewerage Department,
Brisbane City Council

487 New Sandgate Road, Clayfield.

Dept, of Health, Canberra, F.C.T.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane

Children’s Hospital, Brisbane
“ Warham,” Quarry Street, Ipswich.
Sherwood, Brisbane

Prickly Pear Lab., Sherwood, Brisbane
The University, Brisbane

Geological Survey, Edward Street, Brisbane

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane

Prickly -Pear Laboratory, Sherwood, Bris
bane

Girls’ Grammar School, Brisbane
Wickham Terrace, Brisbane
356 Queen Street, Brisbane
Sugar Refinery, New Farm
Ipswich Technical College, Ipswich
Staff Quarters, Mt. Isa Mines Ltd., Mt. Isa
O’Connell Street, Kangaroo Pt., Brisbane
Old Sandgate Rd., Eagle Junction, Brisbane
Children’s Hospital, Brisbane

“ Stanford,” Kennedy Terrace, Red Hill,
Brisbane

New Zealand Chambers, 334 Queen St.,
Brisbane

Botanic Gardens, Brisbane

229 Edward Street, Brisbane

T. and G. Buildings, Queen St., Brisbane

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane

Ridge Street, Northgate

The University, Brisbane

414 Sandgate Road, Albion

District Hospital, Alpha

Union Bank of Australia, Broome, W.A.

High School, Wynnum

Manager, W. D. and H. O. Wills Ltd.
Ann Street, Brisbane

Dept, of Agric. and Stock, Brisbane
27 Gladstone Road, South Brisbane

Town Hall, Brisbane
“ Blythsdale,”’ Hamilton, Brisbane
Biology Department, University, Brisbane
The Southport School, Southport

♦Life Members.

♦Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

XX.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

♦Hawken, Professor R. W., B.A., M.E.,
M.Inst.C.E.

♦Henderson, J. B., F.I.C.

♦Herbert, D. A., D.Sc.

Herdsman, L. P. . .

♦Hill, Miss D., M.Sc., Pli.D

♦Hines, H. J., B.Sc

Holdsworth, Miss N. M., B.Sc...

♦Hitchcock, L. E., M.Sc

Hirschfeld, E., M.B

Hirschfield, 0. S., M.B.

Hossfeld, P. S., M.Sc

f Hulsen, R.

Jack, Thos.

Jackson, A. G.

♦Jensen, H. I., D.Sc.

Jones, Miss G. . .

Jones, A. J., M.L.A.

Jones, Inigo

♦Jones, Owen, M.Sc.

♦Jones, T. G. H., D.Sc., A.A.C.I.

Jorgensen, G. H. . .

Just, J. S. . . . .

Kajewski, S. E.

Kemp, J. R.

Kerr, W. H., Ph.D., M.Sc

Knight, C. L.

Kyle, W. M., M.A

♦Lambert, C. A.

♦Legg, J. D. V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S

L’Estrange, W. M.

Lethbridge, Miss M. E. . .

Lewcock, H. K., M.Sc.

♦Longman, H. A., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S. . .
Lowson, Professor J. P., M.A., M.D. . .
Lydon, R. J.

Lynch, L. J., B.Sc. Agr.

♦Mackerras, Mrs. Ian, M.B.

Mandelson, L. E., B.Sc. Agr.

Marks, Hon. Dr.

The University, Brisbane

Government Analyst, Brisbane
Biology Department, University, Brisbane

Government Printing Office, George St.,
Brisbane

Newnham College, Cambridge
The University, Brisbane

C - Q.N. Bank, 8 Princes Street, London,
E.C. 2

Kedron Park Road, Wooloowin
Wickham Terrace, Brisbane
Wickham Terrace, Brisbane
Department of Home Affairs, Canberra
Valley Corner, Brisbane
Cunningham Street, Dalby
Synchronome Co., Elizabeth St., Brisbane
Attewell Street, Nundah
Children’s Hospital
Parliament House, Brisbane

Bower Street, off Gladstone Road, South
Brisbane

Ebun Drive, Ascot, Brisbane
Chemistry Department, The University,
Brisbane

care of Australian Chemical Co, Grey St.,
South Brisbane

Box 1067N., G.P.O., Brisbane
C/- J. M. Newman, Caboolture

Main Roads Commission, Albert Street,
Brisbane

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane

Emmanuel College, Wickham Terrace,
Brisbane

University, Brisbane

care of Bank of N.S.W., Melbourne, Vic.
Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Townsville

Box 546 H, G.P.O., Brisbane
Children’s Hospital, Brisbane
Department of Agriculture, Brisbane
Queensland Museum, Brisbane
“ Inchcolm,” Wickham Terrace, Brisbane
Central Technical College, Brisbane
14 Crowther Street, Lutwyche, Brisbane
Box 109, Canberra, E.C.T.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane

101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane

fLife Members.

♦Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

XXI

Marks, A. H., C.B.E., D.S.O., M.D. . .
♦Marks, E. 0., M.D., B.A., B.E.
♦Massey, Rev. C. H.

Mathewson, J. H. R., M.B., Ch.B.

McDonald, S. F., M.D., M.R.C.P.
McDougall, W. A., B.Sc.

McDowall, Val., M.D.

McKenzie, A. D., M.B., Ch.M.

Meyers, E. S., M.B.

Michael, Rev. N. . .

Moorhouse, F. W., M.Sc.

Morris, L. C., A.M.I.C.E

Morton, C. C., A.C.T.S.M

Morwood, R. B., M.Sc.

Muir, Miss E., B.Sc.

Murphy, Ellis, M.D.

♦Murray, Professor J. K., B.A., B.Sc.Agr.

O’Connor, E. A., M.Sc.

Ogilvie, C., B.E

Parker, Geo., L.D.S. (Eng.), H.D.D.
R.C.S. (Edin.)

Parker, W. R., L.D.S.

♦Parnell, Professor T., M.A.

Payne, W. L.

♦Pearce, Mrs. T. R., M.Sc.

♦Perkins, F. A., B.Sc.Agr.

Phillips, T. J

♦Pound, C. J., F.R.M.S

Preston, G.

Price, T. A., M.B., B.S.

Ranger, W.

♦Reid, J. H

Reye, A. J., M.B.

♦Richards, Professor H. C., D.Sc.

f Riddell, R. M

Ridgeway, J. E. . .

Rimmer, T., M.Sc.

Robertson, W. N., M.B.

Russell, E., M.B., Ch.M.

Schindler, C., B.Sc. Agr.

Scott, Miss F. E., B.Sc.

Sharp, A. F., B.E.

Shaw, B. E., A.M.I.E

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane
101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane
Ekebin, Brisbane

Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace,
Brisbane

“ Fancourt,” Wickham Terrace, Brisbane
Department of Agriculture, Mackay
Preston House. Queen Street, Brisbane
Russell Street, Toowoomba

Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace,
Brisbane

The Rectory, Ayr, North Queensland
21G Latrobe Terrace, Paddington, Brisbane

Department of Public Instruction, George
Street, Brisbane

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane

Department of Agriculture and Stock ,
Brisbane

Girls’ High School, Gympie
97 Wickham Street, Brisbane

Agricultural High School and College,
Gatton

The University, Brisbane
District Engineer, Winton
Derby Street, Highgate Hill, Brisbane

185 Edward Street, Brisbane

The University, Brisbane

Lands Department, Brisbane

Box 487, P.O., Townsville

The University, Brisbane

care of Courier -Mail, Queen St., Brisbane

Bacteriological Institute, Yeerongpilly

Gregory Terrace, Brisbane

Toowoomba

Manager, C.O.D., Turbot Street, Brisbane

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane

97 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane

The University, Brisbane

Department of Public Instruction, Brisbane

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane

University, Brisbane

“ Craigston,” 217 Wickham Terrace,
Brisbane

63 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane
Fruit Inspector, Thulimbah, Southern Line
Scott Road, Herston
Irrigation Commission, College Road, Bris-
bane

Irrigation Commission, College Road, Bris-
bane

fLife Members.

♦Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

XXII.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Shepherd. E. M., 13. E.

Simmond.s, .T. H., M.Sc.

Simmonds, J. H., senr. . .

Simonds, Prof. E. F., M.A., B.Sc., Ph.D.
Sinclair, W. M., M.B.

* Smith, F. B., B.Sc., F.I.C.

Smith, J. H., M.Sc

Steel, W. H., M.B

Steele, Professor B. D.. D.Sc., F.R S.
Stephenson, S., M.A.

Stewart, D., B.V.Sc. . . . .

Stoney, A. J., B.E.E.

Sylow, Paul

Taylor, G. C., M.B., Ch.M.

Theodore, Hon. E. G.

Thompson, C. L., B.D.Sc.

♦Tibbits, P. C.

f Tilling, H. W., M.R.C.S. (Eng.), L.R.C.T.
(Lond.)

Tommerup,

E. C., B.Sc...

♦Tryon, H. .

♦Turner, A.

J., M.D., F.E.S.

Veitch, R.,

B.Sc...

Vickery, J.,

Ph.D.

Waddle, I.,

M.Sc.

Wadley, J.

B

fWalkom, A,

. B., D.Sc. . .

Watkins, S.

B., M.Sc. . .

Wells, W. (

7.

♦White, C. 1

\, F.L.S.

White, E. L. D., B.E. ..

White, M.,

M.Sc., Ph.D.

♦Whitehouse.

. F. W., Ph.D.,

Wiley, W.

J., D.Sc.

Wilson, R.

131 Gladstone Road, South Brisbane

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane

Hillsdon Road, Taringa, Brisbane
University, Brisbane.

Toowoomba

Hutton’s Factory, Zillmere

Dept, of Agric. and Stock, Atherton

Rosemount Hospital, Windsor

The University, Brisbane

Boys’ Grammar School, Brisbane

Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly

The University, Brisbane

Angus Street, Bardon

Children’s Hospital, Brisbane

Commonwealth Offices, Sydney

Club Chambers, Creek Street, Brisbane

Irrigation Commission, College Road^ Brk -
bane

Regent Estate, Batang Malaka, Negri
Sembilam, Fed. Malay States

Gladstone Road, Highgate Hill, Brisbane
131 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane

Department of Agriculture and Stock
Brisbane

Abattoir, Cannon Hill, Brisbane
Brisbane State High School, Musgrave
Park, Brisbane

Salt Street, Albion

Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney
Central Technical College, Brisbane

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane

Government Botanist, Botanic Gardens,
Brisbane

C/- Western Electric Co., 167 Queen Street,
Brisbane

Abattoir, Cannon Hill, Brisbane
Geological Department, University,
Brisbane

C/- Govt. Analyst, Brisbane
Kirkland Avenue, Coorparoo

fLife Members.

♦Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

«

CONTENTS.

VOLUME XLV.

No. 1. — Presidential Address : By T. G.' H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I.

P*ffls

Issued 4th July, 1933 ...

Ml

No. 2.— Notes on Australian Syrphinae (Diptera) ; By G. H. Hardy.
Issued 15th August, 1933 ... . . ...

12-19

No. 3. — Serum Inhibition of Haemolysis : By J. V. Duhig, M. B.
Issued 6th September, 1933

20-22

No. 4. — Two Australian Pandani : By Professor V. Martelli. Issued
22nd November, 1933

23-26

No. 5. — The Genus Pleiogynium in Papua: By C. T. White. Issued
22nd November, 1933

27-28

No. 6. — A Note on Some Preliminary Experiments with Ammonia as
a Lure for the Queensland Fruit Fly : By F. A. Perkins,
B.Sc., Agr and, H. J. G. Hines, B.Sc. Issued 28th Decem-
ber, 1933 .. .. ..

29-

No. 7. — Notes on Australian Muscoidea { Calyptraia) : By G. H. Hardy.
Issued 6th February, 1934

. 30-37

No. 8. — The Constitution of Campnospermonol : By Thomas Gilbert
Henry Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I. Issued 20th February, 1934.,

38-40

No. 9. — New Australian Trypetidae with Notes on Previously
Described Species : By F. A. Perkins, B.Sc. Agr . Issued 22nd

February, 1934 . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-44

No. 10. — Reactions of Tagetonb. Part I : By Thomas Gilbert Henry

Jones, D.Sc ., A.A.C.I. Issued 27th February, 1934 .. .. 45-49

No. 11. — The Problem of the Brisbane Tuff: By Professor H. C.

Richards, D.Sc., and W. C. Bryan , D.Sc. Issued 13th March,

1934.. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. 50-62

No. 12. — The Lower Carboniferous Corals of Australia : By Dorothy
Hill, M.Sc., Ph.D. Issued 25th May, 1934

63-115

Report of the Council

iv.-vi.

Abstract of Proceedings

vn.-xiv.

List of Library Exchanges xv.-xvii.

List of Members . . . . xvni.-xxii.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

QUEENSLAND.

FOR 1934.

VOL. XLVC §

P OCT 15 1935

ISSUED 20tb MAY, 1935,

PRICE ; FIFTEEN SHILLINGS.,

Printed for the Society
by

DAVID WHYTE, Government Printer, Brisbane.

NOTICE TO AUTHORS.

1. Each paper should be accompanied by the author’s name, degrees and official

address.

2. Papers must be complete and in a form suitable for publication when com-

municated to the Society and should be as concise as possible.

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words.

4. Papers should be in double-spaced typescript on one side of the paper with

ample margins.

5. The use of italics in the text should be restricted to generic and specific

names, foreign words and titles of periodicals.

6. The cost of author ’s corrections to proof above what the Council considers

a reasonable amount, must be borne by the author.

7. Unless otherwise specified each author will be supplied with fifty separate

copies of his paper. Any number exceeding this may be obtained at
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8. All references should be listed at the end of each paper and arranged

alphabetically under authors’ names, e.g.,

Keilin, D. (1929) Proc. Boy. Soc. B, vol. 104, p. 207.

Lesage, P. (1895) Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot., vol. 1, p. 309.

The corresponding references in the text should be:

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bromide or gas-light paper.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

QUEENSLAND

FOR 1934.

VOL. XL VI.

ISSUED 20th MAY. 1935.

PRICE ; FIFTEEN SHILLINGS.

Printed for the Society

by

DAVID WHYTE, Government Printer, Brisbane.

The Royal Society of Queensland.

Patron :

HIS EXCELLENCY, LIEUTENANT-COLONEL THE EIGHT HONOUEABLE
SIE LESLIE OEME WILSON, G.C.S.I., G.C.I.E., P.C., C.M.G., D.S.O.

OFFiCERS, i 934- 1 935.

President :

J. S. JUST, M.I.M.E.

V ice- Presidents :

SIE BAPIIAEL CILENTO, Kt., M.D., B.S.
EOBEET YEITCH, B.Se., F.E.S.

Hon. Treasurer: Hon. Secretary:

E. W. BICK. P. A. PEBKINS, B.Sc., Agr.

Hon. Librarian :

L. F. HITCHCOCK, M.Se.

Hon. Editors:

W. H. BEY AN, M.C., D.Sc.
D. A. HEBBEKT, D.Sc.

Members of Council:

L. S. BAGSTEB, D.Sc., H. A. LONGMAN, E.L.S., H. C. EICHABDS, D.Sc.,
J. B, YICKEBY, M.Sc., Ph.D., C. T. WHITE, F.L.S.

Trustees :

F. BENNETT, B.Sc., J. B. HENDEBSON, F.I.C., A. JEFFEBIS TUBNEE, M.D.

Hon. Auditor :

A. J. M. STONEY, B.E.E.

Bankers :

COMMONWEALTH BANK OF AUSTBALIA.

CONTENTS.

VOLUME XL VI.

Pages,

No. 1. — Presidential Address: By E. W. CUent®, M.D., B.S. .. .. 1-17

No. 2. — The Life Cycle and Seasonal History of Pink Wax Scale

(Ceroplastes Rubens) : By B. Blumberg, M.Sc. . . . . 18-32

No. 3. — A Previously Undescribed Dendrobium from Papua: By C. T.

White, F.L.* S. and B. D. Grimes'. ... . . . . . . 33

No. 4. — A Review of the Queensland Charophyta: By H. J. Groves and

G. 0. Allen 34-59

No. 5— An Interpretation of the Silverwood Lucky Valley Upper

Palaeozoic Succession: By A. H. Voisey, M.Sc. .. .. 60-65

No. 6. — Report on Samples of Surface Tertiary Rocks and a Bore
Sample Containing Ostracods from Queensland: By F.
Chapman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-71

No. 7. — The Relative Penetrability of Various Tissues of the Orange
and Banana to Ethylene: By D. A. Herbert, D.Sc. and L. J.

Lynch, B.Se. Agr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-79

No. 8. — Notes on the Genus Ptychosperma in Queensland: By C. T.

White, F.L.S 80-82

No. 9. — Notes on the Geological Structure at Nathan Gorge, in the
Upper Dawson Valley, Queensland: By E. M. Shepherd,

M.E 83-90

No. 10. — Plant Ecological Studies in South-east Queensland: By E. C.

Tommernp, M.Sc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91-118

Abstract op Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . iv.

Publications Received . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxii.

List of Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv.

Vol. XL VI., No. 1.

Proceedings of the Royal
Queensland.

Society of

Presidential Address.

BY

R. W. Cilento, M.D., B.S. (Adel.), D.T.M. & H. (Eng.).

( Read before the Royal Society of Queensland in the absence of the
President by Professor H. C. Richards, 2 6th March, 1934.)

The report which has been submitted to you shows that the work
of the Royal Society during the past year — the fiftieth year of the
Society’s activities — covers a wide field. The volume itself is not
massive, but its interest is many-sided, and it is evidence of a manifold
concern in the various aspects of applied science that goes far beyond
its obvious manifestation.

During the year we have lost three of our members — Dr. T. L.
Bancroft and Messrs. B. Dunstan and D. W. Gaukrodger. They lived
full and useful lives, contributed to scientific knowledge in different
fields — medicine and natural history, mining and geology, and orni-
thology— and have passed on. "We deplore their loss as friends and as
members.

It is a curious and illuminating experience to read through the
titles of the subjects and the names of the authors who have presented
them to this scientific body during the half-century of its existence,
and an outstanding matter of gratification to know that we still have
with us some of those who were foundation members at that meeting
in January, 1884, from which it originated. They have honoured us
with membership a life long; the Society honours them with grateful
recognition and life membership.

If the blood of the martyr who dies for his faith is the seed of
the Church, it is no less true that the devotion of those who live for
Science is the vital pulse of progress.

v I am honoured that it has fallen to my lot to give the Jubilee
Address of the Royal Society of Queensland, though I regret ante-
cedently the discursive nature of what must be an unscientific essay ;
I regret, too, that my frequent absences on official business have handi-
capped me in the full discharge of the duties of the post of President
up to this present necessity; but I am glad that they have given me
a legitimate opportunity to express my gratitude and appreciation for
the continual co-operation and loyal assistance of the members of the
Council and, in particular, of the Secretary.

R.S.— B

2

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

JUBILEE ADDRESS.

In the Brisbane Courier of 9th January, 1884, there appeared this
announcement : —

4 ‘The inaugural meeting of the Royal Society of Queensland
was held yesterday evening in the Laboratory of the Museum,
when a large gathering of members was present, together with
His Excellency Sir Anthony Musgrave, the Patron of the Society.
The President, the Honourable A. C. Gregory, read an interesting
address which will be found in another column, and among the
speakers were Sir Anthony Musgrave, the Hon. J. Douglas, and
Mr. A. J. Duffield.”

Gregory was, of course, Gregory the explorer, and the meeting
was held in the laboratory of the Museum, among other reasons, because
the Royal Society had developed largely from the pre-existing Philo-
sophical Society (which had been materially responsible for the founda-
tion of the Museum itself), whose members contributed fourteen of
our original number.

Prom the "other column” to which reference is made we learn
that the Royal Society had selected as its field of endeavour, "Natural
Science and its Practical Applications,” and the young and energetic
secretary of the new body was our old friend Mr. Henry Tryon.

In his opening address the Honourable A. C. Gregory referred to
that active development seen in all branches of human industry and
knowledge (which, in retrospect, was indeed so characteristic a feature
of that period), and mentioned in particular the recent advances in
the knowledge of electricity which had permitted the introduction of
the telegraph, the telephone, and was attracting attention towards the
possibilities in respect of electric light and electric motors. Some,
said Gregory, had even been led to suppose that electricity would
supersede steam power and gas light. He mentioned, nevertheless, that
the public, and particularly the working public, was very slow to
accept the advances and advantages of Science.

" ‘I have seen,’ he said, 'crowds of men assembling to
destroy threshing machines ; have known them to disable reaping
and other labour-saving machines under the impression that
machinery decreases the demand for manual labour ; and it is
not so many years since agricultural machines, railways, and
sewing machines were held to be equally subversive to the public
weal.’”

It is somewhat startling to realise that we have with us to-night
men who span the gap between us and this man who had actually seen
that destruction of threshing machines and the end-results of those
Luddite riots which to us seem almost mediaeval in their remoteness!
It is equally strange to realise what contrasts are provided by a review
of 1884 and the decade that followed in terms of the present day.

I ask your indulgence if my address should seem rambling and
inconsequential, for the events of the day betray, more, perhaps, than
anything else, the possibilities and the handicaps of Science, its study,
and its application. Imagine the profound changes that have occurred
in the everyday environment of the individual during these two
generations !

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

3

Gregory’s reference to the possibilities of electric light arose from
the fact that the Government Printing Office here had just been lighted
by electricity, a circumstance regarded as a most freakish experiment,
extravagantly wasteful of public money, by people who had seen only
within the fewest previous years the lighting of several of Queensland ’&
provincial cities for the first time with gas. Electricity was considered
a scientific toy, and when, on 13th March, 1884, the Courier offices were
lighted with electricity also, it was regarded as an affectation that would
doubtless recoil upon the heads of the vainglorious promoters.

It had been in 1877 that the first motor-car had been tried out
abroad, but no fuel had been found suitable for its utilisation, and
conventional patriarchs were thundering sternly about the wrath of
God which would most certainly fall upon those impious innovators
who harnessed the lightning to the service of glare and speed!

It was an age of experiment and transition; of age-old conventions
rejected and defended, shibboleths in purple and vellum, truth in
defiant rags and illicit printing presses; the sap of a new Spring was
running through the dry wood of civilisation with a ruffle of immature
green on every branch.

The whole world was being parcelled out with avidity in the search
for new markets for a continually growing industrial output, and
critical occasions followed every new endeavour.

England had just finalised the trouble arising from the brutal
Phoenix Park murders of 1882, in Ireland, and the Irish Land Act,
among other things, was being introduced in the hopeless quest of
‘"pacification.’’ A policy of pacification was also being attempted in
Egypt, where the army of ITicks Pasha had been annihilated in
November, 1883, at Obeid; and where, before 1884 had run its course,
“Chinese” Gordon, waiting hopelessly for the arrival of relief forces,
was to die under the spears of the troops of El Mahdi. In South
Africa, Cetewayo was producing difficulties little short of war; and
the Boers were increasingly dissatisfied with their Convention, which
was to lead to the Boer War in a further fifteen years. The conflicting
claims of the French, the English, and the Egyptians were producing
a crisis in respect of the Suez Canal, and de Lesseps was speculating
on the possibilities of Panama, a project that was to break him, to
cost the lives of 30,000 Frenchmen, and to yield only to the microscope,
quinine, and mosquito conquest. In India, the Ilbert Bill, giving power
to native officials, had raised a storm of opposition and warning that
is curiously interesting to-day, when, as a recent cable informs us,
three Indians are acting as Vice-Governors of three great Indian States
during the absence of the English appointees.

France, who, after the death of Gambetta, had appeared to invite
the hostility of several European countries, was engaged upon a policy
of active conquest and annexation in Asia and in Africa. She was
pushing into the Congo, was involving Madagascar more and more in
the toils that were to bind her as a colony, and had seized Tonkin
which was to be the basis of the great province of French Indo-China.
She had, moreover, informed China that she would hold her responsible
for the costs of any war that might result from her natural indignation.
Her activities in regard to Formosa and Siam at a later period were
to produce a serious situation with Great Britain. She was active
also in the Pacific.

4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Germany, too, was rapidly extending her activities in the Pacific,
and was watching with a keen eye the internecine struggle in Samoa,
of which, with America, she was soon to take advantage. In Russia
outrages upon the Jews had created a body of antagonistic European
opinion intensified by the active plotting that was going on in the
Balkans regarding the Danubian provinces. In South America a fierce
and merciless war between Peru and Chile, late allies for emancipation
from Spanish rule, had drawn to a close ; while the United States of
America was beginning dimly to apprehend her future greatness,
though her pre-occupations were as yet rather of the domestic type.
(We note, for example, a report that the New England Reform League
had seriously undertaken the correction of a surprising increase in
divorce which had lately made its appearance throughout the United
States!)

The white man’s star was everywhere dominant: his ships, his
machines, his weapons, his culture encompassed the earth, and his
power partitioned it directly or expressed itself in the indirect fiction
of extra-territoriality. The subjects of Great Britain, for example, in
1884 were under the protection of their consuls abroad in Eastern
lands, free from arrest, their houses inviolate, and their property free
from taxation. We have seen the turn of the wheel that led to the
end of this extra-territorial jurisdiction in Japan in 1899, in Turkey
in 1923, in Siam in 1927, in Persia in 1928, and more recently in China.

Indeed, side by side with imperialistic adventure, there has grown
up, as international relationships became increasingly complex, a body
of world opinion demanding an equitable and accepted method of
settling disputes of a legal nature and a demand that nations should be
prepared to submit their causes readily to arbitration, and should
loyally follow the decisions of what, in effect, is an international
judiciary — the germ of universal co-operation.

Prom the Hague Conference of 1899 to that of 1907, with their
conventions dealing specifically with the subjects of good offices and
mediation, international commissions of inquiry, and international
arbitration, the war of 1914-18 led abruptly to the covenant contained
in the Peace Treaty of Versailles (1919), the League of Nations (1920),
and the Permanent Court of International Justice — august tribunals
seeking a seat of security amidst the froth of human prejudices and
particular interests. Can the logic of Science, in the final analysis,
be the logic also of conduct ? ,

But let us turn again to 1884 and the local and general affairs
of Queensland and of Australia. The period was one of partial
drought — so severe in January that what was described as '‘liquid
mud” was. sold at Muttaburra for 6s. 6d. per barrel. In the agricul-
tural and pastoral industries, as a consequence, prospects were doubtful,
though farmers and squatters were optimistic. In spite of heavy
floods in February the State was actually entering upon a series of
poor years that were to culminate in the disastrous climax of the
1900-02 period. The mining fields were booming and between 500,000
and 600,000 oz. of gold were being won annually from the country.

These facts together had a profound effect upon policy questions.
Population poured into the country, but rejected the fields for the
mines. The city and the growing coastal towns were flooded with

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

5

incoming Europeans, Asiatics, and South Sea Islanders seeking employ-
ment, with consequent chaos and racial conflicts. Conditions were so
bad that from the point of view of health these years are called the
4 ‘Dreadful Eighties,” and in the actual year of the founding of this
Society the death rate per 100,000 for Queensland was 50 per cent,
in excess of that of the other States !

From the disorderly clamour of the times emerge several distinct
demands: A “White Australia,” a Federated Australia, and an Aus-
tralia dominant in the South-West Pacific on the one hand, and, on
the other, local government and self-determination, freedom of con-
tract, unity among the labouring classes, and betterment of conditions,
of facilities, and of communications. It was fortunate that the occasion
produced the men.

Sir Thomas Mcllwraith had seen, in 1883, the defeat of his Trans-
continental Pailway policy and had resigned his power to an equally
dynamic opponent, Mr. (afterwards Sir) Samuel Griffith. Mcllwraith
had left the impress of definite power and personality on Queensland,
and had for the first time guided her into prominence. It was his
pardonable ambition to make her the foremost colony of the Australasian
group, and the people of the State had been inspired to a, new
optimism by the great increase of coastal, intercolonial, and overseas
steam vessels, by new postal facilities that made up for the defects of
the British India Company’s services and multiplied and strengthened
the links with other lands, by the great masses of white men who were
immigrating into the country, and by a positive crop of newly inaugu-
rated railway lines which were reaching tentative fingers along the
coasts and towards the isolated inland communities and were ultimately
to make an enormous difference to the distribution of the population.

In Brisbane itself the new Treasury building was going up, with
the usual squabbles and recriminations as to the accepted plan. The
Gold Creek Reservoir was about to be built to supplement the supply
from the Enoggera Reservoir — both soft waters and plumbi-solvent,
of which we shall have more to say later. (It has often been suggested
that the water was little used in these early days owing to the high
degree of organic matter contained and its consequential foul odour.
Though complaints were frequent, especially towards the end of each
year, nevertheless the water returns for 1882-3 amounted to £14,395,
and there was £427 charged on account of water supplied to public
offices. This was a very reasonable average for a city of the size of
Brisbane at that time.)

Arrangements were being made to provide a tramway for the
city, and a correspondent had suggested that, on account of the
importance of Queen street as the main thoroughfare of the city and
its liability to congestion, the trams should follow a parallel path in
the streets parallel to the main street, connecting at Circular Q;uay
and also at the eastern end.

On 20th May, 1884, the first successful shipment of frozen meat
to meet a new demand had been made to England by the “Dorunda”
from the Queensport Works, Brisbane. (On the 14th December this
vessel returned with cholera on board. This was the only occasion on
which cholera has been brought into an Australian port in this form.)
Recently we saw despatched the first shipment of chilled meat to meet
a newer demand.

6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

We note also in passing the first direct shipment of sugar from
Queensland to England (9-J tons) , which was sent from the Pioneer Works
by the “Merkara,” on 9th October, 1885. By 1891 the average ship-
ment to England in the four months of the season was 1,000 tons.
The situation to-day is one with which you are all familiar. On
17th May, 1893, the Ipswich cotton factory made the first piece of twill
sheeting ever manufactured in Australia.

The estimated population of the whole State at 31st December,
1883, was 248,255 — not much more than two-thirds of the present
population of Brisbane alone — but such was the attraction of the gold
finds that within five years it had increased over 50 per cent, to a
total of 384,000.

Immigrants were pouring into the country, but there were many
complaints from the established settlers that under no persuasion would
they leave the cities to go into the undeveloped outback and, as a matter
of fact, this was not surprising when it is considered that the immi-
grants were as a rule totally unfitted for outback labour, a type of
work foreign to their education and upbringing. Unemployment in
the city was consequently rife, and this led, as has been mentioned,
to fierce agitation against the kanaka and Chinese labour which also was
pouring into the country. The Polynesian labour trade which had
been and was to be severely censured by Royal Commissions had produced
the impression upon the public mind that it was a disgrace to the
colony which no restrictive measures would ever deprive of its inhuman
features. Though strict regulations had been introduced with regard
to ‘ ‘ blackbirding, ” little attempt to enforce them was made or was,
indeed, possible. The Queensland vessels broke the law with greater
willingness because their reputation was continually besmirched by
the murderous activity of Fijian, Samoan, Hawaiian, German, and
American slaving vessels which, being utterly uncontrolled, recruited
with the aid of liquor and firearms with impunity, and for whose
atrocities and depredations Queensland crews, some of them guiltless,
suffered in public esteem and also occasionally in loss of life and loss
of vessel.

A young Melbourne University student, in 1884, trenchantly
criticised the whole system of black labour in Queensland with a
wealth of detailed evidence and a series of sound recommendations
for the correction of abuses. Had Queensland recognised the
able administrative mind at her disposal at that juncture a very ugly
chapter of her history might- have been cut short, but it saw only a
‘'university student ” and an “academic theorist aiming at a little
cheap notoriety.5’ Moreover, it said, was not the matter in the hands
of “practical-minded business men” who had no theories to air, nor
stupid sentimentalities about the black, nor about the relation between
the work obtainable from him, the food he got, and the living -con-
ditions he preferred and enjoyed? So said the Premier; so said the
professional paragraphists who provided the daily opiate for the public
conscience . then as now ; and George Ernest Morrison passed on and
out of Queensland life to become one of the ablest British administra-
tive officers China ever knew. Every year in Canberra, at the cost of
citizens of the oldest and greatest Empire of the East, Australia and
China recall in unison the memory of “Chinese” Morrison, whom

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

7

Queensland rejected as too academic-minded for a business that should,
it was tacitly felt, be ignored or excused rather than submitted to
examination for correction.

Was it not John Stuart Mill who wrote —

“In sober truth, whatever homage may be professed or
even paid to real or supposed mental superiority, the general
tendency of things throughout the world is to render mediocrity
the ascendant powrer among mankind.”

Sir Samuel Griffith had meanwhile rejected the offer of coolie
labour indentured from India, because already the coloured labour
problem was assuming a gravity that must inevitably lead to trouble,
and the Brisbane Courier of the 2nd January, 1884, summed up the
general feeling of the community when it said —

“On the other hand the alternative of flooding the colony
with Malays, Chinese, and other Asiatic races without either
restriction or regulation is one greatly to be deprecated. Yet
this is what has really begun in the North, and is assuming such
formidable proportions that the Government, despite their
determination not to touch the question, will be forced by public
opinion to take effective measures of some kind. . . . What-

ever happens, it is certain that the public of the colony will not
permit its hospitals and gaols to be filled with the scum of
'eastern civilisation,’ which Europeans justifiably term 'bar-
barism.’ ”

In the rank growth of colonisation, prudence demanded a heavy weeding.

The increasing agitation against coloured labour showed itself from
1884 onwards in violent anti-Chinese meetings at Charters Towers,
Croydon, and elsewhere, and in menacing attacks upon concentrations
of native people which led the Chinese of Mackay to petition to the
Chinese Ambassador for protection in 1886. In the following year the
agitation reached a new height in Brisbane and continued for twelve
months, and in 1887 it culminated in a riot when the windows of all
the Chinese shops were smashed and the large body of Chinese living
at Kelvin Grove petitioned Pekin. So serious did the matter of Asiatic
intrusion become in all States that in 1888 it brought Australia closer
to armed resistance to Great Britain than ever before or since, and
Sir Henry Parkes had the wdiole country behind him when he publicly
declared that the Australians were not school children who could be
called to account by the Prime Minister of England, and added —

“Neither for Her Majesty’s ships of war nor for Her
Majesty’s representatives, nor for the Secretary of State, do we
intend to turn aside from our purpose, which is to terminate
the landing of the Chinese on these shores for ever.”

In that year the matter went to the English courts in connection
with the case Musgrove v. Chun Teeong Toy. The respondent was a
Chinese of Hong Kong who claimed the right to land in Australia in
defiance of the Collector of Customs of Victoria and had gained his
point in the Victorian courts. But the legal right of Victoria, or any
land, to exclude any foreign national was affirmed by the decision of
the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council which declared that neither

8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

in law nor comity is a State prohibited from limiting or regulating
the admission of aliens into its own territory. Exclusion Acts were
immediately introduced and enforced in all States, and “White Aus-
tralia” passed from the ambit of theoretical abstraction to the verge
of the practical.

One stage in the endless struggle towards that security which is
the goal of all men was achieved ; another, longer and as bitter, was in
active progress. I mention it because at that stage a description of
the terrain is more illuminating than the players themselves in
demonstrating our growth towards adolescence and maturity.

On 1st September, 1884, the first Trades and Labour Council for
Queensland was formed in Brisbane, and active agitation upon labour
matters began to crystallise towards effective representation of labour
in industry and in Parliament.

Throughout the whole fifty years of our existence as a Society
this search for a modus vivendi has gone on with increasing intensity.
Adequately presented, it was apparent that civilisation needed organisa-
tion and that this age of machinery and this untouched country offered
extraordinary facilities for experimental legislation along democratic
lines. The correction of the disparity between production and distribu-
tion, between available employment and available labour, the ideal of
regular work and utilised leisure appealed to the enlightened as
attainable objectives.

In 1893 financial disaster swallowed up dissension in a universal
distress : in April there was an orgy of bank closings, the greatest flood
in Brisbane’s history marked the same year, and on 9th May a relief
scheme was introduced by which one week’s rations might be won
by one day’s work. Between July and December a further shearers’
strike — one of the disastrous series of the ’nineties — was fomented*
which resulted eventually in the passing of a most drastic Peace Pre-
servation Act, with extraordinary powers and penalties, carried amidst
scenes unparalleled in Parliament up to that time.

Thirty years have passed, and to-day the opposing parties, almost
unrecognisable as the direct descendents of their prototypes, gaze
somewhat blankly at each other across a waste of economic panaceas,
realising, perhaps, as Goethe says —

“How difficult it is to get men to balance present sacrifice
with a future advantage .... to get advice listened to,
especially by the many, who are sensible enough in matters from
day to day, but can seldom see beyond the morrow, and if it
come to a point where in some general arrangement one will
gain and another will lose, they find it impossible to strike a
balance. ’ ’

But again this discursive summary of the environment in which
our Society has lived its life tempts me to digress unpardonably.

To return to Queensland in 1884: there were three further causes,
already mentioned, dear to the public heart — new States and local
determination, the federation of all the States, and a growing
Imperialism in respect of the Pacific.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

9

The agitation for separation of the Central and Northern provinces
of Queensland was one resisted by the South of Queensland with the
same violence and very much the same arguments as had caused such
indignation in Brisbane when advanced in New South Wales prior to
1859 against the separation of Queensland from that State. Shrewd
advantage was taken of the local jealousies of individual coastal towns
and of the lack of knowledge of political manoeuvring displayed by
the exponents of Separation. In 1890, with better organisation, pro-
jects for the separation of Central and Northern Queensland actually
reached Parliament.

Sir Samuel Griffith advanced a Decentralisation Scheme to solve
all difficulties, but it was defeated by the House because of the powers
which it proposed to confer upon provincial parliaments. On 23rd June,
1892, he presented again his Provincial Separation Scheme, for three
autonomous provinces with a central government. The scheme was
lost by an amendment which insisted upon two provinces only — a North
and a South — and this compromise being unsatisfactory to all, local
jealousies were easily worked upon to defeat the whole scheme, which
was thrown out by the Upper House. A further attempt to obtain
Central Separation was negatived in 1893, and the scheme lost standing,
save for an occasional murmur of revival.

Federation was helped by several factors of which some were at
the outset accidental.

On 23rd October, 1884, the establishment of a Protectorate over
British New Guinea (now the Territory of Papua) which was soon
to ripen into annexation signalised the inglorious termination of the
bold venture of Mcllwraith, who had annexed the whole of Eastern New
Guinea in 1883 only to have his action disavowed by Great Britain.
It is common to assume that England was entirely at fault in this
venture, but, as Ernest Scott points out, the blame was at least partly
Australian.

Prevost-Paradol, a French author who wrote on the French
colonies, predicted in 1868 that —

“Some day a new Monroe Doctrine would prevent old
Europe, in the name of the united states of Australia, from
setting foot upon a single isle of the Pacific.’7

But though a colonial convention meeting in Sydney in 1883 did
enter its protest against any foreign power being permitted to acquire
fresh territory in the Pacific south of the Equator, and though at various
times the separate States advocated the annexation of Melanesia and
of Polynesia in a sweeping resolution or so, the future interest of
Australia in the three great strings of islands powdered over the seas
parallel to her eastern coast was lost in a mass of local interests, most
trivial but more immediate.

Theoretically the coast of Eastern Papua was British from 1793,
when two merchant adventurers of the East India Company annexed
it; or from 1846, when Lieutenant Yule, in H.M.S. “Bramble,” hoisted
the Union Jack; or from 1873, when Captain Moresby, in H.M.S.
“Basilisk” took possession pending the decision of the British Govern-
ment. Had there been a clear intimation of Australia’s desire to acquire
the land at that juncture there was nothing to prevent our obtaining

10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

the whole of the area not occupied by the Dutch, but some of the
colonies were lukewarm, others feared the cost, and even Queensland
was so little apprehensive that Governor Cairns was able to write —

“But little interest is taken as yet in the destiny of New
Guinea by either the Ministry or the outside public of the
colony.”

In 1876 gold was discovered in Papua, and in 1877 a Government
office established to protect British interest — in Fiji! Queensland’s
representations fell on deaf or indifferent ears, and McXlwraith’s coup
d’etat of 4th April, 1893, was promptly disavowed.

When, under the persistent pressure of the whole of the Australian
Colonies, the British Cabinet had decided on annexation, a conference
was called by Bismarck, and the British vessel that was to make the
annexation was temporarily held up, but while the conference was
actually in progress a German vessel was speeding to plant her flag
along the north-east coast and archipelago. It was not until September,
1914, that Australia was to win back by force of arms and by the first
Australian blood shed in the Great War the territory that was hers
by exploration, exploitation, and natural propinquity. To-day she
holds under mandate in the Territory of New Guinea and as a possession
in the Territory of Papua the two areas which together Mcllwraith
boldly claimed in 1883. Though his action was disavowed there is no
doubt that it had been potent for good. It put Australia on the inter-
national map. It resulted in France being warned off the New Hebrides
(which she purposed to annex) and produced so general a development
of indignant Australian national feeling that the federation of the
colonies assumed an aspect of popular urgency.

Parkes’s suggestion for the creation of a Federal Council was put
into concrete shape by Griffith, and a Bill authorising the establishment
of such a Council was passed by the Imperial Parliament in 1885. It
gave power to the six Australian Colonies and also to New Zealand
and Fiji to pass Acts enabling the colonies to send two representatives
each to a Federal Council. Fiji sent her representatives to the first
meeting in 1886, but not subsequently. New Zealand never participated,
and the defection of New South Wales shortly afterwards ruined the
scheme.

Parkes reopened the Federal question in 1889, and in 1890 succeeded
in bringing together a conference of Ministers to consider means of
preparing a Constitution. This resulted in the holding of the first
Australasian Federal Convention in Sydney in 1891, which prepared
the first draft Constitution but failed to impress itself upon the people
of the various colonies and seems to have resulted in failure. Popular
leagues were formed to advance the common cause and a conference
of these bodies held at Corowa in 1895. From the initiation of this
scheme, in 1893, the Federal movement marched to irresistible victory.
The Convention held three sessions on the draft of the 1891 model,
and was finally successful in winning an Australian-wide approval
and an Imperial sanction that became operative on New Year’s Day,
1901.

I have deliberately emphasised the march of local and general
events rather than the progress of scientific achievement or its applica-
tion in order to show how definitely that epoch was one of transition —
of discarded beliefs and relationships and of new individuality and
experiment.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

11

The medical picture was no less arresting, no less heartening in
the wealth of its discoveries, no less puzzling in the uncertainty of its
ultimate problems. The imperialistic progress of our culture was
tremendously assisted by the new study of bacteriology and by the
newer branch of tropical medicine and hygiene. In 1872 Lewis, in
India, discovered that the microfilaria lived normally in the blood of
persons infected with filariasis and the fever that accompanied it, and,
in 1876-7, Dr. Bancroft, the second President of our Society, discovered
the mature filaria associated with his name. In 1873 Obermeier saw
first the spirochsete that is the essential cause of relapsing fever, and,
in 1874, Hansen demonstrated the bacillus of leprosy. In 1878 Manson,
the “Father of Tropical Medicine,” effected a revolution in medical
thought by demonstrating that a mosquito — an insect — was the indis-
pensable vector that conveyed filariasis from man to man, and thus
for the first time introduced into medical and scientific thought the
enormous range of possibilities associated with that discovery.

“From 1880 to 1894 there were determined among other
things the causative organisms of suppuration, typhoid fever
(1880), malaria (1880), glanders (1882), tuberculosis (1882),
cholera (1883), diphtheria (1883-4), tetanus (1884), undulant
(Malta) fever (1887), cerebro-spinal meningitis (1887), and
plague (1894) ; and man, running hotfoot in the sudden con-
sciousness of victory, soon discovered how to outwit Nature by
protective inoculation against anthrax, tetanus, hydrophobia,
cholera, diphtheria, and typhoid.

“Three years later (1897) Shiga and Kruse had detected
the germ cause of bacillary dysentery, and Tictin had found that
relapsing fever was conveyed by the bed bug, the louse and the
tick being incriminated also later. But in that year (1897-8)
Ronald Ross, on Manson ’s advice and with his encourage-
ment, finally demonstrated the role of the mosquito in the trans-
mission of malaria, and for the first time laid down the measures
that would ultimately vanquish that 'principal and gigantic
ally of barbarism.’ ”

But Queensland was fortunate indeed. The year of the foundation
of our Society saw one of the last of the epidemics of Asiatic cholera
sweep across Asia and Southern Europe, to revive in 1892-4, and to
produce a few sporadic outbreaks in Russia in 1905 and 1908-10. In
all Australia, where the results might have been so disastrous, the
slow transport of those days and our consequent isolation saved us from
any threat but that visit of the “Dorunda” in 1884, to which reference
has already been made. Malaria, which had rendered uninhabitable
many of the richest parts of the East, was introduced to these shores
only a few years before its cause was discovered, and only- became of
importance when the means for its prevention were already recognised.
Smallpox, the dysenteries, plague, and other destructive diseases had
found no permanent footing in this virgin continent, and the tide of
colonisation that crept through Queensland met only difficulties inci-
dental to its ignorance of the new climate and to the faulty living
conditions to which its people clung (and cling).

It is true that while the country had been flooded with kanaka and
Chinese labour these, as usual, had brought with them the diseases
incidental to the low economic standards of life and the high disease
incidence in their countries of origin — leprosy, dysentery, hookworm,
malaria, filaria, and so forth — and some remained endemic.

12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

And Brisbane, itself, was remarkable for the low state of its sani-
tation which, in the heyday of immigration and mining, was chaotic.
The drains and earth closets were shamefully neglected, and were a
source of continual nuisance and indignant agitation. The Brisbane
City Council of that day, in spite of huge piles of rubbish and filth
that, it is said, smelled to high heaven outside the very windows of
the Council chamber, announced that their inspectors had failed to
find evidence of any nuisance and that they, themselves, were quite
satisfied with the provision made for the health of the community.

Immigrant vessels, such as the “Berwick Law,” were continually
arriving grossly infected with typhoid and typhus, and quarantine
was almost a routine matter in some degree. Typhoid became
exceedingly rampant throughout the country, and many of the anti-
quated doctors of the day struggled hard against the suggestion that
the disease was due to germs. In fact, the evidence on that head given
before a Royal Commission is a matter of the utmost astonishment to
a reader of to-day. It need scarcely be added that the standard of
the medical profession was extremely low. The scrutiny of degrees
and credentials was perfunctory, though from 1884, the year of the
founding of the Medical School at the Sydney University, popular
agitation for the examination of qualifications and legislation for the
exclusion of fraudulent degrees and the regulation of quackery were
more favourably regarded. Bancroft had advocated a University in
1885 in his Presidential Address, and 1910 saw its partial achievement,,
but much yet remains to be done.

The medical problems of Queensland were large and vague, like
the great plains of the State. Except in a few instances they still
remain incompletely defined, incompletely examined, and incompletely
controlled. Perhaps there is no handicap so greatly felt and regretted
in this respect as the absence of a medical school — the absence of
any peg on which to base medical knowledge and research — to act as
a continual source of inspiration to graduates of its own and as a
stepmother to the graduates from other States to whom we are content
to-day to entrust our health.

Hookworm, leprosy, filariasis, sporadic malaria in the Far North,
undifferentiated coastal fevers (including at least five and probably
seven separate entities), aboriginal diseases, the trachoma of the edge
of outback, the chronic nephritis of young people in Brisbane, and
the food deficiencies that hamper the West, the North, and half Brisbane
itself are more than incidentals — some of them are strategic posts held
against white survival. Of hookworm we need not speak, malaria is a
latent problem, filariasis a widespread but relatively unimportant
coastal relic of the South Sea Islanders, but food deficiency is
fundamental.

I have no personal doubt, and some actual evidence, that a food
factor affects the incidence of trachoma here, as it affects eye diseases
in the Pacific, and that it is disguised behind many a diagnosis of
“mild lead-poisoning” in this very city, apart from all the ravages of
actual dietetic insufficiency in quality and quantity in the West and
North.

When, fifty years ago, scientists began to capture and identify, one
by one, the germ-causes of diesases, it seemed that it would be but a
few years before each was determined, an anti-serum prepared for

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

ia

every one, and mankind freed from the menace of disease for ever.
Jnst in the same way, as Professor Parnell pointed out in his Presi-
dential Address of 1929, it seemed in 1881, when J. J. Thomson proved
theoretically that a moving charged particle possesses additional kinetic
energy and therefore additional mass by virtue of its electric charge,,
that it was but a step to the assumption that all mass was electrical in
origin. But Lorentz’s subsequent experiments, and then those of
Einstein, to the astonishment of those who looked already for an ever-
increasing simplification that would explain the more complex in terms,
of the less, actually revolutionised the foundations of classical physics.

'‘Mass lost its essential character of constancy and matter
ceased to be a fundamental entity, time and space could no
longer be regarded as having independent existence, and our
three-dimensional space, with time as an independent variable,
was replaced by a four-dimensional world .... in which
only the highly expert mathematician can find his way. ”

So it was also in the speculative and experimental realm oi
medicine. Into what had appeared the clear-cut field of bacteriology
came every element of confusion and modification, from individual
immunisation or susceptibility to the new studies of endocrinology,
dietetics, and mental hygiene ; time and space factors, variable virulence
and cyclic epidemicity; virus diseases, bacteriophages, and many
another.

In 1925, in New Guinea, we found that cod-liver oil doubled the
healing rate of the tropical ulcer (the commonest of sores when food-
stocks are low in quantity or quality), and that eye diseases on the
north coast. of New Britain that often went on to blindness yielded at
once to the same treatment. Madmen running amok were controlled,
not by violence, but by quinine, a dozen apparently separate crippling
disorders responded to intravenous injection of organic arsenic, and
mass treatment for hookworm halved the death-rate for pneumonia.

Again, to quote Parnell, "the loss of the illusion of definiteness and
reality results in a wider and clearer vision” — at any rate where the
vision is trained to observation.

The lead problem of Brisbane is an intriguing example. In the
early days of this Society plumbism was observed by one of our oldest
members, Dr. Jefferis Turner, and it began to assume almost epidemic
proportions. Twenty years later Dr. Hopkins suggested, and Dr.
Lockhart Gibson, as a result of experiment, decided that white lead
paint was the most easily accessible source of the poison.

Immediately prior to the detection of the earliest cases there was
a wide increase in the reticulation and distribution of the potentially
plumbi-solvent water of Enoggera and the newly-opened (1885) Gold
Creek Reservoir. In 1916 the hard water of the River Stanley
increasingly hardened the soft water of the other reservoirs and
diminished their plumbi-solveney, and in 1921-22, following the appoint-
ment and special activities of a trained water-chemist, lead-poisoning
almost disappeared. More and more of the diminishing cases became
those demonstrating papilloedema — usually the resuP of massive dosage
with lead.

14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

In 1930, in response to a claim that 150 young persons per year
were dying as a result of lead-poisoning, an investigation was instituted,
and from that year to March, 1932, not one new case of frank plumbism
with paralysis came to observation, though there was no apparent
change in respect of the accessibility of desiccated lead paint, and 80
per cent, of Brisbane houses still showed 35 to 55 per cent, of white
lead on their outside walls — the stories of sellers of “non-poisonous”
paint to the contrary notwithstanding. It had been postulated and
accepted that the lead was conveyed to the mouth by nail-biting and
thumb-sucking, but investigation showed that at least 13 per cent, of
school children (and of hospital out-patient children 20 per cent.) were
nail-biters — without any sign of plumbism — and that there was no
lodgment for lead under a nail bitten, as these were, to the quick.

It is not asserted that there were no cases where lead paint was
the cause — quite the contrary, there were many histories where it could
not have been anything else — but a further review rendered a picture
much more complex.

There were two types of cases: one series where lead ingested over
a long period in minute doses had produced a slow poisoning in cases
where there was a familial kidney defect, familial syphilis, or where
the violence of the toxin of scarlet fever, measles, or diphtheria had
produced antecedent vascular damage. These cases appeared to
diminish in rough approximation to the diminution of plumbi-solvent
water. But there were cases of a second series which were related to
a calcium deficiency in the diet (which, indeed, may have been a factor
in the first also, but evidence was insufficient).

Pregnant women sometimes demand chalk, or plaster, or hair, or
bite their nails to the quick, and hens eat their feathers because they
lack calcium. In Brisbane a considerable series of investigations into
the dietaries of out-patient children indicated a marked lack of calcium
owing to the restricted use of milk and the non-availability of greens
in cities like Brisbane and other industrialised towns. (Spinach, for
example, is unobtainable, lettuce and other salad greens are poor and
little used, cabbages and tomatoes, the only greens available with any
degree of frequency have their own dangers because of the lead arsenate
used to protect them from leaf -eating pests.)

In the experience of my wife and myself a correspondingly high
degree of calcium deficiency is found among children here. It begins
when they cease breast-feeding, and is definite from the age of 1|- to
3 years and onwards. This is certainly the age, as lead protagonists
have pointed out, when the children are “kept on verandahs,” and
“cling to the painted railings.” It is also the age when they pick with
avidity at plaster and paint (both lead paint and “ non-poisonous ”
paint) to supply their deficiency. Doubtless, like the “crib-biters”
of the United States of America, one here and there gets frank
plumbism in this way, if his enthusiasm is equal to it, and these,
perhaps, include, as mentioned above, the “eye-cases” (papillcedema,
&c.) so often described by Dr. Lockhart Gibson as following massive
doses of lead. Several such are recorded by me from previous clinical
notes.

In my interim report I wrote that in an environment where all,
if any, must ingest minute doses of lead, there must be some selective
factor of damage to account for those cases in the community which

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

15

demonstrated frank symptoms of plumbism, and I proposed, as above,
that this was damage resulting from hereditary familial tendency (30 per
cent.), the exanthemata, congenital syphilis, or other depressive factor.

I pointed out also that the vast majority of cases diagnosed here as
‘ ‘ mild lead poisoning 7 * — the only ones now available for investigation —
might, from general appearances, be anything from malnutrition and
vitamin deficiency or intestinal worms to chronic sepsis of the teeth,
sinuses, or tonsils.

IMany diagnoses of “mild lead-poisoning” are made in Brisbane
on no better justification than pallor and nail-biting. These suspects
are usually pale and listless, irritable and fretful. Their mothers
complain that they always want to “lie about” instead of playing like
other children, and wake languid and maybe complaining of a
“ stomache-ache. ” They have no appetite at meal times, and almost
invariably refuse milk and vegetables particularly. The mother com-
plains that they have no definite symptoms, but are “going back,” are
thin and pale, and are not gaining weight. Restlessness and night
terrors are also recorded. Though these cases of so-called “mild lead-
poisoning” have been the object of infinite guesswork and of stock
treatment, it does not appear that they have ever been adequately
investigated.

Our further investigations extend the proposed selective factor
above to include calcium deficiency. In a community where all, if any,
are subject to the ingestion of lead, the great majority undoubtedly
deal satisfactorily with the toxic intake, eliminating the great propor-
tion and storing the remainder in the bones in combination with
calcium. Where there is a calcium deficiency in the diet our investiga-
tions tend to support the hypothesis that lead is not bound but circu-
lates freely in the blood stream in the way which has been recognised
to be the ideal way for its full toxic effect to be manifested upon the
intima of the vessels and the organs, particularly the kidneys.

Amongst a large number of children whose diet is definitely deficient
in calcium, then, it is not perhaps surprising to find on rare occasions
one whose lead-binding capacity is unequal to the strain either of
prolonged mild lead intoxication or of the sudden precipitation into the
blood stream by an attack of one of the acute exanthemata of lead
formerly stored in the bones. In the investigations to which I allude
there is already apparent support for such a suggestion the bearing
of which upon selectivity will be obvious.

The original source of the lead, whether in water or elsewhere, is
still to seek, and the search is an interesting problem with many and
complex angles, not the least of which is the fact that the pH of present-
day water supplies is useless as a criterion of the utterly different
water distributed forty, thirty, and twenty years ago, when plumbism
with paralysis was an outstanding problem in Brisbane. On
the face of it, it would appear that the source is simply desiccated
white lead ; the further one goes into the matter the more likely appears
the involvement of a calcium factor related to food deficiencies.

Though frank plumbism seems to have disappeared except as an
occasional result of the uncommon but well-recognised habit of pica,
the calcium deficiency so often associated with the latter directs atten-
tion to the general problem of other dietetic deficiencies both widespread
and serious.

16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Some months ago, during an investigation of the health of
aboriginals in Queensland, attention was directed to the teeth for a
similar reason. Perhaps the most outstanding characteristic of the
aboriginal a generation ago was the perfection of his teeth — a constant
source of admiration to those who frequent museums. Of the
aboriginals I examined recently (more than 1,000 in number), a good
set in an adult was a matter for comment ! For the ages below 20 —
that is, the ages up to the cutting of all the teeth of the second dentition
— the percentage was approximately 90 per cent. From 21 to 30 years
of age, when women are subjected to the main strain of child-bearing
and when inherent disabilities take their toll of both sexes, the per-
centage of “good” teeth drops to 39 per cent., the percentage of sets
only “fair” rises to 22 per cent., definitely “poor” teeth form 28 per
cent, of the total, and “bad” or “foul” conditions make a definite
appearance. With each decade conditions became worse until, over
the age of 50, no single good set was found, the teeth were only
“fair” in one case in eight, were definitely “poor” in one out of eight
also, and were foul, bad, broken down, or entirely lost in 75 per
cent. The aboriginal has left his diet of native foodstuffs, both animal
and vegetable, to live upon a diet of flour (dry damper), sugar, and
tea. His teeth evidence it. But not his alone. There is equal evidence
of equal lack of food balance among the white settlers throughout the
whole of the Far North and the Far West. The circumstances inci-
dental to isolation, difficulties and cost of transport and communication,
the stereotyped list of supplies imported, and the absence of any local
attempts at kitchen gardens, adequate milk supplies, &c., produce among
white residents a definite series of food deficiencies detrimental to
their survival.

At one railhead the standard of highest courtesy in meals was
expressed by my warm-hearted host in terms of salt beef, one English
potato (soft and blue-middled), a plate of tinned fruit, and water
custard, with tea (drunk black by all but myself) with powdered milk.
Everyone, I was interested to see, took lots of sugar — that ready but
deceptive source of energy. The weekly train, which all were waiting
for and assisted to unload, deposited a typical cargo, consisting of
benzine in large quantities, two lots of English potatoes, two crates
of Japanese onions, two cases of Edam cheeses, a series of cases of
Melbourne bitter ale, two small kegs of rum, one half-case of tinned
milk, many bags of flour, one case of soap, and some tobacco.

Goats are plentiful, but little use is made of the milk, and they
go dry between times for lack of care and of fodder. Greens grow
magnificently for four months of -the year, but people forget to plant
them, and get to do without them in any case. The younger generation
grows up unacquainted with the essentials of diet, with the capabilities
of the soil, or with the desire for the foods essential to the best develop-
ment. In some areas it presents almost a laboratory series of food-
deficiencies, with consequential breakdown and ineffectiveness.

So, in this age of every refinement of progress, when man surveys
the world for further fields to conquer, we find him the unconscious
victim here and there on our frontiers — and even in our cities — of
the oldest and simplest of forces — insufficiency of vital food. The
teaching of dietetics in schools — dietetics adapted to our own climate

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

17

and conditions — would be a most valuable contribution to the conquest
of climate if our teachers and our doctors would learn the subject and
impart it.

But I must close. The half-century of our Society has seen a
tremendous growth of science and has seen its application in many
ways to Queensland’s problems. It has seen in each decade some pro-
gressive achievement, as railways and roads have crept over the country,
with population spreading along them, man’s domain ever widening
with his appliances, from artesian water to aeroplane transport and
medicine.

We have lived a half-century that has seen the partition of the
earth and the seas, triumphs in physics, in chemistry, in engineering,
in medicine, and in art; that has seen the collapse of thrones and of
economic theories; has seen the rise of the motor engine, the motor-
car, the submarine, the long-range gun, poison gas, the aeroplane, the
radio and wireless telegraphy, television, and the conquest of the strato-
sphere ; and with the inevitable urge of every transition period, Fascism,
Sovietism, nudism, companionate marriage, and all the old cults that
have been revived and paraded by serious neo-primitives to express
what they feel must be their individuality, and the world’s newly-
discovered destiny — as they did, indeed, at the Renaissance, or after
the Great Plague, or in the decline of the Roman Empire, or in the
days of Pericles, or of the social revolution in ancient Egypt that
only-forgotten Ipuwer records, or in any great period of ancient or
modern growth and change.

How hoary Time must chuckle ! Perhaps, if he is ever guilty
of a Gallicism, he occasionally murmurs,

“ Plus cela change, plus c’est la meme chose!’ ’

18

You XLVI., No. 2.

The Life Cycle and Seasonal History of
Ceroplastes Rubens.

By B. Blumberg, M.Sc.

(Plate I. and six Text Figures.)

(Bead before the Royal Society of Queensland, 30 th April, 1934.)

I. INTRODUTION.

Ceroplastes rubms Masked was originally described from Australia.
According to Froggatt (1921), it was probably introduced into this
country from Ceylon and from there spread to Japan and the Hawaiian
Islands, It is stated by Veitch (1929) to be a common citrus pest
throughout coastal Queensland, causing injury both directly by sucking
the sap and indirectly by promoting the growth of the sooty mould
which hinders photosynthesis. By some this scale is ranked as possibly
the most serious scale insect in Queensland. Its hosts are extremely
numerous and include mango, custard apple, and most ornamental
shrubs as well as citrus.

No work on the life cycle and seasonal history of C. rubiens in
Australia has been published, although a good deal of work on its
biology appears to have been done by Japanese investigators. In view
of this and its economic importance the investigation which forms
the subject of this paper was undertaken at the suggestion of Mr. F. A.
Perkins, Lecturer in Economic Biology in the. University of Queensland,
in partial fulfilment of the Honours requirements of the Faculty of
Science.

II. LIFE CYCLE OF THE FEMALE.

(a) The First Instar. (Fig. 1.)

The larvse of Ceroplastes rumens hatch beneath the parent, and
sooner or later wander over the foliage of the host plant, settling
ultimately on leaves or stems, preferably over a vein, with head
superior, and commence to secrete wax. Only scales on more or less
horizontal leaves show frequent exceptions to this orientation.

The larva, or first instar nymph, is orange-coloured, and approxi-
mately 4 mm. long by *23 mm. broad, with well-developed legs, antennae,
a pair of ocelli, and pro- and mesothoracic spiracles. Each anal oper-
culum bears apically a filamentous seta, referred to here as an anal
filament. The pygidium bears a single small seta on each side of the
anal cleft, and the stigmatic spines comprise two short mushroom-
shaped outer spines internal to which is placed a conical medial spine
about twice as high as the others. (Fig. 3, A* and A2.)

Two longitudinal dorsal scaly wax ridges and two pairs of white
marginal points of wax adjacent to the stigmatic clefts appear within
twenty-four hours of settling. Growth and subsequent fusion of the
dorsal ridges results, in another twenty-four hours, in a prominence
referred to here as the dorsal crest. A pair of posterior lateral marginal
wax processes now appear midway between the caudal extremity and

THE LIFE CYCLE AND SEASONAL HISTORY OF CEROPLASTES RUBENS. 19

the mesothoracic spiracles, while a slight excrescence of white wax
is discernible at the anterior extremity of the body. At the end of a
week sufficient secretion of wax from the general body surface has
occurred to impart a purple colour and to obscure the divisions between
the tergites. By this time the white excrescence at the anterior
extremity is seen to have formed four digitate processes similar to which
there are now also two pairs of processes bordering the anal opercula.

(b) The Second Instar Nymph. (Plate I. (a).)

Within a fortnight after settling the dorsum is markedly conical,
purple, and ornamented with a pattern similar to wickerwork, and
from it rises the dorsal crest, a truncated cone of white wax. Anterior,
median, and posterior pairs of lateral marginal bluntly pointed white
wax processes are evident. Except from the posterior pair there issues
from these a small amount of powdery white wax. The anal filaments

20

PROCEEDINGS OF TPIE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

are present, but in about another week (approximately three weeks
after settling) their loss marks the first ecdysis. A wisp of exuvium
is extruded from the posterior end of the scale. Microscopic prepara-
tions of scales which have lost their anal filaments show that the number
and pattern of the stigmatic spines are unaltered but that the opercula
now bear two pairs of setae in place of the anal filaments. (Fig. 3, B2
and B2.)

(c) The Third Instar Nymph. (Fig. 2.)

Following the first ecdysis the accretion of wax on the dorsum
results in the partial submergence of the anal opercula, dorsal crest,
and anterior and median lateral marginal processes. The posterior
processes, on the other hand, enlarge, and this condition, which becomes
clearly evident within six weeks of settling, appears to coincide with
the s^cmid ecdysis, marked by the extrusion of another exuvium.

THE LIFE CYCLE AND SEASONAL HISTORY OF CEROPLASTES RUBENS. 21

Microscopic preparations of this stage show that the stigmatic
spines have been increased in number by the development of either five
or six mushroom-shaped additional spines on the outer margin of the
stigmatic cleft. (Fig. 3, C2.) Each operculum and each half of the
pygidium bears three setse. (Fig. 3, C±.)

(d) The Fourth Instar. (Plate I. (&).)

The third ecdysis occurs ten or eleven weeks after settling..
Externally there is no difference between young fourth instar and old
third instar scales. The extent to which the anterior and median
lateral marginal processes are submerged varies but is in both more or
less complete. Even the posterior pair tend, in time, to become lost in
the extending dorsum, although the extremities are nearly always
discernible, even in the oldest scales. The digitate processes at either
end also persist to a variable extent even in adult scales. The carapace,
in the third and fourth instars, grows hat-shaped, forming a high,
strongly convex central area of red wax (in the centre of which the
vestigial dorsal crest is discernible) surrounded by a rim-like margin.
Four convex protuberances on the margin each of which bears a
prominent radially directed streak of powdery white wax extending
downwards to the spiracles mark the site of the anterior and median
lateral marginal processes. The posterior pair, although enlarged in
the third instar are now almost submerged.

Microscopic preparations of the fourth instar show that the number
and arrangement of the setae on the anal opereula are unaltered, but
each half of the pygidium bears five setse instead of the previous three
(Fig. 3, D.J, and the the stigmatic spinesi are increased in number. A
common arrangement of these spines is to have seven or eight outer
mushroom-shaped spines on either side of the cleft and one unpaired
and two paired mushroom-shaped spines, together with a single larger
eonical spine in the cleft. (Fig. 3, D2.) Totals of from eleven to nineteen
per spiracle have been found. The numbers of pygidial spines on
each side is also slightly variable, four, five, or six being found, while
the number on each side of the cleft is not always alike. Five appears
to be the usual number.

The size of the adult varies. Commonly it is from 3 to 4 mm.
long, but occasionally stunted adults have been found between 2 and
3 mm. The third ecdysis, perhaps, occurs sooner than ten or eleven
weeks after settling, but owing to a gap in the observations there is
no earlier record.

(e) Reproduction.

The minute grape-like clusters of ovarioles found in the young
adult undergo the usual development. Yolk makes its appearance,
ultimately embryos appear and reach an advanced stage of develop-
ment within the parent, both eyes and well-developed appendages being
discernible. How long must elapse from the first appearance of yolk
to the first sign of the embryo was not definitely ascertained, but from
teasings made at intervals it would appear that in some cases a month
is required. No doubt this period depends, at least in part, on such
factors as temperature and humidity.

From Figures 4 and 5 it is seen that the period needed for the
complete development of the embryo is considerably less for the spring-
summer generation than for the winter-spring generation. In the

Fig. 3. — Pygidium and anal opercula in first instar (A^, second instar (Bj),
third instar (C*), fourth instar (Dj). Stigmatic spines in first instar (A2), second
instar (B2), third instar (C2), fourth instar (D2).

THE LIFE CYCLE AND SEASONAL HISTORY OF CEROPLASTES RUBENS. 23

former case it is likely that this process occupies about a month, but
data in support of this is incomplete. For the winter-spring generation,
on the other hand, three months were found to elapse between the first
record of yolk formation and the commencement of laying.

No specific investigation of the question of fertilization was carried
out, but there is good reason to believe that in Queensland partheno-
genesis is the rule. A few small, glassy scales which may have been
males were found, but they were rare, and the contained insect was
always dead. Fertilization is reported in Japan.

Fig. 4. — Seasonal History Diagram for 1931-32.

Roman numerals indicate stages represented during the month. Symbol -< — >•
indicates week or weeks during which larvae were met with crawling freely on the
host-plant.

Oviposition is an active process, as the movements made in expelling
eggs from the vulva are plainly discernible in upturned scales. From
650 to 700 eggs were counted in gravid females by teasing on a squared
slide. Whether this represents also the number of eggs actually laid
was not ascertained. According to an unnamed Japanese author
(Shizuoka Expt. Sta., 1918) 978 eggs were found to be laid in Japan.

24

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The question of the number of eggs laid per day was never seriously
taken up owing to the death of most of the insects under observation.
Of three scales remaining, which had never previously laid, the figures
for the first seven days of oviposition were as follows: —

Scale A.— 3, 7, 9, 26, 30, 27, 50
Scale B— 6, 8, 15, 17, 35, 27, 45
Scale G.— 9, 21, 28, 22, 33, 29, 50

Fig. 5. — Seasonal History Diagram for 1932.
Symbols as in Fig. 4.

Seven scales of unknown age removed from the host plant laid,
during the same twenty-four hours, 22, 27, 27, 15, 17, 30, 30 eggs,
respectively. Obviously the only conclusion that can be drawn from
such meagre data is that at least 50 eggs may be laid in twenty-four
hours.

The period elapsing between laying and hatching is from two
to three days. This, however, requires support from observations with
a larger number of insects made at various times of the year. The
newly-hatched larvae do not emerge immediately from beneath the
parent. The impression was gained that the crawlers emerge inter-
mittently in bursts, depending, probably, on the external environ-
mental conditions. The occurrence of laying scales packed with dead

THE LIFE CYCLE AND SEASONAL HISTORY OF CEROPLASTES RUBENS. 25

young, as well, perhaps, as eggs and living larvae, was interpreted as
due to unfavourable external conditions resulting in a fatally delayed
emergence. As many as 250 such larvae, most of which were dead,
have been counted beneath a single scale.

Various suggestions have been made regarding the mechanism of
emergence in other scales. It is probable, in this instance, that the
larvae make their way through openings between the carapace and
the leaf.

(f) Duration of Life Cycle.

The duration of the life cycle varies wTith the season, the summer
generation requiring from four to six months, whereas the winter
generation need from six to eight. This conclusion is based on Figures
4 and 5, and is also supported by the following observations: —

1. Two seedlings ( Schinus terebinthifolius and one unidentified)
were received on 22nd October, 1931, bearing scales known, from pre-
vious observations, to be not less than seven and not more than thirty
days old. On 7th February, 1932, young were found beneath these
scales. The possible minimum life cycle would, therefore, be slightly
over four months, while the possible maximum would be five months.

2. Larvae were placed on a seedling of S. terebinthifolius on
3rd March, 1932; larvae were found beneath the few scales which
matured on 11th November, 1932. On this basis the life cycle had
occupied thirty-one weeks, or about eight months.

(g) Technique.

At the commencement of the investigation an attempt was made
to study the life history by marking about 100 newly-settled scales on
a mango tree by means of scratches in the cuticle. This method proved
unsatisfactory on account of its unwieldiness and because of the high
mortality which rapidly caused the disappearance of almost all the
scales under observation.

Transferences of crawlers to potted seedlings in the insectarium
were more successful. Schinus terebinthifolius, Ficus benjamina,
Brassaia actinophylla, and Eugenia uniflora were used, but scales
established themselves only on the first three and completed develop-
ment only on Schinus. As the larvae used were obtained from Schinus
plants this unsatisfactory establishment on the other seedlings, all oi
which are common hosts, may, perhaps, be ascribed to the difficulty
of adaptation often encountered when a change of host is first
attempted.1

The method of transference was to place a number of scales
containing living young in small paper cones which were then pinned
to the seedlings, the cone being removed in twenty-four hours. This
ensured no scattering of eggs or adults, and made certain that only
larvae sound enough to crawl out would be used.

Regular observations were carried out on the scales in situ , either
with a fourteen-diameter hand lens or with a microscope.

1 Vide case of Eulecamum ■ persi-eoe transferred from peach to Robinia, quoted
by Imms (1931b).

26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Scales were removed periodically from the seedlings and mounted
for microscopic examination. Owdng to the small number of scales
remaining alive, not as many of these were made as could have been
desired. The method of preparation followed MacGillivray (1921),
while Werner’s method (1931) of dealing with small stages on slides
in petri dishes was found useful. For rapid examination of stigmatic
spines or setae immersion of small specimens directly in turps-phenol
for half an hour was used with good results. Addition of a little
benzol aided the solution of the wax.

III. SEASONAL HISTORY. (Figs. 4 and 5.)

The seasonal history as described below is based on evidence
derived from —

(1) Regular weekly or fortnightly records of the composition
of the scale population on an umbrella tree, a lemon tree,
and a mango tree. The first two were mainly used.

(2) Regular fortnightly teasings and microscopic examination
of the contents of the bodies of representatives of the various
classes of scales on the tree. Occasionally the examinations
were made at longer intervals.

(3) Observation of scales of similar ages marked with a scratch
in the cuticle of the leaf.

(4) The rearing on seedlings in the insectarium of scales
belonging to each of the two laying seasons.

It will be noticed that certain arbitrary reference numbers (I.,
II., III., IV., V.) have been applied to various stages in the development
of Ceroplastes rubens. These numbers have no direct biological signifi-
cance as there is no readily definable difference in the external appear-
ance of successive instars and the external characters to which they
relate may in some cases be found in the same instar, or a particular
number may refer to scales with a certain external structure shared
by more than one instar. This notation was adopted in order to facili-
tate reference in field notes to the various classes of scales on the tree
at any time, as it would manifestly have been impossible to tell from
external appearances, or even from a few microscopic preparations,
in which instar the mass of any particular group of externally similar
scales might have been. Furthermore, this notation enabled progress
to be made with seasonal history observations at a stage in the investiga-
tion when the number and form of the various instars were not known.
The stages to which these numbers refer are as follows : —

I. — The active larva found on the leaf before settling or secretion

of wax (first instar).

II. — Two central dorsal white wax ridges and anterior and median

lateral marginal white wax excrescences opposite the stig-
mata (first instar).

III. — Dorsal ridges fused into a single white dorsal crest; an

additional pair of lateral marginal processes: viz., a

posterior pair ; colour light reddish-brown like Stage II.
(first instar).

THE LIFE CYCLE AND SEASONAL HISTORY OF CEROPLASTES RUBENS. 27

IY. — The six marginal wax points are now distinct processes;
dorsum conical; colour deep purple; digitate processes at
cephalic and caudal extremities; size under 1 mm., and
anal filaments present or absent (first and second instars).

Y. — Accretion of wax on dorsum till only extremity of dorsal
crest protrudes ; submergence of anterior and median pairs
of lateral marginal processes till only their four radiating
lines of white wax remain; initial growth and ultimate sub-
mergence of posterior pair of lateral marginal processes.
Colour is at first purple, later changes to pink, and finally
takes on a bluish tinge when laying. Size varies with
growth from under 1 mm. to as much as 4 mm. Anal
filaments absent (third and fourth instars).

In the seasonal history diagrams scales in which the
ovarioles are immature and those commencing to form eggs
are distinguished, respectively, as Stages Y^ and V2.

In order to avoid confusion the account which follows considers
only the begining and the end of each laying season. The larvae which
are the first to settle will be expected to produce the first laying
adults in the following season, and similarly the last larvae to
settle should mature last. Obviously the larvae settling in the
intervening period will probably mature some time between the
commencement and ending of the next laying season. It is not suggested
that the scales will always mature in exactly the order in which they
hatched or settled, because in all probability physiological factors and
weather conditions cause some younger scales either to mature before
or at the same time as older ones, or perhaps may even tend to syn-
chronise the time of maturity of younger and older individuals in
much the same way as happens with Thrips imaginis (Evans, 1932) ;
but it is unlikely that this is of sufficient importance to invalidate the
use here of the principle that over a laying period of a couple of months,
the scales laying in, say, the first fortnight are in general older than
those laying in the last.

The figures given in the diagrams, relating to the range in size of
any group of scales, are not intended to be taken as accurate limits;
they are given here merely as a broad indication of the difference in
size of the majority of the members of one line from those of another.

In January, 1932, apart from young scales which were almost
certainly dead, two classes could be separated, both in Stage Y. One
of these (Y2.) ranged from 2 to 3 mm. in length, and contained ovarian
eggs which, to a greater or less extent had embryos. The other group
(Yx.) averaged 1 to 2 mm., and contained only small ovarioles showing
no tendency towards egg formation. Those in Stage Y2. had hatched
in September or October, 1931 ; the others had settled, probably, in
November, 1931. For clarity the subsequent history of these two classes
of scales will be considered separately and are represented in Figures
4 and 5 in different concentric areas.

The older group were, in January, obviously approaching their
laying season which began in the middle of February to a slight extent,
but the larvae disappeared at the end of the month, reappearing on
about 10th March and ceasing once more early in April. Throughout
this laying* season the newly settled progeny were to be seen in stages
I., II., III., IY., and Ylv and approximately two months after the

28 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

cessation of laying all the scales of the new generation would be in
Stage Y1. During February, March, and April all of the first four
stages were met with. By May all these members- of the recently
settled generation were in Stages IY. and V., and in June all had
entered Stage Y. In July the ovarioles of those which had been among
the earliest hatched became pear-shaped while germarium and vitel-
larium soon became evident. Throughout July, August, and September
the older scales steadily developed eggs in which, in due course, embryos
appeared. Laying commenced at the end of September, the earliest
record of larvae on the leaves being made on the umbrella tree on
29th September. Two bursts of emergence were recorded in October,
one in the second week and another in the last There followed a gap
in the observations for November. It appears, however, from seedlings
in the insectarium that early in the month some larvae were produced by
members of the line which was laying in October. The progeny of the
October and early November laying could be identified in December
with Stage Vt., scales ranging from 2 to 3 mm. in length. It could be
predicted that these scales would mature and commence laying in
February and March, 1933.

So far the older group of scales met with in January, 1932, has
been described. The younger group found in January probably settled
in September or October, 1931, and were in Stage V^, having only
immature ovarioles. Except for growth in size these scales remained
the same in February, but in March their ovarioles commenced to
mature. In April they contained eggs with embryos, and in May laying
commenced, occupying the latter half of the month. It will be noticed
in Figure 5 that the bracket indicating the February-May laying season
is extended by a dotted line in June. This is intended to represent the
fact that a slight emergence of larva? occurred in that month; but the
extent of emergence varied considerably on different species of plants.
In general the resultant progeny were few and the impression was
gained that this emergence was of little importance. The larvae which
settled in May continued to develop, being found in Stage Yt. during
June and July. So close was the intergradation of size and degree of
development during August that it was difficult to decide where one
group began and the other ended. It is probable that the line under
discussion was represented by both stages Yt. and V2., the latter
appearing during the latter half of the month. During September eggs
in varying degrees of development occurred with the production of
embryos in October and larvae during November. Owing to the
termination of the investigation records for December and late January
are absent, but from an examination of the umbrella tree at the time
of writing (January, 1933) it appears that some laying has occurred
in December, indicated by the dotted extension of the bracket.

As a standardised method of observation was not evolved till late
in 1931, while the time available for studying G. rubens was strictly
limited, records for the earlier part of 1931 are somewhat incomplete;
but the notes which were made are completely in keeping with the
observations made in 1932, as will be seen from Figure 4. The only
notable difference was the commencement of hatching in September
in 1931, about two weeks earlier than in 1932.

Generalising from these two years’ results it may be said that,
at least for the umbrella, lemon, and mango trees in or near Brisbane,
there are two laying periods during the year. The first begins at the

THE LIFE CYCLE AND SEASONAL HISTORY OF CEROPLASTES RUBENS. 29

end of January and lasts for four or five months, ending in May or
June ; the second period commences late in September, and lasts from
two to two and a-half months, ending in November or December
(probably in November) . Larvae do not emerge continuously throughout
these periods, but appear to do so in bursts or waves during which the
moving larvae are extremely numerous. Following this comes a lull.
At such times, although living larvae may be found plentifully beneath
the parents, little or no attempt is made to leave the shelter of the
maternal carapace.

Fig. 6. The Wax Glands.

a. Stud-like wax-secreting pore.

b. Disentangled wax-secreting gland.

c. Common appearance of glands.

d. Usual view of the excavated cuticle beneath the wax-secreting pore.

IV. MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS;

(a) Starvation.

The question how long scales may live without food is of practical
importance because of the possibility of reinfestation of cleaned trees
from fallen twigs or leaves. From the few experiments carried out
it was found that newly hatched larvae did not live longer than four
or five days without food, while in one instance adult scales successfully
produced young at the end of from forty to forty-six days’ starvation.
No attempt was made to determine what the maximum period might be.

(b) Mortality.

As mentioned in the section dealing with life history technique
the observation of marked scales on the host plant is made difficult by
the gradual disappearance of the scales under observation. The reason
for this is obscure. If the scales die they would soon fall from the

30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

leaf, and perhaps this is the explanation, as even on sheltered insec-
tarium seedlings, where mechanical influences such as wind and rain
were excluded, the number disappearing was still high.

Two counts of about three hundred marked scales on an umbrella
tree showed that the mortality in a state of nature on a favourite host
plant was very high, 62 per cent, of the scales under a month old having
disappeared or died in the course of less than three weeks. It was
found that for some individual leaves the percentage of dead and
missing scales was remarkably high, reaching, in one instance, 79 per
cent.

It is quite possible that if only dead or unhealthy scales fall from
the leaves, and if the mortality is highest in the earlier stages, that
after rising to a maximum this loss would show a decrease as develop-
ment proceeds. H. G. Hubbard, in “Insects Affecting the Orange,77
(Dept. Agric., Washington, D.C.) states that very few of Geroplastes
floridensis ever reach maturity owing to the influence of natural enemies
and other causes, and claims that among the latter is the inability of
females as they become old and gravid to maintain their hold upon the
host plant. While there is also a heavy mortality among C. rubens:
the greatest disappearance seems to occur among the earlier stages,
such as, I., II., III., IV., and early Stage V., and perhaps affects, dead
or diseased scales chiefly. Although as the body becomes packed with
eggs the pressure on the leaf might be increased, the upward contraction
of the ventral body wall noticeable at this time would be expected to
mitigate any possible ill effects.

(d) Parasites and Predators.

Although no special attention was paid to this question a certain
amount of information was inevitably obtained, brief reference to
which may be made.

Adult Cryptolcemus montrouzieri were frequently met with, but
larvae were much less common. Though both larvae and adults were
placed in tubes with small scales and crawlers they would only eat the
latter. Other Coecinellids found were Orcus clnalybeus, Halyzia galbula,,
and Goccinella transversalis. Whether these insects were really predators
of Geroplastes rubens was not ascertained, but a specimen of beds
conformis which laid eleven eggs in the tube containing it was observed
to devour crawling larvae and eggs placed with it.

Larvae of the Noetuid moth Catoblemma dubda Butl. were found
only on the lemon tree, where they frequently destroyed very many
C. rubens scales. They did not, however, appear to effect any appre-
ciable control. A larva collected on 24th February, 1932, gave rise to
the imago on 30th March of the same year. The larvae seemed to affect,,
for preference, scales on twigs and branches rather than those on the
upper surface of the leaves.

The commonest Chalcid found was P a rmnasomydda liszti n.n., which
is a secondary parasite, always being found in the host enclosed in
a “puparium77 formed from the larval skin of the primary parasite.
On only one occasion was it found in association with another species.
The latter was PEndasoddea varia Gir., which is doubtless a primary
parasite.

THE LIFE CYCLE AND SEASONAL HISTORY OF CEROPLASTES RUBENS. 31

Mites were found in association with the scales on the umbrella
tree, but no time could be spared to study them. It is most probable
that they are scavengers feeding only on dead larvae and other debris.

A single minute fly larva collected beneath one of the scales on the
lemon tree was probably a Cecidomyiid.

(e) The Wax Glands.

Dendritic structures which appear to be wax-secretory glands open
into collar-stud-like secretory spines. A fine straight duct less than
•001 mm. in diameter opening, presumably, into the secretory spines,
constitutes two-thirds of the total length, the remaining third taking
the form of a racemose expansion of ramifying branchlets. The total
length is usually about -035 mm. These glands may readily be seen
under the high power of the microscope in pieces of cuticle separated,
by careful teasing, with the hypodermis attached. The best region to
use is the margin of the body, as the ducts may then be followed right
up to the secretory spines beneath which the cuticle is seen to be
excavated in the form of an inverted cone.

Stained preparations were made successfully by staining pieces of
cuticle bearing the glands in eosin and then mounting in glycerine
jelly to which a drop of acetic acid' had been added. The slide was
warmed to hasten clearing. By reducing the illumination from the
substage condenser the glands are visible under the high power of the
microscope. As the straight ducts have been noticed in potash-cleared
specimens it appears that this portion of the gland is cuticular. Only
one form of wax gland was found, although the smaller variety of these
racemose glands appeared to have more numerous branches than the
larger.

32

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

1. Barnes, H. M. (1930)

2. Colonial Office M.S.

3. Evans, J. W. (1932)

4. Froggatt, W. W.

(1921)

5. Imms, A. D. (1931)..

6. Ishii; T. (1923)

i

7. Kuwana and Ishii

(1927)

8. Kuwana, I. (1924) . .

9. MacGillivray, A. D.
(1921)

10. Misra, A. B. (1931)

11. Shizuoka Agric.

Expt. Stn. (1918)

12. Werner,. W. A. R.

(1931)

REFERENCES.

Gall Midges (Cecidomyidse) as Enemies of the Tingidse,
Psyllidse, Aleurodidae, and Coccidae. Bull. Ent.
Ees. vol. XXI., part 3.

Ceroplastes rubens Controlled Largely by the Fungus
Ceplialosporium leoanu. Abstract in Eev. App.
Ento., vol. 7, p. 483.

The Bionohiics and Economic Importance of Thrips
imagmis Bagnall. C.S.I.E. Pamphlet No. 30.

A Descriptive Catalogue of the Scale Insects of Aus-
tralia. Department Agric. N.S.W. Science Bulls.
Nos. 14, 18, and 19.

Recent Advances in Entomology. (London) (a) p. 59,
(6) p. 254.

Observations on the Hymenopterous Parasites of Cero-
plastes rumens. Dept. Agric. and Comm. Japan;
Imp. Plant Quar. Stn. Bull. 3, Yokohama. Abstract
in Rev. App. Ento. (A), vol. 12, p. 465.

An Account of Introducing Scutellista cyanea to Check
C. ruhens Mask. (In Japanese). Kontya ii., No. 1.
Abstract in Rev. App. Ento. (A), vol. 15, p. 15.

Descriptions and Biology of New or Little-known
Coccids from Japan. Imp. Plant. Quar. Stn. Bull.
Abstract in Rev. App. Ento. (A), vol. 12, p. 464.

The Coccidae (Scarab Co., Illinois).

On the Internal Anatomy of the Female Lac Insect,
Lacoifer laeoa Kerr. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., part 1.

Kankitsu gaichu Rubii-Romushi (Ruby-wax Seale, an
Insect Injurious to Citrus). Abstract in Rev. App.
Ento. (A), vol. 6, p. 401.

Obsvns. on the Life Hist, and Control of the Fern Scale
H emi-ohionaspis aspidistras Sigh. Wash. Acad. Sci.
& Letters, vol. XIII. Ann. Arbor., Univ. of Mich.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. XLVI.

Plate I.

{a) Ceroplastes rubens — Second Instar Nymph.

(b) Ceroplastes rubens — Fourth Instar (Adult).

Vol. XLVI., No. 3.

33

A Previously Undescribed Dendrobium from

Papua

By C. T. White and B. D. Grimes.

{Bead before the Royal Society of Queensland , 30 th April, 1934.)

[Since this paper was read it has been withdrawn by the authors
as they have found the species to be identical with Dendrobium Icevi-
folium described by O. Stapf in Botanical Magazine Tab. 9011. — Ed.]

R.s. — 0.

34

Vol. XL VI., No. 4.

A Review of the Queensland Charophyta.

By James Groves, F.L.S.

Completed by G. 0. Allen.

(Three Text Figures.)

( Communicated by Dr. B. Hamlyn-H arris to the Boyal Society of
Queensland, 25th June, 1934.)

(In accordance with the wishes of the late Mr. James Groves, I
have completed this review on which he was engaged at the time of his
death. He had finished the genus Chara and just started on Nitella
(V. Stuartii, p. 53, onwards is entirely his), and had also written the
first portion of the introduction and the greater part of the key; the
rest has been compiled mainly by drawing on the store of notes he
had accumulated during over fifty years study of the group. That
Mr. Groves was not able to deal with the Nitellas is very much to be
regretted, since they constitute, as frequently the case, the more difficult
portion. I have added in the introduction some notes of a general
character on these little-known plants.)

The Charophyta constitute a remarkably distinct group' of
Cryptogams, having no clear affinity with any other. There are no
imperfect or primitive-seeming forms in the group, such as might afford
a clue to their relationship. The 16th and 17th century herbalist writers
placed the species then known under Equisetum, with the Horse-tails
and the Mares-tail, on account of the superficial resemblance afforded
by their whorled branchlets. Later authors up to comparatively rec-ent
times assigned them, under the name of Characeae, the position of a
family of Algas, and some ingenious botanists have attempted, without
success, to show an affinity between them and some of the lower Algae.
At the present time they are usually regarded as a separate primary
group, co-ordinate with the Pteridophytes, Bryophytes, and Thallophytes.
Owing to their aquatic existence, their vegetative system is com-
paratively simple — living completely submerged, there is no necessity
for elaborate strengthening or assimilative tissues — but their repro-
ductive organs are very highly developed and remarkably distinctive.
Their geological history, dating back almost with certainty to
Carboniferous times, shows them to be a very ancient type, which must
have branched off from the ancestral tree at a very early stage in the
evolution of the vegetable world.

At the present time Charophytes occur in still or evenly running
water, fresh or brackish, practically all over the world, being found
within the Arctic circle and extending to the Tropics, but most abundant
in the warmer temperate zones, and from sea-level up to an altitude of
more than 14,000 feet.

Australia possesses numerous endemic types, of which a fair share
are found in Queensland ; no doubt further investigation will lead to
the discovery of others.

Like most aquatic plants, they have been less favoured by collectors
than land plants. Until comparatively recently dried specimens only
were collected, and these did not receive the careful treatment they
require for satisfactory determination. Latterly, however, more
adequate methods have been adopted in drying specimens, and what is
still more important, portions have been preserved in formalin, so that

A REVIEW OF THE QUEENSLAND CHAROPHYTA.

35

their cell-structure can be readily examined. Dr. Hamlyn-Harris ’s
extensive gatherings so preserved have assisted greatly in the prepara-
tion of this “review.’’

Our knowledge of the Queensland Charophytes is largely based on
the writings and determinations of Alexander Braun, for many years,
up to his death in 1877, the recognised authority on the whole group of
Charophyta, and on the work of Otto Nordstedt, the eminent algologist,
who edited Braun’s most important (posthumous) book, besides doing1
much investigation himself in connexion with the Australasian
Charophytes. F. Manson Bailey’s “Comprehensive Catalogue of
Queensland' Plants,” 1913, contains the most complete list of the species
found in Queensland, with a few figures, but without descriptions,
which latter are only to be gleaned from several scattered publications.
The greatest number of illustrations are to be found in vol. vii. of
Kuetzing’s “Tabulae, Phycologicae, ” 1857. In 1891 Nordstedt com-
menced a fine quarto work entitled “Australasian Characeae,” with
excellent detailed descriptions and full-page illustrations, but unfor-
tunately the first part only, containing nine species, could be published.
In 1918 a 6-page octavo paper by Nordstedt, also entitled “Australasian
Characeae,” was published by the Royal Society of Victoria. This
consisted of a synopsis in key-form, furnishing a number of characters.
(J. Groves.)

Charophytes grow entirely submersed and may be fairly easily
recognised by their green colour (somewhat obscured at times by lime
incrustation), the whorled arrangement of the branchlets and very
often by the presence on the branchlets of the small dark roundish
fruits enclosed in spiral cells. The male reproductive organs, small
round objects brightly coloured in orange or red, are also sometimes
conspicuous.

Of the only two genera as yet recorded from Queensland Chara is
usually much the more robust whereas Nitella is decidely flexible, being
quite limp when removed from its element and often with the slimy
feel of a filamentous Alga. They may be distinguished at sight by
the branchlets of a Chara not forking at all, whereas in a Nitella they
are usually obviously furcate sometimes three or four times,

A microscope is essential for a close study of these plants. The
number of described species is comparatively small, but their marked
tendency to vary often makes their determination difficult. The word
“usually” has frequently to be employed in descriptions.

Open still water and soft mud are what Charophytes prefer. They
occur in large masses or mixed up with other aquatic vegetation. As
many species have a short season whilst some are local and fugitive any
likely spots repay thorough and frequent searching. Dr. Hamlyn-
Harris tells me that in Queensland they flourish mainly in small
isolated water-holes or in the beds of creeks, though in the latter habitat
they are liable to be washed out by floods. They are not infrequently
found growing in water-holes heavily charged with iron salts, with
the result that the plants become literally enveloped in a thick iron
sludge though they are none the worse for it.

Charophytes have practically no known economic uses. It was
suggested at one time that their presence was inimical to mosquito larvae,
which gave rise to the hope that they might help to solve the malaria
problem, but with closer study the idea has been virtually abandoned.

36 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

In collecting and preserving these plants the best results call for
a certain amount of trouble. "Where wading is feasible or they can
be reached from the side of a ditch, gathering by hand is the most
satisfactory method, as the plants can then be grasped by the “rooting”
portion and the swellings known as bulbils can if present be secured;
but if out of arm’s reach a hoe or a drag comes in useful. This latter
is often the only method possible as species have been collected in
six feet of water, but they are likely to get tangled or damaged. Mud
and any other undesirable material is easily removed at this stage;
the cleaner the plant when it leaves the water, the easier it is to mount.

In the case of dioecious species both sexes should be gathered if
possible and it is most important to secure some portion bearing ripe
fruit, as this is often essential for the determination of Nitellas. They
are carried most conveniently in a vasculum with a piece of wet cloth
wrapped round each separate gathering.

For mounting on sheets the ideal apparatus is a flat zinc tray
somewhat larger than the paper employed and with sloping sides about
three inches high, and a sheet of perforated zinc to fit the tray easily.
A small portion of a gathering should first be placed in a white vessel
of water to enable a suitable portion to be separated out. About an
inch of water is needed in the tray, the zinc sheet being placed under
the paper to act as a support. The specimen is then arranged in as
natural a position as possible and foreign particles removed. They
should not be mounted so densely as largely to obscure the shape of
the individual plant. The sexes of dioecious species are best mounted
apart either on separate sheets or on the same. The specimen, still
supported by the zinc sheet, is then lifted slowly out of the water
and allowed to drain. It will not always be found necessary to float
out in this way the stouter forms of Chara.

For drying-paper sheets of newspaper answer the purpose well.
With a millboard as a base the sheet is then placed on a couple of
layers or so of newspaper and over it is spread a piece of linen and
more newspaper. Over another millboard at the top of the bundle is
placed a considerable weight, such, as heavy books, to follow the
shrinkage and make the specimen adhere to the paper. The weight
required is a matter of experience. With gelatinous species, a piece
of waxed paper must be substituted for the linen.

The first drying-sheets should be changed after a couple of hours,
the cloth being best removed by rolling it off slowly. At this half-dry
stage it is often possible to improve a specimen by a little manipulation.
If sufficient pressure has been used in drying, the plant generally
adheres sufficiently to the paper not to need any gum.

Portions such as a whorl or the end of a stem should be mounted
as slides, glycerine jelly or weak formalin with some glycerine being
suitable media. Some form of cell is usually required. In the case
of a Nitella a couple of ripe oospores should be crushed and the pieces
of membrane mounted in Canada balsam, preferably on the same slide
as the larger portion. Lime incrustation is easily removed with weak
nitric or hydrochloric acid. For reviving pieces of dry material dilute
nitric acid will generally suffice for a Chara, and simple boiling or
boiling in strong ammonia for a Nitella. Very young portions show
the structure best; iodine solution is often useful for making it stand
out more clearly.

A REVIEW OP THE QUEENSLAND CHAROPHYTA.

37

Tlie following notes on the structure of Charophytes are mainly
intended to help in the determination of' Queensland species by way of
supplement to the Key. A full account is given in that magnificent
work “ British Charophyta,” by Groves and Bullock-Webster (Ray
Society, 2 vols,).

Three of the six genera have not been recorded from Australasia
at all; two species of Tolypella (fig. 1) have been found.

d e f

Text Fig. 1.

Explanation: —

a — ToJypella glom^erata. Fertile branchlet.

1) — Stipulodes in a single circle. Chara Braunii (after H. Groves).

c — Stipulodes in a double circle. C. contraria (after H., Groves).

d — Triplostichous stem-cortex. C. fragilis.

e — Diplostichous stem-cortex. C. contraria.

f — Haplostichous stem-cortex. C. submollusca (after Nordstedt).

One of the most important characters separating the two Queens-
land genera — viz., the difference in the coronula — is easily made out
under the microscope. The coronula is tliat little crown that caps the
oogonium. There are always five spiral cells round an oogonium and
where they meet at the top sits the coronula, ten cells in two tiers in
Nitella and only one tier of five cells in Chara. In some species of
Nitella the coronula is inclined to be deciduous, N. furcata has a very
characteristic coronula, the upper tier of cells being very much elongated.

In Chara there is usually a sheath of cells, known as the cortex,
round the stem though in three Queensland species (Nos. 1-3) the stems
are ecorticate. Nitella has no such cortex, simply one long cell between

38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

the nodes where the branchlets arise. Similarly no Nitella has any
cortex on the branchlets, whereas usually in Chara there is one, though
the first six of the ten Queensland species are without it. As already
mentioned the branchlets of a Nitella are always forked whilst those
of a Chara are simple.

In most Nitellas the branchlets at each whorl are more or less alike,
Groves substituting the name Homoeocleime for Braun’s Homoeophyllae
as the branchlets obviously have not the functions of leaves. In four
Queensland species (Nos. 19-22), however, they are definitely of two
different kinds (Heteroclemse) , one much larger than the other, and
arranged in two or three series. Groves has also introduced an
important change here in Braun ’s classification by making this character
of primary importance.

The next most important feature as a rule to note in a Nitella is
the number of cells composing the dactyl (final ray). In some
homoeoelemous Nitellas including the very widely distributed tropical
and subtropical N. acuminata , which is found as near as Java and
Borneo, the dactyl consists of a single cell but none such have as yet
been recorded from Queensland, N. Stuartii, the only species with a
single-celled dactyl being heteroelemous. All the Queensland homoeo-
clemous Nitellas fall, therefore, within the Arthrodactylse — i.e., having
jointed dactyls. The main division of the Arthrodactylas is into those
with two-celled dactyls (Bicellulatae) and those with many-celled dactyls
(Pluricellulatse), the former being further subdivided into those with
large dactyls (Macrodactylae) and those with dactyls, or at any rate
some of them, very short (Brachydactyke). The shape of the apical
cell — i.e., end-cell of the dactyl — is also important for purposes of
classification.

The oogonium, the female reproductive organ, consists of an outer
covering of five spiral cells, ascending always from right to left, and an
inner body. After fertilization, which is effected by the free-swimming
antherozoids of the antheridium (male reproductive organ) making
their way through an opening at the top of the oogonium, the outer
parts of these enveloping cells disappear, their lines of union remaining
to form a series of spiral ridges and their inner walls being utilized it
is believed to form the tough coloured outer membrane that closely
surrounds the inner contents of the nut-like oospore. This membrane
is of importance; it will usually require a one-sixth inch objective for
its examination.

In most Nitellas this membrane is decorated and the type of
marking has so far been found to be constant for a species. The most
usual forms consist of either small granules or larger separate tubercles
or a net-like pattern. In recent years Canon Bullock-Webster has
devoted special attention to these membranes and made some beautiful
drawings of them.

In the genus Chara the chief structural parts for the purposes of
classification are the stipulodes and the cortex, C. zeylanica having a
unique antheridium.

The stem of a Charophyte consists of nodes and internodes. At
each node there arises a whorl of branchlets, and often a branch also,
usually one in Chara and two in Nitella, these branches being similar
to the stem and of unlimited growth. At the nodes there occur also
in Chara (not in Nitella) either between or below the branchlets, one-
eelled organs known as stipulodes, arranged in either a single (fig. 2)

A REVIEW OF THE QUEENSLAND CHAROPHYTA.

39

or a double (fig. 3) circle, the Haplostephanae and Diplostephanse
respectively. These stipulodes may be quite rudimentary as in G.
fmgilis or long as in G. zeylanica, but there is usually no difficulty in
determining to which section a plant belongs.

It is important to understand the main features of the stem-cortex.
This sheath of longitudinal rows of cells covers the internode of the
stem. It arises in a curious way. At each stem-node two circles of
cortex-cells start growing, one upwards and the other downwards, till
they meet so that the cortex of each internode is the joint production
of cells starting from the nodes above and below it.

These cortical cells are of two kinds, the primary series and the
secondary. The primary rows themselves consist of alternating nodes
and internodes, the internodes increasing in length only while the
nodes divide laterally to form on either side elongated portions which
range themselves alongside the primary series to form the secondary
series. The nodes also divide to form outward-growing spines; the
primary series in fact can generally be readily recognised by these
spines. All the Queensland species with corticate stems (Nos. 4-10)
have spines (mere papillae in C. fragilis ) .

The secondary cells vary in length. Where they are about the
same length as the internodes of the primary series they occupy the
whole of the rows on either side of the primary row and consequently
between any two spine-bearing (primary) rows there will be two plain
rows (secondary). This type is called triplostichous (Nos. 8-10), fig. 4.
If the cells of the secondary series are only about half the length of
the internodes of the primary series they accommodate themselves in
one row between the two primary rows. G. contraria and G. Preissii
illustrate this diplostiehous type of stem-cortex (fig. 5). In one species,
G. submollusca, there is no secondary cortex, this condition being known
as haplostichous (fig. 6). The cortex is generally clearest in the young
parts of the stem.

Usually a species that has a stem-cortex has also a cortex to the
branchlet but this is not the case with three Queensland species (Nos.
4-6). The branchlet-cortex is simpler than that of the stem, there being
no division into primary and secondary series. It may be two-ranked
as in G. fragilis or three-ranked as usually in G, zeylanica. It is of
special importance for purposes of classification in the case of G
zeylanica, where the lowest branchlet segment is without a cortex. The
segments towards the free end of the branchlet in C. contraria are often
ecorticate.

The antheridium, “a very highly developed organ, probably the
most complex and beautiful structure of the kind throughout the
vegetable kingdom” ordinarily consists of eight convex shields whose
adjoining edges fit into one another. In the centre of the inner surface
of each shield and directed inwards is a handle-shaped cell (manu-
brium) to which are attached at the free ends a large number of filaments
containing antherozoids. Though so remarkable an organ its lack of
variation was responsible until quite recently for the extraordinary fact
being overlooked that C. zeylanica has only four lozenge-shaped shields
instead of the usual eight triangular ones. Groves has remarked ( J. of
Bot. April, 1931, p. 97) that it is particularly interesting that this
reduction of parts should occur in G. zeylanica considering that that
species presents the most highly developed vegetative system in the
whole group and in consequence is placed by Braun as the last in his list.

40

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

TABLE OF SECTIONS AND GENERA.

Stem ecorticate. Fertile branchlets forked. Coronula com-
posed of l0 cells, ranged in 2 tiers

Antheridia terminal, in the forks of the branchlets.
Oogonia lateral. Oospores longitudinally flattened

Antheridia and oogonia lateral. Oospores terete.
Branchlets of sterile whorls often simple, of fertile
whorls forked, but with continuous axis
(Note. — No representative of Tolypella is yet recorded
from Queensland, but one species is found in
Victoria and Tasmania and another in Kerguelen.)

Stem corticate or ecorticate. Branchlets simple. Oogonia
and antheridia lateral. Coronula composed of 5
cells, ranged in one tier. Oospore terete

Stem corticate or ecorticate, with either one or two rings
of usually i elongated cells (stipulodes) below the
branchlets. Oogonia partially surrounded by a
whorl of elongated cells (bract-cells). Antheridia
normally situated below the oogonia, taking the
place of a bract-cell

Bract-cells and stipulodes as in Chara, but antheridia
and oogonia produced side by side

Bract-cells and stipulodes as in Chara, but antheridia
situated above the oogonia

Branchlet-segments very few. Bract-cells 1 or 2 at a node,
very long. Stipulodes wanting
(Note. — None of the three preceding apparently
monotypic genera has yet been recorded from
Australasia.)

NITELLEiE.

Nitella.

(Tolypella).

CHAREiE.

Chara.

( L YCHNOTHAMNUS ) .
(Lamprothamnium ) „
(Nitellopsis).

NITELLA.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Branchlets of each whorl in a single series ± uniform
in length and extent of forking

Dactyls (ultimate rays) each consisting of a single cell
(none as yet recorded from Queensland)

Dactyls each consisting of two or more cells
Dactyls all or mostly 2-celled
Dioecious.

Apical cells of dactyls conical. Branchlets twice

forked

Apical cells of dactyls bi-tri-lobed. Branchlets
4-times forked

Monoecious

Dactyls not much abbreviated. Ultimate forks
usually fertile

Gymnoeephalous (young fruiting heads not
enveloped in mucus).

Rays at second forking of branchlet usually 2-3
(rarely 4), the rays at each forking usually
conspicuously unequal. Apical cells shortly
conical

Rays at second forking of branchlet 4 or more,
the rays at each forking usually about equal.
Apical cells long, conical

Glceocephalous (young fruiting whorls enveloped
in a cloud of mucus). Homceomorphous (hav-
ing the fruiting whorls similar to the upper
sterile whorls). Branchlets usually 3-times
forked

HOMCEOCLEMJE.

Anarthrodactyl^e.

Arthrodactylje.

BICELLULAT2E.

1. N. Sonderi.

2. N. partita.

Macrodactylce.

3. N. phauloteles.

4. N. pseudo- flab ellata.

5. N. mucosa.

A REVIEW OF THE QUEENSLAND CHARQPHYTA.

41

Nitella — continued.

Heteromorphous. Branchlets of fruiting whorls
much shorter than those of the sterile whorls
and usually forming definite clusters. Branch-
lets twice forked^ 3-5 rays at each forking;
oospore 310-350 fx long, membrane “thickly
dotted with small acute elongated spines77 . .

Branchlets usually 3-times forked; fertile whorls
often forming small spherical heads. Oospore
c. 300 fx long, membrane finely granulate

Dactyls (or some of them) much abbreviated.
Uppermost node of branchlets almost always
sterile

Upper cells of coronula not conspicuously elon-
gated. Oospore membrane reticulate. Oogonia
solitary. Dactyls some abbreviated, some
elongated

Oogonia clustered (2-3). Dactyls usually all
abbreviated and divergent

Oospore membrane tuberculate. Dactyls some
abbreviated, some elongated

Upper cells of coronula (or some of them)
conspicuously elongated. Oogonia clustered.
Dactyls all abbreviated and divergent. Mem-
brane reticulate

Dactyls all (or mostly) 3-6 celled
Dioecious.

Branchlets many (3-5) times forked. Ultimate
cell of dactyl ± cylindrical at base,
acuminate at apex

Sterile branchlets simple or once or twice forked,
fertile 1-3 times forked. Sterile and fertile
whorls ± alike, the fertile not forming dense
heads. Ultimate cells of dactyls conical

Sterile and fertile whorls dissimilar, the fertile
forming dh dense heads. Oospore large (300-
380 /x long) with very strong prominent
ridges ; ; membrane thick and decorated with
tubercles

Oospore small (200-270 p. long) ; membrane
reticulate; fertile heads in mucus. Fruiting
whorls forming small dense very gelatinous
heads. Ultimate cells of dactyls ± cylindrical,
obtuse

Fruiting whorls forming comparatively loose heads.
Ultimate cells of dactyls ± tapering, acute . .

Oospore very small (160-180 p long) ; five ridges.
Mucus not conspicuous
Monoecious

Branchlets in each whorl in 2-3 series, those of one (the

“ primary 7 7 series) much larger and more compound

than the secondary

Dioecious.

Branchlets in two series, the secondary simple or once

or twice forked. Oospore c. 300 /x long. A small

slender plant

Branchlets in 3 series, the secondary 1-3 times forked.

Oospore c. 400-500 fx long. A large robust plant . .

Monoecious.

Branchlets usually in 3 series. Oospore 250-400 fx long.

Dactyls 2-celled

Branchlets in 2 series. Oospore 200-250 p long.

Dactyls 1-celled

6. N. leptosoma.

7. N. comptonii.
Brachydactylce.

8. N. oligospora .

9. N. micro oar pa.

10. N. orientalis.

11. N. fur oat a.

PL U El CELL U LA T2E.

12. N. my notricha.

13. N. diffusa.

14. N. cristata.

15. N . gelatinosa.

16. N. tasmanioa.

17. N. polycephala.

18. N. Hoolceri.

HETEROCLEMJE.

19. N . Lhotzkyi.

20. N. congesta.

21. N. hyalina.

22. N. Stuartii.

42

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

OHARA.

Stipulodes in a single circle

Stem and branchlets entirely ecorticate.

Dioecious. Stipulodes alternating with the branchlets.
Oogonia and antberidia usually produced at the
base as well at the free nodes of the branchlets . .
Monoecious. Stipulodes opposite to the bases of the
branchlets. Oogonia usually produced at the base
of the whorl in the axils, and occasionally at the
free nodes of the branchlets
Monoecious. Stipulodes alternating with the branchlets.
Oogonia and antheridia produced only at the free
nodes of the branchlets
Stem corticate. Branchlets ecorticate.

Dioecious.

Series of cortical-cells equalling the number of
branchlets

Series of cortical-cells twice as numerous as the
branchlets
Monoecious.

Stipulodes in a double circle

Series of cortical -cells twice as numerous as the
branchlets

Series of cortical-cells thrice as numerous as the
branchlets

Branchlet-segments mostly, the lowest always,
corticate

Stipulodes of both series elongated. Oospore
yellowish

Stipulodes of both series extremely short or quite
undeveloped. Oospore black
Lowest branchlet-segment always ecorticate
Antherida quadriscutate (in all other species
octoscutate)

HAPLOSTEPHAN^

1. C. australis.

2. C. maoropogon.

3. C. Braunii.

Haplosticile.

4. C. submollusca.
DlPLOSTICEUE.

5. C. Preissii.

6. C. gymnopitys.
DIPLOSTEPHANiB.

Diplosticile.

7. C. contraria.

Triplosticile.

Phlceopodcs.

8. C. leptosperma.

9. C. fragi'.is.
Gymriopod.es.

10. C. zeylanica.

NITELLA Agardh.
HOMOEOCLEMHD.

Arthrodactylje.

Bicellulatce.

1. N. Sonderi Braun, in Linntea XXV., p. 704 (1852) ; Braun
& Nordstedt, Fragmente, p. 47 (1882) ; Nordstedt, in Hedwigia, p.
182 (1888) ; De Alg. et Char. IV., pp. 8 and 24 (1889).

Figures. — Kuetzing, Tab. Phyc. VII., pi. 42, fig. 1 (1857) ; Br. &
Nordst. I. c., pi. V., figs. 111-113; Nordst., Hedwigia, pi. VI., fig. 1
(oosporte membrane).

Dioecious. Stem slender. Whorls rather lax, of 6-7 branchlets
twice furcate; primary rays half or more than half the length of the
branchlet; secondary rays 4-6, shorter (except those not again forked)
than the tertiary; tertiary rays (dactyls) 3-6 of about equal length,
uniformly 2-celled, the lower cell tapering somewhat at the apex, upper
narrowly conical. Oogonia solitary or geminate produced at both
nodes. Coronula c. 45 /x high, c. 30 /x broad. Oospore dark brown, 180-
200 n long, 140-160 /x broad; membrane with very small scattered spines
(fide Nordstedt).

Locality. — Recorded by Nordstedt (1888) from the Gulf of Carpen-
taria. An Australian endemic species discovered near Melbourne by
F. v. Mueller.

t

A REVIEW OF THE QUEENSLAND CHAROPHYTA.

43

2. N. partita Nordst., Australasian Characeae Part 1 (1891).

Figure. — Nordst. 1, c. ; F. M. Bailey, Comp. Cat. Queensland, pi. fig.

687 (1913).

Dioecious. Stem 600 /x in diameter. A small plant, probably c. 10
cm. high. About 6 branchlets to a whorl, apparently rather unequal
in length, 3-4 times forked; primary rays rather more than half the
length of the branchlet, secondary rays 4-6, tertiary 3-5, quaternary
3-4. Dactyls 2-celled ; ultimate cell bi-tri-partite with cuspidate diverg-
ing points. Oogonia solitary or rarely two together; coronula short.

This remarkable plant was described by Nordstedt from ‘ ‘ one small
specimen with unripe fruit” collected by Alfred Henry at Georgina
River. It appears from the map that this is a remote place not easy of
access. It is most desirable that further specimens should if possible be
collected to see whether the extraordinary lobed ultimate cells are normal.
“Such a forked terminal cell does not occur in any other known species of
Nitella” (Nordst.).

Macradactylw.

3. N. 'phauloteles Groves, in Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland XXXVIII.,
xvi., p. 262 (1927) (fig. 7 a-c.).

Text Fig. 2. — Nitella phauloteles, Groves.

Explanation: —

a — Apices of dactyls, X c. 40.

b — Final forking, X c. 30.

c — Part of stem whorl, showing one branchlet (sterile), X c. 3.

Monoecious. Stem c. 450 p in diameter. Branchlets normally 6 in
a whorl, unequal in length, the fertile 2-3, sometimes 4-times forked;
primary rays one-third to half the length of the entire branchlet;
secondary rays usually 4 or 5, tertiary 2-4, quaternary and quinary
usually 2, the rays at each forking conspicuously unequal. Final rays
(dactyls) of fertile branchlets uniformly 2-celled, the lower cell often
elongated, rounded at its distal end, the ultimate cell small, bluntly
conical, sometimes but little longer than the breadth at the base. Gamet-
angia produced at all nodes, but oogonia and antheridia rarely at the
same node. Oogonia solitary, c. 400-450/x long, 375 p broad; coronula
c. 30^ high,/x 60 p broad; oospore golden-brown, c. 275-300 long, 240-265 p
broad, 175-200 p thick, showing 5-7 thin firm ridges; membrane with
extremely fine regular shallow granulation.

Localities. — Murphy’s Creek, April, 1910, T. L. Bancroft; Ithaca,
April, 1912, C. T. White; Doomben, near Brisbane, May, 1925, E. W.
Buhot; Doomben, September, 1926, R. Hamlyn-PIarris ; Cameron Creek,
near Ipswich, January, 1927, R. H.-H. ; Kedron Brook, Enoggera, April,

44 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

]927, R. H.-H. ; Enoggera Creek, November, 1928, R. H.-H. ; Pine River,
September, 1928. R. H.-H.

A small slender plant of rather lax habit, the whorls not exceeding
20 mm. in diameter. The principal features would seem to be the
irregularity in length of the branchlets and rays, the rounded distal
end of the lower cell and the small short conical ultimate cell of the 1
dactyls, from which the specific name is taken. The decoration of the
oospore membrane is so fine and shallow that without the closest
examination the membrane appears plain. First discriminated from the
specimens collected by Mr. Buhot in 1925.

4. N. pseudo-flabellata Braun, 1862, MS.; Braund & Nordstedt,
Fragmente, pp. 12 and 54 (1882) ; Nordstedt, De Alg. et Char., p. 10
and p. 24 (forma australiana) (1889).

Monoecious. Branchlets usually 6-8, twice and often three times
forked. Primary rays | to § the length of the entire branchlet. Rays
at first forking 6-7, at second and third usually about 5. Dactyls of about
equal length, uniformly 2-celled, the lower one tapering somewhat at
the distal end, upper cell a narrowly conical and very acute mucro.
Gametangia at each forking. Oogonia solitary. Oospore dark brown, c.
300-320 /x long, 250 /x broad, showing about 6-7 ridges; membrane
‘ ‘ somewhat spongy ’ ’ (Nordst. ) .

Localities. — Nordstedt 1 c. refers with some doubt a plant from
Endeavour River (Persieh, 535) to a forma australiana of N. pseudo-
flab ellat a from its likeness to one of the Java plants determined by
Braun (Fragm., p. 54). H. Groves referred to this species a plant
collected near Murphy’s Creek by Bancroft.

The outer membrane of forma australiana is described by Nordstedt
(1 c. p. 24) as being a little spongy, but covered also with small pointed
warts standing a little more closely than in N. Sonderi and a little
smaller too. The membrane appears to be granulate.

A very variable and indefinite species that has never been properly
diagnosed, the original being based on rather different plants from
various localties. Dr. T. F. Allen laid stress on the elongated primary
ray as an important feature of this species, but Groves was of opinion
that the larger number of rays, especially at the second and ultimate
forkings together with the greater number and approximately equal
length of the uniformly 2-celled dactyls were features of more importance.

Recorded from various parts of Asia; also from New Zealand and
New Caledonia.

5. N. mucosa Groves, in Linn. Coe. J. Bot. XL VI., p. 100 (1922) ;
N. pseudo-flabellata Braun forma mucosa Nordstedt, De Alg. et Char.,
part 2, Act. Univ. Lund., XVI., p. 16 (1880) ; De Alg et Char., part 4,
p. 10 (1889).

Monoecious. Branchlets commonly 3-times forked, primary rays as
long or longer than half the total length of the branchlet. Dactyls 4-5.
Oospore dark brown, 300-360 /x long, 285-300 /x broad, showing 6-7 ridges;
membrane bearing little closely set prickles (Nordst.). Antheridium
200-230^ in diameter.

Localities. — Stannary Hills, 1909, T. L. Bancroft; Sandgate,
November, 1911, C. T. White, No. 3 ; Ithaca Creek, May, 1912, C.T.W.,
Nos. 3 and 4.

A REVIEW OF THE QUEENSLAND CHAROPHYTA.

45

Nordstedt (1880) separated two New Zealand examples as forma
mucosa of N. pseudo-flab ellata Braun, the distinguishing feature being
that the young fertile heads were enveloped in mucus. Groves elevated
forma mucosa to specific rank in a paper on Charophytes collected in
Ceylon by T. B. Blow and remarked that it resembled N. pseudo -flab ellat a
in the proportionate length of the primary ray and in the number of
tertiary rays but differed from that species in having the fruiting whorls
enveloped in thick mucus.

Only one of Nordstedt ’s two New Zealand type plants bore ripe fruit.
A beautiful drawing by Bullock- Webster of the membrane of forma
mucosa recorded in De Algis 1889, p. 25, from Waikato, New Zealand,
depicts it as tuberculate with a tendency for the tubercules to form lines.
Of the Queensland specimens only those from Ithaca bear ripe oospores
but the membrane of these is thickly felted so that it is not possible to
ascertain the nature of the decoration.

The presence of mucus in fruiting whorls is easily detected when
the plants are fresh or preserved in fluid but it is often not discernable
in dried specimens.

Recorded in addition to New Zealand and Ceylon from Malay
Peninsula and probably Japan and Tonking.

(In Bailey’s list muscosa is in error written for mucosa.)

6. N. lepiosoma Nordstedt, De Alg. et Char.,, part 2, p. 17 (1880) ;
De Alg. et Char., part 4, p. 11, part 6, p. 25 (1889) ; Australasian
Characeae, part 1 (1891).

Figure. — Austral. Char. 1. e.

Monoecious. A small slender plant about six inches high. Whorls
of 6-8 branchlets, one (or more usually in the upper whorls twice)
forked, the sterile whorls being comparatively long while, the fertile are
in the form of interrupted spikes enveloped in mucus; 3-5 rays at each
furcation, the primary rays tending to exceed half the length of the
branchlet; dactyls 2-celled, the lower cell being of almost equal thick-
ness throughout till it narrows at the top, the apical cell forming an
acute mucro. Oogonia solitary, at both furcations; oospore dark brown,
310-350p, long, c. 310/z broad, with 7-8 slightly prominent ridges. Mem-
brane “thickly dotted with small acute elongated spines’’ (Nordst.).
Canon Bullock- Webster ’s drawing of a membrane from Taupo, New
Zealand (ex herb. Nordst.), shows a tuberculate type with which
Nordstedt ’s fig. 6 agrees.

Localities. — This species is included with some doubt. In the first
supplement (Brisbane, 1886) of F. M. Bailey’s “Synopsis of the
Queensland Flora” localities are given as Mount Perry and near Bris-
bane, but in his ‘ ‘ Comprehensive Catalogue ’ ’ the species is entered with
a query. In De Alg. et Char., 1889, 1 c., Nordstedt mentions a doubtful
variety of this species from Queensland (“still water near Brisbane, leg.
C. F. Bailey,” quoted in Austr. Char, as T. Bailey). Nordstedt remarks
that it could not be determined with certainty as the oospores were not
ripe and it also differed somewhat from the type and would on further
observation probably prove a distinct species.

Elsewhere known only from New Zealand.

46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

7. N. Comptonii Groves, in Linn. Soc. J. Bot. XLVI., p. 69 (1922).
Figure.— 1 c., pi. 5. (Fig. 8 a-e.)

Text Fig. 3. — Nitella Complonii, Groves.

Explanation: —

a — Sterile branchlet, final forking, Xc. 25.
b — Apices of dactyls, X c. 80.
c — Oospore, X c. 45.
d — Part of fertile branchlet, X c. 20.

e — Part of stem whorl, showing 3 sterile and 1 fertile branchlet, X c. 3.

Monoecious. Stem c. 400/x thick. Whorls distant. Usually 8
branchlets to a whorl, 3-4 (usually 3) times forked; primary ray equal
to half the length of the entire branchlet ; secondary rays 6-8, tertiary
5-7, quaternary 5-6, with one or two often again forked. Dactyls 4-6,
2-eelled, elongated, slender, slightly curved at the base ; lower cell more
or less narrowed at the apex, apical cell long-conical, ->85^ long, c. 25 /x
broad at the base.

Fertile whorls in mucus, often forming small round heads.
Gametangia at second and third forkings; oogonia solitary; coronula
persistent. Oospore c. 300 /x long, 250 /x broad, very dark brown, showing
about S prominent ridges. Membrane finely granulate. Antheridium
e. 250p, in diameter.

Locality. — Enoggera Reservoir, May, 1912, C. T. White.

A REVIEW OF THE QUEENSLAND CHAROPHYTA. 47

The collector’s note is “growing on mud at edge of water; could
find none at deeper depth.”

N. Comptonii was described from a plant found in New Caledonia
in 1914 by Mr. R. H. Compton. The Queensland specimen is in fluid
only. Mr. Groves remarks that it is £ ‘ apparently gloeocephalous judging
from its capacity for accumulating foreign matter.”

It appears from some old notes of his that he was quite possibly
contemplating describing this as a new species but it seems to me closely
to resemble N. Comptomi. The present plant does not show more than
three furcations and the oospore measures c. 280/x long. The oospore
membranes of the two are much alike.

Distinguishable from N. leptosoma by being usually three times
forked, by the larger number of rays and by the sterile first furcation ;
from N. mucosa by the heteromorphous branchlets.

Brachydactylce.

8. N. oligospira Braun, in Monats. Akad. Berl., p. 357 (1858) ; /.
australiana Nordst., De Alg. et Char., p. 26 (1889).

Monoecious. A rather small and slender plant of lax habit; sterile
and fertile whorls more or less similar ; branchlets twice or partly thrice
forked. Dactyls 2-celled and varying much in length, some being very
short, apical cell acute. Oogonia solitary, coronula short; oospore sub-
globose, yellowish-brown, 260-280 p long, with 6 prominent ridges;
membrane rather irregularly reticulate.

Nordstedt remarked that the place of this Australian form could
not be fixed exactly owing to the absence of any ripe oospores but that
it came nearest to f. indica. It has 4-5 branchlets, 3-4 secondaries, and
2-3 dactyls.

Locality. — Head of Ithaca Creek, Taylor’s Range, Brisbane, April,
1885, H. Tryon.

“A variable and rather indeterminate species which seems to occupy
an intermediate position between the sections Macrodactylae and Brachy-
dactyhe” (Groves). Tlu present species was the first instance of a
representative of this group being found in Australia. The oogonia
being solitary distinguishes it from the other three Queensland species.

A characteristically tropical species occurring in India, Ceylon, Java,
N. and S. America, and the West Indies,

9. N. Microcarpa Braun, in Monats. Akad Berl., p. 357 (1858) ; Br.
& Nordst., Fragmente, p. 71 (1882).

Figure. — Br. & Nordst., 1 c., pi. II., figs. 56-57, pi. III., fig. 78.

Monoecious. Stem slender. Whorls of six branchlets, 3-4 times
forked. Dactyls 2-celled, the end-cell consisting of a very short sharp
mucro. Fruit either germinate or three together. Oospore golden
brown, very small, only 180-250/z long, showing 6 spirals; membrane
reticulate.

Localities. — Brisbane, Darra, July, 1928, R. ILamlyn-Harris ;
Murarrie, near Bacon Factory, July, 1928, R. H.-H. ; Brisbane, Wynnum
road, Ti-tree Swamps, August, 1928, R. H.-H. ; Brisbane, Tingalpa,
August, 1928, R. H.-H.

Mr. Groves put all four gatherings under this species, which is
included in Nordstedt ’s Australasian list (1918) on account of the
oogonia being frequently germinate. The dactyls are not all very short,

48

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

this brachydactylous character being more pronounced in the Tingalpa
specimens. Those other gatherings were referred by him to N. micro -
carpa, sens, lat., viz., Mt. Buderim, April, 1912, Nos. 1 and 2, C. T. White ;
still pool near Burleigh Heads, September, 1912, C.T.W.

The membrane being reticulate distinguishes it from N . orientalis
which has granulate markings.

Widely distributed in the tropics, being found in India, Ceylon,
Malay Peninsula, China, Japan, Java, S. Africa, N. and S. America,
and West Indies.

10. N. Orientalis Allen, Bull. Torr. Bot, Club, vol. 21, No. 12, p.
524 (1894).

Figure. — Allen 1 c.

Monoecious. Very variable in size. 6-8 branchlets to a whorl, 3-5
times forked. Dactyls sometimes long and often very short. Oogonia
usually clustered, sometimes solitary, never at the first node. Coronula
short, small, and connivent, with the upper layer much longer than the
lower, which are small and disk-shaped. Oospore c. 350 p long, 300 p
broad, showing 7-9 ridges; membrane surface “ minutely roughened with
granules, which are quite coarse and more prominent at one or two
points on the shell, usually near the apex.”

Locality. — Stannary Hills, T. L. Bancroft.

Groves remarks that his late brother (Henry Groves) referred the
plant to this species with some doubt. The species seems to be rather
an ill-defined one and was founded on three gatherings which “ though
variable may belong to the same species” (Allen).

Elsewhere known only from Japan.

11. N. Furcata Agardh, Systema Algarum, p. 124 (1824) ; (A.
Foxburghii Br. 1849, N. polyglochin Br. sens, strict.) ; Br. & Nordst.,
Fragmente, p. 73 (1882) ; Nordst., De Alg. et Char., p. 27 (1889).

Figure. — Br. & Nordst., l.c., figs, 140-144.

Monoecious. Six branchlets to a whorl ; sterile c. 25 cm. long, fertile
half as long, 3-times furcate. About 4 secondaries, 3 tertiaries, and
quaternaries. Dactyls all very short and divergent. Oogonia clustered.
Oospore 250 p long, 225 p broad (Nordst.); showing 6-7 ridges. Mem-
brane reitculate. Coronula very tall owing to the cells of the upper tier
being prolonged into sharpish points.

Locality. — Endeavour River, 1887, M. Persieh.

“In the typical state of this when all the upper cells of the coronula
are elongated the character is very marked” (Groves) and renders it
easily distinguishable from any other Nitella.

This species occurs in many parts of Asia, including India, Burma,
Malay Peninsula, Java, Japan, &c., recorded also from Madagascar and
N. and S. America.

Pluricellulatce.

12. N. Myriotricha Braun, 1855, M.S. ; Br. & Nordst., Fragmente,
p. 80 (1882) ; Kuetzing, Tab. Phyc., VII., p. 15 (1857).

A REVIEW OF THE QUEENSLAND CHAROPHYTA.

49

Figures. — Kuetz., 1 c., pi. 39 ; Br. & Nordst., 1 c., figs. 158-163.

Dioecious. Branchlets 5-7 in a whorl, 3-4 times furcate, fertile
branchlets smaller and contracted. Dactyls usually 3-celled, apical cell
pointed. Oogonia solitary, at all forkings, enveloped in mucus. Oospore
c. 250-260 /x long, showing 7-8 prominent ridges; membrane rather
coarsely reticulate.

Localities. — Moreton Bay, near Brisbane (comm. F. v. Mueller,
1867) ; Gulf of Carpentaria (Mueller) ; Sunnybank, near Brisbane, 1926,
C. T. White; St. Lucia, September, 1927, $(J, R. Hamlyn-Harris ; Green-
slopes, August, 1928, R. H.-H.; Tingalpa, old well near swamp,
August, 1928, R. H.-H.

“This very distinct plant — one of the most beautiful Australian
species — is characterised by very fine many-times-forked branchlets,
extremely thin (c. 20 fx in diameter), long cylindrical pointed end-cells
on the sterile branchlets, and the fruiting heads enveloped in a dense
cloud of mucus” (J.G.).

The oospore ridges, about 6, in the Sunnybank plant, are very
inconspicuous, in this respect differing from Mueller’s, and the oospore
is only c. 200 /x long.

Not recorded outside Australia.

13. N. Diffusa Braun (1860) ; Br. & Nordst., Fragmente, pp. 14 and
80 (1882) ; Nordst., De Alg. et Char., p. 28 (1889).

Figure. — Br. & Nordst., 1 c., figs. 154b-157.

Dioecious, Six branchlets to the whorl, 2- or sometimes 3-times
forked, fertile whorls tending to form heads. Dactyls 2-3 celled, usually
3-celled (when apparently 4-celled it is due to suppressed forking) the
cells becoming shorter and narrower with the end-cell very short and
acute. Oogonia either solitary or germinate, rather small, occurring
at first and second forks; coronula short. Oospore chestnut-brown, c.
350 [i long, c. 310^, broad, showing 8 ridges with a prominent crest;
membrane very finely reticulate. Antheridia c. 550 /x in diameter.

Localities, — Brisbane ; Main Range, Fassifern Creeks, <J F. M.

Bailey (comm. 1884) ; Tambourine Mountain, November, 1909, J. H.
Simmonds (comm. F.M.B.) ; Rosewood, September, 1911, C. T. White;
Goodna, October, 1911, C.T.W. ; Doomben, August, 1926, C.T.W. ; Enog-
gera Creek, January, 1927 <}, September, 1933 $<J, R. Hamlyn-Harris;
St. Lucia, April, 1927, R. H.-H. ; Brisbane, April-May, 1927, R. H.-H. ;
large swamps off Wynnum road, July, 1928 <J , R. H.-H. ; small claypits
at Greenslopes, (J, swamps on Wynnum road, August, 1928, $ , R. H.-H. ;
Tingalpa, August, 1928, $ , R. H.-H. ; Downfall Creek, Geebung, Sep-
tember, 1933, (J R. H.-H.

According to the key in Nordstedt’s Synopsis (1918) this plant
should be distinguishable from A. cristata by the fertile whorls not
forming the small dense heads characteristic of the latter and also by
the sterile branchlets of the lower whorls not being forked.

Elsewhere this plant is only known from Tasmania,

14. N. Cristata Braun, in Linnaea XXV., p. 706 (1852) ; Br. &
Nordst., Fragm., p. 82 (1882).

50

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Figures. — Kuetzing, Tab. Phyc., VII., pi. 41 (1857) ; Br. & Nordst.,
1 c., fig. 165.

Dioecious, Six branchlets to a whorl, fertile whorls forming small
dense heads; branchlets once or more usually twice furcate, each time
giving rise to 3 rays; dactyls 2-4- (usually 3-) celled, tapering and
divergent; end-cell acute. Oogonia solitary or aggregate, at both forks,
oospore 300-380 /x long (Nordst.) showing 6 extremely developed ridges
with a large crest membrane decorated with tubercles.

Localities. — Main Range, 1883, F. M. Bailey; near Brisbane River,
1886; F.M.B.; Ithaca Creek, May, 1912, C. T. White; Yeronga,
November, 1927, R. Hamlyn-Harris ; Murarrie, Wynnum road, July,
1928, R. H.-H. ; Victoria Park, Brisbane, July, 1928, R. H.-H. ;
Horse Paddock, Yeronga, July, 1928, R. H.-H. ; Buruda, July, 1928,
R.H.-H. ; Wynnum road, August, 1928, R. H.-H. ; pool by Pine
River, September, 1928, R.H.H.; Enoggera Creek, October-November,
1928, R.H.H.

The chief feature distinguishing this species from N. diffusa is the
small dense fertile heads. Groves remarks in litt. that he hopes he
has sorted the plants out correctly between this species and the fore-
going, but they seem to run close together. It has less forking than
N. myriotricha and the oogonia are not enveloped in mucus.

Not known outside) Australasia; recorded from various parts of
S.E. Australia and from Tasmania.

15. N. gelatinosa Braun, in Hooker’s J. Bot., p. 198 (1849) ; Chara
gelatinosa , Braun, in Linnaea XVII., p. 115 (1843) ; Nordst., Hedwigia,
p. 185 (1888) ; De Alg. et Char., p. 13 (1889) ; Bailey, c.e., p.
678 (1913).

Figures. — Kuetz., Tab. Phyc. VII., figs. 28-30 (1857) ; Nordst.,
Hedwigia, pi. VI., fig. 2 (oospore membrane).

Dioecious. Sterile branchlets either simple or once furcate ; fertile
once or twice forked, primary ray very short and dactyl long. Dactyls
2-4-celled, end-cell typically obtuse but variable. Oogonia in dense heads
enveloped in mucus. Oospore c. 200-270/x long, showing 7-8 ridges;
membrane coarsely reticulate, with c. 4 meshes to the fossa.

Localities, — Johnstone R., T. L. Bancroft (Nordst,, De Algis.) ;
Stannary Hills, 1909, $ , T.L.B. ; Wynnum road, August, 1928, $, R.
Hamlyn-Harris ; Tingalpa, August, 1928, R. H.-H.

Groves remarks in litt. that this species and N. tasmanica seem very
closely related. Nordstedt who studied the Australian Charophytes
more closely than any other man has remarked that the difference
between N. tasmanica and some forms of N. gelatinosa appeared to him
to be very slight. There is a suggestion in the Fragmente that perhaps
N. gelatinosa ought to be divided into three species based on the different
characters of the sterile branchlets.

16. N. tasmanica (F. Muell.) Braun, in Linnaea XXV., p. 707
(1852) ; Br. & Nordst., Fragmente, p. 83 (1882) ; Nordst., De Alg. et
Char., p. 29 (1889).

Figure. — Kuetzing, Tab. Phyc. VII., fig. 40 (1857).

A REVIEW OF THE QUEENSLAND CHAROPHYTA.

51

Dioecious. 7-8 branchlets to the fertile whorl, twice forked, usually
5 secondary rays and 4-5 tertiary. Primary and secondary rays short,
dactyls long, 3-4 (sometimes even 5-) celled. Fertile whorls very gela-
tinous. Oospore dark brown to opaque, 220-240 p long, 190-210 /x broad;
membrane reticulate, meshes in 3-4 rows and rather irregularly arranged.

Localities. — Trinity Bay, 1886, (J, Sayer; Johnstone R., 1886, T. L.
Bancroft ; Cochin Creek, 1910, $<J, T.L.B.

Somewhat weaker but otherwise like N. cristata in appearance.

Known elsewhere only from Tasmania and New South Wales.

17. N. polyceplmla Braun, 1868, MS. ; N. gelatinosa var. polycephala
Braun, 1852, in Linmea XXV., p. 706 (1852) ; Br. & Nordst., Fragmente,
p. 85 (1882).

Figure. — Br. & Nordst., 1 c., figs. 169-171.

Dioecious. Very small and delicate, about 50 mm. tall. Sterile
branchlets 6 to a whorl, once forked ; 4-5 dz equals 4-celled dactyls the end-
cell being mucro-shaped. Fertile branchlets twice forked, primary and
secondary rays short, dactyls longer ; dactyls 3-celled, lowest cell swollen.
Oogania solitary, very small at both forkings, coronula short. Oospore
160-180ju, long, showing 5 ridges.

Locality. — Brisbane River, $ A. Dietrich (comm. 1868: Frag-
mente).

Distinguishable from N. gelatinosa} by the smaller oospore showing
5 ridges only and by the fertile heads being only slightly mucous.

Elsewhere known only from Melbourne, the specimen being (J.

18. N. hookeri Braun, in Hooker’s J. Bot. I., p. 199 (1849) ; Br. &
Nordst., Fragmente, pp. 15, 86-88 (1882) ; Hooker, Handbook New Zea-
land FL, p. 550 (1864).

Figure. — Br. & Nordst., 1 c., figs. 172-176.

Monoecious, Whorls of 6-8 branchlets, the lower lax and distant,
the upper somewhat capitate. Branchlets 1-2-, occasionally partly 3-,
times forked. Dactyls 3-4-celled, the lowest one or two cells elongated,
the next usually abbreviated and conspicuously narrower and along with
the short still narrower conical end-cell forming a small mucro. Oogonia
often 2-3 at a node. Oospore very dark brown, c. 425 ju, long, 350-375 p
broad, showing about 7-9 strong ridges; membrane thick, usually of two
layers, the outer finely and densely granulate. Antheridia 300-360 p
in diameter.

Locality. — Included from (Queensland without locality in Bailey’s
Catalogue.

It is usually readily distinguishable by the shape of the dactyl and
its being monoecious and without mucus.

An endemic Australasian species, occurring in S. Australia, Victoria,
N.S. Wales, Tasmania, New Zealand, and Kerguelen Island.

52

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

HETEROCLEMJS.

19. N. lhotzkyi Braun, in Hooker’s J. Bot. I., p. 197 (1849) ; Chara
Lhotzkyi, Br., in Linnaea XVII., p. 114 (1843) ; N. conglobata var.
Lhotzkyi, Br. & Nordst., Frangmente, p 75 (1882).

Figure. — Kuetzing, Tab. Phyc. YII., pi. 39, fig. 1 (1857).

Dioecious. 7-8 larger twice furcate branchlets to the whorl, 1-6 (-12)
smaller once furcate branchlets. 3-5 dactyls, 2-celled; end-cell a very
narrow mucro. Oospore c. 300/x long; membrane shows shallow
reticulation.

Localities. — Copperfield, 1871, $, v. Boweran; Sources of Thompson
River, 1871, (J, Birch; Murweh, Warrego R., March, 1912, <J, A.
Cameron.

An altogether smaller plant than N. congesta. An endemic Aus
tralian species, recorded from various parts of the Continent.

20. N. congesta (R. Brown) Braun, in Hooker’s J. Bot, I., p. 198
(1849) ; Chara congesta, R. Brown, 1810, prodr. I., p. 346 (1810) ;
Braun, in Linnaea XVII., p. 114 (1846-7)) ; Br. & Nordst., Fragmente,
pp. 14, 77 (1882).

Nordst., De Alg. et Char., p. 12 (1889), Australasian Characeae
(1891.)

Figure. — Br. & Nordst., 1 c., fig. 153; Nordst., Austr. Char., pi. 6
(1891).

Dioecious. Young whorls with a mucous covering. Whorls very
dense, sperical, 5-10 (-30) mm. in diameter; branchlets in three series,
larger 7-8 to a whorl, 3- and sometimes partly 4-times forked, smaller
series about 40, 1-3-times forked. Dactyls gradually attenuate, 2-celled ;
end-cell tapering to a sharp point, Oogonia clustered, often 3 together,
at first and second forkings only. Oospore dark brown 400-450//, long,
350-400 j u broad, showing about nine very broad ridges ; membrane
‘‘slightly spongy” (Nordst.), “minutely granulate, some granules larger
and more prominent than others” (Bullock-Webster).

Locality. — This may or may not be a Queensland species; it is
recorded “ad Novae Hollandiae oram septenrionalem et australem” by
Braun.

A very luxuriant plant, readily distinguishable from the foregoing
by its rigid and robust character and by the dense globular whorls
which include numerous secondary branchlets.

Occurs in N., S., and W. Australia and Tasmania.

21. N. hyalina Agardh, System a Algarum, p. 126, ex parte (1824) ;
Br. and Nordst., Fragmente, p. 78 (1882).

Figures. — Kuetzing, Tab. Phyc. VII., pi. 35, fig. 2 (1857) ; Bailey,
l.c., fig. 686; Groves & Bullock-Webster, British Charophyta, vol. I., plv
XVI. (1920).

Monoecious. Branchlets in 3 series, usually 8 larger ones and about
16 smaller and simpler secondary branches in 2 series, one above and
the other below the primary branchlets. Primary branchlets 2-3 furcate,
upper secondary 1-2 furcate, lower once furcate or simple. Dactyls

A REVIEW OF THE QUEENSLAND CHAROPHYTA.

53

uniformly 2-celled, the lower cell gradually narrowing; end-cell narrowly
conical acute. Gametangia enveloped in mucus, occurring usually at the
second and third forkings, rarely at the first, of the primary brachlets,
sometimes occurring also on the secondary. Oogonia solitary; oospore
brown, c. 250-400 ju, long, c. 200-300/x broad, showing 8-9 ridges. Mem-
brane granulate.

Localities. — Rockhampton, W. Watson (comm. F. v. Mueller, 1876) ;
Roper River (var. br achy act is) ; Flinders R., 1883, E. Palmer; Burke-
town and Gregory R., Gulf of Carpentaria, 1886, T. L. Bancroft;
Glaclfield, near Warwick, C. J. Gwyther; Murphy’s Creek, April, 1910,
T.L.B. ; Upper Brookfield, Brisbane, June, 1926, C. T. White; Pine R.,
September, 1928, and February, 1929, R. Hamlyn-LIarris ; Enoggera
Creek, November, 1928, September, 1933, R. H.-H. ; Hatchery, Brisbane,
1929, R. H.-H.)

Readily distinguishable from N. Stuartii by the 2-celled dactyls
and from the other two heteroclemous species by its monoecious character.

This species, first found in the Lake of Geneva, Switzerland, was
later recorded from various other parts of Europe and subsequently
from all over the world.

22. N. stuartii Braun, in Linnsea XXV., p. 704 (1852) ; Braund &
Nordstedt, Fragmente, p. 704 (1882) ; Nordstedt, De Alg. et Char., pp.
7, 23 (1889) ; N. subglomerata, Braun, var. japonica, T. F. Allen, 1896,
Torrey Bull. Bot. Club, XXII., p. 251.

Figure. — Kuetzing, Tab. Phyc. VII., pi. 42, fig. 2 (1857).

Monoecious. Stem moderately stout. Upper whorls of branchlets
in two circles, those of the upper circle longer than the lower, varying
considerably in number, all twice forked; the secondary rays of the
lower circle short, usually 5-6 ; dactyls 4-8, nearly equal in length, fairly
long, uniformly 1-celled, with acuminate points. Gametangia produced
at both forks. Oogonia in clusters of ->6 together ; coronula rather
conspicuous, hardly broader than high ; oospore rich golden-brown, 200-
250^ long, 175-200 broad, 90-100 p thick, showing about 6 well-marked
but not prominent ridges, membrane finely reticulate, walls of the
meshes rather thick. Antheridia about 200-225/x in diameter.

Locality. — Shallow part of main stream, Cash’s Crossing, Pine
River, September, 1928, R. Hamlyn-Harris. Apparently the only record
for this species from the mainland of Australia.

A very distinct plant which cannot be confused with any other
species, being distinguished by the double circle of branchlets, and
twice-forked branchlets, coupled with 1-celled dactyls. This and N.
polygyra (not recorded from Queensland) seem to be the only Australian
species having single-celled dacytls.

N. stuartii was first described from Tasmania, and has since been
found in North Island, New Zealand, and in Japan.

CHARA Linn.

HAPLOSTEPHANiE. Stipulodes in a single circle.

Ecorticat,e. Stem and brachlets without cortex.

1. C. australis R. Brown, Prodr., p. 346 (1810).

Figure. — Kuetzing, Tab. Phyc. VII., pi. 27 (1857).

54 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Dioecious. Stem varying in thickness, often very stout, entirely
^corticate. Branchlets 5-7 in a whorl, of usually 4 segments, the ultimate
segment very short conical acute often curved; bract-cells often only
partially developed, and as well as the bracteoles and bractlet very short
narrow acute. Stipulodes very short conical acute, singly or in pairs,
alternating with the branchlets. Oogonia produced at the base of the
branchlets and singly or in clusters of 2-3 at the free nodes. Coronula-
cells connivent, straight or spreading. Oospore black, broadly-ellipsoid
or sub-cylindrical, c. 550-800 g long, showing 7-8 firm low ridges.
Antheridia c. 1,100 g in diameter, at the base and at the free nodes
of the branchlets.

Localities. — Main Range, near Brisbane, C. H. Hartman ; Pine River,
1928, R. Hamlyn-Harris ; Gulf Country, Northern Queensland, T. L.
Bancroft, No. 30 (Herb. Brisbane) ; recorded also by Braun (1882) from
Gulf of Carpentaria (coll. F. v. Mueller, 1856) but whether from East
or West coast is not stated.

* A characteristic Australasian species, occurring in many parts of
Australia and in Tasmania, New Zealand, New Caledonia, and the Fiji
Islands. Outstanding features are the few branchlet-segments, the small
often minute sharply pointed stipulodes bract-cells and ultimate branch-
let segments, the gametangia ( $(J ) being produced at the base of the
whorl and clustered at some of the free nodes. Typically it is a rather
large stout bright green plant with rather short branchlets, the inter-
nodes swollen so that the nodes appear constricted, but more slender
forms (vars. lucida and Viellardi) have been found.

2. G. macropogon Braun, in Linnaea XVII., p. 116 (1843) ; Lychno-
thamnus macropogon , Braun, Char. Afr., p. 798 (1868) ; Macropogon
australicum, Migula, Die Characeen, p. 273 (1891).

Figures. — Kuetzing, Tab. Phyc. VII., pi. 46, fig. 1-2 (1857) ; Bailey,
l.c., fig. 688.

Monoecious. Stem rather slender, entirely ecorticate, upper inter-
nodes often very short, the whorls forming dense heads. Branchlets
6-8 (-10) in a whorl, usually of 4-5 segments. Bract-cells at the lower
nodes 4-5, long slender and divergent, often shorter and less numerous
at the upper. Stipulodes normally very long and slender, declining,
but sometimes short and even rudimentary, one produced opposite the
base of each branchlet, sometimes with small adventitious ones between
them and occasionally some produced above the branchlets on, the inner
side of the whorl. Oogania most produced in the axils of the branchlets
and equalling them in number, rarely one or two on the outer side of the
whorl, also occasionally on some of the free nodes of the branchlets,
rarely in company with the antheridia; coronula short erect, the cells
ellipsoid or nearly spherical. Oosport very dark brown, c. 500-600 g
long, 250-300 g broad, showing about 10-12 low ridges. Antheridia at
the free nodes of the branchlets, and occasionally at some at the base,
c. 500 g in diameter.

Localities. — Rockingham Bay, Salt-water Creek, March, 1868, J.
Dallachy; Westbrook, near Toowoomba, November, 1911, H. Tryon.

A characteristic Australasian species, occuring in N. and S. Aus-
tralia, Victoria, Tasmania, and New Zealand; also found in a few
localities in China and South Africa. A moderate-sized plant; in the

A REVIEW OF THE QUEENSLAND CHAROPHYTA.

55

typical form the long graceful declining stipulodes are a very marked
feature, and this conspicuous “ beard” gave rise to its specific name.
The segregated $ and $ organs and the densely crowded upper whorls,
forming “ foxtails’’ are not met with in any other Queensland species.
Large spherical, nearly white root-bulbils have been found and are
probably frequent, but few collectors obtain the rooting parts of these
plants.

3. C. braunii Gmelin, FI. Bad., Alsat. IV. (suppl.), p. 646 (1826) ;
G. coronata (and C. braunii ), Bischoff (1828).

Figures. — Kuetzing, Tab. Phyc. VII., pi. 43, fig. 1 (1857) ; Nord-
stedt, Austral. Char., pi. 7 (1891).

Monoecious. Stem of moderate diameter, entirely ecorticate, inter-
nodes fairly long. Branchlets about 8-10 in a whorl, of 4-5 segments,
the ultimate segment often very short. Bract-cells varying greatly in
development, sometimes all elongated, sometimes the posterior quite
rudimentary, produced at all the nodes, those at the final node often
as long as the ultimate segment of the branchlet. Stipulodes alternating
with the branchlets, varying greatly in length. Gametangia produced
at the free nodes of the branchlets. Oogonia often germinate. Coronula-
cells spreading, upright or connivent. Oospore black, very variable in
size, 400-600 /x long, showing 5-10 ridges. Antheridia c. 250-300 /x in
diameter.

Localities. — Isolated pool, Cash’s Crossing, Pine River, September,
1928, R. Hamlyn-Harris ; also recorded from Richmond River (1887)
by Nordstedt.

A medium-sized plant, often tufted in growth, but not producing
dense heads. From its clear green ecorticate stems and branchlets, and
rather lax habit, it has often been mistaken for a Nitella. It is almost
world-wide in its distribution, and as might be expected is extremely
variable. It is readily distinguishable from the other two ecorticate
species by the gametangia not being produced at the base of the whorl ;
from C. australis also by being monoecious, from C. macropogon by the
stipulodes alternating with the branchlets. The ultimate segment of
the branchlet being about the same length as the subtending bract-cells
gives the effect of a little crown at the extremity of the branchlet.

Corticate. Stem corticate, branchlets ecorticate.

4. C. submollusca Nordstedt, in Hedwigia, p. 189 (1888).

Figures. — Nordst., l.c., pi. 6, figs. 7-11; Bailey, l.c., fig. 689.

Dioecious. Stem 200-400 ju, in diameter, cortex 1-ranked. Spine-
cells nearly spherical with acute points. Branchlets ecorticate 6-11 in a
whorl of 3-4 segments. Bracteal appendages (developed) in ? 5-6,

acuminate or aeuminate-mucronate, posterior very short or rudimen-
tary ; in <£ 2-4 developed. Stipulodes twice as many as the branchlets,
very small, acuminate. Oogonium c. 700 /x long (excl. cor.), 450/x broad;
coronula-cells very short, connivent. Oospore very dark brown or black,
360-570 /x long, 260-350 /x broad, showing about 7 ridges. Antheridium
->600 fju in diameter.

Localities.— Rockingham Bay, Salt-water Creek, March, 1868, J.
Dallachy; between the Norman and Gilbert Rivers, 1874, T. Gulliver;
Cairns, 1892, G. Podenzana; “Tropical Australia” (Queensland ?)’
Mueller. J

56

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

C. submollusca is slender and sometimes exceeds a foot in height.
The outstanding character is the single series of cortical-cells, corres-
ponding in number with that of the branchlets. The rows of cells are
sometimes non-contiguous. A very interesting feature is the occasional
presence of reserves of starch in some internodes of the stem and in the
lower parts of the branchlets which latter are white and swollen, giving
them quite a different appearance from the normal branchlets. This
curious condition is figured by Nordstedt in fig. 11.

5. C. preissii Braun, in Linnaea XVII., p. 118 (1843).

Figures. — Kuetzing, Tab. Phyc. VII., pi. 45, fig. 1, pi. 50, fig. 2
(1857).

Dioecious. Stem moderately stout; cortex diplostichous, the cells
of both series of about equal diameter; spine-cells acute varying in
length, sometimes as long as the diameter of the stem, sometimes quite
short. Stipulodes usually well-developed (in the type) twice as
numerous as the branchlets. Branchlets ecorticate 10-14, of 5-6 seg-
ments. Bracteal appendages 3-5, usually well-developed, acuminate.
Coronula short, the cells connivent. Oospore described as black.
Antheridium ->800/x in diameter.

Locality. — Herbert Creek, E. Bonman, 1870 (fide Nordstedt).

In Braun’s later works C. preissii was combined with C. Hookeri
to form a composite species, G. dichopitys. It has been recorded from
Western Australia, New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania, as well
as from Queensland.

B. Bancr of tii Groves MS., Var. nov. Unum stipulodium ad quemque
ram ilium.

Localities. — Dalby, May, 1893, (J, T. L. Bancroft; Sandgate,
November, 1911, <J, C. T. White; Enoggera Reservoir, May, 1912,
C.T.W.

The above plants seem to be uniformly unistipulate (i.e., stiplodes
equalling the branchlets in number), but in this section of Chara the
character does not appear to be a stable one. Further investigation of
this and the type may elicit other points of difference between them and
make it desirable to separate the variety as a distinct species. The
antheridia measured were c. 600/z, in diameter. The oospore of the
Enoggera plant is very dark brown, c. 400 p long, 275 jit broad, and shows
c. 8-9 strong ridges.

( C . leptopitys Braun, also dioecious, but differing from the fore-
going species in producing gametangia at the base of the whorl, as well
as at the free branchlet-nodes, occurs in Western Australia, South
Australia, Victoria, and Tasmania.)

6. C. gymnopitys Braun, in Linnsea XXV., p. 708 (1852).

Figures. — Kuetzing, Tab. Phyc. VII., pi. 50, fig. 1 (1857) ; Bailey,
l.c., fig. 690.

Monoecious. Stem moderately stout, usually rather rigid, cortex
2-ranked, the primary cells sometimes larger than, some the same size as
the secondary. Branchlets escortieate 9-14 in a whorl, usually of 4-6
segments. Bract-cells produced at all the nodes, varying greatly in
number, -> 10, long and slender, acuminate ; bracteoles similar. Stipulodes

A REVIEW OF THE QUEENSLAND CHAROPHYTA.

57

numerous (-> twice the number of the branchlets) usually long occasion-
ally rudimentary. Coronula very variable, the cells sometimes short
and connivent, sometimes long and divergent. Oospore dark brown to
nearly black, varying greatly in size. Antheridia 300-450p, in diameter.

Recorded by Braun from ‘ ‘ Moreton Bay, F. Muller, 1858”; by
Nordstedt from “ Lagoon-road to Cawaral, Q. Thozet,” and from “Bloom-
field River, Miss Bauer, 1885.” These I (J.G.) have not seen; all the
specimens from Queensland which I have examined come under the
following : —

B. Benthamii, Cham Benthami Braun. Stipulodes equalling, or but
slightly exceeding the branchlets in number, usually shorter and stouter
than in the type.

Localities. — Brisbane, 1883, F. M. Bailey; Brisbane River, F.M.B. ;
head of Ithaca Creek, 1885, H. Tryon; Gregory R., Gulf of Carpentaria,
1886, T. L. Bancroft; Mount Perry, 1891, J. Keys; Burpengary, T.L.B. ;
Burketown, T.L.B. ; Cochin Creek, 1910, T.L.B. ; Corinda, 1911-2, C. T.
White ; Brisbane Botanic Gardens, 1912, C.T.W. ; Enoggera Creek, 1912,
C.T.W., and 1927, and September, 1933, R. Hamlyn-Harris ; St, Lucia,
1927, R. H.-H.; Murarrie, 1928, R. H.-H. ; Tingalpa, 1928, R. H.-H. ;
Pine River, 1928, R.H.-H. ; Hatchery, Brisbane, 1929, R.H.-H.

The stipulodes of the variety appear normally to equal the number
of the branchlets, but sometimes exceed it, owing to the presence of a
few adventitious ones, but never in the specimens I have examined
approach to double the number. Braun placed C. Benthami in the
section Unistipulatge, but recognised that the character was not a stable
one among the Haplostephanae. He placed C. gymnopitys among the
Bistipulatse. From the examination of a large number of specimens
of these plants from different parts of the world, I incline to the view
that the type forms represent the two extremes of a widely-distributed
tropical and subtropical species. In C. gymnopitys type, the stipulodes
and braeteal appendages tend to be longer and more slender than in
var., and the bract-cells more numerous. The Cochin Creek plant is an
unusually slender form, with small fruits, the oospore measuring c. 325 p
in length, 250 p in breadth.

DIPLOSTEPHANAE. Sipulodes in a double circle.

Diplostachle. C orticla-cells of stem 2-ranked.

7. C. contraria Kuetzing, Phyc. Germ., p. 158 (1845).

Figure. — Kuetz., Tab. Phyc. VII., pi. 61 (1857).

Monoecious. Stem varying greatly in diameter, from quite slender
to rather stout; cortex regularly 2-ranked, the primary series more
prominent than the secondary; spine-cells solitary obtuse. Branchlets
6-10 in a whorl, consisting of 5-7 segments, the several lower corticate,
the cortex 2-ranked, the upper ecorticate ; bract-cells about 5, the
posterior often rudimentary. Stipulodes in a double row, two pairs to
each branchlet, usually rather short, and somewhat irregular in develop-
ment. Coronula-cells straight or spreading; ripe oospores very dark,
almost black, c. 500-700 p long, 350-425 p broad, showing 10-14 ridges.
Antheridia 300-450 p in diameter.

Locality. — Currumbin, November, 1911, C. T. White.

58 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

A very widely distributed species, occurring in all the continents;
in Australasia recorded from W. Australia, S. Australia, New South
Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, and New Zealand. Not included in Bailey’s
list of (Queensland Charophytes, and at present only known from one
locality. The Currumbin specimens belong to a rather stout vigorous
form; the oospores are about 600/x long, 350 /x broad, and show about
10 ridges. The greater prominence of the primary series of cortical-
cells so that the spine-cells are seated on ridges, the much darker ripe
oospores, and the somewhat irregular stipulodes, serve to distinguish
C. contraria from C. vulgaris, which latter species it closely resembles,
but which has the secondary cortical-cells more prominent than the
primary so that the spine-cells are seated in furrows. C. vulgaris has
not so far been found in Australia but is recorded from New Zealand
and is one of the commonest species in many parts of the world. Both
C. contraria and C. vulgaris are usually incrusted with carbonate of
lime.

Triplosticple. Cortical-cells of stems 3-ranked.

Phloeopodes. Lowest branehlet-segment corticate.

8. C. leptosperma Braun ; Braun & Nordstedt, Fragmente, p. 184
(1882).

Figure. — Br. & Nordst., 1 e., figs. 93-96.

This species was founded on a plant collected by Liebmann in
Mexico in 1853. The principal characters relied upon to separate it
from the closely allied 0. fragilis were that the oospore is yellow (not
black as in C. fragilis) and more slender than in that species, and that
the stipulodes of both series are well-developed.

A plant collected by Edward Palmer in 1882 in Mitchell River,
Carpentaria, was referred by Nordstedt (1889, p. 39) with a consider-
able element of doubt, to a variety of this species though it differed a
good deal from the Mexican plant. It is much to be hoped that the
Mitchell R. plant may be again collected so that it can be satisfactorily
determined, as the specimen seen was a very bad one.

9. C. fragilis Desv., in Loisel. Not. aj. FI. Fr., p. 137 (1810).

Figure. — Kuetzing, Tab. Phyc. VII., pi. 54 (1857).

Monoecious. Stem slender, firm and brittle ; cortex regularly
3-ranked; primary and secondary series of equal diameter; spine-cells
rudimentary. Branchlets 7-8 in a worl, consisting of 8-10 segments,
mostly corticate, the cortex 2-ranked; bract-cells ascuminate-mucronate,
about 7, the anterior 2-4 elongate, usually not exceeding the length
of the fruit, the rest ± rudimentary. Stipulodes rudimentary or very
slightly developed. Coronula-cells connivent, straight, or slightly
divergent; ripe oospores near black, 550-700/x long, 350-450 /x broad,
showing 12-15 ridges. Antheridia about 500 /x in diameter.

Localities. — Gladfield, near Warwick, C. J. Gwyther ; Flinders
River, F. von Mueller; Hatchery, Brisbane, November, 1928, R.
Hamlyn-Harris ; Gatton, August, 1929, R.H.-IL.

Probably the most widely distributed of all the Charophyta. The
3-ranked stem-cortex, the 2-ranked branchlet-cortex, the nearly black
oospore and the corticate lowest branehlet-segment, mark this off from
all the other Queensland species.

A REVIEW OF THE QUEENSLAND CHAROPHYTA.

59

Gtymnopodes. Lowest branchlet-segment e corticate.

10. C. zeylanica Willdenow in Mem. Acad. Berl for 1803, p. 86
(1805); C. polyphylla, Braun, olim. ; C. qymnopus, Braun in Monats.
Berl. Akad. for 1867, p. 942 (1868).

Figues. — Willdenow, Lc. pi. 2, fig. 1; Kuetzing. Tab. Phyc. VII.,
pi. 57, fig. 1 (1857),

Monoecious. Stem usually rigid and brittle, the cortex regularly
3-ranked; spine-cells solitary, acute, usually short. Branchlets usually
numerous ( ->14), of 7-14 segments, the lowest ecorticate, the several
succeeding corticate, the cortex normally 3-ranked, the upper 1-4
seggents ecorticate. Coronula variable ; oospore black ovoid or nearly
cylindrical, very variable in size. Antheridium ->550 p in diameter,
the envelope consisting of four shields.

Locality. — Mitchell River, Carpentaria, 1882, Edward Palmer (fide
Nordstedt, 1889, p. 40).

C. zeylanica is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical
countries in both hemispheres. The ecorticate lowest branchlet-segment
and the normally 3-ranked branehlet-cortex readily separate it from
any other Australasian Chara, but the most remarkable character, which
it does not appear to share with any other described Charophyte, is the
quadriscutate antheridium.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Bailey, F. M. — A Synopsis of the Queensland Flora. First Supplement, Brisbane,
1886. Second Supplement, 1888. Third Supplement, 1890.
Comprehensive Catalogue of Queensland Plants, pp. 678-682, 851, figs. 686-
690. Brisbane, 1913.

Braun, Alex. — Charae Preissianae (Linnaea, Vol. XVII., pp. 113-119). 1843.

Charge australes et antarcticae (Hooker, J. Bot., I., pp. 193-204). 1849.

P'lantae Miillerianae (Linnsea, Vol. XXV., pp. 704-709). 1852.

Flora Tasmaniae II., Hooker, J. D., pp. 159-160. 1860.

Handbook of the New Zealand Flora, Hooker, J. D., London, pp. 549-550.
1864.

Braun, Alex., and Nordstedt, C. F. O. — Fragmente einer Monographic der
Characeen. Berlin, 1882.

Brown, Robert. — Prodomus Florae Novae Hollandiae et insulae, Van Diemen I., p.
346. 1810.

Groves, J. — A New Species of Nitella (Characeae) from Southern Queensland.

Proceedings Royal Society Queensland, Vol. XXXVIII., No. 16, p. 262
[Description of N. phauloteles sp. nov.]. 1927.

Groves, J., and Bullock- Webster, G. R. — British Charophyta. London, 1920 and
1924.

Kuetzing, F. T. — Tabulae Phycologicae, VII. Nordhausen, 1857.

Phyeologia Germanica. Nordhausen, 1845.

Mueller, Ferd. von. — Second General Report of the Government Botanist on the
Vegetation of the Colony [Victoria], p. 17. 1854.

Nordstedt, C. F. Otto (See also Braun and Nordstedt). — “De Algis et Charaeeis, J }
Part 2 (Characeae Novae Zeelandiae), Act, Univ. Lundens, XVI. 1880.
“Einege Characeen bestimmungen, ’ ’ Hedwigia, pp. 181-196, pi: VI. 1888.
“De Algis et Charaeeis,” parts 4-6, pp. 2-40. Lunds Univ. Arssk. XXV.
1889.

“Australasian Characeae,” Part I. Lund, 1891.

Australasian Characeae,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, XXXI. (new series),
Part I. 1918.

60

Vol. XL VI., No. 5.

An Interpretation of the Silverwood-Lucky Valley
Upper Palaeozoic Succession.

By A. H. Voisey, B.Sc.

(One Text Figure.)

( Communicated by Dr. W. H. Bryan to the Boy at Society of Queensland,

21th August, 1934.)

INTRODUCTION.

The whole Silverwood area was first thought to be Permo-
Carboniferous on the evidence of fossils found in various places.
Professor H. C. Richards and Dr. W. IP. Bryan1 in 1924 explained the
area as a number of isolated fault blocks of Permo-Carboniferous material
within an older series of Middle Devonian Age. They attempted to
place the individual blocks of Permo-Carboniferous material into their
proper relative stratigraphical positions as follows: —

Volcanic Series
Condamine Beds
Wallaby Beds
Eurydesma Beds.

An endeavour was then made to correlate the suite thus assembled with
the Kamilaroi sequence in N.S.W. The Eurydesma Beds were considered
Lower Marine, the fresh water Wallaby Beds Greta, and the rest Upper
Marine.

In 1930 J. H, Reid (p. 48) disagreed with Richards and Bryan’s
interpretation on two points: — (1) the correlation of the Permo-
Carboniferous, and in particular the position of the Condamine Beds
which he regarded as certainly on the lowest stratigraphical horizon of
those described from Silverwood and to be of the transition series which
he advocated for the beds of Gympie, Silverspur, Drake, and Kempsey;
(2) the evidence of an important folding movement later than the
Silverwood Series (Devonian) and earlier than the Fault Block Series
(Permo-Carboniferous) .

During February last I paid a visit to the Silverwood district with
a view to comparing the sequence of Upper Palaeozoic rocks there with
that found in the Macleay and Hunter River districts of New South
Wales.

Being in agreement with Reid as to the position of Monilopora low
in the sequence, after finding it at Kempsey, I looked for it in the
Eurydesma Block below the Eurydesma horizon and the search was
successful. This discovery made it imperative that the Condamine Beds
be placed below the Eurydesma beds as proposed by Reid from evidence
elsewhere. As to Reid’s suggestion that the Condamine Beds belong to
a transitional marine series in place of the fresh-water Kuttung Beds
of New South Wales, I disagree on the grounds that the Kempsey
Monilopora beds, which may be correlated with those at Silverwood,
overlie fresh-water Kuttung rocks including tillite, varves, and
Aneimites. Detailed correlation of the Carboniferous and Permian rocks
of New South Wales and Queensland will be attempted later.

SILVER WOOD-LUCKY VALLEY UPPER PALAEOZOIC SUCCESSION. 61

The other alterations in the Fault Block sequence seem desirable
on account of the evidence presented below. The position of the volcanic
series is more in accord with Reid’s suggestion (p. 50) that it can be
correlated with the Stan well Lower Bowen Volcanics even to the
Glossopteris horizon.

My thanks are due to Dr. W. H. Bryan for his valuable advice and
directions with regard to the field work. The hospitality of Mr. and
Mrs. H. W. Scott, of Stanthorpe, and Mr. and Mrs. R. Hamilton, of
Warwick, enabled me to carry out my observations. Without the help
of Mr. Hamilton, who was my guide in the field, it would have been
impossible for me to have become acquainted with the whole sequence.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE CONDAMINE BEDS
AND THE EURYDESMA BEDS.

As Reid pointed out, the correlation of the Condamine Beds with
the Upper Marine Series of the Hunter Valley (N.S.W.) because of the
abundance of Tmchypora wilkinsoni has been invalidated since 1924.
Richards and Bryan described the upper strata of the Condamine Beds
as rhyolitic tuffs and very tuffaceous grits, lighter in colour and coarser
in grain than the underlying beds (R. and B., p. 66). The highest bed
is a “tuffaceous grit containing marine fossils” ( Martiniopsis cf
swbradiata, Momlopora, and a zaphrentoid coral were collected by me
from the top of the series).

Now the lowest beds of the Eurydesma Block are “conglomerates
and grits containing numbers of marine fossils, the most typical genera
of which are Fenestella, Dielasma, and small Pakeopectens” (R. and B.,
p. 60). These are distinctly tuffaceous in places and some might be
better described as dark green tuffs. In fact, they resemble strongly the
uppermost beds of the Condamine Block. This resemblance is such that
it indicates little, if any, break in the sequence between the two sets of
strata.

Just above the grits and tuffs of the Eurydesma Block are ‘ 4 brown
and grey sandstones some 27 0 feet in thickness, for the most part, poorly
fossiliferous, but containing in the upper part C ardiomorpha
gryphioides” (R. and B., p. 69). It was in the lower section of this
unit, just above the grits, that a number of specimens of Momlopora
were found. Small Palseopectens are associated with the coral.

In view of the presence of the Monilopora and tuffaceous grits at
the top of the Condamine beds and also at the base of the Eurydesma
Beds it seems that the Condamine beds immediately underlie the
Eurydesma Beds. Moreover, this is based solely upon the field evidence.
Apart from this Richards and Bryan1 and Reid3 agree that it is unlikely
that the typically Carboniferous corals, Momlopora and Gladochonas ,
would be present high up in the Permian.

The lowest beds of the Condamine Block are covered by Mesozoic
sediments.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE EURYDESMA BEDS
AND THE WALLABY BEDS.

Richards and Bryan1 wrote of the Eurydesma and Wallaby Beds: —
“The marked divergence in strike may represent a time gap of some
importance, but on the other hand it may represent a dislocation brought

62

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND,

WALLABY BEDS

STROPHALOSIA ZONE
CLOSSOPTERIS- GANGAMOPTERIS
ZONE

EIGHT MILE BEDS

Fault

MARTINIOPSIS HORIZON
GLOSSOPTERiS

AVICULOPECTEN

MITCHELL!

AND BRACHIOPOOS

EURYDESMA BEDS

EURYDESMA CORDATUM ZONE
CHONETES

CARDIOMORPHA gryphioides
MONILOPORA SP

fenestella, dielasma

CONDAMINE BEDS

MONILOPORA SP

MARTINIOPSlS

ZAPHRENTIS'

TRACHYPORA WILKIN SONI
^MONILOPORA SP

„ J3_ OjZjD_OJQJD]p

Fault

v V V \/ V V
V VV V V V

V V \y v V

YYY VV

X X X X x
X X X X X

v v/ v/ v v

+ + + + +

+ + 4- + +
+ + 4 tv +

A A A A

TZrTzr" Tr Tir “2rr”jrrL

°Q V ’ l °p O °» °o Cc S>°o°o

zE-z-E-E-l

Obscured by
Alluvial Wash

* & A ^ /A A ^ ^
O O O O O O O
A A A G A A
o o o o o o

IS Foult

AAAAA

mimnnni iiimiiiiinrn

o a o o o o o

* »V* V • • v/ Y V • v. '•

■L ^ ^ « A ^

Fa u It.

' ^ 4 A & ^

J A A & dt

A A A A A
A & A

A A A A A
A A A A

-zz—zz^zz

MARINE.

TERRESTRIAL
CONG LOME RA T£

RHYOLITE
RANGE BEDS

TUNNEL

BLOCK

V V V V

V v/ \/ V

X X X X X
X X x X X

\/ \/ V V V

4 t+4t
4- 4 t 44
4 4- 4- t +

A A A A

v \/ v/ v/

— — -

V V/ V v/

X X X X X
i X X x X X

V V V" \X V

+ + 4 + t
4 + + + t

4 t t t +

A A A A

Fault

BASALTS
ANDESITES
PA CITES
RHYOLITES

MARI ME
COMCLOMERATE
Tt RREST/AL

SHALLOW- WATER
GRITS AND
CONGLOMERATES

BRECCIAS AND GRITS
CHERT Y SHALES

TUFFS AND SANDSTONES

TUFFACEOUS GRITS <$ CONGLOMERATES

RHYOLITIC TUFFS
TUFFACEOUS GRITS

& CONGLOMERATES

FINE, DARK,
FOSS/UFEROUS
SHALES

SILVERWOOD-LUCKY VALLEY UPPER PALAEOZOIC SUCCESSION. 63

about by the heavy faulting which dropped the whole Stanthorpe Road
Block into the Silverwood Series. The fact that the two sets of beds
are adjacent units in the same infaulted block suggests that they are
approximately of the same age.”

The junction between the Wallaby Beds and the Eurydesma Beds
is definitely a fault. This just crosses the ridge before the ascent to
the Wallaby Rocks is made. Small creeks follow the fault plane on
either side of the ridge. It may seem likely the beds, being adjacent
are not far separated in age but there does not appear to be anything
else to favour a close relationship. A glance at the fossil lists taken
from that given by Richards and Bryan1 shows that many new forms
came in with the Marine Wallaby beds while only two, Fenestella fossula
and Stutchburia cost at a, are common to them and the Eurydesma Beds.

The amount of strata lost by faulting is unknown and the difference
in strike can be accounted for by the fracture of some folded structure
or perhaps rotation by the fault.

In view of the lack of field evidence to indicate a close stratigraphical
relationship between the two sets of beds one is forced to use the
palaeontological evidence which demands a considerable break.

Fenestella internata
Orbiculoidea sp.

Strophalosia jukesii
Strophalosia of, cVarkei
Strophalosia cf, gerardi
Spirif er stokesii
Spirifer cf. vespertilio
Solenopsis sp.

Mytilus cf, big shy i
Aviculoptecten sprenti
Astartila sp. . .

Martiniopsis oviformis
Protoretepora ampla
Productus brachythaerus . .
Polypora

Spirifer tasmaniensis
Spirifer duodecimacostata
Deltopecten farleyensis
Deltopecten subquinquelineatus
Fenestella fossula
Stutchburia cost at a
Chonetes sp.

Dielasma

Martiniopsis subradiata
Edmondia sp.

Cheenomya sp.

Mceonia sp. . .

Aviculopecten mitchelli
Cleobis

Platyschisma oculum
Avic aloptecten squamulif erus
Cardiomorpha cf. gryphiodies
Eurydesma cordatum

Eurydesma. Volcanics. Wallaby.

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X? X

X X

X X

X X

X X

X X

X X

X X

XXX
X X? X

X X

X X

X? X

X X

X X

X X

X? X

X X?

X

X

X

X

64 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

THE POSITION OF THE VOLCANIC SERIES.

The fauna of the volcanic series has an almost equal number of
forms common to the Eurydesma Beds and the Wallaby Beds. It thus
seems to bridge the gap between the two. Further collecting would no
doubt alter this balance but the fossils so far obtained are all in favour
of placing the Volcanic Series between the Eurydesma Beds and the
Wallaby Beds.

At any rate, the Volcanic Series cannot be considered Upper Marine
on faunal evidence. Aviculoptecten mitchelli, for instance, has not been
recorded so far from Upper Marine Strata.

Apart from the palaeontological aspect the volcanic rocks are an
important consideration. Reid3 thinks it improbable that there should
be a thick series of volcanic flows on such a high Bowen horizon in
Queensland as that allotted to the Silverwood occurrence by Richards
and Bryan.

A correlation of the series with the Kiama volcanic rocks is not
likely. Richards and Bryan1 when suggesting that this might be so
stated ‘‘while there is much evidence for considering the two series
contemporaneous they are chemically and petrologically quite distinct,
the Kiama Series being essentially potash-rich while the local volcanics
are relatively poor in this base.

It is more probable that a close correlation could be made with the
Lower Bowen volcanic rocks elsewhere in Queensland. Rhyolites, dacites,
and andesites are common in this position.

It will be remembered that the tuffs in the Condamine beds are
rhyolitic in composition, and I have noted some acid tuffs in the
Eurydesma Beds below the Cardiomorpha horizon. Richards and Bryan1
pointed out that there was a progressive change from acidic to basic
lavas and tuffs in the volcanic section. If this generalization is true for
the whole sequence the rhyolitic tuffs of the Condamine and Eurydesma
Blocks must be below the volcanic series. As to the continuity, then,
we note that the beds above the Eurydesma horizon are mudstones
followed by “breccias and grits containing fragments of large and thick-
shelled pelecypods. ’ ’ The lowest beds of the Eight-mile Block which are
met in the field are described as ‘ ‘ shallow-water grits and conglomerates,
the former containing fragmentary remains of pelecypods and
brachiopods” (R. and B., p. 63). There is here a very marked litho-
logical relationship which makes it easy to imagine a continuity from
the Eurydesma Beds into* the Eight-mile Block Marines. Moreover,
there is, less than a mile between the topmast beds of the Eurydesma
Block and the lowest of the Eight-mile Block.

The possibility of the Volcanic Series underlying the Condamine
Beds was considered and rejected owing to the great amount of evidence
pointing to the position suggested above. Also the fauna cited is probably
later than the corals, Monilopora and Cladochonus , and I feel that
Glossopteris, at any rate, would be out of place a few thousand feet below
these.

A REVIEW OF THE SEQUENCE.

I am inclined to the view that the only stratigraphical break of any
magnitude in the Fault Block Series is that between the Volcanic Series
and the Wallaby Beds. However, this does not seem very important

SILVERWOOD-LUCKY VALLEY UPPER PALiEOZiOIC SUCCESSION.

65

because the only beds lost are probably lavas and tuffs. The conglomerate
below the Glossopteris-Gangamopteris Beds looks like the base of the
series. It appears that, after the extrusion of the lavas, there was a
development of a fresh-water lake without an intervening marine stage.

If the conclusions arrived at are accepted, the whole sequence may
be considered without referring to the field occurrence. On the evidence
of the nature of the sediments and the fossils contained therein the
Fault Block Series may be divided into five stages: —

(5) Shallow "Water Marine.

(4) Fresh Water.

(3) Volcanic.

(2) Shallow Water Marine (with oscillations to fresh-water con-
ditions in the upper part).

(1) Deep Water Marine.

It may be of some significance that, with the exception of the
Wallaby Block, the rocks get younger to the west — the general dip being
in this direction also.

With regard to the age of the beds the Wallaby Fresh Water horizon
is taken to be of Greta or Lower Coal Measure age as Richards and
Bryan1 suggest. The Marine Wallaby Beds might then be equivalent to
the Upper Marine of the Hunter Valley, New South Wales, while the
Volcanic, Eurydesma and Condamine stages are Lower Marine.

GEOLOGICAL HISTORY.

The deep water calcareous shales of the Condamine Block were
deposited well away from the shore line. Here the corals Momlopora
and Trachypora flourished. Coincident with the outbreak of volcanic
activity causing the formation of beds of rhyolitic tuff there was a
gradual shoaling of the sea. Coarse conglomerates, grits and tuffs buried
shallow water pelecypods and brachiopods. The thick-shelled Eurydesmas
were very abundant at one period and form now a well-marked horizon
in the coarse sediments.

Oscillations of the strand-line took place and fresh water Glossopteris
shales became interbedded with marine sandstones. Great outbursts of
volcanic activity ensued and after marine tuffs were laid down lavas
poured over the land.

At the conclusion of the eruptions a freshwater lake developed and
above a basal conglomerate Glossopteris-Gangamopteris shales were
formed. A sea transgression gave rise to the deposition of sandstones
containing abundant Strophalosias and Bryozoans. The new fauna was
very unlike that of the marine period preceding the volcanic stage.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1. Richards, H. C., and Bryan, W. H.

The Geology of the Silverwood-Lucky Valley Area. Proceedings of Royal
Society of Queensland, Vol. 36. 1924.

2. Richards, H. C., and Bryan, W. H.

Permo-Carboniferous Volcanic Activity in Southern Queensland. Proceedings
of Royal Society of Queensland, Vol. 35. 1923.

3. Reid, J. H.

The Queensland Upper Pala3ozoic Succession. Queensland Geological Survey

Pub. No. 278. 1930.

R.S. — D.

66

Vol. XLVI., No. 6.

Report on Samples of Surface Tertiary Rocks and
a Bore Sample containing Ostracoda from
Queensland.

By Frederick Chapman, A.L.S., F.G.S.

(Plate II.)

{ Communicated by Dr. F. W. Whitehome to the Royal Society of
Queensland , 21th August , 1934.)

INTRODUCTORY NOTE.

Some years ago I was favoured with a small parcel of samples of
fossiliferous rocks from Queensland by Dr. W. H. Bryan of the University
of Queensland, who requested me to identify the ostracoda contained
therein.

These sedimentary rocks with ostracoda are of special interest on
account of their previously known contents comprising other fossils,
as mollusca, insects, fish remains, and leaves of dicotyledonous plants.

The examination of this collection has revealed the important fact
that some of the samples are distinctly hydrocarbonaceous, a character
apparently due to the remains of bivalved crustaceans (Ostracoda) ;
moreover this group as regards its occurrence in estuarine and fresh-
water deposits in Australia, has been little studied.

DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS OF SAMPLES.

Specimen A. — “ Locality, Redbank Plains, 10 miles S.W. of Brisbane.
Associated with a rich fish fauna, not yet described, dicotyledonous
plants in process of description (including Banksia sp.), and two insects
described by Dr. R. J. Tillyard, Euporismites balli (Qld. Geol. Surv.
Pub. No. 253) and Scolypopites bryani (Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 1923, pp.
16-20, figs. 1-2, pi. 1).” W. H. Bryan, 28-4-25.

In the year 1926 Mr. 0. A. Jones published a paper on “The
Tertiary Deposits of the Moreton District, South-eastern Queensland’’
(Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., vol. 38, No. 2, pp. 23-46), which specifically
relates to rock samples contained in the present collection. On page 26
he gives topographical and structural details of the Redbank Series, and
on pages 35 and 38 deals with the fossil remains, other than ostracoda.

Specimen A represents a hydrocarbonaceous shale of very close
texture, but with distinct bedded structure. It is of a dark chocolate-
brown colour and when cut with a knife has a glistening appearance;
the same is shown when the surface is rubbed. A test with chloroform
gives a fairly strong reaction in regard to oil contents. When fractured
in the bedding plane the surface seems to be crowded with the valves
of several genera of ostracoda, which are here referred to the fresh-water
forms Cypridopsis compressa sp. nov. and Herpetocypris cequalis sp.
nov., whilst there is also present in large numbers the well-known
estuarine and marine species Cythere crispata G. S. Brady.

Specimen B. — “Locality at 160 feet. Bore No. 2 Australian Oil
Corporations Bore, Dunn’s Farm, Beaudesert, 30 miles S. of Brisbane.
At 95 feet in same bore gasteropods are found, identified by Mr. C.

SAMPLES OF SURFACE TERTIARY ROCKS AND A BORE SAMPLE. 67

Hedley as Melania sp. At 116 feet coal seam encountered. ” W. H.
Bryan.

The rock is of a dark-grey colour with a greenish tinge. It resembles
an estuarine mudstone, and the irregular fracture of the bedded surface
indicates an incipient shrinkage structure. This specimen gives
a strong reaction with chloroform as to hydrocarbonaceous contents.

The species of ostracoda found in this rock are apparently all of
shallow marine or estuarine habitat. They are referable to Cythere
queenslandice sp. nov. and Krithe reniformis (G. S. Brady), whilst a
species of Cytheridea may also be present.

Specimen C.— “Locality, Cooper’s Plains, 5 miles S. of Brisbane,
associated with fish fauna and dicotyledonous leaves.” W. H. Bryan.

A dark chocolate brown, closely bedded mudstone. Throughout
this rock are scattered innumerable minute spherical or subspherical
concretions which are probably magnesic in character. On washing
down a specimen of this rock it is seen to contain a small proportion
of subangular and water-worn quartz grains. On testing the mudstone
with chloroform, evidence was found of a fairly high hydrocarbonaceous
content.

Although 0. A. Jones (1926, op. cit., p. 39) mentions ostracods as
occurring at Cooper’s Plains in association with fish remains and leaves,
no ostracoda were found in the samples forwarded to me.

Specimen D. — “Same locality as C, and immediately beneath
Tertiary basalts.” W. H. Bryan.

Pale grey magnesic mudstone with yellow stain on fractured sur-
faces. This rock contains numerous minute spheroidal concretions,
similar to those in specimen C, but of a whitish tint. No organisms
present.

Sample per Mr. L. C. Ball of the Queensland Geol. Survey. Locality,
Lowmead Bore, between Gladstone and Rockhampton, at 202 feet.

This sample is a dark chocolate-brown closely bedded mudstone,
containing innumerable carapaces of ostracoda. These ostracod valves
are crushed and, therefore, too imperfect to describe in detail. They
are apparently referable to the genera Pontocypris, Cythere, and Para-
doxostoma. The chloroform test shows that this rock is strongly
hydrocarbonaceous.

References to other organic contents in the Lowmead strata are given
by 0. A. Jones, 1926, op. cit, p. 41.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

Super Order OSTRACODA.

Fam. Cypridid^:.

Genus Erpetocypris G. S. Brady and A. M. Norman, 1889
( II erpetocypris G. 0. Sars, 1890).

Erpetocypris cequalis sp. nov.

Plate II., figs, la, l).

Description. — Valve seen from the side, long-ovate, back gently
arched, ventral margin slightly concave ; anterior border strongly

68

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

convex ; meeting the ventral to form a moderately sharp angle, posterior
margin well rounded. Seen in profile anterior extremity somewhat
compressed, posterior roundly inflated. Surface smooth, shell opaque.

Dimensions. — Length of carapace, 1-12 mm. ; height, 0-58 mm. ;
thickness of carapace, 0*53 mm.

Affinities. — This species is more regularly ovate than Erpetocypris
reptans (Baird) of the British and European fresh- water lakes and
streams. It nearly resembles E. glacialis G. 0. Sars, of the European
marshes, in its convex dorsum and evenly rounded extremities.

Occurrence. — Tertiary. Redbank Plains, 10 miles S.W. of Brisbane,
■Queensland. Very rare.

Genus Cypridopsis G. S. Brady, 1868.

Cypridopsis compressor sp. nov.

Plate II., figs. 2 a, ~b.

Description. — Yalve seen from the side, arcuately ovate; back
strongly arched, ventral border concave in the median region; anterior
margin well rounded and truncately so at the dorsal angle ; posterior
border evenly rounded. Seen in profile, ovate and strongly compressed
in the anterior third, convex at the posterior. Surface smooth, shell
white and opaque.

Dimensions. — Length of carapace, 0-9 mm., height, 0*56 mm. ;
thickness of carapace, 0-33 mm.

Affinities. — The present species bears a fairly close resemblance to
Cypridopsis pictm (Straus), a fresh -water form found in Norway,
France, and Belgium. It differs from the latter in the broader anterior
border and less inflated posterior.

Occurrence. — Tertiary. Redbank Plains, 10 miles S.W. of Brisbane,
Queensland. Very rare.

Genus Pontocypris G. O. Sars, 1865.

? Pontocypris sp.

Plate II., fig. 3.

Several examples of a form closely resembling that of the genus
Pontocypris occurred in the cypridiferous shale of Lowmead Bore,
Queensland. The valves are so much crushed, however, as to prevent
more than a tentative reference being made.

Fam. Cytherid^.

Genus Cythere O. F. Muller.

Cy there crispata, G. S. Brady.

Plate II., figs. 4 a , ~b, 5.

Cytlvere crispata Brady, 1868. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, vol.
II., p. 221, pi. xiv., figs. 14, 15. Idem, 1880, Rep. Sci. Results
* ‘ Challenger, ” Zool., vol. 1, pt. III. Rep. on the Ostracoda, p. 72, pi.
xiv., figs. 8 a-d. Chapman. 1914. Descriptions of New and Rare
Fossils obtained by Deep Borings in the Mallee, Pt. III. Ostracoda to
Fishes. Proc. Roy. Soc. Viet., vol. XXYII (N.S.), Pt. 1, p. 33, pi. vi..
fig. 9.

SAMPLES OF SURFACE TERTIARY ROCKS AND A BORE SAMPLE. 69

Observations. — This variable and in many respects strikingly
characteristic species has a long geological range as well as a wide
geographical distribution. It made its appearance in the Lower Miocene
of Victoria and was found in Pleistocene deposits of Norway and Scot-
land. As a southern living species it is well known from Port Jackson
and Booby Island, and it is also recorded from Hong Kong Harbour
and from the shores of Britain and Europe generally. It appears to be
more at home in shallow water dredgings but has also been found off S.
Australia in 100 fathoms ("Endeavour”). The present Tertiary speci-
mens are of typical size, having a length of 0-6 mm. as compared with
recent examples quoted by Brady, with a length of 0-5 mm.

Occurrence. — Specimen A, Redbank Plains, 10 miles S.W. of
Brisbane, Queensland. Common.

(?) Cythere I queenslandice sp. nov.

Plate II., figs. 6 a, b, 7.

Description. — Carapace minute, valves narrowly triangular, dorsal
margin gently convex, ventral more strongly so, anterior border sub-
truncate with a marginal fold. Sharply angled on the ventral side
and rounded off on the dorsal, posterior extremity subacuminate. Edge
view oval, compressed anteriorly and more inflated at the posterior.
Shell thin, surface smooth, almost iridescent, with occasional oblique or
transverse sulci or folds on the median area.

Dimensions. — Length of Holotype, 041 mm., height, -02 ; thickness
of carapace, 049 mm. Length of paratype, 0-5 mm.

Affinities. — This minute pyriform type of the genus cannot be
exactly matched with anything previously described but bears some
resemblance, both in form and surface relief with Jones’ Cytherideis
unisulcata, from the Oligocene of the Isle of Wight (T. R. Jones, 1857,
Monograph of the Tertiary Entomostraca of England, Pal. Soc. Vol. IX.,
p. 48, PI. V., fig. 10). The furrow of that species, however, is described
as transverse, whereas in the present form it is oblique, curved and some-
times double. Jones in his later revisional memoir, with Sherborn (Pal.
Soc., 1889, p. 46) suggests for the genus either a young Cypridea or
possibly a Metacypris. Further investigation may prove the relationship
of this present small form with Cypridea rather than Cythere.

Occurrence. — Specimen B, 160 feet, Bore No. 2, Australian Oil
Corporation, Dunn’s Farm, Beaudesert, 30 miles S. of Brisbane. Very
common.

cf. Cythere sp.

Plate II., fig. 8.

Occurrence— A crushed carapace of a quadrate form was seen in
the sample from the Lowmead Bore probably referable to Cythere. It
suggests affinity to some estuarine species.

Genus Krithe Brady, Crosskey and Robertson, 1874.

Krithe cf. renifarnvis (G. S. Brady).

Plate II., fig. 9.

? Paradoxostoma reniforme Brady, 1868. Contrib. to Study of
Entomostraca. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. IV., Vol. II., p. 224, pi.
XV., figs. 1, 2. Krithe reniformis (Brady), Brady and Norman, 1889.

70 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Mon. Marine & Freshwater Ostracoda of the North Atlantic and of
North-western Europe. Sect. 1. Podocopa. Sci. Trans. R. Dublin
Soc., Vol. IV. (Ser. II.), p. 182, pi. XXI., figs. 23, 24.

Observations. — In general form some carapaces occurring in the
ostracod shale of Dunn’s Farm Bore, Beaudesert, agree with Brady’s
species. In point of size the fossil specimens are almost twice the length.
The living specimens were found in shallow water down to 200 fathoms.

Genus Paradoxostoma Fischer, 1855.
cf . Paradoxostoma sp.

Plate II., fig. 10.

A slender, almost siliquose carapace noticed in the ostracod shale
of the Lowmead Bore may be tentatively referred to the above genus.
Paradoxostoma is a marine genus usually found between tide-marks.

SUMMARY AND REMARKS ON AGE OF SAMPLES.

1. Three of the samples submitted are rich in ostracodal remains.

2. The Redbank Plains ostracod shale contains species of freshwater
and estuarine characters, thus indicating a lacustrine area that was open
intermittently to a shallow sea.

3. The ostracods of the Beaudesert marl are of shallow marine or
estuarine origin.

4. The chocolate brown mudstone of Cooper’s Plains contained no
ostracods.

5. The sample (C) underlying basalt at Cooper’s Plains is entirely
inorganic.

6. The ostracoda in the mudstone of Lowmead Bore are uniformly
crushed, but what evidence there is points to a shallow marine deposit.

7. The four samples referred to in paragraphs 2, 3, 4, and 6 are
strongly hydrocarbanaceous.

8. The ostracoda here described give no very decisive data as to
the age of the various beds other than Tertiary. The rocks may range,
however, from Lower Miocene, or even older, to Pliocene. As regards
the Redbank Plains Series, Dr. E. S. Hills, in a study of fish remains
from that horizon (now in the press), concludes that it is probably of
Oligocene age. The occurrence of the freshwater genera, Eerpetocypris
and Cypidopsis in the Redbank Plains Series, if of Oligocene age, would
extend their known backward range very considerably. On the other
hand the marine and estuarine species Cythere crispata, occurring in
the same series, was found by the present author in the Lower Miocene
of the borings in the Victorian Mallee.

9. The described rock specimens and species of ostracoda are
deposited in the Museum of Department of Geology, University of
Queensland.

Proc. Roy. S'oc. Q'land, Vol. XLVI., No. 6.

Plate II.

OstracocTa from Tertiary Shales, near Brisbane.

SAMPLES OF SURFACE TERTIARY BOCKS AND A BORE SAMPLE. 71

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate II.

Fig. 1 a, b. — Eerpetocypris cequalis, sp. nov. a, left valve; b, profile of same valve.

Holotype. Tertiary. Kedbank Plains, 10 miles S.W. of Brisbane, Queens-
land. x 34.

Fig. 2a9 b. — -Cypridopsis compressa, sp. nov. a, right valve; b, profile of same valve.

Holotype. Tertiary. Kedbank Plains, 10 miles S.W. of Brisbane, Queens-
land. x 30.

Fig. 3. — ? Pontocypris sp. Eight valve, restored. Tertiary, Lowmead Bore at 20
feet, between Gladstone and Rockhampton, Queensland, x 17.

Fig. 4 a , b. — Cythere crispata G. S. Brady. a> left valve; b, profie of same.

Plesiotype. Tertiary. Kedbank Plains, 10 miles S.W. of Brisbane, Queens-
land. x 34.

Fig. 5. — C. crispata G S. Brady Eight valve of another specimen Plesiotype,
Tertiary. Kedbank Plains, 10 miles S.W. of Brisbane, Queensland, x 34.

Fig. 6 a, b. — Cythere queenslandica, sp. nov. a, left valve; b, profiile of same.

Holotype. Tertiary. No. 2 Bore, 160 feet, Dunn’s Farm, Beaudesert, 30
miles S. of Brisbane, Queensland, x 36.

Fig. 7. — C. queenslandica, sp. nov. Eight valve of another specimen. Paratype.

Tertiary. No. 2 Bore, 160 feet, Dunn’s Farm, Beaudesert, 30 miles S. of
Brisbane, Queensland, x 34.

Fig. 8. — cf. Cythere sp. Right valve. Tertiary. Lowmead Bore, between Gladstone
and Rockhampton, Queensland, x 24.

Fig. 9. — Krithe cf. reniformis (G. S. Brady). Left valve. Plesiotype. Tertiary.

Dunn’s Farm Bore, 160 feet, Beaudesert, 30 miles S. of Brisbane, Queens-
land. x 34.

Fig. 10. — cf. Paradoxostoma sp. Eight valve. Tertiary. Lowmead Bore, 202 feet,
between Gladstone and Rockhampton, Queensland, x 24.

72

Vol. XLVI., No. 7.

The Relative Penetrability of Various Tissues of
the Orange and the Banana to Ethlene.

By D. A. Herbert, D.Sc., and L. J. Lynch, B.Sc., Agr., University of

Queensland.

( Bead before the Uoyqd Society of Queensland, 21th August, 1934.)

(Plate III.)

INTRODUCTION.

The artificial ripening of bananas and of citrus fruits by means of
ethylene and other gases, e.g., acetylene and coal gas — in which latter
ethylene is an important constituent — is now an established commercial
practice in Australia. The effect of the treatment is, however, very
different for these two types of fruit. In both cases the yellow tint
characteristic of ripe fruit is readily developed as a result of the
destruction of the chlorophyll by the gas treatment. In addition the
ripening of the central pulp of the banana is accelerated, but this does
not occur in the case of the orange and lemon. In consequence the latter
fruits are often marketed in an immature condition, though they look
ripe. The normal ripening processes in citrus fruits are as yet very
imperfectly understood, but are obviously quite different from those of
the banana. The scope of this paper does not include a discussion of
the effects of ethylene on the chemical reactions involved, our aim being
rather to determine whether the extent to which ethylene penetrates
the tissues of the fruits under consideration has any connection with the
differential results obtained in the banana and the orange in commercial
eras treatment.

The possibility of obstruction to diffusion of gases is suggested by
the results of an examination of the gas in the coconut (4). Gas appears
in this fruit after the endosperm is well developed, and in old nuts,
where the gas averaged 23 c.c., it was found that a typical analysis
was —

Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . 99-8 per cent.

Oxygen -2 per cent.

Carbon dioxide . . . . . . . . trace

The gas found in young nuts containing 2 or 3 cc. had the composition —

Nitrogen 81-3 per cent.

Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . 18-7 per cent.

Carbon dioxide . . . . . • • . trace

These figures suggest an obstruction to diffusion, and in the experi-
ments to be described, the relative penetrability of peel and pulp of
bananas and oranges is tested as a factor in the differences in ripening
in the presence of ethylene.

ALLIED INVESTIGATIONS.

Minute traces of ethylene are sufficient to accelerate the ripening
process in fruits for commercial purposes. Young, Bagster, Hicks, and
Huelin (1932) found that with the banana, 1 part of coal gas in 1,000

RELATIVE PENETRABILITY OF VARIOUS TISSUES, ETC. 73

of air is effective in summer, and 3 parts in 1,000 in winter. Since ethy-
lene occurs in coal gas to the extent of but 3 per cent, approximately, the
actual amount of this constituent present in the ripening chamber is
very small. In the experiments to be described, therefore, we have not
used the method of chemical analysis, but have made use of various
plants whose response to small quantities of ethylene or of other
unsaturated gases such as acetylene or carbon monoxide is both marked
and rapid. It has been found by various investigators, particularly those
working in the Boyce Thompson Institute, that this method may be
made very delicate, and that traces of unsaturated gases may be detected
by such test plants as the tomato ( Solanum ly coper sicum) and etiolated
sweetpeas (Lathy rus odoratus) in dilutions impossible of chemical
analysis.

The reaction of such test plants opens up another aspect of the
effect of ethylene. Knight and Crocker of the University of Chicago
investigated the poisonous effects of coal gas on carnations (Bianthus
caryophyllus) which “go to sleep” under its influence, and found that
ethylene was the active constituent, the minimum effective dose being
1 in 2,500,000 of air. Zimmerman, Hitchcock, and Crocker (1931) have
shown that 1 part of ethylene in 100,000 of air induces earlier opening
of rosebuds, and premature abscission of the petals. Such tests are not
adapted for the detection of ethylene contamination in air, partly owing
to the time factor.

The tests adopted depend upon the fact that ethylene induces
epinasty in leaves of certain plants, a phenomenon characterised by the
more rapid growth of the upper region with a consequent bending of the
distal area in a downward direction.

At the commencement of the present century it was already well
established that laboratory air caused such a response, and Neljubow
(1901) traced it, in the case of the epicotyls of the pea and other legumes,
to the effect of ethylene, the movement being at times obtained in a
concentration of 1 in 3,000,000 parts of air. Subsequent work in
Europe and America has confirmed this, and a general account of allied
investigations is included in a recent paper by Crocker, Zimmerman and
Hitchcock (1932). Harvey (1913) as a result of his investigations into
the response of the castor oil plant ( Bicinus communis) recommended it
as a test plant for small quantities of ethylene in air. Crocker,
Zimmerman and Hitchcock (1932), extending the investigation, have
drawn up a list of 72 plants showing marked epinasty of leaves under
this treatment, 17 which show light epinasty, and 113 which exhibit none
whatever. The tomato (Solanum ly coper sicum) is recommended by these
authors in another paper, on account of the fact that its leaves respond
to 1 part in 5,000,000 of air. In this research they established the fact
that ethylene diffuses rapidly through plant tissues, even through killed
sections of stem ; various concentrations ranging from 1 to 50 per cent,
ethylene were used, and all the effects were approximately the same.

TEST PLANTS INVESTIGATED, AND THE NATURE OF
THEIR RESPONSE.

On the basis of these reported investigations, we set up a series of
preliminary experiments for the determination of plants suited to our
purpose. A small-leaved variety of Coleus Blumei, Ageratum conyzoides,
Stellaria media, Galinsoga parviflora, Bidens pilosa, and Euphorbia
heterophylla were found to exhibit a ready response, and young plants

74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

were available in unlimited quantities. Coleus Blumei had been tested
by Crocker, Zimmerman, and Hitchcock (1932), who reported it as giving
a slight epinastic response to ethylene • we, however, found that our
material responded definitely and readily. This difference in response
of varieties of the same species is shown elsewhere. Crocker, Zimmer-
mant and Hitchcock noting marked epinasty in 13 only of the 31 varieties
of Capsicum annuum tested by them. As a result of our preliminary
experiments, Stellaria media was indicated as a suitable test plant.

The response is an epinastic bending of the leaves, more particularly
of the second, third, and fourth pairs below the apex. The petiole
curves downwards and the blade also curves, particularly in its lower
part; in the extreme type of response, opposite leaves become so placed
that their apices pass one another and the leaves cross. In the prelimin-
ary experiments it was found that though plants of the different
species mentioned might be left in the laboratory exposed to the air and
show no response whatever, similar material covered with a bell- jar
frequently exhibited unmistakable response within twelve hours. In
consequence of this behaviour, a series of experiments was initiated in
which air from different sources was collected in bell- jars and tested
with Stellaria media and Galinsoga parvi flora. These sources consisted
in (a) a kitchen containing a gas cooker, (&) a suburban garden where
there was little chance of gas contamination, (c) a study in which the
air was contaminated by tobacco smoke, (d) a small laboratory in which
was situated a number of gas burners, and where there was considerable
tobacco smoke contamination, (e) an open space in the vicinity of a
chemical laboratory, (/) and an infrequently used room originally
intended for a refrigeration plant. In all cases other than the
suburban garden and the room last mentioned, the results either definitely
indicated contamination of the atmosphere to a degree sufficient to
induce epinasty of the test plants or else were erratic in character. It
was the erratic behaviour of test plants that led us to suspect that
isolated wisps of gas from the source of contamination might float about
in relatively pure air, and that in the open they would, in the ordinary
course of events, pass on unless confined in a bell-jar over a responsive
plant, when they would exercise the characteristic effect. The fact,
therefore, that plants of Stellaria media existing in a garden bed were
normal in appearance, did not necessarily indicate absence of contam-
ination in the surrounding atmosphere. As a result of a test extending
over several days it was found that the air in the refrigerator chamber
was free of contamination for purposes of the work in view, and was
in consequence utilised for the final experiments on which this report
is based.

That portion of the apparatus designed to contain the ethylene was
charged at some distance from the building, and the vessels in which the
test plants were to be placed were filled with the atmosphere of the
operating room by the simple expedient of taking them to the site of
the experiment filled with water, and emptying them.

OTHER PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTATION.

The matter of substances impermeable to ethylene was investigated
at some length in order to ensure that all jars and containers used in
the experiment are adequately and efficiently sealed. For this purpose
the substance to be examined was placed as a partition between a jar
containing ethylene and another of normal air, a test plant being located

RELATIVE PENETRABILITY OF VARIOUS TISSUES, ETC. 75

in the latter ; the substances investigated by us in this way were water,
hard paraffin, soft paraffin, and mercury, and were found to be equally
efficient in preventing the diffusion of the gas. The utilisation of hard
paraffin, however, necessitated its application in a hot molten condition,
and the vapour escaping therefrom into the compartment containing the
test plant proved capable of inducing epinasty in two and a-half to
three hours. In addition, the heat applied under these circumstances
caused incipient wilting, and thus hard paraffin as a sealing agent was
finally rejected.

The use of soft paraffin as a sealing agent was found satisfactory,
other than in one particular — viz., the liberal application of this sub-
stance to the leaf of Stellaria media is sufficient of itself to cause marked
epinasty. This material was used throughout the experimental work
for the purpose of sealing the ethylene chamber, due care being taken to
prevent it from coming into contact with the leaves of the test plants.

Mercury and water were found to be equally efficient for sealing
purposes, and were used alternately in the experiments to seal the outer
jar from the atmosphere of the room.

SOURCES OF ERROR,

It is necessary to differentiate between normal wilting and true
epinastic response. In well marked cases of epinasty the leaf curves
downwards and passes beyond the vertical, and ultimately either passes
or alternatively becomes closely appressed to the stem, whereas in
wilting loss of turgor results in the vertical placement of the leaf.
Response and wilting may be further distinguished by inversion of the
plant, when in the former case the leaves remain rigidly appressed to
the central axis, while in the latter, the organs concerned respond to the
influence of gravity.

Another source of error may be that due to exhalation of unsaturated
hydrocarbons of the ethylene type from the fruits themselves. Should
such be the case, the test plants would be undoubtedly affected,
independent of any gaseous diffusion which may occur. That exhalations
of this type do take place during the ripening process in some fruits has
been confirmed by recent investigations in England. According to the
Report of the Food Investigation Board, London, for the year 1932, the
germination of peas ( Visum sativum) is retarded by exposure to apple
atmospheres, and it is suggested that the active agent is either ethylene
or a body of similar nature. Unpublished work within the University of
Queensland shows a statistically significant retardation of germination
of peas, both as a result of exposure to air from ripening Granny Smith
apples and to ethylene gas.

A further source of error may be due to setting up the apparatus
in contaminated atmospheres. Precautions observed in this instance
have been previously described in the section dealing with test plants.

METHOD OF PROCEDURE.

The method observed consisted in brief in the utilisation of the
fruit as a diffusion membrane separating a container charged with ethy-
lene gas on the one hand, and another containing air alone. In the latter
compartment a number of test plants were arranged and the diffusion of
ethylene was detected by the epinasty induced in the subject plants (see
Plate III.).

76 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The fruit was sealed into the mouth of the gas chamber by means
of soft paraffin, a substance which had been shown (vide supra) to be
impervious to the passage of the gas. Two small glass tubes containing
water were affixed above the fruit, and the test plants placed therein.
The apparatus thus arranged was covered by means of a large glass jar
and sealed to the external atmosphere either by water or by mercury.

The experiment was arranged in three series — viz., banana, orange,
and controls. Since the ripening process in bananas is accelerated by
ethylene treatment, it was assumed that penetration of the pulp by the
gas takes place, and the object of this series was to determine the
individual relative efficiencies of skin and pulp as media of diffusion,
and in addition, a combination of the two as a path for conduction. In
the case of the skin, the whole banana was paraffined at both ends and
sealed into the chamber. To test diffusion through the pulp, glass tubes,
were inserted from either end, and the whole surface of the fruit then
smeared with soft paraffin. In the final experiment a ring of skin was
removed and replaced by paraffin and sealed into the container as.
previously described.

In contrast with the banana, the ethylene treatment of citrus, while
producing the external appearance of the ripe fruit, does not accelerate
the maturation of the pulp. This may be due to non-penetration of
the tissues by the gas, and the experiments in this series were designed
to confirm or deny this possibility. To test the permeability of the
outer epicarp, the whole orange was sealed to the gas chamber. The
inner mesocarp was tested by removing portion of the epicarp from
opposite sides of the fruit and covering the remainder of the surface
with soft paraffin. In the final experiment — that of the permeability
of the pulp to ethylene — glass tubes were inserted at either side of the
fruit covered with an impervious coating and then sealed to the container..

The third series was designed to act as a control, and also to
indicate whether a substance generated by the fruit itself might be
exhaled and so produce an epinastic response in the test plants. Banana
and orange controls were arranged in a manner similar to those under
test, but differed in that the containers were not charged with gas.
The final control was again similar but contained no fruit. To test
the efficiency of the seals on the one hand, and the purity of the atmos-
phere of the experimental chamber on the other, several uncovered
controls were placed at various points in the room.

The apparatus was set up in a thermally insulated room under
conditions of constant temperature and uniform illumination. Observa-
tions were made at intervals. The concentrations of ethylene gas in air
varied from 25 per cent, to 50 per cent, for the first three experiments,
and as a result of the deductions made therefrom, were subsequently
reduced to that normally used in the commercial ripening of fruit.

KESULTS.

In all, the experimental work was replicated three times, and essen-
tial features were maintained constant throughout. Slight variations
in temperature occurred, not from design but by reason of the lack
of convenient thermostatic control. These rather minor discrepancies
were permitted only where they could exert no significant effect upon
the result.

RELATIVE PENETRABILITY OF VARIOUS TISSUES, ETC. it

Experiment 1.

The temperature during this period was maintained constant at
76 deg. F. Definite response was observed throughout, other than in the
checks —

Orange.

Response.

Banana.

Response.

Intact fruit

+ +

Intact fruit. .

+ +

Pulp

+ +

Pulp

+ +

Mesocarp

+

Skin-pulp

+

Check

-

Check

-

Control plant in open air — .

In the case of the mesocarp of the orange, the response while
definite, was less intense than in the remaining experiments with this
fruit. The skin-pulp of the banana differed in a similar manner from
intact fruit and pulp. The negative response of the open control demon-
strated lack of contamination of the atmosphere of the experimental
room, and thus proved the efficiency of the sealing method. Soft paraffin
was the sealing agent used.

Experiment 2.

The temperature was maintained at 82 deg. F. Soft paraffin was
again employed for sealing purposes. The results were in entire accord
with those of Experiments 1 and 3.

Experiment 3.

For this and the subsequent experiment water seals were used with
success. The temperature varied from 76 deg. F. at the commencement
to 78 deg. F. at the termination of the experiment. The results coincided
with those of Experiments 1 and 2, other than in the fact that all
responses exhibited approximately the same degree of intensity.
Experiment 4.

This was carried out at a temperature of 72 deg. F. and the results
obtained exactly paralleled those of Experiments 1 and 2.

DISCUSSION.

The results of the experiments indicate that orange and banana fruits
exposed to ethylene are readily penetrated by that gas, and that in
both types it passes with facility through the outer part of the peel.
In the orange the passage through the intact fruit, or through pulp only,
took place much more readily than through fruits where the mesocarp
(the white inner portion of the peel) had to be traversed. This indicates
that this last region provides a partial barrier, though it is penetrable
as is evidenced by the response of the test plant. When the intact
fruit is used to separate the ethylene from the test plant, it is evident
that the bulk of the gas passes around the fruit via the epiearp. The
intact banana, too, afforded a ready passage to ethylene, as did also
the pulp only. Where, by girdling a banana, the path of diffusion lay
through the peel into the pulp and finally through the skin again, it
was found that the process was considerably impeded, indicating that
here again the inner part of the peel was a partial barrier. That it is.

78 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

however, no more effective as a barrier than the inner peel of the orange,
is indicated by the degree of response of the test plant. Yet in the
banana ripening takes place in spite of the obstruction to diffusion into
the pnlp. Obviously the differences in the artificial ripening of the
orange and the banana cannot be ascribed to differences in penetrability
of the outer layers.

The control experiment wherein no gas was employed established
the fact that neither ethylene nor other substance capable of causing a
response was produced by the banana or the orange, at least in quantities
sufficient to affect the test plant.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.

Our thanks are due to Mr. E. W. Hicks, B.A., B.Sc., for kindly
providing the ethylene, and to Mr. R. S. Mitchell, B.Sc. Agr., for con-
stant help during the course of the experiments. Mr. Mitchell’s aid in
the setting up of the experiments and in the observation of results was
of very material assistance in their conclusion.

SUMMARY.

The diffusion of ethylene through the epicarp, mesocarp, and endo-
carp of orange and banana fruits was tested, making use of Steilaria
media as a test plant. Steilaria was chosen from a number of species
tested. Ethylene was placed in a series of vessels plugged with oranges
and bananas, so treated that any diffusion out into the surrounding vessel
containing the test plant had to take place through (a) whole fruit,
(&) endocarp and mesocarp, (c) endocarp only. Traces of ethylene
passing into the surrounding vessel produced a pronounced and charac-
teristic epinastic response in the Steilaria leaves. This response also
takes place in laboratory air, and due precautions were taken to have the
experiments carried out in uncontaminated air. It was found that
diffusion took place readily through epicarp and endocarp, but that the
mesocarp offered some resistance, though it was permeable. Control
experiments indicated that ethylene was not produced by the fruits
themselves in sufficient amounts to affect the test plant. It is concluded
that the differences in the ripening of oranges and bananas in an atmos-
phere containing ethylene are not due to a barrier against diffusion
into the orange pulp, as the mesocarp of the banana offers approximately
the same resistance as that of the orange, according to the evidence of
the test plant.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Figure 1. — Apparatus used in the experiments. The inverted vessel is sealed into
a glass dish with paraffin. The fruit is sealed in the mouth of a cylinder containing
ethylene, the test plant, Steilaria media, being placed in a tube containing water,
held in position by rubber bands. This figure shows the response when laboratory
air is used in the outer vessels.

(A) Response of test plant to ethylene which has passed through an intact

banana ;

(B) Response of test plant to ethylene which has passed through an intact

orange;

(C) Response of test plant to laboratory air (compare Fig. 2 A. E. I; and

Fig. 3 A and D. in which uncontaminated air was used). The more

pronounced epinastic curvature in A and B is obvious.

Figure 2. — Series of experiments with the outer vessel removed immediately
before the taking of the photograph.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. XL VI.

Plate III.

Figure 1.

Figure 2.

Figure 3.

RELATIVE PENETRABILITY OF VARIOUS TISSUES, ETC.

79

(A) No ethylene in the vessel, no response in presence of banana fruit;

(B) Ethylene in vessel, passing to test plant through endoearp (note glass

tubes) ; test plant showing epinasty;

(C) Ethylene in vessel, passing to test plant through the intact fruit; test

plant showing epinasty;

(D) Ethylene in vessel passing through epicarp and mesoearp to endoearp,

and back through the epicarp and mesoearp to test plant, the peel
being girdled where the banana is sealed into the vessel; test plant
showing epinasty;

(E) Control with no fruit and no ethylene; no epinasty;

(E) Ethylene in vessel passing to test plant through intact fruit; test plant
showing epinasty;

(G) Ethylene in vessel, passing to test plant through the endoearp (note

glass tubes) ; test plant showing epinasty;

(H) Ethylene in vessel, passing to test plant through orange with the

epicarp removed; test plant showing epinasty;

(I) No ethylene in vessel, no epinasty in presence of banana fruit.

Figure 3. — Photograph showing method of setting up experiments; A and D,
controls, showing no epinasty in presence of fruits; B and C, response with ethylene
in the cylinders into which the fruits have been sealed. The test plants are held in
tubes containing water; the tubes are rather indistinct in the photograph.

REFERENCES.

Crocker, W., Zimmermann, P. W., and Hitchcock, A. E. 1932. Ethylene-induced
epinasty of leaves and the relation of gravity to it. Contribution Boyce
Thompson Institute 4, 177-218.

Food Investigation Beport for 1932. London.

Harvey, E. M. 1913. The Castor Bean plant and laboratory air.

Herbert, D. A. 1923. The gas in the coconut. Philippine Agriculturist 11 (6)

177-179.

Neljubow, D. 1901. Ueber die horizontale Nutation der Stengel von Pisum sativum
und einiger anderen Pflanzen. Bot. Centralbl. Beihefte 10, 128-138.

Young, W. J., Bagster, L. S., Hicks, E. W., and Huelin, F. E. 1932. The ripen-
ing and transport of bananas in Australia. Bull. No. 64, C.S.I.R.
Melbourne.

Zimmermann, P. W., Hitchcock, A. E., and Crocker, W. 1931. The effect of
ethylene and illuminating gas on roses. Contribution Boyce Thompson
Institute 3, 459-481.

Zimmermann, P. W., Hitchcock, A. E., and Crocker, W. 1931. The movement
of gases through plants. Contribution Boyce Thompson Institute 3, 313-320*
1931.

80

Vol. XL VI., No. 8.

A Few Notes on the Genus Ptychosperma in

Queensland.

By C. T. White, Government Botanist, Brisbane.

(. Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 21th August, 1934.)

In the course of his studies on the genus Archontophoenix, Professor
L. H. Bailey, of Ithaca, wrote me some time ago asking about A. Jardinei
F. M. Bail. This was changed to the genus Ptychosperma, where it
obviously belongs, some years ago by F. M. Bailey on the advice of
Professor O. Beccari. The palm is evidently common in cultivation in
tropical gardens, and has always been known in them as Hydriastele
Wendlmdiana, being probably distributed from Buitenzorg under that
name.

Doctor Burret in 1927 transferred this commonly cultivated palm
to Ptychosperma under the name of P. W endlandiana, concluding from
the published description that P. Jardinei F. M. Bail, was distinct.

Burret, in his Comprehensive Account of Ptychosperma in Fedde’s
Repertorium, vol. 24, pp. 2G3-271, relegates P. Capitis Yorkii Wendl.
and Drude and P. Jardinei F. M. Bail, to “species dubisa, ” but I am
convinced that these two species and P. W endlandiana Burret, all from
Cape York, represent one and the same palm, and that the name P.
Capitis Yorkii Wendl. and Drude has priority. It is true that P. Capitis
Yorkii Wendl. and Drude was named from leaves and inflorescence
branches, and lacked flowers and fruit. From the narrowness of the
leaf segments, however, i.e., scarcely 4 cm. broad, I have little doubt
of its identity with the later described species of F. M. Bailey and M.
Burret. ,

The type material of P. Jardinei F. M. Bail, consists of a single
whole leaf and two inflorescences complete as regards the branching
but from which all the flowers and fruits have become detached, one
much stouter than the other (evidently the fruit-bearing one), a large
number of detached flowers and a number of detached, rather unripe
fruits. I have compared these flowers with those of P. elegans (R. Br.)
Bl. as cultivated in Brisbane, and can find absolutely no difference
except, perhaps, that the petals of those of P. elegans are a shade stouter
and broader.

I have not seen the Cumberland Islands fruits quoted by Burret,
but the description he gives of them differs in no way whatever from
the one he gives of P. elegans. R. Brown’s type of the species was
collected on the east coast of Australia somewhere between Sandy Cape
and the Cumberland Islands. P. Capitis Yorkii is probably only at most
a variety of the more widely distributed P. elegans, the only tangible
difference I can see is that the leaf segments of P. Capitis Yorkii are
narrower than those of P. elegans, the width of the former being 2-4
cm., those of the latter 5-8 cm.

It is very difficult to key out the species of Ptychosperma in cultiva-
tion, though the palms in the field may look distinct. In his Queensland
Flora, vol. 5, pp. 1676 and 1677, F. M. Bailey describes the Cape York
plant on one page as Archontophoenix Jardinei and on the other as

A FEW NOTES ON THE GENUS PTYCHOSPERMA IN QUEENSLAND. 81

Ptychosperma elegans. In 1909 Dr. O. Beccari wrote to F. M. Bailey,
then Government Botanist at Brisbane : ‘ 4 1 think that you may change
the name of your Ar chant op hcenix Jardinei to that of Ptychosperma
Jardinei. The same plant is cultivated at Buitenzorg under the erron-
eous name of Hydriastele W en dlan di ana, and probably from there distri-
buted under that name.” This change was immediately made by
Bailey and published in the “ Queensland Agricultural Journal” for
July, 1909. Apparently the true Hydriastele Wendlandiana Wendl. and
Drude is unknown in cultivation. It is a native of the Northern Terri-
tory of Australia, but little is known of its distribution in that country,
and I think it is only known from the original gathering by B. Gulliver
on the Liverpool River in the far north of that territory.

My friend Captain II. A. Johnstone, a keen student of palms, wrote
me some time back, 22nd February, 1931, that at the Botanic Gardens,
Darwin, on his way back to England from Australia he had seen a
slender stemmed palm with narrow segments that might be this species ;
but unfortunately at the time of his visit it bore neither flowers nor
fruit. It is very much to be hoped that this little known palm will be
rediscovered and introduced into cultivation.

As a contribution to the distribution and synonymy of these palms,
the following notes are offered: —

Ptychosperma elegans (R. Br.) Bl. Rumphia 11, 117. 1843.

Seuforthia elegans R. Br. Prodr. FL, Nov., IToll., 267. 1810.

Ptychosperma elegans Wendl & Drude, in Linnaea XXXIX., 215.
1875 (in parte).

(Queensland. — East Coast between Sandy Cape and Cumberland
Islands (R. Brown) ; Cape Sidmouth (Curdie) ; near Cooktown (0.
Warburg, No. 19506) ; Mackay (D. Buchanan) ; near Rockhampton
(Nernst); Fitzroy River (Nernst & Thozet), growing among rocks;
Byfield (C. T. White, 8191), medium sized palm of rather handsome
appearance, very hard wood ; common on hillsides in rather light
rain-forest.

Wendl. & Drude 1 c. quote a specimen from Strangeway River,
Northern Territory (Stuart). This is far away from other localities
for the species and rather different country. It is much to be desired
that better material be seen and the locality again visited by a botanist.

I think the palm illustrated and described by Hooker in Bot. Mag.
t. 7345 represents the true P. elegans; the pinnae are described as 3 in.
wide, and the stem illustrated for the size of the palm is a comparatively
stout one.

Ptychosperma Capitis Yorkii Wendl. & Drude, in Linnaea XXXIX.,
217. 1875.

Ptychosperma elegans Wendl. & Drude, 1 c., 215. 1875 (nee.

R. Br., Bl.)

Kentia W endlandiana Benth. FI. Austr. VII., 138 (1878) (in
parte nec. F. v. Muell.).

82

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Ptychosperma elegans F. M. Bailey, in “Queensland Agricultural
Journal,” 1, 232. 1897. (nec. (R. Br.) Bl.)

Archontophoenix Jardinei F. M. Bailey, in “Queensland Agricul-
tural Journal,” 11, 129. 1898.

Ptychosperma Jardinei F. M. Bailey, in “Queensland Agricul-
tural Journal,” XXIII., 35. 1909.

Ptychosperma W endlandiana Burret. Notizb. Bot. Gard. Mus.,
Berlin, X., 205. 1927.

Ptychosperma W endlandiana Burret var. sphcerocarpa Burret,
1 c., 206.

Hydriastele Wendlandiana Hort. (nec. Wendl. & Drude.)

Queensland. — Cape York (Dasmel), Somerset, Cape York (Veitcli’s
collector) (F. L. Jardine).

Vol. XLVI., No. 9.

83

Notes on the Geological Structure at Nathan Gorge,
in the Upper Dawson Valley, Queensland.

By E. M. Shepherd, M.E.

Two Text Figures.

(Bead before the Royal Society of Queensland , 29th October, 1934.)

Nathan Gorge, in which it has been proposed to construct a dam
across the Upper Dawson River for the irrigation of lands in the valley
below, is situated some 30 miles E.N.E. of Taroom. Here the river
crosses a belt of elevated country through a gorge in which the present
bed-level (about 500 feet above sea-level) is some 300 feet below the
general level of the adjacent area.

An unconformable junction between palaeozoic and mesozoic strata
occurs in the lower section of the gorge. The older rocks are hard
dense sandstones and conglomerates dipping westwards, believed to
belong to the Upper Bowen Freshwater series. Above them are mesozoic
sandstones very nearly horizontal and undisturbed.

GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY.

Above the gorge the river flows through a relatively flat valley,
and the construction of a dam would provide a remarkable reservoir,
the capacity of which, when considered in connection with the size
of the dam, would rival any similar “valley storage” in the world.

The sides of the valley gradually draw together and become more
precipitous as the country rock changes progressively from shales and
mudstones to fine sandstones and shales, and coarse current bedded
sandstones. Away from the watercourses; the land is often level and
undulating, but near the river and tributary creeks it is very rough
and steep. The gorge section may be regarded as commencing near Price
Creek. About 4 miles from here the river which hitherto has had a
general trend to the east turns sharply to the north, and in this region
occur the narrowest sections. The sides of the gorge then become
steeper and higher but wider apart, and the adjacent country is more
broken, with a general height of about 350 feet above the river bed.
The gorge gradually merges into a valley with a relatively flat bottom,
the sides drawing back from the river to form flanking ranges.

The length of the gorge section of the valley is about 10 miles,
hut rough country extends from the junction of Spring Creek to below
Cattle Creek, a distance of some 20 miles.

The river itself consists of a chain of long deep waterholes, with
densely timbered strips of regularly-flooded black soil below the sand-
stone cliffs of the gorge sides. Numerous springs in the gorge section
flow into the river, and due to their influence the stream, at least in
this region, is perennial. Borings have shown that once the river channel
was many feet below its present level, and its bed has been extensively
silted up by aggradation, so that now a thick blanket of silt, exceeding
50 feet in depth, covers the old bed of quartz gravel.

84

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

There are several puzzling features in the physiography of the
Dawson Valley.

Evidence is available to show that in the gorge itself, silting is
still in progress, due to the very low velocity of the river which during
high flood apparently does not exceed 2 or 3 miles per hour. The main
cause of this is the flatness of the bed, for from Taroom to the gorge
the fall is 92 feet in a river distance of 46 miles, or 2 feet per mile, and
from the gorge to Theodore it is 84 feet, or an average of 1-7 feet per
mile.

In the upper basin, out of a catchment area of about 9,000 square
miles, some 2,000 square miles appear to lie below the level of the tops
of the cliffs at the gorge, some 300 feet above the present river bed.

From investigations in the region of Theodore, it appears that
there is a considerably greater depth of silt covering the original bed
rock than at the gorge.

Below Theodore the profile of the valley becomes steeper without
the reason for the change being clear, but no data as to depth of bed
rock is available.

The author has been led to wonder what is the relationship between
these conditions, and the causes which produced them.

Perhaps a differential earth movement could be the cause. If
they are the result of a changed equilibrium between erosion and
deposition following altered climatic conditions, it seemed reasonable
to expect the hydraulic behaviour of the river to be less abnormal than
investigations have proved it to be.

(a) Geological Structure.

The geological structure of the gorge area is relatively simple.
The rocks are all sedimentary and appear to comprise two unconform-
able series, the older being visible only in the lower parts of some of
the deeper gorges, and in the river below the gorge section. No out-
crops of this have been found higher up the river than the junction of
Cabbage Tree Creek.

The junction of the two series dips to the south-west and was found
about R.L. — 5-00 feet at the original dam site, and about R.L.*
— 80-00 at the upper site from diamond drilled bores, (See text figure
1.) This indicates that the apparent dip of the junction is approxi-
mately 85 feet per mile in a direction bearing 219 degrees between
these two dam sites, and 47 feet per mile in a direction bearing 230
degrees between the junction of Cabbage Tree Creek and the first site.
The junction is unlikely to be a plane, being an old land surface, and
data are insufficient to give the general true dip of the unconformity
with much exactitude.

Visible portions of the older series consist of freshwater sandstone
and conglomerates with occasional bands of shale. Current bedding
is frequent and there are many conglomerate beds. The texture of
the sandstones varies from very coarse to very fine, the average being

* Throughout this paper the level datum of the Department of Irrigation and
Water Supply has been adopted for convenience of reference. Hence R.L. 0 is
approximately 400 feet above sea-level.

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AT NATHAN GORGE. 85

medium grained and fairly even. Some bands of shale and a hardened
and compacted ironstone shale also are found. These rocks are believed

Fig. 1.

to be part of the Upper Permo-Carboniferous Freshwater series, but
no fossil evidence could be secured. The fine-grained bands were found
to show a certain amount of fragmental plant remains, but nothing

86 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

complete enough to be identifiable. The series as a whole is hard and
compact and apparently lias been well impregnated with iron-bearing
.solutions.

Owing to there being few clear sections available, the true dip of
the series could not be definitely determined. In Cracow Creek gorge
the dip appeared to vary from 5 degrees to 9 degrees towards the west.

It is suspected that in the region to the north and east, these series
are more folded and disturbed than near the gorge. The series was
not examined in detail beyond 4 miles down the river from the point
marked “ Original Dam Site” on the locality plan, but the section
visible from the river was superficially looked over for some 13 or 14
miles. The dip appeared to hold generally to the west, but in one
place adjacent to the water some masses of rock showed a steep dip
to the east. Lack of time on this occasion did not allow it to be deter-
mined whether the rock was part of continuous strata or detached
masses disturbed by river action. At about 6 miles the junction must
be near R.L. 140; and at 8 miles it seems about R.L. 200. Prom here
to 10 miles the level may drop slightly. Below 10 miles no section of
the lower rock is visible from the river owing to the cover of silt. Prom
6 miles to 10 miles the river follows a semi-circular path, bending some
miles to the east.

The section exposed in Cracow Creek was examined for about
a mile, but local conditions at the time made anaeroid readings taken
in this gorge unreliable, and the rise of the unconformity is uncertain.
It seems, however, at least 50 feet per mile, and for the first mile the
true dip seems continuously to the west without folding. Higher up
the creek this dip may be. steep, for a local resident described the rock
as ‘ ‘ standing on edge.”

The series is believed to overlie the limestones and marine series
which outcrop at Cracow Station, and also near “Neustella” on the
Dawson River. These have been identified as part of the Lowen Bowen
series. The area to the north and east of the gorge is very inaccessible
and was not examined, but on the whole the unconformity rises more
rapidly in an easterly than in a northerly direction.

Frequently a very soft layer occurs immediately above the uncon-
formity, and this has led to the formation of wide benches on the older
series in the northern part- of the gorge and the adjacent valley, from
which the mesozoic cliffs rise very steeply. In general, from just
below Cracow Creek junction, the surface of the older rock forms the
floor of the relatively flat-bottomed valley into which the gorge opens,
and the present river channel has been eroded in this floor. The
character of the lower part of the Cracow Creek gorge is similar.

The older mesozoic series of which the gorge sides are composed
consists of massive sandstones with occasional thin bauds of shale in
the lower part, and hard clay-shales and sandstones above. These sand-
stones vary in texture indiscriminately from very fine to coarse, and
a few conglomerate beds are found. Coarse-grained sandstones with
extensive current bedding predominate, especially at lower levels. All
the rock has high porosity, and the general composition is one of clear
quartz grains with argillaceous cement. Some bands also contain mica.

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AT NATHAN GORGE.

87

88 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

[Narrow bands of shale are often found, but- seldom continue very
far before they merge into fine sandstone or pinch out. It seems pro-
bable that nearly all the shale bands are lenticular beds of limited
extent.

The beds of the lower part of the series extend right through the
gorge section and appear to rise from about river level at the upper
end to several hundred feet above at the northern or lower end. How-
ever, to the eye the series seems horizontal, and for thefinost part no
dip can be read with a clinometer. Attempts were made to determine
the dip from observations on beds of certain texture, but as fine-grained
beds merge into coarse and shale bands merge into sandstones and vice
versa without any continuity for more than short distances, no reliable
readings were obtained. It is thought that probably the beds dip
in a S.W. direction in the order of 80 feet to the mile, but this may
be exceeded in some areas and seems less in others. Clinometer readings
from near the junction of Cracow Creek along the tops of cliffs in the
Dawson and Cracow gorges each gave elevations of approximately
0 degrees 41 minutes in directions bearing about 340 degrees and 60
degrees respectively. This suggests rises of about 60 feet per mile in
these directions, and a fall of 90 feet per mile in the direction of the dip
towards the south-west. However, these figures may be misleading
owing to the lack of certainty that the readings followed accurately the
one geological horizon.

Observations; of rock strata bordering the waterhole in the section
above Cabbage Tree Creek, though inconclusive, suggest that there is
very little dip at all here in the north-south direction, in spite of the
fact that the junction line of the two series drops at the average rate
of some 60 feet in the mile towards the south (i.e., up river). Probably
here the true dip is in a more westerly direction.

The upper half of this Lower Mesozoic series is much less porous
rock than the lower. Owing to its containing more argillaceous material
it weathers away much more easily and does not form steep cliffs, with
the result that the tops of the lower sandstones seem usually to coincide
with the top of the cliffs in the gorge.

• (b.) Notes on Fossils.

The fossil fern Cladoplebis australis has been identified in strata
at R.L. 250 feet at the old dam site and R.L. 300 feet near the junction
of Cabbage Tree Creek. (Refer Text fig. No. 1.) This fossil seems the
only common one, and it occurs in both the Ipswich and Walloon
series. Another fossil (found at Croker’s Gully) in beds corresponding
to those at R.L. 150 feet at the upper site was Coniopteris, a genus
common to the Ipswich and Walloon series. The nature of specimens
obtained w$re considered to indicate the Ipswich rather than the Walloon
series. Good specimens of fossil leaves, &c., are hard to obtain, and most
indications are fragments too small or incomplete for identification.
Near Dawsonvale Station, however, are beds containing very well pre-
served fossil fern leaves and seeds, &c., but the writer is unaware of
their true identity.

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AT NATHAN GORGE.

89

(c.) Hydrological Notes.

In the porous lower mesozoic strata, water occurs under pressure.
This water apparently accounts for the phenomenon of the ‘ ‘ bogomoss ’ ’
springs, so dangerous to stock, that are found in the bed of the gorge
and some other localities, and the numerous large springs that are
found in tributary gullies at the upper end of the gorge section. The
“bogomoss” springs are areas of very soft boggy ground in which
water wells up. They frequently are a little higher than the surround-
ing ground, and their size may vary from a yard or two across to several
acres.

In the gorge these springs are found mainly between the Old Dam
Site and the junction of Price (locally Springvale) Creek. Similar
phenomona are found on Bogomoss Station on the left bank some 6 miles
further west, and in the lower reaches of Cockatoo Creek.

All the deeper tributary gullies from Price Creek to Cabbage Tree
Creek on the right bank and to Cable Creek on the left have big springs
in them. The biggest are to be found on the right bank in Price Creek,
Croker’s Gully, and Cabbage Tree Creek, but that on the left in Cox’s
Creek near the Old Dam Site has probably as great a flow as any.
This was not less than 1,000,000 gallons a day, but after the test bores
were drilled at the dam site, a small decrease was observed.

In the creeks on the right bank the heads of springs are frequently
some distance from the river, while those on the left bank below this
dam site are small and head fairly close to the gorge. The one in Cable
Creek, however, is several miles from the river and does not succeed
in flowing to it before the water soaks away again. Between creek
junctions water can often be observed seeping out of the lower rocks
in the gorge. On the whole, most water seems to emerge between the
two higher dam sites.

The fact that the water is not noticeable above Price Creek is
probably due to the bed of the gorge being in the less permeable more
shaley series which overlies the very porous sandstones. Probably
where springs do occur above here, they are due to weaknesses in the
upper rock through which the water escapes.

The origin of the water is uncertain, but undoubtedly it is collected
by porous surface strata at higher levels from which it gravitates through
permeable sandstones to escape in the gorge and nearby springs. The
position of the intake beds is uncertain, but geological considerations
suggest that they will be situated either to the south-east or the north-
west of the upper gorge section. Probably water comes from both
regions, travelling from either side to a common escape in the region
of the gorge.

The general dip of the mesozoic beds is to the south-west, and the
porous sandstones of the gorge area in which the water is found extend
to the western limit of the gorge section and then are covered by the less
porous shales and sandstones which are between these beds and the
Bundamba Series of porous sandstones reported by Mr. J. H. Reid.
Consequently water from any area to the south-west is not likely to
find its way into the gorge, but will rather percolate towards the south-
west following the general inclination of the strata.

Towards the north-east the impervious Upper Bowen (?) Series
would act as a floor along which ground water would percolate and
escape at the gorge, for beyond 1J to 2 miles northwards on the river

90 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

traverse — that is, from slightly above the junction of Cabbage Tree
Creek — the dense clay silt in the bed of the gorge will be in contact
with this series and cut off any flow. Any water would be expected to
seep into the gorge, but in this area no springs are noticeable on the
right bank, nor in Cracow Creek, nor in the lowest reaches of Cabbage
Tree Creek.

The Downfall Creek catchment and surrounding country contains
very sandy and rough areas from which the run-off, except in times of
very heavy rain, is almost negligible. Sandstones are frequently
exposed or covered by very sandy soil. The Auburn Range is on the
western edge of the granite country, and it is reported that a bore some
8 or 10 miles east of Dawsonvale Head Station struck granite at a depth
of 180 feet. This area is somewhat higher than that near the gorge.
An igneous rock of granitic nature occurs on Cracow Station within 10
miles of the Cabbage Tree Creek and Dawson River junction, and
bordering this igneous series are Lower Bowen beds steeply inclined
and dipping to the west., It seems probable that water absorbed by
the porous surface layers percolates: down and along the pervious strata
above an impervious floor consisting of granite or the Upper Bowen
sandstones. There is a spring in Cockatoo Creek, some 6 to 8 miles
above Cockatoo Head Station, which may obtain its water from a
.similar source. This spring is reported to have been influenced con-
siderably by an earth tremor in 1918, and may be located over a fault.

Water levels in bores and springs are shown on the plan, but it
must be stressed that these are only approximate. The natural surface
levels were obtained by anaeroid readings, for the most part not
repeated. The levels of water in bores could not be checked. The
information relating to depth to water and water-bearing strata on
“Dawsonvale” were kindly supplied by Mr. G. Hamilton, formerly
of Dawsonvale Station, and are, I understand, based on the figures
given by the well drillers. It is interesting to note that on Cabbage
Tree Creek the four bores had a water-bearing stratum reported at the
same level, but the free surface level in the two lower bores — which
incidentally pass through a water-bearing stratum above — is much
higher. The levels of each pair agree very closely.

The large springs on the right bank, several miles from the river,
show that water must come from the east or south. Springs in the
lower gorge section on the left bank show that water comes from the
west of the gorge. Consideration of levels in bores, levels and volumes
of springs, bogomoss, &c., lead to the conclusion that water finds its
way from both sides to leak out into the river, and the total volume
from the right side exceeds that from the left.

Evidence is against the water being of river origin, percolating
through the sand and gravel of the old river bed now buried beneath
many feet of dense clay and silt.

The writer is indebted to Mr. M. B. Salisbury, Officer in Charge
of the Queensland Irrigation and Water Supply Department, and to
the members of the Land Administration Board, for permission to use
official data in these notes. Also he desires to express his thanks to
Dr. W. TI. Bryan for helpful suggestions.

Vol. XL VI., No. 10.

91

Plant Ecological Studies in South-East Queensland.*

By E. C. Tommerup, M.So., A.A.C.I.

One Map.

( Accepted for Publication by the Royal Society of Queensland,
29th November, 1934.)

CONTENTS.

I. Introduction and Climate.

II. An Ecological Survey of Land near Maryborough.

III. Ecological Reconnaissances in the Yarraman and Kilkivan Districts.

IY. Summary, Conclusions, Acknowledgment, and Bibliography.

I. INTRODUCTION.

The correlation of floristic distribution with environmental factors
deserves increased attention from scientists. The original objects of
the work described in this paper concern the economic utilization of
the lands surveyed. The areas dealt with cover the flat coastal lands
and slopes of the Coast Range near Maryborough, a mountain area-
near Kilkivan, and the forested lands at the head of the Brisbane River.
The primary scientific aim of the work is to evolve a natural system of
classification of the vegetation and to determine the reasons underlying
its natural distribution. As the nature of the vegetation is very closely
linked with the nature of the soil, the classification of the soils on a
natural system becomes a second aim. A third important point of
study concerns what might be termed the biological reactions of certain
economically desirable species to their natural environment, and to
artificial changes in their environment which are calculated to improve
their growth and to extend their range. The successful introduction
of exotic species depends largely upon the accuracy of one’s judgment
of the effects of ecological agencies.

Throughout the work of vegetation classification every endeavour
has been made to follow recognised methods; in the case of the open
forests this; is not unduly difficult, but it does not seem possible to
classify the rainforest interior exactly in accordance with the methods
of Clements et at. Perhaps more intensive work will show, that the
rainforest formation can be broken up into communities which are
capable of more exact definition than my somewhat overlapping rain-
forest subdivisions at present outlined (Bourne, 1934).

* This paper is revised and abridged from portion of a thesis successfully
sustained for the degree of Master of Science in the University of Queensland; it is
based on work done by the writer when in the employment of the Queensland Eorest
Service.

92

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

In the majority of cases it is found that the detailed distribution
of species is an expression of the combination of a large number of
edaphic factors. Local climate, lithological origin, mode of formation,
drainage, topography, the thicknesses, colours, consistences and tex-
tures of profile horizons, the chemical properties of the clay and humic
colloids and the nature of the vegetation growing, all have a bearing
on the ultimate fertility of the soil, and variations in these factors are
associated with variations in the natural vegetation. No one of these
agents can be claimed to be exclusive ; each plays its own role in conjunc-
tion with the others, though in some circumstances one agent may be
of more importance than others. This is the system of the U.S.A. Soil
Bureau, and it is* only by the adoption of this detail that a satisfactory
correlation between soil type and fertility or natural vegetation can be
obtained.

One of the factors which influences soil fertility is the consistence.
This is too frequently included by British soil workers with texture;
the Americans rightly restrict the term “ texture” to cover the results
of the mechanical analysis only: the per cent, sand, silt, and clay; and
they use the term ‘ ‘ consistence ’ ’ to describe the intrinsic cohesive power
of the soil colloids. Soil consistence varies from stiff to mellow, and it
depends upon the composition of the clay and upon the humus content.
Laboratory estimates of soil consistence may be made by means; of a
pachimeter (Schofield and Scott-Blair, 1932), and by the use of single
value figures corrected for texture — e.g., loss on ignition, moisture
equivalent or sticky point plotted against percentage of colloid. The
texture can be accurately obtained by international mechanical analysis ;
and reference to my chart, which is based on the U.S.A. texture classi-
fication corrected to international grain sizes, gives the field textures
for describing soil types within a soil series (Tommerup, 1934).

A detailed survey of Queensland soils would materially assist
agricultural enterprise. The requisites are, first, a satisfactory system
of soil description which emphasises the important factors, the American
system seems to be the best; second, good base maps showing the posi-
tion of land surveys, topography and geology (Tommerup, 1934).
The particular requirement of geology in soil surveys is the nature
of the lithology, and in this connection it is rather a pity that the
excellent new geological map published by David (1932) groups different
kinds of rocks together because they are of the same age — e.g., the
Esk series includes both the shales and the andesites.

CLIMATE.

The climate of the region is outlined in some detail because of its
direct influence on plant distribution (Herbert, 1928, Francis, 1927)
and on regional soil formation and its indirect and more localised
effects on soil formation, via the vegetation growing on the soil, parti-
cularly in the rain forests. The prevailing winds are usually south-
easterly to easterly. Occasionally variable winds blow during the
months of June to October, and sometimes southerly “busters” bring
rain to the coast and easterly aspects of the hills during winter months.
Dust from the western plains is sometimes carried in by hot dry winds
and deposited on the westerly aspects of the hills during September
and October. The region lies just north of the belt of anti-cyclones or

PLANT ECOLOGICAL STUDIES IN SOUTH-EAST QUEENSLAND.

93

high pressures. The insolation constant at summer solstice is -97 and
at winter solstice -52. The mean monthly temperatures and rainfalls
are as below:—

—

Maryborough.

Nanango.

Yarraman.

Kilkivan.

Rainfall

inches.

Mean Temp.
°F.

Rainfall

inches.

Mean Temp.

!

Rainfall

inches.

Rainfall
1 inches.

January

7-5

77

4-5

74

3-9

5-5

February

6-3

77

41

73

2-5

50

March

6-2

75

3-4

70

2-6

4-0

April

3-4

71

1-8

65

1-3

21

May

3-2

65

1-6

58

1-4

2-0

June

3-0

61 |

2-0

54

1-6

2-0

July ..

2-0

59

1-7

52

1-3

1-6

August

1-7

60

1-4

53

1-4

1-6

September

2-0

66

1-9

60

2-2

1*6

October

2-6

70

2-3

75

2-4

2-5

November

31

75

2-6

71

3-4

2-6

December

4-8

77

3-8

73

4-1

4*5

Average Annual

45*8

69

311

63

28-0

350

Number Years |

45

45

10

50

Possibly more rain falls on the hilly country inland from Mary-
borough than on the lower land at Maryborough, where records are
taken ; likewise the rainfall on R. 220 Kilkivan is probably about 3 inches
more than at Kilkivan. The wet season is December to March, when
50 per cent, of the rain is precipitated. April to September are the
driest six months of the year, when 33 per cent, of the total rain is
precipitated. The average rainfall per wet day is 4 inch at Nanango
and -5 inch at Maryborough ; there are an average of seventy wet days
per annum at Nanango and ninety wet days at Maryborough. Over 1 inch
of rain falls uniformly each month, though dry spring months may
occur in some years. The reliability of rain is over 20 per cent. — that
is, the annual rainfall seldom varies more than 20 per cent, from the
average, which is reasonably good; the proximity of the mountains
tends to improve the reliability; exceptional variations do occur in
certain cyclical years — e.g., at Kilkivan the driest year recorded was
1902 with 14 inches ; the wettest, 1893 with 82 inches. Frost may occur
from May to August.

The following places in the world have temperature and rainfall
conditions more or less similar to those of the Maryborough district : —
N. Siam, Formosa, S. Japan, Brazilian East Coast, Honduras, Florida
to New York Coast and hinterlands, Kenya Colony, &c. For this reason
the native pines of the S.E. U.S.A. (Finns caribcea, P. seroiina, P. taeda,
P. echinata, P. palustris, &©.), have been proposed as possible plantation
species for the Maryborough lands.

Griffith Taylor has noticed that the distribution of native vege-
tation depends upon the average monthly rainfall rather than on the
total annual rainfall, and Swain (1928) has given 2 inches per month
as the limit for Blackbutt (E. pilularis) forest and 1.50 inches per
month as the limit for Hoop pine (A. cunninghamii) . E. pilularis
only occurs in the Yarraman district on the rain-catching S.E. aspects
of the Blackbutt Range, where the rainfall of the driest month does not
fall below about 1.75 inches.

94

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The evaporation rate averages a little over 50 inches per annum,
and it just balances the rainfall during January to July; in other
months the evaporation exceeds the rainfall rate. This is important,
because the actual moisture content of the soil can be greatly influenced
by transpiring vegetation and vice versa.

In the Yarraman district the relative humidity ranges from about
57 per cent, in September-October to 70 per cent, in March- August ;
in Maryborough it is relatively constant at 65 to 70 per cent, throughout
the year. At Nanango the average saturation deficit is -2 and the Meyer
ratio is about 150. This data places the Nanango district at the junction
of Prescott’s Podsol-Red Loam-Black Earth soil groups. (Prescott,
1931.) It also corresponds with the junction between Crowther’s
Transitional Prairie soils and his Chernozems. At Maryborough the
saturation deficit is about 0-24 inches and the Meyer ratio is 190;
further east on Fraser Island the Meyer ratio is 230 on account of
higher rainfall and lower saturation deficit, whilst it diminishes as
one goes inland for the opposite reasons. These climatic data place
this area in the region of Prescott’s Podsol-Red Loam group. The
Crowther Leaching factor is 40 and the rainfall 115 cms, which puts the
Maryborough lands in Crowther’s Transitional Class close to the
“ ferruginous laterites” and the Prairie soils. The data for the true
lateritic regions of Malaya are as follows: — Leaching factor 140 Rain-
fall 230 cms., Sat. Deficit 0-16 inches. Meyer ratio 600, average rainfall
per wet day 0-5 to 0-6 inches. The true podsols occur in a climate
having a leaching factor of about 70, and a Meyer ratio of usually
over 400, due to a low saturation deficit associated with a cool climate.

The question as to which one of the major soil groups covers the
Maryborough soils is not easily settled. Prescott (1931 and 1933)
classified the Wallum soils in the zone of Podsolized soils. He regards
podsolization as a very widespread process, which produces neutral to
slightly acid conditions in the soil. Podsols are soils characteristic of
a wet, cool climate with long more or less frozen winters and short
summers. They usually support coniferous forest which produces an
accumulation of undecomposed raw humus in the A0 horizon. Leaching
action bleaches the A2 horizon, whilst organic matter and iron pan are
deposited in the B horizon. Typical podsols are more usually found
in light textured soils, but when heavy textured soils are podsolized,
the surface layers become white, poorly structured, hard when dry, and
infertile. Compare Jacks (1934.) There is very little accumulation
of raw humus under most of the sclerophyll forest of coastal Queensland.
The true podsols are restricted to the Great Lake districts of U.S.A.
and Canada, Scandinavia, Northern Russia, &c.

Maryborough soils are not similar to the true laterites of Malaya,
but appear to form a transition stage between the true podsols, the
laterites, and the brown earths; they are similar in some respects to
the descriptions given of the “ferruginous laterites” and the yellow
soils of S.E. U.S.A. (Fowler, 1927). Prescott (1931) states that “the
extensive Wallum country north and south of Maryborough, Queens-
land, shows concretions of iron oxide, and it is likely that these very
fine sandy soils are waterlogged in summer and quite dry at the end
of the dry season.”

Though these soils may appear to be podsolized, it would be better
if they were given a separate group name as is done in U.S.A., such as

PLANT ECOLOGICAL STUDIES IN SOUTH-EAST QUEENSLAND.

95

Yellow Forest Soils, which are probably their closest allies. This view
accords with the work of Bryan and Hines (1931). "Whatever major
group they may be included in, sight should not be lost of the fact
that there are very important differences among the soil series and
soil types themselves, which control their fertility, and the soil series
must be used as the unit of soil definition.

II. AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF LAND NEAR
MARYBOROUGH.

Topography and Geology.

About 300 square miles of land north and north-west of Mary-
borough has been surveyed ; and an east to west section across it repre-
sents to some extent a profile” from low coastal strand with mangrove-
lined river banks, to an altitude of roughly 700 feet above sea-level on
the coast range. The block can be conveniently divided into three
topographic sectors : —

I. East of the Main North Coast Railway, Maryborough to
Howard.

II. "West of the railway to a north to south line through Musket
Flat (Eliott).

III. West of this N.S. Line to the Seaview Range.

I. — This sector consists of almost flat country, whose swamps are
of the order of 50 feet above sea-level, and the low ridges 100 to 150
feet. The vegetation is usually poor and is characteristic of water-
logged land.

II. — Exceptiug a patch of country near Oakhurst, which is similar
to that just described, sector II. is of a better class than I. It is a
gently undulating peneplain of altitude 100 feet to 200 feet on the
average. The general slopes being of the order of 1 in 100 or steeper.
The area is fairly regularly drained by a system of waterways and
watercourses.

III. — The area west of Musket Flat is fairly rough and hilly with
a rubblv clay soil. The altitudes are of the order of 300 feet to 600 feet
above sea-level.

The district is characterised by clay formations, but some patches
of sandy lands occur, notably a belt associated with the Graham’s
Creek series of tuffs, which extend through the southerly portion of
sector II. from R. 216, parish of Warrah, to Oakhurst. In these sandy
places much rainwater soaks in and reappears in seepage watercourses.
On the clay lands the water runs off readily, and when much rain falls
quickly there are high floods in the watercourses. The watertable is
close to the surface on the clayey parts, and the ground readily holds
water in small lagoons. The water usually carries; clay in suspension
in the wet seasons, but it is clear in the dry seasons. The water from
the sand patches is always clear, save in some places; where it is turned
dark in colour in a dry time, probably owing to the presence of humic
material. The waters of the district are usually soft, indicating that
the lime content of the soil is at a minimum. Lower Doongul and
Duckinwilla Creeks have never been known to dry up entirely, though
water supply has been temporarily low.

96

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

For the most part the rocks of the district are covered by 3 to 5
feet of soils and subsoils, and an accurate mapping of the rock changes
is difficult, consequently the geological maps available are only approxi-
mate. The geological map and section which has been prepared, how-
ever, is sufficiently accurate for the purpose, and is based upon the
map in Queensland Geological Survey Publication 262, the work of
Bryan and Massey (1925) and my own extensions of these descriptions.

The strata of the district belongs to the following conformable
Mesozoic series, which overlie Palaeozoic rocks : —

Lower Cretaceous . . Burrum Coal Measures, shales with coal

seams.

Upper Jurassic . . Maryborough Marine beds, hard siliceous

and fossiliferous shales.

Lower Jurassic .. Graham’s Creek tuffs, volcanic ash beds.

Tiaro series, soft shales (Walloon horizon).
Upper Triassic . . Myrtle Creek series, quartzites, and sand-
stones (Bundamba horizon).

Brooweena series, hard sandy shales (Ips-
wich horizon).

(?) Permo-Carboniferous (?) Gympie series, slates, and sandstones
extend towards Biggenden. Intrusive granites also occur which Ur.
Bryan considers to be of (?) Tertiary age.

The Mesozoics form a geosyncline across the area studied and have
a general strike N.W. and N.N.W. The dips are about 30 degrees E.
in the west and 10 to 35 degrees W. on the east, but they are variable.

The Burrum Coal Measures are whitish lacustrine shales which
produce whitish fairly stiff clay soils often containing scattered limonitic
marbles; these are possibly fossilised indicators of white lateritic soils.
The shales are fairly soft and usually form almost flat topography, and
in consequence much of the outcrop carries partially water-logged soil
and poor vegetation. It is of more than passing interest to note that
the fossil flora of this and other series contain extinct Araucarias and
other subtropical plants. The Burrum Series is covered by soil types
c, e, f, and g.

The Maryborough Marine Series consist of hard silicified shales
containing plant and animal fossils. They are readily recognised in
the field by the presence of fossil shells in the rocks. This rock produces
a rubbly soil, and on account of its relative hardness it weathers more
slowly than the associated rocks, and consequently forms ridges and
often appears as outcrops and outliers in somewhat unexpected places.
It forms soil type h. These ridges carry good timber ; possibly because
they catch more rainfall, and because they are better drained, thus
giving a more neutral soil than the flats, which are frequently acidic
in reaction.

Closely associated with, and overlaid by, the Maryborough Marine
is a somewhat variable series of rocks, the Graham’s Creek series. It
consists of bedded pinkish agglomerates and tuffs which are sometimes
hardened, and which generally contain felspathic material together with
grains of quartz. This rock is fairly soft an d it produces flat topography
and grey sandy clay soils, which are water-logged in low-lying places,
typically types d and 5.

PLANT ECOLOGICAL STUDIES IN SOUTH-EAST QUEENSLAND.

97

The underlying Tiaro series is a soft lacustrine shale giving
yellowish sandy clay soils of types e, f, and g.

The Myrtle Creek series consists of a narrow band of rocks which
outcrop as massive hard white siliceous sandstones. It plays little
part in soil formation, though its sands are probably blended with
the clays from other rocks.

Below the Mesozoics and outcropping on the high ridges of the
western sector is a fairly hard ferruginous sandy shale rock consisting
of very fine sand set in a matrix of indurated clay which may be partly
recrystallised. It produces dark yellow, red, and brown rubbly soils
typically types h, i, and k. The ridges of the western sector are due in
part to the hardness of the rocks of this series, though primarily caused
by a folding action on the strata of the district : the Coast Range Fold.
The rock strike is N.N.W. and dip 30 to 50 degrees to E.N.E.

Near Musket Flat (Eliott) a granite (with quartz, orthoelase,
plagioclase, muscovite, hornblende) instrusion of considerable extent
occurs which is regarded (verbal communication) by Dr. W. H. Bryan
as being younger in age than the surrounding Mesozoics. It produces
a typical grey granitic sandy clay soil in some parts, but forms brown
clay soil in the mature watercourses.

The geology of the area is important from the points of view of
topography and of soil formation. In general the soils of the ridges
are rubbly sandy clays and well drained. Those of the flats and
depressions; are clayey. Though several series of sedimentary rocks
occur, the soils produced by them have been largely blended into a
fairly uniform class of sandy clay texture, whilst the actual soil types
and the vegetation carried by them are dependent as much upon topo-
graphic, drainage, and climatic agencies as upon geological factors.

Soils and Vegetation.

The procedure adopted in the survey was to list the principal
plants seen as upper storey, lower storey, breast high, and ground,
followed by soil, timber value and miscellaneous notes. The distribution
of the vegetation agrees with variations in soil.

(a) Swampy clay soils, pH 4-5 to 5-5, characterised principally by
Melaleuca spp., Hake a gibbosa , Banksia latifolia, Cladium glomeratum,
Utricularia sp., &c. Water table practically permanently at surface,
greyish white very stiff clays or sticky sandy clay.

(b) Sandy soils, pH 4-5 to 5-5, characterised by Melaleuca spp. E.
corymbosa (stunted), E. acmenioides (stunted), Banksia latifolia ,
Banksia latifolia var. minor , Leptospermum fiavescens, Acacia juni-
perina, Schizcea dichotomy, Caustis flexuosa, Hibbertia vestita. Subsoil
grey sticky sandy clay. Practically permanently waterlogged, drainage
water sometimes black.

(c) Flat lands with yellowish sandy clay soil, water table near
surface and occasionally waterlogged. pH 5-0 to 5-5, characterised by
E. acmenioides, E. corymbosa, Persoonia linearis, Hakea spp. Melaleuca
leucadendron, Banksia latifolia var. minor, Xanthorrhoea macronema
(?). Correct use of ringbarking and fire treatment results in good
natural regeneration of firewood and poles. Eucalypts less than 50 feet
high. Samples of soil taken from a hole close to Colton Railway Station

R.S. E.

98

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

on typical type c land gave the following data. Surface soil yellow
sandy loam, subsoil mottled yellow sandy clay : —

—

Surface

soil.

Subsoil
(24 in.)

Remarks.

Stones . .

0/

/o

10

o/

/o

50

Limonitic marbles

Sand in sieved soil

80

60

Quartz and Limonite grains

Silt plus clay . .

20

40

Water of saturation (w)

27

28

Keen box on soil

Approximate pore space

40

42

Keen box on soil

Swelling (v)

5

11

Keen box on soil

Swelling calc, on 100 % silt

25

27

Keen box on soil

and clay

Vol. wt. dry

1-6

1*7

Keen box on soil

Yol. wt. wet . .

1-9

1-9

Keen box on soil

Ratio (100 + w)/(100 + v). .

1-21

1-16

Keen box on soil

Air dry moisture
Moisture equivalent . .

1

1-5

Keen box on soil

10-6

Centrifuge method

Loss on ignition

2-8

5-5

Loss calculated on 100% silt

14

14

+clay

Carbon

•85

•20

Robinson Kjeldahl method

Nitrogen

•055

•031

Robinson Kjeldahl method

C/N

15-5

6-5

Robinson Kjeldahl method

( d ) Sandy ridges characteristically carrying E. trachyphloia, E.
acmenioides, E. corymb osa, Acacia flavescens, Casuarina torulosa, Cos.
suberosa, Banksia labifolia var. minor, Patersonia glabrata. Surface
soil humic sandy loam about 2 feet deep on average, below greyish
brown sandy clay sticky subsoil. Eucalypts 50 to 75 feet high.

( e ) Brown to yellow sandy clay flats. pH 6 to 7. E. acmenioides,
E. corymbosa , E. trachyphloia 50 to 75 feet high, Grevillea banksii,
Banksia integrifolia, Casuarina suberosa, Xanthorrhcea macronema (?),
and Stylidium gr amino-folium are characteristic plants. Soil with poor
drainage, but water table not very close to surface. Subsoil at 12 to
18 inches depth; reddish brown to yellow brown stiff clay, sometimes
showing bluish mottling on account of ferrous silicates caused by poor
aeration ; these poorly oxidised subsoils may be toxic to some cultivated
plants.

(/) Low ridges with limonitic marbles, brown sandy clay pH 6 to
7, carrying E. acmenioides, E. corymbosa, E. trachyphloia, Angophora
lanceolata (50 to 75 feet high), Gas. torulosa, C. suberosa, C. banksii,
B. integrifolia, Jacksonia scoparia, Petalostigmai quadriloculare, Anthis-
tiria ciliata, X. macronema. Soil fairly well drained, subsoil reddish
to yellow brown stiff clays with red streaks and ironstone concretions.
Timber fair — practically no millable logs, but trees suitable for sleepers,
mining props, fencing, &c., are found on better class; d, e, f type country.

( g ) Plat wide watercourses, with a channel in the centre of the
larger ones which is fringed with Melaleuca leucadendron and E. tereti-
comis. The slopes of the watercourse grow E. paniculata, E. exserta,
E. acmenioides, E. corymbosa, Tristania suaveolens, Acacia aulacocarpa,
and A. cunninghamii. Illuvial clay soil. Trees over 75 feet high, a few
millable logs and others undergirth. Timber values fairly good. Soil
usually plastic buff brown clays, subsoils reddish brown stiff clay.
Water table at about 4 feet, but fairly good drainage.

(h) Bubbly ridges carrying E. citriodora, E. paniculata, E. sider-
ophloia, E. acmenioides, E. propinqua, sometimes E. crebra. Acacia
aulacocarpa, A. cunninghamii . A. fimbriata , Alphitonia petriei, and

PLANT ECOLOGICAL STUDIES IN SOUTH-EAST QUEENSLAND. 99

Tristania conferta may occur in fairly dense undergrowths. Harden-
bergia monophylla, Pultancea ternaita , var. cuspidata , Roved longifolia
(ground creepers), and grass form a forest floor which is frequently
strewn with leaves and raw humus. Soil pH 6-5 to 7. Rubbly yellow
brown to hazel brown sandy clay. Timber value fairly good. Trees
over 75 feet high, some millable logs and numerous undergirth growing
trees.

(i) Rubbly fairly steep-sided gullies found in western sector.
These carry much the same characteristic flora as h, but in addition
Zieria smithii (oil-bearing shrub), Trema aspera, Acacia arundelliana,
Indigofera australis, and the blady grasses, Gymnostachys anceps and
Lepidosperma concavum, which grow up under open canopy after fires.
Same class of soil as h. Tristania suaveolens also occurs in places.
Trees 75 feet high, and timber value fairly good.

(j) Fringing rain forest which follows the larger creeks and rivers.
The surface soils are chocolate coloured, alluvial, fairly mellow, clay
loams; deep soils with humic surface and stiff er brownish clay and
sandy clay subsoil, carrying Eugenia ventenat'ii, Tristania conferta,
Lit sea death at a, Exocarpus latifolia, Zingiber officinale, Geitonoplesium
cymosum, Smilax australis, &e. Sometimes Agathis rohusta, Eugenia
hemilampra, Symcarpia submgentea, and Euc. saligna occur in the
forests.

(fc) Drier mountain type rain forest carrying Hoop pine and
numerous rain forest species. This type merges into type j on one
hand and types h and i on the other. Soil humic brown rubbly sandy
clay or clay loam. Fairly mellow consistence.

The soil descriptions have been tabulated and associated into soil
series in accordance with the methods of the U.S.A. Soil Bureau. The
accompanying map and section demarcates the geology and the distri-
bution of the various soil series.

Soil Analyses for Similar Localities from Annual Reports, Agricultural Chemist, Queensland.

Locality.

Yerra.

Kawungan.

Nikenbah.

Probable type

c

c

e

Laboratory number

2544

Average 2566/8

Average 2754/6

Description

Grey clay

Y’ low -grey loam

Brown loam

Reaction

Very acid

Very acid

Acid

°/

/o

0/

/o

0/

/o

Humus (by NH3)

3-1

1-83

1*98

Loss ignition . .

9-6

4-5

9-0

Chlorine

•02

•01

•008

Nitrogen

•3

•16

•22

36% HC1 extract P205

•1

•06

•06

CaO

•2

•35

•37

MgO

•16

•05

•26

K20

•3

•03

•02

Insol. in HC1

68-6

81*1

57-6

1 % Citric Acid extract P205 . .

•006

•002

•0004

CaO

•056

•048

•09

MgO . . . . . . . . I

•018

•009

•04

k2o

•023

•003

•005

Jones’ Acidity
Hopkins’ Acidity

201

83

Comber

102

7

/ Method

Organic Acidity

99

78

J Neutral

Average estimated lime re-
quirement in cwt. per acre

134

56

Nil

SUMMARY OF GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL TYPES.

100

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

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PLANT ECOLOGICAL STUDIES IN SOUTH-EAST QUEENSLAND.

101

These analyses indicate that the addition of lime would be bene-
ficial on type c soils. It would flocculate clayey colloids, improve con-
sistence, and neutralise acidity. The values for phosphate are especially
low in the Nikenbah samples, and suggest a phosphate deficiency. The
cattle which graze on types c, d, e> f, and g have developed the bone-
chewing and botulic habits and suffer from other symptoms of phos-
phate deficiency. Lime dressings and basic NPK fertilizers would most
probably give good responses on these lands and suitable experiments
might well be instituted to ascertain the value of these treatments.

The soils arc noticeably greatly improved when humus is present
in quantity, and agronomic operations should accordingly be planned
so as to maintain and increase the supply of organic matter in the
soils. Due attention must also be paid to subsoil drainage conditions.
It is possible that many places on the gently undulating country can
be drained easily by systems of deep furrows ploughed in suitable
places.

Work similar to that described in this paper has been performed
near Beerwah by A. H. Crane, and near Rockhampton by M. A. Rankin
(unpublished data in Queensland Forest Service files). They found
a close correlation between similar vegetation units and approximately
similar soils in the two districts. They find that soil fertility is best
on brown-coloured well-drained soils; the poorer-drained soils are grey.
The soils are generally low in K20, P205, and CaO when analysed.

Crane concludes that, other things being equal, tree growth is
better in the deeper yellow-brown or red-coloured soils than in the
lighter-coloured soils. The colour is due to iron compounds, and it is
a significant indicator of drainage, aeration, and plant food value.
The white clay swamp soils are infertile, probably on account of leach-
ing and bad aeration. The soils of water-logged areas which are black
are also related to lack of aeration.

Crane’s notes show that fertility is associated with “soft, friable,
loose clay” soil consistence, whilst the “hard, sticky, stiff, tight, and
pug” consistence clays are associated with infertility; softness is usually
associated with brown clays, whilst stiffness is usually associated with
grey and yellow-coloured clays. Some of the reddish subsoils of my
Warrah series are rather stiff, and the soils are only of medium fertility.

The correlation between soil conditions and vegetation types is
very close, and on each soil type the vegetation has reached an edaphic
subclimax. There are apparently two climatic climax formations
possible.

(i.) A fairly moist type of subtropical rain forest which is found
fringing certain larger streams and high ridges; its extent is strictly
limited by soil factors, which are slowly improved by the advance of
the forest itself. This formation is evergreen broad-leaved rain forest,
containing several storeys of trees, small trees, shrubs, a few herbs,
and several lianes and climbers. A very few of the trees are deciduous,
but this forest cannot be called monsoon forest, though the effect of the
dry season is reflected to some extent in the species found, particularly
on the drier ridges (type k) where the distribution of the rain forest
is governed by edaphic factors, by aspect, and by fires. In India and
Burma monsoon forest survives where periodic burning occurs, and
burnt rain forest areas pass into monsoon brush. Examples of this

102

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

can be seen on burnt-over areas in T.R. 8 Doongal, but usually the rain-
fall is sufficiently uniform and the edaphic conditions sufficiently good
to support true rain-forest species, though some are the leathery leafed
kind. The fringing rain forests depend on alluvial mellow soil condi-
tions and on moving fresh ground water.

(ii.) The open Parkland Sclerophyil forest contains many xerop-
hilous species, because the soils are not suitable for rain-forest species.
There seems to be a slow sere from sea to coast range which can be
roughly generalised by the following succession of subclimaxes: man-
grove, strand, wallum, eucalypt forest, rain forest. This is general
along coastal Queensland. (Herbert, 1927-32.)

The species identified have been listed according to distribution,
and the communities classified according to the following diagram : —

Rainforest formation
<*)

Fringing Rainforest
O')

Sclerophyil formation

E. citriodora
T. conferta
Association

j

Trema aspera
Zieria smithii
Society
Type (£)

E. siderophloia
Acacia falcata
Society
Type (h)

I 1

E. acmenioides
E. corymbosa
Association

I

E. trachyphloia
C. torulosa
G. suberosa
Consociation
Types (d, e, f)

E. tereticornis
E. paniculata
E. exserta
Consociation
Type ( g )

Melaleuca leucadendron
Banksia latifolia
Association
Types (a, b, c)

Species Nos. 1 to 24 indicate poor soil and poor drainage — that is,
mainly soil types a, b, c.

Poor soils which are fairly well drained are indicated by species
Nos. 25 to 50, types d, e, f.

Soils with a moderate amount of plant food carry species Nos.
51 to 80, types g and h.

Species 81 to 97 represent fairly fertile soil conditions, whilst the
richest soils are typified by the remaining species in the list.

List of Species Arranged According to Soil Types.

No.

Name.

Family.

a

b

c

d

e

/

g

h

i

3

k

1

Hakea gibbosa

Proteaceae

X

2

Utricularia sp.

Lentibularaceae . .

X

3

Cladium glomeratum

Cyperacese

X

4

Hakea pleurinerva

Proteaceae

X

X

5

Melaleuca nodosa

Myrtaceae

X

X

6

M. eriofolia

Myrtaceae

X

X

7

Banksia latifolia

Proteaceae

X

X

8

Strangea linearis

Proteaceae

X

X

X

9

* Melaleuca leucadendron var.

Myrtaceae

X

X

X

j

viridiflora

10

Persoonia linearis

Proteaceae

X

X

X

11

Xanthorrhcpa macronema

Liliaceae

X

X

X

X

X

X

12

Schizcea dichotoma

Filices

X

13

Acacia juniperina

Leguminosae

X

14

Melaleuca thymifolia

Myrtaceae

X

15

Bcekia stenophylla

Myrtaceae

X

16

Gaustis flexuosa

Cyperaceae

X

17

Hibbertia vesiita

Dilleniaceae

X

18

A cacia plagiophylla

Leguminosae

X

X

19

Leptospermum flavescens

Myrtaceae

X

X

20

Petrophila shirleyce

Proteaceae

X

X

21

B. latifolia var. minor . .

Proteaceae

X

X

X

1

1

PLANT ECOLOGICAL STUDIES IN SOUTH-EAST QUEENSLAND.

103

No.

Name.

Family.

a

b

c

d

e

/

g

h

22

Eucalyptus corymbosa . .

Myrtacese

X

y

X

X

X

X

23

Baked saligna

Proteacese

X

X

24

* Xylomelum pyriforme . .

Proteaceae

X

X

25

*Gasuarina suberosa (with

Casnarinacese

X

X

X

Loranthus longiflorus )

26

* Eucalyptus acmenioides

Myita cea) . .

X

X

X

X

X

X

27

Pultancea paleacea

Leguminosse

X

X

28

Prasophyllum patens

Orchidacea)

X

X

29

Drosera spathalata

Droseraceae

X

X

30

Acacia flavescens

Leguminosae

X

31

Lomatia silaifolia

Proteaceae

X

32

Patersonia glabrata

Tridaceae . .

X

X

33

Leptospermum stellatum

Myrtaceae

X

X

34

Grevillea banksii . .

Proteaceae

X

X

X

35

*Banksia integrifolia

Proteaceae

X

X

X

36

Panicum bicolor . .

Gramineao

X

X

X

37

*Jacksonia scoparia

Leguminosae

X

X

X

X

38

Eucalyptus irachyphloia

Myrtaceae

X

X

X

39

Gasuarina torulosa

Oasuarinaceae

X

X

40

Stylidium graminofolium

Stylidiaceae

X

41

Pimelia linifolia . .

Thymeliaceae

X

42

Xerotes filiformis

Juncaceae

X

43

Anthistiria ciliata

Gramineae

X

X

44

Riuris punctata . .

Orchidaceae

X

45

D. sulphurea

Orchidacese

X

46

Galadenia carnea

Orchidaceae

X

47

C. ccerula . .

Orchidaceae

X

X

48

*Angophora lanceolata . .

Myrtaceae

X

X

X

49

Sterculia diversifolia

Sterculiaceae

X

50

*Petalostigma quadriloculare

Euphorbiaceae

X

X

51

* Hardenbergia monophylla

Leguminosae

X

X

52

Eucalyptus exserta

Myrtaceae

X

53

E. paniculata

Myrtaceae

X

54

E. tereticornis

Myrtaceae

X

55

Tristania suaveolens

Myrtaceae

X

56

E. tesselaris

Myrtaceae

X

57

Acacia cunninghamii

Leguminosae

X

58

A. aulacocarpa . .

Leguminosae

X

X

59

Livislona australis

Palmaceae . .

X

60

Acacia falcata

Leguminosae

X

61

A. podalyricefolia

Leguminosae

(Ea

ste

rly

ISp

ect

s c

nly

)X

62

* Exocarpus cupressiformis

Santalaceae

X

63

Hovea longifolia

Leguminosae

X

64

Myoporum acuminatum

Myoporaceae

X

65

Gelastrus bilocularis

Celastraceae

X

66

Pultancea ternata var. cuspidata

Leguminosae

X

67

MacrozamU {""gg?"* "

j^Cyca dales

X

68

*M. paulogulieimi

Cycadales

X

69

Gaknia aspera

Cyperaceae

X

70

Sorghum fulvum

Graminae . .

X

71

Heteropogon contortus

Graminae . .

X

72

Dioscorea sp.

Dioscoraceae

X

73

Solanum seaforthianum

Solanaceae

X

74

Eucalyptus siderophloia

Myrtaceae

X

75

E. citr iodora

Myrtaceae

X

76

E. propinqua

Myrtaceae

X

77

Acacia fimbriata . .

Leguminosae

X

78

A. complanata

Leguminosae

X

79

A. arundelliana . .

Leguminosae

X

80

Petalostigma quadriloculare var.

Euphorbiaceae

X

glabrescens

81

Tristania conferta

Myrtaceae

X

82

Trema aspera

Ulmaceae . .

83

Zieria smithii

Eutaceae . .

84

Breynia oblongifolia

Euphorbiaceae

85

Gymnostachys anceps

Aroidaceae

86

Indigofera australis

Leguminosae

87

Lepidosperma concavum

Cyperaceae

88

E. hemiphloia

Myrtaceae

89

Pteris tremula

Filices

90

Callitris arenosa

Coniferae . .

91

Araucaria cunninghamii

Pinaceae . .

92

Flindersia australis

Eutaceae . .

93

Alphitonia petriei

Ehamnaceae

94

Gupania pseudorhus

Sapindaceae

95

G. anacaroides

Sapindaceae

96

Ganthium buxifolium

Eubiaceae

97

Eustrephus latifolius

Liliaceae . .

98

Groton insularis

Euphorbiaceae

99

Stenocarpus sinuatus

Proteaceae

100

Eucalyptus saligna

Myrtaceae

101

Eugenia ventenatii

Myrtaceae

• »

102

E. hemilampra

Myrtaceae

103

Agathis robusta

Pinaceae . .

104

Rhodamnia argentea

Myrtaceae

• •

105

Litsea dealbata . .

Lauraceae

k

X M * X H W X X X X X X W X X K * * * « H X XX

104

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

No.

Name.

Family.

a

b

c

d

e

/

ff

h

i

1

3

k

106

Tarrietia argyrodendron

Sterculiaceae

!

j

x

107

Strychnos arborea

Loganiaceae

i

X

108

Gallistemon viminalis

Myrtaceae

x

109

Flagellaria indica

Flagellaraceae

X

no

Kibara macrophylla

Monimiaceae

x

in

Hibiscus splendens

Malvaceae

1

i

X

112

Exocarpus latifolia

Santalaceae

1

!

X

113

Notalcea longifolia

Oleaceae . .

\

X

114

Pittosporum revolutum . .

Pittosporaceae

X

115

Alpinia coerulcea

Scitaminaceae

X

116

Geitonoplesium cymosum

Liliaceae . .

i

X

117

Vitex lignum-vitce

Verbenaceae

j

X

X

118

Mallotus philippinensis

Euphorbiaceae

:

!

X

X

119

Panax elegans

Araliaceae

i

X

X

120

Apliananthe philippinensis

Ulmaceae . .

X

121

Euroschinus falcatus

Anacardiaceae

.

; l

X

X

122

Laportea moroides

Urticaceae . .

X

X

123

Diospyros pentamera

Ebenaceae

X

X

124

Ficus sp. . .

Moraceae

j !

X

X

125

Syncarpia subargentea

Myrtaceae

X

X

126

Hemicyclia australasica

Euphorbiaceae

;

X

X

127

Myrtus hillii

Myrtaceae

X

X

128

Owenia venosa

Meliaceae

X

X

129

Ganthium lucidum

Rublaceae

X

X

130

Gapparis nobilis

Capparidaceae

1

X

X

131

Myrsine variabilis

Myrsinaceae

X

X

132

Polypodium rigidulum

Filices

X

X

133

Gleistanthus cunninghamii

Euphorbiaceae

!

X

X

134

Alchornea ilicifolia

Euphorbiaceae

X

X

135

Hoya australis

Asclepiadaceae . .

!

X

X

136

Smilax australis

Liliaceae

X

X

137

Alyxia ruscifolia

Apocynaceae

X

X

138

Garissa ovata

Apocynaceae

X

X

139

Lantana camara

Verbenaceae

X

X

140

Pleiogynium solandri

Anacardiaceae

j

X

141

Flindersia collina

Rutaceae

;

X

142

Gastanospermum australis

Leguminosae

!

X

143

Ganthium latifolium

Rubiaceae

X

144

Justicia hygrofiloides

Acanthaceae

X

145

Abutilon sp.

Malvaceae

1

X

146

Melodorum leichhardtii

Anonaceae

|

X

147

Solanum discolor

Solanaceae

j

X

148

ixora becJcleri

Rubiaceae

!

i

X

149

Taburncemontana orientalis

Apocynaceae

!

I

1

X

150

Gapparis sarmentosa

Capparidaceae

1

|

X

151

Gassia sophera var. schinifolia . .

Leguminosae

1

I

1

X

(Caesalpineae)

1

i

!

I

!

* See page 117.

Land Utilization Possibilities.

Apart from physiological diseases caused by impeded drainage and
deficient soil conditions, the trees are usually fairly healthy. Occasional
patches of eucalypts, &c., are attacked by Lommthus spp., which should
be destroyed to prevent spread of the mistletoe by birds. Many large
trees suffer from heart rot probably directly caused by members of
the Polyporacete, and no doubt insect injury is fairly frequent. The
fungi are able to attack the growing trees through injuries caused by
fire, wind, axe, &c., and these agencies are fairly potent throughout the
area. Most of the country has been fire-swept at more or less frequent
intervals, and parts of the western sector have suffered very consider-
able damage. Some of the pine forests were swept in 1902 with disastrous
results, and the open forest shows the effects of destructive blazes which
occurred in 1926 and other years. Lantana camara grows prolifically
on burnt-over rain-forest soils. All over the area there are signs of the
havoc played by the destructive axe of the timber-getter and the trapper,
while the neighbouring selectors' often ringbark timber, both good and
bad, which results in the formation of a heavy undergrowth of Acacia

PLANT ECOLOGICAL STUDIES IN SOUTH-EAST QUEENSLAND.

105

spp. and Tristania conferta on the rubbly ridges and along the water-
courses, and of quantities of dead litter which makes splendid tinder
for bush fires on the poorer lands.

Where ringbarking is followed by clearing and continuous grazing,
satisfactory grassland can be obtained along the large watercourses,
but it probably requires phosphatic fertiliser. Where the present timber
growing is faulty, because it has been damaged by fire, storms, and
indiscriminate ringbarking, it may be improved in some cases by expert
silvicultural treatment.

Natural regeneration of Euoalypts would lead to valuable hardwood
forest in many places at low cost. Vegetation types a, b, and c are of
little value from this point of view, but types d, e, and f are capable of
reproducing second-class hardwood (E. acmeniodes, &c.). If exotic
conifers are a success, this land would doubtless be better utilised for
softwood production or perhaps mixed growth of softwoods on suitable
soils, with eucalypts filling in the gaps. Type d requires careful
treatment, because if the present stands of timber are cleared by fire
and axe, the sere is thrown back very considerably owing to the destruc-
tion of the humus in the sandy soil. Casuarina spp. are particularly
valuable soil-makers on types d and c. On the open flat watercourses
(type g) dense stands of good poles of E. tereticornis, E. paniculate,
&c., develop in places where ringbarking has been practised. Natural
regeneration of hardwmod strips, with or without a softwood, could thus
be readily carried out along these waterways, and the network so pro-
duced would prove valuable as windbreaks against the storms which
occasionally leave trails of broken timber through the countryside.
These open watercourses are subject to flooding in a very wet season.
Type h may pay better as a lemon irongum producer with or without
a softwood.

It is likely that hardwood propositions would be found to fit in
where softwoods fail, and so help to make a forest-working plan success-
ful over a wide area. The softwoods which have shown most promise
are those originally obtained from South-Eastern U.S.A.

Finns caribbcea, P. sdrotina, and Taxodium distichum grow on
poorly drained wet coastal flats with fairly stiff clay loam soils, such
as types c , e, and g.

P. tccda prefers moist elay loam soils, fairly well drained, about
100 feet above sea-level, such as type^ e, f, and g.

P. echinata and P. palustris develop on the well-drained rubbly
and sandy clay soils of the foothills from about 300 feet to 2,000 feet
above sea-level, such as types f, h, and i. Experience has indicated
that these are more expensive forestry propositions. All require special
mycorhiza for proper development. The timber weighs 30 to 36 lb.
per cubic foot, and has a bending stress at rupture of about 10,000 lb. per
square inch. Clean logs of 50-feet lengths, and 60 inches g.b.h. develop
at an age of about sixty-five years in America. They readily regenerate
naturally when once established, and the presence of lower-storey
hardwoods is an advantage in forcing the pines to produce tall, straight
boles.

106

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Experimental plantings in Queensland and New South Wales have
given, promising results with P. caribbcea and P. tceda , and the growth
rate equals that of P. radiata (P. insignis). Further experimental work
and commercial planting is eminently desirable. The best results have
been obtained on fairly well-drained sandy clay soils near Beerwah.
Fused needle disease, which affects a small percentage of plants in
the field, is being investigated by the Queensland Forest Pathologist.

III. ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCES IN THE YARRAMAN
AND KILKIVAN DISTRICTS.

Topography and Geology.

The physical features and geology of about 1,000 square miles of
country between Linville and Nanango have already been mapped and
published by Tommerup (1930) and Hill (1930).

Timber Reserve 220, Kilkivan and Brooyar, is situated 6 miles
south-east of Kilkivan township; it contains 10,000 acres, and covers
a dissected plateau which slopes away on all sides from the central
point, called Mt. Sinai (1,700 feet). Gap Creek, where it leaves the
reserve on the north, is 400 feet. The general configuration is inclined
to be rugged, with steep-sided gorges in many places, and the ground
is frequently strewn with fragmental stones which have weathered out
from the country rock. A contour and geological map is attached to
the original thesis.

Geologically, the block consists of massive sub-basic and sub-acid
igneous intrusions into older metamorphosed amphibolites and' schists.

The oldest rock series outcrops in the north, and is a silicified
amphibolite which is probably continuous with a similar outcrop at
Manumbar, which has been regarded as possibly Cambrian in age. To
the west of the reserve a wide band of rocks — the Kilkivan serpentines
— outcrop ; they are part of the Brisbane schist series. Schists are
seen on the south-'west corner and also just east of the reserve. In the
south-east corner of the reserve an intrusion of pinkish microgranite
and hornblende rhyolite porphyry outcrops over a fairly wide area. In
the region of Mt. Sinai andesitic agglomerates and intrusive flows of
glassy andesite are visible. A porphyritic andesite overlies the amphi-
bolite on plantation Cpt. 5b. On the road down to Fat Hen Creek,
on the western edge of the reserve, dark-coloured porphyritic andesite
overlies a syenite.

Soils and Vegetation.

The soils on the amphibolite series are dark-brownish grey rubbly
sandy clay loams in texture, whilst those derived from the andesitic rocks
are rubbly grey to dark-brown clay loams, and unless humus is present
they are liable to cake hard when wetted and allowed to dry. The
principal difficulty in operating upon them lies in the steepness and
stoniness of the ground. Compare soil survey of R. 355, Kilkivan,

PLANT ECOLOGICAL STUDIES IN SOUTH-EAST QUEENSLAND.

10?

made by Rankin (1928). With equal moisture conditions, the andesitic
soils are probably more fertile than the amphibolite soils; moist gullies
in the andesites are superior sites to moist gullies in the amphibolites.
The andesite soils usually occur above the 1,250-feet contour line ; they
grow hoop pine over 100 feet high and tail (over 70 feet) rain forest
rich in moisture-loving species, similar to those found in the coastal-
fringing rain forests. The amphibolites occupy lower altitudes and grow
hoop pine to an average height of 100 feet and g.b.h. 60 inches; the
rain-forest species are of medium height and tolerate fairly dry condi-
tions. The rain-forest species are tabulated according to site on
pp. 114 to 115.

There are several types of open forest on Reserve 220: (I.) In the
south-west corner, at a height of 1,400 feet, and with a north-westerly
aspect, a shaly grey soil carries E. crebra, E. propinqua, E. maculata,
A. lamceolata, E. hemiphloia, E. acmenioides, T. conferta , with a lower
storey of Acacia podalyrvcefolia (Silver Leaf), J acksonia scoparia,
Exocarpus cupressiformis, Oxylobium trilobatum, Indigofera australis ,
and E. corymbosa. (II.) The eastern edge is hilly; species present
include E. acmenioides , E. crebra , E. tereticornis, E. propinqua , Cas.
torulosa , and C. suberosa occurring, with coarse blady grass below. The
soil is rubbly and originates from silieified schists. (III.) Outside the
reserve, on the low hills towards Kilkivan, the rock consists of schists,
serpentine, amphibolite, and in places andesitic outcrops, and the prin-
cipal trees are E. crebra and E. mekmophloia. (IY.) Along the creeks
a moister type of forest develops, consisting of Casuarina glauca, E.
tereticornis , E. corymbosa , E. tesselaris , E. hemiphloia, A. subvelutina,
T.< suaveolens, T. conferta, Cas. torulosa, Exocarpus cupressiformis,
Melaleuca nodosrn, and blady grass where nqt grazed, otherwise good
grazing land. In several places Lantana camara is spreading, and it
is particularly bad in Serpentine Creek and neighbouring ridges.

The topographical and geological features divide the Yarraman
district into two principal ecological formations: (I.) Rain forest-
clothed highlands — (a) The hills with an open easterly aspect down
the Brisbane River valley over 1,200 feet in height (Blackbutt Range
and Mt. Stanley), (b) the hills of the Jimna-Brisbane-Cooyar Range
and Bunya Mountains over about 1,700 feet; (II.) Sclerophyll forest
land. Generally found (a) on land below about 1,500 feet, (b) on
higher land with granitic or schist soils, (c) on higher lands which have
andesitic soils but which are apparently shielded from rainfall by other
highland areas — e.g., eastern slopes of Cooyar Range, and Brisbane
Range north-east of Marbletop.

Rain forest is found on soils derived from rocks of the Cooyar
basalts, the Bunya basalts, the Esk andesites, the Esk conglomerates,
the Gympie slates, and more rarely on granites and Brisbane schist.
The climatic factor seems to be dominant, but the edaphic factor is
considerable, and the rain-forest edge frequently follows the geological
boundaries, -though this does not always occur. Where rainfall is
marginal, the rain forests prefer basaltic soils to soils derived from
more acid igneous rocks or from sedimentary rocks; conversely, where
the rainfall is sufficient, rain forest will grow on the less suitable soils.

108

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The actual distribution of rain forest is a complex depending partly
on climatio and partly on edaphic factors, which in turn depend on
the lithological nature of the rocks from which they are derived.

The rain-forest edge in this district forms a rather interesting
example of an ecological equilibrium line at which the complementary
factors of soil fertility, precipitation, and in some places the frost line,
together or singly fail to constitute the standard required by rain-forest
species. Furthermore, the actual soils themselves vary not only with
the geology, but also are partially controlled by climatic agencies. Thus
the soils of the Cooyar Range are basaltic and red, whilst those of the
Bunya Mountains are basaltic and black — probably because chernozemic
processes have become dominant in the more westerly and drier Bunya
Mountains. Climate thus affects soil formation even over small dis-
tances, but it is of less importance than the chemical composition of
the rock which produces the soil. The soil is also modified by the
nature of the vegetation which climatic and edaphic factors have
imposed on it. The rain-forest soils are much richer in organic matter
than open-forest soils; this is not characteristic of the more humid
tropical rain forests as found in Malaya. Furthermore, the forest
ecotone tends to build up its own friable soil as the sere develops, both
by addition of organic matter and by root action on the underlying
weathered rocks and clay; this soil is distinct from the more compact
humic soils of the sclerophyll and grass lands. The accumulation of
organic matter in the soil increases moisture-retaining capacity, which
in turn encourages shallow-rooting species such as the Indo-Malayan
type of forest trees. Rain forests transpire large quantities of water,
and after their removal a greater flow of water percolates through the
creek beds.

A table describing the principal soil series in the Yarraman district
is set out on page 110, but facilities were not available for mapping
them. Some analyses taken from the Annual Reports of the Agricul-
tural Chemist relate to the red basaltic soils, which are the most
important agriculturally.

Locality.

Benarkin.

Benarkin.

S.F.R.

Benarkin

Subsoil.

Tingoora.

Tingoora.

Average.

Laboratory No.

2,200 i

2,450
Yellow
brown lo.

2,450

2,721 !

2,722
Choc. lo.

Description

Red loam

Red brown
clay loam

Choc. lo.

Red loam

Reaction

acid

acid . .

si. acid . .

si. acid . .

si. acid

Humus (ammonia sol.)

1-11 j

1-37 j

•73

1-23

1-21

1-13

Loss on ignition

12-4 |

6-0

7-3

11-6

12-2

9-9

Chlorine

•01

•01

•01

•01

•013

•01

Nitrogen

•12

•09

•04

•16

•17

•116

1 p2o5

•04 j

•02

•02

•05

•08

•04

Sol. in 1 CaO

•36

•20

•21

•39

1-28

•45

1-115 J^MgO

■27

•12

•14

•58

•49

•32

HC1 | K20

•02 !

•02

•005

•03

•03

•017

J Insol.

44-8

83-9

72-2

51-4

45-6

59-6

Sol. in 1 P205

•0012

•002

•001

•001

•0015

1% CaO5

•014

•05

•109

•186

•090

Citric / MgO

•061

•03

•124

•168

•096

J k2o

•004

•004

! * |

•002

•008

•0045

The hardness of the water in creeks and the general high fertility
of the red soils indicate that they are rich in available CaO, P205, K20,
and nitrogen.

PLANT ECOLOGICAL STUDIES IN SOUTH-EAST QUEENSLAND.

109

The following data was obtained from samples taken after surface
leaves had been swept away from the forest floor: —

Locality.

84v.

Cooyar.

S.F.R. 151 i
Neumgna.

S..R. 289
Cooyar.

Remarks.

Stones sieved %

19

16

% of total sample

Sand %

41

17

12

% of sieved soil

Silt plus clay %

59

72

73

% of sieved soil

Humus destroyed

by

11

15

Troell’s method

Bromine

|

(W) Water of saturation

35-5 j

61

62

Keen box

(P) Apparent pore space

* * 1

46

53

52

Keen box

(V) Swelling

4-0 !

33-3 1

29-2

Keen box

Vol. wt. dry

I

1-34 i

1-16 !

1-07

Keen box

Vol. wt. wet

1-74

1-41 |

1-40

Keen box

(A) Air-dry moisture

• •

4

9 i

75

Keen box

Moisture equivalent (E)

26-7

47-5

48-5

Centrifuge Rothamsted

Loss ignition (I)

9-5

46-0 |

41-0

Loss calculated on 100

O/

/o

16-0

65-0 |

56-0

clay

Ratio I/E

•35

•97 i

•84

j

Carbon

1-96

4-97 I

8-78

"I Robinson-Kjeldahl

Nitrogen

•178

•584

•783

V Error -01 C and -001 N.

C/N Ratio

11

8-5

11

J av. duplicate analyses

pH air-dry sample

6-7

7-2

After storage

Vegetation

Euc. hemiph-
loia Acacia,
i &c., open

forest

F. oxleyana,
Tar. ;argyro-
dendron rain
forest

F. oxleyana
Tar. argyro-
dendron rain
forest

Lithological origin

conglomeratic

basalt

basalt

!

Soil colour

Yellowish

Black

Choc, red

!

Soil texture. .

Clay

Clay

Clay

On mechanical analysis

Soil consistence

Fairly stiff

Friable and

Mellow

On feel of soil

mellow

The stones sieved from 84v sample were Esk conglomeratic
quartzite pebbles and pieces of schist. The stones in S.F.R. 289 are
mainly small black limonitic grains. Although the R, 289 and R. 151
samples fall into the “red loam” soil group, they are really clays, but
have a ‘ ‘ loamy ’ ’ consistence when felt. This is partly due to the nature
of the red clay itself, and partly due to the high percentage of humus,
which is also responsible for the high values for swelling, water of
saturation, air-dry moisture, and pore space. These results are rather
different from those obtained by Hines (1931) for his group D, “red
loam” soils. The averages for his 8 group D soils are compared with
the average of my two (S.F.R. 151, Neumgna, and S.F.R. 289, Cooyar),
and also with the average of his 16 group E soils and his 3 group F soils.

Single Value.

W j

P

|

V

A

I

100+W

100 +V

Average Hines’ Group D . .

60-4

53-8

5-3 |

4-1 !

14-0

1-43

Average my two

61-5

52-5

31-2

8-2 ;

43-5

1-23

Average Hines’ Group E . .

54-3

55-0

15-6 |

7-8 1

6-8

1*34

Average Hines’ Group F . .

61-9

57-6

22-8

10-2 |

7*4

1-32

The evidence suggests that my soils are on the borderline between
the red coastal rain-forest basaltic soils and the dark-coloured calcareous
soils of the drier inland areas. My carbon averages 6-9 per cent, and
nitrogen -68 per cent., against the Agricultural Chemist’s average value
of -12 for nitrogen; possibly his value is low, because the samples may
have been taken from cleared land on which fire had destroyed much
of the organic matter. For classification purposes my soils should be
included with the red basaltic soils (Hines’ Group D).

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL SERIES IN YARRAMAN DISTRICT.

110

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

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Creek, &c. Creek

Series name proposed .. Stanley .. .. .. .. Cooyar . Linville .. Pidna

PLANT ECOLOGICAL STUDIES IN SOUTH-EAST QUEENSLAND.

Ill

The Rain-forest Formation.

The rain forest is a complex formation which is difficult to analyse
satisfactorily; yet a close observer cannot fail to notice that it has
communities which graduate into one another, with much overlapping.
Several factors operate in determining the distribution of species within
the rain forest and its ecotone. The important species have been classi-
fied in accordance with their environment. The list on pp. 114 to 115 is
neither a complete flora nor a complete indicator, but it establishes
the main physiognomic alliances. The distribution marked * refers to
the occurrence in the Cooyar Range (Tarong-Yarraman, &c.) forests,
the distribution marked — refers to the Mt. Stanley-Brisbane Range
forests, whilst that marked f refers to R. 220, Kilkivan. The distribu-
tion in the three areas agree quite well, but it is not easy to draw
definite lines of demarcation between groups, nor it is always easy
to give either definite or generalised reasons for the alliances, save
that the available soil moisture seems to be the controlling factor —
cf . McLuckie and Petrie (1927), Rankin (1930), Craik (1929). This
in turn is governed by the humus content, the topography, localised
rainfall, drainage, and to some extent by the intrinsic chemical and
physical properties of the soil clay.

Within the forest the distribution of species may be partly related
to the light conditions prevailing (Herbert, 1928). Rankin (unpub-
lished) listed the important species in the Yarraman district according
to their observed stratification, and used it as a measure for degree
of tolerance of shade. It is important to notice the intrinsic nature
of the individual species — the size and form it naturally grows to at
maturity and its physiological characteristics — before judging its light
requirements by the method of comparison with neighbouring dominant
or dominated plants. Rankin made series of observations on thirty-eight
particular species. He considered that the distribution of species is not
due to light only, but that light requirement is one of the factors which
decide the position of species in the forest strata. In a recent com-
munication he states that “As an observational study in stratification
it will pass, but any reference to ‘ light requirements’ needs careful
critical handling, since I am now dubious about this aspect of it.” He
classified the species in two ways, which give practically the same
grouping in each case, so that H and X, M and Y, L and Z can be
grouped together and contingency tables prepared for comparison with
other factors; H, M, and L, and X, Y, and Z, have been counted as
halves in the contingencies : —

I. — (X) Trees never observed growing in shade, marked X in
Species List on pp. 114 to 115.

(Y) Observed growing in full sunlight and slight shade,
strongly competitive, marked Y.

(Z) Partly or wholly shaded, marked Z.

II. — (H) Trees apparently requiring a high optimum light
intensity for healthy, vigorous development, and
frequent distribution,

(M) Ditto medium optimum.

(L) Ditto low optimum.

112

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

CONTINGENCY TABLE.

Habitual Tree Height. Soil Type.

“ Light Intensity.”

Tall

70-100

ft.

Medium
50-70
1 ft.

1

Small
Below
50 ft.

Totals.

a & ab.

|

abe &
be.

bed,
c & cd.

Totals.

H. and X.

5

1

1

! 7

! 4

2-5

•5

7

M. and Y. . .

7

8

4

19

5

7-5

6-5

i

19

L. and Z.

1

7

! *

12

2

4

6

12

Totals . . . . . .

13

16

9

38

“ 1

. i

14

13 j

38

This table indicates that ‘Tight intensity ’ ’ is correlated with both
tree height and soil type. In reality, habitual tree height varies directly
with soil fertility. It is thus possible that this method of measure-
ment of reaction to light intensity is unsatisfactory and really measures
relative height only; in any case, it is clear that soil type has the
greater influence on distribution of species.

The general form and size to which rain-forest trees grow is often
dwarfed by their immediate competitive environment (White, 1930).
The Diaspyros pentamera of the Macpherson Range, for example, is
a much bigger and more vigorous tree than the same species in the
Yarraman-Kilkivan area. McLuckie and Petrie (1927) have studied
the photosynthetic organs of some temperate rain-forest and sclerophyll-
forest trees. Francis has described the vegetative anatomy, growth
rings, and the formation of buttress roots in some rain-forest trees ;
it would appear that buttress-rooted trees are most commonly found
in the moister portions of the rain forest, such as my subdivisions a
and b.

The Rain-forest E cotone.

The several factors concerned in the limitation of spread and in
the succession of rain-forest species are of interest. It has already been
explained how the nature of the soil, the local rainfall, and the distri-
bution of soil moisture control the regional spread of rain forest.

In some cases, instead of extending down the creeks, the rain-forest
edge follows the contour and avoids the valleys. An example is the
“natural paddock ” at the head of Gooroomjam Creek; another the
forest nursery and arboretum grounds on R. 220, Kilkivan. These
valleys frequently contain a rather heavy black clay soil which is
suitable for grass but not for rain-forest trees. Not only do fires
readily sweep over it, but young trees find difficulty in establishing
themselves even after they germinate on suitable patches, because of
overheating of the soil during summer. An instance of heat-girdling
of plantation hoop pine seedlings of over two-years age on such black
soil was given by the writer at the June, 1930, meeting of the Royal
Society of Queensland. In such situations even Eucalypts find it diffi-
cult to establish themselves. These black soils also radiate their heat
faster at night, and, cooling quickly, encourage heavy frosts.

PLANT ECOLOGICAL STUDIES IN SOUTH-EAST QUEENSLAND.

113

The spread of rain forest depends largely upon the advance guard
of resistant species such as Croton insuiaris, Canthium buxifolium,
Erythrina xespertilio , Myoporum acuminatum, &c., which apparently
are able to withstand the rigours of unsheltered situations in their
young stages ; in time other species — e.g., A. cunninghamii — establish
themselves under the shelter of these pioneers as the rain-forest type
of soil is gradually formed.

Growth-ring counts of hoop pine trees on the Cooyar Range
demonstrate that they took about 110 to 120 years to grow from 1-inch
girth to 72-inch g.b.h. and 100 feet high. In the Imbil forests Grenning
(1928) has estimated from annual girth-increment data that a 60-inch
g.b.h. tree is about 160 years old. On plantations it is estimated that
hoop pine should reach 60-inch g.b.h. in about forty-five years ( loc . cit .
p. 30). The growing tree progresses slowly in open competition with
naturally surrounding plants.

It is on the rain-forest edges that the subsequent floristic composi-
• tion of the forest is largely determined. The establishment of a parti-
cular species on any site depends upon the ability of its germinating
seeds to grasp whatever ecological opportunities are available and
to resist natural competition. The silky oak, Grevillea robusta, is
seldom found away from the moister parts of the forest, and it does
not readily develop in mature rain forest; yet plantations of this
species are readily established over a wide range of sites where it is
not found in nature so long as the young plants are raised in a nursery
and put out from planting tubes. The seedlings cannot withstand
heavy frosts, dense shade, or root competition — i.e., moisture competi-
tion. The essential conditions for this species are thus early partial
shelter with high soil moisture and later protection from competition ;
it is clear that its distribution in nature will be restricted to the creek
banks. Similar remarks appfy to Flindersia oxleyana, except that it
is not so strongly affected by suppression as G. robusta, and is con-
sequently found in moist spots away from creek banks (Swain, 1928).
Hoop pine, on the other hand, though very liable to destruction in its
early stages by heat, drought, &c., is able to tolerate considerable shade
and root competition as well as relatively dry situations. One of the
most limiting factors in its early establishment in the forest is that,
although the seeds germinate during the wet season on the leaf litter
on the forest floor, yet before the young plant can push its tap root
into mineral soil drier weather may appear and desiccate the seedlings.
In nature only two or three hoop pine per acre occur in the forest,
but the species extends further afield than G. robusta and F. oxleyana.
It develops poorly on the majority of non-rain-forest soils, which are
devoid of decaying organic matter.

These few examples indicate how the varied conditions of shelter
and moisture in the rain-forest ecotone permit the germination and
seedling development of the various species in different parts of the
transition zone. As the young plants grow up, however, they compete
with one another for soil nutrients, moisture, and light, and those
taller-growing species which can also withstand root competition may
oust the pioneer shrubs. The reaction of the various species to their
physiological environment in the ecotone is only in temporary equili-
brium at any one time and is continually changing.

114

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Distribution of Important Species within the Rain-forest.

(a) Moist ridges catching rainfall, creeks, &c.

( b ) Moist slopes and better soil patches on flat lands within the
forest.

(c) Better-class ridges and slopes.

(d) Drier ridges and slopes.

(e) Rain-forest eootone on drier slopes and ridges.

(/) Rain-forest ecotone in moister places, fringing creeks, &c.

(e) and (/) are serai communities.

(a) to (d) are climax communities.

Useful indicators of distribution are: —

(1) Tarrietia argyrodendron .. . . ..a

(19) Flindersia australis . . . . . . a, b

(36) Geijera salicifolia . . . . . . . . a, b, c

(52) Geijera mulleri . . . . . . . . b, c, d

(59) Flindersia collina . . . . . . . . c, d

(70) Alstonia constrict a . . . . . . d

Mt. Stanley Range shown by . . . . -

Cooyar Range shown by . . *

Kilkivan Res. 220 shown by . . f

M Y
Y
M

H Y

H X
H X
L Z

H Y
H X

L Z

M Y
H Y

Z

Y

Y
Z

M Y

L Z
M Y

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)
(9)

(10)

(ID

(12)

(13)

(14)

(15)

(16)

(17)

(18)

(19)

(20)
(21)
(22)

(23)

(24)

(25)

(26)

(27)

(28)

(29)

(30)

(31)

(32)

(33)

(34)

(35)

(36)

(37)
Y (38)

(39)

(40)

(41)

(42)

(43)

(44)

(45)

(46)

Tarrietia argyrodendron
Harpullia pendula
Mallotus philippinensi8
Litsea dealbata
Gastanospermum australe
Rhodamnia trinervia . .

R. argentea
Endiandra discolor
Panax elegans
Melia composita
Gedrela toona . .

Ficus spp

Syncarpea subargentea
Ailanthus malabarica
Randia chartacea
Taberncemontana orientalis
Kibara macrophylla . .
Wemmannia lachnocarpa
Flindersia australis . .
Flindersia oxley ana . .
Baloghia lucida
Gordyline sp. . .

Flindersia schottiana . .
Rhodosphcera rhodanthema
Euroschinus falcatus . .
Ganthium lucidum
Notelcea microcarpa . .
Garissa ovata
Pseudomorus brunoniana
Aphananthe philippinensis
Jagera anacaroides
Siphonodon australe . .
Lianes

Gelastrus dispermus . .
Nephelium, faveolatum
Geijera salicifolia
Jagera ( Gupania ) pseudorhus
Araucaria cunninghamii
A. bidwilli
Owenia venosa
Alchornea ilicifolia
Diospyros pentamera . .
Strychnos arborea
Denhamia pittosporoides
Laportea moroides
L. photiniphylla

Family.

Sterculiacese

Sapindaceae

*- Euphorbiacese
Pauracese
Leguminosae

* Myrtaceae

* Myrtaceae

* Lauraceae
Araliaceae

* Meliaceae

* Meliaceae
Moraceae
Myrtaceae
Simarubaceae
Rubiaceae
Apocynaceae
Monimiaceae
Cunoniaceas
Rutaceae
Rutaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Liliaceae

* Rutaceae

* Anacardiaceae

* Anacardiaceae
Rubiaceae
Oleaceae

* Apocynaceae
Moraceae

*- Ulmaceae

* Sapindaceae
Celastraceae

Celastraceae

Sapindaceae

Rutaceae

* Sapindaceae

*f- Pinaceae

* Pinaceae
Meliaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Ebenaceae
Loganiaceae

* Celastraceae
Urticaceae

ditto

PLANT ECOLOGICAL STUDIES IN SOUTH-EAST QUEENSLAND.

115

a

b

c

d

e

/

Family.

(47)

Hoy a australis

~7

Asclepiadacese

L Z (48)

Capparis nobilis

*

—

Capparidacese

M Z (49)

Canthium latifolium . .

*

*

*

Rubiaceao

H Y (50)

Melicope erythrococca

*_

*—

*

Rutaceas

M Z (51)

Exccecaria dallachyana

*-

*_

—

Euphorbiaceaa

M Z (52)

Geijera mulleri . .

*

*t

t-

Rutacese

L Z (53)

Zanthoxylum brachyacanthum

t-

-

-

Rutaceae

M Y (54)

Hemicyclia australasica

*_

Euphorbiaceae

(55)

Elceodendron australe . .

*_

*

Celastraceae

(56)

Alyxia rusci folia

*

Apocynaceae

L Z (57)

Exocarpus latifolia

*

Santalaceao

M (58)

Jagera xylocarpa

—

Sapindaceae

M Y (59)

Flindersia collina

Rutaceae

M Y (60)

Vitex ligum-vitce

t

*

*—

Verbenaceae

L (61)

Myrtus hillii . .

t

*-

*

t-

Myrtaceae

L Z (62)

Canthium vacinifolium

*

—

*

Rubiaceae

M Y (63)

C. buxifolium

*

*—

—

—

Rubiaceae

H Y (64)

Bursaria incana

*

Pittosporaceae

(65)

Hormogyne cotinifolia. .

-

Sapotaceae

L Z (66)

Cleistanthus cunninghamii

*

*

Euphorbiaceae

(67)

Brachychiton diversifolia

*

-

-

Sterculiaceae

(68)

B. discolor

*

—

—

ditto

(69)

B. rupestris

t

t

ditto

(70)

Alstonia constricta

t

;t

Apocynaceae

(71)

Acronychia loevis

Rutaceae

(72)

Erythrina vespertilio

*

*

*

Leguminosae

(73)

Myoporum acuminatum

*

Apocynaceae

(74)

Cassia sophera

*

Leguminosae

(75)

Alphitonia petriei

t

*

Rhamnaceae

(76)

Callistemon viminalis

*

Myrtaceae

(77)

C. salignus

*

Myrtaceae

(78)

Breynia oblongifolia

*

Euphorbiaceae

(79)

Bryonia laciniosa

*

Cucurbitaceae

(80)

Petalostigma quadriloculare

*

*

Euphorbiaceae

H (81)

Croton insularis

t

*t-

*

ditto

(82)

Olearia elliptica

*_

Compositae

(83)

Solanum discolor

* —

Solanaceae

(84)

Dodoncea viscosa

—

Sapindaceae

(85)

Acacia spp. (fasiculi flora)

t

Leguminosae

(86)

Grevillea robusta

t

*t

Proteaceae

(87)

Trema aspera

t

Ulmaceae

(88)

Eucalyptus saligna

t

t

Myrtaceae

The Sclerophyll Forests.

On the lower slopes, flats, and creeks around Mt. Stanley, E. crebra ,
with the lichen Um\ea sp. growing on it, dominates an open undergrowth
of Acacia implexa. With increasing altitudes E. melliodora appears,
and on the higher hills is more abundant than E. crebra; on slopes
with a northerly or north-easterly aspect E. melliodora , E. crebra, E.
tereticornis, and A. subvelutina are the commonest trees. On high
unsheltered ridge tops one finds E: crebra, E. corymb osa, E. acmeniodes,
and occasionally Banksia ini egri folia, Acacia aulacooarpa, and A. cun-
ninghamii. On slopes with a south-easterly aspect the commonest trees
are E. tereticornis, E. melliodora, A. subvelutina, and a well-developed
understory of Cmuarina torulosa. In all cases the ground vegetation
consists mainly of thick grass, and on the south-east slopes ground
orchids such as Caladenia sp. and some leguminous creepers occur.

In the Tarong-Yarraman area several communities exist. The
moister slopes, flats, and creeks with deeper detrital or alluvial soils
are stocked by E. decorticans, E. propinqua, E. punctata, E. pamiculata,
E. tereticornis, E. hemiphloia, Angophora subvelutina, E. corymb o^a,
Tristania suaveolens, &c. On the open drier slopes with shallower rocky
soils E. crebra, E. melanophloia, E. siderophloia, E. decorticans,
Angophora lanceolata, Cas. torulosa, Petalostigma quadriloculare,
Exocarpus cupressiformis, Erythrina vespertilio, Cudrania javanensis,

116

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Acacia cunninghamii, A. aulacocarpa, A. glaucocarpa, A. ftmbriata, &c.,
may be found, and in places a dense undergrowth of Olearia elliptica
occurs. On south-east slopes near Benarkin E. pilularis , E. microcorys,
E. paniculate, and other species which demand soils of better consistence
and higher moisture are frequently found. Sometimes the rain forest
has invaded the Eucalypt areas (“bastard scrub7’), and one finds E.
siderophloia, E. hemiphloia, E. paniculate, E. crebra , &c., surrounded
by the smaller rain-forest species which occur in the rain-forest ecotone.
White (1920) published ecological notes on the open grass-lands and
forests at 2,000 feet altitudes on the Bunya Mountains west of Cooyar.

The conditions in the sclerophyll forest are very different from
those in the rain forests. There is no closed canopy overhead; the
species tend to occur in consociations rather than in mixtures. The
crowns of the trees are, in general, more open and the leaves long and
narrow compared with rain-forest species. The forest floor is usually
covered with grass and herbs as well as shrubs and small or young
trees. In the rain forest the forest floor is practically bare of vegeta-
tion excepting for the butts of the trees and lianes. Rain-forest trees
are generally surface-rooting and may have large buttress roots; like-
wise the eucalypts have many surface-feeding lateral roots, but they
are also provided with deep tap roots. The surface layers of rain-forest
soils are rich in humus, whilst fallen leaf litter decays fairly rapidly
on account of higher humidity. In the eucalypt forest the surface soil
is seldom as rich in humus, and the fallen litter is often dry and rots
slowly; more often than not it lies until the next forest fire destroys
it. In the ash beds so produced eucalypt seed readily germinates with
the arrival of the rainy season. Usually eucalypt seed will germinate
within five to fourteen days under these conditions, whereas under
the best nursery conditions many rain-forest species require ten to
fifty days for germination. Young seedlings are killed by heat and
frost, and successful management involves close attention to weather
conditions. The role of fire in natural regeneration of eucalypts is
of considerable importance. The fire converts undesirable ground
litter into readily soluble mineral plant-food. Eighty per cent, germ-
nation of E. crebra has been obtained in ash bed when only 20 per cent,
took place in grass or humic soils. The ground vegetation receives a
severe setback, so that the newly germinated seedling obtains an even
start in the succession. The fire affects the seed trees so that they
tend to throw a. heavy seed fall more or less simultaneously. After
establishment of this young forest adequate fire protection is then
necessary. Immediately the stage is reached at which the transition
from the broad young leaf to the narrow adult form of foliage is com-
plete, the eucalypts will no longer tolerate dense shade. If the stand
is left unthinned, the combined effect of root competition and shade
tends to produce loss of crown and girth development. An original
stand of, say, 1,000 E. crebra per acre of 3 inches diameter breast-high
may have to be thinned to 150 per acre when the g.b.h. reaches 30 inches,
in order to obtain optimum growth. The rate of growth varies with
locality and climate. In Queensland coastal districts E. crebra takes
about thirty to forty years to reach 36 inches g.b.h., whereas in the
drier inland localities it takes about 100 years to reach this size.

A point of special interest in regard to the distribution of plants
in Queensland concerns the occurrence of certain species in the moist
coastal soils of the Maryborough area and also in the relatively dry

PLANT ECOLOGICAL STUDIES IN SOUTH-EAST QUEENSLAND.

117

inland country round Inglewood, which is usually stocked by xero-
philous plants (Doggrell, 1929). Species common to the cypress pine
plains at Inglewood and to the Maryborough district are marked with
an *in the table on pp. 102 to 104. Species common to the ironbark ridges
of Inglewood and those of Yarraman district are : Acacia cunninghamii,
Alphitonia excelsa, Myoporum acuminatum , Olearia elliptica , Dodoncea
viscosa, E. decorticans, E. siderphloia , E. crebm, E. melanophloia, E.
trachyphloia. These observations suggest that conditions on types
d, e, f, and h of Maryborough are similar to the 25-inch rainfall cypress
pine plains, which suggests that the Maryborough types d, &, f, and h
are physiologically dry. Conversely, the ironbark ridges must have
conditions comparable to the Yarraman open forest areas. A plausible
explanation is that the greater humus content of the neutral inland
soils retains more moisture and so simulates the conditions of the
higher rainfall coastal areas; with present data it is only possible
to guess. That the edaphic conditions, generally, are drier in the
inland areas than on the eastern slopes of the Main Divide is indicated
clearly by the extent of the prickly-pear belt (Johnston, 1925).

IV. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.

1. Ecological descriptions of localities covering a gradation of
conditions from the coast to the Main Divide are presented. Special
attention has been paid to edaphic conditions, and the soils are classi-
fied on the basis of a full range of descriptive data, according to modern
practice.

2. An examination of the coastal plain and foothills near Mary-
borough reveals that floristic distribution and soil type are closely
correlated. Soil type is largely governed by subsoil drainage conditions,
which depends in turn upon topography, aspect, lithological origin,
and the consistence of subsoil clay. Six soil series, apparently belong-
ing to the Yellow Earth Climatic Soil group, are described and the
distribution of plant species is set out in detail in relation to the soil
types. The utilisation of these lands is discussed and some reforesta-
tion possibilities are outlined.

3. The distribution of rain forest and sclerophyll forest in the
Yarraman-Kilkivan district is governed partly by fundamental soil
differences and partly by precipitation, the rain-forest edge repre-
senting an interesting equilibrium line. A general classification of four
soil series is outlined.

4. A study of the internal structure of the rain forests indicates
that the species can be grouped in association with soil-moisture
conditions. A list of species is tabulated according to occurrence in
this fashion. The dynamic conditions obtaining in the rain-forest
ecotones appear to be of considerable importance in determining the
subsequent arrangement of species within the forest and in building
up the rich friable rain-forest soils.

5. The utilitarian classification of land is materially assisted by
a comprehensive study of ecological agencies — in particular, by a full
study of soil conditions in the field and laboratory. The U.S.A.
Bureau of Soils method of soil classification agrees closely with classi-
fication based upon the natural distribution of plant species.

118

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

6. The consistency of the soil clay at various depths in the soil
profile is of considerable importance, and it should be distinguished
from the soil textures. The consistence and the physical and chemical
nature of soil clay depends upon general mode of formation and
lithological origin.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT.

It gives the writer pleasure to express his appreciation to all those
whose help and criticism made possible the compilation of these
investigations. Particular thanks are due to Messrs. C. T. White and
W. D. Francis, Government Botanists, for numerous checks of botanical
material; to Mr. V. Grenning, Director of Forests, for permission to
utilise data collected during forest surveys ; to Messrs. M. A. Rankin,
M.Sc., Dip. For., A. H. Crane, M.F., B.Sc., Dip. For., R. H. Doggrell,
Dip. For., and T. Nicliolls for suggestions and interchange of notes;
to Mr. C. Woods for assistance in drafting the maps; and to Drs. Bryan
and Herbert for their encouragement and interest in my efforts.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Bourne, R., 1934, Empire Forestry Journal 13, p. 15.

Bryan,. W. H., and Massey, C.H., 1925, P.R.S.Q. xxxvii., pp. 108-120.

Bryan, W. H., and Hines, H. J. G., 1931, Soil Research, p. 264.

Craik, I. J., 1929, Yale Univ. Bull. 25, and S. Af. Jnl. Sc., 1930, pp. 247-257.

David, T. W. E., 1932, Geological Map of Australia and Notes.

Doggrell, R. H., 1929, Unpublished Ecological Notes on Inglewood District.

Fowler,, F. D., 1927, Proc. Int. Con. Soil Sc. Comm V., pp. 435-441: Soils of
South-Eastern U.S.A.

Francis, W. D., 1930, Australian Rain-forest Trees.

Francis, W. D., 1927, P.R.S.Q., xxxix., pp. 107-114.

Grenning, V., 1928, Working Plan for Mary Valley.

Herbert, D. A., 1927-32, Qld. Naturalist: Ecology of Palm Island; 1927, pres, add.;

1929, p. 51; 1930, p. 68, p. 87; 1932, p. 24.

Herbert, D. A., 1927, Qld. Naturalist, pp. 58-66.

Herbert, D. A., 1932, P.R.S.Q., xliv., p. 2.

Herbert, D. A., 1928, P.R.S.Q., xl., pp. 165-193.

Hill, D., 1930, Proc. Roy, Socy. Qld. xlii., p. 28
Hines, H. J. G., 1931,, Proc. Roy. Socy. Qld. xliii., p. 37.

Jacks, G. V., 1934, Imp. Bur. Soil Science, Tech. Communication 29.

Johnston, T. H., 1925, Trans. Roy. Socy. S. Aust., p. 269.

MoLuckie, J., and Petrie, A. H. K., 1927, Proc. Linn. Socy. N.S.W., lii., p. 161.
Prescott, J. A., 1931, C.S.I.R., Bull. 52: Soils, Vegetation, and Climate of Australia.
Prescott, J. A., 1933, Soil Research, p. 133.

Rankin, M. A., 1928, Aust. For. Jnl., Dec., p. 138.

Rankin, M. A., 1930, Adelaide University M.Sc. Thesis: 11 Measurements of Soil
Moisture in relation to Forest Type, Imbil.”

SciHOFiELD, R. K., and Scott-Blair, G. W., 1932, Chem. & Industry, March, p. 205:
Rothamsted Pachimeter.

Swain, E. H. F., 1928, Forest Conditions of Queensland; Timber and Forest Pro-
ducts of Qld.; and Q.F.S. Bulls. 9 and II.

Tommerup, E. C., 1930, Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld. xlii., pp. 19-27.

Tommerup, E. C., 1934, Int. Socy. Soil Science, Paris, Trans. 1st Comm., p. 155,
Field Description of Physical Properties of Soils.

Tommerup, E. C., 1934, Australian Surveyor, Vol. 5, pp. 74-77: Soil Surveys.
White, C. T., 1920, Qld. Ag. Jour., p. 25: Flora of Bunya Mountains.

The Royal Society of Queensland

Report of Council for 1933.

To the Members of the Royal Society of Queensland .

Your Council has pleasure in submitting its report for the year
1933.

There is nothing of outstanding importance to report, the activities
of the Society, as heretofore, being concerned chiefly with a steady
adherence to those unpretentious but important objectives for whioh
the Society was founded just fifty years ago.

Twelve original papers on several different aspects of scientific
research were accepted for publication in the Proceedings. Six of these
were actually read at ordinary meetings of the Society.

Dtiring the year your Council arranged a number of lectures on
different topics as follows: — Mr. C. T. White on “The Vegetation of
New Guinea, New Caledonia, and Solomon Is.”; Dr. R. W. Cilento on
“Natives and Native Customs in Melanesia”; Dr. E. Hirschfeld on
“Biological Problems in Western Queensland”; Mr. W. W. Bryan,
B.Sc. Agr., on “Maize Breeding in Queensland”; Mr. C. T. White
on “Queensland Grasses”; Dr. A. J. Turner on “Observations on
the Nutrition of our Western Children.”

In addition, one evening was devoted to a discussion on the dis-
covery and natural history of the Glass Houses, the leading speakers
being Professor Cumbrae Stewart, Dr. P. W. Whitehouse, Mr. C. T.
White, and Mr. Longman.

Your Council takes this opportunity of thanking the gentlemen
who assisted in these phases of the Society’s work.

At most meetings numerous exhibits were displayed for the interest
of members.

The Council is indebted to a number of individuals and institutions
in various ways, and wishes to thank the University of Queensland
for housing the library and providing accommodation for meetings;
the Assistant Librarian of the University, Miss Mclver, for superin-
tending the lending of periodicals from the Library; the Scientific

VI.

ABSTRACT OP PROCEEDINGS.

Publications Committee of the Commonwealth of Australia, and the
Research Fellowship Committee of Newnham College, Cambridge, for
financial assistance in the printing and publication of “The Lower
Carboniferous Corals of Australia/’ by Dr. Dorothy Hill.

The Library Committee has continued its work of rearranging the
periodicals on the shelves, and it is a pleasure to report that owing
to the untiring efforts of Mr. L. F. Hitchcock, the European and
Oriental sections are now in very good order. Several new and valuable
exchanges were arranged. The resignation of Mr. W. D. Francis, Hon.
Librarian of the Society for the last six years, was received at the end
of the year, and the Council wishes to place on record its appreciation
of his services to the Society during his term of office.

Again the Council reminds members that the Government subsidy
has been withdrawn, and that the only source of income is from
subscriptions, and trusts that all members will endeavour during the
year to get as many new members as possible, particularly from among
professional workers who depend for their livelihood on a knowledge
of science and scientific methods. It must be stressed that practically
the whole of the income is utilised in the publication and distribution
of the Proceedings.

The membership roll consists of 5 corresponding, 6 life members,
and 176 Ordinary members. During the year there were 4 resignations,
one name was removed from the list under Rule 15, and 14 new mem-
bers were elected. It is with deep regret that the death is reported of
Dr. T. L. Bancroft, Mr. B. Dunstan and Mr. D. W. Gaukrodger, all of
whom were old and valued members of the Society.

There were eleven meetings of the Council during the year, the
attendance being as follows : — E. W. Bick, 10; W. H. Bryan, 11; R.
W. Cilento, 7 ; W. D. Francis, 3 ; D. A. Herbert, 11 ; L. F. Hitchcock,
10; T. G. H. Jones, 8 ; J. S. Just, 4; H. A. Longman, 4; E. 0. Marks, 6 ;
F. A. Perkins, 10; H. C. Richards, 7 ; C. T. White, 8.

In terms of the amendment of Rule 19, Dr. E. 0. Marks, Senior
Member of the Council, automatically retires, but will be eligible for
re-election in 1935.

F. A. Perkins, Hon. Secretary.

R. W. CILENTO, President.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

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JOHN S. JUST, Hon. Auditor.
27th February, 1934,

VIII.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Abstract of Proceedings; 26th March, 1934.

The Annual Meeting of the Society was held in the Geology
Lecture Theatre of the University at 8 p.m. on Monday, 26th March,
1934. The Vice-President, Dr. T. G. H. Jones, occupied the chair in
the unavoidable absence of the President, Dr. R. W. Cilento, and about
sixty members and visitors were present. Apologies were received
from His Excellency the Governor, Dr. R. W. Cilento, Dr. C. F. Marks,
and Mr. 0 ’Connor. The minutes of the previous Annual Meeting were
read and confirmed. Messrs. L. A. Thomas, M.Sc., and G. M. Roscoe,
M.A., were unanimously elected Ordinary Members of the Society.
The following were proposed for ordinary membership: — Messrs. S.
T. Blake, M.Se., W. P. Hamon, B.Sc.Agr., W. J. S. Sloan, B.Sc.Agr., A.
F. S. Ohman, B.V.Sc., Drs. A. Livingstone and A. J. Lynch, by Mr.
Perkins and Dr. Herbert; Messrs. K. Fraser, B.Sc., and D. J. Grant,
B.Sc., by Prof. Bagster and Mr. Jones; and Mr. G. Shaw, B.Sc.Agr.,
by Dr. Duhig and Mr. Perkins. The Annual Report and Balance-sheet
were adopted.

The following officers were elected for 1934: — President, Mr. J.
S. Just; Vice-Presidents, Dr. R. W. Cilento ( ex officio ), and Mr. R.
Veitch; Hon. Treasurer, Mr. E. W. Bick; Hon. Secretary, Mr. F. A.
Perkins; Hon. Librarian, Mr. L. F. Hitchcock; Hon. Editors, Dt. W.
H. Bryan and Dr. D. A. Herbert; Hon. Auditor, Mr. A. J. Stoney;
Members of the Council, Prof. L. S. Bagster, Mr. H. A. Longman,
Prof. H. C. Richards, Dr. J. Vickery, and Mr. C. T. White.

The minutes of the inaugural meeting of the Society, held on the
8th January, 1884, were read by the first Hon. Secretary, Mr. Henry
Tryon.

Hon. Dr. C. F. Marks and Mr. J. H. Simmonds, who, with Mr.
H. Tryon, are the surviving foundation members, were unanimously
elected Honorary Life Members.

Prof. F. W. Cumbrae Stewart delivered a short address in which
he gave a brief account of the activities of some of the foundation
members.

In the absence of the retiring President, Dr. R. W. Cilento, the
Presidential Address was read by Prof. H. C. Richards.

A vote of thanks to the retiring President for his address, moved
by Mr. Longman and Dr. Duhig, was carried by acclamation.

F. A. PERKINS, Hon Secretary.

Abstract of Proceedings, 30th April, 1934.

The Ordinary Meeting of the Society was held in the Geology
Lecture Theatre of the University at 8 p.m. on Monday, 30th April,
1934. The President, Mr. J. S. Just, occupied the chair, and about
sixty members and* visitors were present. Apologies were received
from Dr. Bryan and Mr. Hitchcock. The minutes of the previous
meeting were read and confirmed. Messrs. S. T. Blake, W. P. Hamon,
W. J. Sloan, A. E. S. Ohman, K. Fraser, D. J. Grant, G. Shaw, and Drs.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

IX.

A. Livingstone and A. J. Lynch were unanimously elected members
of the Society. Messrs. A. Trist, B.Sc., and R. K. McPherson, B.Sc.,
were proposed for Ordinary Membership by Mr. Perkins and Dr.
Herbert.

Mr. B. Blumberg gave a brief account of a paper entitled “The Life
Cycle and Seasonal History of Pink Wax Scale ( Ceroplastes rubens ).”

Ceroplastes rubens is a serious Queensland citrus pest probably
originating from Ceylon. Pour instars are distinguishable, the com-
plete life cycle occupying four to six months for the summer generation
and six to eight months for the winter generation. In Brisbane there
are two laying seasons in the year. The first begins at the end of
January and ends in May or June; the second period commences late
in September and ends in November or December. Emergence of
young is intermittent. Observations on resistance to starvation,
mortality, parasites and predators and the wax glands are also included.

This paper was discussed by Messrs. Gurney, Yeitch, and Try on.

A paper entitled “A Previously Undescribed Dendrobium from
Papua,” by Messrs. C. T. White and B. D. Grimes, was commented
on by the former.

Dr. F. W. Whitehouse delivered an address entitled “Some Geo-
logical and Geographical Problems of Central Australia.” The strati-
graphieal sequence in this region so far as is known was outlined and
the structural problems associated with it. Evidence for relatively
recent topographical changes (as shown for example by the river
systems), and a suggested change operating at present towards increas-
ing aridity were discussed. Movements of sand dunes, types of
‘ ‘ desert, ’ ’ peculiarities* in the soils, rivers, lakes and hills were touched
upon and the lecture concluded with an account of the distribution of
known meteorites and obsidianites in the province.

A vote of thanks, moved by Mr. Longman and Dr. Marks and
supported by Mr. F. Bennett, was carried by acclamation.

F. A. PERKINS, Hon. Secretary.

Abstract of Proceedings; 28th May, 1934.

The Ordinary Meeting of the Society was held in the Chemistry
Lecture Theatre of the University at 8 p.m. on Monday, 28th May, 1934.
The President, Mr. J. S. Just, occupied the chair, and about fifty
members and visitors were present. Apologies were received from Prof.
Richards and Messrs. Kemp and Perkins.

The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.
Messrs. A. Trist and R. K. McPherson were unanimously elected
ordinary members of the Society. The following were proposed for
ordinary membership : — Messrs. N. E. Caldwell, B.Sc.Agr. ; W. A. T.
Summerville, M.Sc. ; J. A. Weddell, by Messrs. Yeitch and Perkins;
and Mr. J. Robertson, by Drs. Duhig and Herbert.

X.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Dr. J. Y. Duhig showed some microphotographs of an anopheline
mosquito taken by means of infra-red photography.

Mr. H. A. Longman exhibited — ( a ) A specimen of Diproiodon
collected at Ranges Bridge, Condamine River, near Dalby, and presented
to the Queensland Museum by Mr. T. Jack. It was a fragment of the
palate containing two molars which showed an extraordinary state of
wear. (5) A fossil claw, or ungual phalanx of an unknown animal
sent in with fragments of crocodiles and tortoises from Boat Mountain,
near Murgon, collected by Mr. R. A. Cooper, this being a new locality
for Pleistocene fossils, (c) A fragment of the upper jaw of a gorilla
with the upper incisors. The maximum of the series, 54.5 mm., the
laterals being little smaller than the medians. This unusually large
specimen was purchased in a second-hand shop in Brisbane.

Dr. T. G. H. Jones exhibited samples showing marked differences
in cineol content in the oil of Melaleuca linarifolia.

Mr. E. A. O’Connor demonstrated a few experiments illustrating
the phenomena of combustion.

Mr. E. W. Bick showed some fruits of Kigeiia pinnata.

Mr. W. W. Bryan exhibited a specimen of Chloris virgata from
Gatton, showing proliferation of the inflorescence.

Mr. C. T. White showed specimens of Gomphrena decumbens from
Torrens Creek. This weed is now distributed from Townsville to Logan
River, although it has only recently appeared in Queensland.

Dr. E. 0. Marks exhibited scoria of remarkably fresh appearance
from the Carnarvon Range.

Mr. Veitch discussed the contents of an exhibition case illustrating
the various stages in the life history of the Noogoora burr seed fly,
Euaresta cequalis Loew., a number of colonies of which have recently
been liberated in Queensland by the Department of Agriculture and
Stock, acting on behalf of the Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research. This parasite has been introduced by the Council from
Kansas. He also exhibited a series of specimens illustrating the type
of damage inflicted on vegetable ivory buttons by the Scolytid beetle,
Coccotrypes dactyliperda Fabr., a species which in recent years has
been responsible for a considerable amount of damage in Queensland
warehouses and retail shops.

Dr. D. A. Herbert showed a sheet of glass from a glasshouse
showing a heavy growth of sooty mould fungi, the dominant type being
a species of Euroimm.

Dr. Herbert and Mr. L. Lynch showed a series of experiments
showing the diffusion of ethylene through fruits of banana and orange ;
Stellaria media , the chickweed, the leaves of which bend downwards in
the presence of traces of ethylene, and other gases, was used as a test
plant.

A vote of thanks to the exhibitors, moved by Dr. Bryan and
supported by Messrs. Henderson and Bennett, was carried by
acclamation.

F. A. PERKINS, Hon. Secretary.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XI.

Abstract of Proceedings, 25th June, 1934.

The Ordinary Meeting of the Society was held in the Geology
Lecture Theatre of the University at 8 p.m. on Monday, 25th June, 1934.
The President, Mr. J. S. Just, occupied the chair, and about sixty
members and visitors were present. Apologies were received from
Messrs. Oilman, Kyle, and Hines. The minutes of the previous meeting
were read and confirmed. The following were unanimously elected
ordinary members of the Society: — Messrs. N. E. Caldwell, W. A.
Summerville, J. A. Weddell, and T. Robertson The following were
proposed for ordinary membership : — Mr. A. R. Brimblecombe, by Mr.
Perkins and Dr. Herbert ; Mr. T. Gaffney, by Dr. A. J. Lynch and
Mr. L. J. Lynch ; Dr. A. Tarleton, by Prof. Cumbrae Stewart and
Mr. Perkins and Mr. G. W. Shell, by Prof. Bagster and Mr. Jones.

Mr H. A. Longman exhibited on behalf of Mr. L. C. Ball, Chief
Government Geologist, a series of photographs of fossil footprints taken
in the Lanefield Colliery, in the Jurassic coal measures of Rosewood,
South-eastern Queensland. These footprints and the manner of their
occurrence were first described by Mr. Ball in the “Queensland
Government Mining Journal,” 15th December, 1933, where their
resemblance to the imprints of three-toed dinosaurs was recorded. Mr.
Longman expressed his indebtedness to Mr. Ball for an opportunity of
viewing these remarkable fossil footprints, wdiich were very numerous.
He briefly reviewed the work done by ichthiologists on fossil footprints,
and concisely outlined some salient features in the classification of
dinosaurs. The evidence presented in the Lanefield Colliery demon-
strated a bipedal dinosaur, a new record for Australia, and he con-
gratulated Mr. Ball on this significant discovery.

Dr. P. W. Whitehouse exhibited a plaster cast of one of the foot-
prints, and commented upon the age of the deposits.

Professor H. C. Richards expressed the view that Mr. Ball’s
discovery was of very great scientific interest, and he was to be con-
gratulated on bringing before people the existence of these imprints
which he recognised as those of dinosaurs. No doubt much interest
would be aroused in other centres.

On behalf of Mr. L. C. Ball, Dr. E. 0. Marks exhibited a fragment
of shale forming the “cast” of the impression of a middle toe of one of
the dinosaur footprints at Lanefield Colliery. The fragment shows a
curious double slickensided jointing, parallel to the long axis of the toe.

Mr. C. T. White exhibited specimens of Salvia reflexa Hornem., and
read the following notes on the synonymy of the species: —

Salvia reflexa Hornem. is a very common naturalised weed on parts
of the Darling Downs in Queensland. It also occurs in the neighbour-
hood of Springsure, Central Queensland. It probably occurs in other
localities, though I have not seen specimens.

The plant has come into prominence of recent years owing to the
way it has spread over some of the best land on the Darling Downs. It
is extremely difficult of eradication on account of its habit of starting
seeding at a very early stage, when only 2 or 3 inches high, and con-
tinuing throughout its life.

XII.

ABSTRACT OP PROCEEDINGS.

It is a native of the United States and Mexico, and was first recorded
as a naturalised alien for Queensland by myself in the “ Queensland
Agricultural Journal” for May, 1925, page 417, under the name of
Salvia lanceifolia Poir.

As the weed was assuming considerable importance, due to the fact
that it had been reputed to have caused serious losses of stock in
Queensland, I sent specimens to the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for
checking, and in a letter dated 24th September, 1932, the Director, Sir
Arthur W. Hill, informed me that the specimens had been examined by
Mr. Summerhayes, who determined them as Salvia lanceolata Brouss.,
and stated that Professor Carl Epling, who was monographing the
American Labial cc, had left all the Kew specimens of the species under
this name. On receipt of this I got into communication with Dr. Carl
Epling, of the University of California at Los Angeles, and he wrote : —

“I have been some time in receipt of your letter and two
specimens of Salvia. It happened at the time that I received
your letter that I was working upon the group to which your
species belongs, and had written to the herbarium at Copenhagen
for information and a photograph of Salvia reflexa Horneman.
I have just received this information, and am thus able to give
you a complete synonymy for your species. In naming up the
material at Kew, I used the commonly accepted name, since at
that time I had not had the opportunity of investigating the
nomenclature of the species.

S. reflexa Hornem. Enum. Hort. Hafn. 1 :34.1807, based upon
a garden specimen grown from seed sent by Broussonet
under the name of S. lanceolata.

S. lanceolata Brouss. App. Elench. PI. Hort. Monsp.
15 :1805, based upon a garden specimen. (Not S. lanceo-
lata Lamarck, Illustr. 1:72.1791.)

S. lanceolata Willd. Enum. Hort. Berol. 1 :37.1807, based
upon a garden specimen.

S. lancecefolia Poir., Encycl., Suppl. 5:49.1817, based on a
garden specimen grown from seeds supposedly of
Peruvian origin.

S. trick ostemmoides Pursh. FI. Am. Sept. 1:19.1814, based
upon a specimen collected by Lewis and Clark.

S. aspidophylla Roem. and Sehult. Sybt. Mant. 1 :206.1822r
based upon a garden specimen.

“I have been unable to find the types of S. lanceolata Brouss.,
S. lanceoefolia Poir, and S. aspidophylla R. and S.”

It will thus seem that our plant has to be recorded as Salvia reflexa
Hornem., this name having priority.

A paper entitled “A Review of the Queensland Charophyta,” by
Messrs. Groves and Allen, was communicated by Dr. R. Hamlyn Harris.

Prof. L. S. Bagster delivered a very interesting lecturette on
‘‘Heavy Water and the New Hydrogen.” It was explained that the
new hydrogen has the same chemical properties as ordinary hydrogen,
but the new atom1 was twice as heavy. It is one of a large class of
elements where a similar phenomenon is found, except that in other
cases the different atoms have much the same weight. The heavy water

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XIII.

formed shows interesting physical and physiological differences from
ordinary water, the melting and boiling points are different, and growth
is hindered or inhibited.

Messrs. Henderson, Bennett, and White took part in the discussion
on the exhibits and papers, and a vote of thanks to the various speakers
moved by Prof. Murray and Dr. Vickery was carried by acclamation.

F. A. PERKINS, Hon. Secretary.

Abstract of Proceedings, 30th July, 1934.

The Ordinary Meeting of the Society was held in the Chemistry
Lecture Theatre of the University at 8 p.m. on Monday, 30th July, 1934.
The President, Mr. J. S. Just, occupied the chair, and about fifty
members and visitors were present. Apologies were received from
Professor Murray and Messrs. Kyle and White. The minutes of the
previous meeting were read and confirmed. Dr. J. J. C. Bradfield was
proposed for ordinary membership by Drs. J. V. Duhig and L. S.
Bagster. Dr. A. Tarleton and Messrs. A. Brimblecombe, T. Gaffney,
and W. G. Shell were unanimously elected ordinary members of the
Society.

Dr. J. V. Duhig exhibited, on behalf of Dr. J. J. C. Bradfield,
part of a petrified tree exposed near the base of the Brisbane tuff in
the quarry face overlooking the wharves at Petrie Bight. Petrified
tree trunks have been located at many places in the Brisbane district
under similar circumstances, and the late Benjamin Dunstan in his
Annual Report as Chief Government Geologist for 1919 refers to one
exposed in the Ann street and Gotha street excavations that he con-
sidered may have reached a length of 120 feet. Professor Sahni has
described a specimen from below the tuffs on Boggo road as Cedroxylon,
and he is now engaged on additional material from various quarries in the
city collected and submitted to him by Mr. L. C. Ball. Occasionally
the fossilised trunks are deeply charred, as in this case, but usually
preservation of the tissues has been by silicification. The large size
of many of the trunks unearthed is surprising, and it may be inferred
that the ancient land surface was thickly timbered when overwhelmed
by the eruption of volcanic material that ultimately, on lithification,
became tuff. Dr. Marks and Mr. Tryon commented on this exhibit.

The main business of the evening was a very interesting and
informative address entitled, “Some Recent Advances in Plant
Genetics and Cytology,” by Dr. L. G. Miles. The address was illus-
trated by means of the epidiascope. A vote of thanks moved by Dr.
Herbert and Professor Goddard was carried by acclamation.

F. A. PERKINS, Hon Secretary.

Abstract of Proceedings, 27th August, 1934.

Ordinary Monthly Meeting, 27th August, 1934. Mr. J. S. Just
(President) in the chair, and about forty members and visitors present.
Dr. J. J. C. Bradfield was unanimously elected an ordinary member
of the Society.

Mr. H. Tryon exhibited (a) specimens of stone implements collected
at Russell Island and (b) several species of Musci.

XIV.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

A paper by Mr. F. Chapman, entitled “ Report on Samples of
Surface Tertiary Rocks and a Bore Sample containing Ostracods from
Queensland,” was communicated by Dr. F. W. Whitehouse. Ostracods
in shales of Tertiary age were described from three different localities —
Redbank Plains, Dunn’s Farm at Beaudesert (in a bore at 160 feet),
and Lowmead (in a bore at 200 feet). Species were described belonging
to the genera Erpetocypris, Cypridopsis, Pontocypris, Cy there, Krithe ,
and P ar ado xo stoma. On the evidence of associated freshwater and
estuarine or marine types, Mr. Chapman concludes that these basins
had some intermittent connection with the sea. Tie states that the
forms give no very decisive data as to the age of the various beds other
than Tertiary.

Mr. J. II . Reid and Professor H. C. Richards discussed the paper,
and, while welcoming the addition to our knowledge of Tertiary Faunas,
were of the opinion that the field evidence could not support marine
incursions to these basins.

Dr. W. II. Bryan communicated a paper entitled “An Interpretation
of the Silverwood Lucky Valley Upper Palaeozoic Succession,” by
A. H. Voisey. In this paper the author records the finding of Monilopora
on a new horizon in the Permo-Carboniferous rocks of the Silverwood-
Lucky Valley area, namely, below the Eurydesma cor datum beds in the
Eight-mile Fault Block. In view of this discovery, the Condamine Beds
(which also contain the genus Monilopora) are regarded as older than
the Eurydesma Beds. The author agrees with the view of J. H. Reid
that the Volcanic Series should also be placed on a lower horizon than
that originally assigned them by Richards and Bryan in order to equate
them with the Lower Bowen Volcanics. On the other hand he suggests,
after a re-examination of the list of fossils from various horizons, that
the Wallaby Beds should occupy a relatively higher place in the sequence.
The author disagrees with Reid’s contention that the Condamine Beds
should be regarded as occupying a pre-Kamilaroi horizon, and regards
the lowest beds of the Fault Block Series as equivalent with the Lower
Marine Beds of the Hunter River sequence.

Mr. J. H. Reid stressed the fact that further field work is not
required so much as critical palaeontological work on the Permo-
Carboniferous collections. He disagreed with the correlation of any
portion of the Wallaby Beds with the Greta Coal Measures, and with
the numerical method of comparing the faunas in the different blocks
as a means of placing the upper Wallaby Beds at the base of the Upper
Marine. Monilopora has a range above the Eurydesma bedsl in Spring-
sure, and Glossopteris occurs many thousand feet below the topmost
Monilopora horizons.

Dr. W. H. Bryan was prepared to agree with the author of the
paper and with Mr. J. H. Reid that no great weight could now be placed
on Trachypqra ivilkinsani as an indication of Upper Marine age, and
that consequently the Condamine Beds might be somewhat earlier in
age, but that very little weight could as yet be placed on Monilopora
for stratigraphical purposes. The author’s scheme possessed one serious
disadvantage in that the base of the rhyolitic volcanics (which was
assumed by Richards and Bryan to be on the same horizon on each of
the closely adjacent blocks of the Fault Block Series) could no longer
be used as a datum, Mr. Voisey ’s interpretation of the sequence showing
two distinct volcanic epochs separated by normal marine sediments.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XV.

Dr. F. W. Whitehouse, in considering the general question, was
not satisfied with any scheme of classification yet proposed. He pointed
out that in the Upper Carboniferous and Permian there were greater
extremes of climate over the globe than at any other time. This was
reflected in the extraordinary differences in facies of the floras and
faunas of the world which make long-range correlation very difficult.
Also in Australia there were important climatic fluctuations of glacial
and non-glacial conditions. In the floras and faunas corresponding
effects are to be seen in the markedly intermittent range of many forms
{e.g., Gangamopteris, Trachypora, and Eurydesma hobartense) . Because
of this he thought it unwise at present to assume in any scheme of
correlation that the horizon of some one species ( Eurydesma cor datum,
for instance) is constant and limited. Furthermore, in Eastern

Australia, except in the Hunter River Geosyncline, four genera
occur prolifically — Trachypora, Monilopora, ‘ ‘ Anidanthus,” and
Taeniothaerus. Some of them occur as close to the Hunter River basin
as Kempsey. Since when they occur they do so in such abundance and
since, with the exception of Trachypora, they have never been found in
the Hunter River basin, he did not favour a correlation of such beds
with horizons in the Hunter River section that did not yield .these
faunas. Rather he would think that they indicated a stage (divisible
into several zones) not represented by marine beds in the Hunter River
section. From the forms that were associated with these genera and
which did occur in the latter region he believed them rather to represent
a ‘ 4 Middle Marine Stage, J ’ of considerable thickness, between the Lower
and Upper Marine Series where a cessation of marine conditions is
indicated by the Greta Coal Measures. He did not comment on the
more detailed correlation within the blocks.

A paper, entitled “The Relative Penetrability of Various Tissues
of the Orange and Banana to Ethylene,” by D. A. Herbert and L. J.
Lynch, was read by Dr. Herbert. Ethylene was placed in a series of
vessels plugged with oranges and bananas, so treated that any diffusion
out into the surrounding vessel containing the test plant had to take
place through (a) whole fruit, ( b ) endocarp and mesocarp, (c) endocarp
only. Traces of ethylene passing into a surrounding vessel produced
a pronounced and characteristic epinastic response in Stellaria leaves.
This response also takes place in laboratory air, and due precautions
were taken to have the experiments carried out in uncontaminated air.
It was found that diffusion took place readily through epicarp and
endocarp, but that the mesocarp offered some resistance, though it was
permeable. Control experiments indicated that ethylene was not
produced by the fruits themselves in sufficient amounts to affect the
test plant. It was concluded that the differences in the ripening of
oranges and bananas in an atmosphere containing ethylene are not due
to a barrier against diffusion into the orange pulp, as the mesocarp of
the banana offers approximately the same resistance as that of the orange,
according to the evidence of the test plant. The paper was discussed
by Mr. Gurney, who pointed out the difficulty of arriving at a suitable
maturity test for fruit to be treated, and by Mr. Grant, who sketched
the chemical differences of the ripening processes of citrus and of
bananas.

Mr. C. T. White read a paper entitled “Notes on the Genus
Ptychosperma in Queensland.” The author reviews the genus
Ptychosperma in Queensland and recognises two species, P. elegans Bl.

R.S. — F.

XVI.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

and P. Capitis-YorM Wendl. and Drude. The former is abundant along
the eastern coast extending as far south as Keppel Bay, the latter is
confined to the region of Cape York. In the past there has been
considerable confusion in the nomenclature of these palms, and a full
synonymy of each species is given.

F. A. PERKINS, Hon. Secretary.

Abstract of Proceedings, 24th September, 1934.

Ordinary Monthly Meeting, 24th September, 1934. The President,
Mr. J. S. Just, in the chair, and about fifty members and visitors present.

The President drew attention to the death of Sir Edgeworth David,
and referred to his great achievements in the realms of science and
exploration. A resolution was carried expressing the deepest sympathy
with Lady David and family in their bereavement.

The business of the evening was a series of short addresses on
Moreton Bay.

Professor Cumbrae-Stewart said that the Royal Society in 1768,
James Douglas, sixteenth Earl of Morton, being President, promoted
the expedition which discovered our east coast. Two Fellows of the
Royal Society were in the “ Endeavour,” James Cook, R.N., the Com-
mander, and Joseph Banks, Ch. Ch., Oxford. Cook named the point
seen on 16th May, 1770, Cape Morton, and the bay to the south of it
Morton Bay. The bay to the west of the cape he named Class House
Bay from the Class Houses seen on the western shore. In July, 1799,
Flinders examined Morton and Class House Bays, discovering the land
of Cape Morton to be an island. He examined Class House Bay and
found it extended southward for a considerable distance. Deceived
by the editor of “Cook’s Voyage,” he called the cape Moreton and
Class House Bay became Moreton Bay. In December, 1823, Oxley was
directed to a large river said to flow into the bay between Redcliffe
and Sandgate. Finding the river thus indicated was merely a creek
he called it the Deception (Pine) River, and passed on to discover the
Brisbane River.

In June, 1827, Captain Logan, 57th Regiment, discovered the Logan
River, and about the same time Captain Rous, H.M.S. “Rainbow,”
discovered the Boat Passage. The island thus found to exist was
officially named the Isle of Stradbroke, after Captain Rous’s father,
Lord Stradbroke.

In 1848 Captain Yule, in the “Bramble,” tender, examined the
bay between Bribie Island and Redcliffe. The names Deception Bay
and Bramble Bay have been transposed. Creen Island was called
“Fisherman’s Island” by Flinders. Islands at the mouth of the Brisbane
not noticed by Flinders are now called Fisherman’s Island. Cook’s
Class Houses are now called Class House Mountains, or, worse still,
Class Mountains.

Professor H. C. Richards stated that geologically the area was
generally comparable with that of South-Eastern Queensland, and that
in the southern portion at Russell Island, and especially near Canaipa,
the Brisbane Schist Series was well developed, both greenstones and

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XVII.

phyllite occurring. Further south, in the neighbourhood of Southport,
the greywackes were developed. Mesozoic lacustrine deposits occurred
at Coochie Mudlo, Goat, Bird, and Peel Islands, at Dunwich, on Strad-
broke Island, St. Helena, and Mud Island, at Cape Moreton, Humpy-
bong, Deception Bay, and Toorbul Point amongst other places. At the
two latter localities probably the Bundamba sandstone was developed,
whereas in the other localities in all probability the material belonged
to the Ipswich Series, Thinnfeldia being found at Peel Island and Goat
Island. Tertiary volcanic basaltic rocks occur at Redland Bay, Cleve-
land, Wellington Point, Lytton, St. Helena, and Humpybong. With
the latter there was associated much chalcedony and sometimes water-
stones. Acid volcanic rocks of a rhyolitic nature were developed at
Point Lookout, the north-eastern extremity of Stradbroke Island. Ter-
tiary lacustrine deposits were associated with the volcanic material at
Humpybong. The recent sand dunes, as developed at Stradbroke and
Moreton Islands, wTere of particular interest, and it was noteworthy
that those at Mount Tempest, Burnett Peak, and Cone Hill, on Moreton
Island, reached heights approximately 1,000 feet above sea-level. As
far as is known these are the biggest and highest coastal sand dunes
which have been recorded. They are composed entirely of wind-blown
silica sand, with which is associated very fine particles of broken sheil
material. The dunes have the characteristics, form, and shape of
coastal sand dunes which have been blown up by prevalent south-
easterly winds, and have a general length along a north-west south-east
line. The dunes have been fixed naturally by native vegetation, which
is surprisingly abundant in view of the nature of the material
constituting the dunes.

Within the bay itself at Peel Island a very fine development of
coral is found, whereas on Mud Island, as a result of coralline growth
(both of corals themselves and of calcareous algse), there has been
accumulating a tremendous amount of material which is largely com-
posed of calcium carbonate. This material is about to be exploited
commercially by the Queensland Cement and Lime Company.

Dredgings from the mouth of the Brisbane River have given in
mud nodules the interesting genus Tlialassina, which has been found
under similar circumstances in many places on the Australian coast.

The Ipswich Series of rocks near Sandgate have been very highly
folded and faulted to an extent unusual for them.

The Moreton Bay area as a whole, probably in Post-Tertiary
volcanic times, was affected by a general foundering movement, resulting
in the submergence of a large area, which brought about the drowning
of the Brisbane River. Borings associated with the foundations of
the Grey Street Bridge would suggest that this foundering was at least
100 feet. The last movement of the area, however, has been a slight
emergence in geologically recent times. Raised beaches may be seen
at Moreton Island near Cowan Cowan, and it is interesting to note
that in 1854 Samuel Stutchbury, in his Twelfth Tri-monthly Report,
spoke of the evidence of recent emergence on Peel Island, in Moreton
Bay.

Mr. J. H. Simmonds said that the marine fauna of Moreton Bay
can be divided into three main associations, namely, the mangrove fiat,
the coral reef, and the Halophila flat. Of these the Halophila flat
provides the most interest to the marine biologist. The essentials

XVIII.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

required for the formation of the typical Halophila association are (a)
fresh ocean water, ( b ) freedom from silting sand and mud, and (c)
permanency of the bed. The last requirement is obtained by the pre-
sence of the dugong weed, Halophila ovala, which forms a short, grass-
like mat, binding the upper layers of sand together. Here the Coelen-
terata and Echinoderms are particularly well represented, among the
many interesting forms being Edwardsia mkaiyce and a species of
Cavermdaria. Commensulism is common, as, for example, Cerianthus,
with its associate Phoronis australis , and the mollusc Pinna menkii,
which may contain several of the commensual crabs Pinnotheres.

The coral reef areas are found off the shores of the islands and
mainland facing the South Passage. At the present time they are
probably being adversely affected by the silting up of this passage and
by the mud and silt liberated into the bay as a result of denuding the
river banks of their natural vegetation.

The mangrove flat, though presenting many interesting features,
is not as varied in its fauna as the forementioned areas.

Mr. H. A. Longman referred to the large number of species of
vertebrates from Moreton Bay in the Queensland Museum. Many
northern species here reached their southern limit, and, alternatively,
southern species had their northerly extension. Of over 1,000 species
of fishes described from Queensland the majority were found in or
around Moreton Bay. The atherine, Rhadiocentrus ornatus Tate Regan
(1914), once thought to be peculiar to Moreton Island, had since been
found on the mainland. A paper on the Aborigines by Geo. Watkins
appeared in these Proceedings (Yol. VIII., 1891). A black dingo on
Moreton Island was noted by Major Lockyer (1825). On Moreton
Island the larger marsupials had long been exterminated and wild pigs
were now common. On Stradbroke the marsupials included Macropus
agilis, ualabatus, welsh yi, and giganteus. Sugar-squirrels (Petaurus) ,
bandicoots, and native porcupines were present. The common ’possum
had been reintroduced. The rodents included Rattus youngi from
Moreton Island. The common reptiles were similar to those of the
mainland. Lists of birds have been recorded for Stradbroke Island by
Captain S. A. White, 44 The Emu,” XIX., 1920; for Peel Island by
Noel Y. I. Agnew, 4 4 The Emu,” XIII. and XXI., 1913 and 1921; for
Moreton Island by Miss Hilda Geismann, 4 4 Queensland Naturalist,”
IY., 1924; whilst later records have been made by Mrs. L. M. Mayo.

Mr. C. T. White said that the flora of Moreton Bay is of particular
interest to the botanist, as it is a meeting place of tropical forms such
as the Mangroves and a few rain-forest types and the more temperate
endemic Australian forms, such as the Eucalypts, Tea Trees, Bush Peas,
Australian Heaths, Proteacese, &c. At least six distinct kinds of Man-
groves are found round the shores of Moreton Bay, being particularly
well developed in the estuarine swamps at the mouths of the Brisbane
and Pine Rivers. Of these three belong to the Rhizophoraceae, the family
of true Mangroves, and three to other families.

On the sand dunes the outstanding trees are the Coast Oak and
Pandanus. The latter was known to the aborigines as 44Wynnum,”
and gave its name to the seaside resort of that name. Several trailing
sand-binders, including a low species of Wattle and a number of sand-
binding grasses, and several sorts of succulents are common on the

ABSTRACT OP PROCEEDINGS.

XIX.

dunes. Lying close in from the beach in several places are very large
freshwater swamps, in which the outstanding tree is the common Paper
Bark or Broad-leaves Tea Tree ( MeMleuca ), the ground underneath
the trees being often covered with a thick growth of the Bungwall
Fern (Blechnum) . In some parts, particularly where the water is
more brackish, the Tea Tree is displaced by the Swamp Oak
( Casuarinu ) .

On the islands much of the country consists of Wallum, a term
applied in Queensland to barren country in the coastal belt, consisting
largely of peat swamps alternating with sandy ridges, covered with a
sclerophyllous woodland, consisting of low, stunted Eucalypts, legumes,
Myrtles, Australian Heaths or Epacrids, and Proteacese.

In the open forest the Eucalypts are represented by some fifteen
or sixteen species. The allied genera — Angopkora, Tristania, and
Syncarpia — are also present, though they may be only represented by
one or two species. Other trees making up the open forest are various
Wattles {Acacia), Honeysuckles (Banksia) , She Oaks (Casuarina) ,
Geebungs ( Persoonia ), Cypress Pines ( Oallitris ), Native Cherry
{Exocarpus) , &c.

In some places on Stradbroke Island and a few localities on the
mainland light rain-forests are found. In these species of Moracece ,
Lauracece, Sapindacece, Euphorbiacem, and other tropical types are
moderately well developed. In places where the ground is a little more
moist palms such as the Piccabin Palm ( Archontophccnix ) and the
Cabbage Tree Palm (Livistona) , particularly the latter, may be well
developed.

Dr. Marks, Mr. Try on, and Dr. Bradfield took part in the discussion
which ensued, and a vote of thanks moved from the chair was carried
by acclamation.

F. A. PERKINS, Hon. Secretary.

Abstract of Proceedings, 29th October, 1934.

Ordinary Monthly Meeting, 29th October, 1934. Dr. D. A. Herbert
in the chair, and about forty members and visitors present. The minutes
of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Mr. R. J. Donaldson
was proposed for ordinary membership by Dr. E. 0. Marks and Mr.
Perkins.

Mr. E. M. Shepherd read a very interesting paper entitled “ Notes
on the Geological Structure at Nathan Gorge, in the Upper Dawson
Valley.”

Mr. W. M. Kyle exhibited a series of copies of pictures done in
colours by colour-blind subjects tested in the psychological laboratory
during the year. These pictures showed the errors usually made by
red-green blind persons in greens and reds of all tints, browns, light-
blues, and buffs. The interesting point is that there seems to be no
constant factor governing colour-vision among colour-blinds.

Mr. H. A. Longman exhibited the skin and skull of a Polecat
(. Mustela putorius) , which had been killed in the fowlyard at the
residence of Mr. E. R. Pace, Hastings street, New Farm, on 18th

XX.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

September, and sent to the Museum. This was an escapee from a series
recently introduced to Queensland. He expressed the opinion that
Polecats and allied races of ferrets might prove unmitigated pests,
unless kept in captivity, and that their introduction should be
prohibited.

Mr. S. T. Blake exhibited about twenty-five of the lesser known
members of the Western Queensland grass flora. Two — Cleistochloa
subjuncea and Homopholis belsonii — represent very recently described
genera. The former is noteworthy on account of its peculiar solitary
cleistogamous spikelets borne in the leaf sheaths. Five species of
Aristida were shown, one of which, A. arenaria , or Mulga Grass, is one
of the chief fodder grasses in some places. Some of the grasses of
secondary importance in the Mitchell grass pastures as well as some
more typical of sandy country were also shown.

Professor L. S. Bagster exhibited sections of two brass condenser
tubes of similar chemical composition, together with microphotographs
showing their crystalline structure. One tube, which had corroded
badly in use, showed coarse crystals; the other less corroded tube had
fine crystalline structure.

Dr. Livingston showed some specimens of odontomes and other
various aberrations of growth of the teeth. He explained how the
teeth develop in the jawbone, and how, by variations of the formative
tissues, these conditions arise, and may vary from a bent root up to a
multiple tangle of tissues.

Mr. T. A. Weddell exhibited a series of eleven photographs taken
during recent investigational work on the grasshopper outbreak on the
Western Downs country, together with an insect case containing speci-
mens and illustrations of the essential life history stages of the species
concerned ( Calataria terminifera Walk.). The photographs included
typical views of the infested territory, and showed swarm formations
and the slight migratory habit of the older hoppers. The positive
phototropic response of the hoppers was also demonstrated by the photo-
graphs. Mr. Weddell briefly reviewed the grasshopper position and the
measures that are being adopted for coping with the outbreak.

Dr. F. W. Whitehouse, Mr. F. Bennett, Professor Richards, Dr.
Marks, Mr. I. Jones, Dr. Livingstone, Mr. Tryon, and the Chairman
took part in the discussion on the paper and the exhibits.

F. A. PERKINS, Hon. Secretary.

Abstract of Proceedings, 26th November, 1934.

Ordinary Monthly Meeting, 26th November, 1934. The President,
Mr. J. S. Just, in the chair, and about ninety members and visitors
present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.
Apologies were received from Prof. Richards and Dr. J. J. C. Bradfield.
Mr. R. J. Donaldson was unanimously elected an ordinary member
of the Society. The following were proposed for ordinary member-
ship : — Mr. J. Mann, by Messrs. Hitchcock and Perkins ; Dr. C.
Thelander and Mr. F. de Visme Gipps, by Mr. Longman and Dr.
E. 0. Marks ; and Miss U. McConnel, M.A., by Mr. Just and Dr. Marks.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XXL

The business of the evening was a very interesting address, illus-
trated by lantern slides, by Miss Ursula McConnel, the subject being
“The Place of Drama and Ritual in Wikmunkan Society.”

A vote of thanks moved by Mr. Longman and Dr. Hamlyn Harris
and supported by Messrs. Bleakley and Bennett and Dr. J. Y. Duhig
was carried by acclamation.

, Abstract of Proceedings, 3rd December, 1934.

A special meeting was held in the Geology Lecture Theatre of the
University at 8 p.m. on 3rd December, 1934. The President, Mr. Just,
in the chair, and about fifty members and visitors present. Apologies
were received from Profs. Richards and Murray, Dr. Plerbert, and
Mr. Graham. The following were proposed for ordinary membership :
— Dr. Graham Brown and Dr. Clifford Croll, by Mr. Longman and
Dr. Marks; and Mr. St. G. Thorn, by Messrs. Smith and Perkins.

The business of the evening was a very Interesting address entitled
“ Tick Fevers (Piroplasmic Diseases) of Cattle in Queensland,” by
Dr. J. Legg.

A vote of thanks moved by Prof. Goddard and supported by Mr.
Henderson and Dr. Gilruth was carried by acclamation.

XXII.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

Publications have been received from the following Institutions* Societies, etc.,
and are hereby gratefully acknowledged: —

Algeria —

Societe de Geographie et d ’Archaeologie
d ’Oran.

Argentine —

Universidad Nacional de la Plata.
Australia —

Commonwealth Bureau of Census and
Statistics, Canberra.

Department of Agriculture, Melbourne.
Department of Mines, Melbourne.
Royal Society of Victoria.

Field Naturalists’ Club, Melbourne.
Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, Melbourne.

Department of Mines, Adelaide.
Waite Agricultural Research Institute,
Glen Osmond.

Royal Society of South Australia.
Royal Geographical Society of Aus-
tralasia, Adelaide.

Public Library, Museum, and Art
Gallery, Adelaide.

University of Adelaide.

Standards Association of Australia,
Sydney.

Naturalists’ Society of New South
Wales.

Department of Agriculture, Sydney.
Department of Mines, Sydney.

Royal Society of New South Wales.
Linnean Society of New South Wales.
Australian Museum, Sydney.

Public Library, Sydney.

University of Sydney.

Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

Australian Veterinary Society, Sydney.
Queensland Naturalists’ Club, Brisbane.
Department of Mines, Brisbane.
Queensland Museum, Brisbane.
Department of Agriculture, Brisbane.
Registrar-General ’s Department, Bris-
bane.

Royal Geographical Society of Aus-
tralasia (Queensland), Brisbane.
Field Naturalists’ Club, Iiobart.

Royal Society of Tasmania.

Mines Department, Hobart.

Mines Department, Perth.

Royal Society of Western Australia.

Austria —

Naturhistorische Museum, Vienna.
Belgium —

Academic Royale de Belgique.

Societe Royale de Botanique de Bel-
gique.

Societe Royale Zoologique de Bel-
gique.

Brazil —

Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro.
Ministerio de Agricultura Industria y
Commercio, Rio de Janeiro.

British Isles —

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

British Museum (Natural History),
London.

Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Literary and Philosophical Society,
Manchester.

Leeds Philosophical and Literary
Society.

Royal Society, London.

Conchological Society of Great Britain
and Ireland, Manchester.

Royal Empire Society, London.

The Bristol Museum and Art Gallery.
Imperial Bureau of Entomology,
London.

Imperial Agricultural Bureau, Aberyst-
wyth.

Royal Society of Edinburgh.

Botafiical Society of Edinburgh.

Royal Dublin Society.

Royal Irish Academy, Dublin.

Canada —

Department of Mines, Ottawa.

Royal Astronomical Society of Canada.
Royal Society of Canada.

Royal Canadian Institute.

Nova Scotian Institute of Science.
Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.

Ceylon —

Colombo Museum.

China —

Sinensia, Nankin University, China.
Cuba —

Sociedad Geografica de Cuba, Habana
Denmark —

The University, Copenhagen.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

XXIII.

France —

Station Zoologique de Cette.

Societe des Sciences Naturelles de
l’Ouest.

Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris.
Societe Botanique de France.

Societe Geologique et Mineralogique de
Bretagne.

Societe de Geographic de Rochefort.

Germany —

Zoologisches Museum, Berlin.

Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde, Berlin.

Deutsche Geologische Gesellschaft,
Berlin.

Naturhistorischer Verein der preus
Rheinland und Westfalens, Bonn.

Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein zu
Bremen.

Senckenbergische B'ibliothek, Frank-
furt a. Main.

Kaiserlich Deutsche Akademie der
Naturforscher, Halle.

Zoologisches Museum, Hamburg.

Naturhistorisch-Medizinischer Vereins,
Heidelberg.

Akademie der Wissenschaften, Leipzig.

Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaf-
ten, Munich.

Centralblatt fur Bakteriologie.

Hawaii —

Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum,
Honolulu.

Holland —

Technische Hoogeschool, Delft.

Italy —

Instituto di Bologna.

Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali,
Pisa.

Societa Africana d ’Italia, Naples.
Museo Civico, Genova.

India —

Geological Survey of India.
Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa.

.Japan —

Berichte der Ohara Institut, Kurasliiki,
Japan.

Imperial University, Kyoto.

Imperial University, Tokyo.

National Research Council of Japan,
Tokyo.

Java —

Koninkliik Naturkundige Vereeniging,
Weltevreden.

Departement van Landbouw,
Buitenzorg.

Mekico —

Instituto Geologico de Mexico.
Sociedad Cientifica 11 Antonio Alzate,/ *
Mexico.

Secretario de Agriculture y Fomenta,
Mexico.

Observatorio Meterorologico Central,
Tacaibaya.

New Zealand —

Dominion Museum, Wellington.

New Zealand Institute, Wellington.
Auckland Institute and Museum.
Dominion Laboratory, Wellington.
Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, Wellington.

Geological Survey of New Zealand.

Peru —

(Sociedad Geologiea del Peru, Lima.

Philippines —

Bureau of Science, Manila.

Poland —

Polskie Towarzystwo Przyrodnikow im
Kopernika, Lwow.

University of Poland.

Societes Savantes Polonaises.

Portugal —

Academia Polytechnicada, Oporto..
Sociedade Broteriana, Coimbra.

Institut Botanieo, Coimbra.

Russia —

Academie des Sciences Russie, Lenin-
grad.

Bureau of Applied Entomology, Lenin-
grad.

Publications of the Institute of Plant
Industry, Leningrad.

Spain —

Real Academia de Ciencias y Artes de
Barcelona.

Real Academia de Ciencias, Madrid.
Museo de Historia Natural, Valencia.
Academia de Ciencias de Zarogoza.

Sweden —

Geological Institute of Upsala.
Switzerland —

Societe de Physique et d ’Histoire
Naturelle, Geneve.

Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Zurich.
The League of Nations, Geneva.

South Africa —

Geological Society of South Africa,
Johannesburg.

South Africal Museum, Capetown.
Durban Museum, Natal.

Transvaal Museum, Pretoria.

XXIV.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

United States of America —

United States Geological Survey,
Washington.

Natural History Survey, Illinois.

Lloyd Library, Cincinnati.

Wisconsin Academy of Arts, Science,
and Letters, Madison.

California Academy of Sciences.

Cornell University, Ithaca, NeAv York.

University of Minnesota.

University of Californa.

Library of Congress, Washington.

Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago.

American Museum of Natural History,
New York.

Buffalo Society of Natural History.

Boston Society of Natural History.

American Philosophical Society, Phila-
delphia,

American Geographical Society, New
York.

Smithsonian Institute, Washington.

Carnegie Institute, Washington.

United States Department of Agricul-
ture, Washington.

Oberlin College, Ohio.

National Academy of Science, Wash-
ington.

Rochester Academy of Sciences.

Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila-
delphia.

New York Academy of Science.

Indiana Academy of Science.

American Academy of Science and
Arts, Boston

Institute of Biological Research, Balti-
more.

John Crerar Library, Chicago.

Ohio Academy of Science, Columbus.

Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plains.

Michigan Academy of Arts, Science,
and Letters.

University of Michigan.

Minnesota Geological Survey.

New York Zoological Society.

Wistar Institute of Anatomy and
Biology, Philadelphia.

Portland Society of Natural History.

San Diego Society of Natural History.

Puget Sound Biological Station, Seattle.

Missouri Botanic Gardens, St. Louis.

University of Illinois, Urbana.

State College of Washington, Pull-
man.

Bureau of Standards, Washington.

National Research Council, Washing-
ton.

United States National Museum, Wash-
ington.

Public Health Service, Washington.

Peabody Museum of Natural History,
Yale.

Lawde Observatory, Arizona.

The University of California, Los
Angeles, California.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

XXV.

List of Members.

Honorary

Marks, Hon. C. F., M.D

Simmonds, J. H., senr.

*Tryon, H.

Life

Bagster, L. S., Prof., D.Sc

^Bailey, J. F.

Hulsen, R.

Riddell, R. M

Tilling, H. W., M.R.S.C. (Eng.),
L.R.C.T. (Lond.)

Walkom, A. B., D.Sc.

Life Members.

101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Hillsdon Road, Taringa, Brisbane.
Gladstone Road, Highgate Hill, Brisbane.

Members.

The University, Brisbane.

Maynard Street, Woolloongabba, South
Brisbane.

Valley Corner, Brisbane.

Department of Public Instruction, Bris-
bane.

Nairobi, Kenya, Africa.

Science House, 159 Gloucester Street,
Sydney.

Barton, E. 0., A.M.I.C.E.

*Domin, Dr. K

* Maitland, A. Gibb, F.G.S.
'*Skeats, Prof. E. W., D.Sc.

Corresponding Members.

Care of Decimal Association, Finsbury
Pavement, Moorgate, London, E.C.2.
. . Czech University, Prague.

. . Melville Place, South Perth.

. . . . The University, Melbourne, Victoria.

Ordinary Members.

Atherton, D. O., B.Sc.Agr.

Bage, Miss F., M.Se.

Ball, L. C., B.E.

Barker, F

Barker, G. H
Beckman, G. H., B.Sc.

^Bennett, F., B.Sc

Bennett, F. C., B.Sc., B.App.Sc. . .

Bick, E. W

Blake, S. T., M.Sc

■*Blumberg, B., M.Sc*

Bostock, J., M.D., B.S., D.P.M.,

M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.

Bradfield, J. J. C., D.Sc. (Eng.), M.E.
Brigden, J. B., M.A.

Briggs, Mrs. C.

Brimblecombe, A. R. . .

Brown, Jas., B.A., M.D., Ch.B.

(Edin.), D.Ph. (Cambridge)

-*Bryan, W. IL, M.C., D.Sc

Bryan, W. W., B.Sc.Agr

Bosworth, F. O., B.A.

Butler-Wood, F., D.D.S

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Atherton.

Women’s College, Kangaroo Point, Bris-
bane.

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane

Railway Audit Office, Brisbane.

Adelaide Street, Brisbane.

Crook Street, Northgate, Brisbane.

State School, Toowong, Brisbane.

Sirius Street, Coorparoo, Brisbane.

B'otanic Gardens, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Inkerman Street, South Brisbane.

Wickham House, Wickham Terrace, Bris-
bane.

Bureau of Industry, Brisbane.

Department of Labour and Industry,
Brisbane.

First Avenue, Eagle Junction, Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane.

‘ ‘ Widmoorene, ” Margaret Street, Too-
woomba

The University, Brisbane.

Agric. High School and College, Gatton.

Agric. High School and College, Gatton.

Permanent Chambers, Adelaide Street,
Brisbane.

^Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

XXVI.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Buzacott, J. H., B.Sc.

Caldwell, N. E. H., B.Sc.Agr.

Cameron, Colonel Sir Donald, C.M.G.,
D.S.O.

Cameron, W. E., B.A.

Carson-Cooling, Geo., M.Sc.

Cayzer, A., B.Sc.

Chamberlain, W. J., M.Sc.

Cilento, Sir Raphael, Kt., M.D., B.S.
Cottrell-Dormer, W., B.Sc.Agr.

Croll, Gifford, M.B.

Cue, Miss J., M.Sc.

Cumbrae-Stewart, Professor F. W. S.,
D.C.L., K.C.

*Denmead, A. K., M.Sc.

Dixon, G. P., C.B.E., M.B., Ch.M. . .
*Dodd, Alan P

Donaldson, R. J.

Duncan, Miss E., B.Sc.

*Duhig, J. V., M.B

Evans, C. K., M.Sc.

Fisher, N., B.Sc.

Ferricks, Miss E. M., B'.Sc.

Fitzgerald, Miss M., B.Sc.

Ford, F. Campbell

Fortescue, L.

Fraser, C. S.

Fraser, K., B.Sc.

*Francis, W. D.

Frew, A. E. Harding, B.E.

Gaffney, T.

Gibson, J. Lockhart, M.D.

* Gillies, C. D., M.B., B.S., M.Sc. . .
*Goddard, Prof. E. J., B.A., D.Sc. . .

Goldfinch, H. A., D.D.S

Graff, B., M.B., B.S

Grant, D. J., B.Sc.

*Grey, Mrs. B. B., F.L.S

Gross, E. R.

*Gurney, E. H. . .

*Hamlyn-Harris, R., D.Sc.

Hamon, W. P., B.Sc.Agr.

Hardie, Sir David, M.D., M.S.

Sugar Experiment Station, Meringa, via
Gordonvale.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Nambour.

Cooksley Street, Hamilton, Brisbane.

South British Buildings, O ’Connell Street,
Sydney, New South Wales.

Boys’ Grammar School, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Water Supply and Sewerage Department,
Brisbane City Council.

Dept, of Health, Canberra, F.C.T.

Fairymead Sugar Plantations Ltd.,
Bundaberg.

Sherwood, Brisbane.

Priekly-pear Laboratory, Sherwood,
Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Geological Survey, Edward Street, Bris-
bane.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Prickly-pear Laboratory, Sherwood, Bris-
bane.

care of Gibbs, Bright, and Co., Queen
Street, Brisbane.

Girls’ Grammar School, Brisbane.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Ipswich Technical College, Ipswich.

Govt. Geologist, Wau, New Guinea

Old Sandgate Road, Eagle Junction,
Brisbane.

Children’s Hospital, Brisbane.

* ‘Stanford,” Kennedy Terrace, Red Hill,
Brisbane.

New Zealand Chambers, 334 Queen Street,
Brisbane.

229 Edward Street, Brisbane.

St. John’s College, Kangaroo Point,
Brisbane.

Botanic Gardens, Brisbane.

T. and G. Buildings, Queen Street, Bris-
bane.

Engineer in Charge, Pumping Station,
Pinkenba.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Ridge Street, Northgate.

The University, Brisbane.

414 Sandgate Road, Albion.

District Hospital, Alpha.

Church Street, Indooroopilly.

Union Bank of Australia, Broome, W.A.

Manager, W. D. and H. O. Wills, Ltd.,
Ann Street, Brisbane.

Dept, of Agric. and Stock, Brisbane.

Town Hall, Brisbane.

“Clifton,”1 Ubobo, via Gladstone.

“ Blytlisdale, ” Hamilton, Brisbane.

^Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

LIST OF

MEMBERS.

XXVII.

* Hardy, G. H

Harris, V. E. G., B.Sc

*Hawken, Professor R. W., B.A., M.E.,

M.Inst.C.E.

^Henderson, J. B., F.I.C.

^Herbert, D. A., D.Sc.

Herdsman, L. P.

*Hill, Miss D., M.Sc., Ph.D

* Hines, H. J., B.Sc

Holdsworth, Miss N. M., B.Sc.

■^Hitchcock, L. E., M.Sc.

Hirschfeld, E., M.B.

Hirsehfeld, O. S., M.B

Hossfeld, P. S., M.Sc.

Jack, Thos.

Jackson, A. G.

Jensen, H. I., D.Sc.

Jones, Miss G. . .

Jones, A. J.

Jones, Inigo

* Jones, Owen, M.Sc.

* Jones, T. G. H., D.Sc., A.A.C.I. ..

Jorgensen, G. H.

Just, J. S

Kemp, J. R.

Kerr, W. H., Ph.D., M.Sc

Kyle, W. M., M.A

^Lambert, C. A. . .

*Legg, J., D.V.Se., M.R.C.Y.S.

L ’Estrange, W. M.

Lewcock, H. K., M.Sc.

^Longman, H. A., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S. . .
Lowson, Professor J. P., M.A., M.D,

Lydon, R. J.

Lynch, A. J., M.B., Ch.M.

*Lynch, L. J., B.Sc.Agr.

^Mackerras, Mrs. Ian, M.B.
Mandelson, L. F., B.Sc.Agr.

Marks, A. H., C.B.E., D.S.O., M.D. . .
*Marks, E. O., M.D., B.A., B.E.

■•Massey, Rev. C. H

Mathewson, J. H. R., M.B., Ch.B. . .

McDonald, S. F., M.D., M.R.C.P. . .

Prickly-pear Station, Goondiwindi.

The Southport School, Southport.

The University, Brisbane.

Government Analyst, Brisbane.

Biology Department, University, Bris-
bane.

Government Printing Office, George
Street, Brisbane.

Newnham College, Cambridge.

The University, Brisbane.

care of Q.N. Bank, 8 Princess Street,
London, E.C.2.

care of Commissioner for Australia,
Cunard Building, 25 Broadway, New
York.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Department of Home Affairs, Canberra.

Cunningham Street, Dalby.

Synehronome Co., Elizabeth Street, Bris-
bane.

Attewell Street, Nundah.

Children’s Hospital, Brisbane.

City Hall, Brisbane.

Bower Street, off Gladstone Road, South
Brisbane.

Ebun Drive, Ascot, Brisbane.

Chemistry Department, The University,
Brisbane.

care of Australian Chemical Co., Grey
Street, South Brisbane.

Box 1067N., G.P.O., Brisbane.

Main Roads Commission, Albert Street,
Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane.

University, Brisbane.

care of Bank of N.S.W., Melbourne, Vic.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Townsville.

Box 546 H, G.P.O., Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture, Brisbane.

Queensland Museum, Brisbane.

“Inclicolm, ” Wickham Terrace, Bris-
bane.

Central Technical College, Brisbane.

413 Brunswick Street, Valley, Brisbane.

14 Crowther Street, Lutwyche, Brisbane.

B'ox 109, Canberra, F.C.T.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Ekibin, Brisbane.

Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace,
Brisbane.

c 1 Fancourt, ’ ’ Wickham Terrace, Bris-
bane.

* Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

XXVIII.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

McDougall, W. A., B.Sc

McDowall, Val., M.D.

McKenzie, A. D., M.B., Ch.M.
McPherson, R.J., B.Sc.

Meyers, E. S., M.B.

Michael, Rev. N.

Moorhouse, F. W., M.Sc.

Morris, L. C., A.M.I.C.E

Morton, C. C., A.C.T.S.M

Morwood, R. B., M.Sc.

Muir, Miss E., B'.Sc.

Murphy, Ellis, M.D. . .

^Murray, Professor J. K., B.A.,
B.Sc.Agr.

O’Connor, E. A., M.Sc.

Ogilvie, C., B.E.

Ohman, A. F. S., M.Y.Sc

Parker, Geo., L.D.S. (Eng.), H.D.D.,
R.C.S. (Edin.).

Parker, W. R., L.D.S.

* Parnell, Professor T., M.A.

Payne, W. L. . .

*Pearce, Mrs. T. R., M.Sc. . .

*Perkins, F. A., B.Sc.Agr.

Phillips, T. J

*Pound, C. J., F.R.M.S

Preston, G.

Price, T. A., M.B., B.S

Ranger, W., B.Sc.

*Reid, J. II.

*Reye, A. J., M.B*.

*Richards, Professor H. C., D.Sc.
Ridgeway, J. E.

Rimmer, T., M.Sc.

Robertson, J.,

Robertson, W. N., C.M.G., M.B.

Roscoe, G. M., M.A.

Russell, E., M.B., Ch.M.

Schindler, C., B.Sc.Agr.

Scott, Miss F. E., B.Sc.

Sharp, A. F., B.E

Shaw, B. E., A.M.I.E.

Shaw, J. G., B.Sc.Agr.

Shell, G. W

Shepherd, E. M., M.E

Department of Agriculture, Maekay.

Preston House, Queen Street, Brisbane.

Russell Street, Toowoomba.

The University, Brisbane.

Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace,.
Brisbane.

The Rectory, Ayr, North Queensland.

216 Latrobe Terrace, Paddington, Bris-
bane.

Department of Public Instruction, George
Street, Brisbane.

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,,
Brisbane.

Girls’ High School, Gympie.

97 Wickham Street, Brisbane.

Agricultural High School and College,
Gatton.

The University, Brisbane.

District Engineer, St. George.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,,
Toowoomba.

Derby Street, Highgate Hill, Brisbane.

185 Edward Street, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Lands Department, Brisbane.

Box 332, P.O., Lismore, New South
Wales.

The University, Brisbane.

care of Courier-Mail, Queen Street, Bris-
bane

Cook Street, Yeronga.

Gregory Terrace, Brisbane.

Toowoomba.

Manager, C.O.D., Turbot Street, Brisbane.

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.

97 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.

University, Brisbane.

Assistant Bacteriologist, City Hall, Bris-
bane.

1 1 Craigston, ” 217 Wickham Terrace,

Brisbane.

State School, Mount Larcom.

63 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Fruit Inspector, Thulimbah, Southern
Line.

Oxford House, Bundaberg.

Irrigation Commission, College Road,
Brisbane.

Irrigation Commission, College Road,
Brisbane.

Children’s Hospital, Brisbane.

care of Shell Oil Co., Breakfast Creek
Road, Brisbane.

131 Gladstone Road, South Brisbane.

Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

XXIX.

Simmonds, J. H., M.Sc.

Simonds, Prof. E. F., M.A., B.Sc.,
Ph.D.

Sinclair, W. M., M.B'.

Sloan, W. J. S., B.Sc.Agr. . .

*Smith, F. B., B.Sc., F.I.C. . .

Smith, J. H., M.Sc.

Steel, W. H., M.B

Stephenson, S., M.A.

Stoney, A. J., B.E.E.

Summerville, W. A. T., M.Sc.

Sylow, Paul
Tarleton, Dr. A.

Taylor, G. C., M.B., Ch.M. . .

Theodore, Hon. E. G. . .

Thomas, L., M.Sc.

Thompson, C. L., B.D.Sc.

*Tibbits, P. C

Tommerup, E. C., B.Sc.

Trist, A., B.Sc.

* Turner, A. J., M.D., F.E.S. . .

Yeitch, B., B.Sc.

Vickery, J., M.Sc., Ph.D.

Waddle, I., M.Sc

Wadley, J. B. . .

Watkins, S. B., M.Sc.

Weddell, J. A

Wells, W. G

* White, C. T., F.L.S

White, E. L. D., B.E

White, M., M.Sc., Ph.D.

*Whitehouse, F. W., Ph.D., M.Sc.

Wiley, W. J., D.Sc

Wilson, B.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Brisbane.

University, Brisbane.

Toowoomba.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Bockhampton.

Hutton’s Factory, Zillmere.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Atherton.

Bosemount Hospital, Windsor.

Boys’ Grammar School, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Nambour.

Angus Street, Bardon.

69 Vulture Street, West End, Brisbane.

Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace,
Brisbane.

Commonwealth Offices, Sydney.

Post Office, Stanthorpe.

Club Chambers, Creek Street, Brisbane.

Irrigation Commission, College Boad,
Brisbane.

University, Sydney, New South Wales.

Forestry Department, Brisbane.

131 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Brisbane.

Abattoir, Cannon Hill, Brisbane.

Brisbane State High School, Musgrave
Park, Brisbane.

Salt Street, Albion.

Central Technical College, Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Brisbane.

Government Botanist, Botanic Gardens,

Brisbane.

care of Western Electric Company, 167
Queen Street, Brisbane.

Abattoir, Cannon Hill, Brisbane.

Geological Department, University, Bris-
bane

care of Government Analyst, Brisbane.

Kirkland Avenue, Coorparoo.

Cribb, H. G. ..
Fison, D. G., B.Sc.

Hall, G.

Knight, C. L.

Associate, Members.

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.
O’Connell Street, Kangaroo Point, Bris-
bane.

Mount Isa Mines Ltd., Mount Isa, N.Q.
Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.

* Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

David Whyte, Government Printer, Brisbane.

CONTENTS.

VOLUME XL VI.

No. 1. — Presidential Address: By B. W. Cilenla, M.U., B.S .

N oV:; 2— The Life Cycle and Seasonal' History of Pink Wax Scale
(Ceroplastes Rubens): By B. Blwmb erg, M.Sc. ..

No. 3. — A Previously Undescribed Dendrobium from Papua: By C. T.
White , F.L.S. and B. B. Grimes . . . . . . . .

No. 4.— A Review of the Queensland Charophyta: By H. J. Groves and
G. O. Allen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

— An Interpretation of the Silver wood Lucky Valley Upper
Palaeozoic Succession: By A. H. Voisey, M.Sc.

No. 6. — Report on Samples of Surface Tertiary Rocks and a Bore
Sample. Containing Ostracods from Queensland : By F.
Chapman . . . . . . . . . . . . ....

NA , 7. — The Relative Penetrability of Various Tissues of the Orange
and Banana to Ethylene: By D. A. Herbert, D.Sc. and, L. J.
Lynch, B.Sc. Agr. .. .. .. .. ..

No. ■ 8. — Notes on the Genus, Ptychosperma in Queensland: By C. 21
White, F.L.S. . . . . . . .... . .

No. 9.— -Notes on the Geological Structure at Nathan Gorge, in the
Upper Dawson Valley, Queensland: By E. M. Shepherd ,
M.E.

No. 10. — Plant Ecological Studies in South-east Queensland : By E. C.
Tommerup, M.Sc. .. . . : N;.. ; V.

Abstract op Proceedings . . ., ... ■ ' ., . . . . . •

Publications Received . . ... ... . . . . . . .. ..

Pages.

1-17

18-32

33

34-59

60-65

66-71

72-79

80-82

83-90

91-118

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List of Members

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